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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill%20Bruford
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Bill Bruford
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William Scott Bruford (born 17 May 1949) is an English former drummer and percussionist who first gained prominence as a founding member of the progressive rock band Yes. After leaving Yes in 1972, Bruford spent the rest of the 1970s recording and touring with King Crimson (1972–1974), Roy Harper (1975), and U.K. (1978), as well as touring with Genesis (1976). In 1978, he formed his own group, Bruford, which was active until 1980.
During the 1980s, Bruford returned to King Crimson for three years (1981–1984), collaborated with several artists (including Patrick Moraz and David Torn), and formed his own electric jazz band Earthworks in 1986. He then played with his former Yes bandmates in Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe, which eventually led to a very brief second stint in Yes. Bruford played in King Crimson for his third and final tenure from 1994 to 1997, then continued with a new acoustic configuration of Earthworks.
On 1 January 2009, Bruford retired from professional drumming, only briefly returning for a few private gigs. He has pursued other projects since then, including the operation of his two record labels, Summerfold and Winterfold, releasing an autobiography in 2009, and speaking and writing about music. In 2016, after four and a half years of study, Bruford received a PhD in Music from the University of Surrey. That year, Bruford ranked No. 16 on Rolling Stone list of the "100 Greatest Drummers of All Time". In 2017, Bruford was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Yes.
Early life
Bruford was born on 17 May 1949 in Sevenoaks, Kent, the third child of Betty and John Bruford, a veterinary surgeon. He has a brother, John, and a sister, Jane. He attended New Beacon School in Sevenoaks, followed by Tonbridge School in Tonbridge, a boarding school. Bruford decided to take up drumming at thirteen after watching American jazz drummers on the BBC2 television series Jazz 625, and practised the instrument in the attic of his house. He cites Max Roach, Joe Morello, Art Blakey and Ginger Baker as the most influential drummers on him as a young man. Around this time, Bruford's sister bought him a pair of drum brushes as a birthday present, and Bruford would practise using them on album sleeves after he was told the sound resembled a snare drum while watching Jazz 625. Bruford recalled it as "a perfect education". Though he was given a single snare drum at first, Bruford gradually built a full drum kit. He later took a few lessons from Lou Pocock, a member of the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra.
During his time at boarding school, Bruford befriended several fellow jazz fans, one of them a drummer who gave Bruford lessons in improvisation and a tutorial book by American jazz drummer Jim Chapin. In 1966 and 1967, Bruford performed in The Breed, an R&B/soul four-piece with Stu Murray on guitar, Mike Freeman on saxophone, Ray Bennett (who would later play with Peter Banks's Flash) on bass, and Doug Kennard on guitar and vocals. After leaving school, Bruford took a gap year before he intended to study economics at Leeds University. In January 1968, he unsuccessfully auditioned for a place in Savoy Brown at a pub in Battersea, but he "hung around until the end and told them they had the wrong guy ... I talked my way into it". His tenure only lasted three gigs because he "messed with the beat", and followed this with a brief stint in the psychedelic rock band Paper Blitz Tissue. Bruford then spotted an ad in a music shop from The Noise, who were looking for a drummer to play with them for a six-week residency at the Piper Club in Rome, Italy. He remembered the experience as "ghastly", felt his bandmates could not play properly, and had to hitchhike back to London with his kit.
Career
1968–1974: Yes and King Crimson
Following his return to London, the 19-year-old Bruford settled into a flat in north London and placed an advertisement for drum work in Melody Maker. It was spotted by singer Jon Anderson of the psychedelic rock band Mabel Greer's Toyshop, formed of bassist Chris Squire and guitarist Clive Bayley, who sought a replacement for their departing drummer, Bob Hagger. The four met on 7 June 1968; Anderson was so impressed with Bruford that he invited him to play with the band that evening at the Rachel McMillan College in Deptford. Their entire set consisted of "In the Midnight Hour" by Wilson Pickett as it was the only song they all knew how to play through, but Bruford was impressed with the band's ability to sing in harmony. Following the gig, Bruford had several offers to join soul bands, one of which earned as much as £30 a week, but chose to remain with Anderson and Squire, who took charge in forming a new band. The four entered rehearsals, which ended in Peter Banks replacing Bayley on guitar, Tony Kaye on keyboards, and the group changing their name to Yes.
Bruford played on Yes's first five studio albums during his initial tenure: Yes (1969), Time and a Word (1970), The Yes Album (1971), Fragile (1971), and Close to the Edge (1972). He received a writing credit on just five tracks: "Harold Land", "Yours Is No Disgrace", "Heart of the Sunrise", "And You and I", and "Five Per Cent for Nothing", a 35-second track on Fragile that was his first attempt at composition. His main interest was allowing the drums to "be heard" as Squire played his bass often in the higher register, and so developed a style that involved "unusual beat placement" and time signatures. He developed his musical understanding during this time, learning "how to read the horizontal lines, but not the vertical notes." Bruford recalled Yes being hot blooded and argumentative, with personality conflicts being the eventual reason for his exit. These, for him, included problems in understanding other members' accents, differences in social backgrounds, and many other issues that set the band in a constant state of friction between Anderson, Squire, and himself.
In July 1972, after Close to the Edge had been recorded, Bruford quit to join King Crimson, later explaining: "King Crimson was one of the only gigs for a rock drummer where you could play in 17/16 and still stay in decent hotels". Rehearsals began in September 1972, followed by an extensive UK tour. His instinct to remember complicated drum parts was shown when he learned how to play the long percussion and guitar part in the middle of "21st Century Schizoid Man", "by listening to it and just learning it." Bruford cites the six months free jazz percussionist Jamie Muir was in the band as highly influential on him as a player. Bruford is featured on Larks' Tongues in Aspic (1973), Starless and Bible Black (1974), Red (1974) and the live album USA (1975). Robert Fripp disbanded King Crimson in September 1974.
1974–1980: Genesis, Bruford, and U.K.
After leaving King Crimson, Bruford felt his "sense of direction was rather stymied" and was unsure on his next step. In late 1974, he became a temporary member of the Anglo-French band Gong for a European tour after drummer Laurie Allan was busted for drugs at a border. Bruford then chose to wait for an appealing offer while earning money as a session musician. The sessions were few, however, and the ones that he was a part of he called "unmitigated disasters". In 1975, Bruford played drums on Fish Out of Water by Chris Squire, HQ by Roy Harper, and At the Sound of the Bell by Pavlov's Dog. Later in the year, he performed as guest percussionist for the jazz fusion band Brand X, featuring Phil Collins on drums. Bruford then joined National Health for several live performances, but declined an offer to join full-time as there were already many writers in the group, and felt his contributions to the music, the majority of which was already written, would have caused problems.
By mid-1976, Bruford had rehearsed with Ray Gomez and Jeff Berlin in the US but plans to form a group failed, partly due to the members living far away from each other. He wished not to force a band together, so he decided to "watch, wait, observe and absorb". From March to July 1976, Bruford toured with Genesis on their 1976 tour of North America and Europe, supporting A Trick of the Tail. It was their first album and tour after original frontman Peter Gabriel had left, leaving drummer Phil Collins to sing lead vocals. Bruford had known Collins for several years and suggested sitting in the drum seat until Genesis found a permanent replacement. Bruford is featured on the Genesis: In Concert film and the live albums Seconds Out (1977) and Three Sides Live (1982). In late 1976, Bruford became involved in a tentative rock trio with Rick Wakeman and John Wetton, but they soon disbanded. According to Bruford, "A&M Records was unwilling to let its 'star,' Wakeman, walk off with a used, slightly soiled King Crimson rhythm section, and the idea folded." Bruford then rejoined National Health for a short stint.
In 1977, Bruford recorded his debut solo album Feels Good to Me (1978), with Dave Stewart (keyboards), Jeff Berlin (bass), and Allan Holdsworth (guitar). This was Bruford's first attempt at songwriting on a substantial level, and he spent a lot of time developing tunes on the piano. The four stuck together and became a full-time band named Bruford, which also featured Annette Peacock on vocals, Kenny Wheeler on flugelhorn, and John Goodsall on rhythm guitar. Later in 1978, Bruford reunited with John Wetton and formed the progressive rock group U.K. After their debut album U.K. (1978) and several tours, Holdsworth and Bruford left the group due to disagreements on the group's musical direction. Bruford resumed activity in his own group to release One of a Kind (1979). Almost entirely instrumental, the album contains some spoken lines by Bruford during the introduction to "Fainting in Coils". Subsequent gigs spawned the live releases Rock Goes to College and The Bruford Tapes (1979). Their final album, Gradually Going Tornado (1980), features backing vocals from Canterbury scene stalwarts Barbara Gaskin and Amanda Parsons, as well as Georgina Born on cello. Unfinished songs for a projected fourth album were recorded in 1980, but remained unreleased until 2017.
1981–1993: King Crimson, Earthworks, ABWH, and Yes
In 1981, Bruford returned to King Crimson in a new formation with Fripp, Tony Levin, and Adrian Belew. The four recorded Discipline (1981), Beat (1982), and Three of a Perfect Pair (1984), all featuring Bruford on an acoustic and Simmons electronic hybrid kit. Bruford embraced the Simmons drums for the next fifteen years as it allowed him to play programmed chords, samples, tuned pitches, and sound effects, which expanded his musical palette. In 1984, Fripp disbanded the group; Bruford picked the live album Absent Lovers: Live in Montreal (1998) as one of the best rock albums he played on.
In 1983, Bruford formed a duo with Swiss keyboardist and former Yes member Patrick Moraz after he learned that Moraz was living close to him in Surrey. The project had Bruford develop a "real taste for improvising". Under the name Moraz/Bruford, the two released Music for Piano and Drums (1983) and Flags (1985), two albums recorded on acoustic instruments. The albums were supported with several live shows, including a tour of Japan. Also in 1985, Bruford was approached by Jimmy Page to be the drummer for his new band with Paul Rodgers and Pino Palladino named The Firm. He recalled: "We rehearsed briefly, but I think decided we were mutually unsuited!"
In 1986, Bruford formed his jazz group Earthworks with Django Bates, Iain Ballamy and Mick Hutton (later replaced by Tim Harries), with initial assistance from Dave Stewart. By then, electronic drum technology had improved to Bruford's satisfaction and he resumed using the Simmons kit. The band toured the US club circuit through 1987.
Bruford put Earthworks on hold in late 1988, after Jon Anderson invited him to play on a new album that also featured past Yes members Rick Wakeman and Steve Howe. Bruford was under the impression that he was performing on an Anderson solo album, but the four went on to become a group and named themselves Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe (ABWH). Bruford later remarked that while ABWH could have been an interesting group had they been given time to develop instead of being pushed immediately into a recording studio, for him it was primarily a business-motivated arrangement which he took on so that he could pay for Earthworks. Bruford was attracted to the idea of recording on Montserrat, and convinced Anderson to have Tony Levin on bass. Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe (1989) was supported by a world tour, and in 1990, while recording a second album, ABWH merged with Yes to become an eight-member formation. Union (1991), featuring tracks from both groups, was criticised by almost the entire band; Bruford called it "the worst record I've ever been on". He took part in the subsequent Union Tour in 1991 and 1992, and though he enjoyed the enthusiastic audiences in large venues and performing with former bandmates, he found the experience "pretty horrible". After the tour, Bruford and Howe became involved in an orchestral project that reinterpreted Yes songs with an orchestra, entitled Symphonic Music of Yes (1993).
Bruford resumed with Earthworks in January 1991, and the group released a studio and live album. After Bates left, Bruford disbanded the group in 1993. After this, their record label pushed for Bruford and Holdsworth to form a new band, but neither were too keen on the idea and the idea fell through. In the early 1990s, Bruford became an active drum clinician and taught small groups in several universities.
1994–2009: King Crimson, Earthworks II, final collaborations, and retirement
King Crimson re-emerged once more in 1994 as a six-piece band, consisting of its 1980s line-up with the additions of Pat Mastelotto sharing drumming duties with Bruford, and Trey Gunn on Chapman Stick. Dubbed the "double trio" configuration, they released Vrooom (1994), Thrak (1995), and two live albums, B'Boom: Live in Argentina (1995) and Thrakattak (1996). After Bruford and Fripp discussed the idea of holding improvisational performances together and invited Gunn and Levin to join them, Fripp conceived the ProjeKcts idea of having different subsets of King Crimson working separately as a way of developing new material for the band. The first group, ProjeKct One, performed live at the Jazz Cafe in London from 1–4 December 1997. Bruford then left the group, and King Crimson altogether, mainly due to his frustration with rehearsals, which he felt came to nothing. This also marked the end of Bruford using the Simmons electronic drums due to the high overhead costs, the time required to program the kit, and the lackluster Japanese model that was made after the original manufacturer went bankrupt.
After King Crimson, Bruford focused on acoustic jazz, partly because he felt jazz required a return to a beginning jumping-off point. In 1997 he formed a new line-up of Earthworks, using the group as a base for British musicians and to give them experience of performing internationally. This line-up involved pianist Steve Hamilton, saxophonist Patrick Clahar, and double bassist Geoff Gascoyne, soon replaced by Mark Hodgson. Although Earthworks underwent further line-up changes with Tim Garland replacing Clahar as saxophonist in 2001, Gwilym Simcock replacing Hamilton as pianist in 2004, and Laurence Cottle replacing Hodgson on bass circa 2005, the revived band maintained a consistent, predominantly acoustic post-bop approach focusing on Bruford's compositions. During 2005, Earthworks temporarily combined with Garland's Underground Orchestra to form the Earthworks Underground Orchestra.
During his final stint with Earthworks, Bruford collaborated with others in the final twelve years of his career. These included a collaboration with Americans Eddie Gomez and Ralph Towner in 1997, the jazz-rock band Bruford Levin Upper Extremities in 1998, a duo with Dutch pianist Michiel Borstlap from 2002 to 2007, the contemporary composer Colin Riley with the Piano Circus collective in 2009, and presenting drum clinics. In 2003, Bruford established two record labels: Winterfold Records, which cover his early releases including his guitar and rock-oriented music, and Summerfold Records, focusing on his jazz output, mostly from post-1987. Both are distributed by Voiceprint Records.
Bruford's final public gig was with Earthworks on 31 July 2008 at Ronnie Scott's in London. In January 2009, at the age of 59, Bruford announced that he was retiring from performing and recording, after 41 years, effective from 1 January. Among the various reasons for retiring were his growing performance anxiety that "was making life intolerable", his diminishing stamina required to tour and perform on an international scale, and what he perceived as a bleak future for the style of drumming that appealed to him. The final studio album he played on was Skin and Wire: Play the Music of Colin Riley (2009) by Piano Circus. Bruford had kept a diary of his gigs throughout his career, and logged 2,885 gigs.
2009–present: Post-retirement
In early 2009, Bruford published his autobiography. Not long into his retirement, Bruford had a brief, low key stint in Ann Bailey's Soul House, a nine-piece band performing Motown and soul covers in Ewhurst, Surrey.
In February 2016, after four and a half years of study, Bruford received a PhD degree in Music from the University of Surrey. He had wanted to do something related to music following his retirement, and considered his missed opportunity in pursuing higher education in the late 1960s as a factor in his decision to enter academia. The University of Surrey offered to award Bruford an honorary doctorate, but he wanted to put in the effort and work for his degree, which focused on creativity and music performance, specifically with a drum kit. Bruford's thesis, "Making it work: Creative music performance and the Western kit drummer", was posted online in May 2016. Bruford has since written various journal articles, book chapters and liner notes, and presented guest lectures at universities and music institutions in Europe and North America.
In April 2017, Bruford was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a former member of Yes. He attended the ceremony, but did not perform or deliver an acceptance speech. In March 2018, Bruford introduced Yes at their two London shows during their 50th Anniversary Tour. Later that year, Bruford published his second book, Uncharted: Creativity and the Expert Drummer. It is an adaptation of his PhD dissertation.
In October 2020, Bruford put much of his personal collection of instruments, microphones, tour cases and other equipment from his career up for sale, totalling 258 separate listings. In August 2021, Bruford's back catalogue of music from Bruford, Moraz/Bruford, and Earthworks were made available on digital streaming platforms for the first time. In January 2022, Bruford launched his own YouTube channel to share videos from his career with additional "thoughts and anecdotes". A 6-CD career-spanning box set of tracks on which Bruford played was released on 29 April 2022.
On 3 August 2023, Bruford performed at the John Wetton tribute concert in East Sussex. He was not billed at the event, but performed a live run-through of Bryan Ferry's cover of "Let's Stick Together", which Wetton had played on, with Phil Manzanera, Guy Pratt, and Chris Difford.
Band timeline
Yes (1968-1972, 1991-1992)
King Crimson (1972-1974, 1981-1984, 1994-1997)
Gong (Nov/Dec 1974)
National Health (1975)
Trigger (Roy Harper Band) (1975)
Genesis (as concert drummer on A Trick of the Tail Tour 26.3.-11.7.1976)
Absolute Elsewhere (1976)
Bruford (1977-1980)
U.K. (1978)
Bill Bruford's Earthworks (Mark I: 1986-1993, Mark II: 1997-2008)
Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe (ABWH, 1988–1990)
ProjeKct One (1997)
Network Of Sparks (1999)
Bruford Levin Upper Extremities (B.L.U.E., 1998-2000)
Timeline
Personal life
Bruford married his wife Carolyn in March 1973; they live in Surrey. They have three children, Alex, Holly, and Jack; Alex was formerly the drummer of the indie rock band Infadels.
It was at Bruford's wedding reception where Jon Anderson met Jamie Muir, who inspired Anderson to read Autobiography of a Yogi which became the origin of Yes's double album Tales from Topographic Oceans (1973).
Bruford described himself as a "lapsed atheist".
Songwriting
When interviewed in 1982, Bruford commented on his ability to compose for King Crimson. "It's very hard to know how to communicate in a band like that where the individuals are competent enough to produce their own kinds of sounds, it's very hard to write for a band like that."
Legacy
Many other drummers have cited Bruford as an influence, including Danny Carey, Mike Portnoy, Matt Cameron, Brann Dailor, Tim "Herb" Alexander, Gene Hoglan, Aaron Harris, Chad Cromwell, Ben Koller, Chris Pennie, Steve Arrington, Mac McNeilly, Morgan Simpson of Black Midi, Eric Kretz, and Martin Dosh. In addition, other artists have been quoted expressing admiration for his work including Neil Murray, Jimmy Keegan, and Adrian Younge.
Awards
In 1990, the readers of Modern Drummer voted him into that magazine's Hall of Fame.
Books
Bill Bruford: The Autobiography. Yes, King Crimson, Earthworks and More (2009)
Uncharted: Creativity and the Expert Drummer (2018)
Discography
Solo
Bruford
Feels Good to Me (1978)
One of a Kind (1979)
The Bruford Tapes (1979, live recording)
Gradually Going Tornado (1980)
Rock Goes to College (2006, live recording)
Compilations
Master Strokes: 1978–1985 (1986)
Making a Song and Dance: A Complete-Career Collection (2022)
As band member
Guest appearances
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
Official website at BillBruford.com
Bill Bruford Interview at NAMM Oral History Collection (2011)
1949 births
Living people
People from Sevenoaks
English atheists
English jazz drummers
British male drummers
English rock drummers
Yes (band) members
King Crimson members
Post-bop drummers
Jazz fusion drummers
Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe members
E.G. Records artists
Musicians from Kent
Progressive rock drummers
U.K. (band) members
British male jazz musicians
Earthworks (band) members
Genesis (band) members
Bruford Levin Upper Extremities members
Gordian Knot (band) members
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT%20slang
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LGBT slang
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LGBT slang, LGBT speak, queer slang, or gay slang is a set of English slang lexicon used predominantly among LGBTQ+ people. It has been used in various languages since the early 20th century as a means by which members of the LGBTQ+ community identify themselves and speak in code with brevity and speed to others. The acronym LGBT was popularized in the 1990s and stands for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender. It may refer to anyone who is non-heterosexual or non-cisgender, instead of exclusively to people who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender. To recognize this inclusion, a popular variant, , adds the letter Q for those who identify as queer or are questioning their sexual or gender identity.
LGBT slang has played an integral part in LGBTQ+ culture for decades. Slang language initially emerged as a way for queer people to communicate with one another while avoiding detection by mainstream society. Queer people have always existed, but historically, they have had to be discreet about their identities and lives, particularly when being LGBTQ+ was illegal and or socially condemned.
LGBT slang is used as a way to signal one's identity and build solidarity within the community. When Queer people use these certain words and phrases, they demonstrate to others that they are part of the LGBTQ+ community and share a common experience. This connection can create a sense of belonging for those historically rejected and isolated by mainstream society.
LGBT slang is also used by the community as a means of reclaiming language and deconstructing oppressive norms. Queer slang often includes playful references to sexual acts, which can serve as an assertion of sexual agency and a rejection of shame.
History and context
Because of sodomy laws and threat of prosecution due to the criminalization of homosexuality, LGBT slang has served as an argot or cant, a secret language and a way for the LGBT community to communicate with each other publicly without revealing their sexual orientation to others. Since the advent of queer studies in universities, LGBT slang and argot has become a subject of academic research among linguistic anthropology scholars.
During the first seven decades of the 20th century, a specific form of Polari was developed by gay men and lesbians in urban centres of the United Kingdom within established LGBT communities. Polari was featured on the BBC radio programme Round the Horne in 1964, exposing the wider public to the secret language. Although there are differences, contemporary British gay slang has adopted many Polari words. The 1964 legislative report Homosexuality and Citizenship in Florida contains an extensive appendix documenting and defining the homosexual slang in the United States at that time. SCRUFF launched a gay-slang dictionary app in 2014, which includes commonly used slang in the United States from the gay community. Specialized dictionaries that record LGBT slang have been found to revolve heavily around sexual matters.
Slang is ephemeral; terms used in one generation may pass out of usage in another. For example, in the 1960s and 1970s, the terms "cottage" (chiefly British) and "tearoom" (chiefly American) were used to denote public toilets used for sex. By 1999, this terminology had fallen out of use to the point of being greatly unrecognizable by members of the LGBT community at large.
Many terms that originated as gay slang have become part of the popular lexicon. For example, the word drag was popularized by Hubert Selby Jr. in his book Last Exit to Brooklyn. Drag has been traced back by the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) to the late 19th Century. Conversely, words such as "banjee", while well-established in a subset of gay society, have never made the transition to popular use. Conversations between gay men have been found to use more slang and fewer commonly known terms about sexual behavior than conversations between straight men.
In the Philippines, many LGBT people speak with Swardspeak, or "gay lingo", which is a more extensive use of slang as a form of dialect or way of speaking. Other argots are spoken in southern Africa (Gayle language and IsiNgqumo) and Indonesia (Bahasa Binan). More specifically, in a country like Thailand, LGBT slang was always present in their history due to their religious, behavioral, and social nature. However, before the term LGBT was introduced, the Thai community would use the terms Kathoey and Tom. The term Kathoey was used to describe transgender women who dress, act, or partake in surgery to become female, and the term Tom as well as "handsome girls" in Thai was used to describe women who liked women. Homosexuality and transgenderism has always existed throughout their history, as their behavioral nature did not align with heterosexual ideals.
General slang terms
100-footer – an obviously gay or lesbian person (as if visible from 100 feet away) (US)
or (man-loving-man) – an umbrella term for attractions and relationships between men, regardless of their sexual or romantic orientation, sometimes including non-binary androphiles
baths – bathhouses frequented by gay men for sexual encounters (US)
beach bitch – a gay man who frequents beaches and resorts for sexual encounters (US)
beard – a person used as a date, romantic partner, or spouse to conceal one's sexual orientation
beat – having or seeking anonymous gay sex (Australia)
bent – gay, as opposed to straight (UK)
bender – someone who has homosexual intercourse (UK)
binding – a technique in which individuals wear tight clothing, bandages, or compression garments, known as binders, to hide and flatten their breasts
bottom – a receptive male partner in intercourse; also used as a verb for the state of receiving sexual stimulation
– someone who dominantly or energetically plays the receptive role in intercourse
– portmanteau of "boy pussy"; a male anus, in the context of anal sex. Also used to refer to a trans man's vulva.
– in ball culture, a gay male who presents as a gay male; that is, neither as a trans individual nor a heteronormative male. This mostly refers to someone who looks the part of what most would identify as “gay”.
butchy femme – a gender expression between femme and futch
camp, campy – exaggerated and amusing, in a way that is typically associated with gay men or femininity
clone – a San Francisco or New York Greenwich Village denizen with exaggerated macho behavior and appearance (US)
closeted – keeping one's sexuality or gender identity a secret from others (US)
cocksucker – a person who practices fellatio, usually a gay male (US)
come out (of the closet) – to admit or publicly acknowledge oneself as non-heterosexual/non-cisgender (US)
cottaging – having or seeking anonymous gay sex in a public toilet, or 'cottage' (UK)
cruising – seeking a casual gay sex encounter (historically from ancient Rome)
down-low – homosexual or bisexual activity, kept secret, by men who have sex with men (US)
en femme, en homme – the act of wearing clothes stereotypically of the opposite sex
fag hag – a woman who associates mostly or exclusively with gay and bisexual men (US)
femboy – a feminine or androgynous male
femme – a feminine homosexual (US)
– a shorter alternative to folks
– a gender expression between femme and butch, or a feminine butch
Game of Flats – an 18th-century English term for sex between women
gaydar – the supposed ability to detect someone's sexual orientation (from gay + radar). Corresponding terms include , , , and . Bidar is also called , a jocular pun on Wi-Fi. Pan-Scan is another variation that exists specifically for pansexuals.
gaymer – an LGBTQIA+ person who plays video games (from gay + gamer)
gaysian – a gay Asian person
gold star – a homosexual who has never had heterosexual sexual intercourse (US)
heteroflexible – to be mostly heterosexual
homoflexible – to be mostly gay
Molly/Tommy – In 18th century England, the term "molly" was used for male homosexuals, implying effeminacy; "tommy", a slang term for a homosexual woman in use by 1781, and may have been coined by analogy. See Molly house.
– being "neither/nor" when it comes to normative taboos and self-centered communities
platinum star gay – gay men who were born by a C-section procedure (US)
poz – HIV-positive person (US)
queer – originally a slur against homosexuals, transgender people, and anyone who does not fit society's standards of gender and sexuality; later reclaimed and used as umbrella term for sexual and gender minorities
sapphic or (woman-loving-woman) – synonymous with lesbian, but used nowadays to encompass attractions and relationships between women, regardless of their sexual or romantic orientation, sometimes including non-binary gynephiles
side – a homosexual male who does not enjoy anal penetration (giving or receiving), but will engage in other forms of same sex activity (fellatio, frottage, mutual masturbation, etc.).
swish – effeminate or effeminacy (US)
switch – see vers
slay - especially in Ball Culture to dress or be fashionable and flawless
tomgirl – see femboy
top – the dominant or inserting sexual partner, usually in a homosexual relation or activity
– a submissive top, someone who applies sensation or control to a bottom, but does so at the bottom's explicit instructions
tongzhi (同志, "comrade", lit. "same will, same purpose") – a term used to describe members of LGBTQ+ communities in some Chinese languages
trade – a straight-passing male partner, commonly used by gay men or trans women (derived from Polari) (US)
vers – a person who enjoys both topping and bottoming, or being dominant and submissive, and may alternate between the two in sexual situations, adapting to their partner
Terms describing gay men
artiste – a gay man who excels at fellatio
auntie – an older, often effeminate and gossipy gay man
bathsheba – a gay man who frequents gay bathhouses
chicken – a youthful gay man
chubby chaser – a man who seeks overweight males
daddy – a typically older gay man
finocchio (from Italy, meaning fennel)
flit
flower – a typically effeminate gay man
friend of Dorothy – a gay person. Historically used as a shibboleth to identify other LGBT people. Likely a reference to Judy Garland, who portrayed Dorothy in The Wizard of Oz (1939) and had a large gay fan-base.
gaysian – a gay Asian
light in the loafers / light in the pants / light in the fedora
punk – a smaller, younger gay man who, in prison settings, is forced into a submissive role and used for the older inmate's sexual pleasure
queen – a flamboyant or effeminate gay man. Alternatively, short for drag queen.
bean queen (also taco queen or Salsa queen), gay man attracted to Hispanic men
brownie queen – obsolete slang for gay man interested in anal sex (used by men who disliked anal sex)
chicken queen – an older gay man interested in younger or younger appearing men
grey queen – a gay person who works in financial services; grey flannel suits).
potato queen – a gay Asian man attracted mainly to white men.
rice queen – a gay man attracted mainly to East Asian men.
twink − a youthful, flamboyant gay man with a slim physique
Slurs
anal assassin (UK) or "anal astronaut"
arse bandit or ass bandit
backgammon player (late 18th century Britain)
batty boy – a slur for gay or effeminate man (Jamaica and U.K.)
bent, bentshot or bender
bixa/ (Brazil)
brownie king / brown piper
bufter, bufty (mainly Scottish) or booty buffer
bum boy / bum chum, also bum robber
butt pirate, butt boy, butt rider, butt pilot, or butt rustler
chi chi man (Jamaica and the Caribbean)
cockstruction worker – a gay, bi or queer man who works in construction industry
faggot / fag – slur against gay men. First recorded in a Portland, Oregon publication in 1914
fairy – a slur reclaimed by gay men in the 1960s
flamer
fruit (also fruit loop, fruit packer, butt fruit) – a slur against gay men; originally a stereotype of gay men as "softer" and "smelling good"
fudge packer
homo – shortening of homosexual. Often derogatory.
homo thug
maricón or (in Spanish)
nancy boy
ogay
Pansy
poof/poofta/ (Commonwealth)
sod (from sodomy)
or veado – a gay male or an effeminate man (lit., a corrupted form of "deer", derived from desviado, meaning deviant) (Brazil)
Terms describing lesbians
baby butch – a young, boyish lesbian (US)
baby dyke – a young or recently out lesbian (US)
bambi lesbian – a lesbian who prefers cuddles, hugs, kisses, and other affectionate and sensual non-sexual acts over sexual acts
bean flicker – Likening the clitoris to a bean
bluff – butch fluff
boi – a boyish lesbian (UK)
– a lesbian with male presentation
bull dyke – a masculine lesbian, as opposed to a baby butch or dinky dyke (UK (somewhat archaic), US)
butch – a masculine lesbian
Carpet muncher (or "rug muncher")
dyke ("bull dyke", "bull dagger", alternatively "bulldagger", "bulldicker"), from 1920s black American slang. A slur reclaimed by women who are attracted to women in the 1950s
diesel dyke
drag dyke
dykon – portmanteau of dyke + icon. A celebrity woman who is seen as an icon by lesbians; may or may not be a lesbian herself (US)
fluff – femme
(in French)
kiki – a term used primarily from the 1940s until the 1960s to indicate a lesbian who was not butch or femme and did not have a preference for either butch or femme partners
kitty puncher / pussy puncher – with both "kitty" and "pussy" referring to a woman's vagina, and "puncher" as a variation on various derogatory terms for gay men, such as "donut puncher".
four year lesbian - see lesbian until graduation
lesbian until graduation (LUG) – a young woman who is assumed to be temporarily experimenting with same-sex behavior, but will ultimately adopt a heterosexual identity
lipstick lesbian – a lesbian/bisexual woman who displays historically feminine attributes such as wearing make-up, dresses, and high heels
muff-diver – a lesbian
pillow princess – a lesbian who prefers to receive sexual stimulation (to bottom) (US)
(Brazil) or (Portugal)
soft butch – an androgynous lesbian, in between femme and butch (US)
stem, stemme – someone whose gender expression falls somewhere between a stud and a femme
stone butch – a very masculine lesbian, or a butch lesbian who does not receive touch during intercourse, only giving (US)
stud – a black butch
Terms describing bisexual or pansexual people
AC/DC – reference to "swinging both ways" (US)
– euphemism for bisexual, derived from ambidextrous
bicon – portmanteau of bisexual + icon. Used to refer to a bisexual celebrity
byke – a bisexual dyke
Gillette Blade – a 1950s era term for bisexual women, whose sexuality "cuts both ways"
unicorn – a bisexual, usually female, who desires multiple partners and is willing to join an existing couple and sexually satisfy both members of the couple. So-named because bisexuals willing to enter such an arrangement are considered rare or non-existent, while couples seeking such a partner ("unicorn hunters") are common.
Terms describing androgynous or intersex people
– Japanese word for hermaphroditism, which is also used in a broader sense for androgyny. The term is also heavily associated with a genre of hentai defined by sexualization of characters simultaneously possessing breasts, a penis and vagina.
hermie – an androgynous or intersex person, often considered a slur.
altersex – a term describing an alternative sex in fiction or a body plan that is usually inaccessible in real life.
Salmacian – named after Salmacis, standing for someone who plans, desires or have mixed sex traits.
Terms describing transgender and non-binary people
– a transgender woman who socially presents in a masculine gender role, typically in places where transgender individuals are discriminated against, or due to not being out as transgender.
Copenhagen capon – a transsexual; someone who has undergone sex reassignment surgery. The term alludes to Christine Jorgensen, a trans woman who underwent sex reassignment surgery in Copenhagen in the 1950s. A capon is a neutered rooster.
egg – a transgender person who has not yet realized they are trans; used by transgender people when aspects of one's personality or behavior remind them of gender-related aspects of themselves before they realized they were trans
– a non-binary person. Derived from the abbreviation NB.
lady boy – English translation of kathoey, similar or equivalent to transgender woman, but may refer to feminine gay men or intersex people.
repressor – a person who is fighting the wish to change their gender expression.
sapatrans or sapatrava (portmanteau of sapatão + trans) – a term used in Brazil for trans lesbians and lesbian travestis.
– a trans woman (short for "trans girl"). Considered derogatory, due to its association with transgender pornography.
/ – a trans man (short for "trans boy" and "trans guy")
tranarchist – transgender anarchism.
(portmanteau of trans + lesbian) – a transgender lesbian. See also .
– trans dyke
Slurs
shemale – a trans woman with male genitalia and possibly female secondary sex characteristics. Primarily a term used in pornography and often considered derogatory.
hon – a non-passing transgender woman. This term is primarily used by trans women in online communities, especially 4chan. It is considered derogatory.
tranny – slur used for transgender people.
— slur for someone whose perceived gender is opposite their anatomical sex, particularly a trans woman or effeminate boy. Implies that others who are attracted to them (typically heterosexual men) are maliciously deceived (i.e. "trapped") regarding their "real" gender. Considered derogatory and dehumanizing.
or / – a female-to-male (FtM) and male-to-female (MtF) transgender/transsexual person, respectively, who has not had genital surgery. Considered derogatory or vulgar at best.
Terms related to transgender and non-binary people
chaser / tranny chaser – someone attracted to transgender people. Often used in a pejorative fashion, chasers to value them for their trans status alone, rather than being attracted to them as a person
clock – to recognize someone as transgender.
deadname – as a noun, a transgender person's birth name. As a verb, to refer to someone by their deadname.
girldick – a transfeminine person's penis, especially one changed by hormone use. Also known as girlcock or gock.
malefail – to be gendered as feminine when trying to present in a masculine gender role.
packing – the act of wearing padding or a phallic object to present the appearance of a penis
passing – usually in relation to transgender individuals, to be perceived as your preferred gender.
skoliosexual – to describe attraction to non-binary people.
stealth – passing to the extent that most people do not know that you are trans.
TERF – acronym for "trans-exclusionary radical feminist"; a feminist whose advocacy excludes or opposes the rights of trans women; more generally, anyone hostile to transgender people. Such people typically prefer the term gender critical.
Terms describing cisgender or heterosexual people
breeder – a heterosexual person, especially one with children
(portmanteau of cis + lesbian) – a cisgender lesbian.
cishet – Someone who is cisgender and heterosexual and/or heteroromantic.
chaser – a cisgender person who has a sexual fetish for transgender people, usually transgender women.
fag hag – a heterosexual woman who specifically associates with gay men.
fag stag – heterosexual man who enjoys company of gay men.
– a woman attracted to gay/bisexual men, she may regard herself as a gay man too.
guydyke or lesboy – a man attracted to lesbian/bisexual women, he may regard himself as a lesbian too.
Terms describing asexuality or aromanticity
ace – short for asexual.
aro – short for aromantic
, aro-ace, aro/ace – both aromantic and asexual
ace of spades – an aromantic asexual
ace of hearts – a romantic asexual
ace of diamond – a demiromantic demisexual
ace of swords – a greyromantic greysexual
SAM – Split Attraction Model – a model that sexual and romantic orientation can be split, often used within the aromantic and asexual community
squish – a non-romantic or platonic version of crush
queerplatonic relationship – committed intimate relationships which are not romantic nor (necessarily) sexual in nature
zucchini – queerplatonic partner.
LGBT subgroups
The following slang terms have been used to represent various types of people within the LGBT community:
bear – a larger and often hairier man who projects an image of rugged masculinity. The bear subgroup is among the oldest and largest of the LGBT community. Pride.com says "Bears are on the heavier side, either muscular, beefy, or chunky. They wouldn't dream of shaving their body hair (which comes in abundance) and they usually have a full beard to match. They exude masculinity, and are some of the kindest men you'll meet in your entire life." Attitude magazine says bears are "typically older" with a big build, a belly, and lots of hair. There are many bear subtypes, including the black bear (Black or African American men), the brown bear (Hispanic men), the grizzly bear ("dominant bears of extreme stature or hairiness"), the koala bear (Australian men), the panda bear (men of Asian descent), and the polar bear, which represents an older bear with white hair.
cub – a younger bear. Pride.com describes cubs as "baby bears" or "large, hairy guys in their teens and 20's who are on their way to becoming a bear".
bear chaser – a man who pursues bears
otter – a man who is slender and hairy.
wolf – Pride.com says, "Similar to an otter, a wolf has some hair and is in between a twink and a bear. However, there are some key differences between wolves and otters. Wolves typically have a lean, muscular build and are sexually aggressive." Attitude says wolves are "typically older and masculine" with a "muscular/athletic build".
bull – Pride.com says a bull is a "hunky, muscular" bodybuilder who weighs 200 pounds or more. The website says, "These men are big, strong and have muscles you didn't even know existed." Attitude says bulls have a "super-muscular build" with any hair style, and can be any age.
chicken – a young twink. Attitude says chickens are "hairless and young" with a slim or skinny build.
chickenhawk – a typically older man who seeks younger men. From chickenhawk, a designation for several birds which are thought to hunt chickens.
pig – someone who is "more focused on sex than anything else, often into kinkier and somewhat seedier sexual practices", according to Pride.com.
pup / puppy – in animal roleplay, someone who wants to be treated like a puppy, "with love and affection", by a handler. Attitude says pups are "young and submissive" with a slender build and little hair.
silver fox – an older man with gray hair
twink – a young or young-looking gay man, with little body hair and a slender build
twunk – a twink with well-developed physique (from twink + hunk)
See also
Anti-LGBT rhetoric
Gender transposition
Handkerchief code
LGBT linguistics
Terminology of homosexuality
References
Citations
Works cited
Further reading
T., Anna (2020). Opacity - Minority - Improvisation: An Exploration of the Closet Through Queer Slangs and Postcolonial Theory. Bielefeld: Transcript. .
External links
Slang terms
LGBT-related slurs
Sociolinguistics lists
Lists of slang
Wikipedia glossaries using unordered lists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law%20of%20Return
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Law of Return
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The Law of Return (, ḥok ha-shvūt) is an Israeli law, passed on 5 July 1950, which gives Jews, people with one or more Jewish grandparent, and their spouses the right to relocate to Israel and acquire Israeli citizenship. Section 1 of the Law of Return declares that "every Jew has the right to come to this country as an oleh [immigrant]". In the Law of Return, the State of Israel gave effect to the Zionist movement's "credo" which called for the establishment of Israel as a Jewish state. In 1970, the right of entry and settlement was extended to people with at least one Jewish grandparent and a person who is married to a Jew, whether or not they are considered Jewish under Orthodox interpretations of Jewish law.
On the day of arrival in Israel, or occasionally at a later date, a person who enters Israel under the Law of Return as an oleh would receive a certificate confirming their oleh status. The person then has three months to decide whether they wish to become a citizen and can renounce citizenship during this time. Since 2005, the right does not apply to residents of the West Bank or the Gaza strip due to the Citizenship and Entry into Israel Law. The right to an oleh certificate may be denied if the person is engaged in anti-Jewish activity, is a hazard to the public health or security of the state, or has a criminal past that may endanger public welfare.
History
The Law of Return was passed unanimously by the Knesset, Israel's Parliament, on 5 July 1950. The date chosen so that it would coincide with the anniversary of the death of Zionist visionary Theodor Herzl. It declared:
"Every Jew has the right to come to this country as an oleh."
In a declaration to the Knesset, the then Israeli prime minister David Ben-Gurion asserted that the law did not bestow a right but rather reaffirmed a right Jews already held:
"This law does not provide for the State to bestow the right to settle upon the Jew living abroad; it affirms that this right is inherent in him from the very fact of being a Jew; the State does not grant the right of return to the Jews of the diaspora. This right the State; this right the State; its source is to be found in the historic and never broken connection between the Jewish people and the homeland."
Follow-up legislation on immigration matters was contained in the Nationality Law of 1952.
Originally, the rights under the Law of Return applied only to Jews. However, due to an inability on the lawmakers to agree on a definition of "who is a Jew", the Law did not define the term, relying instead on the issue to resolve itself over time. As a result, the Law relied in effect on the traditional halakhic definition. But, the absence of a definition of who is a Jew, for the purpose of the Law, resulted in divergent views of the various streams of Judaism competing for recognition.
Those who immigrate to Israel under the Law of Return are immediately entitled to citizenship in Israel. However, differences of opinion have arisen as to whether a person who claims citizenship under the Law of Return should be automatically registered as "Jewish" for census purposes. According to the halakhic definition, a person is Jewish if their mother is Jewish, or if they convert to Judaism. Orthodox Jews do not recognize conversions performed by Reform or Conservative Judaism. However, the Law provides that any Jew regardless of affiliation may migrate to Israel and claim citizenship.
Jewish ancestry amendment
The Law of Return was amended in 1970 to extend the right of return to some non-Jews. Amendment number 2, 4a, states:
The law since 1970 applies to the following groups:
Those born Jews according to the Orthodox interpretation; having a Jewish mother or maternal grandmother.
Those with Jewish ancestry – having a Jewish father or grandfather.
Converts to Judaism (Orthodox, Reform, or Conservative denominations—not secular—though Reform and Conservative conversions must take place outside the state, similar to civil marriages).
Jews who have converted to another religion are not eligible to immigrate under the Law of Return, even though they are still Jews according to halakha.
The 1970 amendment was induced by the debate on "who is a Jew?". Until then the law did not refer to the question. There are several explanations for the decision to be so inclusive. One is that as the Nuremberg Laws did not use a halakhic definition in its definition of "who is a Jew", the Law of Return definition for citizenship eligibility is not halakhic either. Another explanation is the 1968 wave of immigration from Poland, following an antisemitic campaign by the government. These immigrants were very assimilated and had many non-Jewish family members.
A second explanation is that in order to increase immigration levels so as to offset the "demographic threat" posed by the growth of the Arab population, the law expanded the base group of those eligible to immigrate to Israel.
A third explanation promoted by religious Jews is that the overwhelmingly secular leadership in Israel sought to undermine the influence of religious elements in Israeli politics and society by allowing more secular Jews and their non-Jewish spouses to immigrate.
The Israeli Rabbinate is a purely Orthodox body that is far more strict in defining "who is a Jew". This creates a situation in which thousands of immigrants who are eligible for citizenship under the Law of Return's criteria, are ineligible for Jewish marriage by the Israeli Rabbinate.
As of 2021, 3,340,000 Jews have immigrated to Israel since its independence in 1948.
Hundreds of thousands of people who do not have Jewish status under Orthodox Jewish interpretations of Halacha received Israeli citizenship, as the law confers citizenship to all offspring of a Jew (including grandchildren) and their spouses.
Denial of citizenship
Section 2(b) of the Law of Return empowers the Minister of Interior to deny Israeli citizenship under the Law of Return on a number of grounds. For example, an applicant may be denied citizenship if they are considered a threat to the security of the State of Israel (e.g. treason against the Jewish State), or who has a past criminal record involving a serious crime, such as murder, and poses a danger to the well-being of the State of Israel; or, for example, may be a fugitive in another country for any felony (unless they are persecution victims); or such persons who, by virtue of their illness, may pose a serious public health risk to the people of Israel; as also any person who may be actively engaged in any campaign that vociferously speaks out against the Jewish people and undermines their cause (such as demagoguery).
This provision has been used to exclude applicants a handful of times since Israel's establishment. Notable cases include Robert Soblen, an American Communist who spied for the Soviet Union and fled to Israel in an attempt to escape a life sentence; Meyer Lansky, an American mobster who was initially granted entry to Israel but was expelled two years later; and Victor Vancier, an American Kahanist activist convicted of involvement in a series of bombings.
In 1962, the case of Oswald Rufeisen, born a Polish Jew and later a Catholic convert, came before the Israeli Supreme court. The Supreme Court decided that "no one can regard an apostate as belonging to the Jewish people".
The granting of citizenship under the Law of Return does not prevent a person from being extradited back to another country under an extradition treaty with that other country.
Controversy
Followers of Messianic Judaism
The Supreme Court of Israel ruled in 1989 that Messianic Judaism constituted another religion, and that people who had become Messianic Jews were not therefore eligible for Aliyah under the law.
On April 16, 2008, the Supreme Court ruled in a case brought by a number of people with Jewish fathers and grandfathers whose applications for citizenship had been rejected on the grounds that they were Messianic Jews. The argument was made by the applicants that they had never been Jews according to halakha, and were not therefore excluded by the conversion clause. This argument was upheld in the ruling, and the government agreed to reprocess their applications. Despite this, Messianic Jews are considered to be eligible for the law if they can claim Jewish ancestry (having a Jewish father or grandfather).
Claims of discrimination in relation to Palestinian refugees
Critics claim that the Law of Return runs counter to the claims of a democratic state.
Palestinians and advocates for Palestinian refugee rights criticize the Law of Return, which they compare with the Palestinian claim to a Palestinian right of return. These critics consider the Law, as contrasted against the denial of the right of return, offensive and institutionalized ethnic discrimination.
A report by the UN Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA) slammed the Law of Return, "conferring on Jews worldwide the right to enter Israel and obtain Israeli citizenship regardless of their countries of origin and whether or not they can show links to Israel-Palestine, while withholding any comparable right from Palestinians, including those with documented ancestral homes in the country," as a policy of "demographic engineering" meant to uphold Israel's status as "the Jewish state". The report was later withdrawn following controversy.
Same-sex relationships
On June 10, 2011, the Law of Return was tested when a gay male couple, one Jewish and one Catholic, made Aliyah to Israel. This couple was the first same-sex, different religion married couple to request joint Aliyah status, although opposite sex married couples of different religions receive joint Aliyah as a matter of course. The Jewish man quickly received citizenship but the decision of citizenship for his husband was delayed by the Ministry of the Interior despite the clause in the law saying the spouse of the Jewish returnee must also be granted citizenship. On August 10, 2011, the Ministry of the Interior granted citizenship to the non-Jewish husband as required by The Law of Return.
In 2014, Interior Minister Gideon Sa'ar announced that Jews in same-sex relationships who got married abroad but wished to immigrate to Israel were allowed to do so under the Law of Return, even with a non-Jewish spouse, and that both spouses would receive Israeli citizenship.
Support for the Law of Return
Supporters of the law say that it is very similar to those in many European states, which also employ an ethnic component.
Supporters argue that:
The Law of Return is not the only way of acquiring citizenship. For example, non-Jews can become citizens by naturalization, residence, or marrying an Israeli citizen. Naturalization, for instance, is available under certain circumstances for the non-Jewish parents of a citizen who has completed their army service.
The right granted to Jews along with their relatives under the Law does not necessarily or automatically discriminate against non-Jews, but is a form of "positive" discrimination. Israel has residency and citizenship laws for non-Jews that are equivalent to those in other liberal democracies. Committee for Accuracy in Middle East Reporting in America (CAMERA) argues that the Law of Return is consistent with Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination Article I(3), which CAMERA says allows for preferential immigration treatment of some groups without discrimination against a particular group. Thus, CAMERA and others argue that other countries, including Germany, provide immigration privileges to individuals with ethnic ties to these countries (See Right of return and Repatriation laws).
While the purpose of the Law of Return is perhaps to keep Israel predominantly Jewish, an argument states that a world where Jews have been persecuted, the concept of maintaining a Jewish state is necessary for the survival of the Jewish people generally and to provide a safe haven for Jewish refugees in specific cases. CAMERA argues the Law of Return is justified under the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination Article I(4), which CAMERA argues allows for affirmative action, because of the discrimination Jews faced during the Holocaust.
Benjamin Pogrund, director of Yakar's Center for Social Concern in Jerusalem and member of the Israeli delegation to the United Nations World Conference against Racism, calls the law "unfair" from the Palestinian refugees' point of view, but sees the unfairness as having happened in other places too. Pogrund compares the flight/expulsion of Palestinians (both in 1948 and 1967) to Germany, Poland, the Czech Republic, India and Pakistan.
Debate in Israel
Among Israeli Jews, continued Jewish immigration enjoys strong support. According to a 2016 poll conducted by Pew Forum 98% of all Jewish Israelis wanted the law to continue to allow Jewish immigration. However, some argue that the law permits the entry of too many non-Jews, undermining its purpose.
Support for the law among Israeli Arabs is much less. According to a poll overseen by Haifa University sociologist Sammy Smooha among 700 Jews and 700 Arabs conducted in 2017 only 25.2% "accepted" the Law of Return, down from 39% in 2015.
In September 2007, the discovery of a violent Israeli Neo-Nazi cell (Patrol 35) in Petah Tikva, made up of teenage immigrants from the former Soviet Union, led to renewed calls amongst politicians to amend the Law of Return. Effi Eitam of the National Religious Party and the National Union, which represent the religious Zionist movement and have previously attempted to advance bills to amend the Law of Return, stated that Israel has become "a haven for people who hate Israel, hate Jews, and exploit the Law of Return to act on this hatred." On the other end of the political spectrum, MK Ahmed Tibi of United Arab List and Ta'al criticized the system's double standard, stating that "people immigrated to Israel and received automatic citizenship under the Law of Return, while citizens of Nazareth and Tayibe are not allowed to visit their own relatives merely due to the fact that they are Arabs."
Thirty-seven percent of Israelis polled said that deeper background checks on new immigrants would amount to racism against Jews from Russian-speaking countries.
Applicability of the law
Amongst those who are in favor of retaining the Law, controversy exists over its wording. The Law's definition of a "Jew" and "Jewish people" are subject to debate. Israeli and Diaspora Jews differ with each other as groups and among themselves as to what this definition should be for the purposes of the Law of Return. Additionally, there is a lively debate over the meaning of the terms "Jewish State" and "State of the Jews".
It is not only the Knesset, however, which has been repeatedly obliged to directly or indirectly address these issues. Over the years, many of Israel's interior ministers have examined the issue of the Law of Return and wavered as to how to apply it. The judiciary has also been called upon to express an opinion on matters relating to the Law. This burning and recurrent question in the country's political dialogue not only reveals but also exacerbates differences of opinion between Israelis.
One central issue is who has the authority over determining the validity of conversions to Judaism for purposes of immigration and citizenship. For historical reasons, the Chief Rabbinate of Israel, under the Israeli Ministry of Religious Affairs, made this determination, but this arrangement is in question. This practice has met opposition among non-Orthodox religious leaders both within Israel and in the diaspora. Several attempts have been made to resolve the issue, the most recent being the Ne'eman Commission, but an impasse persists.
On March 31, 2005, the Israeli Supreme Court ruled 7–4 that all conversions performed outside of Israel would be recognized by the authorities under the Law of Return, notwithstanding the Ne'eman Commission's view that a single body should determine eligibility for immigration. The court had already ruled in 1989 that conversions performed outside of Israel were valid for the Law of Return (regardless of whether they were Orthodox, Conservative, or Reform). The 2005 ruling extended this, finding that overseas conversions were still valid even if the individuals did the preparatory work for the conversions while residing in Israel.
See also
Basic Laws of Israel
Prevention of Infiltration Law
Citizenship and Entry into Israel Law
Israeli identity card
Israeli passport
Politics of Israel
Oswald Rufeisen (Brother Daniel)
References
External links
The Law of Return – The text of the law and its various amendments
Democratic Norms, Diasporas, and Israel’s Law of Return by Alexander Yakobson and Amnon Rubinstein
by Amnon Rubenstein, Ha'aretz
Zionism
Israeli immigration law
Israeli nationality law
1950 in law
1950 in international relations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron%E2%80%93sulfur%20world%20hypothesis
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Iron–sulfur world hypothesis
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The iron–sulfur world hypothesis is a set of proposals for the origin of life and the early evolution of life advanced in a series of articles between 1988 and 1992 by Günter Wächtershäuser, a Munich patent lawyer with a degree in chemistry, who had been encouraged and supported by philosopher Karl R. Popper to publish his ideas. The hypothesis proposes that early life may have formed on the surface of iron sulfide minerals, hence the name. It was developed by retrodiction (making a "prediction" about the past) from extant biochemistry (non-extinct, surviving biochemistry) in conjunction with chemical experiments.
Origin of life
Pioneer organism
Wächtershäuser proposes that the earliest form of life, termed the "pioneer organism", originated in a volcanic hydrothermal flow at high pressure and high (100 °C) temperature. It had a composite structure of a mineral base with catalytic transition metal centers (predominantly iron and nickel, but also perhaps cobalt, manganese, tungsten and zinc). The catalytic centers catalyzed autotrophic carbon fixation pathways generating small molecule (non-polymer) organic compounds from inorganic gases (e.g. carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen cyanide and hydrogen sulfide). These organic compounds were retained on or in the mineral base as organic ligands of the transition metal centers with a flow retention time in correspondence with their mineral bonding strength thereby defining an autocatalytic "surface metabolism". The catalytic transition metal centers became autocatalytic by being accelerated by their organic products turned ligands. The carbon fixation metabolism became autocatalytic by forming a metabolic cycle in the form of a primitive sulfur-dependent version of the reductive citric acid cycle. Accelerated catalysts expanded the metabolism and new metabolic products further accelerated the catalysts. The idea is that once such a primitive autocatalytic metabolism was established, its intrinsically synthetic chemistry began to produce ever more complex organic compounds, ever more complex pathways and ever more complex catalytic centers.
Nutrient conversions
The water gas shift reaction (CO + H2O → CO2 + H2) occurs in volcanic fluids with diverse catalysts or without catalysts. The combination of ferrous sulfide (FeS, troilite) and hydrogen sulfide () as reducing agents (both reagents are simultaneously oxidized in the reaction here under creating the disulfide bond, S–S) in conjunction with pyrite () formation:
FeS + H2S → FeS2 + 2 H+ + 2 e−
or with H2 directly produced instead of 2 H+ + 2 e−
FeS + H2S → FeS2 + H2
has been demonstrated under mild volcanic conditions. This key result has been disputed. Nitrogen fixation has been demonstrated for the isotope 15N2 in conjunction with pyrite formation. Ammonia forms from nitrate with FeS/H2S as reductant. Methylmercaptan [CH3-SH] and carbon oxysulfide [COS] form from CO2 and FeS/H2S, or from CO and H2 in the presence of NiS.
Synthetic reactions
Reaction of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and methanethiol CH3SH in the presence of nickel sulfide and iron sulfide generates the methyl thioester of acetic acid [CH3-CO-SCH3] and presumably thioacetic acid (CH3-CO-SH) as the simplest activated acetic acid analogues of acetyl-CoA. These activated acetic acid derivatives serve as starting materials for subsequent exergonic synthetic steps. They also serve for energy coupling with endergonic reactions, notably the formation of (phospho)anhydride compounds. However, Huber and Wächtershäuser reported low 0.5% acetate yields based on the input of CH3SH (methanethiol) (8 mM) in the presence of 350 mM CO. This is about 500 times and 3700 times the highest CH3SH and CO concentrations respectively measured to date in a natural hydrothermal vent fluid.
Reaction of nickel hydroxide with hydrogen cyanide (HCN) (in the presence or absence of ferrous hydroxide, hydrogen sulfide or methyl mercaptan) generates nickel cyanide, which reacts with carbon monoxide (CO) to generate pairs of α-hydroxy and α-amino acids: e.g. glycolate/glycine, lactate/alanine, glycerate/serine; as well as pyruvic acid in significant quantities. Pyruvic acid is also formed at high pressure and high temperature from CO, H2O, FeS in the presence of nonyl mercaptan. Reaction of pyruvic acid or other α-keto acids with ammonia in the presence of ferrous hydroxide or in the presence of ferrous sulfide and hydrogen sulfide generates alanine or other α-amino acids. Reaction of α-amino acids in aqueous solution with COS or with CO and H2S generates a peptide cycle wherein dipeptides, tripeptides etc. are formed and subsequently degraded via N-terminal hydantoin moieties and N-terminal urea moieties and subsequent cleavage of the N-terminal amino acid unit.
Proposed reaction mechanism for reduction of CO2 on FeS: Ying et al. (2007) have shown that direct transformation of mackinawite (FeS) to pyrite (FeS2) on reaction with H2S till 300 °C is not possible without the presence of critical amount of oxidant. In the absence of any oxidant, FeS reacts with H2S up to 300 °C to give pyrrhotite. Farid et al. have experimentally shown that mackinawite (FeS) has ability to reduce CO2 to CO at temperature higher than 300 °C. They reported that the surface of FeS is oxidized, which on reaction with H2S gives pyrite (FeS2). It is expected that CO reacts with H2O in the Drobner experiment to give H2.
Early evolution
Early evolution is defined as beginning with the origin of life and ending with the last universal common ancestor (LUCA). According to the iron–sulfur world theory it covers a coevolution of cellular organization (cellularization), the genetic machinery and enzymatization of the metabolism.
Cellularization
Cellularization occurs in several stages. It may have begun with the formation of primitive lipids (e.g. fatty acids or isoprenoids) in the surface metabolism. These lipids accumulate on or in the mineral base. This lipophilizes the outer or inner surfaces of the mineral base, which promotes condensation reactions over hydrolytic reactions by lowering the activity of water and protons.
In the next stage lipid membranes are formed. While still anchored to the mineral base they form a semi-cell bounded partly by the mineral base and partly by the membrane. Further lipid evolution leads to self-supporting lipid membranes and closed cells. The earliest closed cells are pre-cells (sensu Kandler) because they allow frequent exchange of genetic material (e.g. by fusions). According to Woese, this frequent exchange of genetic material is the cause for the existence of the common stem in the tree of life and for a very rapid early evolution. Nick Lane and coauthors state that "Non-enzymatic equivalents of glycolysis, the pentose phosphate pathway and gluconeogenesis have been identified as well. Multiple syntheses of amino acids from α-keto acids by direct reductive amination and by transamination reactions can also take place. Long-chain fatty acids can be formed by hydrothermal Fischer-Tropsch-type synthesis which chemically resembles the process of fatty acid elongation. Recent work suggests that nucleobases might also be formed following the universally conserved biosynthetic pathways, using metal ions as catalysts".
Metabolic intermediates in glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway such as glucose, pyruvate, ribose 5-phosphate, and erythrose-4-phosphate are spontaneously generated in the presence of Fe(II). Fructose 1,6-biphosphate, a metabolic intermediate in gluconeogenesis, was shown to have been continuously accumulated but only in a frozen solution. The formation of fructose 1,6-biphosphate was accelerated by lysine and glycine which implies the earliest anabolic enzymes were amino acids. It had been reported that 4Fe-4S, 2Fe-2S, and mononuclear iron clusters are spontaneously formed in low concentrations of cysteine and alkaline pH. Methyl thioacetate, a precursor to acetyl-CoA can be synthesized in conditions relevant to hydrothermal vents. Phosphorylation of methyl thioacetate leads to the synthesis of thioacetate, a simpler precursor to acetyl-CoA. Thioacetate in more cooler and neutral conditions promotes synthesis of acetyl phosphate which is a precursor to adenosine triphosphate and is capable of phosphorylating ribose and nucleosides. This suggests that acetyl phosphate was likely synthesized in thermophoresis and mixing between the acidic seawater and alkaline hydrothermal fluid in interconnected micropores. It is possible that it could promote nucleotide polymerization at mineral surfaces or at low water activity. Thermophoresis at hydrothermal vent pores can concentrate polyribonucleotides, but it remains unknown as to how it could promote coding and metabolic reactions.
In mathematical simulations, autocatalytic nucleotide synthesis is proposed to promote protocell growth as nucleotides also catalyze CO2 fixation. Strong nucleotide catalysis of fatty acids and amino acids slow down protocell growth and if competition between catalytic function were to occur, this would disrupt the protocell. Weak or moderate nucleotide catalysis of amino acids via CO2 fixation would favor protocell division and growth. In 2017, a computational simulation of a protocell at an alkaline hydrothermal vent environment showed that "Some hydrophobic amino acids chelate FeS nanocrystals, producing three positive feedbacks: (i) an increase in catalytic surface area; (ii) partitioning of FeS nanocrystals to the membrane; and (iii) a proton-motive active site for carbon fixing that mimics the enzyme Ech". Maximal ATP synthesis would have occurred at high water activity in freshwater and high concentrations of Mg2+ and Ca2+ prevented synthesis of ATP, however the concentrations of divalent cations in Hadean oceans were much lower that in modern oceans and alkaline hydrothermal vent concentrations of Mg2+ and Ca2+ are typically lower than in the ocean. Such environments would have generated Fe3+ which would have promoted ADP phosphorylation. The mixture of seawater and alkaline hydrothermal vent fluid can promote cycling between Fe3+ and Fe2+. Experimental research of biomimetic prebiotic reactions such as the reduction of NAD and phosphoryl transfer also support an origin of life occurring at an alkaline hydrothermal vent .
Proto-ecological systems
William Martin and Michael Russell suggest that the first cellular life forms may have evolved inside alkaline hydrothermal vents at seafloor spreading zones in the deep sea. These structures consist of microscale caverns that are coated by thin membraneous metal sulfide walls. Therefore, these structures would resolve several critical points germane to Wächtershäuser's suggestions at once:
the micro-caverns provide a means of concentrating newly synthesised molecules, thereby increasing the chance of forming oligomers;
the steep temperature gradients inside the hydrothermal vent allow for establishing "optimum zones" of partial reactions in different regions of the vent (e.g. monomer synthesis in the hotter, oligomerisation in the cooler parts);
the flow of hydrothermal water through the structure provides a constant source of building blocks and energy (chemical disequilibrium between hydrothermal hydrogen and marine carbon dioxide);
the model allows for a succession of different steps of cellular evolution (prebiotic chemistry, monomer and oligomer synthesis, peptide and protein synthesis, RNA world, ribonucleoprotein assembly and DNA world) in a single structure, facilitating exchange between all developmental stages;
synthesis of lipids as a means of "closing" the cells against the environment is not necessary, until basically all cellular functions are developed.
This model locates the "last universal common ancestor" (LUCA) within the inorganically formed physical confines of an alkaline hydrothermal vent, rather than assuming the existence of a free-living form of LUCA. The last evolutionary step en route to bona fide free-living cells would be the synthesis of a lipid membrane that finally allows the organisms to leave the microcavern system of the vent. This postulated late acquisition of the biosynthesis of lipids as directed by genetically encoded peptides is consistent with the presence of completely different types of membrane lipids in archaea and bacteria (plus eukaryotes). The kind of vent at the foreground of their suggestion is chemically more similar to the warm (ca. 100 °C) off ridge vents such as Lost City than to the more familiar black smoker type vents (ca. 350 °C).
In an abiotic world, a thermocline of temperatures and a chemocline in concentration is associated with the pre-biotic synthesis of organic molecules, hotter in proximity to the chemically rich vent, cooler but also less chemically rich at greater distances. The migration of synthesized compounds from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration gives a directionality that provides both source and sink in a self-organizing fashion, enabling a proto-metabolic process by which acetic acid production and its eventual oxidization can be spatially organized.
In this way many of the individual reactions that are today found in central metabolism could initially have occurred independent of any developing cell membrane. Each vent microcompartment is functionally equivalent to a single cell. Chemical communities having greater structural integrity and resilience to wildly fluctuating conditions are then selected for; their success would lead to local zones of depletion for important precursor chemicals. Progressive incorporation of these precursor components within a cell membrane would gradually increase metabolic complexity within the cell membrane, whilst leading to greater environmental simplicity in the external environment. In principle, this could lead to the development of complex catalytic sets capable of self-maintenance.
Russell adds a significant factor to these ideas, by pointing out that semi-permeable mackinawite (an iron sulfide mineral) and silicate membranes could naturally develop under these conditions and electrochemically link reactions separated in space, if not in time.
Alternative environment
The 6 of the 11 metabolic intermediates in reverse Krebs cycle promoted by Fe, Zn2+, and Cr3+ in acidic conditions imply that protocells possibly emerged in locally metal-rich and acidic terrestrial hydrothermal fields. The acidic conditions are seemingly consistent with the stabilization of RNA. These hydrothermal fields would have exhibited cycling of freezing and thawing and a variety of temperature gradients that would promote nonenzymatic reactions of gluconeogenesis, nucleobase synthesis, nonenzymatic polymerization, and RNA replication. ATP synthesis and oxidation of ferrous iron via photochemical reactions or oxidants such as nitric oxide derived from lightning strikes, meteorite impacts, or volcanic emissions could have also occurred at hydrothermal fields.
Wet-dry cycling of hydrothermal fields would polymerize RNA and peptides, protocell aggregation in a moist gel phase during wet-dry cycling would allow diffusion of metabolic products across neighboring protocells. Protocell aggregation could be described as a primitive version of horizontal gene transfer. Fatty acid vesicles would be stabilized by polymers in the presence of Mg2+ required for ribozyme activity. These prebiotic processes might have occurred in shaded areas that protect the emergence of early cellular life under ultraviolet irradiation. Long chain alcohols and monocarboxylic acids would have also been synthesized via Fischer–Tropsch synthesis. Hydrothermal fields would also have precipitates of transition metals and concentrated many elements including CHNOPS. Geothermal convection could also be a source of energy for the emergence of the proton motive force, phosphoryl group transfer, coupling between oxidation-reduction, and active transport. It's noted by David Deamer and Bruce Damer that these environments seemingly resemble Charles Darwin's idea of a "warm little pond".
The problems with the hypothesis of a subaerial hydrothermal field of abiogenesis is that the proposed chemistry doesn't resemble known biochemical reactions. The abundance of subaerial hydrothermal fields would have been rare and offered no protection from either meteorites or ultraviolet irradiation. Clay minerals at subaerial hydrothermal fields would absorb organic reactants. Pyrophosphate has low solubility in water and can't be phosphorylated without a phosphorylating agent. It doesn't offer explanations for the origin of chemiosmosis and differences between Archaea and Bacteria.
See also
Abiogenesis
Iron–sulfur protein
RNA world
Miller–Urey experiment
References
Origin of life
Metabolism
de:Chemische Evolution#Die Eisen-Schwefel-Welt (ESW) nach Wächtershäuser
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry%20Goldsmith
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Jerry Goldsmith
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Jerrald King Goldsmith (February 10, 1929July 21, 2004) was an American composer and conductor known for his work in film and television scoring. He composed scores for five films in the Star Trek franchise and three in the Rambo franchise, as well as for Logan's Run, Planet of the Apes, Tora! Tora! Tora!, Patton, Papillon, Chinatown, Alien, Poltergeist, Medicine Man, Gremlins, Hoosiers, Total Recall, Air Force One, L.A. Confidential, Mulan, and The Mummy. He also composed the fanfares accompanying the production logos used by multiple major film studios, and music for the Disney attraction Soarin'.
He collaborated with directors including Robert Wise, Howard Hawks, Otto Preminger, Joe Dante, Richard Donner, Richard Fleischer, Ridley Scott, Steven Spielberg, Michael Crichton, Roman Polanski, Gordon Douglas, Fred Schepisi, Paul Verhoeven, and Franklin J. Schaffner. His work for Donner and Scott also involved a rejected score for Timeline and a controversially edited score for Alien, where music by Howard Hanson replaced Goldsmith's end titles and Goldsmith's own work on Freud: The Secret Passion was used without his approval in several scenes.
Goldsmith was nominated for six Grammy Awards, five Primetime Emmy Awards, nine Golden Globe Awards, four British Academy Film Awards, and eighteen Academy Awards (winning in 1976 for The Omen).
Early life and education
Goldsmith was born February 10, 1929, in Los Angeles, California. His family was Romanian Jewish. His parents were Tessa (née Rappaport), a school teacher, and Morris Goldsmith, a structural engineer. He started playing piano at age six, but only "got serious" by the time he was eleven. At age thirteen, he studied piano privately with concert pianist and educator Jakob Gimpel (whom Goldsmith would later employ to perform piano solos in his score to The Mephisto Waltz) and by the age of sixteen he was studying both theory and counterpoint under Italian composer Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, who also tutored such noteworthy composers and musicians as Henry Mancini, Nelson Riddle, Herman Stein, André Previn, Marty Paich, and John Williams.
At age sixteen, Goldsmith saw the 1945 film Spellbound and was inspired by Miklós Rózsa's unconventional score to pursue a career in music. Goldsmith later enrolled and attended the University of Southern California where he was able to attend courses by Rózsa, but dropped out in favor of a more "practical music program" at the Los Angeles City College. There he was able to coach singers, work as an assistant choral director, play piano accompaniment, and work as an assistant conductor.
Film and television scoring
1950s and work at CBS
In 1950, Goldsmith found work at CBS as a clerk typist in the network's music department under director Lud Gluskin. There he began writing scores for such radio shows as CBS Radio Workshop, Frontier Gentleman, and Romance. In an interview with Andy Velez from BarnesandNoble.com, Goldsmith stated: "It was about 1950. CBS had a workshop, and once a week the employees, whatever their talents, whether they were ushers or typists, would produce a radio show. But you had to be an employee. They needed someone to do music, and I knew someone there who said I'd be great for this. I'd just gotten married and needed a job, so they faked a typing test for me. Then I could do these shows. About six months later, the music department heard what I did, liked it, and gave me a job." He later progressed into scoring such live CBS television shows as Climax! and Playhouse 90. He also scored multiple episodes of the television series The Twilight Zone. He remained at CBS until 1960, after which he moved on to Revue Studios and then to MGM Studios for producer Norman Felton, whom he had worked for during live television and would later compose music for such television shows as Dr. Kildare and The Man from U.N.C.L.E..
His feature film debut occurred when he composed the music for the western Black Patch (1957). He continued with scores to such films as the western Face of a Fugitive (also 1957), and the science fiction film City of Fear (1959).
1960s
Goldsmith began the decade composing for such television shows as Dr. Kildare, Gunsmoke, and Thriller as well as the drama film The Spiral Road (1962). However, he only began receiving widespread name recognition after his intimate score to the western Lonely Are the Brave (1962). His involvement in the picture was the result of a recommendation by composer Alfred Newman who had been impressed with Goldsmith's score on the television show Thriller and took it upon himself to recommend Goldsmith to the head of Universal's music department, despite having never met him. That same year, Goldsmith composed the mostly atonal and dissonant score to the biopic Freud (1962) that focused on a five-year period of the life of psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. Goldsmith's score led to him gaining his first Academy Award nomination for Best Original Score, though he lost to fellow first-time nominee Maurice Jarre for his music to Lawrence of Arabia (also 1962). Goldsmith composed a score to The Stripper (1963), his first collaboration with director Franklin J. Schaffner for whom Goldsmith would later score the films Planet of the Apes (1968), Patton (1970), Papillon (1973), Islands in the Stream (1977), and The Boys from Brazil (1978).
Following his success with Lonely Are the Brave and Freud, Goldsmith composed the theme music for The Man from U.N.C.L.E. (1964), and scores to such films as the western Rio Conchos, the political thriller Seven Days in May (both also 1964), the romantic drama A Patch of Blue (1965), the war film In Harm's Way (also 1965), the World War I air combat film The Blue Max (1966), the period naval war drama The Sand Pebbles (also 1966), the thriller Warning Shot (1967), the western Hour of the Gun (also 1967), and the mystery The Detective (1968). He almost did not accept the assignment for The Blue Max when he watched the final cut with the producers who had temp-tracked it with Richard Strauss's Also Sprach Zarathustra. He said: "I admit it worked fairly well but my first reaction was to get up and walk away from the job, but I couldn't. Once you've heard music like that with the picture, it makes your own scoring more difficult to arrive at, it clouds your thinking." Goldsmith's scores to A Patch of Blue and The Sand Pebbles garnered him his second and third Academy Award nominations, respectively, and were both one of the 250 nominees for the American Film Institute's top twenty-five American film scores. His scores for Seven Days in May and The Sand Pebbles also garnered Goldsmith his first two respective Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Original Score in 1965 and 1967. During this time, he also composed for many lighter, comedic films such as the family comedy The Trouble with Angels (1966), the James Bond parodies Our Man Flint (1966) and its sequel In Like Flint (1967), and the comedy The Flim-Flam Man (1967).
Goldsmith gained attention for the score of the post-apocalyptic science fiction film Planet of the Apes (1968), which was one of the first to be written entirely in an Avant garde style. When scoring Planet of the Apes, Goldsmith used such innovative techniques as looping drums into an echoplex, using the orchestra to imitate the grunting sounds of apes, having horns blown without mouthpieces, and instructing the woodwind players to finger their keys without using any air. He also used stainless steel mixing bowls, among other objects, to create unique percussive sounds. The score resulted in another Goldsmith nomination for the Best Original Score Oscar and ranks in 18 on the American Film Institute's top twenty-five American film scores. Though he did not return to compose for its sequel Beneath the Planet of the Apes (1970), Goldsmith scored the third installment in the Planet of the Apes franchise, Escape from the Planet of the Apes (1971).
Goldsmith concluded the decade with scores to such films as the western Bandolero! (1968), the spy thriller The Chairman, the science fiction film The Illustrated Man, and the western 100 Rifles (all 1969). He composed the theme for the comedy-drama television series Room 222 which debuted in 1969.
1970s
Throughout the score for the World War II biographical film Patton (1970), Goldsmith used an echoplex to loop recorded sounds of "call to war" triplets played on the trumpet that musically represented General George S. Patton's belief in reincarnation. The main theme also consisted of a symphonic march accompanied by a pipe organ to represent the protagonist's militaristic and deeply religious nature. The film's music subsequently earned Goldsmith an Oscar nomination for Best Original Score and was one of the American Film Institute's 250 nominees for the top twenty-five American film scores. Goldsmith's critical success continued with his emotional score to the prison escape film Papillon (1973), which also earned him an Academy Award nomination. In the early 1970s, Goldsmith also wrote the themes for two wildly different TV series, Barnaby Jones and The Waltons.
Goldsmith was faced with the daunting task of replacing a score by composer Phillip Lambro to the neo-film noir Chinatown (1974). With only ten days to compose and record an entirely new score, Goldsmith quickly produced a score that mixed an eastern music sound with elements of jazz in an ensemble that only featured a trumpet, four pianos, four harps, two percussionists, and a string section. Goldsmith received an Academy Award nomination for his efforts though he lost to Nino Rota and Carmine Coppola for The Godfather Part II. The score to Chinatown ranks 9 on the AFI's list of top 25 American film scores. It was also nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score.
Goldsmith earned further critical praise with his score to the period adventure film The Wind and the Lion (1975), which relied upon a diverse ensemble including many Moroccan instruments and a large percussion section. The score garnered Goldsmith an Oscar nomination for Best Original Score, though he lost to John Williams for his score to Jaws. The Wind and the Lion was also one of the AFI's 250 nominees for the top twenty-five American film scores.
Goldsmith composed a dark choral score to the horror film The Omen (1976), which was the first film score to feature the use of a choir in an avant-garde style. The score was successful among critics and garnered Goldsmith his only Academy Award for Best Original Score and a nomination for Best Original Song for "Ave Satani". His wife, Carol Heather Goldsmith, also wrote lyrics and performed a vocal track titled "The Piper Dreams" released solely on the soundtrack album. Goldsmith would go on to compose for two more entries in the franchise; Damien: Omen II (1978) and Omen III: The Final Conflict (1981).
He continued to have critical success with scores to such films as the dystopian science fiction Logan's Run (1976), the period drama Islands in the Stream (1977, a score which remained one of his personal favorites), the science fiction suspense Coma (1978), the science fiction thriller Capricorn One (1977), the disaster film The Swarm (1978), the period comedy The Great Train Robbery (also 1978), and his Academy Award-nominated score to the science fiction thriller The Boys from Brazil (1978), in which he utilized lively waltzes to juxtapose the film's concept of cloning Adolf Hitler.
Goldsmith composed a score to the science fiction film Alien (1979). His score featured an orchestra augmented by an Indian conch horn, didgeridoo, steel drum, and serpent (a 16th-century instrument), while creating further "alien" sounds by delaying string pizzicati through an echoplex. Many of the instruments were used in such atypical ways they were virtually unidentifiable. His score was, however, heavily edited during post-production and Goldsmith was required to rewrite music for several scenes. The final score resulted in several pieces being moved, replaced, or cut entirely. Director Ridley Scott and editor Terry Rawlings also, without Goldsmith's consent, purchased the rights to the "Main Title" from Freud (1962) which they used during the acid blood sequence. Despite the heavy edits and rewrites, Goldsmith's score for the film earned him a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Original Score and was one of the AFI's 250 nominees for the top twenty-five American film scores.
Goldsmith concluded the decade composing the score for Star Trek: The Motion Picture (1979). Having been Gene Roddenberry's initial choice to compose the original Star Trek pilot "The Cage" yet being unable to do so due to scheduling conflicts, Goldsmith was the first pick of both Paramount Pictures and director Robert Wise to compose a score for The Motion Picture. Faced with composing a new Star Trek theme for the film, Goldsmith initially struggled for inspiration, and proceeded to compose as much of the score as possible before the need to develop the main title theme. His initial score for the scene in which the newly-refit Starship Enterprise is revealed to the audience was not well received by the filmmakers, director Robert Wise feeling that it lacked a strong thematic hook and evoked sailing ships. Though somewhat irked by its rejection, Goldsmith consented to re-work his initial idea and finally arrived at the Star Trek theme which was ultimately used. The film's soundtrack also provided a debut for the Blaster Beam, an electronic instrument long, created by musician Craig Huxley. The Blaster had steel wires connected to amplifiers fitted to the main piece of aluminum; the device was played with an artillery shell. Goldsmith heard it and immediately decided to use it for V'Ger's cues. An enormous pipe organ first plays the V'Ger theme on the Enterprises approach, a literal indication of the machine's power. His score for The Motion Picture earned him Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations, and was one of the AFI's 250 nominees for the top twenty-five American film scores. Goldsmith would later compose the scores for Star Trek V: The Final Frontier (1989) (which included a revised arrangement of the theme from The Motion Picture), Star Trek: First Contact (1996), Star Trek: Insurrection (1998), and Star Trek: Nemesis (2002), as well as the theme to the television series Star Trek: Voyager in 1995. In addition, his theme for The Motion Picture, as arranged by Dennis McCarthy, was reused as the theme for Star Trek: The Next Generation in 1987.
1980s
Throughout the 1980s, Goldsmith found himself increasingly scoring science fiction and fantasy films in the ongoing wake of Star Wars (1977), composing for such films as The Omen sequels Damien: Omen II (1978) and Omen III: The Final Conflict (1981), space western Outland (1981), animated fantasy The Secret of NIMH (1982), and the film adaptation of The Twilight Zone, which he composed in four different styles to accompany the film's four stories.
Goldsmith was hired to compose the music to the Tobe Hooper-directed horror film Poltergeist (1982). He wrote several themes for the film including a gentle lullaby for the protagonist Carol Anne and her family's suburban life, a semi-religious theme for scenes concerning the souls trapped between the two worlds, and bombastic atonal bursts during scenes of horror. The film's score garnered him an Oscar nomination, though he lost again to John Williams for Spielberg's E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial.
He did, however, still manage to compose for such non-fantasy productions as the period television miniseries Masada (1981) winning an Emmy Award, the war film Inchon (1982), the action adventure First Blood (also 1982), and his Oscar- and Golden Globe Award-nominated score to political drama Under Fire (1983) in which he used the ethnic sounds of a South American pan flute, synthetic elements, and the prominently featured solo work of jazz guitarist Pat Metheny.
Throughout the decade, many of his compositions became increasingly laced with synthetic elements such as his scores for the horror sequel Psycho II (1983), the comedy horror film Gremlins (1984, winning a Saturn Award for Best Music), the fantasy superhero adaptation Supergirl (1984), Ridley Scott fantasy Legend (1985, initially heard only in European prints and then years later in a 2002 director's cut), action sequel Rambo: First Blood Part II (1985), family fantasy Baby: Secret of the Lost Legend (also 1985), and horror movie sequel Poltergeist II (1986), a more synthetic score than the original and the first of two sequels. He garnered another Oscar nomination for his innovative, critically acclaimed score to sports drama Hoosiers (1986), though he lost to Herbie Hancock for Round Midnight. The score incorporates synthesizers, orchestra, and the recorded sounds of basketball hits on a gymnasium floor.
During the same period, Goldsmith scored the Michael Crichton film Runaway (1984), the composer's first all-electronic score. In an interview with Keyboard magazine in 1984, Goldsmith said that in order to simulate the ambiance of a real orchestra, several speakers were set up in an actual orchestra hall similar to how they would be arranged if they were live players. The playback was re-recorded to capture the feel of the hall.
Goldsmith finished out the decade with noteworthy scores to such films as the science-fiction fantasy family film Explorers (1985), medieval adventure Lionheart, science fiction comedy Innerspace (both 1987), action film Rambo III (1988), the science fiction horror Leviathan, and Star Trek V: The Final Frontier (both 1989), his second Star Trek film score. Goldsmith's score to Leviathan incorporated the use of recorded whale sounds during the main titles. His comedy score to The 'Burbs (1989) made use of pipe organ, recorded dog barking sound effects, and for parodying the trumpet "call to war" triplets on an echoplex from his previous score to Patton (1970).
1990s
Receiving critical acclaim for his music for the romantic drama The Russia House (1990), Goldsmith's score featured a unique mixture of Russian music and jazz to complement the nationalities and characteristics of the two main characters. He also composed critically acclaimed music for the science fiction action film Total Recall (also 1990), which Goldsmith later regarded as one of his best scores. Other scores of the era include Gremlins 2: The New Batch (also 1990, a film in which Goldsmith also made a brief cameo appearance), the psychological thriller Sleeping with the Enemy (1991), the family comedy Mom and Dad Save the World, the fantasy romance Forever Young (both 1992), the thriller The Vanishing, and the family comedy Dennis the Menace (both 1993). Goldsmith also composed a critically acclaimed score for the medical drama Medicine Man (1992). In concert, Goldsmith would later recount a story of how actor Sean Connery copied Goldsmith's signature ponytail hairstyle for his character Robert Campbell in the film.
Goldsmith composed and conducted a score to the erotic thriller Basic Instinct (1992). The soundtrack, an unsettling hybrid of orchestral and electronic elements, garnered him another Oscar nomination as well as a Golden Globe Award nomination and was later regarded by the composer as one of his most challenging works. He wrote an acclaimed score for the classic sports film Rudy (1993), which has since been used in the trailers for numerous films including Angels in the Outfield (1994), Good Will Hunting (1997), Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron (2002), and Seabiscuit (2003). It was also heard on the TV spot of "The Little Vampire" (2000) and an Arnold Schwarzenegger fitness commercial.
Goldsmith composed acclaimed scores for such films as the superhero adaptation The Shadow, the thriller The River Wild, the romantic comedy I.Q. (all 1994), the science fiction drama Powder, the action film Congo, the fantasy adventure First Knight (all 1995), the action film Executive Decision, and his third Star Trek film installment Star Trek: First Contact (both 1996) which he composed with his son Joel Goldsmith. Goldsmith also composed the theme for the UPN series Star Trek: Voyager (which debuted in 1995) for which he won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Main Title Theme Music. In 2020, Newsweek magazine said that the Voyager theme was the best of all Star Trek television series' theme songs.
Goldsmith composed the critically successful score to the horror action film The Ghost and the Darkness (1996) which featured a traditional Irish folk melody interwoven with African rhythms. He was hired to replace a score by Randy Newman for Air Force One (1997). Goldsmith, with the assistance of composer Joel McNeely, completed the brassy, heroic score in only twelve days. Goldsmith also composed a percussive, jazzy score for the critically acclaimed crime drama L.A. Confidential (also 1997). His score garnered him Oscar and Golden Globe Award nominations, and was also one of the AFI's 250 nominees for the top twenty-five American film scores.
Goldsmith composed a new theme for the Universal Pictures opening logo, first heard in The Lost World: Jurassic Park (1997) and the short version for the Universal Television closing logo, first heard on The Tom Show. The studio continues to use this theme, with a new arrangement of it scored by Brian Tyler to accompany the studio's current opening logo, introduced with The Lorax (2012) to coincide with the celebration of the studio's 100th anniversary. Goldsmith also continued with scores for such films as the 1997 survival drama The Edge (also 1997), his fourth Star Trek film installment, Star Trek: Insurrection (1998), the science fiction horror Deep Rising, the action thriller U.S. Marshals and the science fiction film Small Soldiers (all also 1998). He also composed a score of combined Eastern, orchestral, and synthetic elements for the Disney-animated film Mulan (also 1998), which subsequently earned him his final Oscar and Golden Globe Award nominations along with songwriter Matthew Wilder and lyricist David Zippel.
Goldsmith concluded the decade with critically successful scores to such popular films as action adventure horror The Mummy, the horror film The Haunting, and the action adventure The 13th Warrior (1999). In 1999, he also composed "Fanfare for Oscar" for the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.
2000s and final scores
During the early years of the 2000s, Goldsmith composed scores to the science fiction thriller Hollow Man (2000), the mystery film Along Came a Spider, the drama The Last Castle (both 2001), the action/political thriller The Sum of All Fears, and his last Star Trek film Star Trek: Nemesis (both 2002). Goldsmith had composed the scores to five of the first ten Star Trek movies up to that point. Goldsmith also composed an original score to the simulator attraction Soarin' Over California which debuted February 8, 2001 at the Disneyland Resort, and the same attraction Soarin which opened May 5, 2005 in Epcot at the Walt Disney World Resort. It was later said that when Goldsmith first rode the ride, he left in tears and said, "I'd do anything to be part of this project. I'd even score the film for free."
Goldsmith's final cinematic score, composed during declining health, was the critically acclaimed music for the live action/animated hybrid film Looney Tunes: Back in Action (2003), directed by long-time Goldsmith collaborator Joe Dante. One of his last works was with another long-time collaborator, Richard Donner (for whom Goldsmith had scored The Omen in 1976), on the science fiction film Timeline (also 2003). However, due to a complicated post-production process, Goldsmith's score had to be replaced. Goldsmith's score was used for the preliminary cuts. But the score didn't fit the later cuts of the film and had to be re-scored. Goldsmith's unavailability led to composer Brian Tyler taking over. Goldsmith's unused score was later released on CD, September 7, 2004 through Varèse Sarabande, less than two months after his death in July. The album quickly became out of print.
Studio fanfares
Goldsmith composed the fanfares accompanying the production logos for multiple major film studios. He composed the 1976 fanfare for Paramount Pictures, which was used mainly for their home video label, as well as the 1988 Carolco Pictures fanfare and the Cinergi Pictures fanfare, with Bruce Broughton conducting the fanfare.
With the release of The Lost World: Jurassic Park, his 1997 opening fanfare for Universal Pictures debuted. His work on the fanfare would later be re-composed by John Williams for the 20th anniversary of E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, a film in which Williams composed the film's score, with a customized fanfare, merging the Universal fanfare and the film's main theme, and the full Universal fanfare, only used in The Scorpion King, and re-arranged by Brian Tyler for the studio's 100th anniversary.
Concert works
Toccata for Solo Guitar
In the 1950s, Goldsmith composed "Toccata for Solo Guitar". The music was later performed and recorded by Gregg Nestor and released through BSX Records January 5, 2010.
The Thunder of Imperial Names
In 1957, Goldsmith composed the patriotic piece based on a text by Thomas Wolfe titled The Thunder of Imperial Names for concert band and narration, which first appeared on the CBS Radio Workshop episode "1489 Words". "The Thunder of Imperial Names" was later performed and re-recorded in 2006 by the U.S. Air Force Tactical Command Band under conductor Lowell E. Graham and narrated by Gary McKenzie.
Christus Apollo
In 1969, the California Chamber Symphony commissioned Goldsmith to compose a cantata based on the text "Christus Apollo" by science fiction author Ray Bradbury, with whom Goldsmith had previously worked on dramatic radio and later the 1969 film The Illustrated Man. The piece, written in four movements, consisted of orchestra, choir, mezzo-soprano solo, and narration (originally performed by Charlton Heston). Goldsmith composed the piece largely using the 12-tone system, later stating, "I feel there is a great relationship between impressionism and dodecaphonicism and that was the musical language I wanted for 'Christus Apollo'." For the 2002 Telarc album release, Christus Apollo was performed by the London Symphony Orchestra, the London Voices, mezzo-soprano Eirian James, and narrated by actor Anthony Hopkins.
Music for Orchestra
In 1970, Goldsmith was approached by conductor Leonard Slatkin to compose a short piece for the Saint Louis Symphony Orchestra. The atonal composition was written in three sections developed from one common 12-tone row including the "turbulent" first section, the "introspective" second section, and climaxing in a "very agitated" third section. Goldsmith later reflected that the piece was a result of much turbulence in his life, stating, "I was going through a divorce and my mother was seriously ill with cancer." Goldsmith continued, "All of my personal turmoil – pain, anger, and sorrow – went into writing 'Music for Orchestra' in strict dodecaphonic form."
Fireworks: A Celebration of Los Angeles
In 1999, Goldsmith composed the energetic Fireworks: A Celebration of Los Angeles to conclude his first concert series with the Los Angeles Philharmonic at the Hollywood Bowl. Looking back on the experience, Goldsmith later said, "After starting to write what was to be a big fireworks extravaganza, I realized that I was writing about the city where I was born and had lived my entire life. I decided instead to make the piece a grand celebration of my childhood, growing years, my years of maturity, and all the events that climaxed with my first appearance at the Hollywood Bowl."
Personal life and death
Goldsmith was married twice. He was first married to Sharon Hennagin in 1950; they divorced in 1970. He married Carol Heather in 1972, and the couple remained together until his death in 2004. His oldest son Joel Goldsmith (1957–2012) was also a composer and collaborated with his father on the score for Star Trek: First Contact, composing approximately twenty-two minutes of the score. Goldsmith also conducted Joel's theme for The Untouchables and composed the theme for the pilot Hollister, scored by Joel. Goldsmith's daughter, Carrie Goldsmith, went to high school with Titanic film score composer James Horner, who also composed music for Star Treks second and third films: Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan and Star Trek III: The Search for Spock. Carrie Goldsmith was working on a biography of her father, though the book has been suspended indefinitely for unspecified reasons. Ellen Smith, who sang the title song for Wild Rovers, shortened her surname but was actually his daughter, Ellen Goldsmith.
Goldsmith died from colon cancer at his home in Beverly Hills, California, on July 21, 2004, at the age of 75. He was interred at Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery.
Style and influences
Goldsmith was greatly influenced by movements of early 20th-century classical music, notably modernism, Americana, impressionism, dodecaphonism, and early film scores. He has cited Igor Stravinsky, Aaron Copland, Miklós Rózsa, Bernard Herrmann, Béla Bartók, and Alban Berg, among others, as some of the main influences to his style of composition.
His style has been noted for its unique instrumentation, utilizing a vast array of ethnic instruments, recorded sounds, synthetic textures, and the traditional orchestra, often concurrently. When asked about his inclination for embracing new techniques and constantly shifting his musical palette throughout his career, Goldsmith said, "It seems like it's me, and that's that! Certain composers are doing the same thing over and over again, which I feel is sort of uninteresting. I don't find that you grow very much in that way. I like to keep changing, trying to do new things. Basically, I'm saying the same thing with a little different twist on it. Once you get caught up in the creative process, something inside takes over, and your subconscious just does it for you."
One reason for the consistency of Goldsmith's aural resonance and signature sound is his long time professional association with orchestrator Arthur Morton. Their first collaboration was on the film, Take Her, She's Mine (1963). Goldsmith was commissioned to score the features, Von Ryan's Express and Morituri (both 1965). He recruited Morton to serve as his orchestrator. Their bond for a unique and expressive sound was born, and their friendship flourished. Goldsmith went on to compose the scores for Our Man Flint, The Trouble with Angels (with Frank De Vol), The Blue Max, The Sand Pebbles, and Stagecoach (all 1966). Morton was there providing his orchestration services, assisting Goldsmith in attaining his visionary sounds. Their partnership endured for over 30 years and included the notable scores for Planet of the Apes (1968), Patton (1970), Tora! Tora! Tora! (1970), Papillon (1973), Chinatown (1974), The Omen (1976), MacArthur (1977), Capricorn One (1978), Alien (1979), Star Trek: The Motion Picture (1979), Poltergeist (1982), First Blood (1982), Under Fire (1983), The Russia House (1990). The final score that Arthur Morton orchestrated for Goldsmith was L.A. Confidential (1997).
Legacy
Jerry Goldsmith has been considered one of film music history's most innovative and influential composers. While presenting Goldsmith with a Career Achievement Award from the Society for the Preservation of Film Music in 1993, fellow composer Henry Mancini said of Goldsmith, "he has instilled two things in his colleagues in this town. One thing he does, he keeps us honest. And the second one is he scares the hell out of us." In his review of the 1999 re-issue of the Star Trek: The Motion Picture soundtrack, Bruce Eder highly praised Goldsmith's ability, stating, "one of the new tracks, 'Spock's Arrival', may be the closest that Goldsmith has ever come to writing serious music in a pure Romantic idiom; this could have been the work of Rimsky-Korsakov or Stravinsky — it's that good." In a 2001 interview, film composer Marco Beltrami (3:10 to Yuma, The Hurt Locker) stated, "Without Jerry, film music would probably be in a different place than it is now. I think he more than any other composer bridged the gap between the old Hollywood scoring style and the modern film composer."
In 2006, upon composing The Omen (a remake of the Goldsmith-scored 1976 film), Marco Beltrami dedicated his score to Goldsmith, which also included an updated arrangement of "Ave Satani" titled "Omen 76/06". Likewise, when composer Brian Tyler was commissioned in 2012 to update the Universal Studios logo for the Universal centennial, he retained the melody originally composed by Goldsmith in 1997, opting to "bring it into the 21st century."
Awards and nominations
Over the course of his career, Goldsmith received 18 total Academy Award nominations, making him one of the most nominated composers in the history of the Awards. Despite this, Goldsmith won only one Oscar, his score for The Omen (1976). This makes Goldsmith the most nominated composer to have won an Oscar only on one occasion. In 1991, Goldsmith received an Honorary Doctorate of Music from Berklee College of Music.
On May 9, 2017, Goldsmith posthumously received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his achievements in the music industry, located at 6752 Hollywood Boulevard.
AFI
The American Film Institute respectively ranked Goldsmith's scores for Chinatown (1974) and Planet of the Apes (1968) 9 and 18 on their list of the 25 greatest film scores. He is one of only five composers to have more than one score featured in the list, including Elmer Bernstein, Bernard Herrmann, Max Steiner, and John Williams. His scores for the following films were also nominated for inclusion:
Alien (1979)
L.A. Confidential (1997)
The Omen (1976)
Papillon (1973)
A Patch of Blue (1965)
Patton (1970)
The Sand Pebbles (1966)
Star Trek: The Motion Picture (1979)
The Wind and the Lion (1975)
Accolades
List of movies and series
1950s
The Lineup (TV series, 1954)
Climax! (TV series, 1954)
Black Patch (1957)
Westinghouse Studio One: Tongue of Angels Season 10 episode 24 (live TV drama, 1958)
Face of a Fugitive (1959)
City of Fear (1959)
Playhouse 90 (TV series, 1959)
The Twilight Zone (TV series, 1959)
Perry Mason (1959 TV series incidental music, episode 3–75)
1960s
The Gambler, the Nun, and the Radio (TV film, 1960)
Full Circle (TV series theme, 1960)
Pete and Gladys (TV series theme, 1960)
Studs Lonigan (1960)
Thriller (TV series, 1960)
Dr. Kildare (theme and 7 episode scores, 1961)
The Expendables (TV film, 1962)
The Crimebusters (1962)
Lonely Are the Brave (1962)
The Spiral Road (1962)
Freud (1962)
The List of Adrian Messenger (1963)
The Stripper (1963)
A Gathering of Eagles (1963)
Lilies of the Field (1963)
Take Her, She's Mine (1963)
The Prize (1963)
Seven Days in May (1964)
Shock Treatment (1964)
Fate Is the Hunter (1964)
The Man from U.N.C.L.E. (TV series theme and 3 episode scores, 1964)
Rio Conchos (1964)
The Satan Bug (1965)
The Loner (TV series theme and 2 episode scores, 1965)
Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea (TV series: 1 episode, 1965)
In Harm's Way (1965)
Von Ryan's Express (1965)
Morituri (1965)
The Agony and the Ecstasy (co-composer, 1965)
A Patch of Blue (1965)
Our Man Flint (1966)
The Trouble with Angels (1966)
Stagecoach (1966)
The Blue Max (1966)
Seconds (1966)
The Sand Pebbles (1966)
Warning Shot (1967)
In Like Flint (1967)
The Flim-Flam Man (1967)
Hour of the Gun (1967)
Sebastian (1968)
Planet of the Apes (1968)
The Detective (1968)
Bandolero! (1968)
Room 222 (TV series: theme and 2 episodes, 1969)
100 Rifles (1969)
The Illustrated Man (1969)
The Chairman (1969)
Justine (1969)
1970s
Patton (1970)
The Ballad of Cable Hogue (1970)
Prudence and the Chief (TV film, 1970)
The Brotherhood of the Bell (TV film, 1970)
Tora! Tora! Tora! (1970)
The Traveling Executioner (1970)
Rio Lobo (1970)
A Step Out of Line (TV movie, 1971)
The Mephisto Waltz (1971)
Escape from the Planet of the Apes (1971)
Wild Rovers (1971)
The Last Run (1971)
Do Not Fold, Spindle, or Mutilate (TV film, 1971)
Crosscurrent (1971) (TV movie)
The Homecoming: A Christmas Story (TV film, 1971, basis for The Waltons)
Lights Out (TV film, 1972)
Crawlspace (TV film, 1972)
The Culpepper Cattle Co. (stock music only, 1972)
The Other (1972)
The Man (1972)
Anna and the King (TV series theme and pilot score, 1972)
Pursuit (TV film, 1972)
The Waltons (TV series theme and several season 1 episodes, 1972)
Barnaby Jones (TV series theme and pilot score, 1973)
Shamus (1973)
Hawkins (TV movie and series theme, 1973)
The Red Pony (TV film, 1973)
Ace Eli and Rodger of the Skies (1973)
The Going Up of David Lev (TV film, 1973)
One Little Indian (1973)
The Don Is Dead (1973)
Papillon (1973)
Indict and Convict (TV film, 1974)
Police Story (TV theme and pilot score, 1974)
A Tree Grows in Brooklyn (TV film, 1974)
Winter Kill (TV film, 1974)
QB VII (1974) (miniseries)
Chinatown (1974)
S*P*Y*S (1974)
Ransom (1975)
Archer (1975, TV series theme and pilot score)
Breakout (1975)
The Reincarnation of Peter Proud (1975)
The Wind and the Lion (1975)
A Girl Named Sooner (TV film, 1975)
Adams of Eagle Lake (TV series theme, 1975)
Medical Story (1975, TV series theme)
Take a Hard Ride (1975)
Babe (TV film, 1975)
Breakheart Pass (1975)
The Hemingway Play (TV film, 1976)
The Last Hard Men (stock music only, 1976)
Logan's Run (1976)
The Omen (1976)
High Velocity (1976)
The Cassandra Crossing (1976)
Twilight's Last Gleaming (1977)
Islands in the Stream (1977)
MacArthur (1977)
Capricorn One (1977)
Damnation Alley (1977)
Contract on Cherry Street (TV film, 1977)
Coma (1978)
Damien: Omen II (1978)
The Swarm (1978)
The Boys from Brazil (1978)
Magic (1978)
The Great Train Robbery (1978)
Alien (1979)
Players (1979)
Star Trek: The Motion Picture (1979)
1980s
Caboblanco (1980)
The Salamander (1981)
Omen III: The Final Conflict (1981)
Masada (TV miniseries, first half only, 1981)
Outland (1981)
Raggedy Man (1981)
Night Crossing (1982)
Poltergeist (1982)
The Secret of NIMH (1982)
The Challenge (1982)
Inchon (1982)
First Blood (1982)
Psycho II (1983)
Twilight Zone: The Movie (1983)
Under Fire (1983)
The Lonely Guy (1984)
Gremlins (1984)
Supergirl (1984)
Runaway (1984)
Baby: Secret of the Lost Legend (1985)
Rambo: First Blood Part II (1985)
Explorers (1985)
Legend (1985, European version)
King Solomon's Mines (1985)
Link (1986)
Amazing Stories (1986, TV series: episode "Boo!")
Poltergeist II: The Other Side (1986)
Hoosiers (1986)
Star Trek: The Next Generation (theme only, re-arranged by Dennis McCarthy, 1987)
Extreme Prejudice (1987)
Innerspace (1987)
Lionheart (1987)
Rent-a-Cop (1987)
Rambo III (1988)
Criminal Law (1988)
Alien Nation (rejected, 1988)
The 'Burbs (1989)
Leviathan (1989)
Warlock (1989)
Star Trek V: The Final Frontier (1989)
1990s
Total Recall (1990)
Gremlins 2: The New Batch (1990)
The Russia House (1990)
H.E.L.P. (1991, TV series theme)
Not Without My Daughter (1991)
Sleeping with the Enemy (1991)
Mom and Dad Save the World (1992)
Medicine Man (1992)
Basic Instinct (1992)
Forever Young (1992)
Mr. Baseball (1992)
Gladiator (rejected, 1992)
The Public Eye (rejected, 1992)
Hollister (TV film theme, 1992)
Love Field (1992)
Super Mario Bros. (rejected, 1993)
The Vanishing (1993)
Dennis the Menace (1993)
Rudy (1993)
Six Degrees of Separation (1993)
Malice (1993)
Matinee (1993)
Angie (1994)
Bad Girls (1994)
The Shadow (1994)
The River Wild (1994)
I.Q. (1994)
Congo (1995)
First Knight (1995)
Star Trek: Voyager (TV series theme, 1995)
Powder (1995)
Babe (rejected, 1995)
City Hall (1996)
Executive Decision (1996)
2 Days in the Valley (rejected, 1996)
Chain Reaction (1996)
Star Trek: First Contact (1996, additional music by Joel Goldsmith)
The Ghost and the Darkness (1996)
Fierce Creatures (1997)
Air Force One (1997, additional music by Joel McNeely)
L.A. Confidential (1997)
The Edge (1997)
Deep Rising (1998)
U.S. Marshals (1998)
Small Soldiers (1998)
Mulan (1998)
Star Trek: Insurrection (1998)
The Mummy (1999)
The Haunting (1999)
The 13th Warrior (1999)
2000s
Hollow Man (2000)
Soarin' Over California (simulator ride, 2001)
Along Came a Spider (2001)
The Last Castle (2001)
The Sum of All Fears (2002)
Star Trek: Nemesis (2002)
Looney Tunes: Back in Action (2003)
Timeline (rejected, 2003)
The Kennedy Center Honors (song 2003)
Movie Studio Fanfares
Paramount Pictures (1977-2005)
Universal Pictures (1997-2012)
See also
List of film score composers
List of Star Trek composers and music
References
Further reading
Thomas, Tony: Music For The Movies (1973)
Thomas, Tony: Film Score (1979)
Brown, Royal S.: Overtones And Undertones (1994)
Büdinger, Matthias: "A Patch Of Goldsmith". In: Soundtrack vol. 8, No. 69, p. 46–48
Dupuis, Mauricio: Jerry Goldsmith – Music Scoring for American Movies, Rome, Robin, 2013, p. 265 ().
Riedlinger, Stefan: 50 Best Soundtracks. A guide to the music of Jerry Goldsmith, John Williams, Hans Zimmer and many more with an exclusive interview with Michael J. Lewis (2018). . .
External links
Jerry Goldsmith Online
StarTrek.com Creative Staff Profile
Jerry Goldsmith at Soundtrackguide.net
Jerry Goldsmith at The Danish Filmmusic Society (DFS)
Jerry Goldsmith Discography at SoundtrackCollector.com
Jerry Goldsmith at Epdlp
Jerry Goldsmith Film Music Society
Sammy Lifetime Achievement Award
1929 births
2004 deaths
20th-century American composers
20th-century American conductors (music)
20th-century American male musicians
20th-century classical composers
21st-century American composers
21st-century American conductors (music)
21st-century American male musicians
21st-century classical composers
American contemporary classical composers
American film score composers
American male classical composers
American male conductors (music)
American male film score composers
American people of Romanian-Jewish descent
American television composers
Animated film score composers
Annie Award winners
Avant-garde composers
Best Original Music Score Academy Award winners
Burials at Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery
Classical musicians from California
Columbia Records artists
Concert band composers
Deaths from cancer in California
Deaths from colorectal cancer
Decca Records artists
Jewish American classical composers
Jewish American film score composers
Jewish American television composers
La-La Land Records artists
Male television composers
Monument Records artists
Music based on Star Trek
Musicians from Los Angeles
Primetime Emmy Award winners
RCA Victor artists
USC Thornton School of Music alumni
Varèse Sarabande Records artists
Walt Disney Animation Studios people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shih%20Ming-teh
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Shih Ming-teh
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Shih Ming-teh (; born 15 January 1941) commonly known as Nori Shih, is a statesman and human rights defender in Taiwan and was once a political prisoner for 25-and-a-half years.
Arrested at the age of 21 in 1962 and charged with creating the "Taiwan Independence League" (a study group) with the intention of overthrowing the Kuomintang government, Shih was sentenced to life imprisonment. The sentence was commuted to 15 years in 1975, and Shih was released on 16 June 1977.
He promptly joined the Tangwai (literally meaning "outside the party", because the Kuomintang was the only legally existing political party in Taiwan at that time), became a reporter for the Liberty Times and married the American researcher Linda Gail Arrigo. After he played a part in organizing the 10 December 1979 pro-democracy rally subsequently known as the Kaohsiung Incident (also known as the Formosa Incident or Meilitao Incident), an arrest warrant was issued charging Shih with treason, and following 26 days on the run he was again arrested and sentenced to life in prison. In 1984, while he was incarcerated, Polish politician and Nobel Peace Prize laureate Lech Wałęsa nominated him for Peace Prize.
In July 1987, Chiang Ching-kuo lifted martial law and offered an amnesty to Shih, but he refused to accept. On 20 May 1990 he was finally released. In total, he spent 25 years in prison, 13 years in solitary confinement and over 4 years on hunger strike.
In 1993, he was elected leader of the legalized opposition Democratic Progressive Party. He was also elected legislator in three occasions. Shih's proposal of a political "Grand Reconciliation" in Taiwan, he resigned from the Democratic Progressive Party on 14 November 2000.
In 2006, Shih carried out a massive protest, known as Million Voices Against Corruption, President Chen Must Go, in an effort to force the embattled president Chen Shui-bian to resign. He led an around the clock sit-in in front of the Presidential Building and Taipei Railway Station in Taipei City, pledging to remain there until such time as President Chen resigned, or he reached the end of his term in March 2008. On 5 December 2006, he left Taipei Railway Station pledging to continue the protest alone in "self-reclusion" at an apartment nearby. This protest ended April 2007.
Shih was one of the most prominent personalities of the Tangwai movement and greatly contributed to Taiwan's democratization. He has been referred to by some as "Taiwan's Mandela".
Early life
Shih Ming-te's father Shih Kuo-tsui was a well-known practitioner of Chinese medicine.
In February 1947, Shih Ming-te witnessed at Kaohsiung Station that would later be known as the February 28 Incident. The student leaders of schools were charged as instigators and some were executed as riots broke out. Students seized weapons from Harbor Garrison and exchanged fires with the guards.
He entered Kaohsiung's Chung-Cheng Senior High in 1957. In 1959, after failing to pass his college entrance exam, he signed up with the ROC Army, passing the admission exams for the artillery school. On occasion he vowed in public to overthrow the ROC government by force, through an armed coup d'état as an army officer. . That same year, his girlfriend gave birth to a daughter when he was 19.
He briefly served as an artillery officer in Kinmen.
First imprisonment: 1962–1977
In 1962 Shih was arrested for alleged involvement in the "Formosa Independence Movement"; over 30 more accomplices, mostly army school and university students, were also arrested. Shih's two brothers, poet and painter Shih Ming-cheng and medical school student Shih Ming-hsiung were among them.
In 1964 Shih was sentenced to life imprisonment for orchestrating the independence movement. He was also stripped of his civil rights for life. Shih was roughened up and suffered the loss of his teeth and spinal damage at the age of 22.
The Kuomintang regime considered outspoken Shih as a highly dangerous political criminal and therefore prevented him from doing any forced labor that would put him in contact with the world outside prison. This gave him time to do research and study. Shih focused on philosophy, history, international law, linguistics and Japanese. He also developed a strong and resolute personality in prison.
In the 1970s, Taiwan's government suffered several blows to its international status. First, its seat at the United Nations was taken over by the People's Republic of China, then the United States established official ties with Beijing, severing those with Taipei. A rebellion in the Taiyuan prison, where many of the inmates were political prisoners, was planned. Access to the Taitung radio station and a publicly broadcast declaration of Taiwan's independence from China was one of their goals. Many pro-independence prisoners took part in the plot. On 8 February 1970 five prisoners murdered a guard and tried to take his gun. Ultimately the five inmates broke from prison, only to be caught soon after. The breakout plot was foiled. The Kuomintang believed Shih was one of the masterminds of the uprising and therefore kept him in isolation during his time in Taiyuan. To this date, the investigation documents are still kept confidential and the implication of Shih is disputed by Shih himself, who sued Lin Shu-chi for defamation.
In 1974, after 12 years of imprisonment, Shih's first wife Chen Li-chu asked for divorce. She had had an affair with one of Shih's friends, who was released before Shih. In 1975, when president Chiang Kai-shek died, his son Chiang Ching-kuo succeeded as KMT Chairman. Under his rule, a leniency policy was implemented. On 16 June 1977, Shih was released after serving only 15 years of a life sentence.
Leader of the Kaohsiung Incident
During Chiang Ching-kuo's presidency, political opposition to the Kuomintang was suppressed. After Peter Huang's attempt to assassinate Chiang proved unsuccessful, the KMT became more aware of opposition. Shih Ming-teh created a "party without a name" amidst the absence of freedom of association in Taiwan at that time. In September 1978 Shih became active in the Tangwai movement. In May 1979 this group of non-Kuomintang activists established the Meilitao Magazine, of which Shih was named general manager. During this time, he adopted the English nickname "Nori", after the Japanese pronunciation of the second Chinese character in his given name, "Teh". For historical reasons, this nickname served as a shibboleth to enrage Waishengren people in Taiwan (mainlanders whose ancestors fought the Japanese), and endear him to the benshengren (less-recent Hokkien migrants disenfranchised by the Waishengren, and who have a more positive view of Japanese colonization). On 10 December 1979, the Tangwai group commemorated the Human Rights Day in Kaohsiung. The rally operated without prior approval, with specific stipulations that no torches and weapons were allowed. Police intervened and clashed with the protestors resulting in various damages. The event would be known as the Kaohsiung Incident, a milestone in Taiwan's democratization process.
Three days later, Shih dramatically escaped: Chang Wen-ying, then a dentist and later Mayor of Taichung City, performed plastic surgery on Shih to change his looks so he could escape overseas. Shih was later caught along with the dentist, and sentenced to life in prison for the second time.
During the 1980 Meilitao Incident trials Shih was defiant and proud facing a potentially fatal court-martial decision. He declared during his defense: "Taiwan should be independent, in fact, it already is, it has been for 30 years and currently it is known as the Republic of China". Shih also demanded an end to the political monopoly of the Kuomintang, the control of the Taiwanese press, and martial law, so that the 30-plus-year rubber-stamping legislative session could be dissolved.
Second imprisonment and hunger strike: 1980–1990
In 1983, one of Shih's allies, Chen Wen-chen, was murdered; Shih Ming-te began a 1-month hunger strike to protest what he believed to be an assassination ordered by the secret police.
Polish union leader Lech Wałęsa (Nobel Peace 1983) nominated Shih Ming-teh for the 1984 Nobel Peace Prize..
In 1985, Shih commenced an indefinite hunger strike. He demanded an end to martial law and state-sponsored political murders, implementation of a democratic system and release of all Meilitao Incident political prisoners. Shih was sent to the Tri-Service General Hospital and underwent force-feeding through a nasogastric tube during his four and half years of protest.
On 15 July 1987, the 38-year-long order of martial law was declared over by the KMT government, when President Chiang Ching-kuo announced nationwide sentence reductions and conditional releases. Shih declined the offer. In 1988, Shih went on another hunger strike protest with his brother Shih Ming-cheng. His brother died on 23 August 1988; Shih survived.
Release
On 20 May 1990, the new president Lee Teng-hui officially assumed the presidency and ordered a special amnesty for all Meilitao Incident prisoners. Shih ripped up his amnesty document and demanded an unconditional release. When President Lee announced the invalidation of the Meilitao Trials, Shih Ming-te finally accepted his release as an innocent person. Upon recovering his freedom, he joined the now legal Democratic Progressive Party, which originated in the Tangwai movement.
Political career
In 1992, Shih was elected legislator for the Tainan County constituency in the Legislative Yuan. This election was the first free direct legislative elections in Taiwan history.
Between 1994 and 1996 Shih was elected Chairman of the Democratic Progressive Party. During his tenure, he claimed that "Taiwan is already an independent and sovereign nation, when the Democratic Progressive Party is in power, there is no need and it will not announce Taiwan's independence". At the same time Shih proposed a political and social Grand Reconciliation. Elected legislator for a new term in 1996, he ran for the presidency of the Legislative Yuan, gaining a vote from former archrival New Party but losing one from Democratic Progressive Party legislator Chang Chin-cheng. Liu Sung-pan was elected the President of the Legislative Yuan.
On 23 March 1996, Taiwan's first direct presidential election was held. The Democratic Progressive Party's candidate was defeated by incumbent president Lee Teng-hui, with only 21.1% of the vote(The DPP got around 30% in before regional elections). Shih Ming-teh resigned to his position as party chief, and Chang Chun-hsiung assumed as acting leader of the opposition party. Shih shifted his attention to the completion of the "Meilitao Oral History Records".
On 1 April 1997, Shih was indicted for a violation to the Mass Gathering and Demonstration Act. He had organized in 1992 a protest demanding direct presidential elections. Huang Hsin-chieh, Hsu Hsin-liang and Lin Yi-hsiung went to prison with Shih for 50 days. This was the third time Shih was imprisoned, but now as a legislator. He was released after 41 days.
In 1998, Shih was re-elected legislator but this time representing a Taipei City constituency. He would continue his efforts for the completion of the "Meilitao Oral History Records". In three years, 200 individuals of the political spectrum. The oral testimonies amounted to over 6 million words, and were edited to a 600,000 word four volume version. To date, this is the most comprehensive historical research of the 1970–1990 era in Taiwan's development, earning it a publishing prize. This was the result of Shih's individual efforts, using his own financial and personal resources. Neither the Democratic Progressive Party nor the government of Taiwan have helped complete this overwhelming historic research project.
In 2000, Chen Shui-bian, the former Mayor of Taipei City, was elected president. Shih congratulated the leader of the Democratic Progressive Party Lin Yi-hsiung for the triumph. He said in an interview that since his childhood dream of ousting the Chiang's KMT regime had been accomplished, he would leave the political party. In May, Chen before he assumed the presidency, visited Shih's office to personally ask him if he was willing to be appointed senior political advisor. Shih rejected Chen's offer once more, but instead proposed Hsu Hsin-liang for the position.
Shih condemned President Chen for leading the country with a minority government, ignoring the KMT majority in the Legislative Yuan and risking political stability. After Chen rejected his suggestion for an alliance with the opposition majority in the Legislative Yuan, Shih further walked away from the party. Believing that Taiwan's greatest challenge in the 21st century was globalization, together with former colleagues Hsu Hsin-liang and Sisy Chen, famous Wen Shih-ren and a dozen others intellectuals and entrepreneurs, founded the "Shan (Mountain) Alliance". Their goal: to draw a road map for Taiwan in the 21st century.
Shih ran as an independent twice, in December 2001 and December 2004. On the first occasion he lost with 24,925 votes, on the second he narrowly lost the race by receiving 26,974 votes in the highly contested Taipei North Constituency. He had proposed a parliamentary political system to overcome the aggravation of political differences in Taiwan's society.
In December 2002, Shih ran as Mayor candidate for Kaohsiung City. His platform: turn the port-city into a free port, much like Hong Kong or Amsterdam, to cope with the challenge of globalization. Direct maritime links with Chinese ports was also part of the proposal. Shih perceived that the political division was so severe that he decided to announce his withdrawal three days before the election.
In September 2003, Shih Ming-te was a visiting scholar at George Mason University for a one-year period. During his tenure, Shih researched what he called the "One China: European Union Model" as a means of ending the impasse between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, and reiterated his proposal for a constitutional amendment in favor of a parliamentary system, in an attempt to put an end to the political polarization into the two camps (blue or Kuomintang-based and green or Democratic Progressive Party-centered) which was deteriorating into ethnic rivalry between Chinese refugees coming to rule Taiwan in 1949, and those who were there before that time.
On 6 October 2005, the Department of Political Science at the National Taiwan University opens the "Shih Ming-te Lecture" series; ethnic harmony, political reconciliation and cross-Strait peace are its core values.
In May, 2006, "Shih Ming-te Lecture" invited Frederik Willem de Klerk, Former State President of South Africa, to a dialog with Shih Ming-te: "Maintaining Peace: South Africa's Experience, a Perspective for Taiwan?" was the topic.
In May 2015, Shih announced his intention to run for president as an independent candidate in 2016. He again reiterated the Broad One China Framework first proposed in 2014, in which China and Taiwan govern one legal entity separately. Both governments would be allowed to join international organizations and not use military force against the other, instead "resolving issues through consensus." Shih ended his campaign in September, as he had not been able to fulfill the Central Election Commission requirements needed to stand in the 2016 election.
Million Voices Against Corruption, Chen Must Go Campaign
Chronology
On 9 August 2006, Shih wrote an open letter to President Chen Shui-bian, whose aides, wife and son-in-law were implicated in several corruption cases. Shih urged Chen to resign as a display of strength in times of crisis, respect for public opinion and acknowledgement of wrongdoing. Ironically, Chen Shui-bian had been Shih's defense attorney in the aftermath of the Kaohsiung Incident and had been imprisoned for 18 months himself.
On 12 August 2006, Shih gave a keynote speech to kick-start the "Million Voices Against Corruption-Chen Must Go" campaign in the February 28 Incident Memorial Park. He argued that the people could not bear with so much corruption anymore. Shih asks all those who support the movement a NT$100 (US$3, €2.3) donation as a symbol of commitment and consent, as well as a display of determination to ask Chen Shui-bian to leave the Presidential Office. Shih vowed to lead the people in a protest until Chen Shui-bian stepped down if the donations came in. By 22 August 2006, a sum equivalent of that from over 1 million people had been received (the actual number of donators cannot be computed because there was no restriction on the maximum amount of money one could transfer to the designated account) in only seven days. The designated account was quickly closed and the preparations for the marathon protest started.
On 1 September 2006, the anti-corruption campaign organizers started training for the sit-ins (emergency procedures in case of police intervention). The sit-in began on a rainy day on 9 September 2006. According to the Chinapost, over 300,000 people gathered that day on Ketagalan Avenue, in front of the Presidential Building in Taipei under the pouring rain. The Taipei Police Department claimed there were only 100,00 protestors. According to the organizers' request, most of them were wearing red shirts; no controversial flags or political icons should be displayed, not even the Republic of China flag, perceived as a pro-Kuomintang device. Some protestors still brought along a small Republic of China flag or other campaign items with them.
On 15 September 2006, a Democratic Progressive Party Taipei city counselor booked the Ketagalan Boulevard site where the red-clad protestors were still gathered. Shih Ming-teh decided to move the protest to Taipei Railway Station. A climax was reached the night of the procession: a large perimeter of over 5.5 kilometers around the heavily guarded Presidential Building and Residence at the heart of Taipei was quickly flooded by peaceful red-clad protestors: the China Post reported that over 8 hundred thousand people had joined the candlelight encirclement; the Taipei Police again contradicted this with an estimate of 3 hundred thousand.
On 22 September 2006, Shih declared that he would not form his own political party nor participate in any political negotiations, he also made it clear that he was not willing to engage in negotiations with former president Lee Teng-hui; instead he would stay with the red-clad anti-Chen protestors. On 20 November 2006, Shih Ming-te urged Taipei City Mayor Ma Ying-jeou (the Kuomintang's 2008 presidential hopeful) to resign amidst accusations of corruption. Shih said he was not contemplating anti-corruption protests against Ma, but insisted there should not be double standards regarding corruption allegations. Ma was acquitted.
On 30 November 2006, the last night of protest by the Million Voices Against Corruption, Chen Must Go Campaign. Shih Ming-te later travelled to Thailand for a TV interview and panel discussion.
On 7 December 2006, the Special State Funds case of President Chen and his wife was underway, campaign organizers claimed that Taiwan needed to go back to normal, but Shih would protest until Chen steps down. On 1 April 2007, Shih announced the end to his self-imprisonment and started preparations for the second stage of the anti-Chen campaign. Plans involved presenting candidates for the next legislative elections. Originally scheduled for late 2007, the elections would instead be carried out in early 2008.
Controversy
Shih is often considered a "romantic revolutionary" in Taiwan media. He believes that he is rooted in his ability "to pursue unlimited aspirations and ideals under restrictive conditions". The latest editions of Taiwan's High-School textbooks list Shih Ming-teh as a political activist. Shih's former Legislative Yuan secretary, cartoonist and writer , thinks Shih "is never quite sure of his own place in history".
Shih is accused by his ex-wife Chen, Li Zhu, in her book, "The Innocent Song of a Taiwanese Woman," of using her as a sex toy, and failing his responsibility as a husband. Chen also claimed Shih been indifferent to his responsibility toward their daughter. Shih Ming-te often says: "I have been locked up for 25 years, where were you then?".
Another former secretary of Shih, Kuo Wen-pin, wrote about his opinion of Shih on Taiwan Daily (15 October 2000): Taking a look at 40 years of his struggle for Taiwan's democracy, he revealed himself as a visionary, making several pioneering proposals ahead of his time.
Over 20 years ago, Shih already said the four evils of Taiwan's path towards democracy were the political monopoly by the Kuomintang, the press control in Taiwan, the martial law and the "". Risking death penalty, Shih advocated for a "Republic of China, Taiwanese Independence Model", and added that "Taiwan is already an independent country, it has been so for over 30 years". For his opinions, Shih was considered seditious and the media, organizations, academia, everyone attacked him and humiliated him, only for the Democratic Progressive Party to adopt and implement his ideas; they even led the way to Lee Teng-hui's "Silent Revolution" political compromises. When the Kuomintang's 50 years in power ended, the Chen Shui-bian administration accepted some of his teachings. Arrests and repression are no longer the defensive measures of the regime when facing harsh criticism, but the abuse of public power and the media by individuals to insult, humiliate, and defame others is still common practice. The DPP party has vowed to improve its image with more diplomatic means, but this has yet to be seen.
In the aftermath of Shih's "red-shirt" movement, he became a darling of PRC-controlled media, including CCTVPhoenix TV, and the People's Daily. Shih's efforts in discrediting the DPP have been widely praised and reported by various media outlets controlled or owned by the Chinese government. On 20 November 2006, ifeng.com, web portal of pro-CCP television channel Phoenix TV, reported Shih planned a trip to Thailand to discuss his "red shirt" philosophy. In the same article, Shih also rebutted claims by representative of the American Institute in Taiwan that the red shirts instigated violence and caused social upheaval.
On 16 January 2010, chinanews.com.cn, a PRC media outlet, reported the possibility of Shih running for presidency in 2012. On 19 April 2010, www.chinataiwan.org, a Chinese government sponsored site, reported Shih claimed numerous prominent DPP leaders, including Chen Shui-bian and Hsieh Chang-ting, were undercover agents for the Kuomintang against political dissidents during the 1980s. According to Huaxia.com, yet another pro-CCP website, Shih's accusations have caused a general panic in the DPP. A former supporter and pastor of the Presbyterian Church, Wang, Jie Nan, wrote an opinion piece highlighting his disappointment with Shih, starting from Shih's "red shirt" movement and his subsequent efforts to undermine the DPP with outlandish accusations.
On 17 April 2011, Shih courted controversy when he asked Tsai Ing-Wen to publicly disclose her sexual orientation before she participated in her presidential bid. Despite his own support for LGBT rights in Taiwan, Shih was roundly criticized by major women's groups including the Awakening Foundation, the Taiwan Women's Link and the Taiwan Gender Equity Education Association. Tsai herself characterized the request as "surprising" and refused to reply.
Works
•Shih Ming-te, 2021, "死囚 ("Death row inmates ")—— Memoire of Shih Ming-te 1962-1964 volume I ", new edition. Taipei, China times publishing Co.
•Shih Ming-te, 2006, "" ("Spring in a Prison Cell"), new edition. Taipei, Linking books.
•Shih Ming-te, 2002, " ("The Selfless Devotee"). Taipei, Commonwealth Publishing Group.
•New Taiwan Foundation, 2002, "" ("A timeless theme: dialogs between Shih Ming-te and Wei Jingsheng"), Taipei, Linking books.
•Shih Ming-te, 2001, " ("Reading Shih Ming-te"). Taipei, New Taiwan Foundation.
•Shih Ming-te, 1988, "" ("Shih Ming-te's Political Testament: The Formosa Incident Hearings"). Taipei, Avanguard.
•Shih Ming-te, 1989, "" ("Spring in a Prison Cell"), Kaohsiung, Tunli Publishing.
•Shih Ming-te, 1992, "" ("Spring in a Prison Cell: A Collection of Essays"). Taipei, Avangard.
•New Taiwan Foundation, 1995, "" ("Shih Ming-te's Three-year Term in the Legislative Yuan"). Taipei, New Taiwan Foundation.
See also
Politics of the Republic of China
Kaohsiung Incident
Million Voices Against Corruption, President Chen Must Go
References
Further reading
Chee Soon Juan, 1998, 《To be Free – stories from Asia's Struggle against Oppression》Australia, Monash Asia Institute Monash University
1941 births
Democratic Progressive Party Members of the Legislative Yuan
Taiwan independence activists
Civil rights activists
Democratic Progressive Party chairpersons
Taiwanese male writers
Taiwanese revolutionaries
Living people
Taiwanese democracy activists
Taiwanese human rights activists
Taiwanese people of Hoklo descent
Taiwanese prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by Taiwan
Politicians of the Republic of China on Taiwan from Kaohsiung
Tainan Members of the Legislative Yuan
Members of the 2nd Legislative Yuan
Members of the 3rd Legislative Yuan
Members of the 4th Legislative Yuan
Hunger strikers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constance%20Markievicz
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Constance Markievicz
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Constance Georgine Markievicz ( ; Gore-Booth; 4 February 1868 – 15 July 1927), also known as Countess Markievicz and Madame Markievicz, was an Irish politician, revolutionary, nationalist, suffragist, socialist, and the first woman elected to the Westminster Parliament, and was elected Minister for Labour in the First Dáil, becoming the first female cabinet minister in Europe. She served as a Teachta Dála for the Dublin South constituency from 1921 to 1922 and 1923 to 1927. She was a Member of Parliament (MP) for Dublin St Patrick's from 1918 to 1922.
A founding member of Fianna Éireann, Cumann na mBan and the Irish Citizen Army, she took part in the Easter Rising in 1916, when Irish republicans attempted to end British rule and establish an Irish Republic. She was sentenced to death, commuted to life imprisonment on the grounds of her sex. On 28 December 1918, she was the first woman elected to the UK House of Commons, though, being in Holloway Prison at the time and in accordance with party policy, she did not take her seat. Instead, she and the other Sinn Féin MPs (as TDs) formed the first Dáil Éireann. She was also one of the first women in the world to hold a cabinet position, as Minister for Labour, from 1919 to 1922.
Markievicz supported the anti-Treaty side in the Irish Civil War. She continued as (abstentionist) Dáil member for Sinn Féin until 1926 when she became a founding member of Fianna Fáil. She died in 1927.
Early life
Constance Georgine Gore-Booth was born at Buckingham Gate in London in 1868, the elder daughter of the Arctic explorer and adventurer Sir Henry Gore-Booth, 5th Baronet, an Anglo-Irish landlord who administered a estate, and Georgina, Lady Gore-Booth, née Hill. During the famine of 1879–80, Sir Henry provided free food for the tenants on his estate at Lissadell House in the north of County Sligo in the north-west of Ireland. Their father's example inspired in Gore-Booth and her younger sister, Eva Gore-Booth, a deep concern for working people and the poor. The sisters were childhood friends of the poet W. B. Yeats, who frequently visited the family home Lissadell House, and were influenced by his artistic and political ideas. Yeats wrote a poem, "In Memory of Eva Gore-Booth and Con Markiewicz", in which he described the sisters as "two girls in silk kimono, both beautiful, one a gazelle" The gazelle being Eva, whom Yeats described as having "a gazelle like beauty". Eva later became involved in the labour movement and women's suffrage in Great Britain, although initially Constance did not share her sister's ideals.
Gore-Booth wished to train as a painter, to her family's dismay; in 1892, she went to study at the Slade School of Art in London, where she lived at the Alexandra House for Art Pupils, Kensington Gore, founded five years before by Sir Francis Cook, a wealthy great-uncle of Maud Gonne. One of her contemporaries there was Blanche Georgiana Vulliamy. It was at this time that Gore-Booth first became politically active and joined the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS). Later she moved to Paris and enrolled at the prestigious Académie Julian where she met her future husband, Casimir Markievicz, an artist from a wealthy Polish family from present-day Ukraine.
The Markieviczes settled in Dublin in 1903 and moved in artistic and literary circles, with Constance gaining a reputation as a landscape painter. In 1905, along with artists Sarah Purser, Nathaniel Hone, Walter Osborne and John Butler Yeats, she was instrumental in founding the United Arts Club, which was an attempt to bring together all those in Dublin with an artistic and literary bent. This group included the leading figures of the Gaelic League founded by the future first President of Ireland, Douglas Hyde. Although formally concerned only with the preservation of the Irish language and culture, the league brought together many patriots and future political leaders. Sarah Purser, whom the young Gore-Booth sisters first met in 1882, when she was commissioned to paint their portrait, hosted a regular salon where artists, writers and intellectuals on both sides of the nationalist divide gathered. At Purser's house, Markievicz met revolutionary patriots Michael Davitt, John O'Leary and Maud Gonne. In 1907, Markievicz rented a cottage in the countryside near Dublin. The previous tenant, the poet Padraic Colum, had left behind copies of The Peasant and Sinn Féin. These revolutionary journals promoted independence from British rule. Markievicz read them and was propelled into action.
Politics
In 1908, Markievicz became actively involved in nationalist politics in Ireland. She joined Sinn Féin and Inghinidhe na hÉireann ('Daughters of Ireland'), a revolutionary women's movement founded by the actress and activist Maud Gonne, muse of WB Yeats. Markievicz came directly to her first meeting from a function at Dublin Castle, the seat of British rule in Ireland, wearing a satin ball gown and a diamond tiara. Naturally, the members looked upon her with some hostility. This refreshing change from being "kowtowed"-to as a countess only made her more eager to join, she told her friend Helena Molony. She performed with Maud Gonne in several plays at the newly established Abbey Theatre, an institution that played an important part in the rise of cultural nationalism. In the same year, Markievicz played a dramatic role in the women's suffrage campaigners' tactic of opposing Winston Churchill's election to Parliament during the Manchester North West by-election, flamboyantly appearing in the constituency driving an old-fashioned carriage drawn by four white horses to promote the suffragist cause. A male heckler asked her if she could cook a dinner, to which she responded, "Yes. Can you drive a coach and four?" Her sister Eva had moved to Manchester to live with fellow suffragette Esther Roper and they both campaigned against the anti-suffragist Churchill with her. Churchill lost the election to Conservative candidate William Joynson-Hicks, in part as a result of the suffragists' dedicated opposition.
In 1909 Markievicz founded Fianna Éireann, a nationalist scouting organisation that instructed teenage boys in scouting, in the style of Robert Baden-Powell's then-paramilitary Boy Scouts. At the Fianna's first meeting in Camden Street, Dublin, on 16 August 1909, she was almost expelled on the basis that women did not belong in a physical force movement. She had drawn in Bulmer Hobson, who had earlier founded a less successful boy scout group in Belfast. He supported her, and she was elected to the committee. She was jailed for the first time in 1911 for speaking at an Irish Republican Brotherhood demonstration attended by 30,000 people, organised to protest against George V's visit to Ireland. During this protest, Markievicz handed out leaflets, erected great banners emblazoned Dear land thou art not conquered yet, participated in stone-throwing at pictures of the King and Queen and attempted to burn the giant British flag taken from Leinster House, eventually succeeding, but then seeing James McArdle imprisoned for one month for the incident, despite Markievicz testifying in court that she was responsible. Her friend Helena Molony was arrested for her part in the stone-throwing and became the first woman in Ireland to be tried and imprisoned for a political act since the time of the Ladies Land League.
Markievicz joined James Connolly's socialist Irish Citizen Army (ICA), a volunteer force formed in response to the lock-out of 1913 to defend the demonstrating workers from the police. Markievicz recruited volunteers to peel potatoes in the basement of Liberty Hall while she and others worked on distributing the food. As all the food was paid out of her own pocket, Markievicz was forced to take out loans and to sell her jewellery. That year, with Inghinidhe na hÉireann, she ran a soup kitchen to feed poor children and enable them to attend school.
In the Inghininidhe na h-Éireann magazine Bean na h-Éireann, Markievicz's advice to women was: "Dress suitably in short skirts and strong boots, leave your jewels in the bank and buy a revolver."
Easter Rising
As a member of the Citizen Army, Markievicz took part in the 1916 Easter Rising. She was deeply inspired by the founder of the ICA, James Connolly. Markievicz designed the Citizen Army uniform and composed its anthem, based on the tune of a Polish song.
Markievicz fought in St Stephen's Green, where on the first morning —according to the only two pages surviving of the diary of an alleged witness — she shot a member of the Dublin Metropolitan Police, Constable Lahiff, who subsequently died of his injuries. Other accounts place her at City Hall when the policeman was shot, only arriving at Stephen's Green later. It was long thought that she was second in command to Michael Mallin, but in fact it was Christopher "Kit" Poole who held that position. Markievicz supervised the setting-up of barricades on Easter Monday and was in the middle of the fighting all around Stephen's Green, wounding a British army sniper. Trenches were dug in the Green, sheltered by the front gate; however, after British machine gun and rifle fire from the rooftops of tall buildings on the north side of the Green including the Shelbourne Hotel, the Citizen Army troops withdrew to the Royal College of Surgeons on the west side of the Green.
The Stephen's Green garrison held out for six days, ending the engagement when the British brought them Pearse's surrender order. The British officer, Captain (later Major) de Courcy Wheeler, who accepted their surrender was married to Markievicz's first cousin, Selina Maude Beresford Knox.
They were taken to Dublin Castle and then to Kilmainham Gaol through what Matt Connolly described as "several groups of hostile people". There, she was the only one of 70 women prisoners who was put into solitary confinement. At her court-martial on 4 May 1916, Markievicz pleaded not guilty to "taking part in an armed rebellion...for the purpose of assisting the enemy," but pleaded guilty to having attempted "to cause disaffection among the civil population of His Majesty". Markievicz told the court, "I went out to fight for Ireland's freedom and it does not matter what happens to me. I did what I thought was right and I stand by it." She was sentenced to death, but the court recommended mercy "solely and only on account of her sex". The sentence was commuted to life in prison. When told of this, she said to her captors, "I do wish your lot had the decency to shoot me".
Markievicz was transferred to Mountjoy Prison, Holloway Prison and then to Aylesbury Prison in England in July 1916. She was released from prison in 1917, along with others involved in the Rising, as the government in London granted a general amnesty for those who had participated in it. It was around this time that Markievicz, born into the Church of Ireland, converted to Catholicism.
First Dáil
In 1918, she was jailed again for her part in anti-conscription activities. At the 1918 general election, Markievicz was elected for the constituency of Dublin St Patrick's, beating her opponent William Field with 66% of the vote, as one of 73 Sinn Féin MPs. The results were called on 28 December 1918. This made her the first woman elected to the United Kingdom House of Commons. However, in line with Sinn Féin abstentionist policy, she did not take her seat in the House of Commons.
Markievicz was in Holloway prison when her colleagues assembled in Dublin at the first meeting of the First Dáil, the Parliament of the revolutionary Irish Republic. When her name was called, she was described, like many of those elected, as being "imprisoned by the foreign enemy" (fé ghlas ag Gallaibh). She was re-elected to the Second Dáil in the elections of 1921.
Markievicz served as Minister for Labour from April 1919 to January 1922, in the Second Ministry and the Third Ministry of the Dáil. Holding cabinet rank from April to August 1919, she became both the first Irish female Cabinet Minister and at the same time, only the second female government minister in Europe. She was the only female cabinet minister in Irish history until 1979 when Máire Geoghegan-Quinn was appointed to the cabinet post of Minister for the Gaeltacht for Fianna Fáil.
Her Labour department was concerned with setting up Conciliation Boards, arbitrating labour disputes, surveying areas and establishing guidelines for wages and food prices.
Civil War and Fianna Fáil
Markievicz left the government in January 1922 along with Éamon de Valera and others in opposition to the Anglo-Irish Treaty. She worked actively for the Republican cause in the Irish Civil War, including directing the Citizen Army in the occupation of Moran's Hotel in Dublin. After the civil war she toured the United States. She was not elected in the 1922 Irish general election but was returned in 1923 for the Dublin South constituency. In common with other Republican candidates, she did not take her Dáil seat. She was arrested again in November 1923. In prison, she went on hunger strike, and within a month, she and other prisoners were released.
She left Sinn Féin and joined the Fianna Fáil party on its foundation in 1926, chairing the inaugural meeting of the new party in La Scala Theatre. In the June 1927 general election, she was re-elected to the 5th Dáil as a candidate for Fianna Fáil, which was pledged to return to Dáil Éireann, but died only five weeks later, before she could take her seat. Her fellow Fianna Fáil TDs signed the controversial Oath of Allegiance and took their seats in the Dáil on 12 August 1927, less than a month after her death. The party leader Éamon de Valera described the Oath as "an empty political formula".
Family life
Constance's husband, Casimir Markievicz, was known in Paris as Count Markievicz, a title that was the norm for large landowners in Poland at this time. When the Gore-Booth family enquired as to the validity of the title, they were informed through Pyotr Rachkovsky of the Russian Secret Police that he had taken the title "without right", and that there had never been a "Count Markievicz" in Poland. However, the Department of Genealogy in Saint Petersburg said that he was entitled to claim to be a member of the nobility. Markievicz was married, though separated, at the time they met; his wife died in 1899 and he and Gore-Booth married in London on 29 September 1900. She gave birth to their daughter, Maeve, at Lissadell in November 1901. The child was mainly raised by her Gore-Booth grandparents. Stanislas, Casimir's son from his first marriage, accompanied the couple to Ireland after their honeymoon visit to his homeland.
In 1913 Markievicz's husband moved back to Ukraine, and never returned to live in Ireland. However, they did correspond and he was by her side when she died.
Death
Markievicz died at the age of 59 on 15 July 1927, of complications after two appendicitis operations, a dangerous surgery in the days before antibiotics. She had given away the last of her wealth, and died in a public ward "among the poor where she wanted to be". One of the doctors attending her was her revolutionary colleague Kathleen Lynn. Also at her bedside were Casimir and Stanislas Markievicz, Éamon de Valera and Hanna Sheehy Skeffington. Prior to her death, Esther Roper maintained a vigil at Constance's bed with Marie Perolz, Helena Molony, Kathleen Lynn and other friends. Refused a state funeral by the Free State government, she was laid out in the Rotunda, where she had spoken at so many political meetings. Thousands of the Dubliners who loved her lined O'Connell Street and Parnell Square to pass by her body and pay their respects to 'Madame'. It took four hours for the beginning of the funeral, starting from the Rotunda, to reach the gates of Glasnevin Cemetery. Eamon de Valera gave the funeral oration, while Free State soldiers stood on guard to prevent the rifle salute that Michael Collins had called “the only speech which it is proper to make above the grave of a dead Fenian”.
Her former Citizen Army colleague the playwright Seán O'Casey said of her: "One thing she had in abundance—physical courage; with that she was clothed as with a garment."
Tributes
In County Sligo Markievicz Road and Markievicz Park (the main GAA stadium in the county) both bear her name. In Dublin, the flat complex Countess Markiewicz House also bears her name.
In 2018, a portrait of Markievicz was donated by the Irish parliament to the British House of Commons to commemorate the 1918 Representation of the People Act, under which, some women were allowed the right to vote for the first time in the United Kingdom.
In 2019, a Dublin City Council Commemorative Plaque was unveiled at Markievicz's former home in Dublin, Surrey House on Leinster Road in Rathmines.
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Constance Markievicz Archive at marxists.org
‘Women, ideals and the nation’ speech available from the Digital Library@Villanova University
Her speeches in the Treaty Debates
Article on Constance Markievicz
Life As A Rebel & Co-Founder of The Irish Citizen's Army
Countess Markievicz and Easter 1916
1868 births
1927 deaths
Académie Julian alumni
Anglican socialists
British suffragists
Burials at Glasnevin Cemetery
Catholic socialists
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Anglicanism
Cumann na mBan members
Daughters of baronets
Early Sinn Féin TDs
Female members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Irish constituencies
Fianna Fáil TDs
Constance
Irish Citizen Army members
Irish revolutionaries
Members of the 1st Dáil
Members of the 2nd Dáil
Members of the 4th Dáil
Members of the 5th Dáil
20th-century women Teachtaí Dála
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for County Dublin constituencies (1801–1922)
People of the Easter Rising
People of the Irish Civil War (Anti-Treaty side)
19th-century Polish nobility
Politicians from County Sligo
Protestant Irish nationalists
Irish socialist feminists
UK MPs 1918–1922
Women government ministers of the Republic of Ireland
Women in war 1900–1945
Women in war in Ireland
Women of the Victorian era
Female revolutionaries
20th-century Polish nobility
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infernal%20Affairs
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Infernal Affairs
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Infernal Affairs is a 2002 Hong Kong action thriller film co-directed by Andrew Lau and Alan Mak. Jointly written by Mak and Felix Chong, it stars Andy Lau, Tony Leung, Anthony Wong, Eric Tsang, Sammi Cheng and Kelly Chen. The film follows an undercover Hong Kong Police Force officer who infiltrates a Triad, and another officer who is secretly a spy for the same Triad. It is the first in the Infernal Affairs series and is followed by Infernal Affairs II and Infernal Affairs III.
The film was selected as the Hong Kong entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 76th Academy Awards but was not nominated. Miramax Films acquired the United States distribution rights and gave it a limited US theatrical release in 2004. Martin Scorsese remade the film in 2006 as The Departed, which won the Academy Award for Best Picture as well as Academy Award for Best Director, Scorsese's first and only Oscar in his career, and Best Adapted Screenplay.
A 4K remaster of the Infernal Affairs trilogy was released on December 12, 2022, to celebrate the 20th anniversary of Infernal Affairs.
Plot
Hon Sam, a Hong Kong Triad boss, sends Lau Kin-ming, a young gangster, to the police academy to serve as his spy in the Hong Kong Police Force. Around the same time, Chan Wing-Yan, a young police cadet, is seemingly expelled from the police academy. In reality, Chan has secretly become an undercover cop, reporting only to Superintendent Wong Chi-shing, who sends him to infiltrate Hon's triad. Over the course of ten years, Chan experiences great stress from his undercover work while Lau quickly rises through the ranks in the police force, eventually becoming a Senior Inspector. Wong and his team interrupt a deal between Hon and a group of Thai cocaine dealers after receiving a tip from Chan. However, Lau alerts Hon, giving him enough time to get his henchmen to dispose of the evidence.
After this incident, both Wong and Hon realize that they have a spy within their own organizations, placing them in a race against time to find out who the spy is. Chan nearly finds out Lau's identity when he tries to follow Lau after seeing him talking to Hon in a cinema; Lau manages to get away before Chan could see his face. By this time, both Chan and Lau are struggling with their double identities – Chan starts losing faith in himself as a cop after being a gangster for ten years; Lau becomes more accustomed to the life of a police officer and wants to end his association with the triad. At their next meeting on a rooftop, Wong wants to pull Chan out of undercover work for fear of his safety.
However, Hon, who knows about the meeting from Lau, sends "Crazy" Keung and other henchmen to confront them. Chan escapes from the building while Wong tries to distract the gangsters and ends up being thrown off the roof to his death. Just then, the police show up and a shootout ensues. Keung, not knowing that Chan is the spy, drives them away from the scene but dies from a gunshot wound later. When the news report that Keung was actually another undercover cop, Hon assumes that he was the spy and that Chan killed him to protect himself. Lau retrieves Wong's cell phone and contacts Chan; both of them agree to foil a drug deal by Hon. The plan succeeds and many of Hon's men are arrested, while Lau betrays and kills Hon.
Everything seems to have returned to normal – Chan can revert to his true identity as a cop, while Lau has erased his criminal connections by eliminating the triad. However, back at the police headquarters, Chan discovers that Lau was the spy and leaves immediately. Realising what has happened, Lau erases Chan's file from the police database and makes a copy on his personal computer, intending to use the proof of Chan's identity as leverage, so that he would not reveal his real identity. Chan sends to Lau a compact disc with a recording that Hon kept between himself and Lau. The disc inadvertently ends up in the hands of Lau's girlfriend, Mary. Chan and Lau meet on the same rooftop where Wong was killed earlier. Chan disarms Lau and holds his pistol to Lau's head; Lau states calmly that he "wants to be a good person" now, but Chan rejects Lau's plea to help him conceal his criminal past.
Inspector "Big B" arrives on the scene shortly and orders Chan to release Lau. Chan holds Lau as a hostage at gunpoint and backs into an elevator, but gets shot in the head by "Big B" when he moves his head from behind Lau. "Big B" then reveals to Lau that he is also a spy planted by Hon in the police force, and assures Lau that he has destroyed evidence of Lau's criminal associations. When they take the elevator to the ground floor, Lau kills "Big B". Lee discovers records that prove Chan's identity as an undercover cop, while "Big B" is identified as the spy in the police force and the case is closed. Lau salutes Chan at his funeral, with Cheung and Lee present as well. A flashback reaffirms the point that Lau wished he had taken a different route in life.
Cast
Andy Lau as Senior Inspector Lau Kin-ming (劉健明), Hon's spy in the Hong Kong Police Force.
Edison Chen as young Lau Kin-ming
Tony Leung as Chan Wing-yan (陳永仁), an undercover cop in Hon's Triad.
Shawn Yue as young Chan Wing-yan
Anthony Wong as Superintendent Wong Chi-shing (黃志誠), Chan's superior.
Eric Tsang as Hon Sam (韓琛), the Triad boss and main antagonist.
Chapman To as "Silly" Keung (傻強), Hon's henchman.
Gordon Lam as Inspector B (大B; Big B), Lau's subordinate who is also a spy in the HKPF.
Sammi Cheng as Mary, Lau's fiancée.
Kelly Chen as Lee Sum-yee (李心兒), Chan's psychiatrist.
Berg Ng as Senior Inspector Cheung (張Sir), Wong's subordinate.
Wan Chi-keung as Officer Leung (梁Sir), the Chief Superintendent of the internal affairs department.
Dion Lam as Del Piero (迪路), Hon's henchman.
Elva Hsiao as May, Chan's ex-girlfriend.
Hui Kam-fung as Officer Yip (葉Sir), Chan's cadet school principal
Alternate ending
An alternate ending for the film was shot in order to comply with Article 25 (7) of the Chinese Film Administration Regulations specifying that films cannot propagate obscenity, gambling or violence, or abet to commit crimes. In the original (Hong Kong) ending, Lau concealed his true identity as a Triad spy and identified himself as a police officer to avoid legislative punishment. Therefore, the original ending was deemed to promote criminal activity and injustice, and an alternate ending was filmed to make the film suitable for mainland China. In the alternate ending, inspector Cheung discovers evidence of Lau's criminal activity and immediately arrests Lau outside the elevator. This alternate ending was shown in mainland China and Malaysia.
Analysis
Postcolonial identity crisis in Hong Kong
In Infernal Affairs, the identity crisis suffered by both Chan and Lau as a mole is hinting at the struggle of Hong Kong residents, who faced both the colonization by the British and the reunification with Mainland China. Specifically, under Deng Xiaoping’s "One Country, Two System policy", the duplicity, unsettling, and uncertain nature of the future of Hong Kong residents is tightly echoed in Chan and Lau's character developments. Scholar Howard Y. F. Choy further claimed that “this postcolonial (re)turn is actually more a recolonization than a decolonization of the capitalist Cantonese city by the mainland Mandarin master.”
Quotes from Buddha
Infernal Affairs opens with Buddhist classic Nirvana Sutra Verse Nineteen, stating that “The worst of the Eight Hells is called Continuous Hell. It has the meaning of Continuous Suffering. Thus the name.” The film also closes with another quote from Buddha, stating that “He who is in Continuous Hell never dies. Longevity is a big hardship in Continuous Hell.” In Buddhism, Continuous Hell is also termed The Avici, where one can never reincarnate nor be relieved from guilt and suffering. This concept of timeless, placeless, and endless suffering especially applies to the character Lau throughout the trilogy, who infinitely bears the burden of self-betrayal (serves as a mole), loss of family and friendship, and unsettledness.
Reception
Box office
Upon its premiere in Hong Kong, Infernal Affairs grossed $160,356 during the opening day (January 16–19). In total, the film grossed $7,035,649 during its run in Hong Kong theatres. The film was then released across Asia, where it grossed a further $169,659 from theatre receipts. In 2016, South Korean theaters re-released the film, which went on to gross $128,026 across three weeks. The total lifetime gross of the film in Korea is $977,903.
In total, worldwide, the film grossed $8,836,958 across release in both domestic markets and European theatres which displayed the film.
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, Infernal Affairs has an approval rating of 94% based on reviews from 64 critics, with an average rating of 7.50/10. The consensus from the site reads as "Smart and engrossing, this is one of Hong Kong's better cop thrillers." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 75 out of 100 based on reviews from 19 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". It was ranked as the 62nd Best Movie of 2004, 86th Most Discussed Movie of 2004, and the 95th Most Shared Movie of 2004.
Film critic Roger Ebert gave the film a three-out-of-four star rating and described Infernal Affairs as offering "rare emotional depth." In his words, "The movie pays off in a kind of emotional complexity rarely seen in crime movies. I cannot reveal what happens but will urge you to consider the thoughts of two men who finally confront their own real identities—in the person of the other character." New York Times reviewer Elvis Mitchell was so enraptured with the film that he stated that "Infernal Affairs is so beautifully shot that the images occasionally distract you from the condensed policier plot."
Accolades
Infernal Affairs played an integral role in Andrew Lau's breakout films in entering the 21st century. Being the most critically acclaimed film of his to date, it was ranked No. 30 in Empire Magazine's "The 100 Best Films of World Cinema" in 2010.
Infernal Affairs gained significant traction during its festival run as it was nominated for sixteen awards during the 22nd Hong Kong Film Awards, winning seven of those categories. It also won the Best Picture at the 40th Golden Horse Awards, the 8th Golden Bauhinia Awards, and the Best Foreign Language Film at the 46th Blue Ribbon Awards.
Eventually, Infernal Affairs would spark the creation of two more films. With Infernal Affairs II getting 11 nominations and Infernal Affairs III getting 7 nominations during the 23rd Hong Kong Film Awards, with Infernal Affairs II winning Best Original Film Song.
Awards and nominations
Music
The original film score for Infernal Affairs was written and performed by Chan Kwong-wing.
The theme song, Infernal Affairs (無間道), was composed by Ronald Ng, lyrics provided by Albert Leung, and performed in Cantonese and Mandarin by Andy Lau and Tony Leung.
Although not included in the soundtrack, Tsai Chin's (蔡琴) song "Forgotten Times" (《被遺忘的時光》) features prominently in this film as a recurring element of its storyline, and also in its sequels.
Development
Script
Writer Alan Mak had long wanted to write a story about police and gangsters. The script of Infernal Affairs was inspired by John Woo's Face/Off (1997) but Mak knew that faces cannot swap in the real world. Instead, he focused on the exchange of identity and psychology between the two leads and delved into human nature and the human heart. In the process of Mak's creation, his good friend Felix Chong also encouraged and supported him. The script, written by Mak and revised by Chong, took three years to complete.
The dialogue in the famous rooftop showdown was created on the spot by Felix Chong and Tony Leung, with Chong playing Andy Lau's part. The script originally included a typical shootout in the third act, but Leung insisted on turning it into a dialogue scene.
Gordon Lam did not receive the full script and did not know his character was also a triad mole until the final scene.
Investment
The script for Infernal Affairs originally belonged to Andy Lau's Teamwork Motion Pictures, but entangled amidst a lawsuit, the company was unable to produce the film. In addition, the creative team could not find investors because other studios at the time thought that an undercover film wasn't novel enough to make money. Eventually, Andrew Lau made a hopeless bid and showed the script to John Chong at Media Asia Entertainment Group. To his surprise Chong and company chairman Peter Lam saw potential in the story. Lam proceeded to invest HK $20 million in the film, under the condition that Andy Lau will star the film.
Adaptations
With star power, visual allure, and an engaging script, Andrew Lau and Alan Mak's Infernal Affairs /《無間道》(2002) did very well critically and financially, spawned two sequels and a television series, and attracted the attention of Hollywood.
In 2003, Brad Pitt's production company Plan B Entertainment acquired the rights for a Hollywood remake, named The Departed, which was directed by Martin Scorsese, and starred Leonardo DiCaprio, Matt Damon, Jack Nicholson, and Mark Wahlberg, set in Boston, Massachusetts, roughly based on the life of famed Boston mobster James "Whitey" Bulger. The Departed was released on 6 October 2006 and won the Academy Award for Best Picture. Andrew Lau, the co-director of Infernal Affairs, who was interviewed by Hong Kong newspaper Apple Daily, said: "Of course I think the version I made is better, but the Hollywood version is pretty good too. [Scorsese] made the Hollywood version more attuned to American culture." Andy Lau, one of the main actors in Infernal Affairs, when asked how the movie compares to the original, said: "The Departed was too long and it felt as if Hollywood had combined all three Infernal Affairs movies together." Lau pointed out that the remake featured some of the "golden quotes" of the original but did have much more swearing. He ultimately rated The Departed 8/10 and said that the Hollywood remake is worth a view, though according to Lau's spokeswoman Alice Tam, he felt that the combination of the two female characters into one in The Departed was not as good as the original storyline.
Lau, Tsang, and Jacky Cheung parodied the cinema scene to promote the Hong Kong Film Awards. Lau and Tsang, in their respective characters, go through the scene where they meet to gather info on the undercover cop amongst Hon Sam's gang. Lau Kin-ming asks Hon, "Why do we always meet in a cinema?", to which Hon answers, "It's quiet. No one comes to movies". Cheung comes out from the shadows behind them and says, "I don't know...quite a few people watch movies" and we see a slew of Hong Kong celebrities watching various clips of Hong Kong films on the screen. Originally Tony Leung was going to appear but scheduling conflicts led to the recasting.
The 2003 TVB spoof celebrating the Chinese New Year called Mo Ba To (吐氣羊眉賀新春之無霸道), the 2004 comedy film Love Is a Many Stupid Thing by Wong Jing, and the 2004 TVB television drama Shades of Truth were re-writings based on the plot of the film.
In Taiwan SHODA (劉裕銘) and a secondary school student Blanka (布蘭卡) cut and rearranged the original film and inserted new sound tracks to produce their videos Infernal Affairs CD pro2 and Infernal Affairs iPod on the web. The videos had many views and both producers removed their videos after receiving cease and desist letters from the Group Power Workshop Limited (群體工作室), the Taiwan distributor of the film.
Media Asia released a limited edition of eight-DVD set of the Infernal Affairs trilogy in an Ultimate Collectible Boxset (無間道終極珍藏DVD系列(8DVD套裝)) on 20 December 2004. Features included an online game and two Chinese novelisations of the film series by Lee Muk-Tung (李牧童), titled 無間道I+II小說 and 無間道III終極無間小說.
The hi-fi shop scene was later recreated with additions of excerpts of the film to encourage businesses to join the Quality Tourism Services Scheme in Hong Kong.
In 2009, a Korean remake City of Damnation, which was directed by Kim Dong-won was released on 22 January 2009. In 2009, a Telugu remake Homam, which directed and acted by JD Chakravarthy along with Jagapathi Babu was released and became a notable movie. In 2012, Double Face (ダブルフェイス), a Japanese television remake starring Hidetoshi Nishijima was released by TBS and WOWOW. The production aired in two parts: "Police Impersonation" on WOWOW and "Undercover" on TBS.
A TV series remake debuted in 2018 produced by Media Asia and former TVB producer Tommy Leung. The series, which is titled Infernal Affairs like the film, stars Gallen Lo, Damian Lau, Paul Chun, Lo Hoi-pang, Eric Tsang, Derek Kok, Dominic Lam, Toby Leung and Yuen Biao. The story takes place years after the films' events, with some minor characters reprising their roles alongside a new cast. The TV series uses the same concept as the film, but with an entirely new story and characters, and the setting expanded beyond Hong Kong to include Thailand and Shenzhen. It stretched through three seasons with each season consisting of 12 episodes.
Hindi remake is going to be a joint development between Warner Bros. India and Mumbai – based banner Azure and is set for a remake for a two-picture deal
The success of the film inspired many genres, including an open-world video game from United Front Games titled Sleeping Dogs (or True Crime: Hong Kong before canceled by Activision Blizzard in 2011), with the protagonist of the story infiltrating the criminal underworld as an undercover police.
Influence and artistry
The Influence of Infernal Affairs on Hong Kong Cinema
Infernal Affairs is the turning point of Hong Kong film aesthetics. Before Infernal Affairs, there were few serious and artistic works in Hong Kong films, but they basically had the following characteristics:
1. The relative roughness of the production was compensated for by the skill of the practitioners
2. Hong Kong films incorporate a lot of dramatic elements.
After the release of Infernal Affairs, Hong Kong films began to pay attention to the plot and picture.
The Artistry of the Infernal Affairs title
"Insanity" refers to the Insanity Hell, and in the Buddhist view, those who enter the Insanity Hell are extremely sinful. Those who enter the Infinite Hell never have any hope of relief, and they have no other feeling out of suffering. Those who enter the Infinite Hell will forever be tortured in Hell as retribution for the wickedness of their previous lives. The title perfectly sums up the plot described in Infernal Affairs. Two identities should not belong to their own people, as they live in a similar hell of the environment; the dream is afraid of others who expose their undercover identity. Both of them are trying to use their own hated identities to hide their real identity. Their position in tandem with their identity force them to be tortured all the time, which perfectly fits the Buddhist-influenced title.
See also
Infernal Affairs film series
Cinema of Hong Kong
List of Hong Kong films
Andy Lau filmography
List of films featuring surveillance
List of films set in Hong Kong
References
External links
2002 films
2002 action thriller films
2000s crime thriller films
Hong Kong New Wave films
Hong Kong action thriller films
Hong Kong crime thriller films
Hong Kong police films
2000s Cantonese-language films
Films directed by Andrew Lau
Best Film HKFA
Films set in Hong Kong
Films set in 2002
Films shot in Hong Kong
Films whose director won the Best Director Golden Horse Award
Police detective films
Triad films
Basic Pictures films
Media Asia films
Films directed by Alan Mak
Chinese New Year films
Fictional rivalries
2000s Hong Kong films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe%20I%2C%20Duke%20of%20Orl%C3%A9ans
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Philippe I, Duke of Orléans
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Monsieur Philippe I, Duke of Orléans (21 September 1640 – 9 June 1701), was the younger son of King Louis XIII of France and his wife, Anne of Austria. His elder brother was the "Sun King", Louis XIV. Styled Duke of Anjou from birth, Philippe became Duke of Orléans upon the death of his uncle Gaston in 1660. In 1661, he also received the dukedoms of Valois and Chartres. Following Philippe's victory in battle in 1671, Louis XIV granted his brother the dukedom of Nemours, the marquisates of Coucy and Folembray, and the countships of Dourdan and Romorantin.
Throughout his life, Philippe was open about his preference for male lovers, most notably the Chevalier de Lorraine, and freely acted with effeminacy. He married twice, first to Henrietta of England and then to Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate, fathering several children. Philippe was the founder of the House of Orléans, a cadet branch of the ruling House of Bourbon, and thus the direct ancestor of Louis Philippe I, who ruled France from 1830 until 1848 in the July Monarchy. The Duke was military commander at the Battle of Cassel in 1677. Through careful personal administration, he greatly augmented the fortunes of the House of Orléans.
Early years
Birth
Philippe was born on 21 September 1640 at the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye in the town of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France, the day before his mother Anne's 39th birthday. As the son of a ruling king, the infant Philippe held the rank of a Fils de France (son of France). As such, he ranked immediately behind his older brother Louis, Dauphin of France, who inherited the French throne before Philippe reached the age of three. From birth, Philippe was second in line to the throne of France and was entitled to the style of Royal Highness.
He was born in the presence of his father Louis XIII, the Princess of Condé, and the Duchess of Vendôme, prominent members of the Bourbon dynasty. Philippe's cousin, Anne Marie Louise d'Orléans, noted in her memoirs that the child's birth was marked by celebratory cannons in Paris. An hour after his birth, he was baptised in a private ceremony by Dominique Séguier, Bishop of Meaux, and given the name Philippe. Louis XIII had wanted to give the infant the title Count of Artois in honour of a recent French victory in Arras within the county of Artois. However, Louis respected tradition and gave him the title of Duke of Anjou instead, a title commonly granted to the younger sons of French kings since the fourteenth century. After his baptism, Philippe was put in the care of Françoise de Souvré, marquise de Lansac, who also looked after his older brother, in 1643 succeeded by Marie-Catherine de Senecey.
Le Petit Monsieur
At the death of their father Louis XIII in May 1643, Philippe's older brother ascended to the throne of France as Louis XIV. Their mother Queen Anne revoked the late king's will to arrange for a power-sharing agreement with Cardinal Mazarin, who had been serving as Louis XIII's chief minister. Anne was now in full control of her children, something she had been vying for since their birth. As the younger brother of the king, Philippe was addressed as le Petit Monsieur, since his uncle Gaston, who had also been the younger brother of a French king, was still alive. Gaston was then known as le Grand Monsieur. It was not until 1660 at the death of Gaston that Philippe would be known simply as Monsieur or as the Duke of Orléans.
The child Philippe was acknowledged to be attractive, affectionate, and intelligent. The Duchess of Montpensier dubbed him the "prettiest child in the world", while his mother's friend and confidant, Madame de Motteville, later said of Philippe that he displayed a "lively intelligence" early on. From 1646 on Philippe spent some of his childhood at the Hôtel de Villeroy ("Cremerie de Paris"), house of Nicolas de Villeroy, tutor of his brother Louis XIV. The children played there with Catherine de Villeroy and François de Villeroy.
In the autumn of 1647, at age seven, Philippe caught smallpox, but recovered and convalesced at the Palais-Royal. A year later, he was taken from the care of women and, on 11 May 1648 carried out his first official ceremony when he was baptized publicly at the Palais Royal. His godparents were his uncle Gaston and aunt Queen Henrietta Maria of England. Later, he was placed in the care of François de La Mothe Le Vayer and the Abbé de Choisy. He was also educated by the maréchal du Plessis-Praslin. His tutors were chosen by Mazarin, who was created the superintendent of the prince's education by his mother. His education emphasized languages, history, literature, mathematics and dancing. Despite having a household of his own, his behavior was closely watched by his mother and Mazarin, who made sure that Philippe had no meaningful financial freedom from the crown.
When Philippe was eight, the civil war known as the Fronde began in France. It lasted until 1653 in its two main phases: the Fronde Parlementaire (1648–1649) and the Fronde des nobles (1650–1653). During the conflict, the royal family was obliged to flee Paris on the night of 9 February 1651 for the safety of Saint-Germain-en-Laye in order to avoid a revolt by the nobility against Mazarin. When peace returned, the decision was made for Philippe to move his household to the Palais des Tuileries, previously the residence of the duchess of Montpensier opposite the Palais Royal. At the coronation of Louis XIV on 7 June 1654, Philippe acted as dean, placing the crown of France on his brother's head. All his life, Philippe would be a noted lover of etiquette and panoply, ensuring that all ceremonial details were adhered to.
In late June 1658, Louis became gravely ill. Presumed to have typhoid, Louis was almost pronounced dead when, in mid-July, he began to recover. The illness made Philippe, heir presumptive to the throne, the center of attention. For fear of infection, Philippe could not see his brother. During the crisis, Queen Anne became closer to her younger son, showing him more affection. After Louis's recovery, Philippe was once again left to his own devices. Later in 1658, Philippe made his most significant purchase, the Château de Saint-Cloud, a building about 10 kilometers west of Paris. On 8 October 1658, its proprietor Barthélemy Hervart organized a sumptuous feast at Saint Cloud in honor of the royal family. Some two weeks later, on 25 October, Philippe bought the estate for 240,000 livres. He immediately began to organize improvements to what was then a small villa.
Duke of Orléans
When Philippe's uncle Gaston died in February 1660, the Duchy of Orléans reverted to the crown, as he had no surviving male issue. The duchy was one of the most highly regarded appanages of the ancien régime, and it was traditionally Philippe's birthright as the brother of the king. Thus, at the death of Gaston, Philippe himself took on the new style of Duke of Orléans and Louis XIV granted Philippe the title officially on 10 May 1661 along with the subsidiary titles duke of Valois and duke of Chartres, all registered peerages with the Parlement de Paris. He was also granted the lordship of Montargis.
In order to discourage the type of tempestuous relationship that had developed between Louis XIII and his younger brother Gaston, Anne of Austria and Cardinal Mazarin made it a private policy to prevent Philippe from pursuing ambitions which might prompt rivalry with or defiance of the king. Aside from his appanage, he was given no meaningful financial freedom from the Crown. Later, to his already rich holdings Philippe wanted to add the countship of Blois, with its Château de Chambord, and the governorship of Languedoc, but both would be refused him by his brother.
Marriages and love life
Sexuality
During his childhood, Queen Anne was observed to address Philippe by such nicknames as "my little girl" and encouraged him to dress in feminine clothing even as a young man – a habit he would retain all his life. A contemporary would later call him the "silliest woman who ever lived", a reference to his effeminacy. As a young man, Philippe would dress up and attend balls and parties in female attire, for example, dressed as a shepherdess. Mindful that Gaston's treasonous habits had not only been evoked by the Fronde, but by his secret elopement with a foreign princess which had left the royal brothers estranged for years, his homosexual activity was not unwelcome, because it was seen to reduce any potential threat he may have posed to his older brother. It appears that 1658 was the key year in which Philippe's sexuality became well defined. Court gossip said that Cardinal Mazarin's own nephew Philippe Jules Mancini, the Duke of Nevers, had been the "first to [have] corrupted" Philippe in what was referred to as the "Italian vice" – contemporary slang for male homosexuality. Philippe certainly did make his first contacts that year with Philippe de Lorraine, known as the Chevalier de Lorraine, the male lover with whom he would establish the closest emotional attachment throughout his life.
Even once married, he reportedly carried on open romantic affairs with German nobles, with no regard to either of his two wives. Philippe's favorites, invariably younger, handsome men, dominated contemporary and historical commentaries about his role at court, as had the mignons of Henry III. Philippe was infatuated with the famously arrogant Armand de Gramont, Comte de Guiche. There were also rumors at court that Philippe in fact had a mistress and had shown an interest in the Duchess of Mercœur, Mazarin's niece. Another lover of Philippe at this time was Antoine Coiffier, the Marquis d'Effiat. The latter had entered Philippe's life as captain of the chase and stayed in his household until Philippe's death.
Among the lovers, one man stands out, Philip of Lorraine-Armagnac, the never-married Chevalier de Lorraine, who was described as "insinuating, brutal and devoid of scruple". As a member of the House of Guise, ranking as a prince étranger, Philippe could keep him near while at court and promote him within his own household without initially evoking scandal or offending sensibilities. In January 1670, Philippe's wife prevailed upon the King to imprison the chevalier, first near Lyon, then in the Mediterranean island-fortress of Château d'If. Finally, he was banished to Rome. However, by February, the Duke of Orléans' protests and pleas persuaded the King to restore him to his brother's entourage.
Marriage with Princess Henrietta of England
After Louis XIV's marriage to Maria Theresa of Spain on 9 June 1660, Queen Anne turned her attention to the marriage of Philippe. He had previously been encouraged to court his older cousin, Anne Marie Louise d'Orléans, Duchess of Montpensier, eldest daughter of Gaston and his first wife Marie de Bourbon. Known as Mademoiselle at this time, she had an immense private fortune and had previously rejected suitors such as Charles II of England. Born in 1627, she was the sole heiress of her mother, who died in childbirth. Mademoiselle declined the union, complaining that Philippe always stayed near his mother as if he was "like a child". Mademoiselle instead remained unmarried. Philippe would marry instead another first cousin, Princess Henrietta of England, youngest child of King Charles I of England and his wife Henrietta Maria of France, who was Philippe's paternal aunt and had taken refuge at the court of France after the birth of Princess Henrietta in 1644. They lived at the Palais Royal and at the Palais du Louvre. In 1660, after the restoration of the House of Stuart to the throne of England under her brother Charles II, Princess Henrietta returned to England to visit her sister, the Princess of Orange, who later caught smallpox and died. The French court officially asked for Henrietta's hand on behalf of Philippe on 22 November 1660 while she was in England. The couple signed their marriage contract at the Palais Royal on 30 March 1661. The ceremony took place the next day in the same building in front of select members of the court. The dowry promised was a hefty 840,000 livres. Known as Henriette d'Angleterre in France, and Minette to her intimates, she was known officially as Madame and was ever popular with the court. Court gossip later said that the king was the father of Henrietta's first child. Henrietta's very open flirting is said to have caused a jealous Philippe to retaliate by beginning to flaunt his sexuality openly in a less than accepting era. Henrietta's flirting with the king started early in the summer of 1661 while the newlyweds were staying at the Palace of Fontainebleau for the summer. Philippe complained to his mother about the intimacy that Louis and Henrietta displayed, which led Queen Anne to reprimand both son and daughter-in-law. Relations were further strained when Henrietta allegedly seduced Philippe's old lover, the Comte de Guiche.
The couple moved from the Tuileries in early 1662 to the Palais Royal. Later in March of the same year, Philippe became a father when Henrietta gave birth to their daughter Marie Louise, the future wife of Charles II of Spain. Henrietta's disappointment at the birth of a daughter was great, and she even remarked that she should "throw her into the river!" This greatly offended Queen Anne, who adored her first granddaughter. For his part, Philippe would always consider Marie Louise his favourite child. The girl was baptized on 21 May 1662. On the same day Philippe took part in the famous Carrousel du Louvre, where he dressed extravagantly as the King of Persia with the king as the King of the Romans and all ladies of the court in attendance.
In 1664, Henrietta gave birth at Fontainebleau to a son who was given the title Duke of Valois. Philippe wrote to his brother-in-law Charles II of England "that your sister was this morning safely delivered of a fine boy. The child seems to be in excellent health." The child nonetheless died of convulsions in 1666, having been baptized Philippe Charles d'Orléans hours before death. The loss of the little Duke of Valois affected Henrietta greatly. Philippe, however, was anxious to maintain the allowance which his son had received from the king. This death only augmented the grief of a court still in mourning for the death of Queen Anne in January. The previous year, the Comte de Guiche has been exiled from court with Philippe reporting to his mother that Henrietta had had private interviews with the dashing nobleman.
Philippe took part in the War of Devolution in 1667 while Henrietta remained at Saint Cloud due to her pregnancy. On the field, Philippe took an active part in the trenches at Tournai and Douai and distinguished himself through his valor and coolness under fire. But Philippe later became bored with battle and interested himself more in the decoration of his tent. Hearing that Henrietta was ill due to a miscarriage, he returned to Saint Cloud, where she was recovering from an ordeal which almost cost her her life. Upon her recovery, Philippe returned to the battlefield and distinguished himself at the Siege of Lille.
In January 1670, Henrietta prevailed upon the king to imprison the Chevalier de Lorraine, first near Lyon, then in the Mediterranean island-fortress of the Château d'If. He was finally banished to Rome after offending the king and Henrietta by boasting that he could get Philippe to divorce her. In retaliation for the Chevalier's treatment, Philippe withdrew to his estate at Villers-Cotterêts, dragging Henrietta with him. By February, Philippe's protests and pleas persuaded the king to restore the Chevalier to his brother's entourage. The couple had their last child in August 1669, a daughter who was baptized Anne Marie at the private chapel of the Palais Royal on 8 April 1670 by Philippe's first chaplain, the bishop of Vabres.
Henrietta is best known to political historians in France for her part in negotiating the Secret Treaty of Dover, an offensive and defensive treaty between England and France signed at Dover on 1 June 1670. It required France to assist England in her aim to rejoin the Roman Catholic Church and England to assist France in her war of conquest against the Dutch Republic. The Third Anglo-Dutch War was a direct consequence of this treaty. Having returned to France at the end of June 1670, Henrietta had to endure Philippe's blatant spite for her part in the Chevalier's exile and her secret mission to Dover. Despite tense relations, she traveled to Saint Cloud on 24 June, when she started to complain of pains in her side. Relaxing at Saint Cloud on 30 June, she collapsed on the terrace at the palace. Taken inside, she was undressed and started to exclaim that she had been poisoned. She subsequently died between the hours of two and three in the morning of 30 June 1670 at the age of 26. An autopsy was performed which found that Henrietta died of peritonitis caused by a perforated ulcer; however public rumor claimed she had been poisoned by her husband, and, according to Saint-Simon in his Memoirs, even the king suspected it at first, but the inquiry he conducted revealed that it was the Chevalier de Lorraine and the Marquis d'Effiat who had poisoned her.
Search for a second bride
Henrietta was mourned greatly at the court of France, but little by her husband, due to their strained relationship. Louis XIV himself looked for a second wife for Philippe, who was eager to have a male heir to continue the Orléans line. Attention again turned to the duchess of Montpensier, by now known as "". Louis himself asked her if she wanted to fill "the vacant place", but she politely declined the offer. Louis rejected many other candidates before settling on the Protestant Princess Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate. Known as Liselotte within her family, she was the only daughter of Charles I Louis, Elector Palatine, and his estranged wife Charlotte of Hesse-Kassel. She was recommended by Anna Gonzaga, a confidante of Philippe's and wife of the bride's uncle, the Prince Palatine Edward. Elizabeth Charlotte had grown up with her aunt Sophia of Hanover due to her parents' bad relationship. Throughout her life she would remain in contact with the Electress Sophia, writing some 50,000 letters that detailed life at the court of France. The Princess Palatine was Henrietta's first cousin once removed, since the latter's father, Charles I of England, was the brother of Elisabeth Charlotte's paternal grandmother, Elizabeth Stuart.
Marriage with Princess Palatine Elizabeth Charlotte
Philippe married the nineteen-year-old Elizabeth Charlotte, who converted to Roman Catholicism, on 16 November 1671. She was not attractive, as Henrietta had been. When Philippe first saw her, he is said to have remarked, "How will I ever be able to sleep with her?" Madame de Sévigné noted how popular the new Madame was with the court. She became renowned for her brusque candor, upright character, and lack of vanity. Her letters record how willingly she gave up sharing Philippe's bed at his request after their children's births and how unwillingly she quietly endured the presence of his male favourites in their household.
The couple were very happy in the first years of their marriage. The Chevalier de Lorraine was in Italy, but returned in spring 1672. Pregnant later that year, Elizabeth Charlotte gave birth to a son in June 1673 who was named Alexandre Louis and given the title Duke of Valois. The child died, however, in 1676. A second son, Philippe, followed in 1674, and then a daughter, Élisabeth Charlotte, in 1676, after which the two mutually agreed to sleep in separate beds. Elizabeth Charlotte was praised as being a natural mother. Philippe's second son with Elizabeth Charlotte, known as the Duke of Chartres until he inherited the dukedom of Orléans in 1701, later served as Regent of France during the minority of Louis XV. Elizabeth Charlotte acted as a mother to Philippe's children by Henrietta and maintained correspondence with them until her last days.
Battle of Cassel
Having already established himself as a successful military commander during the War of Devolution in 1667, Philippe was eager to return to the field. In 1676 and 1677 he took part in sieges in Flanders, and was promoted to the rank of lieutenant general, which made him second-in-command to Louis XIV himself.
The most impressive victory won under Philippe's command took place on 11 April 1677: the Battle of Cassel against William III, Prince of Orange, later the king of England and son of Philippe's own first cousin Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange. William decided to relieve some besieged towns; from Ypres he marched with 32,000 men through Poperinge and Oxelaëre in the Cassel Valley. Philippe, who learned of his plans, arranged to meet William's forces at Penebeek between Noordpeene and Zuytpeene. Louis XIV sent him some 25,000 foot-soldiers and 9,000 cavalry from Cambrai under the command of Marshal Luxembourg. By nightfall there were 66,000 soldiers ready for battle. The Dutch attacked the French positions without scouting first. Marshal Luxembourg surprised the Dutch with a cavalry attack that practically destroyed three battalions and routed William's army. In all, casualties on both sides amounted to 4,200 dead and 7,000 wounded. Philippe was hailed for his skill as a military commander, much to the annoyance of his brother, the king. He was presumably jealous of Philippe's growing popularity at court as well as on the battlefield. In honor of his victory at Cassel, Philippe set up a Barnabite College in Paris. The campaign marked the end of his military career; he soon immersed himself once again in a life of pleasure.
Cultural expansion and property
From the time of the victory at Cassel until the 1690s, Philippe mainly concentrated his energies on the expansion of his estates, personal fortune, and art collection, including the renovation of his residences, the Palais Royal and the Château de Saint-Cloud. The latter was his favorite residence, the home of an ever-expanding and "stormy" court. Philippe became an important patron of the artists Jean Nocret and Pierre Mignard, both of whom were employed to elaborate the décor at Saint Cloud and the Palais Royal. As early as 1660, Philippe also ordered Antoine Lepautre to begin extensions at Saint Cloud; later he became contrôleur général of Philippe's properties.
Following Lepautre's death in 1679, work on Saint Cloud was continued by his executive assistant Jean Girard in collaboration with Thomas Gobert. Later on, Philippe sought Mansart to design a grand staircase in the left wing in the manner of the Ambassadors' Staircase at Versailles. The gardens were redesigned by André Le Nôtre, while the basin and lowermost canal were added by Mansart in 1698. At the time of Philippe's death in 1701, the estate of Saint Cloud covered some .
Saint Cloud remained with the Orléans family until 1785, when Philippe's great-grandson Louis Philippe d'Orléans sold it to Marie Antoinette, Philippe's great-granddaughter, for the sum of 6,000,000 livres.
Minor improvements at the Palais Royal began in 1661 at the time of Philippe's marriage to Henrietta, but the property was part of the crown holdings, and had not been used officially for years. Philippe was limited in what he could do to renovate the building until it was given to him in 1692. Philippe again turned to Mansart for assistance in modernizing it. The interior décor was entrusted to Antoine Coypel, whose father Noël Coypel had previously worked at the palace. In 1695, Philippe bought a small island in the Seine directly opposite the château, which he renamed the "".
Philippe not only enjoyed architecture and court society, but also music and dancing; he was in fact famed for his exceptional dancing abilities. Philippe was a patron of musicians such as Anglebert, Dumont, Arlaud, and Marie Aubry, many of whom would stay part of his son's household after his death in 1701. Lully was also a protégé of Philippe after he left Mademoiselle's household. Philippe's small art collection created the basis for the Orleans Collection, one of the most important art collections ever assembled.
With the permission of the parlement of Paris, Philippe sponsored projects to help maintain his estates and enhance their profitability. From 1679, he was granted the right to build the Canal d'Orléans, a large canal that connected the river Loire at Orléans to a junction with the Canal du Loing and the Canal de Briare in the village of Buges near Montargis. As the largest canal built in France since Philippe's grandfather Henri IV built the Canal de Briare in 1604, its construction was considered an engineering feat. The canal, used to transport goods from Orléans to Paris, was a great success in its time and is still used widely today. Philippe's careful investment and management of his various estates made him a wealthy man in his own right, and his fortune was augmented considerably at the death of his cousin Mademoiselle in 1693. Philippe is acknowledged as being not only the biological founder of the House of Orléans, but as financial founder of a family whose monetary value would rival that of the main line of the House of Bourbon.
Later years
Upon the death of Mademoiselle in 1693, Philippe acquired the Dukedoms of Montpensier, Châtellerault, Saint-Fargeau and Beaupréau. He also became prince of Joinville, count of Dourdan, Mortain and Bar-sur-Seine and viscount of Auge and Domfront. In later life, Philippe was thus able to maintain his lavish lifestyle easily, and he found much satisfaction in the activities of his children and grandchildren. Both of his daughters by his first wife Henrietta married influential European sovereigns, eventually becoming queens, and his son the Duke of Chartres pursued an active and distinguished military career, having served at the Battle of Steenkerque in 1692 as well as the Siege of Namur, much to his father's pride. As he had with Philippe, Louis XIV was careful to limit the power of Chartres.
In 1696, Philippe's granddaughter Marie-Adélaïde came to the French court from Italy for her marriage to Louis, Duke of Burgundy, who was third in line to the throne. The two were married in 1697 and became the parents of Louis XV. In 1701, Chartres was denied a position on the front in the War of the Spanish Succession, which began that year. This slight was the source of great bitterness on the part of both father and son after. The pretext seems to have been the behavior of Chartres in parading his mistress Mademoiselle de Séry in view of his wife. On 8 June 1701, Louis XIV and Philippe met at the Château de Marly to dine together. At first meeting, Louis XIV attacked Philippe about Chartres' conduct with Mademoiselle de Séry. Philippe responded by reprimanding Louis for similar conduct with his own mistresses during his marriage to Queen Marie Thérèse, adding that Chartres had still not received the favors promised to him for having married the King's legitimized daughter, Françoise Marie. Nonetheless, the announcement of dinner halted the argument, and the brothers sat down to dine.
Philippe angrily returned to Saint Cloud early the same evening to dine with his son. Philippe collapsed onto his son after suffering a fatal stroke at noon 9 June 1701 at the age of sixty. Louis XIV, upon hearing his only sibling had died, said "I cannot believe I will never see my brother again." The Duchess of Burgundy, his granddaughter, was likewise distraught, avowing that she "had loved Monsieur very much". Philippe's heart was taken to the Val-de-Grâce convent on 14 June, and his body was taken on 21 June to the Basilica of St Denis, where it remained until the French Revolution, at which time the basilica was desecrated and all graves destroyed.
Elizabeth Charlotte, worried that she would be put in a convent (a stipulation of her marriage contract in the event of Philippe's death) was assured by the king that she could remain at court as long as she wished. She burnt all the letters of Philippe's lovers through the years lest they fall into "the wrong hands", noting that the scent of the perfumed letters nauseated her. Louis XIV assured the new Duke of Orléans, formerly the Duke of Chartres, that the past was forgotten and that henceforth he was to look on him as his father. The court was devastated and his old friend, Louis XIV's discarded mistress Madame de Montespan, was also greatly affected, the two having been very close. The widowed Elizabeth Charlotte continued to write frequently to her daughter, stepdaughter, the Duchess of Modena, and the Princess of Wales. She herself died at Saint Cloud in December 1722 and was also buried at Saint Denis.
Portrayals in media
Philippe has been portrayed in various modern media:
The Private Life of Louis XIV (1935 film), played by Hans Stüwe
Liselotte of the Palatinate (1966 film), played by Harald Leipnitz
The Taking of Power by Louis XIV (1966 film), played by Pierre Pernet
Marquise (1997 film), played by Franck de La Personne
Vatel (2000 film), played by Murray Lachlan Young
Charles II: The Power and the Passion (2003 mini-series), played by Cyrille Thouvenin
Le Roi Soleil (2005 musical), played by Christophe Maé
A Little Chaos (2015 film), played by Stanley Tucci
Versailles (2015 TV series), played by Alexander Vlahos
Issue
First marriage
Married his first cousin, Princess Henrietta of England, daughter of Charles I of England and Henrietta Maria of France, on 31 March 1661, at the Palais Royal. The couple had three children, in addition to four miscarriages and one stillbirth:
Marie Louise d'Orléans (26 March 1662 – 12 February 1689) married Charles II of Spain, no issue.
Miscarriage (1663).
Philippe Charles d'Orléans, Duke of Valois (16 July 1664 – 8 December 1666) died in infancy.
Stillborn daughter (9 July 1665).
Miscarriage (1666).
Miscarriage (1667).
Miscarriage (1668).
Anne Marie d'Orléans (27 August 1669 – 26 August 1728) married Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy (future king of Sardinia) and had issue.
Second marriage
Married Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate, daughter of Charles I Louis, Elector Palatine and Charlotte of Hesse-Kassel, on 16 November 1671 at Châlons. The couple had three children:
Alexandre Louis d'Orléans, Duke of Valois (2 June 1673 – 16 March 1676) died in childhood;
Philippe II, Duke of Orléans (2 August 1674 – 2 December 1723) married Françoise Marie de Bourbon, Légitimée de France, and had issue;
Élisabeth Charlotte d'Orléans (13 September 1676 – 24 December 1744) married Leopold, Duke of Lorraine, and had issue.
Ancestors
See also
Descendants of Philippe I, Duke of Orléans
References
Bibliography
Erlanger, Philippe: Louis XIV, translated from French by Stephen Cox, Praeger Publishers, New York, 1970
Saint-Albin, Philippe de:Palais de Saint-Cloud, résidence impériale, Paris, 1864
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81vila
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Ávila
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Ávila ( , , ) is a city of Spain located in the autonomous community of Castile and León. It is the capital and most populated municipality of the Province of Ávila.
It lies on the right bank of the Adaja river. Located more than 1,130 m above sea level, the city is the highest provincial capital in Spain.
Distinctively known by its medieval walls, Ávila is sometimes called the Town of Stones and Saints, and it claims that it is one of the towns with the highest number of Romanesque and Gothic churches per capita in Spain. It has complete and prominent medieval town walls, built in the Romanesque style; writer José Martínez Ruiz, in his book El alma castellana ("The Castilian Soul"), described it as "perhaps the most 16th-century town in Spain". The town is also known as Ávila de los Caballeros, Ávila del Rey and Ávila de los Leales ("Ávila of the knights", "Ávila of the king", "Ávila of the loyal ones"), each of these epithets being present in the town standard.
Orson Welles once named Ávila as the place in which he would most desire to live, calling it a "strange, tragic place". Various scenes of his 1965 film Chimes at Midnight were filmed in the town.
Ávila was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985. The site originally consisted of the walled city and four extra muros churches. The number of churches included in the site has since been increased.
Geography
Situated 1132 metres (3714 feet) above sea level on a rocky outcrop on the right bank of the Adaja river, a tributary of the Duero, Ávila is the highest provincial capital in Spain. It is built on the flat summit of a rocky hill, which rises abruptly in the midst of a veritable wilderness; a brown, arid, treeless table-land, strewn with immense grey boulders, and shut in by lofty mountains.
Climate
Ávila's position results in a temperate Mediterranean climate (Csb, according to the Köppen climate classification), with warm summers and chilly winters with snowfalls, bordering on a cold semi-arid climate (BSk). The hottest month, July, has an average temperature of , and the coldest month, January, has an average of . The average annual precipitation is . Annual rainfall is low compared to surrounding areas, implying that it lies in a rain shadow. The Adaja is dry for several months of the year and the town has historically had water supply problems. Ávila has the coldest winter low temperatures of the Spanish provincial capital cities, thanks to its high altitude ( above sea level).
History
In pre-Roman times (the 5th century BC), Ávila was inhabited by the Vettones, who called it Obila (Ὀβίλα) ("High Mountain") and built one of their strongest fortresses here. There are Bronze Age stone statues of boars (known as verracio) nearby.
Ávila may have been the ancient town known as Abula, mentioned by Ptolemy in his Geographia (II 6, 60) as being located in the Iberian region of Bastetania. Abula is mentioned as one of the first towns in Hispania that was converted to Christianity by Secundus of Abula (San Segundo), however, Abula may alternatively have been the town of Abla.
After the conquest by ancient Rome, the town was called Abila or Abela. The plan of the town remains typically Roman; rectangular in shape, with its two main streets (cardo and decumanus) intersecting at a forum in the centre. Roman remains that are embedded in town walls at the eastern and southern entrances (now the Alcazar and Rastro Gates) appear to have been ashlar altar stones.
By tradition, in the 1st century, Secundus, having travelled via the Roman province of Hispania Baetica, brought the Gospel to Ávila, and was created its first bishop.
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Ávila became a stronghold of the Visigoths. Conquered by the Moors (Arabs) (who called it Ābila, آبلة), it was repeatedly attacked by the northern Iberian Christian kingdoms, becoming a virtually uninhabited no man's land. It was repopulated about 1088 following the definitive reconquest of the area by Raymond of Burgundy, son in law of Alfonso VI of León and Castile. He employed two foreigners, Casandro Romano and Florin de Pituenga, to construct a stone frontier town and creating the walls that still stand.
The city achieved a period of prosperity under the Catholic Monarchs in the early 16th century.
During the Revolt of the Comuneros, the city became the first meeting place of the on 1 August 1520. The Junta of Ávila drafted the Proyecto de Ley Perpetua (a sort of proto-constitutional draft that never came into force) in the Cathedral of Ávila in the Summer of 1520, envisaging that cities assembled every three years without the requirement for royal sanction or presence, determining taxation and acting as a check and balance on government activity.
The city experienced a long decline since the 17th century, its population reducing to just 4,000 inhabitants.
In the 19th century, there was some population growth with the construction of the railway line from Madrid to the French border at Irun and an important junction near the town.
In 1936, at the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, the town quickly became part of the area occupied by rebel troops. Growth continued slowly again under Franco, but Ávila has not had a major influence in Spanish society in recent history, apart from the nurturing of politicians such as Adolfo Suárez, the first democratically elected prime minister of Spain post-Franco, and José María Aznar, prime minister from 1996 to 2004, who represented Ávila in the Cortes but was not from the town.
Architecture
The Walls of Ávila
The main landmark in the city is the imposing Walls of Ávila (11th–14th centuries), begun in 1090. The enclosed area is with a perimeter of , 88 blocks of semicircular towers, 2,500 merlons, curtain walls thick, with an average height of , and 9 gates.
The walls represent the largest fully illuminated monument in the world. It is possible to walk upon the walls for roughly half their circumference. While some of the walls will never be walkable because of their integration into other structures, a large stretch has yet to be made safe for pedestrians.
Cathedral
The construction of the iron-grey granite Gothic Cathedral of Ávila is said to have commenced in 1107 under Alvar Garcia de Estrella. Other historians believe the cathedral to be the work of the master mason Fruchel in the 12th century, coinciding with the repopulation of the town led by Raymond of Burgundy. The eastern apse, which forms part of the town walls, is half church, half fortress, and it was here that the loyal citizens elevated Alonso VII as their king, hence Ávila del Rey. The transept was finished in 1350 by Bishop Sancho de Ávila. The earlier Romanesque parts are made of a striking red-and-white "blood" limestone, while the Gothic parts were built with pure white stone.
Northern façade: Gothic style at left and added renaissance at right. Porch of the Apostles.
Western front: Burgundian style, with two towers forming a covered portal.
Interior: Latin cross with three naves, a crossing and ambulatory.
Capilla Mayor: Features a monumental altarpiece by Pedro Berruguete.
Chapel of San Segundo, the first bishop: Attached to a column of the cruise. Renaissance style.
Chapel of Santa Catalina: Made of alabaster.
Choir and Rood screen: Renaissance style, decorated with reliefs depicting scenes of saints, carved from limestone. The alabaster tomb of Alonso Tostado de Madrigal, bishop in 1499, shown in the act of writing is in the ambulatory: "so enlightened were his doctrines that they caused the blind to see".
Cloister: Access from the Romanesque cathedral by a door on the south aisle. Gothic style.
Basílica de San Vicente
Construction began in the 12th century and lasted until the 14th century. Its design is attributed to the French master Giral Fruchel, the author himself from the cathedral and pioneer of the Gothic style in Spain.
The overall structure is similar to the Latin basilicas. It has a Latin cross plan, three naves, dome, tribunes, three apses, atrium, two towers, and crypt.
All the façade and the environment where it is located are of great artistic value.
Interior: Latin cross room with three naves. The pillars are of a Greek cross with half columns on the heads.
Crypt: Consists of three chapels, for the three apses of the church are mainly romanesque and have the best capitals of the monument.
Highlight the tomb of Saint Peter of the Boat and, above all, the Cenotaph of the Holy Brothers Martyrs, the head of the temple, Saint Vincent of Ávila, and her sisters, along with the torture he suffered in the 4th century, Saint Sabina and Saint Cristeta, (Cenotafio de los santos Vicente, Sabina y Cristeta), one of the most important works of Romanesque sculpture in Spain.
Convento de San José
The Convent of Saint Joseph is the first monastery of Discalced Carmelite nuns founded by Saint Teresa of Jesus. The convent was built in the year of 1562, although the most important architectural element, the church, was built in 1607. The church was designed by the architect Francisco de Mora (1553–1610). It has been designated a national monument since 1968.
Iglesia de San Pedro
Start date: about 1100.
The church of Saint Peter is located outside the town walls in the Plaza de Mercado Grande at the door of the Alcazar. Presents analogous with that of San Vicente.
Latin cross floor and three naves of five sections. Apsidal chapels: mayor chapel, chapel of the south apse and chapel of the north apse.
Ermita de San Segundo
A hermitage located to the west of Ávila, outside the town walls, on the right bank of the Adaja river. Highlights the sculpted capitals in which the sculptor is the footprint of the apse of San Andrés. Alabaster statue made by Juan de Juni. Popular belief has it that, on introducing a handkerchief into the tomb and asking for three wishes, the saint will grant one. His pilgrimage is celebrated on 2 May, Segundo being the patron saint of Ávila.
Palacio de Don Diego del Águila
This 16th-century palace is located inside the walls and attached to it as junt walk through the door of San Vicente, defended the access of Muslim troops. Located on a busy street by different arms of the Águila family.
Real Monasterio de Santo Tomás
Real Monasterio de Santo Tomás is a Dominican convent of the late 15th century. Despite being away from the historic centre, it is one of the most important monuments of the town.
Santuario de Nuestra Señora de Sonsoles
This sanctuary is located 6 km from the capital in a picturesque area, and has a restaurant, hostel, picnic areas, and playgrounds.
There is located the statue of the Virgin of Sonsoles, co-patroness of Ávila, and patroness of the fields in the province.
It is tradition in this town to make pilgrimage to the sanctuary, making a wish to the Virgin, and to get to the door barefoot until you enter the church.
Secular architecture
Notable examples of secular architecture are the Valderrábanos Palace (15th century), the Casa de los Deanes (16th century), the Torreón de los Guzmanes and the Verdugos Palace (15th–16th centuries).
Conference and Exhibition Centre Lienzo Norte
In mid-2007, work began on the convention centre. In April 2009, its construction was completed and it opened its doors.
The building, designed by architect Francisco José Mangado, is modern in style. It covers and area of , including the area of the neighbouring gardens and parking.
There is a large symphony hall, large glass galleries, café, restaurant, conference room, catering services, storage, reception, store room, etc.
The symphony hall has a capacity of 2,000 and the secondary hall of 500. The two conference rooms have each 1,000 seats.
Museums and sights
Museum of Ávila
Museum of la Encarnación
Museum of Santa Teresa
Museum of the Cathedral
Museo of Santo Tomás
Museum of Oriental Art
Museum of Natural Sciences
Living Water
Hall of Torreón de los Guzmanes
Sala de la Diputación
Sala del Episcopio
Caprotti Museum (which houses the work of Italian painter Guido Caprotti (1887–1966), based in Ávila from 1916)
Universities
Ávila has two universities: the Catholic University of Ávila (UCAV) and the University of Mysticism, which became operational on September 2, 2008. There are three colleges of the University of Salamanca (USAL): the Polytechnic School of Ávila, the College of Education and Tourism in Ávila, and the School of Nursing.
Sports venues
Town Sport: swimming Pool, heated pool, tennis, paddle tennis, athletics, football, basketball, etc.
North Zone: heated pool, football, basketball and tennis.
Abulense Casino Club: pools, golf, tennis, paddle, cafeteria, restaurant, football, skating, basketball etc.
Naturávila: golf, swimming, horse riding, walking, basketball, paddle tennis, football.
San Antonio Sports Hall: in the north of the town is a large covered pavilion with basketball courts, tennis, soccer, squash, climbing.
Polideportivo Carlos Sastre, on the outskirts of the town. Its inauguration took place on January 30, 2009, with a friendly match between Óbila Club de Basket of LEB Plata and LEB Oro C.B. León. It has basketball courts, soccer, tennis, volleyball, etc.
Sports teams
The town is home to Óbila CB, a professional basketball team of Spain's LEB Plata. The team plays its home games at the Multiusos Carlos Sastre.
The local football team, Real Ávila CF, plays at the Adolfo Suárez Stadium, owned by the municipality.
Popular celebrations
The first public festival after the winter cold is the Holy week. The temperature is low, especially at night, so one should not forget warm clothes.
Ávila holidays are October 15, Santa Teresa de Jesús, and May 2, San Segundo. The festivities take place around October 15 and the Summer Festival in mid-July.
Holy Week
Holy Week as celebrated in Ávila is considered of international tourist interest. It is one of the highest expressions of art and wealth as seen in numerous steps of Holy Week along the town walls. Processions have either fifteen or twelve fraternities.
Fiestas de Santa Teresa
The festivities of Santa Teresa last almost the entire month of October. The proclamation is done by the mayor in the Plaza Mayor, accompanied by some celebrity. After the proclamation was organized in the same place a musical performance with renowned singers.
The festival program includes several musical concerts, a fairground, bullfights, passacaglia, processions of the fan groups, chocolate with churros and liturgical acts naturally focus on the day of the patroness, on 15 October with multitudinous mass presided by Bishop, then celebrated a great procession, headed the image of Santa Teresa with the Virgin of La Caridad, and is accompanied by all the authorities of Ávila, civil and military, and several bands music. The procession takes place between the Cathedral of Ávila and Santa Teresa Church. Takes place the day before the "Procession Girl" from the Iglesian de Santa Teresa to the cathedral.
Cuisine
Typical dishes of the town and region are "Judías del Barco", "Chuletón de Ávila", "Patatas revolconas" and "Yemas de Santa Teresa". Also worth mentioning is "Hornazo", "Bun stuffed with sausage, bacon, steak and eggs", "Mollejas de ternera" or the "Cochinillo", which can be found in the capital and in Arévalo.
Yemas de Santa Teresa
This sweet can always be found in the traditional pastry shop "La Flor de Castilla". In the other bakeries in the town it is produced under the name "Yemas de Ávila", or simply "Yemas", produced as its name indicates from egg yolk.
Chuletón de Ávila
This is a grilled ribeye steak, best cooked rare, which can be enjoyed in any hotel in the town. It is made from Avileña-Negra ibérica, an indigenous black cow known for its excellent meat, whose fame transcends the borders of the province and the country.
Twin towns – sister cities
Ávila is twinned with:
Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
Rhodes, Rhodes Island, Greece
Rueil-Malmaison, Île-de-France, France
Teramo, Abruzzo, Italy
Villeneuve-sur-Lot, Nouvelle-Aquitaine, France
Transport
The Ávila Railway Station serves the town. The closest airport is Adolfo Suárez in Madrid-Barajas. The city can be reached via the A-6 from Madrid. The city itself can be explored on foot.
See also
List of people from Ávila, Spain
Kingdom of Castile
Old Castile
References
Further reading
(Lives of five famous people of the province of Avila, Spain, in the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries: Isabel the Catholic, St Teresa of Ávila, St John of the Cross, María Vela and San Pedro Bautista)
External links
Avila's Town Hall
Avila's Tourist Guide
Convent of St. Teresa, Ávila
Ávila in the official website for Tourism in Spain (in English)
Photos of Ávila
Satellite picture by Google Maps
Hazlitt, Classical Gazetteer "Abila"
Citizens' association for the defence of heritage of Ávila - Photos of Ávila
Municipalities in the Province of Ávila
World Heritage Sites in Spain
Province of Ávila
Cultural tourism in Spain
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reggaeton
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Reggaeton
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Reggaeton (, ), also known as reggaetón and reguetón (), is a style of popular and electronic music that originated in Panama during the late 1980s. It was later popularized in Puerto Rico.
It has evolved from dancehall, with elements of hip hop, Latin American, and Caribbean music. Vocals include toasting/rapping and singing, typically in Spanish.
Reggaeton is regarded as one of the most popular music genres in the Spanish-speaking Caribbean, including Puerto Rico, Panama, Dominican Republic, Cuba, Colombia, and Venezuela. By the 2010s, the genre had seen increased popularity across Latin America, as well as acceptance within mainstream Western music.
Etymology
The word reggaeton (formed from the word reggae plus the augmentative suffix ) was first used in 1988 when El General's representative Michael Ellis gave it that name to describe it as "reggae grande" (big reggae). The spellings reggaeton and reggaetón are common, although prescriptivist sources such as the Fundéu BBVA and the Academia Puertorriqueña de la Lengua Española recommend the spelling reguetón, as it conforms more closely with traditional Spanish spelling rules.
History
1980s-2000s: Emergence
Often mistaken for Reggae or , reggaeton is a younger genre that originated in the late 1980s in Panama and was later popularized in Puerto Rico. It had its origins in what was known as "underground" music, due to its circulation through informal networks and performances at unofficial venues. DJ Playero and DJ Nelson were inspired by hip hop and dancehall to produce "riddims", the first reggaeton tracks. As Caribbean and African-American music gained momentum in Puerto Rico, reggae rap in Spanish marked the beginning of the Boricua underground and was a creative outlet for many young people. This created an inconspicuous-yet-prominent underground youth culture which sought to express itself. As a youth culture existing on the fringes of society and the law, it has often been criticized. The Puerto Rican police launched a campaign against underground music by confiscating cassette tapes from music stores under penal obscenity codes, levying fines and demonizing rappers in the media. Bootleg recordings and word of mouth became the primary means of distribution for this music until 1998, when it coalesced into modern reggaeton. The genre's popularity increased when it was discovered by international audiences during the early 2000s.
The new genre, simply called "underground" and later "", had explicit lyrics about drugs, violence, poverty, friendship, love and sex. These themes, depicting the troubles of inner-city life, can still be found in reggaeton. "Underground" music was recorded in (or carports) and at public housing complexes such as Villa Kennedy, and Jurutungo, often by creators using second-hand recording equipment. Despite that, the quality of the cassettes was good enough to help increase their popularity among Puerto Rican youth. The cassettes were sold or distributed on the streets from the trunks of cars. The availability and quality of the cassettes led to reggaeton's popularity, which crossed socioeconomic barriers in the Puerto Rican music scene. The most popular cassettes in the early 1990s were DJ Negro's The Noise I and II and DJ Playero's 37 and 38. Gerardo Cruet, who created the recordings, spread the genre from the marginalized residential areas into other sectors of society, particularly private schools.
By the mid-1990s, "underground" cassettes were being sold in music stores. The genre caught on with middle-class youth, then found its way into the media. By this time, Puerto Rico had several clubs dedicated to the underground scene; Club Rappers in Carolina and PlayMakers in Puerto Nuevo were the most notable. Bobby "Digital" Dixon's "Dem Bow" production was played in clubs. Underground music was not originally intended to be club music. In South Florida, DJ Laz and Hugo Diaz of the Diaz Brothers were popularizing the genre from Palm Beach to Miami.
Underground music in Puerto Rico was harshly criticized. In February 1995, there was a government-sponsored campaign against underground music and its cultural influence. Puerto Rican police raided six record stores in San Juan, hundreds of cassettes were confiscated and fines imposed in accordance with Laws 112 and 117 against obscenity. The Department of Education banned baggy clothing and underground music from schools. For months after the raids local media demonized rappers, calling them "irresponsible corrupters of the public order."
In 1995, DJ Negro released The Noise 3 with a mockup label reading, "Non-explicit lyrics". The album had no cursing until the last song. It was a hit, and underground music continued to seep into the mainstream. Senator Velda González of the Popular Democratic Party and the media continued to view the movement as a social nuisance.
During the mid-1990s, the Puerto Rican police and National Guard confiscated reggaeton tapes and CDs to get "obscene" lyrics out of the hands of consumers. Schools banned hip hop clothing and music to quell reggaeton's influence. In 2002, Senator González led public hearings to regulate the sexual "slackness" of reggaeton lyrics. Although the effort did not seem to negatively affect public opinion about reggaeton, it reflected the unease of the government and the upper social classes with what the music represented. Because of its often sexually-charged content and its roots in poor, urban communities, many middle- and upper-class Puerto Ricans found reggaeton threatening, "immoral, as well as artistically deficient, a threat to the social order, apolitical".
Despite the controversy, reggaeton slowly gained acceptance as part of Puerto Rican culture — helped, in part, by politicians including González who began to use reggaeton in election campaigns to appeal to younger voters in 2003. Puerto Rican mainstream acceptance of reggaeton has grown and the genre has become part of popular culture, including a 2006 Pepsi commercial with Daddy Yankee and PepsiCo's choice of Ivy Queen as musical spokesperson for Mountain Dew. Other examples of greater acceptance in Puerto Rico are religiously- and educationally-influenced lyrics; Reggae School is a rap album produced to teach math skills to children, similar to School House Rock. Reggaeton expanded when other producers, such as DJ Nelson and DJ Eric, followed DJ Playero. During the 1990s, Ivy Queen's 1996 album En Mi Imperio, DJ Playero's Playero 37 (introducing Daddy Yankee) and The Noise: Underground, The Noise 5 and The Noise 6 were popular in Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic. Don Chezina, Tempo, Eddie Dee, Baby Rasta & Gringo and Lito & Polaco were also popular.
The name "reggaeton" became prominent during the early 2000s, characterized by the dembow beat. It was coined in Puerto Rico to describe a unique fusion of Puerto Rican music. Reggaeton is currently popular throughout Latin America. It increased in popularity with Latino youth in the United States when DJ Joe and DJ Blass worked with Plan B and Sir Speedy on Reggaeton Sex, Sandunguero and Fatal Fantasy.
2004: Crossover
In 2004, reggaeton became popular throughout the United States and Europe. Tego Calderón was receiving airplay in the U.S., and the music was popular among youth. Daddy Yankee's El Cangri.com became popular that year in the country, as did Héctor & Tito. Luny Tunes and Noriega's Mas Flow, Yaga & Mackie's Sonando Diferente, Tego Calderón's El Abayarde, Ivy Queen's Diva, Zion & Lennox's Motivando a la Yal and the Desafío compilation were also well-received. Rapper N.O.R.E. released a hit single, "Oye Mi Canto". Daddy Yankee released Barrio Fino and a hit single, "Gasolina", opening the door for reggaeton globally. Tego Calderón recorded the singles "Pa' Que Retozen" and "Guasa Guasa". Don Omar was popular, particularly in Europe, with "Pobre Diabla" and "Dale Don Dale". Other popular reggaeton artists include Tony Dize, Angel & Khriz, Nina Sky, Dyland & Lenny, RKM & Ken-Y, Julio Voltio, Calle 13, Héctor el Father, Wisin & Yandel and Tito El Bambino. In late 2004 and early 2005, inspired by the success of "Gasolina", Shakira collaborated with Alejandro Sanz to record "La Tortura" and "La Tortura – Shaketon Remix" for her album, Fijación Oral Vol. 1, further popularizing reggaeton. Four reggaeton songs were sung at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards: by Don Omar ("Dile"), Tego Calderón, Daddy Yankee, and Shakira with Sanz – the first time any reggaeton song was performed on that stage.
Musicians began to incorporate bachata into reggaeton, with Ivy Queen releasing singles ("Te He Querido, Te He Llorado" and "La Mala") featuring bachata's signature guitar sound, slower, romantic rhythms and emotive singing style. Daddy Yankee's "Lo Que Paso, Paso" and Don Omar's "Dile" are also bachata-influenced. In 2005 producers began to remix existing reggaeton music with bachata, marketing it as bachaton: "bachata, Puerto Rican style".
2006–2017: Topping the charts
In May 2006, Don Omar's King of Kings was the highest-ranking reggaeton LP to date on the U.S. charts, debuting atop the Top Latin Albums chart and peaking at number seven on the Billboard 200 chart. Omar's single, "Angelito", topped the Billboard Latin Rhythm Radio Chart. He broke Britney Spears' in-store-appearance sales record at Downtown Disney's Virgin music store.
That same year, Shakira's "Hips Don't Lie", featuring Wyclef Jean of the Fugees, became "the most popular song in the genre's history", with "the dembow beat in the background, the trumpet sample of Jerry Rivera's "Amores como el nuestro" in the chorus, the obvious salsa influence."
In June 2007, Daddy Yankee's El Cartel III: The Big Boss set a first-week sales record for a reggaeton album, with 88,000 copies sold. It topped the Top Latin Albums and Top Rap Albums charts, the first reggaeton album to do so on the latter. The album peaked at number nine on the Billboard 200, the second-highest reggaeton album on the mainstream chart.
The third-highest-ranking reggaeton album was Wisin & Yandel's Wisin vs. Yandel: Los Extraterrestres, which debuted at number 14 on the Billboard 200 and number one on the Top Latin Albums chart later in 2007. In 2008 Daddy Yankee soundtrack to his film, Talento de Barrio, debuted at number 13 on the Billboard 200 chart. It peaked at number one on the Top Latin Albums chart, number three on Billboard's Top Soundtracks and number six on the Top Rap Albums chart. In 2009, Wisin & Yandel's La Revolución debuted at number seven on the Billboard 200, number one on the Top Latin Albums and number three on the Top Rap Albums charts.
By 2008, Reggaeton was the "biggest-selling genre of Latin music" and one of its artists, Tego Calderon, was using it to describe and encourage black pride.
Since 2017: "Despacito" effect
In 2017, the music video for "Despacito" by Luis Fonsi featuring Daddy Yankee reached one billion views in less than three months. From January 2018 to November 2020, the music video was the most viewed YouTube video of all-time. With its 3.3 million certified sales plus track-equivalent streams, "Despacito" became one of the best-selling Latin singles in the United States. The success of the song and its remix version led Daddy Yankee to become the most listened-to artist worldwide on the streaming service Spotify on 9 July 2017, being the first Latin artist to do so. He later became the fifth most listened-to male artist and the sixth overall of 2017 on Spotify. In June 2017, "Despacito" was cited by Billboards Leila Cobo as the song that renewed interest in the Latin music market from recording labels in the United States. Julyssa Lopez of The Washington Post stated that the successes of "Despacito" and J Balvin's "Mi Gente" is "the beginning of a new Latin crossover era." Stephanie Ho of Genius website wrote that "the successes of 'Despacito' and 'Mi Gente' could point to the beginning of a successful wave for Spanish-language music in the US." Ho also stated that "as 'Despacito' proves, fans don't need to understand the language in order to enjoy the music", referring to the worldwide success of the song, including various non-Spanish-speaking countries.
"Te Boté" and the minimalist dembow
In April 2018, "Te Boté" was released by Nio Garcia, Casper Magico, Darell, Ozuna, Bad Bunny and Nicky Jam. It reached number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart. It currently has over 1.8 billion views on YouTube. Many artists began to mark strong commercial trends in a market dominated by mixing Latin trap and reggaeton followed by a new minimalist dembow rhythm. For example, songs such as "Adictiva" by Daddy Yankee and Anuel AA, "Asesina" by Brytiago and Darell, "Cuando Te Besé" by Becky G and Paulo Londra, "No Te Veo" by Casper Magico and many other songs have been made in this style.
Characteristics
Rhythm
The dembow riddim was created by Jamaican dancehall producers during the late 1980s and early 1990s. Dembow consists of a kick drum, kickdown drum, palito, snare drum, timbal, timballroll and (sometimes) a high-hat cymbal. Dembow's percussion pattern was influenced by dancehall and other West Indian music (soca, calypso and cadence); this gives dembow a pan-Caribbean flavor. Steely & Clevie, creators of the Poco Man Jam riddim, are usually credited with the creation of dembow. At its heart is the 3+3+2 (tresillo) rhythm, complemented by a bass drum in 4/4 time.
The riddim was first highlighted by Shabba Ranks in "Dem Bow", from his 1991 album Just Reality. To this day, elements of the song's accompaniment track are found in over 80% of all reggaeton productions. During the mid-1980s, dancehall music was revolutionized by the electronic keyboard and drum machine; subsequently, many dancehall producers used them to create different dancehall riddims. Dembow's role in reggaeton is a basic building block, a skeletal sketch in percussion.
In Reggaeton 'dembow' also incorporates identical Jamaican riddims such as Bam Bam, Hot This Year, Poco Man Jam, Fever Pitch, Red Alert, Trailer Reloaded and Big Up riddims, and several samples are often used. Some reggaeton hits incorporate a lighter, electrified version of the riddim. Examples are "Pa' Que la Pases Bien" and "", which uses the Liquid riddim.
Since 2018 a new variation of the Dembow rhythm has emerged; Starting with Te Bote, a sharper minimalist Dembow has become a stable of Reggaeton production which has allowed for more syncopated rhythmic experiments.
Lyrics and themes
Reggaeton lyrical structure resembles that of hip hop. Although most reggaeton artists recite their lyrics rapping (or resembling rapping) rather than singing, many alternate rapping and singing. Reggaeton uses traditional verse-chorus-bridge hip hop structure. Like hip hop, reggaeton songs have a hook which is repeated throughout the song. Latino ethnic identity is a common musical, lyrical and visual theme.
Unlike hip-hop CDs, reggaeton discs generally do not have parental advisories. An exception is Daddy Yankee's Barrio Fino en Directo (Barrio Fino Live), whose live material (and with Snoop Dogg in "Gangsta Zone") were labeled explicit. Snoop Dogg and Daddy Yankee filmed the video for "Gangsta Zone" in Torres Sabana housing projects in Carolina, Puerto Rico on January 27, 2006. Shot in grayscale, Daddy Yankee said the video depicts "the real way we live on the island".
Artists such as Alexis & Fido circumvent radio and television censorship by sexual innuendo and lyrics with double meanings. Some songs have raised concerns about their depiction of women. Although reggaeton began as a mostly-male genre, the number of women artists has been a slowly increasing and include the "Queen of Reggaeton", Ivy Queen, Mey Vidal, K-Narias, Adassa, La Sista and Glory.
Dance
Sandungueo, or perreo, is a dance associated with reggaeton which emerged during the early 1990s in Puerto Rico. It focuses on grinding, with one partner facing the back of the other (usually male behind female). Another way of describing this dance is "back-to-front", where the woman presses her rear into the pelvis of her partner to create sexual stimulation. Since traditional couple dancing is face-to-face (such as square dancing and the waltz), reggaeton dancing initially shocked observers with its sensuality but was featured in several music videos. It is also known as daggering, grinding or juking in the English-speaking areas of the U.S.
Popularity
Latin America
Over the past decade, reggaeton has received mainstream recognition in the Spanish-speaking Caribbean, where the genre originated from, including Puerto Rico, Cuba, Panama, the Dominican Republic, Colombia and Venezuela, where it is now regarded as one of the most popular music genres. Reggaeton has also seen increased popularity in the wider Latin America region, including in Mexico, Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Ecuador and Peru.
In Cuba, reggaeton came to incorporate elements of traditional Cuban music, leading to the hybrid Cubaton. Two bands credited with popularizing Cubaton are Máxima Alerta (founded in 1999) and Cubanito 20.02. The former is notable for fusing Cubaton with other genres, such as son Cubano, conga, cumbia, salsa, merengue, and Cuban rumba, as well as styles and forms such as rap and ballads, whereas the latter's music is influenced more by Jamaican music. The government of Cuba imposed restrictions on reggaeton in public places in 2012. In March 2019, the government went a step further; they banned the "aggressive, sexually explicit and obscene messages of reggaeton" from radio and television, as well as performances by street musicians.
The first name of reggaeton in Brazil was the Señores Cafetões group, who became known in 2007 with the track "Piriguete" - which at the time was mistakenly mistaken by Brazilians for hip hop and Brazilian funk because reggaeton was still a genre almost unknown in the country. In Brazil, this musical genre only reached a reasonable popularity around the middle of the decade of 2010. The first great success of the genre in the country was the song "Yes or no" by Anitta with Maluma. One of the explanations for reggaeton has not reached the same level of popularity that exists in other Latin American countries is due to the fact that Brazil is a Portuguese-speaking country, which has historically led it to become more isolationist than other Latin American countries in the musical scene. The musical rhythm only became popular in the country when it reached other markets, like the American. The genre is now overcoming the obstacle of language. Some of the biggest names in the Brazilian music market have partnered with artists from other Latin American countries and explored the rhythm.
United States
The New York–based rapper N.O.R.E., also known as Noreaga, produced Nina Sky's 2004 hit "Oye Mi Canto", which featured Tego Calderón and Daddy Yankee, and reggaeton became popular in the U.S. Daddy Yankee then caught the attention of many hip-hop artists with his song "Gasolina", and that year XM Radio introduced its reggaeton channel, Fuego (XM). Although XM Radio removed the channel in December 2007 from home and car receivers, it can still be streamed from the XM Satellite Radio website. Reggaeton is the foundation of a Latin-American commercial-radio term, hurban, a combination of "Hispanic" and "urban" used to evoke the musical influences of hip hop and Latin American music. Reggaeton, which evolved from dancehall and reggae, and with influences from hip hop has helped Latin-Americans contribute to urban American culture and keep many aspects of their Hispanic heritage. The music relates to American socioeconomic issues, including gender and race, in common with hip hop.
Europe
Although reggaeton is less popular in Europe than it is in Latin America, it appeals to Latin American immigrants, especially in Spain. A Spanish media custom, "La Canción del Verano" ("The Song of the Summer"), in which one or two songs define the season's mood, was the basis of the popularity of reggaeton songs such as "Baila Morena" by Héctor & Tito and Daddy Yankee's "Gasolina" in 2005.
Asia
In the Philippines, reggaeton artists primarily use the Filipino language instead of Spanish or English. One example of a popular local reggaeton act is Zamboangueño duo Dos Fuertes, who had a dance hit in 2007 with "Tarat Tat", and who primarily uses the Chavacano language in their songs.
In 2020, Malaysian rapper Namewee released the single and music video "China Reggaeton" featuring Anthony Wong. It is the first time reggaeton was sung in the Chinese languages of Mandarin and Hakka and accompanied by traditional Chinese instruments like the erhu, pipa and guzheng, creating a fusion of reggaeton and traditional Chinese musical styles.
LGBTQ Influence
Reggaeton has traditionally been male dominated and heteronormative, known to "reinforce the most unpleasant aspects of machismo". The genre began to accept queer and trans artists into the mainstream after Bad Bunny publicly voiced his allyship to the queer community through challenging gender norms and homophobic notions. New generation artists like Villano Antillano, Young Miko, La Cruz and others have been challenging the stereotypes and values traditionally associated with the genre. In 2022 Villano Antillano, a trans-femme rap/reggaeton artist from Puerto Rico, broke the record as "the first transwoman to hit number 50 on Spotify" with Villano Antillano: Bzrp Music Sessions, Vol. 51 in collaboration with producer Bizarrap. She began her music career as a male-presenting person under the artist name "Villano Antillano" and later decided to "step into [her] femininity" and transition. She has since kept her original artist name, but identifies as non-binary and is referred to as her legal name "Villana". Villana has spoken on her experience confronting the barriers for queer and trans people in the reggaeton and urban industry; she says, "all of these cis male artists, who are very close, aren’t going to collaborate with a trans woman. There are very few. We can count them on one hand.". In 2023 Young Miko, a queer trap and reggaeton artist from Puerto Rico, charted in the Billboard Hot 100 with her single "Classy 101". In the same year, she was featured on Spanish rapper Bad Gyal's "Chulo Pt2", along with Tokischa, a queer Dembow singer; as of October 2023, the song has over 100 million views on YouTube. In the start of her career, Young Miko grew a local following in Puerto Rico releasing music independently on SoundCould, but gained national visibility after Bad Bunny invited her on stage during his Un Verano Sin Ti tour. In June of 2023, reggaeton artist, La Cruz, from Venezuela released a music video for his single "TE CONOCI BAILANDO", which featured several homoerotic images including several shirtless men, locker room interactions and guys twerking in front of urinals. He challenged what is expected from traditional reggaeton music visuals by having gay men be the object of desire rather than women. The music video has amounted 2 million views on YouTube as of October 2023.
Criticism
Despite the great popularity of the genre as a whole, reggaeton has also attracted criticism due to its constant references to sexual and violent themes, similar to those of hip-hop. Mexican singer-songwriter Aleks Syntek made a public post on social media complaining that such music was played on Mexico City's airport in the morning with children present. By 2019, other singers who expressed dismay over the genre included vallenato singer Carlos Vives and Heroes Del Silencio singer Enrique Bunbury. That same year, some activists stated that reggaeton music gives way to misogynistic and sadistic messages.
Some reggaeton singers have decided to counteract such accusations. One notable example is singer Flex, who in 2009 committed himself to singing songs with romance messages, a subgenre he dubbed "romantic style".
See also
List of reggaeton musicians
Reggae en Español
Panamanian reggaetón
Dancehall
Calypso
Soca
Latino poetry
Nuyorican
Kwaito
References
External links
Reggae genres
Fusion music genres
Puerto Rican styles of music
Panamanian styles of music
Urbano music genres
2000s in Latin music
2010s in Latin music
2020s in Latin music
Articles containing video clips
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harju%20County
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Harju County
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Harju County ( or Harjumaa), is one of the fifteen counties of Estonia. It is situated in Northern Estonia, on the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland, and borders Lääne-Viru County to the east, Järva County to the southeast, Rapla County to the south, and Lääne County to the southwest. The capital and largest city of Estonia, Tallinn, is situated in Harju County. Harju County is the largest county in Estonia in terms of population, as almost half (45%) of the Estonia's population lives in Harju County.
History
Ancient history
The territory of modern Harju County consists mostly of two ancient Estonian counties: Revala, around what is now Tallinn, and Harjumaa, which was situated south of Revala and presently rests mostly in Rapla County. Lindanise, then a small trading post at the Gulf of Finland, served as the capital of Revala. It eventually grew into the mostly German-populated Hanseatic town of Reval and later into the Estonian capital, Tallinn.
Conquest
In 1219, the Danish King, Valdemar II, landed in Lindanise (Danish: Lyndanisse) and conquered both Revala and Harju counties, while the inhabitants were forced into Christianity. At the end of the Livonian Crusade (1208–1227 in Estonia), both counties were captured by the Order of the Sword Brothers until given back to Denmark with the Treaty of Stensby in 1238.
The Danes built the Toompea Castle (Castrum Danorum) on Toompea Hill in Tallinn, which quickly became the biggest settlement in Estonia. In 1248, it was the first settlement in Estonia to receive its town rights, and in 1285 it became the northernmost member of the Hanseatic League.
German dominance led to the St. George's Night Uprising, which broke out in 1343 with the burning of Padise Abbey in modern Padise Parish. The uprising led Denmark to sell its possessions in Northern Estonia to the Livonian Order. In 1561, after the outbreak of the Livonian War, the nobility of North Estonia and the Tallinn Town Council declared loyalty to Sweden. Tallinn and other Swedish-occupied territories gained during warfare were secured by the Treaty of Plyussa.
During the Great Northern War, Harju was one of the few regions in Estonia untouched by warfare for a long time. Nonetheless, Harju County was greatly affected by the 1710-1713 Plague that killed more than eighty percent of the county's population. Russian forces finally arrived in 1710 and laid siege to Tallinn for a month until the Swedish garrison surrendered, thus ending the Great Northern War in Estonia. Russian rule was secured with the Treaty of Nystad in 1721. The plague raged on for several years, eventually leaving several parts of the county completely empty of human habitation.
Russian rule
Imperial Russian rule started with the construction of naval harbours in Tallinn and Paldiski (Swedish: Rogerwiek). Russian Tsar Peter I visited Tallinn at least nine times between 1711 and 1723. He personally opened the construction for Tallinn Naval Harbour in 1714 and Paldiski Naval Harbour in 1718.
In 1870, the Paldiski-Tallinn-St. Petersburg Railway was opened, after which several smaller settlements along the line - Paldiski, Keila, Saue, Nõmme, Aruküla, Raasiku, Kehra and Aegviidu (then in Viru County) - started to grow. Several elements of Peter the Great's Naval Fortress were built in Harju County and its headquarters were in Tallinn.
During World War I in 1914, the native population of Naissaar island was expelled from the island and it was turned into a military base. A narrow-gauge railway network was built on the island. Tallinn was the site for the very beginning of the October Revolution when the Estonian Bolshevik Jaan Anvelt took power in Tallinn on 5 November 1917, two days before the Revolution started in Petrograd. On 9 November 1917, the Bolsheviks took power from Governor Jaan Poska. After the coup, refusing to cooperate with the Estonian Soviet Executive Committee, the Estonian Provincial Assembly (Estonian: Maanõukogu) in Tallinn declared sovereignty from the Russian Empire on 28 November 1917. In December 1917, Russian sailors under the leadership of Stepan Maximovich Petrichenko declared the "Soviet Republic of Soldiers and Fortress-Builders of Naissaar". They were ousted by German forces on 26 February 1918.
Republic of Estonia
The Republic of Estonia was proclaimed in Tallinn on 24 February 1918 while German occupation followed on the next day. German rule ended with the November Revolution in Germany. During the Estonian War of Independence, Soviet troops were halted only 40 km east of Tallinn by the end of 1918. Tallinn was the site of a failed Communist coup d'état attempt of 1924.
Occupation era
Soviet occupation
On 18 September 1939, after both Germany and the Soviet Union had invaded Poland, the Polish submarine ORP Orzeł escaped from internment in Tallinn Harbor during the Orzeł incident. The submarine eventually made her way to the United Kingdom, which led both the Soviet Union and Germany to question Estonia's neutrality. On 24 September 1939, Soviet Navy warships appeared in North Estonian waters and Soviet Air Force bombers patrolled above Tallinn and the nearby countryside.
The Soviet Union demanded that Estonia allow the Soviet military bases and stationed 25,000 troops on Estonian soil for the duration of the European war. On 28 September 1939, the government of Estonia accepted the ultimatum and signed the mutual assistance treaty. Paldiski was made a Soviet Naval Base and its population was expelled from the town. With its new military bases in Northern Estonia, the Soviet Union invaded Finland on 30 November 1939, starting the Winter War. During 1939–1940, most of the Baltic German population from Tallinn and the Harju County countryside fled to Germany (Umsiedlung).
On 14 June 1940, the Soviet Navy set up a naval blockade in the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic Sea and stationed a navy squadron west of Naissaar island near Tallinn. Soviet bombers shot down the passenger airplane "Kaleva" near Keri island, killing all nine on board, which had included foreign diplomats.
On 16 June 1940, the Red Army invaded Estonia and organised a Soviet coup d'état in Tallinn. On 21 June 1940, the Independent Signal Battalion in Tallinn showed resistance to the Red Army, until it surrendered and was disarmed on the same day. The Soviet powers organised rigged parliamentary elections and the new parliament declared the Estonian SSR on 21 July 1940, which was annexed by the Soviet Union on 6 August 1940. Most county and municipal leaders were replaced and local assemblies were replaced with Soviets. The native population of Naissaar island was expelled from the island (as in 1914) as the island was turned into a military base. During the 1940–41 Soviet Occupation, thousands were executed, imprisoned, mobilised into the Red Army labour battalions or deported to Siberia on 14 June 1941 (June deportation).
Summer War
Germany invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 and Finland declared the Continuation War with the Soviet Union on 25 June 1941. As the Soviet Union retreated, its destruction battalions carried out the scorched-earth tactics. The Erna long-range reconnaissance group was sent from Finland to Northern Estonia on 10 July 1941 to perform reconnaissance of the retreating Red Army, but it eventually engaged the destruction battalions near Kautla forest (Battle of Kautla) on 31 July to 1 August 1941, allowing 2,000 civilians to flee.
German forces started its Tallinn Offensive on 19 August 1941, capturing Rapla on 21 August 1941. They reached Tallinn outskirts in Pirita on 24 August 1941 and Harku and Lasnamäe on 26 August 1941. Ordinary citizens were ordered to build defenses around Tallinn. Soviet forces started evacuating by sea on 24 August 1941. Of the 195 ships, that left Tallinn and Paldiski, 55 were sunk by mines near Juminda Peninsula, killing around 15,000 evacuees. Evacuating Soviet forces destroyed much of the infrastructure and industry around Tallinn. German forces captured Paldiski and Tallinn on 28 August 1941, shooting down the Soviet Flag on Tallinn Pikk Hermann Tower. Estonians replaced it with the Flag of Estonia, but it was replaced with the Flag of Germany the next day. German forces were greeted as liberators in Tallinn. It was also the first time since 1219 that Tallinn had been captured following a military engagement.
German occupation
Northern Estonia was the site of several concentration camps and massacres. In September 1942, up to three thousand foreign Jews and Gypsies were executed at Kalevi-Liiva in Jõelähtme Parish, while the rest were sent to the small Jägala concentration camp nearby, that never had more than 200 prisoners as their lifespan was short. Klooga concentration camp in Keila Parish was mostly evacuated before the Soviet takeover, however, 2,000 prisoners were executed before the German retreat. The Red Army liberated the few survivors on 22 September 1944.
Tallinn was bombed by the Soviet Air Force on 9 and 10 March 1944, killing 757 people and destroying 8,000 buildings (about one-third of the capital). Among others, Harju Street, St. Nicholas' Church, and Estonia Theatre were hit. 36-38 Soviet bombers were shot down during the bombardment.
After the Red Army broke through the Tannenberg Line in Eastern Estonia and crossed the Emajõgi river near Tartu, it launched the Tallinn Offensive on 17 September 1944 when Adolf Hitler had agreed to start abandoning Estonia on 16 September 1944. The National Committee of the Republic of Estonia was formed in Tallinn in March 1944 and the last Prime Minister of Estonia Jüri Uluots organized a new government under Otto Tief on 18 September 1944, captured government offices in Tallinn on 20 September 1944, and put the Estonian flag on top of the Pikk Hermann Tower.
German forces started Operation Aster to evacuate its 50,000 soldiers and 20,000 civilians through Tallinn and Paldiski. On the way, the hospital ship "Moero" was attacked and sunk by the Soviet Air Force, killing 637 of its passengers. The retreating German forces avoided conflict with the Red Army in Tallinn and the invading army saw only little resistance by Estonian units led by Rear Admiral Johan Pitka. The Red Army entered Tallinn on 22 September and Paldiski on 24 September 1944.
Before the Soviet reoccupation in 1944, thousands fled to Sweden across the Baltic Sea, including the entire Estonian Swedish population, who had been settling also on Pakri islands in Harju County.
Second Soviet occupation
The Forest Brothers resistance movement was considered to be the weakest in Harju County, due to dense population, fewer forests and more Soviet military activity. New deportations followed in 1949. The Soviet era brought development of heavy industry, a massive influx of foreign workers from throughout the Soviet Union and construction of new districts (Maardu, Mustamäe, Väike-Õismäe and Lasnamäe) for Tallinn.
Hotel Viru in Tallinn was built in 1972 as the first modern highrise in Estonia. The 1980 Summer Olympics Sailing events were held in Tallinn. The event also brought major construction, such as the seaside road from Central Tallinn to Pirita, renovation projects in Tallinn Old Town and the iconic highrise Hotel Olümpia and Tallinn TV Tower.
In 1962, Paldiski became a Soviet Navy nuclear submarine training centre and had two land-based nuclear reactors with 16,000 employees. It was a closed town until the last Russian warship left in August 1994. Until then it was the last Russian military base in Estonia. Russia relinquished control of the nuclear reactor facilities in September 1995.
Administrative history
Formation of the county
The ancient counties of Harjumaa and Revala were merged into Harju County in 1266. It remained within most of its borders until 1949 (with the exclusion of 1783–1796, when Paldiski County was separated).
During the Soviet occupation, in 1940, Tallinn became a city of republic significance. Loksa was transferred to Viru County in 1949. The rest of Harju County was replaced with four raions during the Soviet occupation in 1950. Harju Raion around Tallinn gradually absorbed the former areas of Harju County as Loksa Raion was abolished in 1957, Kose Raion in 1959 and Keila Raion in 1962 and most of their territories transferred to Harju Raion. Aegviidu, Aegviidu Village Council and Kohila Village Council were transferred to Harju Raion in 1962. Harju Raion and the remaining Rapla Raion became Harju County and Rapla County in 1990. Tallinn was reincorporated into Harju County in 1993.
Municipal history
Urban municipalities
Tallinn was the first settlement in Harju County to receive town rights in 1248. Municipally, it consisted of the "upper town" of Toompea and the "lower town". The two municipalities were merged in 1877. The naval harbour town of Paldiski received its town rights in 1783. Nõmme was given a town status in 1926 and Keila in 1938.
Soviet powers merged Nõmme with Tallinn already in 1940. They also separated Tallinn from Harju County and it became a centrally administered town. The same was applied to Paldiski in 1941. The German occupation of 1941-1944 left only Tallinn separated from Harju County. The Soviet reoccupation brought Paldiski back to central administration. Tallinn was divided into four urban raions in 1945 and it gained several new territories from its surrounding parishes. Aegviidu (then in Järva County), Järvakandi and Kohila (both now in Rapla County) and Kehra were named boroughs. The central administration of Paldiski was abolished in 1950 when Paldiski was merged with Keila Raion. Tallinn absorbed Saue in 1960 and Maardu in 1962 and the latter became a town within the municipality of Tallinn in 1980.
Maardu and Saue were separated from Tallinn in 1991 and Kehra, Loksa and Saue were given town status in 1993. The central administration of Tallinn was abolished and the town was re-transferred into Harju County. Its urban raions were abolished in 1993 and replaced with eight modern districts.
Rural municipalities
Ancient Estonian counties were divided into parishes (Estonian language: kihelkond), that became centered on local churches from the 13th century. Modern municipal parishes (Estonian: vald) were created in the 19th century. They were created within the old parishes, that were still centered on the local church.
Soviet rule brought major changes in rural municipalities as local village councils were created throughout 1945. The parishes were abolished with the creation of raions in 1950. Naissaar Parish had been abolished and given to the Red Army already in 1940 and Pakri Parish had been abolished and merged with Paldiski in 1947.
Village councils were renamed "parishes" in 1990–1993. Kehra merged into Anija Parish in 2002, Loksa Parish merged into Kuusalu Parish in 2005 and Kõue Parish merged into Kose Parish in 2013.
Demography
Population
On 31 December 2021, there were 614,567 people living permanently in Harju county, which is 11.2% more than at the same time ten years ago. Ethnic Estonians made up 60.57% (372,245), Russians 28.99% (178,169), Ukrainians 3.07% (18,886), Belarusians 1.22% (7,473), Finns 0.69% (4,226), Latvians 0.29% (1,812) and others 5.17% (31,756).
Religion
Geography
Harju County lies on the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland. Its shores are dominated by the North-Estonian coastal plain and the North-Estonian Klint separates the plain from Harju plateau in central and southern Harju County. The forested Kõrvemaa area is situated in eastern Harju County and the West-Estonian plain in western Harju County.
Shoreline
The shoreline is mostly low, but is at some places close to the high North-Estonian Klint. The coastal cliff is the highest in Rannamõisa () and Türisalu () in Harku Parish, and in three points in Paldiski: Pakri Peninsula (), Leetse () and Väike-Pakri island (). There are also several long sand beaches, for example Kakumäe, Stroomi in Pelguranna, Pikakari in Paljassaare and Pirita along the shoreline and Lake Harku in Pikaliiva, all within Tallinn, and Kloogaranna and Kaberneeme in the countryside. The shoreline is also characterized by many peninsulas, such as Pakri, Lohusalu, Suurupi, Kakumäe, Kopli, Paljassaare, Viimsi, Ihasalu, Kaberneeme, Juminda and Pärispea.
Islands
The shoreline is dotted with several islands, with the largest ones being Naissaar (), Väike-Pakri (), Suur-Pakri (), Prangli (), Aegna () and Rammu (). All of the larger islands and several of the smaller islands have had a considerable historical population. Pakri Islands, Naissaar and Prangli even formed separate municipalities. Their population diminished during Soviet occupation, either gradually or by force. Today, Prangli (73 inhabitants) and Naissaar (three inhabitants) both consist of three villages within Viimsi Parish. Aegna (eight inhabitants) is a subdistrict in Kesklinn (central) district of Tallinn. Pakri islands (six inhabitants) are part of Paldiski. Koipsi and Rammu form uninhabited villages within Jõelähtme Parish.
Lakes and rivers
The largest lakes in Harju County are Lake Ülemiste () and Lake Harku () in Tallinn and Lake Kahala () in Kuusalu Parish. The largest artificial lake is Paunküla Reservoir () in Kose Parish. The longest rivers are the Keila River ( in total), Pirita River (), Jägala River () and Valgejõgi River (). The two largest permanently active waterfalls in Estonia, Jägala Waterfall () and Keila Waterfall (), are situated on these rivers.
Geographical extremes
Northernmost point: Keri island, Kelnase village, Viimsi Parish
Mainland: Cape Purekkari, Pärispea village, Kuusalu Parish (Northernmost point of mainland Estonia)
Easternmost point: Kolgu village, Kuusalu Parish
Southernmost point: Aela village, Kose Parish
Westernmost point: Keibu village, Lääne-Harju Parish
Highest point: - Määrasmägi, Vetla village, Anija Parish
Lowest point: 0 m (sea level) - Baltic Sea
Protected areas
There are a number of protected areas in Harju County. Lahemaa National Park was the first national park in the Soviet Union, when it was created in 1971. The park was intended for the protection of the natural and cultural heritage of the coastal landscapes of Northern Estonia. There are 21 nature reserves and 25 landscape protection areas, that are at least partly situated in Harju County. The largest is the Põhja-Kõrvemaa Nature Reserve in Kuusalu Parish and Anija Parish.
Transportation
Highways
The Harju County highway system is determined by roads leading out from Tallinn.
runs from Tallinn to Lääne-Viru County towards Narva. Expressway for 80 km out of Tallinn.
runs from Tallinn to Järva County towards Tartu. Expressway for 26 km out of Tallinn.
runs from Tallinn to Rapla County towards Pärnu. Expressway for 14 km out of Tallinn.
runs from Tallinn to Paldiski via Keila.
runs from Ääsmäe, Saue Parish to Lääne County towards Haapsalu.
runs from Lasnamäe to Keila and forms the Tallinn ring road.
Rail
Paldiski-Tallinn-St Petersburg line was opened as the first line in Estonia in 1870. Today, Elron operates both commuter rail in Harju County and inter-city rail from Tallinn. Important lines include Tallinn-Narva/Tartu through Kehra and Aegviidu, Tallinn-Pärnu/Viljandi through Saku and Tallinn-Paldiski through Saue and Keila. Tallinn-Riisipere line used to be extended to Haapsalu. The Rail Baltic Tallinn-Riga-Warsaw line is estimated to be operational in 2024.
Air
Harju County and Estonia are serviced by Lennart Meri Tallinn Airport, which is open to both domestic and international flights. The Tallinn Linnahall Heliport offers international flights to Helsinki, Finland.
Ports and harbours
Tallinn Passenger Port or the Old City Harbour served 8.84 million passengers in 2012 on lines to Helsinki, Stockholm and St. Petersburg. Transport to Kelnase Harbour on Prangli Island is provided from Leppneeme Harbour in Viimsi Parish and to Naissaar Island from Tallinn Lennusadam Harbour. Seasonal transport to Aegna Island is provided from Tallinn Kalasadam Harbour.
The biggest cargo port is Muuga Harbour in Maardu and Viimsi Parish. Other large ports include Paldiski North Harbour and Paldiski South Harbour, Miiduranna Harbour in Viimsi Parish and Bekkeri-Meeruse Port, Hundipea Harbour, Lennusadama Harbour, Paljassaare Harbour, Patarei Harbour, Peetri Harbour and Vene-Balti Port in Tallinn.
Media
The official newspaper of Harju County is Harju Elu.
County government
The County Government () is led by a governor (), who is appointed by the Government of Estonia for a term of five years. Since 2009 the Governor position has been held by Ülle Rajasalu.
Harju County received municipal functions on 30 March 1917. Members of the Harju County Council were elected by the delegates of county municipalities and the first meeting was held on 1 July 1917 in Tallinn's Toompea Castle. Johannes Reinthal won the election for the Chair of the Council. The language of the proceedings was decided to be Estonian.
Harju County Government became the Executive Committee of Harju County Soviet in January 1941. The County Government was restored during the German occupation from autumn 1941 until autumn 1944. In 1950, the Executive Committee of Harju County Soviet became the Executive Committee of Harju District Labour Soviet. The Harju County Government was re-formed in 1990.
The Chairs of Harju County Councils, the Heads of County Governments and the County Governors:
1917–1920 Johannes Reinthal
1920–1922 Oskar Suursööt
1922–1927 Martin Kruusimaa (Krusemann)
1927–1936 Rudolf Kuris
1936–1940 Karl Robert Ruus
1940–1941 Gustav Abel
1940; 1941–1944 Paul Männik
1990–1991 Anti Oidsalu
1991–1994 Mati Zernand
1994–1999 Mait Kornet
1999–2004 Orm Valtson
2005–2006 Jaan Mark
2006–2009 Värner Lootsmann
2009–present Ülle Rajasalu
Settlements
Harju County has seven settlements with town status: Tallinn, Maardu, Keila, Saue, Paldiski, Kehra and Loksa. All but Kehra are municipal towns, the latter being part of the parish of Anija Parish since 2002. There are also two boroughs: Kiili and Aegviidu, of which Aegviidu (Aegviidu Parish) is one of the five municipal boroughs of Estonia. There are also 31 small boroughs in Harju County. There are plans to give a town status to Haabneeme in Viimsi Parish and Peetri in Rae Parish.
Municipalities
Harju County is subdivided into 16 municipalities, of which 4 are urban ( — cities or towns) and 12 are rural ( — parishes).
Gallery
References
External links
Harjumaa Tourism
Counties of Estonia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induced%20demand
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Induced demand
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In economics, induced demand – related to latent demand and generated demand – is the phenomenon whereby an increase in supply results in a decline in price and an increase in consumption. In other words, as a good or service becomes more readily available and mass produced, its price goes down and consumers are more likely to buy it, meaning that quantity demanded subsequently increases. This is consistent with the economic model of supply and demand.
In transportation planning, induced demand, also called "induced traffic" or consumption of road capacity, has become important in the debate over the expansion of transportation systems, and is often used as an argument against increasing roadway traffic capacity as a cure for congestion. Induced traffic may be a contributing factor to urban sprawl. City planner Jeff Speck has called induced demand "the great intellectual black hole in city planning, the one professional certainty that every thoughtful person seems to acknowledge, yet almost no one is willing to act upon."
The inverse effect, known as reduced demand, is also observed.
Economics
"Induced demand" and other terms were given economic definitions in a 1999 paper by Lee, Klein, and Camus. In the paper, "induced traffic" is defined as a change in traffic by movement along the short-run demand curve. This would include new trips made by existing residents, taken because driving on the road is now faster. Likewise, "induced demand" is defined as a change in traffic by movement along the long-run demand curve. This would include all trips made by new residents who moved to take advantage of the wider road.
In transportation systems
Definitions
According to CityLab:
Induced demand is a catch-all term used for a variety of interconnected effects that cause new roads to quickly fill to capacity. In rapidly growing areas where roads were not designed for the current population, there may be significant latent demand for new road capacity, which causes a flood of new drivers to immediately take to the freeway once the new lanes are open, quickly congesting them again. But these individuals were presumably already living nearby; how did they get around before the expansion? They may have taken alternative modes of transport, travelled at off-peak hours, or not made those trips at all. That’s why latent demand can be difficult to disentangle from generated demand—the new traffic that is a direct result of the new capacity. (Some researchers try to isolate generated demand as the sole effect of induced demand.)
The technical distinction between the two terms, which are often used interchangeably, is that latent demand is travel that cannot be realised because of constraints. It is thus "pent-up". Induced demand is demand that has been realised, or "generated", by improvements made to transportation infrastructure. Thus, induced demand generates the traffic that had been "pent-up" as latent demand.
History
Latent demand has been recognised by road traffic professionals for many decades, and was initially referred to as "traffic generation". In the simplest terms, latent demand is demand that exists, but, for any number of reasons, most having to do with human psychology, is suppressed by the inability of the system to handle it. Once additional capacity is added to the network, the demand that had been latent materialises as actual usage.
The effect was recognised as early as 1930, when an executive of a St. Louis, Missouri, electric railway company told the Transportation Survey Commission that widening streets simply produces more traffic, and heavier congestion. In New York, it was clearly seen in the highway-building program of Robert Moses, the "master builder" of the New York City area. As described by Moses's biographer, Robert Caro, in The Power Broker: During the last two or three years before [the entrance of the United States into World War II], a few planners had ... begun to understand that, without a balanced system [of transportation], roads would not only not alleviate transportation congestion but would aggravate it. Watching Moses open the Triborough Bridge to ease congestion on the Queensborough Bridge, open the Bronx-Whitestone Bridge to ease congestion on the Triborough Bridge and then watching traffic counts on all three bridges mount until all three were as congested as one had been before, planners could hardly avoid the conclusion that "traffic generation" was no longer a theory but a proven fact: the more highways were built to alleviate congestion, the more automobiles would pour into them and congest them and thus force the building of more highways – which would generate more traffic and become congested in their turn in an ever-widening spiral that contained far-reaching implications for the future of New York and of all urban areas. The same effect had been seen earlier with the new parkways that Moses had built on Long Island in the 1930s and 40s, where ... every time a new parkway was built, it quickly became jammed with traffic, but the load on the old parkways was not significantly relieved. Similarly, the building of the Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel failed to ease congestion on the Queens-Midtown Tunnel and the three East River bridges, as Moses had expected it to. By 1942, Moses could no longer ignore the reality that his roads were not alleviating congestion in the way he expected them to, but his answer to the problem was not to invest in mass transit, it was to build even more roads, in a vast program which would expand or create of roads, including additional bridges, such as the Throgs Neck Bridge and the Verrazano Narrows Bridge.
J. J. Leeming, a British road-traffic engineer and county surveyor between 1924 and 1964, described the phenomenon in his 1969 book, Road Accidents: Prevent or Punish?: Motorways and bypasses generate traffic, that is, produce extra traffic, partly by inducing people to travel who would not otherwise have done so by making the new route more convenient than the old, partly by people who go out of their direct route to enjoy the greater convenience of the new road, and partly by people who use the towns bypassed because they are more convenient for shopping and visits when through traffic has been removed. Leeming went on to give an example of the observed effect following the opening of the Doncaster Bypass section of the A1(M) in 1961. By 1998, Donald Chen quoted the British Transport Minister as saying "The fact of the matter is that we cannot tackle our traffic problem by building more roads."
In Southern California, a study by the Southern California Association of Governments in 1989 concluded that steps taken to alleviate traffic congestion, such as adding lanes or turning freeways into double-decked roads, would have nothing but a cosmetic effect on the problem. Also, the University of California at Berkeley published a study of traffic in 30 California counties between 1973 and 1990 which showed that every 10 percent increase in roadway capacity, traffic increased by 9 percent within four years time. A 2004 meta-analysis, which took in dozens of previously published studies, confirmed this. It found that: ... on average, a 10 percent increase in lane miles induces an immediate 4 percent increase in vehicle miles travelled, which climbs to 10 percent – the entire new capacity – in a few years. An aphorism among some traffic engineers is "Trying to cure traffic congestion by adding more capacity is like trying to cure obesity by loosening your belt."
According to city planner Jeff Speck, the "seminal" text on induced demand is the 1993 book The Elephant in the Bedroom: Automobile Dependence and Denial, written by Stanley I. Hart and Alvin L. Spivak.
Price of road travel
A journey on a road can be considered as having an associated cost or price (the generalised cost, g) which includes the out-of-pocket cost (e.g. fuel costs and tolls) and the opportunity cost of the time spent travelling, which is usually calculated as the product of travel time and the value of travellers' time. These cost determinants change often, and all have variable effects on demand for transport, which tends to be dependent on the reason(s) as well as method of travel.
When road capacity is increased, initially there is more road space per vehicle travelling than there was before, so congestion is reduced, and therefore the time spent travelling is reduced – reducing the generalised cost of every journey (by affecting the second "cost" mentioned in the previous paragraph). In fact, this is one of the key justifications for construction of new road capacity (the reduction in journey times).
A change in the cost (or price) of travel results in a change in the quantity consumed. Factors such as petrol prices, as well as fuel costs, are the most common variables that influence the quantity demanded for transport. This can be explained using the simple supply and demand theory, illustrated in this figure.
Elasticity of transport demand
The economic concept of elasticity measures the change in quantity demanded relative to a change in another variable, most commonly price. For roads or highways, the supply relates to capacity and the quantity consumed refers to vehicle miles traveled. The size of the increase in quantity consumed depends on the elasticity of demand.
The elasticity of demand for transport differs significantly depending on the reason people are choosing to travel initially. The clearest example of inelastic demand in this area is commuting, as studies indicate that most people are going to commute to work, regardless of fluctuations in variables such as petrol prices, as it is a required activity to generate income. This exemplifies the fact that activities that yield a high economic benefit, in this case, financial gain in the form of income, tend to be inelastic. Whereas, travelling for recreational or social reasons have a high tolerance for price increases, and as such the demand for recreational travel when prices spike sees a sharp decline.
A review of transport research suggests that the elasticity of traffic demand with respect to travel time is around −0.5 in the short term and −1.0 in the long term. This indicates that a 1.0% saving in travel time will generate an additional 0.5% increase in traffic within the first year. In the longer term, a 1.0% saving in travel time will result in a 1.0% increase in traffic volume.
Sources of induced traffic
In the short term, increased travel on new road space can come from one of two sources: diverted travel and induced traffic. Diverted travel occurs when people divert their trip from another road (change in route) or reschedule their travel to avoid peak period congestion – but if road capacity is expanded, peak congestion is lower and they can travel at the time they prefer.
Induced traffic occurs when new automobile trips are generated. This can occur when people choose to travel by car instead of public transport, or decide to travel when they otherwise would not have.
Shortening travel times can also encourage longer trips as reduced travel costs encourage people to choose farther destinations. Although this may not increase the number of trips, it increases vehicle miles travelled. In the long term, this effect alters land use patterns as people choose homes and workplace locations farther away than they would have without the expanded road capacity. These development patterns encourage automobile dependency which contributes to the high long-term demand elasticities of road expansion.
Induced traffic and transport planning
Although planners take into account future traffic growth when planning new roads (this often being an apparently reasonable justification for new roads in itself – that traffic growth will mean more road capacity is required), this traffic growth is calculated from increases in car ownership and economic activity, and does not take into account traffic induced by the presence of the new road; that is, it is assumed that traffic will grow, regardless of whether a road is built or not.
In the UK, the idea of induced traffic was used as grounds for protests against government policy of road construction in the 1970s, 1980s and early 1990s, until it became accepted as a given by the government as a result of their own Standing Advisory Committee on Trunk Road Assessment (SACTRA) study of 1994. However, despite the concept of induced traffic now being accepted, it is not always taken into consideration in planning.
Studies
A 1998 meta-analysis by the Surface Transportation Policy Project, which used data from the institute, stated that "Metro areas which invested heavily in road capacity expansion fared no better in easing congestion than metro areas that did not."
On the other hand, a comparison of congestion data from 1982 to 2011 by the Texas A&M Transportation Institute suggested that additional roadways reduced the rate of congestion increase. When increases in road capacity were matched to the increase demand, growth in congestion was found to be lower.
A study by Robert Cervero, a professor of City and Regional Planning at the University of California, Berkeley, found that "over a six-to eight-year period following freeway expansion, around twenty percent of added capacity is 'preserved,' and around eighty percent gets absorbed or depleted. Half of this absorption is due to external factors, like growing population and income. The other half is due to induced-demand effects, mostly higher speeds but also increased building activities. These represent California experiences from 1980 to 1994. Whether they hold true elsewhere is of course unknown."
And Mokhtarian et al. (2002) paired eighteen California state highway segments whose capacities had been improved in the early 1970s with control segments that matched the improved segments with regard to facility type, region, approximate size, and initial volumes & congestion levels. Taking annual data for average daily traffic (ADT) and design-hour-traffic-to-capacity (DTC) ratios during the 21 years 1976–1996, they found the growth rates between the two types of segments to be “statistically and practically indistinguishable, suggesting that the capacity expansions, in and of themselves, had a negligible effect on traffic growth”.
Policy Implications
When evaluating induced demand traffic demand theoretically, consideration is mainly given to the actual amount of traffic that will arise from a certain scenario. In real world applications, policymakers must consider the benefits of new infrastructure with the potential negative impacts on the environment, public health, and social equity.
Carbon emissions have become a primary concern for policymakers in recent times and continues to be a consideration for infrastructure planning. An example of this is the Expansion of Heathrow Airport, where hopes of additional runways would spur economic growth within the UK: increasing both the amount and frequency of direct flights. These expansion proposals posed climate concerns and prompted studies into its environmental viability. It was estimated by the government that such expansion plans would create 210.8 Mt (million tons) C02 annually. In addition, approximately 700 homes, a church, and eight listed buildings would have to be destroyed to make way for the project. In 2020, the court of appeal ruled the expansion plans illegal due to the ministers’ lack of consideration towards the government’s commitments to climate change.
In contrast to negative externalities, Bogotá, Colombia, has been recognized as a success story in managing induced demand for transportation by investing in new bike infrastructure. The city’s first bike path was established in 1974, with heavy investment in the late 1990s which eventuated in over 300 kilometers of bike lanes and dedicated bike paths. This infrastructure has been credited with reducing traffic congestion through encouraging more people to bike as transport. Less traffic then directly leads to lesser emissions, improved air quality and healthier lifestyles for residents. In addition, the city has implemented additional policies such as a bike-sharing program, bike-friendly streets and education campaigns to promote biking as a healthy and sustainable mode of transportation.
Criticism
Critics of induced demand arguments generally accept their premise, but argue against their interpretation. Steven Polzin, former director of the Center for Urban Transportation Research and former Senior Advisor at the US Department of Transportation, argues that most forms of induced demand are actually good things and that, due to changing transportation trends, past data cannot be applied to present circumstances. Specifically, he argues:
One type of induced demand is simply keeping up with population growth. This is a good thing.
Another is traffic moving out of neighborhoods and onto newly expanded freeways. This is a very good thing.
Another is people adjusting timing of trips to their desired timing, thus improving business efficiency and quality of life - both good things.
Another is shifting transportation from non-auto transport to auto transport. Polzin does not argue that this is good, but rather that it's irrelevant (at least in a US context) as non-auto transport is such a small fraction of the total, and thus cannot meaningfully induce demand anymore (unlike in the past). By contrast, going in reverse would require unprecedented growth rates in public transport systems even just to keep up with population growth.
Another is people taking trips to places that they wouldn't have gone before, such as shopping in new places or living further from work. Beyond arguments that this implies improved quality of life, while this appears to have been a major driver in induced demand in the past, it ignores trends. From 1980 to 2015 increases in road capacity in the US didn't even keep up with population growth, yet vehicle miles per capita doubled - a detachment between capacity growth and demand. But since the late 2000s, vehicle miles per capita have stagnated - and growing trends of telecommuting and e-commerce are likely to apply further downward pressure. Aka: people don't drive further to shop or work if they're shopping or working from home either way.
As personal road travel declines, commercial and service travel increases. This travel is not sensitive to road capacity and is not readily shifted to alternate modes of transportation.
Rather than limiting demand by reducing road capacity, Polzin argues for limiting demand via highway pricing, such as managed lanes, toll highways, congestion pricing or cordon pricing, as this provides a revenue stream which can (among other things) subsidize public transportation.
Film-induced demand
Film-induced demand, also referred to as film-induced tourism, is a relatively recent form of cultural tourism in which destinations that are included in media outlets such as television and films receive an increase in tourist visits. This is supported by several regression analyses that suggest a high correlation between destinations taking a proactive approach in order to encourage producers/studios to film at their location, and the tourism success in the area after the release of the movie. This is consistent with induced demand theory. When the supply increases, in the form of media exposure to areas that were not regarded as tourist hotspots, the number of visitors increases, even though the majority of these new visitors would not have necessarily visited these areas previously. This is exemplified by a Travelsat Competitive Index study that indicated that in 2017 alone, approximately 80 million tourists made the decision to travel to a destination based primarily on its featuring in a television series or film. This figure has doubled since 2015.
Reduced demand (the inverse effect)
Just as increasing road capacity reduces the cost of travel and thus increases demand, the reverse is also observed – decreasing road capacity increases the cost of travel, so demand is reduced. This observation, for which there is much empirical evidence, has been called disappearing traffic, also traffic evaporation or traffic suppression, or, more generally, dissuaded demand. So the closure of a road or reduction in its capacity (e.g. reducing the number of available lanes) will result in the adjustment of traveler behavior to compensate – for example, people might stop making particular trips to patronize local businesses, condense multiple trips into one, re-time their trips to a less congested time, use online shopping with free shipping, or switch to public transport, carpooling, walking, bicycling or smaller motor vehicles less affected by road diets, such as motorcycles, depending upon the values of those trips or of the schedule delay they experience.
Studies
In 1994, the UK advisory committee SACTRA carried out a major review of the effect of increasing road capacity for trunk roads and motorways only, and reported that the evidence suggested such increases often resulted in substantial increases in the volume of traffic. Following this, London Transport and the Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions commissioned a study to see if the reverse also occurred, namely that when road capacity was reduced, there would be a reduction in traffic. This follow-up study was carried out by Sally Cairns, Carmen Hass-Klau and Phil Goodwin, with an Annex by Ryuichi Kitamura, Toshiyuki Yamamoto and Satoshi Fujii, and published as a book in 1998. A third study was carried out by Sally Cairns, Steve Atkins and Phil Goodwin, and published in the journal Municipal Engineer in 2002.
The 1998 study referred to about 150 sources of evidence, of which the most important were about 60 case studies in the UK, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Italy, The Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, the US, Canada, Tasmania and Japan. They included major town centre traffic schemes to make pedestrian areas closed to traffic, bus priority measures (especially bus lanes), bridge and road closures for maintenance, and closures due to natural disasters, mostly earthquakes. The 2002 study added some extra case studies, including some involving cycle lanes. The Annex by Kitamura and his colleagues reported a detailed study of the effects of the Hanshin-Awaji earthquake in Japan.
Taking the results as a whole, there was an average reduction of 41% of the traffic flows on the roads whose capacity had been reduced, of which rather less than half could be detected as reappearing on alternative routes. Thus, on average, about 25% of the traffic disappeared. Analysis of surveys and traffic counts indicated that the disappearance was accounted for by between 15 and 20 different behavioural responses, including changing to other modes of transport, changing to other destinations, a reduction in the frequency of trips, and car-sharing. There was a large variation around these average results, with the biggest effects seen in large-scale pedestrianisation in German town centres, and the smallest seen in small-scale temporary closures with good alternative routes, and small reductions in capacity in uncongested streets. In a few cases, there was actually an increase in the volume of traffic, notably in towns which had closed some town centre roads at the same time as opening a new by-pass.
Cairns et al. concluded that:
The European Union have produced a manual titled "Reclaiming city streets for people" that presents case studies and methodologies for traffic evaporation in urban areas.
Real-world examples
An early example of the reduced demand effect was described by Jane Jacobs in her classic 1961 book The Death and Life of Great American Cities. Jacobs and others convinced New York City to close the street that split Greenwich Village's Washington Square Park in two, and also not to widen the surrounding streets to service the extra capacity they were expected to carry because of the closing of the street. The city's traffic engineers expected the result to be chaos, but, in fact, the extra traffic never appeared, as drivers instead avoided the area entirely.
Two widely known examples of reduced demand occurred in San Francisco, California, and in Manhattan, New York City, where, respectively, the Embarcadero Freeway and the lower portion of the elevated West Side Highway were torn down after sections of them collapsed. Concerns were expressed that the traffic which had used these highways would overwhelm local streets, but, in fact, the traffic, instead of being displaced, for the most part disappeared entirely. A New York State Department of Transportation study showed that 93% of the traffic which had used the West Side Highway was not displaced, but simply vanished.
After these examples, other highways, including portions of Harbor Drive in Portland, Oregon, the Park East Freeway in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, the Central Freeway in San Francisco, and the Cheonggyecheon Freeway in Seoul, South Korea, were torn down, with the same effect observed.
The argument is also made to convert roads previously open to vehicular traffic into pedestrian areas, with a positive impact on the environment and congestion, as in the example of the central area of Florence, Italy. In New York City, after Mayor Michael Bloomberg's plan for congestion pricing in Manhattan was rejected by the New York State Assembly, portions of Broadway at Times Square, Herald Square and Madison Square were converted into pedestrian plazas, and traffic lanes in other areas taken out of service in favor of protected bike lanes, reducing the convenience of using Broadway as a through-route. As a result, traffic on Broadway was reduced, and the speed of traffic in the area lessened. Another measure instituted was the replacement of through-lanes on some of Manhattan's north–south avenues with dedicated left-turn lanes and protected bike lanes, reducing the avenues' carrying capacity. The Bloomberg administration was able to put these changes into effect as they did not require approval from the state legislature.
Despite the success of the Broadway pedestrian plazas in Manhattan, some pedestrian malls in the US, in which all traffic is removed from shopping streets, have not been successful. Areas with sufficient population density or pedestrian traffic are more likely to successfully pursue this path. Of the approximately 200 pedestrian malls created in the US from the 1970s on, only about 30 remained as of 2012, and many of these became poorer areas of their cities, as lack of accessibility caused commercial property values to decline. The exceptions, including the Third Street Promenade in Santa Monica, California, and 16th Street in Denver, Colorado, are indicators that conversion of shopping streets to pedestrian malls can be successful. Some of the failed pedestrian malls have improved by allowing limited automobile traffic to return. Pedestrian zones are common across cities and towns in Europe.
See also
Braess's paradox
Downs–Thomson paradox
Effects of the car on societies
Externality
Hedonic treadmill
Jevons paradox
Lewis–Mogridge position
Marchetti's constant
Positive feedback
Say's law
Schedule delay
Traffic flow
Tragedy of the commons
References
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
Hart, Stanley I. and Spivak, Alvin L (1993). The Elephant in the Bedroom: Automobile Dependence and Denial; Impacts on the Economy and Environment. Pasadena, California: New Paradigm Books. .
External links
Giles Duranton, Matthew A. Turner (2010), The Fundamental Law of Road Congestion: Evidence from US cities, University of Toronto
UK Department for Transport guidance on modelling induced demand
A statistical analysis of induced travel effects in the US mid-Atlantic region (Fulton et al.), Journal of Transportation and Statistics, April 2004 (PDF)
Todd Litman (2001), “Generated Traffic; Implications for Transport Planning,” ITE Journal, Vol. 71, No. 4, Institute of Transportation Engineers (www.ite.org), April, 2001, pp. 38–47.
Transport economics
Transportation planning
Sustainable transport
Demand
Road traffic management
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20Prentice
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Jim Prentice
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Peter Eric James Prentice (July 20, 1956 – October 13, 2016) was a Canadian politician who served as the 16th premier of Alberta from 2014 to 2015. In the 2004 federal election he was elected to the House of Commons of Canada as a candidate of the Conservative Party of Canada. He was re-elected in the 2006 federal election and appointed to the cabinet as Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development and Federal Interlocutor for Métis and Non-Status Indians. Prentice was appointed Minister of Industry on August 14, 2007, and after the 2008 election became Minister of Environment on October 30, 2008. On November 4, 2010, Prentice announced his resignation from cabinet and as MP for Calgary Centre-North. After retiring from federal politics he entered the private sector as vice-chairman of CIBC.
Prentice entered provincial politics in his home province of Alberta, and ran for the leadership of the Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta to replace Dave Hancock, who was serving as interim Premier and party leader after Alison Redford's resignation. On September 6, 2014, Prentice won the leadership election, becoming both the leader of the Progressive Conservatives and as such the Premier, as his party held a majority in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta.
As Premier of Alberta, Prentice formed a new cabinet consisting of some members from the previous government, but also new Ministers including two who did not hold seats in the Legislature—Stephen Mandel and Gordon Dirks. All three stood as candidates in by-elections scheduled for October 27, 2014, and all three were elected with Prentice becoming the MLA for Calgary-Foothills. After introducing his first budget in 2015, Prentice declared an early provincial election on May 5, 2015. In the election, Prentice's PCs suffered an unprecedented defeat, dropping to third place in the legislature with just 10 seats – ending 44 years of Tory rule in Alberta, the longest consecutive reign for any political party at the provincial level in Canada. Despite winning re-election in Calgary-Foothills, on election night Prentice resigned as both PC leader and MLA and retired from politics after results indicated that the Alberta NDP had won a majority government.
On October 13, 2016, Prentice and three others were killed when the aircraft in which they were travelling crashed shortly after taking off from Kelowna, British Columbia. The flight was en route from Kelowna to Springbank Airport, just outside Calgary.
Background
Prentice was born to a large, blue-collar family in South Porcupine, near Timmins, Ontario. The family then moved to Alberta in 1969. He was the son of Wilma Lyle Marea (Mawhiney) and Eric Prentice, a professional hockey player who played five games in the National Hockey League (NHL) in the 1940s. His uncle Dean Prentice played in the NHL for more than 20 years. Prentice was educated at the University of Alberta (where he became a member of the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity) and Dalhousie University. He paid for his tuition by working as a coal miner in the summer months for seven years.
As a lawyer, he served as a Law Commissioner of the Indian Claims Commission of Canada.
In his personal life, Prentice served for seven years on the Board of Directors at the Calgary Winter Club, including stints as president and Chairman. He was an active member and volunteer leader in the Grace Presbyterian Church. Prentice and his wife Karen have three daughters and two grandchildren.
He was also a member of the Trilateral Commission, a non-partisan organization that aims to increase cooperation within the developed world. In this capacity, Prentice was one of 20 Canadian members.
Early political career
Prentice joined the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada in 1976, and was active in Tory circles ever since. In the 1986 provincial election, Prentice ran for the Progressive Conservatives in Calgary Mountain View, being defeated by NDP candidate Bob Hawkesworth.
During the early 1990s, Prentice served as the governing federal PC party's chief financial officer and treasurer (1990–93). Prentice first ran for Parliament as the nominated Progressive Conservative candidate in a spring 2002 by-election in the riding of Calgary Southwest that followed the retirement of Preston Manning as the riding's Member of Parliament (MP). When newly elected Canadian Alliance leader Stephen Harper replaced nominated CA candidate Ezra Levant in the by-election, Prentice withdrew from the race, following common practice to allow a party leader to win a seat uncontested so they may lead their party within Parliament.
He ran in the 2003 Progressive Conservative leadership election to support the "United Alternative" proposal to merge the PC party with the Canadian Alliance. He was seen by many as an alternative to the "status quo" candidate and front runner Peter MacKay. A basic platform of Prentice's campaign was that "no one has ever defeated the Liberals with a divided conservative family." Prentice entered the 2003 convention day with some momentum, after delivering a passionate speech to the assembled delegates that encouraged Tories to be proud of their accomplishments, despite recent setbacks, and that recalled the sacrifices of Canadian soldiers who fought in the Battle of Passchendaele. He also unexpectedly received the support of fellow leadership challenger Craig Chandler, who withdrew early. Prentice ultimately emerged in second-place on the fourth ballot to the eventual winner MacKay. Consistent with his positions during the leadership race, Prentice was a supporter of the merger endorsed by both the CA and PC parties in December 2003 that formed the new Conservative Party of Canada.
Prentice was the first declared candidate for the leadership of the new Conservative Party, announcing his run on December 7, 2003, the day after the new party was ratified by members of the PC Party. Prentice began his campaign in Calgary and toured parts of Ontario, specifically visiting Kingston, Ontario, the hometown of the first conservative leader Sir John A. Macdonald. However, he withdrew from the race on January 12, 2004, citing difficulty in raising new funds less than a year after his unsuccessful first leadership bid. The leadership election was won by Stephen Harper, who later became Prime Minister of Canada after the 2006 Canadian federal election.
Early parliamentary career
Prentice ran in the riding of Calgary Centre-North in the 2004 election for the new Conservative Party, and won the seat with 54% of the popular vote.
After being sworn in as the MP for Calgary Centre North on July 16, Conservative Party Leader Stephen Harper named Prentice to the Shadow Cabinet as the Official Opposition Critic for Indian and Northern Affairs. In that role Prentice opposed the Tli Cho land claim agreement, which he said would make Canadian law secondary to Tlicho local law. Prentice was also a strong supporter of the proposed and controversial Mackenzie Valley pipeline. He criticized the Liberal government for its treatment of aboriginal women, and its alleged costs of administering the Residential School Claims program for aboriginal victims of abuse.
Prentice described himself as a Red Tory in the Conservative Party and surprised many observers when he voted in favour of Bill C-38 supporting same-sex marriage.
Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development
Prentice had been assigned the Minister of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development in the Conservative government, and was sworn into this role on February 6, 2006, until August 13, 2007. One of his main challenges as Minister was to implement "The Nunavut Project," a 2006 report authored by Thomas Berger, to show tangible, measurable results to increase Inuit representation in the Nunavut public services.
Kelowna Accord and residential schools
In the fall of 2006, Phil Fontaine, National chief of the Assembly of First Nations, expressed disappointment over the Conservative government's refusal to honour the Kelowna Accord, endorsed by 14 jurisdictions (the federal government, 10 provinces, and three territories). Fontaine previously described the federal government's point person on Kelowna, Jim Prentice, as an "honourable" person sensitive to native concerns. Prior to January 2006 election, Fontaine and two vice-chiefs of the Assembly of First Nations had a meeting with Prentice. "[Prentice] acknowledged all the hard work that went into Kelowna and (said) that the Conservative party would not put this aside," says Fontaine. "We took him at his word." Prentice did not recall saying that: "I've always been very, very careful about what I've said about Kelowna," According to Fontaine, in their first meeting after the 2006 election, "(Prentice) wanted to apply a very focused approach to his responsibilities." In the federal budget of May 2006, Fontaine and other native leaders got a glimpse of what "focused" meant: just $450 million (over two years) was committed to implementing Kelowna, not the $1.64 billion for the first two years that Paul Martin had agreed to.
Prentice argued that there was actually $3.7 billion in spending on native peoples in the May 2006 budget, "more than the previous four budgets in total." That figure includes $2.2 billion in compensation for victims of abuse in residential schools (another deal that was worked out with the previous government) and $300 million for off-reserve housing.
On June 11, 2008, Prime Minister Stephen Harper thanked Jim Prentice for his work on addressing the matter of the Indian residential schools and providing a government apology for the residential school system. Stephen Harper's thanks to Prentice came before he made the apology to former students of the schools.
Minister of Industry
In a cabinet shuffle on August 14, 2007, Prentice became Minister of Industry, succeeding Maxime Bernier.
Copyright legislation and controversy
Bringing "Canada into WIPO treaty compliance" had been stated as one of Prentice's goals in future copyright legislation. It has been pointed out repeatedly, however, that at the time of Prentice's statement of his rationale for introducing amendments to the Copyright Act, there was no international legal obligation to implement any provision of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Copyright Treaty (WCT) or the WIPO Performances & Phonograms Treaty (WPPT) since neither had been ratified by Canada. Prentice has promised to "put consumers first." claiming in an editorial that "(C-61) allows the recording of webcasts and TV and radio programs to be enjoyed at different times" while ignoring the fact that if the files are protected by digital rights management (DRM) it is illegal to break the DRM to make the recording. Michael Geist, Canada Research Chair of Internet and E-commerce Law at the University of Ottawa, has suggested that the core desire of the draft legislation is "to satisfy U.S. pressure by enacting something very close to the U.S. Digital Millennium Copyright Act".
Prentice did not immediately provide a rationale for not discussing the issue with CBC Radio Canada despite the hundreds of questions that flooded in from concerned Canadians. He also refused to talk to a group of protesters who went to his office to express their concern, stating "When Canadian Heritage Minister Josée Verner and I have reached a consensus and we're satisfied, we will introduce a bill." Prentice has also implied that he will not follow the Government's policy to table the WCT & WPPT 21 days prior to introducing copyright amendments designed to implement parts of these treaties contrary to the Government's policy on treaty implementation. Industry Canada announced on June 11, 2008, that Prentice "will deliver brief statements and answer media inquiries shortly after the tabling of a bill to amend the Copyright Act ... [on] Thursday, June 12, 2008". After less than two hours, hundreds of Canadians and critics panned the new Bill C-61 as nothing more than pandering to US interests at the expense of Canadians.
On a 10-minute interview with the CBC's Search Engine radio program he dismissed any question related to digital rights management as "extremely technical" and claimed that the market will take care of copy protected CDs. Prentice then hung up mid question and refused to continue the interview at a later time. Most notably, Jim Prentice hung up before answering Jesse Brown's final question about who, under this bill, would have the power to investigate potential copyright violations.
Wikipedia controversy
During the period of May 27, 2008, to June 4, 2008, edits originating from an IP address belonging to Industry Canada were made to the Jim Prentice article on Wikipedia. The edits included the removal of references to new copyright legislation (claiming that it did not exist) and the addition of two passages about Prentice's recent accomplishments as Minister of Industry. Specifically, information about the copyright controversy was deleted from Prentice's biography by someone using an Industry Canada IP address.
Jay Walsh, spokesman for the Wikimedia Foundation, said in an interview there are tens of thousands of living people with biographies on Wikipedia, "so challenges about information are not uncommon." Walsh said neutrality of language and guarding against conflicts of interest are two of the central pillars of Wikipedia. He said, "The edits which should be trusted would come from people who don't possess a conflict of interest, in this case, it would be worthwhile saying that if someone is making edits from a computer within the government of Canada … if it was someone within that ministry, that would theoretically constitute a conflict of interest."
Auto industry
In a February 29, 2008, speech to the Toronto Board of Trade Prentice rejected the concept of direct subsidies to the auto industry, insisting that setting up a strong economic foundation is a better route to strengthen the business. Former Liberal Leader Stéphane Dion said Finance Minister Jim Flaherty should be fired after the planned shutdown of the GM truck plant in Oshawa, Ont., with Prentice and Flaherty expressing hope for a new GM plant.
Net neutrality
While serving as a Federal Cabinet minister, Prentice received criticism that he was sidestepping the issue of Canada's net neutrality laws by not providing clear answers regarding the government's position on internet throttling practices by national Internet Service Providers (ISPs). New Democratic Party MP Charlie Angus raised the issue to Prentice in the House of Commons and said the government's "hands off" approach was bad for Canadian innovation. Prentice said that the issue is being appropriately handled by the Federal government agency the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC), which invited the general public to an open debate on net neutrality.
Text messaging fees
After initially appearing to take a stand on the issue, Prentice refused to intervene when Telus and Bell started charging 15 cents for incoming SMS text messages despite widespread opposition by consumer groups. This decision was made after Prentice dialogued with senior Bell and Telus executives and suggested that consumers "seek alternatives", even in Canada's limited-competition cellular industry.
Minister of the Environment
On October 30, 2008, Prentice was sworn in as Minister of the Environment in the Conservative Government. During his tenure, funding for the CFCAS (Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences) was not renewed, which some argued lead to a brain drain in the climate scientific community.
Draft Prentice Movement
Shortly after the Conservative government faced a possible defeat by the opposition over the Conservatives economic update, a "Conservatives for Prentice" website emerged, gaining a place on the Blogging Tories blogroll. A posting from a person claiming to be David Higginbottom, Prentice's campaign manager in the last election, said, "It is unfortunate that at a time when Conservatives need to be working together to prevent what is a desperate power play by the opposition to seize control of our democratically elected government, that a site like this would be created."
Resignation
On November 4, 2010, Prentice announced he was resigning as Environment Minister effective immediately and that he would be resigning as Member of Parliament for Calgary Centre-North by the end of the year to take a job as vice-chairman of the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce.
Prentice suggested that his departure was for family reasons; he had committed to spending 10 years in politics, and at that point he had. He expressed a desire to step down so he could explore new opportunities in his life. His resignation raised some questions with the opposition; NDP leader Jack Layton expressed concern over the apparent connection between Ministers and the large banks.
Premier of Alberta
Though previously rumoured to have been interested in succeeding Stephen Harper as federal Conservative leader, Prentice entered the 2014 Alberta Progressive Conservative leadership election on May 15, 2014. At the time the Alberta PC party was lagging badly in polls behind the opposition Wildrose due to personal expense controversies with Allison Redford, who resigned as premier and party leader after facing a revolt from the caucus and riding associations, with Dave Hancock serving in these roles for the interim. On September 6, 2014, Prentice won the leadership race with more than 76% of the vote on the first ballot (the leadership contest was conducted using Instant-runoff voting).
Prentice was formally sworn in as premier on September 15, 2014. He immediately named a 20-member Executive Council of Alberta, smaller than the cabinet had been under recent premiers. His recommendations for cabinet appointments included two people, former Edmonton mayor Stephen Mandel and former Calgary Board of Education trustee Gordon Dirks, who were not members of the Legislative Assembly. Prentice was elected to the legislature in a by-election in Calgary-Foothills, the seat formerly held by MLA Len Webber. The PCs won all four of the provincial by-elections held on October 27, 2014, in what was seen at the time as a major electoral success for Prentice.
On November 24, 2014, Wildrose Party MLAs Kerry Towle, (Innisfail-Sylvan Lake), and Ian Donovan, (Little Bow) crossed the floor to join the ruling PC Party's caucus giving the turmoil within the Wildrose Party, uncertainty about the leadership of Danielle Smith and confidence in Prentice as reasons for their move.
On December 17, 2014, in a highly unusual move within any parliament using the Westminster system, Leader of the Opposition Danielle Smith confirmed that she and eight other Wildrose members – Rob Anderson, Gary Bikman, Rod Fox, Jason Hale, Bruce McAllister, Blake Pedersen, Bruce Rowe and Jeff Wilson – would cross the floor to the Progressive Conservative caucus. At a press conference, Smith said that her conversations with Prentice revealed that they shared so much common ground that it made little sense for her to continue in opposition. "If you’re going to be the official Opposition leader," she said, "you have to really want to take down the government and really take down the premier. I don't want to take down this premier. I want this premier to succeed." The defections were termed by a journalist as "an unprecedented move in Canadian political history", although they did not change the overall make-up of the legislature – the Conservatives still held a vast majority of the seats, and the Wildrose Party remained the Official Opposition.
Prentice's March 2015 budget "raised a plethora of taxes and fees to help pay the province's way out of its hole, but he refuses to touch corporate taxes, because he is spooked by the prospect of investors skipping over Alberta for their next billion-dollar energy project, in favour of some more clement petro-state somewhere else. This array of taxes on you and your friends, but not on the C-Suite in Calgary’s office-tower jungle, has provoked populists on the left and right". In retrospect, Ron Kneebone of the University of Calgary’s School of Public Policy defended Prentice's budget saying "'We've got to look in the mirror.' He got tossed for it. But he was absolutely right because he said, 'You guys keep electing us for spending all this money.'"
On April 7, 2015, Prentice advised the Lieutenant Governor to call an early election for May 5 claiming that he needed to seek a new mandate in order to pass his budget, a full year before he was mandated to by the provincial fixed-election law of an election every four years (by the constitution, the incumbent government could run for up to five years before the writ had to be dropped in 2017). The Progressive Conservatives were already lagging in polls behind the resurgent Wildrose Party led by Brian Jean, as Prentice's pre-election budget was deeply unpopular with both the left and right in the political spectrum while only "business leaders thought it was tough but fair". Several gaffes by Prentice hurt him and his party in the campaign, including a comment before the election call in which Prentice appeared to be blaming Albertans, telling them that they had to "look in the mirror" to understand the root cause of Alberta's "serious budget shortfall"; Alberta Party leader Greg Clark dubbed this “Mr. Prentice’s Alice in Wonderland moment because it’s only in some alternate reality that the blame for decades of PC mismanagement can be placed squarely on Albertans". There was an "embarrassing miscalculation in the proposed NDP budget" released two days before the debate that Prentice planned to capitalize upon; during the televised leaders' debate Prentice said "I know math is difficult" to Alberta New Democratic Party leader Rachel Notley in criticizing the "multibillion-dollar hole in [her] proposed budget", however Prentice's remark came under fire for as being deeply patronizing as well as potentially sexist. While Prentice otherwise performed respectably ahead of Wildrose leader Brian Jean and interim Liberal leader David Swann, the NDP gained momentum as a result of the debate and overtook Wildrose for the lead in polls.
The provincial election ended the Progressive Conservatives' 44-year run in government, with the Alberta New Democratic Party winning a majority government, the first time the party had been elected to government in the province's history. The Progressive Conservatives fell to third place in the legislature, with 10 seats, behind both the NDP and the Wildrose Party. While the PCs placed second in terms of the popular vote, their caucus was decimated due to being completely shut out in Edmonton and losing all but eight seats in Calgary. Thirteen members of Prentice's cabinet were defeated, though Prentice himself was re-elected in Calgary-Foothills. However, with the overall result beyond doubt, he resigned as PC leader, disclaimed his seat (thus voiding the election result in his riding) and retired from politics.
During the transition of power, Prentice advised Premier-designate Notley to continue settlement talks with the Lubicon Lake Band. The band had been seeking an agreement for 80 years, and Prentice had reopened negotiations in the fall of 2014. Notley recalled "He saw a path forward and he advised me how to travel that path, for which I, and many, many others, are very grateful", and the land claim deal was reached in late 2018.
After politics
Prentice served as a visiting global fellow at the Canada Institute at the Wilson Center in Washington, D.C., for a four-month term that begun in February 2016. At the Wilson Center, he wrote the book Triple Crown: Winning Canada’s Energy Future with Jean-Sebastien Rioux that was published posthumously by HarperCollins on February 21, 2017.
Prentice was appointed as a senior advisor to private equity firm Warburg Pincus LLC in June 2016, specializing in the energy industry.
Death
Prentice was among the four people killed in the October 13, 2016, crash of a twin-engine Cessna Citation 500 business jet in Lake Country, British Columbia, shortly after takeoff from Kelowna International Airport en route to Springbank Airport near Calgary. He had spent the day golfing in the Kelowna area and was returning home. In April 2018, the Transportation Safety Board of Canada reported that while no conclusive reason for the crash could be determined, it was likely that the pilot had experienced spatial disorientation shortly after takeoff, having had little experience flying at night.
A state funeral was held for Prentice on October 28, 2016. Numerous dignitaries were in attendance, including former Prime Minister Stephen Harper, interim federal Conservative leader Rona Ambrose, Alberta Premier Rachel Notley, British Columbia Premier Christy Clark, Calgary Mayor Naheed Nenshi, Green Party Leader Elizabeth May, former prime minister Joe Clark and former opposition leader Preston Manning.
Prentice's official portrait as Premier of Alberta was unveiled on February 4, 2019. Painted by David Goatley, it depicts Prentice "standing on the third floor of the Alberta legislature, hands resting on the marble railing, eyes looking off in the distance. The expression and gaze shows Jim's sense of vision. He's thinking of the future and not the past." At the ceremony of the portrait unveiling, his widow Karen recalled that Prentice was "one who couldn't resist meeting with school tours when they passed by his office. He would invite them in, show them around, and give each of them the opportunity to sit in the premier's chair. I honestly believe his hope was that the experience would inspire more than one of these children to become involved in politics one day, and perhaps even become premier".
Electoral record
References
External links
1956 births
2016 deaths
Accidental deaths in British Columbia
Canadian Ministers of Indian Affairs and Northern Development
Canadian Presbyterians
Conservative Party of Canada MPs
Schulich School of Law alumni
Lawyers in Alberta
Leaders of the Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Alberta
Members of the King's Privy Council for Canada
People from Timmins
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Premiers of Alberta
Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta MLAs
University of Alberta alumni
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Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in Canada
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 2016
Progressive Conservative Party of Canada leadership candidates
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angels%20in%20America
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Angels in America
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Angels in America: A Gay Fantasia on National Themes is a two-part play by American playwright Tony Kushner. The two parts of the play, Millennium Approaches and Perestroika, may be presented separately. The work won numerous awards, including the Pulitzer Prize for Drama, the Tony Award for Best Play, and the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Play. Part one of the play premiered in 1991, followed by part two in 1992. Its Broadway opening was in 1993.
The play is a complex, often metaphorical, and at times symbolic examination of AIDS and homosexuality in the United States in the 1980s. Certain major and minor characters are supernatural beings (angels) or deceased persons (ghosts). The play contains multiple roles for several actors. Initially and primarily focusing on one gay and one straight couple in Manhattan, the plot has several additional storylines, some of which intersect occasionally.
In 1994, playwright and professor of theater studies John M. Clum called the play "a turning point in the history of gay drama, the history of American drama, and of American literary culture".
In 2003, HBO adapted Angels in America into a six-episode miniseries of the same title. In the Sunday, June 25, 2006, edition of The Record, in an article headlined “An AIDS anniversary: 25 years in the arts”, Bill Ervolino listed the miniseries among the 12 best filmed portrayals of AIDS to date.
In 2017, the play received a much-acclaimed West End revival that won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Revival in 2018. Later that year the production transferred to Broadway, where it received eleven Tony Award nominations, the most ever received by a play at the time. It won three awards: Best Revival of a Play; Best Actor in a Leading Role in a Play, for Andrew Garfield; and Best Actor in a Featured Role in a Play, for Nathan Lane.
Plot
Part One: Millennium Approaches
Set in New York City, the play takes place between October 1985 and February 1986. The play begins at a funeral, where an elderly rabbi eulogizes the deceased woman's entire generation of immigrants who risked their lives to build a community in the United States. Soon after, the deceased's grandson, Louis Ironson, learns that his lover Prior Walter, the last member of an old stock American family, has AIDS. As Prior's illness progresses, Louis becomes unable to cope, and he abandons Prior during a health episode that lands him in the hospital. Prior is given emotional support by their friend Belize, a hospital nurse and ex-drag queen, who separately also deals with Louis's self-castigating guilt and myriad excuses for leaving Prior.
Joe Pitt, a Mormon Republican clerk in the same judge's office where Louis holds a word-processing job, is offered a position in Washington, D.C. by his mentor, the McCarthyist lawyer and power broker Roy Cohn. Joe hesitates to accept due to his agoraphobic, Valium-addicted wife Harper, who refuses to relocate. Feeling adrift and undesired by Joe, Harper retreats into drug-fueled escapist fantasies, including a dream where she crosses paths with Prior even though the two of them have never met in the real world. She confronts Joe about his deeply-closeted homosexuality, which he views as a sin. Torn by pressure from Roy and a burgeoning infatuation with Louis, Joe drunkenly comes out to his conservative mother Hannah, who reacts by changing the subject and hanging up the phone. Concerned for her son, she sells her house in Salt Lake City and travels to New York. After Joe confesses his homosexuality to a drug-addled Harper and leaves her, she flees their apartment and wandering the streets of Brooklyn, believing she is in Antarctica. Joe sets out to look for her, but follows Louis to Central Park, where they tentatively begin an affair.
Meanwhile, Roy Cohn discovers that he has advanced AIDS and is dying. Defiantly refusing to publicly admit he is gay or has AIDS, Roy instead declares he has liver cancer. Facing disbarment for misappropriating money from a client, Roy is determined to beat the case so he can die a lawyer in good standing, and he attempts to position Joe in the Department of Justice to ensure the case is quashed. When Harper disappears and Joe refuses his offer, Roy flies into a rage and collapses in pain. As he awaits transport to the hospital, he is haunted by the ghost of Ethel Rosenberg, whom he prosecuted in her trial for espionage, and who was executed after Roy illegally lobbied the judge for the death penalty.
Prior begins to experience intense dreams and visions as his health worsens. He hears the voice of an angel telling him to prepare for her arrival, a flaming book erupts from the floor during a medical check-up, and he receives visits from the ghosts of two ancestral Prior Walters, informing him that he is a divine prophet. Prior does not know if these visitations are hallucinations caused by an emotional breakdown or if they are real. At the end of Part One, a glorious winged Angel crashes through Prior's bedroom ceiling, addresses him as "Prophet", and proclaims that "the Great Work" has begun.
Part Two: Perestroika
The play begins with a speech given by the world's oldest living Bolshevik, Aleksii Antedilluvianovich Prelapsarianov, addressing a crowd in Moscow in December 1985. He condemns the reforms proposed by Mikhail Gorbachev, decrying the notion of progress without political theory, and declaring that the only way forward is to not move.
At the funeral of a friend, a shaken Prior relates his encounter with the Angel to Belize. After revealing the presence of a mystical book underneath the tile in Prior's kitchen, the Angel reveals to him that Heaven is a beautiful city that resembles San Francisco, and God, described as a great flaming Aleph, created the universe through copulation with His angels, who are all-knowing but unable to create or change on their own. God, bored with the angels, made mankind with the power to change and create. The progress of mankind on Earth caused Heaven to suffer earthquake-like tremors and physically deteriorate. Finally, on the day of the San Francisco earthquake in 1906, God abandoned Heaven. The Angel brings Prior a message for mankind—"stop moving!"—in the belief that if man ceases to progress, Heaven will be restored. Since the night of his vision, his health has once again started to decline. Belize believes that Prior is projecting his own fears of abandonment and death into an elaborate hallucination, but Prior suspects that his illness is the prophecy taking physical form, and that the only way the Angel can force him to deliver her message is for him to die.
Roy lands at the hospital in the care of Belize, where his condition rapidly declines. He manages to use his political clout to acquire a private stash of the experimental drug AZT, at the expense of withholding the drug from participants in a drug trial. Alone in the hospital and fighting disbarment, Roy finds himself increasingly isolated, with only Belize, who despises him, and the ghost of Ethel for company.
Prior goes to a Mormon visitor's center to research angels, where he meets Hannah, who is volunteering there and taking care of Harper, who has slowly returned to reality but is now deeply depressed. Harper and Prior share a spark of recognition from their earlier shared dream, and witness a vision of Joe and Louis together. Louis is aghast to learn that Joe is a practicing Mormon and, regretting his actions and resistant to the intensity of Joe's infatuation, begins to withdraw from Joe. He begs Prior's forgiveness, which Prior angrily refuses, and Prior, who knows about Louis' affair with Joe from his vision, becomes deeply hurt that Louis is attempting to move on.
Joe visits Roy, who is near death, and receives a final, paternal blessing from his mentor. However, when Joe confesses he has left Harper for a man, Roy rejects him in a violent reaction of fear and rage, ordering him to return to his wife and cover up his indiscretion. Joe returns to Harper and they have an unsatisfying sexual encounter, which prompts Harper to realize their marriage is over.
Prior, accompanied by Belize, jealously confronts a confused Joe at work, but the encounter descends into chaos when Belize recognizes Joe as Roy's protegee. Belize informs Louis about Joe's connection with Roy, whom Louis despises. Louis, as a result, researches Joe's legal history and confronts him over a series of hypocritical and homophobic decisions Joe himself wrote. The confrontation turns violent, and Joe punches Louis in the face, ending their affair.
Ethel Rosenberg watches Roy suffer and decline before delivering the final blow as he lies dying: He has been disbarred after all. Delirious, Roy seems to mistake Ethel for his mother, begging her to comfort him, and Ethel sings a Yiddish lullaby as Roy appears to pass away. However, with a sudden burst of energy, he reveals that he has tricked her, viciously declaring that he has finally beaten her. He then suffers a stroke and dies. After Roy's death, Belize forces Louis to visit Roy's hospital room, where they steal his stash of AZT for Prior. Belize asks Louis to recite the Kaddish for Roy. Unseen by the living, Ethel guides Louis through the prayer, symbolically forgiving Roy before she departs for the hereafter.
After his confrontation with Joe, Prior begins following him obsessively, neglecting his health. He collapses from pneumonia after following Joe to the Mormon center and Hannah rushes him back to the hospital. Prior tells her about his vision and is surprised when Hannah accepts this, based on her belief in angelic revelations within Latter-day Saint theology. At the hospital, the Angel reappears, enraged that Prior has rejected her message. Prior, on Hannah's advice, wrestles the Angel, who relents and opens a ladder into Heaven. Prior climbs into Heaven and tells the council of Angels that he refuses to deliver their message, as without progress, humanity will perish, and begs them for more Life, no matter how horrible the prospect might be. He returns to his hospital bed, where he awakens from his vision with his fever broken and his health beginning to recover. He makes amends with Louis, but refuses to take him back. Meanwhile, Harper departs New York for San Francisco, leaving Joe alone.
The play concludes in 1990, five years later. Prior and Louis are still separated, but Louis, along with Belize, remain close in order to support and care for Prior, and Hannah has found new perspective on her rigid beliefs, forging a friendship with the three gay men. Prior, Louis, Belize, and Hannah gather before the angel statue in Bethesda Fountain, discussing the fall of the Soviet Union and what the future holds. Prior talks of the legend of the Pool of Bethesda, where the sick were healed. Prior delivers the play's final lines directly to the audience, blessing them and affirming his intentions to live on and telling them that "the Great Work" shall continue.
Characters
The play is written for eight actors, each of whom plays two or more roles. Kushner's doubling, as indicated in the published script, requires several of the actors to play different genders.
Main characters
Prior Walter – A gay man with AIDS. Throughout the play, he experiences various heavenly visions. When the play begins, he is dating Louis Ironson. His best friend is Belize.
Louis Ironson – Prior's boyfriend. Unable to deal with Prior's disease, he ultimately abandons him. He meets Joe Pitt and later begins a relationship with him.
Harper Pitt – An agoraphobic Mormon housewife with incessant Valium-induced hallucinations. After a revelation from Prior (whom she meets when his heavenly vision and her hallucination cross paths), she discovers that her husband, Joe, is gay and struggles with it, considering it a betrayal of her marriage.
Joe Pitt – Harper's husband and a deeply closeted gay Mormon, clerk at the U.S. Court of Appeals, Second Circuit, and friend of Roy Cohn. Joe eventually abandons his wife for a relationship with Louis. Throughout the play, he struggles with his sexual identity.
Roy Cohn – A closeted gay lawyer, based on real life Roy Cohn. Just as in history, it is eventually revealed that he has contracted HIV and the disease has progressed to AIDS, which he insists is liver cancer to preserve his reputation.
Hannah Pitt – Joe's mother. She moves to New York after her son drunkenly comes out to her on the phone. She arrives to find that Joe has abandoned his wife.
Belize – A nurse and former drag queen, he is Prior's ex-boyfriend and best friend. He later becomes Roy Cohn's nurse.
The Angel/Voice – A messenger from Heaven who visits Prior and tells him he is a prophet.
Minor characters
Rabbi Isidor Chemelwitz – An elderly orthodox Rabbi. He performs the funeral service for Louis' grandmother in Act one of Millennium Approaches and gives him advice on his situation with Prior. Played by the actor playing Hannah.
Mr. Lies – One of Harper's imaginary friends. A smooth talking agent for the International Order of Travel Agents. Played by the actor playing Belize.
Emily – Prior's hospital nurse, a no-nonsense Italian-American. Played by the actor playing the Angel.
Henry – Roy Cohn's doctor, who diagnoses him with AIDS. Played by the actor playing Hannah.
Martin Heller – A publicity agent to the Reagan Administration's Justice Department and Roy's toady. Played by the actor playing Harper.
Ethel Rosenberg – The ghost of a woman executed for being a Communist spy. She haunts Roy, whom she blames for her conviction and execution, as he dies. Played by the actor playing Hannah.
Prior 1 and Prior 2 – The ghosts of two of Prior Walter's ancestors. Prior 1 is a gloomy Yorkshire farmer from the 13th century, Prior 2 is a cheerful 17th-century British aristocrat. They appear to Prior to herald the Angel's arrival. Played by the actors playing Joe and Roy, respectively.
The Man in the Park – A gay man Louis encounters while cruising for sex in Central Park. Played by the actor playing Prior.
Sister Ella Chapter – Hannah's realtor friend who helps her sell her house. Played by the actor playing the Angel.
A Homeless Woman – A crazed homeless woman Hannah encounters when she arrives in Brooklyn. Played by the actor playing the Angel.
The Eskimo – An imaginary friend in Harper's Antarctic hallucination. Played by the actor playing Joe.
Aleksii Antedilluvianovich Prelapsarianov – "The World's Oldest Living Bolshevik", whose speech in the opening of Perestroika sets up the theme of whether the world should continue to move forward. Played by the actor playing Hannah.
Mormon Family – A mannequin family in the Diorama Room of the Mormon Visitors' Center where Hannah and Harper volunteer. The father resembles Joe, and later becomes him in Harper's delusions. He is played by the actor playing Joe. The mother comes to life in Harper's imagination and speaks to her. She is played by the actor playing the Angel. The two sons, Caleb and Orrin, are voiced offstage by the actors playing Belize and the Angel respectively.
The Continental Principalities – The Angel Council Prior confronts in Heaven. They are in charge of both Heaven and Earth after God's desertion. They are the Angels Europa (played by the actor playing Joe), Africanii (played by the actor playing Harper), Oceania (played by the actor playing Belize), Asiatica (played by the actor playing Hannah), Australia (played by the actor playing Louis), and Antarctica (played by the actor playing Roy).
Production history
Angels in America was commissioned by the Eureka Theatre in San Francisco, by co-artistic directors Oskar Eustis and Tony Taccone. It was first performed in Los Angeles as a workshop in May 1990 by the Center Theatre Group at the Mark Taper Forum.
Millennium Approaches premiered in May 1991 in a production performed by the Eureka Theatre Company of San Francisco, directed by David Esbjornson. In London it premiered in a National Theatre production at the Cottesloe Theatre, directed by Declan Donnellan. Henry Goodman played Cohn, Nick Reding played Joe, Felicity Montagu played Harper, Marcus D'Amico played Louis, and Sean Chapman played Prior. Opening on January 23, 1992, the London production ran for a year. In November 1992 it visited Düsseldorf as part of the first Union des Théâtres de l'Europe festival.
The play's second part, Perestroika, was still being developed as Millennium Approaches was being performed. It was performed several times as staged readings by both the Eureka Theatre (during the world premiere of part one in 1991), and the Mark Taper Forum (in May 1992). It premiered in November 1992 in a production by the Mark Taper Forum, directed by Oskar Eustis and Tony Taccone. In November 1993 it received its London debut in a National Theatre production on the Cottesloe stage, in repertory with a revival of Millennium Approaches, again directed by Declan Donnellan. David Schofield played Cohn, Daniel Craig played Joe, Clare Holman played Harper, Jason Isaacs played Louis, Joseph Mydell played Belize and won the Olivier Award for Best Supporting Actor, and Stephen Dillane played Prior.
The entire two-part play debuted on Broadway at the Walter Kerr Theatre in 1993, directed by George C. Wolfe, with Millennium Approaches performed on May 4 and Perestroika joining it in repertory on November 23, closing December 4, 1994. The original cast included Ron Leibman, Stephen Spinella, Kathleen Chalfant, Marcia Gay Harden, Jeffrey Wright, Ellen McLaughlin, David Marshall Grant and Joe Mantello. Among the replacements during the run were F. Murray Abraham (for Ron Leibman), Cherry Jones (for Ellen McLaughlin), Dan Futterman (for Joe Mantello), Cynthia Nixon (for Marcia Gay Harden) and Jay Goede (for David Marshall Grant). Millennium Approaches and Perestroika were awarded, in 1993 and 1994 respectively, both the Tony Awards for Best Play and Drama Desk Awards for Outstanding Play.
The published script indicates that Kushner made a few revisions to Perestroika in the following year. These changes officially completed the work in 1995. In 1994, the first national tour launched at the Royal George Theater in Chicago, directed by Michael Mayer, with the following cast: Peter Birkenhead as Louis Ironson, Reginald Flowers as Belize, Kate Goehring as Harper Pitt, Jonathan Hadary as Roy Cohn, Philip E. Johnson as Joe Pitt, Barbara E. Robertson as Hannah Pitt, Robert Sella as Prior, and Carolyn Swift as the Angel.
A Toronto production of both plays, directed by Bob Baker, opened at CanStage's Berkley Theatre in November 1996 and ran for 8 months. The cast included Steve Cumyn (Prior), Alex Poch-Goldin (Louis), Tom Wood (Roy Cohn), Patricia Hamilton (Hannah, Ethel Rosenberg and others), David Storch (Joe), Karen Hines (Harper), Cassel Miles (Belize, Mr. Lies and others) and Linda Prystawska (Angel and othes).
Kushner made relatively minor revisions to Millennium Approaches and additional, more substantial revisions to Perestroika during a run at the Signature Theatre in 2010, which were published in a 2013 complete edition. That production was directed by Michael Greif and featured Christian Borle as Prior, Zachary Quinto as Louis, Billy Porter as Belize, Bill Heck as Joe, Zoe Kazan as Harper, Robin Bartlett as Hannah, Frank Wood as Roy, and Robin Weigert as the angel.
In 2013, a production of the two-part play was produced by Sydney-based theatre company, Belvoir. The cast featured Luke Mullins as Prior Walter, Mitchell Butel as Louis Ironson, Marcus Graham as Roy Cohn, Ashley Zukerman as Joe Pitt, Amber McMahon as Harper Pitt, Robyn Nevin as Hannah Pitt, DeObia Oparei as Belize, and Paula Arundell as The Angel. The show ran from June 1 to July 14 at the Belvoir St Theatre, before transferring to the Theatre Royal for the remainder of its run. The production finished its season on July 27.
A second Toronto production by Soulpepper Theatre Company in 2013 and 2014 starred Damien Atkins as Prior Walter, Gregory Prest as Louis, Mike Ross as Joe, Diego Matamoros as Roy and Nancy Palk as Hannah, Ethel Rosenberg and the rabbi.
Millennium Approaches made its Edinburgh Fringe Festival debut, in a production by St Andrews-based Mermaids Theatre, in August 2013 to critical acclaim.
Asia premiered the play in its entirety in 1995 by the New Voice Company in the Philippines.
This was followed by another production in November 2014 at the Singapore Airlines Theatre.
An Italian adaptation of the play premiered in Modena in 2007, in a production directed by Ferdinando Bruni and Elio De Capitani which was awarded several national awards. The same production ran for three days in Madrid, in 2012.
In the fall of 2016, Round House Theatre and Olney Theatre Center in Montgomery County, Maryland (Washington DC area) collaborated to present a 25th anniversary production of Tony Kushner’s Pulitzer Prize- and Tony Award-winning masterpiece, offering Parts I and II in repertory. The Washington Post'''s theater critic called it an "epically engrossing, acidly funny masterwork.
In April 2017, a new production began previews at the National Theatre, London in the Lyttleton Theatre. Directed by Marianne Elliott, the cast included Andrew Garfield as Prior Walter with Russell Tovey as Joe, Denise Gough as Harper, James McArdle as Louis Ironson, Nathan Stewart-Jarrett as Belize and Nathan Lane as Roy Cohn. In April 2018, the production was nominated for six Olivier Awards, winning for Best Revival and Best Actress in a Supporting Role in a Play for Gough. The production was filmed and broadcast to cinemas around the world as part of the National Theatre Live initiative, and later released in 2021 on the company's NT at Home streaming service.
In August 2017, a new production of Millennium Approaches was brought to San Juan, Puerto Rico, by Teatro Público Inc. Directed by Benjamín Cardona, the cast featured Carlos Miranda as Roy Cohn, Jacqueline Duprey as Hannah, Gabriela Saker as Harper, and Liván Albelo as Prior, among others. The production received critical praise and launched the new theater company.
In September 2017, a revival of the two plays were staged in Melbourne at fortyfivedownstairs for nearly a four-week run. The cast included veteran actor Helen Morse as Hannah Pitt, and Margaret Mills (who had appeared in the original Australian premiere of the play in 1994) as The Angel.
In February 2018, the 2017 Royal National Theatre production transferred to Broadway for an 18-week engagement at the Neil Simon Theatre. The majority of the London cast returned, with Lee Pace replacing Tovey as Joe, and Beth Malone playing the Angel at certain performances. Previews began on February 23, 2018 with opening night on March 25. The production won for Best Revival of a Play at that year's Tony Awards, with Garfield and Lane winning for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Play and Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Play respectively for their reprisal of their National Theatre performances, while Denise Gough and Susan Brown were nominated for Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Play. The production was recorded as an audiobook by Random House Audio, with Malone as the Angel and Bobby Canavale and Edie Falco narrating.
A critically acclaimed production opened at Berkeley Repertory Theatre in April 2018, directed by original commissioner Tony Taccone and featuring Randy Harrison as Prior, Stephen Spinella (who originated Prior Walter on Broadway) as Roy Cohn, Carmen Roman as Hannah, Benjamin T. Ismail as Louis, Danny Binstock as Joe, Bethany Jillard as Harper, Francisca Faridany and Lisa Ramirez alternating as the Angel, and Caldwell Tidicue, better known as Bob the Drag Queen, making his stage debut as Belize.
In the spring of 2023, Washington, D.C.'s Arena Stage presented Part 1, Millennium Approaches, starkly staged by Hungarian director Janos Szasz. The Washington Posts critic noted "‘Angels in America’ is back in freshly provocative, exhilarating form," particularly "the collision of seven disparate figures...who interconnect over matters political, medical, romantic — and most malignantly, through the machinations of one of them, lawyer Roy Cohn, played by Edward Gero to the toxic T."
Staging
Kushner prefers that the theatricality be transparent. In his notes about staging, he writes: "The plays benefit from a pared-down style of presentation, with scenery kept to an evocative and informative minimum. [...] I recommend rapid scene shifts (no blackouts!), employing the cast as well as stagehands in shifting the scene. This must be an actor-driven event. [...] The moments of magic [...] are to be fully imagined and realized, as wonderful theatrical illusions—which means it's OK if the wires show, and maybe it's good that they do..." Kushner is an admirer of Bertolt Brecht, who practiced a style of theatrical production whereby audiences were often reminded that they were in a theatre. The choice to have "no blackouts" allows audiences to participate in the construction of a malleable theatrical world.
One of the many theatrical devices in Angels is that each of the eight main actors has one or several other minor roles in the play. For example, the actor playing the nurse, Emily, also plays the Angel, Sister Ella Chapter (a real estate agent), and a homeless woman. This doubling and tripling of roles encourages the audience to consider the elasticity of, for example, gender and sexual identities.
Cast
Adaptations
HBO Miniseries
In 2003, HBO Films created a miniseries adaptation of the play. Kushner adapted his original text for the screen, and Mike Nichols directed. HBO broadcast the film in various formats: three-hour segments that correspond to Millennium Approaches and Perestroika, as well as one-hour "chapters" that roughly correspond to an act or two of each of these plays. The first three chapters were initially broadcast on December 7, to international acclaim, with the final three chapters following. Angels in America was the most watched made-for-cable film in 2003 and won both the Golden Globe and Emmy for Best Miniseries.
Kushner made certain changes to his play (especially Part Two, Perestroika) for it to work on screen, but the HBO adaptation is generally a faithful representation of Kushner's original work. Kushner has been quoted as saying that he knew Nichols was the right person to direct the film when, at their first meeting, Nichols immediately said that he wanted actors to play multiple roles, as had been done in stage productions.
The main cast consists of Al Pacino, Meryl Streep, Emma Thompson, Jeffrey Wright (reprising his Tony-winning Broadway role), Justin Kirk, Ben Shenkman, Patrick Wilson, and Mary-Louise Parker.
OperaAngels in America – The Opera made its world premiere at the Théâtre du Châtelet in Paris, France, on November 23, 2004. The opera was based on both parts of the Angels in America fantasia, however the script was re-worked and condensed to fit both parts into a two and half hour show. Composer Peter Eötvös explains: "In the opera version, I put less emphasis on the political line than Kushner...I rather focus on the passionate relationships, on the highly dramatic suspense of the wonderful text, on the permanently uncertain state of the visions." A German version of the opera followed suit in mid-2005. The opera made its US debut in June 2006 at the Stanford Calderwood Pavilion in Boston, Massachusetts.
Music
The text of Prior Walter's monologue from Act 5, Scene 5 of Perestroika was set to music by Michael Shaieb for a 2009 festival celebrating Kushner's work at the Guthrie Theater. The work was commissioned by the Twin Cities Gay Men's Chorus, which had commissioned Shaieb's Through A Glass, Darkly in 2008. The work premiered at the Guthrie in April 2009.
Critical receptionAngels in America received numerous awards, including the 1993 and 1994 Tony Awards for Best Play. The play's first part, Millennium Approaches, received the 1993 Pulitzer Prize for Drama.
The play garnered much praise upon its release for its dialogue and exploration of social issues. "Mr. Kushner has written the most thrilling American play in years," wrote The New York Times.
A decade after the play's premiere, Metro Weekly labeled it "one of the most important pieces of theater to come out of the late 20th century."
By contrast, in an essay titled "Angles in America", the cultural critic Lee Siegel wrote in The New Republic, "Angels in America is a second-rate play written by a second-rate playwright who happens to be gay, and because he has written a play about being gay, and about AIDS, no one—and I mean no one—is going to call Angels in America the overwrought, coarse, posturing, formulaic mess that it is." In his 1995 book Homos, literary critic and queer theorist Leo Bersani called Angels in America a "muddled and pretentious play", "[whose] enormous success [...] is a sign, if we need still another one, of how ready and anxious America is to see and hear about gays—provided we reassure America how familiar, how morally sincere, and, particularly in the case of Kushner's work, how innocuously full of significance we can be."
Controversy
In response to the frank treatment of homosexuality and AIDS, and brief male nudity, the play quickly became subject to controversial reaction from conservative and religious groups, sometimes labelled as being part of the "culture war". In Charlotte, North Carolina, in 1996, there were protests held outside a production of the play by the Charlotte Repertory Theatre at the North Carolina Blumenthal Performing Arts Center. This led to funding cuts for the Arts & Science Council of Charlotte, the city's arts funding agency, in the following year.
A 1999 production at Kilgore College, a community college in Kilgore, Texas, sparked protests from area and national homophobic groups and led to the town's mayor and commissioners pulling funds for the Texas Shakespeare Festival, which the production's director also ran. Kushner wrote a letter of support to the cast and crew, and the production did go forward.
Awards and nominations
Millennium Approaches
Perestroika
Angels in America
See also
Art of the AIDS CrisisThe World Only Spins Forward: The Ascent of Angels in America'' – an oral history of the play
References
External links
1991 plays
1990s LGBT literature
Broadway plays
Drama Desk Award-winning plays
HIV/AIDS in literature
HIV/AIDS in theatre
Cultural depictions of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg
LGBT-related plays
LGBT-related controversies in plays
LGBT-related controversies in theatre
Magic realism plays
New York Drama Critics' Circle Award winners
Plays about McCarthyism
Plays by Tony Kushner
Plays set in New York City
Plays set in the 1980s
Pulitzer Prize for Drama-winning works
Tony Award-winning plays
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Kahn%20%28architect%29
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Albert Kahn (architect)
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Albert Kahn (March 21, 1869 – December 8, 1942) was an American industrial architect. He was accredited as being an architect of Detroit and also designed industrial plant complexes such as the Ford River Rouge automobile complex. He designed the construction of Detroit skyscrapers and office buildings as well as mansions in the city suburbs. He led an organization of hundreds of architect associates and in 1937, designed 19% of all architect-designed industrial factories in the United States. Under a unique contract in 1929, Kahn established a design and training office in Moscow, sending twenty-five staff there to train Soviet architects and engineers, and to design hundreds of industrial buildings under their first five-year plan. They trained more than 4,000 architects and engineers using Kahn's concepts. In 1943, the Franklin Institute posthumously awarded Kahn the Frank P. Brown Medal.
Biography
Kahn was born on March 21, 1869, to a Jewish family in Rhaunen, in the Kingdom of Prussia. He received his early education in the school of Luxembourg. At age twelve in 1881, Kahn immigrated with his family to Detroit, Michigan. His father Joseph was trained as a rabbi; his mother Rosalie had a talent for the visual arts and music. Kahn had four brothers, including Moritz, who became an engineer, and Julius Kahn, an engineer and inventor, who later collaborated with him in his architectural firm. They also had two sisters.
Kahn quickly learned English and went to Detroit public schools. In 1883, he got a job at the architectural business of Mason and Rice where he got his initial architectural training. While working there he primarily designed residences and bank buildings. In 1891, at age 22, he won a Rotch Traveling Fellowship to study in Europe, where he toured Germany, France, Italy, and Belgium with Henry Bacon, another young architecture student. Bacon later designed the Lincoln Memorial that is located in Washington, D.C. After leaving Mason & Rice in 1895, Kahn joined in a partnership with Alexander B. Trowbridge and George W. Nettleton known as Nettleton, Kahn & Trowbridge. He married Ernestine Krolik in 1896 and they had four children.
Kahn, in 1902, formed a partnership with his brother Julius, a civil engineer. Later that year, Julius developed a novel and scientific method of reinforcing concrete with steel, making reinforced concrete construction practical and economical. After receiving a patent on the "Kahn System" of construction in 1903, Julius left Kahn's firm and established the Trussed Concrete Steel Company, or Truscon, to market the product. Reinforced concrete allowed for much larger open spaces within factory interiors not obtainable with conventional wood construction and at a lower cost than steel frame construction. Concrete had other beneficial characteristics, such as far better protection from fire and greater load-bearing capacity. By 1905, hundreds of buildings within the United States were being constructed using the Kahn System, including the first reinforced concrete automobile plant, completed for the Cadillac Motor Car Company at 450 Amsterdam Street in TechTown, Detroit. Julius Kahn collaborated with his brother on the design of many industrial projects throughout the US constructed with reinforced concrete, particularly automobile factories, with the result that Kahn became widely known for his expertise in the construction of concrete industrial structures.
Kahn was also responsible for designing many of the buildings and houses built under the direction of the Hiram Walker family in Walkerville, Ontario, including Willistead Manor. Kahn's interest in historically styled buildings is also seen in his houses in Detroit's Indian Village, the Cranbrook House, the Edsel & Eleanor Ford House, and The Dearborn Inn, the world's first airport hotel. Kahn's firm designed the Art Deco Fisher Building in Detroit's New Center area, a 28-story designated landmark. In 1929, the building was awarded a silver medal by the Architectural League of New York in the category of the year's most beautiful commercial building. From 1917 to 1929, Kahn's firm also designed the corporate headquarters for all three of the major Detroit daily newspapers and the General Motors building, at the time of its completion in 1922, the second largest office building in the world. His work was part of the architecture event in the art competition at the 1928 Summer Olympics.
Michigan
Henry Ford became interested in Kahn's unique designs that showed many benefits. Ford had Kahn design Ford Motor Company's Highland Park Ford Plant in 1909, for developing production techniques in the assembly line of manufacturing the Ford Model T on a large scale. In 1917, Kahn designed the half-mile-long Ford River Rouge Complex in Dearborn, Michigan. That factory complex was developed into the largest manufacturing cluster of plants in the United States and later the largest industrial manufacturer in the world with a workforce of 120,000 employees.
Kahn also designed many of what are considered the classic buildings of the University of Michigan in the city of Ann Arbor. These include Angell Hall, Burton Memorial Tower, Hill Auditorium, Hatcher Graduate Library, and William L. Clements Library. Kahn said later in life that, of all the buildings he designed, he wanted most to be remembered for his work on the William L. Clements Library. Kahn frequently collaborated with architectural sculptor Corrado Parducci. In all, Parducci worked on about 50 Kahn commissions, including banks, office buildings, newspaper buildings, mausoleums, hospitals, and private residences.
Kahn's firm was able to adapt to the changing needs of World War I and designed numerous army airfields and naval bases for the United States government during the war. During World War II, Kahn and his firm were in charge of several of the U.S. government's important construction projects that included aeronautical and tank arsenal plants. His 600-person office was involved in making Detroit industry part of America's Arsenal of Democracy. Among others, the office designed the Detroit Arsenal Tank Plant, and the Willow Run Bomber Plant, Kahn's last building, located in Ypsilanti, Michigan. The Ford Motor Company mass-produced Consolidated B-24 Liberator bombers here.
In 1937, Albert Kahn Associates was responsible for 19% of all architect-designed industrial factories in the United States. In 1941, Kahn received the eighth-highest salary and compensation package in the U.S., $486,936, of which he paid 72% in tax. Kahn worked on more than 1,000 commissions from Henry Ford and hundreds from other automakers. Kahn designed showrooms for Ford Motor Company in several cities, including New York, Washington, D.C., and Boston.
As of 2020, approximately 60 Kahn buildings were listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Five of these (the Fisher Building, Ford River Rouge complex, Edsel and Eleanor Ford House, General Motors Building, and Highland Park Ford Plant) were designated National Historic Landmarks. Not all of Kahn's works have been preserved. Cass Technical High School in Detroit, designed by Malcomson and Higginbotham and built by Kahn's firm in 1922, was demolished in 2011, after vandals had stripped it of most of its fixtures. The Donovan Building, later occupied by Motown Records, was abandoned for decades and deteriorated. The city demolished it as part of its beautification plan before the 2006 Super Bowl XL. In Kalamazoo, Michigan, the Kahn designed Checker Cab Manufacturing plant was shuttered following the bankruptcy of Checker Motors Corporation, in 2009. It was leveled in 2015.
Fifteen Kahn buildings are recognized by official Michigan historical markers:
Battle Creek Post Office
The Dearborn Inn
Detroit Arsenal Plant in Warren, Michigan
Detroit Free Press Building
Detroit News Building
Detroit Urban League (Albert Kahn House)
Eastern Liggett School
Edsel & Eleanor Ford House
Fisher Building
Ford Motor Company Lamp Factory
Grosse Pointe Shores Village Hall
Highland Park Ford Plant
Packard Automotive Plant
Packard Proving Grounds
Willow Run
In the Soviet Union
On May 8, 1929, through an agreement signed with Kahn by Saul G. Bron, President of Amtorg, the Soviet government contracted Albert Kahn Associates to help design the Stalingrad Tractor Plant, the first tractor plant in the USSR. On January 9, 1930, a second contract with Kahn was signed for his firm to become consulting architects for all industrial construction in the Soviet Union. Under these contracts, during 1929 to 1932 and the Great Depression, Kahn's firm established a design and training bureau in Moscow to train and supervise Soviet architects and engineers. This bureau, under the government's Gosproektstroi, was headed by Moritz Kahn and 25 others of Kahn Associates staff, who worked in Moscow during this project. They trained more than 4,000 Soviet architects and engineers; and designed 521 plants and factories under the nation's first five-year plan.
Kahn-designed buildings
Kahn has been called the "architect of Detroit" and designed almost 900 buildings in the city. Below is a listing of some of those buildings. All are located in Detroit, unless otherwise indicated.
Dexter M. Ferry summer residence, 1890 (remodeling of an early 19th-century stone farmhouse), Unadilla, New York (known as Milfer Farm, held by Ferry heirs today; Kahn also designed the "Honeymoon Cottage" on the estate, one of the earliest prefabricated houses built)
Hiram Walker offices, 1892, designer for Mason & Rice, Windsor, Ontario
William Livingstone House, 1894 designer for Mason & Rice (demolished, 2007)
Children's Free Hospital, 1896, Nettleton, Kahn & Trowbridge
Bethany Memorial Church, 1897, Nettleton, Kahn & Trowbridge
Bernard Ginsburg House, 1898, Nettleton & Kahn
Joseph R. McLaughlin, 1899, Nettleton & Kahn
George Headley, 1900, Nettleton & Kahn
Edward DeMille Campbell House, 1899, Nettleton & Kahn Ann Arbor, Michigan
Detroit Racquet Club, 1902 (Kahn designed the building, and the Vinton Company, whose offices were just down Woodbridge Street from the club, was awarded the general contract for erecting the facilities)
Frederick L. Colby, building permit issued 5/22/1901, finished 1902
Packard Automotive Plant, 1903 (Kahn's tenth factory built for Packard, but first concrete one)
Palms Apartments, 1903
Temple Beth-El, 1903 (Kahn's home synagogue, now the Bonstelle Theatre of Wayne State University)
Belle Isle Aquarium and Conservatory, 1904
Francis C. McMath, building permit issued 8/14/1902 finished 1904
Brandeis-Millard House, 1904, Gold Coast Historic District, Midtown Omaha, Nebraska
Arthur Kiefer, building permit issued 5/17/1905, finished 1905
Charles M. Swift, 1905
Albert Kahn House, 1906 (his personal residence)
Burham S. Colburn, building permit issued 8/7/1905, finished 1906
Gustavus D. Pope, 1906
Julian C. Madison Building, 1906
Allen F. Edwards, building permit issued 5/23/1906, finished 1906
George N. Pierce Plant, 1906, Buffalo, New York
Willistead Manor, 1906, Windsor, Ontario
Battle Creek Post Office, 1907, Battle Creek, Michigan (building featuring the concrete construction method used in Kahn's Packard plant)
Cranbrook House, 1907, Cranbrook Educational Community, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan
Service Building for the Packard Motor Car Company, 1907, New York City
Frederick H. Holt House, 1907
Highland Park Ford Plant, 1908, Highland Park, Michigan
Edwin S. George Building, 1908
Kaufman Footwear Building, 1908, Kitchener, Ontario (renovated into lofts in the early 2000s)
Mahoning National Bank, 1909, Youngstown, Ohio
Frederick Stearns Building addition, c. 1910
Packard Motor Corporation Building, 1910–11, Philadelphia
Chalmers automobile plant, building permit issued 11/6/1909, finished 1911
Merganthaler Linotype Company Buildings, 1910s-1920s, Brooklyn, New York City
National Theatre, 1911
Shaw Walker Company, Five-story expansion, 1912, Muskegon, Michigan
Bates Mill Building Number 5, 1914, Lewiston, Maine
Ford Motor Company Assembly Plant, 1914, Cleveland, Ohio (Cleveland Institute of Art since 1981)
Kales Building, 1914
Liggett School-Eastern Campus, 1914 (Detroit Waldorf School since 1964)
Benjamin Siegel, 1913-1914
Detroit Athletic Club, 1915
Garden Court Apartments, 1915
Buffalo Ford Motor Company Assembly Plant, 1915, Buffalo, New York
Vinton Building, 1916
Russell Industrial Center, 1916
Omaha Ford Motor Company Assembly Plant, 1916, North Omaha, Nebraska
Ford Motor Company - Assembly Plant, 1916, remodeled in 1924, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
Belt Line Center - Manufacturing Plant, 1916, Detroit, Michigan
The Detroit News Building, 1917
Ford Motor Company New York Headquarters, 1917, New York City
Ford River Rouge Complex, 1917–28, Dearborn, Michigan
Multiple buildings and Aircraft Maintenance Hangars (Bldg 777&781), 1917–19, Langley Field, Hampton, Virginia
Motor Wheel Factory, 1918, Lansing, Michigan (It has been renovated into residential lofts)
General Motors Building, 1919 (former GM world headquarters and second largest office building in the world at that time)
Dominion Tire Plant, 1919, Kitchener, Ontario
Fisher Body Plant 23, 1919
First Congregational Church addition, 1921
Ford Motor Company Assembly Plant, 1921, Toronto, Ontario (redeveloped into Shoppers World Danforth, 1962)
Phoenix Mill, 1921, Plymouth, Michigan
First National Building, 1922
Park Avenue Building, 1922
Former Detroit Police Headquarters, 1923
Temple Beth El, 1923 (a new building to replace the 1903 temple, currently occupied by the Bethel Community Transformation Center)
Walker Power Plant, 1923, Windsor, Ontario
The Flint Journal Building, 1924, Flint, Michigan
Olde Building, 1924
Ford Motor Company assembly plant, Copenhagen, Denmark, 1924
Ford Motor Company Lamp Factory, 1921–25, Flat Rock, Michigan
Detroit Free Press Building, 1925
Kalamazoo Gazette Building, 1925 (now Bronson Hospital Laboratory)
1001 Covington Apartments, 1925
Blake Building, 1926, Jackson, Michigan
Ford Hangar, 1926, Lansing Municipal Airport, Lansing, Illinois
Packard Motor Car Showroom and Storage Facility, c. 1926, Buffalo, New York
Packard Proving Grounds, 1926, Shelby Charter Township, Michigan
Packard Showroom, 1926, New York City
Consumers Power Company headquarters, 1927, Jackson, Michigan (demolished, 2013)
S. S. Kresge World Headquarters, 1927
Edsel & Eleanor Ford House, 1927, Grosse Pointe Shores, Michigan
Fisher Building, 1927
Buffalo Ford Motor Company Car Showroom, 1927, Buffalo, New York
Muskegon Chronicle Building, 1928, Muskegon, Michigan
Argonaut Building 1928 (General Motors laboratory, now owned by the College for Creative Studies)
Brooklyn Printing Plant (New York Times), 1929, Brooklyn, New York City
Detroit Times Building, 1929 (demolished, 1978)
Griswold Building, 1929
Packard Service Building, 1929, New York City
Ford Motor Company Assembly Plant, 1930, Richmond, California
Ford Engineering Laboratory and Powerhouse, 1930, Dearborn Michigan
New Center Building, 1930 (adjacent to the Fisher Building)
The Dearborn Inn, 1931, Dearborn, Michigan (world's first airport hotel)
Former Congregation Shaarey Zedek Building, 1932
Power Plant, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, 1933
General Motors Building, 1933, Chicago Century of Progress International Exposition
Ford Rotunda, 1934, Dearborn, Michigan (designed for the Chicago World's Fair; burned, 1963)
Ann Arbor Daily News Building, 1936, Ann Arbor, Michigan (now University of Michigan Credit Union)
Chevrolet/Fisher Body plant, Baltimore, Maryland, 1935 (demolished 2006)
Burroughs Adding Machine Plant, 1938, Plymouth, Michigan
Dodge Truck Plant, 1938, Warren, Michigan
Detroit Arsenal Tank Plant, 1941, Warren, Michigan
Willow Run Bomber Plant, 1941 (used by Ford for bombers during the war, then by Kaiser for cars, then by GM for transmissions)
Hangars A and B (later renumbered 110 and 111), 1943, NAS Barbers Point, Kapolei, Hawaii
Upjohn Tower, Kalamazoo, Michigan (designed for the Upjohn Company; demolished after Pfizer buyout, 2005)
Studebaker Factory, Building 84, 1923, South Bend, Indiana
Cold Spring Granite Company Main Plant, 1929, Cold Spring, Minnesota (demolished 2008)
King Edward Public School, 1905, Walkerville Neighbourhood, Windsor, Ontario. (demolished 1993, original front stone facade saved)
General Motors Stamping Plant, 1930, Indianapolis, Indiana (demolished 2014)
Bedrock Woodward Building 1449 Woodward
Garden Court Apartments 2900 E. Jefferson
Buildings at the University of Michigan
Below are University of Michigan campus structures built during Kahn's career.
Engineering Building (now West Hall), 1904
Psychopathic Hospital (demolished), 1906
Hill Auditorium, 1913
Helen Newberry Residence Hall, 1915
Natural Science Building (now School of Kinesiology Building), 1915
Betsy Barbour Residence Hall, 1920
General Library (now Harlan Hatcher Graduate Library), 1920
William L. Clements Library, 1923
Angell Hall, 1924
Physical Science Building (now Randall Laboratory), 1924
University Hospital (demolished), 1925
Couzens Hall, 1925
East Medical Building (previously C. C. Little Building, now North University Building), 1925
Thomas H. Simpson Memorial Institute, 1927
Alexander G. Ruthven Museums Building, 1928
Burton Memorial Tower, 1936
Neuropsychiatric Institute (demolished), 1938
Greek Organization Buildings:
Sigma Phi House (1900), 426 North Ingalls Street (demolished)
Delta Upsilon House (1903), 1331 Hill Street
Triangle House (1905–06), 1501 Washtenaw Avenue
Alpha Epsilon Phi House (1912), 1205 Hill Street
Psi Upsilon House (1924), 1000 Hill Street
Death and legacy
Kahn died in Detroit on December 8, 1942. Many of his personal working papers and construction photographs are housed at University of Michigan's Bentley History Library. His personal working library, the Albert Kahn Library Collection, is housed at Lawrence Technological University in Southfield, Michigan. The Archives of American Art at the Smithsonian house most of the family's correspondence and other materials.
The life and works of Kahn were celebrated in an exhibition of photographs, drawings, and models at the Detroit Institute of Arts from September 15 to November 1, 1970. It commemorated the 75th anniversary of the architectural firm which was founded by Kahn. Many of Detroit's leading industrialists who work in the buildings designed by Kahn were present at the celebration.
A staff writer for the Times Herald newspaper in 1970 wrote that Kahn was often called the father of industrial architecture. He was referred to as Architect of the Colossal by Reader's Digest magazine. The science museum Franklin Institute in Philadelphia recognized him as an architectural pioneer and awarded him their gold medal. The American Institute of Architects awarded him two of their gold medals in his lifetime. The staff writer estimated that Kahn was the architect of two billion dollars worth of structures before his death in 1942. The committee on science and arts of the Detroit Institute of Arts noted that none of Kahn's discoveries were ever patented, but instead were placed in the hands of architects and engineers engaged in construction during World Wars I and II. The 184 page catalogue put in book form called The Legacy of Albert Kahn consists of two essays on the works of Kahn, one by W. Hawkins Ferry the architectural writer and Honorary Curator of Architecture at the Detroit Institute of Arts and another written by Walter B. Sanders as a Professor of Architecture at the University of Michigan.
Detroit Free Press writer and historian John Gallagher notes that Kahn produced 1900 buildings, among them being the Fisher Building, the General Motors headquarters, the Ford River Rouge Complex, and many buildings on the campus of the University of Michigan. He points out that what was modern in 1920, like his automobile factories that he built between 1900 and 1920 were obsolete by 1990s standards and were being torn down. Some of his other buildings at that time no longer served the purpose for which they were constructed and were being remodeled for other uses.
See also
Kahn System, the industrial construction technique developed by Julius Kahn
Architecture of metropolitan Detroit
Joseph Nathaniel French
References
Sources
Further reading
Berkovich, Gary. Reclaiming a History. Jewish Architects in Imperial Russia and the USSR. Volume 2. Soviet Avant-garde: 1917–1933. Weimar und Rostock: Grunberg Verlag. 2021. P. 198.
External links
Albert Kahn Research Coalition
Albert Kahn papers from the Smithsonian Archives of American Art
Historic Detroit — Albert Kahn
Albert Kahn papers 1896–2008 Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan.
Photos and drawings of Soviet Diesel Tractor Plant, Canadian Centre for Architecture
Energized Detroit, Savor an Architectural Legacy — The New York Times, March 26, 2018
Walkerville
Albert Kahn Associates
Edsel & Eleanor Ford House
American neoclassical architects
American people of German-Jewish descent
Art Deco architects
Historicist architects
1869 births
1942 deaths
Concrete pioneers
Architects from Detroit
Culture of Detroit
Jewish architects
19th-century German Jews
Emigrants from the German Empire to the United States
People from Birkenfeld (district)
People from the Rhine Province
20th-century American architects
Olympic competitors in art competitions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language%20poets
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Language poets
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The Language poets (or L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E poets, after the magazine of that name) are an avant-garde group or tendency in United States poetry that emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The poets included: Bernadette Mayer, Leslie Scalapino, Stephen Rodefer, Bruce Andrews, Charles Bernstein, Ron Silliman, Barrett Watten, Lyn Hejinian, Tom Mandel, Bob Perelman, Rae Armantrout, Alan Davies, Carla Harryman, Clark Coolidge, Hannah Weiner, Susan Howe, James Sherry, and Tina Darragh.
Language poetry emphasizes the reader's role in bringing meaning out of a work. It plays down expression, seeing the poem as a construction in and of language itself. In more theoretical terms, it challenges the "natural" presence of a speaker behind the text; and emphasizes the disjunction and the materiality of the signifier. These poets favor prose poetry, especially in longer and non-narrative forms.
In developing their poetics, members of the Language school took as their starting point the emphasis on method evident in the modernist tradition, particularly as represented by Gertrude Stein, William Carlos Williams, and Louis Zukofsky. Language poetry is an example of poetic postmodernism. Its immediate postmodern precursors were the New American poets, a term including the New York School, the Objectivist poets, the Black Mountain School, the Beat poets, and the San Francisco Renaissance.
Language poetry has been a controversial topic in American letters from the 1970s to the present. Even the name has been controversial: while a number of poets and critics have used the name of the journal to refer to the group, many others have chosen to use the term, when they used it at all, without the equals signs. The terms "language writing" and "language-centered writing" are also commonly used, and are perhaps the most generic terms. None of the poets associated with the tendency has used the equal signs when referring to the writing collectively. Its use in some critical articles can be taken as an indicator of the author's outsider status. There is also debate about whether or not a writer can be called a language poet without being part of that specific coterie; is it a style or is it a group of people?
Online writing samples of many language poets can be found on internet sites, including blogs and sites maintained by authors and through gateways such as the Electronic Poetry Center, PennSound, and UbuWeb.
History
The movement has been highly decentralized. On the West Coast, an early seed of language poetry was the launch of This magazine, edited by Robert Grenier and Barrett Watten, in 1971. L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E, edited by Bruce Andrews and Charles Bernstein, ran from 1978 to 1982, and was published in New York. It featured poetics, forums on writers in the movement, and themes such as "The Politics of Poetry" and "Reading Stein". Ron Silliman's poetry newsletter Tottel's (1970–81), Bruce Andrews's selections in a special issue of Toothpick (1973), as well as Lyn Hejinian's editing of Tuumba Press, and James Sherry's editing of Roof magazine also contributed to the development of ideas in language poetry. The first significant collection of language-centered poetics was the article, "The Politics of the Referent," edited by Steve McCaffery for the Toronto-based publication, Open Letter (1977).
In an essay from the first issue of This, Grenier declared: "I HATE SPEECH". Grenier's ironic statement (itself a speech act), and a questioning attitude to the referentiality of language, became central to language poets. Ron Silliman, in the introduction to his anthology In the American Tree, appealed to a number of young U.S. poets who were dissatisfied with the work of the Black Mountain and Beat poets.
The range of poetry published that focused on "language" in This, Tottel's, L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E, and also in several other key publications and essays of the time, established the field of discussion that would emerge as Language (or L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E) poetry.
During the 1970s, a number of magazines published poets who would become associated with the Language movement. These included A Hundred Posters (edited by Alan Davies), Big Deal, Dog City, Hills, Là Bas, MIAM, Oculist Witnesses, QU, and Roof. Poetics Journal, which published writings in poetics and was edited by Lyn Hejinian and Barrett Watten, appeared from 1982 to 1998. Significant early gatherings of Language writing included Bruce Andrews's selection in Toothpick (1973); Silliman's selection "The Dwelling Place: 9 Poets" in Alcheringa, (1975), and Charles Bernstein's "A Language Sampler," in The Paris Review (1982).
Certain poetry reading series, especially in New York, Washington, D.C., and San Francisco, were important venues for the performance of this new work, and for the development of dialogue and collaboration among poets. Most important were Ear Inn reading series in New York, founded in 1978 by Ted Greenwald and Charles Bernstein and later organized through James Sherry's Segue Foundation and curated by Mitch Highfill, Jeanne Lance, Andrew Levy, Rob Fitterman, Laynie Brown, Alan Davies, and The Poetry Society of New York; Folio Books in Washington, D.C., founded by Doug Lang; and the Grand Piano reading series in San Francisco, which was curated by Barrett Watten, Ron Silliman, Tom Mandel, Rae Armantrout, Ted Pearson, Carla Harryman, and Steve Benson at various times.
Poets, some of whom have been mentioned above, who were associated with the first wave of Language poetry include: Rae Armantrout, Stephen Rodefer (1940–2015), Steve Benson, Abigail Child, Clark Coolidge, Tina Darragh, Alan Davies, Carla Harryman, P. Inman, Lynne Dryer, Madeline Gins, Michael Gottlieb, Fanny Howe, Susan Howe, Tymoteusz Karpowicz, Jackson Mac Low (1922–2004), Tom Mandel, Bernadette Mayer, Steve McCaffery, Michael Palmer, Ted Pearson, Bob Perelman, Nick Piombino, Peter Seaton (1942–2010), Joan Retallack, Erica Hunt, James Sherry, Jean Day, Kit Robinson, Ted Greenwald, Leslie Scalapino (1944–2010), Diane Ward, Rosmarie Waldrop, and Hannah Weiner (1928–1997). This list accurately reflects the high proportion of female poets across the spectrum of the Language writing movement. African-American poets associated with the movement include Hunt, Nathaniel Mackey, and Harryette Mullen.
Poetics of language writing: Theory and practice
Language poetry emphasizes the reader's role in bringing meaning out of a work. It developed in part in response to what poets considered the uncritical use of expressive lyric sentiment among earlier poetry movements. In the 1950s and 1960s, certain groups of poets had followed William Carlos Williams in his use of idiomatic American English rather than what they considered the 'heightened', or overtly poetic language favored by the New Criticism movement. New York School poets like Frank O'Hara and the Black Mountain group emphasized both speech and everyday language in their poetry and poetics.
In contrast, some of the Language poets emphasized metonymy, synecdoche and extreme instances of paratactical structures in their compositions, which, even when employing everyday speech, created a far different texture. The result is often alien and difficult to understand at first glance, which is what Language poetry intends: for the reader to participate in creating the meaning of the poem.
Watten's & Grenier's magazine This (and This Press which Watten edited), along with the magazine L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E, published work by notable Black Mountain poets such as Robert Creeley and Larry Eigner. Silliman considers Language poetry to be a continuation (albeit incorporating a critique) of the earlier movements. Watten has emphasized the discontinuity between the New American poets, whose writing, he argues, privileged self-expression, and the Language poets, who see the poem as a construction in and of language itself. In contrast, Bernstein has emphasized the expressive possibilities of working with constructed, and even found, language.
Gertrude Stein, particularly in her writing after Tender Buttons, and Louis Zukofsky, in his book-length poem A, are the modernist poets who most influenced the Language school. In the postwar period, John Cage, Jackson Mac Low, and poets of the New York School (John Ashbery, Frank O'Hara, Ted Berrigan) and Black Mountain School (Robert Creeley, Charles Olson, and Robert Duncan) are most recognizable as precursors to the Language poets. Many of these poets used procedural methods based on mathematical sequences and other logical organising devices to structure their poetry. This practice proved highly useful to the language group. The application of process, especially at the level of the sentence, was to become the basic tenet of language praxis. Stein's influence was related to her own frequent use of language divorced from reference in her own writings. The language poets also drew on the philosophical works of Ludwig Wittgenstein, especially the concepts of language-games, meaning as use, and family resemblance among different uses, as the solution to the Problem of universals.
Language poetry in the early 21st century
In many ways, what Language poetry is is still being determined. Most of the poets whose work falls within the bounds of the Language school are still alive and still active contributors. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, Language poetry was widely received as a significant movement in innovative poetry in the U.S., a trend accentuated by the fact that some of its leading proponents took up academic posts in the Poetics, Creative Writing and English Literature departments in prominent universities (University of Pennsylvania, SUNY Buffalo, Wayne State University, University of California, Berkeley, University of California, San Diego, University of Maine, the Iowa Writers' Workshop).
Language poetry also developed affiliations with literary scenes outside the States, notably England, Canada (through the Kootenay school of writing in Vancouver), France, the USSR, Brazil, Finland, Sweden, New Zealand, and Australia. It had a particularly interesting relation to the UK avant-garde: in the 1970s and 1980s there were extensive contacts between American Language poets and veteran UK writers like Tom Raworth and Allen Fisher, or younger figures such as Caroline Bergvall, Maggie O'Sullivan, cris cheek, and Ken Edwards (whose magazine Reality Studios was instrumental in the transatlantic dialogue between American and UK avant-gardes). Other writers, such as J.H. Prynne and those associated with the so-called "Cambridge" poetry scene (Rod Mengham, Douglas Oliver, Peter Riley) were perhaps more skeptical about language poetry and its associated polemics and theoretical documents, though Geoff Ward wrote a book about the phenomenon.
A second generation of poets influenced by the Language poets includes Eric Selland (also a noted translator of modern Japanese poetry), Lisa Robertson, Juliana Spahr, the Kootenay School poets, conceptual writing, Flarf collectives, and many others.
A significant number of women poets, and magazines and anthologies of innovative women's poetry, have been associated with language poetry on both sides of the Atlantic. They often represent a distinct set of concerns. Among the poets are Leslie Scalapino, Madeline Gins, Susan Howe, Lyn Hejinian, Carla Harryman, Rae Armantrout, Jean Day, Hannah Weiner, Tina Darragh, Erica Hunt, Lynne Dreyer, Harryette Mullen, Beverly Dahlen, Johanna Drucker, Abigail Child, and Karen Mac Cormack; among the magazines HOW/ever, later the e-based journal HOW2; and among the anthologies Out of Everywhere: Linguistically Innovative Poetry by Women in North America & the UK, edited by Maggie O'Sullivan for Reality Street Editions in London (1996) and Mary Margaret Sloan's Moving Borders: Three Decades of Innovative Writing by Women (Jersey City: Talisman Publishers, 1998).
Ten of the Language poets, each of whom at one time curated the reading series at the San Francisco coffee house of that name, collaborated to write The Grand Piano, "an experiment in collective autobiography" published in ten small volumes. Editing and communication for the collaboration was accomplished over email. Authors of The Grand Piano were Lyn Hejinian, Carla Harryman, Rae Armantrout, Tom Mandel, Ron Silliman, Barrett Watten, Steve Benson, Bob Perelman, Ted Pearson, and Kit Robinson. An eleventh member of the project, Alan Bernheimer, served as an archivist and contributed one essay on the filmmaker Warren Sonbert. The authors of The Grand Piano sought to reconnect their writing practices and to "recall and contextualize events from the period of the late 1970s."
Each volume of The Grand Piano features essays by all ten authors in different sequence; often responding to prompts and problems arising from one another's essays in the series.
Some poets, such as Norman Finkelstein, have stressed their own ambiguous relationship to "Language poetry", even after decades of fruitful engagement. Finkelstein, in a discussion with Mark Scroggins about The Grand Piano, points to a "risk" when previously marginalized poets try to write their own literary histories, "not the least of which is a self-regard bordering on narcissism".
See also
List of poetry groups and movements
List of literary movements
References
Further reading
Anthologies
Allen, Donald, ed. The New American Poetry 1945-1960. New York: Grove Press, 1960.
Andrews, Bruce, and Charles Bernstein, eds. The "L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E" Book. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1984.
Bernstein, Charles, ed. "Language Sampler," Paris Review, 1982
"43 Poets (1984)." boundary 2
The Politics of Poetic Form: Poetry and Public Policy. New York: Roof, 1990.
Hejinian, Lyn and Barrett Watten, eds.."A Guide to Poetics Journal: Writing in the Expanded Field, 1982–1998." Wesleyan University Press, 2013
Hoover, Paul, ed. Postmodern American Poetry: A Norton Anthology. New York: Norton, 1994.
Messerli, Douglas, ed. Language Poetries. New York: New Directions, 1987.
Silliman, Ron, ed. In the American Tree. Orono, Me.: National Poetry Foundation, 1986; reprint ed. with a new afterword, 2002. An anthology of language poetry that serves as a very useful primer.
Books: Poetics and criticism
Andrews, Bruce. Paradise and Method. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1996.
Beach, Christopher, ed. Artifice and Indeterminacy: An Anthology of New Poetics. Tuscaloosa: The University of Alabama Press, 1998
Bernstein, Charles. Content's Dream: Essays 1975–1984. Los Angeles: Sun & Moon Press, 1985
A Poetics. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992
My Way; Speeches and Poems. University of Chicago Press, 1999
Attack of the Difficult Poems: Essays and Inventions. University of Chicago Press, 2011
"Pitch of Poetry." University of Chicago Press, 2016.
Davies, Alan. Signage. New York: Roof Books, 1987.
Friedlander, Ben. Simulcast: Four Experiments in Criticism. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2004.
Hartley, George. Textual Politics and the Language Poets. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989.
Hejinian, Lyn. The Language of Inquiry. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000.
Howe, Susan. My Emily Dickinson. Berkeley: North Atlantic Books, 1988. Rpt, New Directions, 2007.
The Birth-Mark: Unsettling the Wilderness in American Literary History. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1993.
Huk, Romana, ed. Assembling Alternatives: Reading Postmodern Poetries Transnationally. Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 2003.
Lutzkanova-Vassileva, Albena, "The Testimonies of Russian and American Postmodern Poetry: Reference, Trauma, and History." New York: Bloomsbury, 2013
McCaffery, Steve. North of Intention: Critical Writings 1973–1986. New York: Roof Books, 1986.
Prior to Meaning: The Protosemantic and Poetics. Evanston: Northwestern UP, 2001.
Perelman, Bob. The Marginalization of Poetry: Language Writing and Literary History. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1996.
Piombino, Nick. Boundary of Blur. New York: Roof Books, 1993
Theoretical Objects. Green Integer Press, 1999.
Ratcliffe, Stephen. Listening to Reading. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2000
Reinfeld, Linda. Language Poetry: Writing as Rescue. Baton Rouge: LSU Press, 1992.
Silliman, Ron. The New Sentence. New York: Roof Books, 1987. An early collection of talks and essays that situates language poetry into contemporary political thought, linguistics, and literary tradition. See esp. section II.
Scalapino, Leslie. How Phenomena Appear to Unfold. Elmwood: Potes & Poets, 1989.
Objects in the Terrifying Tense / Longing from Taking Place. Roof Books, 1994.
The Public World / Syntactically Impermanence. Wesleyan University Press, 1999.
How Phenomena Appear to Unfold. Litmus Press, 2011.
Vickery, Ann. Leaving Lines of Gender: A Feminist Genealogy of Language Writing. Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 2000.
Ward, Geoff. Language Poetry and the American Avant-Garde. Keele: British Association for American Studies, 1993.
Watten, Barrett. The Constructivist Moment: From Material Text to Cultural Poetics. Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 2003. See esp. chaps. 2 and 3.
Total Syntax. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1984.
Books: Cross-genre and cultural writing
Armantrout, Rae. True. Berkeley, CA: Atelos | (Small Press Distribution), 1998.
Armantrout, Rae. Collected Prose. San Diego: Singing Horse, 2007.
Davies, Alan. Candor. Berkeley, CA, 1990.
Mandel, Tom. Realism. Providence, RI: Burning Deck.
Perelman, Bob, et al. The Grand Piano: An Experiment in Collective Autobiography. Detroit, MI: Mode A/This Press, 2006. . Described as an ongoing experiment in collective autobiography by ten writers identified with Language poetry in San Francisco. The project will consist of 10 volumes in all.
Piombino, Nick. Fait Accompli. Queens, NY: Factory School, 2006.
Scalapino, Leslie. Zither & Autobiography. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan, 2003.
Silliman, Ron. Under Albany. Cambridge, UK: Salt Publishing, 2004.
Watten, Barrett. Bad History. Berkeley, CA: Atelos | Small Press Distribution, 1998.
Articles
Andrews, Bruce, "L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E", in The Little Magazine in Contemporary America, ed. Ian Morris and Joanne Diaz (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015). Available online via Andrew's faculty page at Fordham University: Fordham English Connect.
Bartlett, Lee, "What is 'Language Poetry'?" Critical Inquiry 12 (1986): 741–752. Available through JStor.
Bernstein, Charles, "The Expanded Field of L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E," in Routledge Companion to Experimental Literature, ed. Joe Bray, Alison Gibbons, Brian McHale (London: Routledge, 2012).
Greer, Michael, "Ideology and Theory in Recent Experimental Writing or, the Naming of "Language Poetry," boundary 2, vol. 16, no. 2/3 (Winter/Spring, 1989), pp. 335–355.
Koirala, Saroj, "Linking Words with the World: The Language Poetry Mission", Tribhuvan University Journal, vol. 29 (2016), no. 1, pp. 175–190. .
Perloff, Marjorie, "The Word as Such: LANGUAGE: Poetry in the Eighties", American Poetry Review (May–June 1984), 13(3):15–22.
External links
Douglas Messerli's Introduction to the 2003 edition of "Language" Poetries (New Directions, 1987)
Barrett Watten, "On First Looking into Wikipedia's 'Language'" (2006 blog post)
Suman Chakraborty, "Meaning, Unmeaning and the Poetics of L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E" (2008)
Electronic Poetry Center
L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E Magazine online archive
Bruce Andrews-edited issue of Toothpick (1973)
The Dwelling Place: 9 Poets, Ron Silliman-edited issue of Alcheringa" (1974), via J. Henry Chunko blog of Danny Snelson (archived from the original on 2011-07-27)
Index for full run of This magazine
Bruce Andrews, "THE POETICS OF L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E"
Leevi Lehto, "In the Un-American Tree: The L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E Poetries and Their Aftermath, with a Special Reference to Charles Bernstein Translated" (one of the keynote addresses at the International Conference on 20th Century American Poetry, hosted by Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China, July 21, 2007)
Silliman's Blog: A weblog focused on contemporary poetry and poetics
Charles Bernstein author page and web log
New Poetics Colloquium proceedings (1985)
Robert Archambeau, "Bleed-Over and Decadence, or: No Bones About It, They're Talking About Language Poetry" (2005 blog post)
The Grand Piano website devoted to the "collective autobiography" by 10 of the so-called "West Coast" group of Language poets
Geoff Ward, Language Poetry and the American Avant-Garde (1993)
Andrew Epstein, "Verse vs. Verse: The Language Poets are taking over the academy. But will success spoil their integrity?" (Lingua Franca, Sept. 2000: 45–54)
Jerome McGann, "Contemporary Poetry, Alternate Routes" (chapter from his 1988 book, Social Values and Poetic Acts)
Kate Lilley, "This L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E" (1997), Jacket Magazine website
Eleana Kim, Language Poetry: Dissident Practices and the Makings of a Movement (1994), with an extensive bibliography
Poetry movements
Modernist poetry in English
American poetry
Contemporary literature
20th-century American literature
American literary movements
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduced%20species
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Introduced species
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An introduced species, alien species, exotic species, adventive species, immigrant species, foreign species, non-indigenous species, or non-native species is a species living outside its native distributional range, but which has arrived there by human activity, directly or indirectly, and either deliberately or accidentally. Non-native species can have various effects on the local ecosystem. Introduced species that become established and spread beyond the place of introduction are considered naturalized. The process of human-caused introduction is distinguished from biological colonization, in which species spread to new areas through "natural" (non-human) means such as storms and rafting. The Latin expression neobiota captures the characteristic that these species are new biota to their environment in terms of established biological network (e.g. food web) relationships. Neobiota can further be divided into neozoa (also: neozoons, sing. neozoon, i.e. animals) and neophyta (plants).
The impact of introduced species is highly variable. Some have a substantial negative effect on a local ecosystem (in which case they are also classified more specifically as an invasive species), while other introduced species may have little or no negative impact (no invasiveness). Some species have been introduced intentionally to combat pests. They are called biocontrols and may be regarded as beneficial as an alternative to pesticides in agriculture for example. In some instances the potential for being beneficial or detrimental in the long run remains unknown. The effects of introduced species on natural environments have gained much scrutiny from scientists, governments, farmers and others.
Terminology
The formal definition of an introduced species from the United States Environmental Protection Agency is "A species that has been intentionally or inadvertently brought into a region or area. Also called an exotic or non-native species".
In the broadest and most widely used sense, an introduced species is synonymous with "non-native" and therefore applies as well to most garden and farm organisms; these adequately fit the basic definition given above. However, some sources add to that basic definition "and are now reproducing in the wild", which means that species growing in a garden, farm, or house may not meet the criteria unless they escape and persist.
Subset descriptions
There are many terms associated with introduced species that represent subsets of introduced species, and the terminology associated with introduced species is now in flux for various reasons. Examples of these terms are "invasive", "acclimatized", "adventive", "naturalized", and "immigrant" species.
The term "invasive" is used to describe introduced species that cause ecological, economic, or other damage to the area in which they were introduced.
Acclimatized species are introduced species that have changed physically and/or behaviorally in order to adjust to their new environment. Acclimatized species are not necessarily optimally adjusted to their new environment and may just be physically/behaviorally sufficient for the new environment.
Adventive species are often considered synonymous with "introduced species", but this term is sometimes applied exclusively to introduced species that are not permanently established.
Naturalized species are often introduced species that do not need human help to reproduce and maintain their population in an area outside their native range (no longer adventive), but that also applies to populations migrating and establishing in a novel environment (e.g.: in Europe, house sparrows are well established since early Iron Age though they originated from Asia).
Immigrant species are species that travel, sometimes by themselves, but often with human help, between two habitats. Invasiveness is not a requirement.
Invasive species
Introduction of a species outside its native range is all that is required to be qualified as an "introduced species". Such species might be termed naturalized, "established", or "wild non-native species". If they further spread beyond the place of introduction and cause damage to nearby species, they are called "invasive species". The transition from introduction, to establishment and to invasion has been described in the context of plants. Introduced species are essentially "non-native" species. Invasive species are those introduced species that spread widely or quickly and cause harm, be that to the environment, human health, other valued resources, or the economy. There have been calls from scientists to consider a species "invasive" only in terms of their spread and reproduction rather than the harm they may cause.
According to a practical definition, an invasive species is one that has been introduced and become a pest in its new location, spreading (invading) by natural means. The term is used to imply both a sense of urgency and actual or potential harm. For example, U.S. Executive Order 13112 (1999) defines "invasive species" as "an alien species whose introduction does or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health". The biological definition of invasive species, on the other hand, makes no reference to the harm they may cause, only to the fact that they spread beyond the area of original introduction.
Some argue that "invasive" is a loaded word and harm is difficult to define.
From a regulatory perspective, it is neither desirable nor practical to list as undesirable or outright ban all non-native species (although the State of Hawaii has adopted an approach that comes close to this). Regulations require a definitional distinction between non-natives that are deemed especially onerous and all others. Introduced "pest" species, that are officially listed as invasive, best fit the definition of an invasive species. Early detection and rapid response is the most effective strategy for regulating a pest species and reducing economic and environmental impacts of an introduction.
In Great Britain, the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 prevents the introduction of any animal not naturally occurring in the wild or any of a list of both animals or plants introduced previously and proved to be invasive.
Nature of introductions
By definition, a species is considered "introduced" when its transport into an area outside of its native range is human mediated. Introductions by humans can be described as either intentional or accidental. Intentional introductions have been motivated by individuals or groups who either (1) believe that the newly introduced species will be in some way beneficial to humans in its new location or, (2) species are introduced intentionally but with no regard to the potential impact. Unintentional or accidental introductions are most often a byproduct of human movements and are thus unbound to human motivations. Subsequent range expansion of introduced species may or may not involve human activity.
Intentional introductions
Species that humans intentionally transport to new regions can subsequently become successfully established in two ways. In the first case, organisms are purposely released for establishment in the wild. It is sometimes difficult to predict whether a species will become established upon release, and if not initially successful, humans have made repeated introductions to improve the probability that the species will survive and eventually reproduce in the wild. In these cases, it is clear that the introduction is directly facilitated by human desires.
In the second case, species intentionally transported into a new region may escape from captive or cultivated populations and subsequently establish independent breeding populations. Escaped organisms are included in this category because their initial transport to a new region is human motivated.
The widespread phenomena of intentional introduction has also been described as biological globalization.
Positive Introductions
Although most introduced species have negative impacts on the ecosystems they enter into, there are still some species that have affected the ecosystem in a positive way. For example, in New Hampshire invasive plants can provide some benefits to some species. Invasive species such as autumn olive, oriental bittersweet, and honeysuckle produce fruit that is used by a handful of fruit-eating bird species. The invasive plants can also be a source of pollen and nectar for many insects, such as bees. These invasive plants were able to help their ecosystem thriving, and increase the native animal's chances of survival.
Motivations for intentional introductions
Economic
Perhaps the most common motivation for introducing a species into a new place is that of economic gain. Non-native species can become such a common part of an environment, culture, and even diet that little thought is given to their geographic origin. For example, soybeans, kiwi fruit, wheat, honey bees, and all livestock except the American bison and the turkey are non-native species to North America. Collectively, non-native crops and livestock account for 98% of US food. These and other benefits from non-natives are so vast that, according to the Congressional Research Service, they probably exceed the costs.
Other examples of species introduced for the purposes of benefiting agriculture, aquaculture or other economic activities are widespread. Eurasian carp was first introduced to the United States as a potential food source. The apple snail was released in Southeast Asia with the intent that it be used as a protein source, and subsequently to places like Hawaii to establish a food industry. In Alaska, foxes were introduced to many islands to create new populations for the fur trade. About twenty species of African and European dung beetles have established themselves in Australia after deliberate introduction by the Australian Dung Beetle Project in an effort to reduce the impact of livestock manure. The timber industry promoted the introduction of Monterey pine (Pinus radiata) from California to Australia and New Zealand as a commercial timber crop. These examples represent only a small subsample of species that have been moved by humans for economic interests.
The rise in the use of genetically modified organisms has added another potential economic advantage to introducing new/modified species into different environments. Companies such as Monsanto that earn much of their profit through the selling of genetically modified seeds has added to the controversy surrounding introduced species. The effect of genetically modified organisms varies from organism to organism and is still being researched today, however, the rise of genetically modified organisms has added complexity to the conversations surrounding introduced species.
Human enjoyment
Introductions have also been important in supporting recreation activities or otherwise increasing human enjoyment. Numerous fish and game animals have been introduced for the purposes of sport fishing and hunting. The introduced amphibian (Ambystoma tigrinum) that threatens the endemic California salamander (A. californiense) was introduced to California as a source of bait for fishermen. Pet animals have also been frequently transported into new areas by humans, and their escapes have resulted in several introductions, such as feral cats, parrots, and pond slider.
Lophura nycthemera (silver pheasant), a native of East Asia, has been introduced into parts of Europe for ornamental reasons.
Many plants have been introduced with the intent of aesthetically improving public recreation areas or private properties. The introduced Norway maple for example occupies a prominent status in many of Canada's parks. The transport of ornamental plants for landscaping use has and continues to be a source of many introductions. Some of these species have escaped horticultural control and become invasive. Notable examples include water hyacinth, salt cedar, and purple loosestrife.
In other cases, species have been translocated for reasons of "cultural nostalgia", which refers to instances in which humans who have migrated to new regions have intentionally brought with them familiar organisms. Famous examples include the introduction of common starlings to North America by the American Eugene Schieffelin, a lover of the works of Shakespeare and the chairman of the American Acclimatization Society, who, it is rumoured, wanted to introduce all of the birds mentioned in Shakespeare's plays into the United States. He deliberately released eighty starlings into Central Park in New York City in 1890, and another forty in 1891.
Yet another prominent example of an introduced species that became invasive is the European rabbit in Australia. Thomas Austin, a British landowner, had rabbits released on his estate in Victoria because he missed hunting them. A more recent example is the introduction of the common wall lizard (Podarcis muralis) to North America by a Cincinnati boy, George Rau, around 1950 after a family vacation to Italy.
Addressing environmental problems
Intentional introductions have also been undertaken with the aim of ameliorating environmental problems. A number of fast spreading plants such as kudzu have been introduced as a means of erosion control. Other species have been introduced as biological control agents to control invasive species. This involves the purposeful introduction of a natural enemy of the target species with the intention of reducing its numbers or controlling its spread.
A special case of introduction is the reintroduction of a species that has become locally endangered or extinct, done in the interests of conservation. Examples of successful reintroductions include wolves to Yellowstone National Park in the U.S., and the red kite to parts of England and Scotland. Introductions or translocations of species have also been proposed in the interest of genetic conservation, which advocates the introduction of new individuals into genetically depauperate populations of endangered or threatened species.
Unintentional introductions
Unintentional introductions occur when species are transported by human vectors. Increasing rates of human travel are providing accelerating opportunities for species to be accidentally transported into areas in which they are not considered native. For example, three species of rat (the black, Norway and Polynesian) have spread to most of the world as hitchhikers on ships, and arachnids such as scorpions and exotic spiders are sometimes transported to areas far beyond their native range by riding in shipments of tropical fruit. This was seen during the introduction of Steatoda nobilis (Noble false widow) worldwide through banana shipments.
Further there are numerous examples of marine organisms being transported in ballast water, among them the invasive comb jelly Mnemiopsis leidyi, the dangerous bacterium Vibrio cholerae, or the fouling zebra mussel. The Mediterranean and Black Seas, with their high volume shipping from exotic sources, are most impacted by this problem. Busy harbors are all potential hotspots as well: over 200 species have been introduced to the San Francisco Bay in this manner making it the most heavily invaded estuary in the world.
There is also the accidental release of the Africanized honey bees (AHB), known colloquially as "killer bees") or Africanized bee to Brazil in 1957 and the Asian carp to the United States. The insect commonly known as the brown marmorated stink bug (Halyomorpha halys) was introduced accidentally in Pennsylvania. Another form of unintentional introductions is when an intentionally introduced plant carries a parasite or herbivore with it. Some become invasive, for example, the oleander aphid, accidentally introduced with the ornamental plant, oleander.
Yet another unintentional pathway of introduction is during the delivery of humanitarian aid in the aftermath of natural disasters. This occurred during relief efforts for Hurricane Maria in Dominica, it was found that the common green iguana, the Cuban tree frog, and potentially the Venezuela snouted tree frog were introduced with the former two becoming established.
Most accidentally or intentionally introduced species do not become invasive as the ones mentioned above. For instance, Some 179 coccinellid species have been introduced to the U.S. and Canada; about 27 of these non-native species have become established, and only a handful can be considered invasive, including the intentionally introduced Harmonia axyridis, multicolored Asian lady beetle. However the small percentage of introduced species that become invasive can produce profound ecological changes. In North America, Harmonia axyridis has become the most abundant lady beetle and probably accounts for more observations than all the native lady beetles put together.
Introduced plants
Many non-native plants have been introduced into new territories, initially as either ornamental plants or for erosion control, stock feed, or forestry. Whether an exotic will become an invasive species is seldom understood in the beginning, and many non-native ornamentals languish in the trade for years before suddenly naturalizing and becoming invasive.
Peaches, for example, originated in China, and have been carried to much of the populated world. Tomatoes are native to the Andes. Squash (pumpkins), maize (corn), and tobacco are native to the Americas, but were introduced to the Old World. Many introduced species require continued human intervention to survive in the new environment. Others may become feral, but do not seriously compete with natives, but simply increase the biodiversity of the area. One example would be Dandelions in North America, which have become an essential source of early season nectar for both native and introduced pollinators, and do not meaningfully compete with native grasses or flowers.
A very troublesome marine species in southern Europe is the seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia. Caulerpa was first observed in the Mediterranean Sea in 1984, off the coast of Monaco. By 1997, it had covered some 50 km2. It has a strong potential to overgrow natural biotopes, and represents a major risk for sublittoral ecosystems. The origin of the alga in the Mediterranean was thought to be either as a migration through the Suez Canal from the Red Sea, or as an accidental introduction from an aquarium. Another troublesome plant species is the terrestrial plant Phyla canescens, which was intentionally introduced into many countries in North America, Europe, and Africa as an ornamental plant. This species has become invasive in Australia, where it threatens native rare plants and causes erosion and soil slumping around river banks. It has also become invasive in France where it has been listed as an invasive plant species of concern in the Mediterranean region, where it can form monocultures that threaten critical conservation habitats.
Japanese knotweed grows profusely in many nations. Human beings introduced it into many places in the 19th century. It is a source of resveratrol, a dietary supplement. It can grow in building foundations, threatening their stability, and spreads quite quickly.
Introduced animals
Most introduced species do not become invasive. Examples of introduced animals that have become invasive include the gypsy moth in eastern North America, the zebra mussel and alewife in the Great Lakes, the Canada goose and gray squirrel in Europe, the beaver in Tierra del Fuego, the muskrat in Europe and Asia, the cane toad and red fox in Australia, nutria in North America, Eurasia, and Africa, and the common brushtail possum in New Zealand. In Taiwan, the success of introduced bird species was related to their native range size and body size; larger species with larger native range sizes were found to have larger introduced range sizes.
One notoriously devastating introduced species is the small Indian mongoose (Urva auropunctata). Originating in a region encompassing Iran and India, it was introduced to the West Indies and Hawaii in the late 1800s for pest control. Since then, it has thrived on prey unequipped to deal with its speed, nearly leading to the local extinction of a variety of species.
In some cases, introduced animals may unintentionally promote the cause of rewilding. For example, escaped horses and donkeys that have gone feral in the Americas may play ecological roles similar to those of the equids that became extinct there at the end of the Pleistocene.
The exotic pet trade has also been a large source of introduced species. The species favored as pets have more general habitat requirements and larger distributions. Therefore, as these pets escape or are released, unintentionally or intentionally, they are more likely to survive and establish non-native populations in the wild. Among the popular exotic pets that have become alien or invasive species are parrots, frogs, terrapins, and iguanas.
Most commonly introduced species
Some species, such as the Western honey bee, brown rat, house sparrow, ring-necked pheasant, and European starling, have been introduced very widely. In addition there are some agricultural and pet species that frequently become feral; these include rabbits, dogs, ducks, snakes, goats, fish, pigs, and cats. Many water fleas such as Daphnia, Bosmina and Bythotrephes have introduced around the world, causing dramatic changes in native freshwater ecosystems.
Genetics
When a new species is introduced, the species could potentially breed with members of native species, producing hybrids. The effect of the creating of hybrids can range from having little effect, a negative effect, to having devastating effects on native species. Potential negative effects include hybrids that are less fit for their environment resulting in a population decrease. This was seen in the Atlantic Salmon population when high levels of escape from Atlantic Salmon farms into the wild populations resulted in hybrids that had reduced survival. Potential positive effects include adding to the genetic diversity of the population which can increase the adaptation ability of the population and increase the number of healthy individuals within a population. This was seen in the introduction of guppies in Trinidad to encourage population growth and introduce new alleles into the population. The results of this introduction included increased levels of heterozygosity and a larger population size. Wide-spread introductions of non-native iguanas are causing devastating effects on native Iguana populations in the Caribbean Lesser Antilles, as hybrids appear to have higher fitness than native iguanas, leading to competitive outcompetition and replacement. Numerous populations have already become extinct and hybridization continues to reduce the number of native iguanas on multiple islands.
In plants, introduced species have been observed to undergo rapid evolutionary change to adapt to their new environments, with changes in plant height, size, leaf shape, dispersal ability, reproductive output, vegetative reproduction ability, level of dependence on the mycorrhizal network, and level of phenotype plasticity appearing on timescales of decades to centuries.
On a planetary body
It has been hypothesized that invasive species of microbial life could contaminate a planetary body after the former is introduced by a space probe or spacecraft, either deliberately or unintentionally. It has also been hypothesized that the origin of life on earth is due to introductions of life from other planets billions of years ago, possibly by a sentient race. Projects have been proposed to introduce life to other lifeless but habitable planets in other star systems some time in the future. In preparation for this, projects have been proposed to see if anything is still alive from any of the feces left behind during the six Moon landings from 1969 to 1972.
See also
Archaeophyte
Adventitious plant
Biological dispersal
Biological hazard
Colonisation (biology)
Directed panspermia
Genetic pollution
Hemerochory
Naturalisation (biology)
Invasive species
References
Further reading
External links
National Estuarine and Marine Exotic Species Information System (NEMESIS)
The Naked Scientists Invasive Species Articles Ecologists challenge the categories that identify some species as natives and others as invaders.
Ecology terminology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brock%20University
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Brock University
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Brock University is a public research university in St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada. It is the only university in Canada in a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, at the centre of Canada's Niagara Peninsula on the Niagara Escarpment. The university bears the name of Maj.-General Sir Isaac Brock, who was responsible for defending Upper Canada against the United States during the War of 1812.
Brock offers a wide range of programs at the undergraduate and graduate levels, including professional degrees. Brock was ranked third among Canadian universities in the undergraduate category for research publication output and impact indicators in 2008 (the most recent ranking completed). Brock University is the only school in Canada and internationally to offer the MICA (Mathematics Integrated with Computing and Applications) program. Brock University's Department of Health Sciences offers the only undergraduate degree in Public Health in Canada. At the graduate level, Brock offers 49 programs, including nine PhD programs.
Brock's co-op program is Canada's fifth-largest, and the third largest in Ontario as of 2011.
Graduates enjoy one of the highest employment rates of all Ontario universities at 97.2 percent.
Brock has 12 Canada Research Chairs and nine faculty members who have received the 3M Teaching Fellowship Award, the only national award that recognizes teaching excellence and educational leadership.
History
In 1963 the Brock University Founders' Committee, chaired by Arthur Schmon and co-chaired by William B Gunning, offered Dr. James A. Gibson the invitation to become the founding president.
Brock University was established by the passage of the Brock University Act by the Legislative Assembly of Ontario in 1964. When the university first opened in September 1964, classes were held at the St. Paul Street United Church in downtown St. Catharines for 13 weeks until the Glenridge Campus was completely renovated.
Brock's Glenridge campus was officially opened on October 19, 1964 with Gibson as the university's founding president. In 1996 Brock University honoured Gibson by naming the university library in his honour.
Richard L. Hearn was appointed the university's inaugural chancellor in 1967. Canadian Cree actress Shirley Cheechoo was Chancellor from 2015 to 2020.
Brock University is named after Major-General Sir Isaac Brock, who commanded the British and Canadian forces during the War of 1812. Although the British and Canadian forces went on to win, Brock lost his life during the Battle of Queenston Heights in 1812, fought from the present-day site of the campus. His last words are said to have been Surgite! (Latin for "push on") — now used as the university's motto. For his contribution to Canada, Brock was voted the 28th Greatest Canadian in a 2004 poll, conducted by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation.
Main campus and residences
Isaac Brock Plaza
Using a blend of new construction and major upgrades of existing space, the project will grow Goodman School of Business from its current 50,526 sq. ft. to 76,758 sq. ft.
A feature will be the two-storey glass “engagement atrium” at the west end of the complex.
Taro Hall's nine current classrooms will be extensively renovated with new floors, ceilings, furniture, accessibility, lighting and technology, and all existing offices and spaces will either be enlarged or renovated with new flooring and fixtures.
Arthur Schmon Tower
The Arthur Schmon Tower was built in 1968 and houses the administrative offices for the university. Schmon was the primary force behind getting a university established in the Niagara peninsula and was the chairman of the Brock University Founders' Committee, formed in 1962. The Schmon Tower, along with the surrounding Thistle Complex, are characterized by their distinctive brutalist architecture.
The Schmon Tower also houses the James A. Gibson Library, named for founding president of the university James Alexander Gibson, which serves as the academic library for the university and is a member of the Canadian Association of Research Libraries. The main floor of the library consists of the Matheson Learning Commons which includes computer workstations, study rooms, multimedia classrooms, and the library's circulation and information desk.
Welch Hall
Welch Hall is home to Brock's Faculty of Education, the Instructional Resource Centre, as well as the David S. Howes Theatre.
It recently underwent an expansion, designed by Diamond and Schmitt Architects and costing in excess of $8 million, which added additional lecture halls and administrative offices as well as upgrades to Welch Hall's facilities.
Mackenzie Chown Complex
Designed by Canadian architect Raymond Moriyama, who also served as Chancellor of Brock, the Mackenzie Chown Complex primarily contains seminar rooms and science laboratories. The Mackenzie Chown Complex also houses the Pond Inlet convention space and the Map, Data & GIS Library. It was named for Mackenzie Chown, a former mayor of St. Catharines who served as chairman of the Brock Board of Trustees and chairman of the fundraising committee for a new science laboratory building to be added to the Complex.
Plaza Building
Completed in 2007, and designed by MacKay-Lyons Sweetapple Architects, the Plaza Building contains the Faculty of Social Sciences, as well as computer facilities, seminar rooms, and the new Brock Campus Bookstore. The Campus Store occupies the first floor (considered the 200 level, or level 2, in order to match Brock University's historic method of numbering its facilities).
The third floor houses seminar rooms and computer labs, as well as the Department of Political Science and its offices. The fourth floor houses additional seminar and computer rooms, as well as the Department of Economics and its offices. The fifth and sixth floors of this building are restricted access and can be entered only via security card verification. These two restricted floors are home to the Jack & Nora Walker Canadian Centre for Lifespan Development Research.
Walker Complex
The Walker Complex contains an athletic complex and academic offices. Constructed in 1973 and designed by Moffit, Moffit & Kinoshita Architects, the building has had a number of additions, including a major expansion in 2002 by Moriyama & Teshima Architects. The Eleanor Misener Aquatic Centre, an Olympic size competitive swimming pool features a depth adjustable hydraulic floor in shallow end (0–4 feet), a movable bulkhead, 5m diving tower, two 1m springboards and two 3m springboards, two Tarzan ropes, and a whirlpool. The Zone, a facility, includes over 60 pieces of cardio equipment as well as strength training equipment. Fitness and dance studios are located on the upper level along with classrooms. The lower level includes the Ian D. Beddis Gymnasium, which is equipped with drop down curtains that can divide the large space into four separate gymnasia. Each area has one basketball, one volleyball and three badminton courts that will accommodate recreational activities and intramural sports. Convocation is held in this space twice per year. It is in area with a ceiling height of . The Beddis gymnasium has a 200m suspended track with a rubberized surface. The Bob Davis gymnasium is home to the Brock Badgers basketball, volleyball and wrestling teams. The Leo Leblanc Rowing Centre is the training facility for the Badger varsity rowing teams and the St. Catharines Rowing Club. An eight-person tank allows rowers to simulate on-water training.
Cairns Complex
The Cairns Family Health and Bioscience Research Complex was completed in 2012. Designed by architectsAlliance, Toronto, Canada with lab design by Payette Associates of Boston, Massachusetts, USA, this building contains the University's most advanced research laboratories. It is intended to advance Canada's science and technology infrastructure and position Brock as a leader in human health and biosciences. CFHBRC researchers, who include six Canada Research Chairs, conduct research in areas such as cancer treatments, infectious diseases, biotechnology and green chemistry.
The facility houses the BioLinc business incubator to forge partnerships between research and industry, and stimulate an economic cluster in advanced health studies and biomanufacturing in the Niagara Region. The complex is also home to the Niagara Campus of the Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine.
The CFHBRC was developed based on principles of sustainability and quality environments, following the Canadian Green Building Council's Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) system. Construction of the CFHBRC began in August 2009, and it officially opened in September 2012.
Rankin Family Pavilion
Established in 2019, this building is currently under construction. Funded by LINC and the Rankin family - this new building will be Brock's latest and grandest change.
Residences
Brock's St. Catharines campus is home to 2,500 students in seven separate residences. The majority are first-year students, although there is a sizable population of upper-year students who live in residence. Traditional-style residences are serviced by Sodexo food services, who operate the DeCew and Lowenberger Dining Halls, and are also responsible for other miscellaneous residence tasks.
The enabling legislation is the Brock University Act, S.O. 1964.
Many of the buildings on campus were designed by the architectural firm, Moriyama & Teshima Architects.
The Brock Centre for the Arts is located on campus and features two large theatres, The Sean O'Sullivan (537 seats) and The David S. Howes (508 seats). The centre presents some figures in Canadian arts and entertainment, academics, and politics, and attracts general audiences from the Niagara Region.
Hamilton Campus (2000-2023) and Burlington Campus (2023-present)
Brock University also maintained a satellite campus in the city of Hamilton, Ontario. The primary user of this facility was the Faculty of Education, specifically the Teacher Education Department and Graduate Studies in Education and Continuing Education.
The Hamilton Campus was officially opened November 2, 2000. It was a campus with computer labs, an Instructional Resource Centre / Library, gymnasium, large classrooms, full and part-time faculty office space, food services, conference facilities, a board room, and green spaces within the courtyards and surrounding lawns of the campus.
The Hamilton Campus closed and moved to a new location in the Burlington area in 2023. In partnership with the City of Burlington, the University plans to relocate to the site of the former Robert Bateman High School.
Marilyn I. Walker School of Fine and Performing Arts
Construction began in the fall of 2012 on the Marilyn I. Walker School of Fine and Performing Arts in downtown St. Catharines. The facility was designed by Diamond Schmitt Architects and included the adaptive reuse of the Canada Hair Cloth Company, a five-storey brick and timber frame building from the 19th century.
After extensive work totalling $46 million, the Walker School's new home opened its doors in 2015, becoming the newest centre for the arts and culture industry in Niagara Region. The purpose-built facility houses 50 full-time faculty, part-time instructors and staff and more than 500 students. It will serve students pursuing careers as artists, theatre directors, actors, musicians, cultural theorists and skilled teachers. The creation of the centre was hoped to regenerate Downtown St. Catharines and gain traffic from the influx of students. Brock chose not to include food services in the facility to further integrate student life and activity with the downtown neighbourhood.
The Walker School is neighbours with St. Catharines' new FirstOntario Performing Arts Centre, located on adjacent lands. Construction of the $100 plus-million project, which was also designed by Diamond Schmitt, was completed in time for the Fall 2015 semester. The centre opened officially in November, with Brock agreeing to use two of the four theatres in the centre for daytime lectures, music recital and performance.
Rodman Hall Art Centre
The School of Fine and Performing Arts owns Rodman Hall, a downtown art gallery and teaching centre. The Centre provides exhibit space, fine art services and resources to the students and faculty of Brock University. Nationally, Rodman Hall supports the development of artists and cultural workers in southern Ontario through the dissemination of contemporary art, the management of the region's pre-eminent art collection, and the preservation of a significant historic house and gardens.
Academics
Brock's undergraduate and graduate degree programs are administered by seven faculties.
Faculty of Applied Health Sciences
Brock University's Faculty of Applied Health Sciences contains five academic departments: Department of Health Sciences, Department of Kinesiology, Department of Nursing, Department of Recreation & Leisure Studies, and Department of Sport Management. The faculty offers 11 undergraduate programs, seven master's degrees, and three doctoral fields of study. The Faculty houses a Biosafety level 3 facility.
Brock University's Department of Health Sciences offers the only undergraduate degree in Public Health in Canada.
The department also offer duo undergraduate programs (4 years total), each pairing a Community Health (Pass) degree with either a Pharmacy Technician, Dental Hygiene or Massage Therapy certification (two of four years at a partnered college).
Starting in 2011, the Public Health Honours program sets a new standard in Health Sciences, requiring three years of statistic classes as a part of the graduation requirement beginning with the class of 2015.
Goodman School of Business
The Goodman School of Business (formerly the Brock University Faculty of Business) is one of only five per cent (5%) of business schools worldwide to attain accreditation by the AACSB. Goodman also has a Beta Gamma Sigma chapter. The Goodman School of Business has two pathways accredited by the Chartered Professional Accountants Ontario (CPA Ontario): the Master of Business Administration, Accounting stream (CPA/MBA), and the combined Bachelor of Accounting program and (or equivalent) Master of Accountancy program (MAcc).
Containing fifteen percent (15%) of the students at Brock University, the Goodman School of Business offers undergraduate programs in accounting and business with Coop and Duo degree options.
Faculty of Education
Brock University's Faculty of Education offers programs in the following areas:
Degree Programs:
Concurrent Teacher Education
Consecutive Teacher Education
Graduate and Undergraduate education
Bachelor of Education in Adult Education undergraduate degree and certificate program
Post-Graduate Programs:
Master of Education, including an International Student Program
In service
The Department of Continuing Teacher Education offers Additional Qualification courses for Teachers
Brock's Faculty of Education was established in 1965 as the St. Catharines Teachers' College. In 1971 the Teachers' College became the College of Education, an integral part of the Brock University community. In 1990, the College of Education designation was changed to the Faculty of Education to better reflect its academic relationship with the university.
Faculty of Humanities
Brock University's Faculty of Humanities is composed of nine Departments and six Centres. This is the second largest faculty at Brock and encompasses twenty percent (20%) of the student population.
The departments and centres offers a total of 47 different Undergraduate Programs, Certificates and Coop Options. At the graduate level, this faculty offers seven masters program and an Interdisciplinary Humanities PhD Program with four different specializations.
Faculty of Mathematics and Science
Brock University's Faculty of Mathematics and Science offers degree programs in the follow areas:
Biochemistry
Biomedical Science
Biological Sciences
Biophysics
Biotechnology
Chemistry
Computer Science
Earth Sciences
Mathematics
Neuroscience
Physics
Its location in the Niagara Peninsula puts Brock at the centre of cool-climate grape and wine research. It carries the distinction of being the only university in Canada to offer an Honours Bachelor of Science degree in Oenology and Viticulture (See the Cool Climate Oenology and Viticulture Institute). Brock University is also the only school in Canada and internationally to offer the program MICA (Mathematics Integrated with Computing and Applications).
Faculty of Social Sciences
Brock University's Faculty of Social Sciences is the largest faculty at Brock and encompasses twenty six percent (26%) of the student population as of Fall 2013.
This faculty offers 26 Undergraduate Programs, including Co-op Options in Economics, Political Science and Psychology. At the graduate level, this faculty offers 10 masters programs and a PhD Program in Psychology with three different specializations.
Students enrolled in one of the undergraduate programs of the Faculty of Social Sciences can earn a degree with a certification through one of the collaborative programs with local colleges. There are 11 Collaborative programs in which social science majors can choose from; Behavioural Science, Child and Youth Workers, Contemporary Labour Studies, Emergency Management, Film Studies, Geomatics, Journalism, Paralegal, Policing and Criminal Justice, Public Relations and Yukon College. Applications must be submitted after completion of their first year of study maintaining a 70% average. Students spend their first, second and fourth year at Brock while their third is spent at the preferred local college. For example, Media and Communication students can enrol in their third year of study in the Public Relations collaborative program with Mohawk College. This allows students to end their undergraduate with a certification of Public Relations and a Bachelor of Arts in four years rather than five if done consecutively. Students who complete this program tend to go into the government sector, private agencies, corporations and/or non-profit.
Faculty of Graduate Studies
The Faculty of Graduate Studies offers 49 graduate programs, including nine PhD programs.
In addition, Concordia Lutheran Theological Seminary (an institution of the Lutheran Church - Canada) is affiliated with the university and offers a four-year Master of Divinity.
Student life
Careers
Brock Career Services offer online and offline support through its Career Resource Center and various programs. Some notable programs such as Mentorship Plus connect students to senior students, as well as connecting senior students to professionals working within their fields of study.
The Career Development Group, a lesser well known service, connect students in any field of study to live interview experiences through an annual speed interview event, professional opportunities through workshops and professionals relevant to their major in small groups or at a one on one capacity. This later service is generally offered directly to the Mentorship Plus program participants by the Mentorship Plus Co-ordinator.
The Career Zone is an online resource for posting jobs and recruiting students and connect students with employers. Job fairs, career events and workshops are also listed on Career Zone. Individual Faculties and Departments also offer their own services in Coop, placement, internship and work experience opportunities.
Activities
Non-academic community engagement is highly encouraged at Brock with 65,000+ volunteer hours on average per year clocked by Brock students. Any Brock student can start a club of their own. The university's clubs are identified by three major categories: (A) Cultural, Religious & International Clubs; (B) Social, Recreation & Activist Clubs; and (C) Faculty & Departmental Clubs. There are other events such as parades and cancer runs.
Brock Intramurals are active all year, with sports such as Volleyball, Flag Football, Slow-pitch, Water Polo, Ball Hockey, Soccer, Soccer Baseball and Tennis; and include Tournaments in Coed Quidditch, Coed Wallyball, Coed Ultimate, Coed Football and Basketball.
Facilities such as The Zone Fitness Center, track, gymnasia, studios, pool and whirlpool, shower rooms, sauna, squash and outdoor tennis courts are free for current students. Some Brock undergraduate students take up roles of bloggers to write about their activities at school, some of which are accessible through Brock's website.
Social events
Brock University's Skybar Lounge, run by the Brock University Students' Union in the Student-Alumni Centre, hosts parties and social events for nearly every occasion on campus. Some notable year round events include Frosh Week, Homecoming, O-Week and President's Ball.
Athletics
The university is represented in U Sports by the Brock Badgers.
Brock has the following varsity sports:
Baseball (Men's)
Basketball (Men's & Women's)
Cross Country (Men's & Women's)
Curling (Men's & Women's)
Fencing (Men's & Women's)
Figure Skating
Golf (Men's & Women's)
Ice Hockey (Men's & Women's)
Lacrosse (Men's & Women's)
Rowing (Men's & Women's)
Rugby union (Men's & Women's)
Soccer (Men's & Women's)
Squash (Men's & Women's)
Swimming (Men's & Women's)
Tennis (Men's & Women's)
Track & Field (Men's & Women's)
Volleyball (Men's & Women's)
Wrestling (Men's & Women's)
Brock has the following club teams:
Ball Hockey (Men's)
Cheerleading (Women's)
Equestrian (Women's)
eSports
Fastpitch (Women's)
Powerlifting
Ringette (Women's)
Ultimate Frisbee (Co-ed)
To date, the Badgers have won 47 national championships and 94 provincial championships, with exceptional success in wrestling.
Scholarships and bursaries
The Government of Canada sponsors an Aboriginal Bursaries Search Tool that lists over 680 scholarships, bursaries, and other incentives offered by governments, universities, and industry to support Aboriginal post-secondary participation. Brock University scholarships for Aboriginal, First Nations and Métis students include: Enbridge Aboriginal Bursary;
Over 150 Brock University Donor Awards are available with a combined total of over $500,000.
The University also offers current students with funding opportunities to study internationally on a variety of Research, language and student exchange programs.
Notable alumni
With 96,000 alumni around the world, graduates are represented by the Brock University Alumni Association. The Alumni Association is an autonomous organization run by a volunteer Board of Directors.
See also
List of Ontario Universities
List of colleges and universities named after people
Ontario Student Assistance Program
Higher education in Ontario
Canadian government scientific research organizations
Canadian university scientific research organizations
Canadian industrial research and development organizations
Notes and references
External links
1964 establishments in Ontario
Buildings and structures in St. Catharines
Universities and colleges established in 1964
Universities in Ontario
BSL3 laboratories in Canada
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamentalist%20Church%20of%20Jesus%20Christ%20of%20Latter-Day%20Saints
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Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints
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The Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS Church) is a religious sect of the fundamentalist Mormon denominations whose members practice polygamy. It is estimated that 6,000 to 10,000 members reside in Hildale, Utah; Rocky Ridge, Utah, and Colorado City, Arizona (raided); Eldorado, Texas (raided); Westcliffe, Colorado; Mancos, Colorado; Creston and Bountiful, British Columbia (sold); and Pringle, South Dakota (sold).
Locations
While originally located in Short Creek (now Colorado City), its headquarters shifted to Eldorado, Texas; and Ruso, North Dakota after the Yearning for Zion raid. The Texas Attorney General's Office ruled the state could seize the Yearning for Zion ranch on January 6, 2014, and by April 17 they took full custody.
History
Origins
The residents in the area of Hildale and Colorado City have a long history of practicing polygamy, dating to the mid-19th century. It is taught in the community that Brigham Young, then president of the LDS Church, once visited the area and said "this will someday be the head and not the tail of the church. This will be the granaries of the Saints. This land will produce in abundance sufficient wheat to feed the people." The twin cities were once known as Short Creek, officially founded in 1913 as a ranching community.
The FLDS traces its claim to spiritual authority to accounts, starting with a statement published in 1912 by Lorin C. Woolley, of a purported 1886 divine revelation to then-LDS Church President John Taylor. They see the 1886 Revelation as precluding validity of the 1890 Manifesto against new plural marriages by church members, issued by Wilford Woodruff, whom the LDS Church recognizes as Taylor's successor. After the formal abandonment of plural marriage by the LDS Church, many members around Short Creek and elsewhere continued, and even solemnized, plural marriages. In 1904 the LDS Church issued the Second Manifesto, and eventually excommunicated those who continued to solemnize or enter into new plural marriages.
Short Creek soon became a gathering place for polygamist former members of the LDS Church. In 1935, the LDS Church excommunicated the Mormon residents of Short Creek who refused to sign an oath renouncing polygamy. Following this, John Y. Barlow began to lead a group of Mormon fundamentalists who were dedicated to preserving the practice of plural marriage. The location on the Utah–Arizona border was thought to be ideal for the group because it allowed them to avoid state raids by moving across the state line. Ben Bistline has called it a "popular misconception" that the spot was chosen because it straddled the state line, rather than being where the property offered to the Priesthood Council happened to be.
Some of the locally prominent men in Short Creek, after being excommunicated by the LDS Church, later became leaders of the Mormon fundamentalist movement, including Lorin C. Woolley, J. Leslie Broadbent, John Y. Barlow, Charles Zitting, Joseph White Musser, LeGrand Woolley, and Louis A. Kelsch. In 1932, these men created the organization known as the Council of Friends, a group of seven high priests that was said to be the governing priesthood body on Earth. The Council of Friends became the governing ecclesiastical body over the Mormon fundamentalists at Short Creek.
The early years of the movement were contentious and saw many differing interpretations and opinions among leaders as to how plural marriage should be practised. These contentions eventually led to the subsequent schisms that created the multiple Mormon fundamentalist organizations that now exist, including the FLDS Church, the Apostolic United Brethren, and the Latter-day Church of Christ or Kingston group. It is commonly believed by all of these sects that the early leaders of the fundamentalist movement claimed to receive revelations from God commanding that plural marriage should not cease.
One researcher has suggested that the concept of the FLDS as a separate church entity did not fully arise until a 1987 lawsuit when the full name of the church first appears. According to this interpretation, the original authority conferred by Lorin C. Woolley was only for the purpose of initiating plural marriages, not for the establishment of a new church, and many early Short Creek polygamists continued to regard the LDS Church as authoritative but "out of order" on the matter of polygamy. Such members held hope that the LDS Church would one day come back "into order" and re-establish the practice of polygamy.
Postwar development
The first leader of the FLDS Church was John Y. Barlow, who led the community of Short Creek until his death on December 29, 1949. He was succeeded by Joseph White Musser, who was the church's leader during a government crackdown on polygamy known as the Short Creek raid, in 1953, in which all the FLDS Church members of Short Creek were arrested, including 236 children.
Musser led the community until a contentious appointment of Rulon Allred to a high position of authority in 1951 angered some members of the Short Creek community. Musser had appointed Allred to be his successor, but Allred was not accepted as his successor by the Short Creek community. This led to a schism, with many followers breaking off and joining Allred; this offshoot became known as the Apostolic United Brethren. The core group in the Short Creek area instead followed Charles Zitting as its leader.
Short Creek raid
In the morning of July 26, 1953, 102 Arizona state police officers and National Guard soldiers raided the fundamentalist Mormon community of Short Creek, Arizona. They arrested the entire populace, including 236 children. Of those 236 children, 150 were not allowed to return to their parents for more than two years. Other parents never regained custody of their children.
The Short Creek raid was the largest mass arrest of polygamists in American history, and it received a great deal of press coverage. After the raid, polygamists continued to live there; in 1960, Short Creek was renamed Colorado City.
From Leroy S. Johnson to Warren Jeffs
Charles Zitting died in 1954 and Leroy S. Johnson was chosen to lead the church in Short Creek. Johnson led the FLDS Church until his death in 1986. In 1984, a schism formed within the FLDS Church just before the death of Leroy S. Johnson. A small group of FLDS (known as the Centennial Park group) took issue with the "one-man rule" doctrine that altered the leadership structure of the church and that was implemented fully when Rulon Jeffs assumed his position as sole leader of the organization. These followers took up residence just south of Colorado City, in Centennial Park, Arizona, calling themselves "The Work of Jesus Christ", or "The Work" for short.
Upon his death in 1986 Johnson was succeeded by Rulon Jeffs, who assumed the position of Prophet, a title his predecessor refused to use. In Jeffs's later years, his poor health led to one of his sons, Warren Jeffs, serving as leader of the church in his stead, and upon Rulon's death in September 2002, Warren Jeffs became leader of the FLDS Church.
After Warren Jeffs assumed leadership, Winston Blackmore, who had been serving in Canada as the Bishop of Bountiful for the FLDS Church, was excommunicated by Jeffs in an apparent power struggle. This led to a split within the community in Bountiful, British Columbia, with an estimated 700 FLDS members leaving the church to follow Blackmore.
Legal troubles, 2003–2006
Polygamy is illegal in all 50 states of the United States as well as Canada and Mexico. Attempts to overturn the illegality based on right of religious freedom have been unsuccessful. In 2003, the church received increased attention from the state of Utah when police officer Rodney Holm, a member of the church, was convicted of unlawful sexual conduct with a 16- or 17-year-old and one count of bigamy for his marriage to and impregnation of plural wife Ruth Stubbs. The conviction was the first legal action against a member of the FLDS Church since the Short Creek raid.
In November 2003, church member David Allred purchased "as a hunting retreat" the Isaacs Ranch northeast of Eldorado, Texas, on Schleicher County Road 300 and sent 30 to 40 construction workers from Colorado City–Hildale to begin work on the property. Improvements soon included three 3-story houses, each 8,000 to , a concrete plant, and a plowed field. After seeing high-profile FLDS Church critic Flora Jessop on the ABC television program Primetime Live on March 4, 2004, concerned Eldorado residents contacted Jessop. She investigated, and on March 25, 2004, Jessop held a press conference in Eldorado confirming that the new neighbors were FLDS Church adherents. On May 18, 2004, Schleicher County Sheriff David Doran and his Chief Deputy visited Colorado City, and the FLDS Church officially acknowledged that the Schleicher County property would be a new base for the church. It was reported in the news media that the church had built a temple at the YFZ Ranch; this is supported by evidence, including aerial photographs of a large stone structure (approximately wide) in a state of relative completion. A local newspaper, the Eldorado Success, reported that the temple foundation was dedicated January 1, 2005 by Warren Jeffs.
On January 10, 2004, Dan Barlow (the mayor of Colorado City) and about 20 other men were excommunicated from the church and stripped of their wives and children (who would be reassigned to other men), and the right to live in the town. The same day two teenage girls reportedly fled the towns with the aid of activist Flora Jessop, who advocates plural wives' escape from polygamy. The two girls, Fawn Broadbent and Fawn Holm, soon found themselves in a highly publicized dispute over their freedom and custody. After the allegations against their parents were proven false, Flora helped them flee state custody together on February 15, and they ended up in Salt Lake City at Fawn Holm's brother Carl's house.
In October 2004, Flora Jessop reported that David Allred purchased a parcel of land near Mancos, Colorado, (midway between Cortez and Durango) about the same time he bought the Schleicher County property. Allred told authorities the parcel was to be used as a hunting retreat.
In July 2005, eight men of the church were indicted for sexual contact with minors. All of them turned themselves in to police in Kingman, Arizona, within days.
On July 29, 2005, Brent W. Jeffs filed suit accusing three of his uncles, including Warren Jeffs, of sexually assaulting him when he was a child. The suit also named the FLDS Church as a defendant. On August 10, former FLDS Church member Shem Fischer, Dan Fischer's brother, added the church and Warren Jeffs as defendants to a 2002 lawsuit claiming he was illegally fired because he no longer adhered to the faith. Fischer, who was a salesman for a wooden cabinetry business in Hildale, claimed church officials interfered with his relationship with his employer and blacklisted him. The district court granted summary judgment in favor of the company and found that Fischer was not fired from his job, but quit instead. The district court ruling was overturned in part on the basis that Fischer was discriminated against on the basis of religion when he reapplied for his position and was denied employment because he had left the FLDS church. The parties eventually settled the case for an agreed payment of damages to Shem Fischer.
In July 2005, six young adult "Lost Boys" who claimed they were cast out of their homes on the Utah–Arizona border to reduce competition for wives, filed suit against the FLDS Church. "The [boys] have been excommunicated pursuant to that policy and practice and have been cut off from family, friends, benefits, business and employment relationships, and purportedly condemned to eternal damnation", their suit says. "They have become 'lost boys' in the world outside the FLDS community."
On May 7, 2006, the FBI named Warren Jeffs to its Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list on charges of unlawful flight to avoid prosecution. He was captured on Interstate 15 on August 28, 2006, just north of Las Vegas, Nevada, after a routine traffic stop.
The mayor of Colorado City, Terrill C. Johnson, was arrested on May 26, 2006, for eight fraudulent vehicle registration charges for registering his vehicles in a different state than he lived, which is a felony. He was booked into Purgatory Correctional Facility in Hurricane, Utah, and was released after paying the $5,000 bail in cash.
Leadership struggles, 2007–11
On September 25, 2007, after trial by a jury in St. George, Utah, Jeffs was found guilty of two counts of being an accomplice to rape and was sentenced to ten years to life in prison. This conviction was later overturned, but he was subsequently sentenced to life in prison plus 20 years and fined $10,000 after being convicted on charges of aggravated sexual assault and sexual assault.
From 2007 to 2011, the leadership of the FLDS Church was unclear. On November 20, 2007, following Warren Jeffs's conviction, attorneys for Jeffs released the following statement: "Mr. Jeffs resigned as President of The Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, Inc." The statement did not address his position as prophet of the church, but merely addressed his resignation from his fiduciary post as president of the corporation belonging to the FLDS Church.
According to a Salt Lake Tribune telephone transcript, there is evidence that, when incarcerated, Warren Jeffs made statements naming William E. Jessop, a former first counselor, as his successor or, alternatively, that Jeffs had told Jessop on January 24, 2007, that he (Jeffs) had never been the rightful leader of the FLDS. Many press accounts suggested that Merril Jessop, who had been leading the Eldorado compound, was the de facto leader of the church. Additionally, on January 9, 2010, documents filed with the Utah Department of Commerce named Wendell L. Nielsen as the president of the sect. The FLDS incorporation charter does not require the church president to be the church's prophet, but the previous president Rulon Jeffs had also been prophet. In 2010, Willie Jessop, the church's spokesman, refused to name the incumbent prophet "out of fear there'd be retaliation by the government".
On January 28, 2011, Jeffs reasserted his leadership of the denomination, and Nielsen was removed as the church's legal president. According to affidavits submitted by FLDS church leaders, Jeffs was acclaimed as leader at mass meetings of 4,000 church members in February and April 2011, and on April 10, 2011, a group of 2,000 male FLDS members voted unanimously to "uphold and sustain" Jeffs's authority. By that time Willie Jessop had publicly broken with Jeffs, putting himself forward as a challenger for the leadership, but he was subsequently declared an apostate and left the church. A 2012 CNN documentary confirmed that Jeffs still led the church from prison.
April 2008 raid
In April 2008, acting on the outcry of an alleged teen victim of physical and sexual abuse at the FLDS compound in Schleicher County, Texas, Texas Child Protective Services and Department of Public Safety officers entered the compound to serve search and arrest warrants and carry out court orders designed to protect children. Over the course of several days, from April 3 through April 10, Texas CPS removed 439 children under age 18 from the church's YFZ Ranch, while law enforcement, including Texas Rangers, executed their search and arrest warrants on the premises. The April 2008 events at the YFZ Ranch generated intense press coverage in the U.S., especially in the Southwest, and also garnered international attention.
On April 18, 2008, following a two-day hearing, Judge Barbara Walther of the 51st Judicial District Court ordered all of the FLDS children to remain in the temporary custody of Child Protective Services. Judge Walther's ruling was subsequently reversed by the 3rd Court of Appeals in Austin, Texas in a ruling that Texas CPS was not justified in removing every child from the ranch. The 3rd Court of Appeals granted mandamus relief and ordered the trial court to vacate the portion of its order giving CPS temporary custody of the FLDS children. CPS petitioned the Texas Supreme Court requesting that the 3rd Court of Appeals' ruling be overturned, but the Texas Supreme Court, in a written opinion issued May 29, 2008, declined to overturn the ruling of the 3rd Court of Appeals.
The abuse hotline calls that prompted the raid are now believed to have been made by Rozita Swinton, a non-FLDS woman with no known connection to the FLDS community in Texas. Nevertheless, the search warrants executed at the YFZ compound were determined by the court to have been legally issued and executed, and the evidence seized cannot be excluded on the basis that the initial outcry may have been a hoax.
In November 2008, 12 FLDS men were charged with offenses related to alleged underage marriages conducted during the years since the sect built the YFZ Ranch. As of June 2010, six FLDS members had been convicted of felonies and received sentences ranging from seven to 75 years' imprisonment.
Prosecutions in Texas
On November 5, 2009, a Schleicher County, Texas jury found Raymond Merril Jessop, 38, guilty of sexual assault of a child. According to evidence admitted at trial, Jessop sexually assaulted a 16-year-old girl to whom he had been "spiritually married" when the girl was 15 years old. The same jury sentenced Jessop to 10 years in prison and assessed a fine of $8,000.
On December 18, 2009, a Schleicher County, Texas jury found Allan Keate guilty of sexual assault of a child. Keate fathered a child with a 15-year-old girl. According to documents admitted at trial, Keate had also given three of his own daughters away in "spiritual" or "celestial" marriage, two of them at 15 and one at 14, to older men. The youngest of the three went to Warren Jeffs. He was sentenced to 33 years in prison. The conviction and sentence was later upheld on appeal.
On January 22, 2010, Michael George Emack pleaded no contest to sexual assault charges and was sentenced to seven years in prison. He married a 16-year-old girl at YFZ Ranch on August 5, 2004. She gave birth to a son less than a year later.
On March 17, 2010, a Tom Green County, Texas jury found Merril Leroy Jessop guilty of sexual assault of a child after deliberating only one hour. Evidence admitted at the criminal trial proved beyond a reasonable doubt that Jessop, 35, sexually assaulted a 15-year-old girl while living at the FLDS Ranch in Schleicher County, Texas. The jury sentenced Jessop to 75 years in prison and assessed a $10,000 fine.
April 2010 raid
On April 6, 2010, Arizona officials executed search warrants at governmental offices of the towns of Colorado City, Arizona and Hildale, Utah. According to one report, the warrants involved the misuse of funds and caused the Hildale Public Safety Department to be shut down. According to another report, city personnel and volunteers were ordered out of the buildings while the search was being conducted, prompting protests from Colorado City Fire Chief Jake Barlow. Despite these protests, public safety did not appear to be affected, as the county law enforcement agencies involved routed calls for emergency service through the county offices. A search warrant was also executed at Jake Barlow's residence.
The search warrant affidavit states that the Mohave County District Attorney sought records relating to personal charges on an agency credit card from the Colorado City Fire Department under the open records laws. Chief Barlow indicated that there were no personal charges, therefore there were no records to disclose. Records obtained by subpoena from the banks involved showed a series of purchases made by Chief Barlow and Darger that are questionable, including diapers, child's clothing, and food, although the firefighters are not fed by the department.
After the raid
In November 2012, the Texas Attorney General's Office instituted legal proceedings to seize the FLDS ranch property in Eldorado, Texas. The basis for the forfeiture and seizure proceeding was cited as the use of FLDS property as "...a rural location where the systemic sexual assault of children would be tolerated without interference from law enforcement authorities", therefore, the property is contraband and subject to seizure. On April 17, 2014, Texas officials took physical possession of the property.
In 2012, Warren Jeffs published a volume titled Jesus Christ Message to All Nations containing various revelations, including one proclaiming his innocence and others serving as warnings to specific countries around the world.
In June 2014, the Arizona Office of the Attorney General filed a motion in U.S. District Court seeking to dissolve the local police forces and "the disbandment of the Colorado City, Arizona/Hildale, Utah Marshal's Office and the appointment of a federal monitor over municipal functions and services." As the basis for the legal proceeding, the Arizona Attorney General stated that "[t]he disbandment of the Colorado City/Hildale Marshal's Office is necessary and appropriate because this police department has operated for decades, and continues to operate, as the de facto law enforcement arm of the FLDS Church."
Reconsolidation efforts since 2022
Documents presented to the media and state prosecutors in 2022–23 indicate that Warren Jeffs issued a series of revelations from prison in 2022 reasserting his authority over the church and calling its members together. In one revelation, from June 2022, Jeffs instructed that fathers seeking "restoral" should reunite with their wives and children, while warning that God "cannot allow sin living to dwell" in the church any longer; another, distributed in August, required that children be gathered back to the church over the next five years in preparation for the imminent end of the world.
A group of mothers who had left the church stated in April 2023 that a number of children cared for by former members had gone missing since the August 2022 revelation, and were likely to have rejoined the church. In June 2023, Heber Jeffs, a nephew of Warren Jeffs, was sentenced to three years' probation on a charge of custodial interference after abetting the disappearance of the daughter of a former member of the church in 2022 in accordance with the revelations of that year.
By 2023, investigators stated that the members of the FLDS Church had spread out to avoid the attention of authorities, some moving north into North Dakota, and were communicating regularly with Warren Jeffs over Zoom. Warren Jeffs's son Helaman Jeffs had also emerged as a figure of authority within the church by this time. The revelations in 2022 were to be distributed by Helaman Jeffs, and he was also given the authority to perform polygamous marriages.
Leaders
Previous heads
As senior member of the Priesthood Council in Short Creek:
John Y. Barlow (1935–1949)
Joseph White Musser (1949–1954)
Charles Zitting (1954)
Leroy S. Johnson (1954–1986)
As president of the FLDS Church:
Rulon T. Jeffs (1986–2002)
Current head
Warren Jeffs became head of the FLDS Church in 2002. In the years immediately following Jeffs's imprisonment in 2007, the leadership of the church was unclear. Other claimed leaders in this period include:
William E. Jessop, 2007–2010, claimant to the succession
Merril Jessop, 2007 – February 2011 de facto leader
Wendell L. Nielsen, 2010 – January 28, 2011, president of the church's corporate entity.
Lyle Jeffs, brother of Warren Jeffs and former head and bishop of the church until his brother removed him from these posts in 2012, as reported by the Salt Lake Tribune. In 2011, a former member of the church stated that Lyle Jeffs had been Warren Jeffs's designated successor.
In 2011, Warren Jeffs retook legal control of the church and purged 45 of its members.
Another FLDS member, Samuel R. Bateman, broke from Jeffs and declared himself prophet in 2019. Arrested in 2022 and charged with sexual abuse, he is recognized as prophet of the FLDS Church by some 50 followers .
Bishops
:
James Oler – Canada
Distinctive doctrines
Marriage and placement marriage
The FLDS Church teaches the doctrine of plural marriage, which states that God commands in order for a man to receive the highest form of salvation to have a minimum of three wives. Connected with this doctrine is the patriarchal doctrine, the belief that wives are required to be subordinate to their husbands and placement marriage. The prophet elects to take wives from men as well as give wives to men according to their worthiness. This practice is also called the law of placing or placement marriage.
Property ownership
The land and houses formerly occupied by the FLDS Church on the Utah/Arizona border are owned by the United Effort Plan (UEP), established in 1942 as a subsidiary organization of the church. The UEP also owns most of the property of the businesses that were controlled by FLDS Church members in that area. The church viewed this "United Order" as a means of living the traditional Latter Day Saint doctrine of the "Law of Consecration". In 2005, the UEP was seized by the state of Utah following a lawsuit by the Attorney General. The UEP was worth $100 million at this time. State control of the UEP ended in 2019, with the trust reformed into a "religiously neutral" entity benefiting the original donors and their heirs, including those who had left the FLDS Church.
Serpent seed
The FLDS Church teaches that Satan's union with God's wife produced the Black race, and was necessary for our right to chose between good and evil as Eve had. It is taught that the seed of Cain survived the flood through Egyptus: in Warren Jeffs's words, "So Ham's wife that was preserved on the Ark was a Negro of the seed of Cain and there was a priestly purpose in it, that the Devil would have a representation as well as God."
Dress
Men and women are forbidden to have any tattoos or body piercings. In general, women do not cut their hair short or wear makeup, trousers, or any skirt above the knees. Men wear plain clothing, usually long-sleeved collared shirt and full-length trousers. Women and girls usually wear pastel-colored homemade long-sleeved prairie dresses, with hems between ankle and mid-calf, along with long stockings or trousers underneath, usually keeping their hair coiffed.
Temple worship
The FLDS Church is the seventh Latter Day Saint denomination to have built a temple.
Home schooling
In 2000, the Colorado City Unified School District had more than 1,200 students. When Warren Jeffs ordered that FLDS Church members remove their children from public schools, the number declined to around 250.
Criticism
Plural marriage
At the time of his death, FLDS Church leader Rulon Jeffs was confirmed to have married 46 women and fathered more than 60 children. It was estimated in 2018 that Warren Jeffs might have over 79 wives. Because the type of polygamy which is practiced is actually polygyny, critics of this lifestyle claim that the practice of it inevitably leads to bride shortages, child marriages, incest, and child abuse.
Critics of the FLDS Church point out that its members violate laws when they practice polygamy. Additionally, critics of the FLDS Church claim that incest and child sexual abuse are also prevalent among its members.
In 2015, Lyle Jeffs's estranged wife Charlene Jeffs claimed in a custody dispute that the FLDS Church currently enforces a doctrine which only allows women to have sex with men who are members of the group which is appointed to be "seed bearers", defined as "elect" men of a "worthy blood line chosen by the Priesthood to impregnate" women. Under this doctrine, men no longer are allowed to have children with their wives. Charlene Jeffs wrote in her custody petition: "It is the husband's responsibility to hold the hands of their wives while the seed bearer 'spreads his seed'. In layman terms, the husband is required to sit in the room while the chosen seed bearer, or a couple of them, rape his wife or wives." She also described the "Law of Sarah", in which FLDS women perform sex acts on each other in order to prepare for a sexual encounter with a man who is in the FLDS leadership. Lorin Holm, who claimed to have been part of Jeffs's "inner circle" before he was excommunicated from the group in 2011, later described the "Law of Sarah" practice in Jeffs's community as being akin to a lesbian sex show with Jeffs participating and sermonizing. Holm also said that mothers who would not take part were sent away to "redeem themselves", and their children were given to other women. This interpretation of the "Law of Sarah" differs from the description of it which was given in the 1843 polygamy revelation of Joseph Smith, because Smith only referred to it as a basis for consent to polygamous marriages by wives.
In 2022, FLDS Church leader Samuel Bateman was found to have 20 wives, which included underage girls, and, according to his family, also sought to marry his teenage daughter. According to criminal charges which were filed against him for destroying evidence linked to a federal investigation on sexual abuses, Bateman, who acted as the self-proclaimed "prophet" of a Colorado City-based splinter sect of the FLDS Church, used his position in the church to also sexually abuse 10 underage girls who he took as his wives in "atonement" ceremonies.
Forced marriage
The FLDS Church has been suspected of trafficking underage female children across state lines, and it has also been suspected of trafficking underage girls across the U.S. borders with Canada and Mexico, for the purpose of involuntary plural marriage and child sexual abuse. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police also suspects that the FLDS Church trafficked more than 30 underage girls from Canada to the United States between the late 1990s and 2006 so they could be entered into polygamous marriages. RCMP spokesman Dan Moskaluk said of the activities of the FLDS Church: "In essence, it's human trafficking in connection with illicit sexual activity." According to the Vancouver Sun, it is unclear whether Canada's anti-human trafficking statute can be effectively applied against the FLDS Church's pre-2005 activities, as it may not apply retroactively. An earlier three-year-long investigation by local authorities in British Columbia into allegations of sexual abuse, human trafficking, and forced marriages by the FLDS resulted in no charges, but did result in legislative change.
Welfare receipts
FLDS Church leaders have encouraged their flock to take advantage of government assistance in the form of welfare and the WIC (woman-infant-child) programs. Since the government only recognizes one woman as the legal wife of a man, the rest of his wives are considered single mothers and as a result, they are eligible to receive government assistance. The more wives and children one has, the more welfare checks and food stamps one can receive. By 2003, for example, more than $6 million in public funds were being channeled into the community of Colorado City, Arizona. In his book Under the Banner of Heaven (p. 15), Jon Krakauer writes that, "Fundamentalists call defrauding the government 'bleeding the beast' and regard it as a virtuous act." Carolyn Campbell ("Inside Polygamy in the '90s", 102) adds, "The attitude of some polygamists is 'the government is untrustworthy and corrupt, and I'm above it, but give me those food stamps and free medical care.
Lost boys
Former members have reported that the FLDS Church has excommunicated more than 400 teenage boys for offenses such as dating or listening to rock music. Some former members claim that the real reason for these excommunications is the fact that there are not enough women for each male to receive three or more wives. Six men, aged 18 to 22, filed a conspiracy lawsuit against Jeffs and Sam Barlow, a former Mohave County deputy sheriff and close associate of Jeffs, for the "systematic excommunication" of young men to reduce competition for wives.
Boys in the FLDS sect of Mormonism have been kicked out even at the young age of 15 years old. With the few experiences they have with the world outside of the FLDS, they are left to fend for themselves. Lost boys tend to stay around the area of Hildale, Utah. As they are banished from the world they know they are thrown into situations and things they were never familiar with. Most of those who are banished tend to delve into things such as partying and alcohol.
Racism
In its Spring 2005 Intelligence Report, the Southern Poverty Law Center added the FLDS Church to its list of hate groups because of the church's racist doctrines, which include its fierce condemnation of interracial relationships. Warren Jeffs has said, "the black race is the people through which the devil has always been able to bring evil unto the earth".
Blood atonement
Former FLDS Church member Robert Richter reported to the Phoenix New Times that Warren Jeffs has repeatedly alluded to the 19th-century teaching of "blood atonement" in church sermons. Under the doctrine of blood atonement, certain serious sins, such as murder, can only be atoned for by the sinner's death.
Birth defects
The Colorado City/Hildale area has the world's highest incidence of fumarase deficiency, an extremely rare genetic disease. Geneticists attribute this to the prevalence of cousin marriages between descendants of two of the town's founders, Joseph Smith Jessop and John Yeates Barlow. It causes encephalopathy, severe intellectual disability, unusual facial features, brain malformation, and epileptic seizures.
Child labor abuses
On April 20, 2015, the U.S. Department of Labor assessed fines which totaled US$1.96 million against a group of FLDS Church members, including Lyle Jeffs, a brother of the church's controversial leader, Warren Jeffs, for alleged child labour violations which were committed during the church's 2012 pecan harvest at an orchard near Hurricane, Utah.
In April 2017, filings in U.S. District Court stated that Paragon Contractors, a company with ties to the FLDS Church, and Brian Jessop agreed to pay $200,000 in federal fines over the following year. These fines were levied against Paragon Contractors because it previously violated federal child labor laws. This settled a dispute with the U.S. Department of Labor hours before Paragon Contractors was due to face a potential contempt of court citation before a federal judge. The company was facing sanctions because in 2012, hundreds of children who were members of the Hildale-based FLDS Church were put to work harvesting pecans on a farm which was located in southern Utah under orders from FLDS Church leaders.
LDS Church's attitude
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) has stated that "the polygamists and polygamist organizations in parts of the Western United States and Canada have no affiliation whatsoever with The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", and it has also declared that polygamy is strictly prohibited by the current doctrine of the LDS Church. Additionally, the LDS Church states that the term "Mormon" is incorrectly applied to the FLDS adherents and it also discourages its own members from using the term "Mormon" as a descriptive term for members of the LDS Church themselves.
In popular culture
Popular media, including books and television programs, have focused on the FLDS Church.
In 2013 and 2014, the TV Channel TLC aired two reality television series named Breaking the Faith and Escaping the Prophet. Both center on members of the FLDS leaving the group and adjusting to the outside world.
On June 28, 2014, Lifetime premiered a new movie called Outlaw Prophet: Warren Jeffs which stars Tony Goldwyn as Warren Jeffs. Lifetime has also made an original movie titled Escape from Polygamy (2013) which is inspired by the FLDS.
In 2011, the history of the FLDS Church was featured in Escaping Evil: My Life in a Cult on the Crime & Investigation Network cable channel.
On August 29, 2018, Great Big Story uploaded a short documentary-styled cinematic storytelling video titled "She Escaped a Cult and Now Helps Others" as part of its documentary series "Defenders" and follows Briell Decker, one of Warren Jeffs's 79 former wives, in her journey to help others walk out of the terrors that she experienced when she was a member of the church. She started the Short Creek Dream Center with Director Jena Jones to help other ex-FLDS members embrace freedom in one of Warren Jeffs's former homes through giving themon and providing residents with counselling therapy sessions, meals, temporary lodging as well as future job preparations and arrangements.
In 2017 "Evil Lives Here" (Season 2 Episode 3 'My Brother, the Devil') features Wallace Jeffs, half-brother to Warren Jeffs and nephew Brent Jeffs, revealing some of the horrors of the FLDS Church and the crimes of Warren Jeffs.
In 2022, Netflix premiered the documentary mini-series Keep Sweet: Pray and Obey which features the rise and fall of Warren Jeffs.
See also
Big Love
Caliente, Nevada: FLDS controversy
Darger family
Factional breakdown: Mormon fundamentalist sects
Former FLDS members
List of Mormon fundamentalist churches
List of Mormon fundamentalist leaders
Lost boys
Sons of Perdition (documentary)
Under the Banner of Heaven
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
— An article about Bruce Wisan, who was brought in to try to return property to the members of the FLDS group at Short Creek, and was met with great resistance. As featured on This American Life.
.
Wright, Stuart A. (Editor) and James T. Richardson (Editor) (2011). Saints Under Siege: The Texas State Raid on the Fundamentalist Latter Day Saints. New and Alternative Religions. NYU Press. .
External links
Official sites
Journalism
"Polygamy and Me: Seven months have passed since the polygamist raid in Eldorado, but for one mainstream Mormon, the effects linger," by the Dallas Observer's Jesse Hyde
Legal
In The Matter of The United Effort Plan Trust: Information on Utah Attorney General's lawsuit against the United Effort Plan
Other
Keep Sweet: Pray and Obey (2022)—A Netflix series where survivors of the organization discuss their experiences in the organization.
Prophet's Prey (2015)—A Showtime documentary about the life of Warren Jeffs with interviews from insiders & survivors.
Lifting the Veil of Polygamy (2007)—A documentary film critical of the history and modern-day expressions of Mormon polygamy, including numerous testimonials, by the Main Street Church of Brigham City.
Christian denominations established in the 20th century
Mormon fundamentalist denominations
Mormonism and race
Mormonism and polygamy
Christian Identity
Cults
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State%20University%20of%20New%20York%20at%20Purchase
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State University of New York at Purchase
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The State University of New York at Purchase, commonly referred to as Purchase College or SUNY Purchase, is a public liberal arts college in Purchase, New York. Established in 1967 by Governor Nelson Rockefeller, SUNY Purchase is one of 13 comprehensive colleges in the State University of New York (SUNY) system.
History
The land that would become Purchase College was first settled by the Thomas family in 1734. John Thomas served as an assemblyman in colonial New York from 1743 to 1776. He served as a judge for the Court of Common Pleas in Westchester and a Muster-Master. Judge Thomas was an early supporter of American independence. Robert Bolton wrote in History of Westchester County that Thomas was "a warm Whig" who gave the first public reading of the Declaration of Independence in New York at the White Plains courthouse on July 11, 1776. On March 22, 1777, Thomas was imprisoned by the British and died on May 2, 1777.
John Thomas' sons, John Thomas, Jr. and Thomas Thomas, also fought for American independence. Thomas Thomas was later appointed a General. He is buried at the Thomas family graveyard, which is located behind the Neuberger Museum of Art on the campus of Purchase College. A tall, white stone obelisk commemorates General Thomas and his family.
In 2019, Thomas J. Schwarz announced that he was stepping down from his role as president after 18 years of service. State University of New York Board of Trustees has appointed Dennis Craig as interim president of Purchase College effective on August 1, 2019.
Dr. Milagros Peña was named the next President of Purchase College in May 2020.
Academics
As of 2021, Purchase College had 3,695 undergraduate students with freshman enrollment of 647. 59.9% of Purchase's student body is female. 17% of the college's students come from outside of New York state. Purchase has an acceptance rate of 52% and a student-teacher ratio of 12:1. 62% of Purchase students receive need-based financial aid and the college has an endowment of $61.1 million.
Purchase College offers majors from three schools: the School for Liberal Arts and Sciences, the School of the Arts, and the School of Liberal Studies & Continuing Education. According to U.S. News & World Report, the five most popular majors for 2016 graduates at Purchase College were Visual and Performing Arts (48%); General Studies and Humanities (16%); Social Sciences (8%); Psychology (6%); and Communication, Journalism and related programs (5%).
School of the Arts
Purchase College's School of the Arts houses the college's schools of Art+Design and Art Management. It also oversees Purchase's conservatories of Dance, Music and Theatre Arts. Most courses offered by BA programs housed in the School of the Arts are open to all Purchase students. Many BFA and MusB classes are open to all students as well. Approximately 40% of Purchase College's student body is enrolled in the School of the Arts.
The Jandon Business of the Arts Distinguished Lecture Series, endowed by the Donald Cecil family, is designed to enhance the arts management program at the college. Past lecturers include Joseph Volpe, former general manager of the Metropolitan Opera, and Ben Cameron, program director at the Doris Duke Charitable Foundation.
School of Art+Design
Purchase College's School of Art+Design houses the college's programs in graphic design, painting/drawing, photography, printmaking, and sculpture. It also houses the Richard and Dolly Maas Gallery, which exhibits work from emerging artists, students, faculty, and alumni. The School of Art+Design hosts an annual Visiting Artist Lecture Series that brings artists, art historians, curators, and critics to campus for lectures and discussions with students and the broader Purchase community. Previous guest lecturers include Jules de Balincourt, Justine Kurland, Amanda Ross-Ho, and Barnaby Furnas.
Conservatory of Dance
The Conservatory of Dance houses both bachelor's and master's programs. It is one of the most highly regarded conservatories of dance in the United States. Undergraduates may major in modern or performance ballet, and dance composition and dance production. The conservatory confers master's degrees in dance choreography and performance teaching. The Conservatory of Dance is housed in the Purchase College Dance Building, which was the first facility constructed in the United States solely for the study and performance of dance.
It is also home to the Purchase Dance Company, the college's student dance company. The Purchase Dance company presents The Nutcracker every December and a balanced repertory during the spring semester. The dance company also tours throughout the United States and internationally during the college's summer break. Purchase College students must audition for inclusion in the dance company, and the cast for individual shows is based on the technical competencies of members of the company. Students may earn college credit for their participation in the company.
Conservatory of Music
Purchase College's Conservatory of Music houses the college's bachelor's and master's programs in music. Undergraduates may study classical music instrumentation with a concentration in one of several types of instruments; voice and opera; classical composition; jazz; studio composition; or studio production. The Conservatory of Music also offers master's programs in all of these areas, except studio production. The enrollment in the conservatory is limited to 400 undergraduate and graduate students. It is one of the few conservatories in the United States that produces full opera productions predominately for undergraduates. The conservatory's Music Building has two recital halls, 75 practice rooms, 80 Steinway & Sons pianos, and professional recording studios.
The Purchase Opera, the school's student opera company, was founded in 1998 and has won nine first-place honors from the National Opera Association. During the 2012–13 season, the opera won first place in the National Opera Association's Division II for its production of Die Fledermaus and second place in Division III for its production of Hansel and Gretel.
The Purchase Jazz Orchestra is a 17-piece big band composed of students from the conservatory's jazz studies program. Each year the orchestra performs at jazz venues such as Blue Note Jazz Club and Dizzy's in New York City.
Conservatory of Theatre Arts
The Conservatory of Theatre Arts confers three undergraduate degrees: acting; theatre design/technology; and theatre and performance. The conservatory is among the top theatre schools in the nation, according to the Princeton Review. The conservatory was ranked 10 in Hollywood Reporter's list of World’s Best Drama Schools in 2014. It has a total enrollment of around 400 students.
The conservatory's training focuses on the needs and strengths of individual students, instead of a one-size-fits-all training approach. Students participate in showcases and exhibitions in New York City, Los Angeles, and on-campus at the school's blackbox theater. Conservatory students can also work on Purchase Repertory Theatre productions. The theatre's productions are held at the Purchase Arts Center and are student-led shows that feature both acting and design/technology students. Notable acting faculty include Christopher McCann and Trazana Beverley.
The Broadway Technical Theatre History Project at Purchase College presents the annual "Backstage Legends and Masters Award" to distinguished professionals who represent a variety of Broadway production specialties.
School of Liberal Arts and Sciences
Purchase College's School of Liberal Arts and Sciences houses the college's School of Film and Media Studies; School of Humanities; School of Natural and Social Sciences and interdisciplinary studies. Students can choose from 23 separate majors or they can design an interdisciplinary major from several courses of study.
The annual Durst Lecture Series, supported by an endowment from the Durst family, brings in celebrated writers to the campus. Past lecturers include authors Tim O'Brien, Hettie Jones, Claudia Rankine and Manohla Dargis.
School of Film and Media Studies
The college's School of Film and Media Studies houses undergraduate programs in Cinema Studies; Film; Media Studies; New Media, Playwriting and Screenwriting.
School of Humanities
The School of Humanities houses the college's undergraduate programs in art history; creative writing; history; journalism; language and culture; literature; and philosophy. It also offers a master's in art history.
In addition to its curriculum, the School of Humanities frequently features renowned authors and scholars who provide lectures, known as the Durst Lecture Series. These lectures are supported by the Roy and Shirley Durst Distinguished Chair in Literature. Past lecturers include Rachel Kushner, Claudia Rankine, Kirstin Valdez Quade, and Alexander Chee. Lectures are open to the public and provide an open forum for student feedback and interaction.
School of Natural and Social Sciences
Purchase's School of Natural and Social Sciences houses the college's undergraduate programs in anthropology; biochemistry; biology; chemistry; economics; environmental studies; mathematics/computer science; political science; psychology; and sociology. The school also presents an annual Natural and Social Sciences Symposium, which exhibits original research conducted by students; and a lecture series funded by Con Edison.
Interdisciplinary Studies
The School of Liberal Arts and Sciences offers the Liberal Arts Individualized Program of Study (informally called the Bachelor of Arts in Liberal Arts), which is open to students who want to pursue an individualized course of study that is not accommodated by an existing major. Students work with two faculty members representing their study disciplines to create an individualized curriculum. It also encompasses undergraduate programs in gender studies, Asian studies, and Latin American studies.
School of Liberal Studies & Continuing Education
The School of Liberal Studies & Continuing Education at Purchase College allows community residents and students to complete their bachelor's degree and to take both credit and noncredit courses at the college. The school confers the bachelor's degree in liberal studies, which is designed for students with some undergraduate credit who want complete their degree within a tight time-frame and are looking for a flexible schedule. Up to 90 transfer credits are accepted in this program. It also offers continuing education and certificate programs; an online winter session; and the college's summer session.
Noncredit Professional Certificate Programs
The School of Liberal Studies & Continuing Education (LSCE) offers noncredit professional certificate courses in appraisal studies (summer only), arts management, drawing and painting, geographic information systems (GIS) (fall and spring only), home staging, interior design (fall and spring only), museum studies (fall and spring only), and social media marketing (fall and spring only). Students may take individual courses without commitment to an entire program, or complete the program requirements and earn a certificate.
The School of Liberal Studies & Continuing Education also partners with specific online providers to increase the flexibility and breadth of certificate offerings. Students can take online courses in nonprofit management, paralegal studies, and receive a CEU certificate upon completion of the health coach training program at the Institute for Integrative Nutrition (IIN).
Noncredit Personal Enrichment Courses
The School of Liberal Studies & Continuing Education offers noncredit personal enrichment courses that are open to the general public and allow participants to explore personal interests. Students may take courses in woodworking, woodturning, tattoo illustration, photography, creative writing, and filmmaking, with courses in other programs offered throughout the year. The personal enrichment program also offers students who are not enrolled in a degree program at Purchase College the opportunity to take selected undergraduate credit courses on a noncredit basis at a lower noncredit tuition rate. Additionally, students may take individual courses in any of the noncredit professional certificate programs without making a commitment to the entire program.
Youth and Precollege Programs
For more than 38 years, the School of Liberal Arts & Continuing Education has offered the Summer Youth and Precollege Program in the Arts to provide precollege students a forum to experience enriching learning opportunities. Courses are offered in areas such as songwriting, acting, architecture, visual arts, creative writing, filmmaking, video game and app creation, voice, fashion, musical theatre, and more. Programs are offered in two- and four-week sessions over a six-week period, with full-day and commuter options.
Rankings and reputation
Purchase College was ranked tied as the 136th best national liberal arts college out of 230 in U.S. News & World Reports 2022-2023 college rankings. Kiplinger ranked the school as the 86th "Best Value in Public Colleges" in 2018. Purchase was also listed as one of the Princeton Review's top 382 colleges for 2018.
Student life
Purchase Student Government Association
The Purchase Student Government Association (PSGA) is a nonprofit corporation responsible for managing the money collected from Purchase College students' Mandatory Student Activity Fee. The PSGA is divided into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. These three branches are subdivided into six bodies: the executive board, the Senate, the Judicial Board, the Council of Clubs & Organizations, the Student Activities Board, and Services Board. In addition to advocating on the student body's behalf, the PSGA runs the college's Student Center, (known to the student body as "The Stood"), and most non-academic activities on campus, including numerous student-run services, and all clubs and organizations.
Clubs
Purchase College hosts a variety of clubs, organizations and services for its students to engage in their hobbies and interests with one another. As of spring 2018, Purchase boasts over 50 of these organizations, reflecting its on-campus diversity.
Events
In addition to its clubs, Purchase College holds several events throughout the year, accommodating the diverse musical and artistic interests of its student body. Most notably, these events include:
Culture Shock: Culture Shock is an annual two-day music and carnival festival sponsored by the PSGA. Typically held in April, the weekend festival has featured dozens of renowned performers, including alumni students who have recently graduated from Purchase's Music Conservatory. Some notable performers include: Iggy Azalea, Flatbush Zombies, MF Doom, Lil B, Ween, Jay Electronica, SZA, Dan Deacon, Regina Spektor, Deerhoof, Pissed Jeans, Animal Collective, GZA, Cat Power, Blonde Redhead, Bouncing Souls, Ghostface Killah, Ted Leo, Biz Markie, Kool Keith, Slick Rick, Destiny's Child, Solange, Drake, Tycho, Beach Fossils, Dead Prez, The Front Bottoms, and Big Freedia.
Fall Fest: An "appetizer" for Culture Shock, Fall Fest is the first of the two major music festivals at Purchase College, typically held in October. Like Culture Shock, Fall Fest features of number of bands and Purchase Music Conservatory Alumni.
Zombie Prom: Zombie Prom is a prom-type event held annually in the spring that features live music, a DJ, and students dressed up as zombies.
Student-run shows that take place in one of the two stages at The Stood: Whitson's or Mainstage.
The Stood
The SUNY Purchase Student Center, which is known to the student body as simply "The Stood" was created on January 26, 2003 by Offer Ben-Arie as a recreation hall for students. Before its inception, the building which houses The Stood was a warehouse called the Butler Building. The Stood serves as a space on campus for students to express themselves outside of a school setting. The Stood is a fully equipped music venue, hosting many of the college's larger events such as: Fall Fest, Zombie Prom, SK80s, Afrodisiac, Stood-o-ween, and sometimes Culture Shock. These events usually take place on the larger of the two stages inside of The Stood, typically known as Mainstage, which has a capacity of 900. Smaller, more underground shows happen in The Stood's other performance room, Whitson's Memorial Greeting Hall, which is more commonly known as just "Whitson's" and has a capacity of 250. Students can book this room to play their own shows. Curated events sometimes happen in Whitson's, featuring larger, non-student acts. Some notable people and artists who have played in Whitson's are: Mitski, Princess Nokia, and Crumb. These events are typical to what you would see at a smaller venue in New York City, and are always free. The building is student-run and student-funded by the Mandatory Student Activity Fee.
Greek Life
Purchase College does not officially recognize fraternities or sororities on its campus, and the student body has a traditional disdain for such organizations. However, upon request, the college will allow such organizations to use space on campus, as available, to the same extent it provides space to other student organizations.
Athletics
SUNY Purchase teams, the Purchase Panthers', participate as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Division III. The Panthers are a member of the Skyline Conference. Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, golf, soccer, swimming & diving, tennis and volleyball. Women's sports include basketball, cross country, lacrosse, soccer, softball, swimming & diving, tennis and volleyball.
The Purchase College Athletic Department also houses non-varsity and intramural teams and clubs. Intramural teams include basketball, flag football, floor hockey, indoor soccer, racquet sports, co-ed softball, Water Polo, Quidditch and volleyball. Intramural clubs include Men's Lacrosse, fencing club, stage combat, Tae Kwan Do, Ultimate Frisbee club, Nerf club, Outdoors Adventure, field hockey, Chung Do Kwan, equestrian, Zumba and PiYo.
In 2014, SUNY Purchase Men's Soccer Program won its first Skyline Conference Championship, defeating St. Joe's (LI) in overtime by the score of 2–1.
Campus
Purchase College is located on approximately in Westchester County, New York on the former Strathglass farm. The property was originally owned by Thomas Thomas, an American Revolutionary war soldier, whose family-and-servant cemetery remains on the campus between the south end of the Humanities and Visual Arts buildings. The college is adjacent to the Westchester County Airport, and is across the street from PepsiCo's corporate headquarters.
Dormitories and housing
Purchase college consists of six dormitory halls, Crossroads, Central (formerly Big Haus), Farside, Outback, Fort Awesome, and Wayback; along with three apartment complexes, The Olde, The Commons (The Neu), and Alumni Village. Crossroads, Farside, and parts of Central house first year students and the staff in the building, one professional Residence Coordinator (RC) and two Residence Assistants (RA's) per floor, are accommodated towards offering first year students help. The other parts of Central along with Outback, Fort Awesome, Wayback, and the apartment complexes are upperclassmen housing and the selection process of these buildings are determined by the amount of credits one has. Outback residence hall is also a part of the wellness program housing the school provides which according to its page on the Purchase website "houses students committed to holistic health and wellness. Staff and residents develop programs that focus specifically on areas of Wellness including Physical, Intellectual, Vocational/Occupational, Emotional, Social (Cultural, Societal, Family, Community), Environmental and Spiritual."
In the fall of 2016, some apartments in the Commons K street apartment block caught fire during cooking activities. No students were hurt and most were able to return to their apartments, but others were housed at the neighboring Manhattanville College until replacement housing was available for them on campus.
Architecture
The college's master architectural plan was created by architect Edward Larrabee Barnes and reflected the belief that "modern architecture might be able to reshape the world." It has been described as a "period piece of the 1960s" and the architects who designed and built the campus include Philip Johnson and John Burgee, Paul Rudolph, Venturi & Rauch, Gwathmey Siegel & Henderson, The Architects Collaborative, Giovanni Pasanella, and Gunnar Birkerts. The campus' original buildings were placed close together to allow the surrounding fields to remain open. The college grounds are also home to many sculptures.
Campus sustainability
The college consistently ranks as one of the top sustainable colleges in the nation having ranked 72nd by the Sierra Club's America's greenest colleges. This ranking factors in the college's energy use, waste, water, food, and purchasing policies. The college is also included in the 2014 Princeton Review Guide to Green Colleges.
In 2014, the college unveiled the "Rocket" composting system, which has the capacity to handle 460 gallons of food waste every week.
Performing Arts Center
Situated on the campus is the college's Performing Arts Center. It is a four-theatre complex that is the largest performing arts center in the SUNY system. The center's performance spaces include the 1400-seat, three-tiered Concert Hall with hydraulic lifts for orchestra; the 600-seat Recital Hall with rear-screen projection bay; the 700-seat PepsiCo Theatre designed by Ming Cho Lee; and the Repertory Theatre, a "black box" with flexible stage and seating configurations. Each theatre is specifically designed for the presentation of a different type of performance and many types of events.
The Performing Arts Center presents a broad range of performances – offering music, dance, theatre, comedy, and cinema. The Performing Arts center is also home to Conservatory of Theatre Arts' Purchase Repertory Theatre. The center's ongoing initiatives include artist partnerships, residency activities, and commissions.
Neuberger Museum of Art
The college also houses the Neuberger Museum of Art, which is among the ten largest museums in New York and the eighth-largest university museum in the nation. The museum opened in 1972. It holds a permanent collection of more than 7,000 works of art and features a full schedule of exhibitions, lectures, films, and multimedia events. The museum presents more than a dozen exhibitions each year in addition to ongoing exhibitions from its permanent collections. The Neuberger Museum of Art has works from 20th-century masters, midcareer and emerging artists, and is well known for its permanent exhibition of African art.
Notable faculty and alumni
Notable faculty members include harpsichordist Bradley Brookshire; jazz bassist Todd Coolman; composer Laura Kaminsky; pianist Steven Lubin; and bassist Tim Cobb. Other faculty members include Iris Cahn, a film editor; dance choreographer Rosalind Newman; writer Melissa Febos; and artists Liz Phillips, Antonio Frasconi, Steve Lambert, Kate Gilmore, and Hakan Topal.
Purchase College alumni are well represented throughout the arts. Actors who attended the college include Rochelle Aytes, Susie Essman, Edie Falco, Zoë Kravitz, Amanda Seales, Orlagh Cassidy, Melissa Leo, James McDaniel, Francie Swift, Janel Moloney, Chris Perfetti, Parker Posey, Ving Rhames, Jay O. Sanders, Wesley Snipes, Sherry Stringfield, Stanley Tucci, Shea Whigham, and Constance Wu. Other film professionals who attended Purchase College include directors Ilya Chaiken, Abel Ferrara, Hal Hartley, Bob Gosse, Jeffrey Schwarz, Michael Spiller, James Spione, A. Dean Bell, and Chris Wedge. Theatrical designers David Gallo, Brian MacDevitt, and Kenneth Posner also attended the school. Playwright Donald Margulies is a Purchase College alumni. Dancers Kyle Abraham, Terese Capucilli, and Doug Varone attended Purchase.
Other artists who attended Purchase include Katherine Bradford, Allen Cohen, Gregory Crewdson, Luis Croquer, Thomas E. Franklin, Jimmy Joe Roche, Jon Kessler, Ron Rocco, Chris Dorland, Fred Wilson, performers The Dragon Sisters and recording engineer Chris Conway. Musicians who are alumni include Edward W. Hardy, Quentin Angus, Chris Ballew, Imani Coppola, Dan Deacon, Jack Dishel, Dan Romer, the band Kiss Kiss, Jeffrey Lewis, Mase, the band O'Death, Daryl Palumbo, Bess Rogers, Joel Rubin, Langhorne Slim, Regina Spektor, Katherine Teck, Ice Spice, Samara Joy, Stephanie Winters, Jenny Owen Youngs, and Mitski. Record producer Elite is alumni. Writer and artist Laura Vaccaro Seeger is an alumna.
Alumni from the School of Liberal Arts and Sciences include New York Assemblywoman Latrice Walker; curator Luis Croquer; and authors Nora Raleigh Baskin, Garth Greenwell, David Graeber, and Jeanne Darst. Also, scientists Jill Bargonetti and Carl Safina attended the college along with journalists Manohla Dargis and Adam Nagourney as well as film director Danny Leiner.
References
External links
Official website
Official athletics website
1967 establishments in New York (state)
Art schools in New York (state)
Dance in New York (state)
Dance schools in the United States
Educational institutions established in 1967
Harrison, New York
Liberal arts colleges in New York (state)
Public liberal arts colleges in the United States
State University of New York at Purchase
Purchase
Universities and colleges in Westchester County, New York
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian%20Airlines
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Ethiopian Airlines
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Ethiopian Airlines (commonly referred to as Ethiopian; ), formerly Ethiopian Air Lines (EAL), is the flag carrier of Ethiopia, and is wholly owned by the country's government. EAL was founded on 21 December 1945 and commenced operations on 8 April 1946, expanding to international flights in 1951. The firm became a share company in 1965 and changed its name from Ethiopian Air Lines to Ethiopian Airlines.
The airline has been a member of the International Air Transport Association since 1959 and of the African Airlines Association (AFRAA) since 1968. Ethiopian is a Star Alliance member, having joined in December 2011. The company slogan is 'The New Spirit of Africa.' Ethiopian's hub and headquarters are at Bole International Airport in Addis Ababa, from where it serves a network of 125 passenger destinations—20 of them domestic—and 44 freighter destinations. The airline has secondary hubs in Togo and Malawi. Ethiopian is Africa's largest airline in terms of passengers carried, destinations served, fleet size, and revenue. Ethiopian is also the world's fourth-largest airline by the number of countries served.
History
The 1940s: early years
After the liberation of Ethiopia, Emperor Haile Selassie I asked the United States, the United Kingdom, and France to help him to establish an airline as part of his modernization effort. According to the BBC News it is possible that the Emperor intended the creation of a quality national airline to help dispel impressions of Ethiopian poverty. In 1945, the Ethiopian government began negotiations with both Transcontinental Air Transport and Western Air Express (later merged into TWA). On 8 September 1945, TWA signed an agreement with the American historian and foreign affairs advisor to Ethiopia John H. Spencer to establish a commercial aviation company in Ethiopia.
The carrier, originally called Ethiopian Air Lines (EAL), was founded on 21 December 1945, with an initial investment of ETB 2,5 million, divided in 25,000 shares that were entirely held by the government. The company was financed by the Ethiopian government but managed by TWA. At the beginning, it relied upon American pilots, technicians, administrators and accountants; even its General Managers were from TWA. Minister of Works and Communications Fitawrari Tafasse Habte Mikael became EAL first president and chairman, whereas H. H. Holloway —who was American— was appointed by TWA as general manager. The board held the first meeting on 26 December 1945, with a key point of the agenda being the deposit of E£75,000 in a bank in Cairo for the acquisition of aircraft and spare parts. Shortly afterwards, the airline negotiated for landing rights with Aden, Egypt, French Somaliland, Saudi Arabia and Sudan, and five Douglas C-47s were bought; these aircraft were flown to Addis Ababa in February 1946.
The new airline's maiden flight to Nairobi carried a shipment of East African currency equivalent to million in February 1946, but the first revenue scheduled service was on 8 April 1946; it travelled the Addis Ababa–Asmara–Cairo route using one of five Douglas C-47 Skytrains acquired from the US Government. This route later operated on a weekly basis. The Skytrains were initially intended for military use, although Ethiopian operated them in a mixed passenger-cargo configuration. Soon afterwards, the carrier launched services to Aden and Djibouti, as well as a domestic flight to Jimma. The main five routes in the early years were Addis Ababa–Asmara, Addis Ababa–Djibouti–Aden, Addis Ababa–Khartoum, Addis Ababa–Cairo (routed via Jeddah or Khartoum) and Asmara–Khartoum.
Henry Bruce Obermiller replaced Holloway as a general manager in June 1946. In July the same year, four more Skytrains joined the fleet. New scheduled services to Sheikh Othman and Nairobi were launched in July 1946 and June 1947, respectively. In 1947, Waldon Gene Golien became the general manager, and the company started operating charter flights to Jeddah during the Hajj season. That year in February, three more Douglas C-47s were acquired to operate new international routes. A service to Mukalla was inaugurated in June 1947. In September, Port Sudan was added to the route network (it was previously a technical stop en route to Cairo), Lydda was incorporated as a scheduled destination in October and charter flights to Bombay were launched in November. Services to Lydda and Mukalla were discontinued in February and , respectively. In September, the route to Bombay became a scheduled route, with EAL flying as far as Aden, and BOAC operating the Aden–Bombay sector. The route also included stops at Mesirah Island in Oman and Karachi. For a brief period until April 1948, Mesirah Island was used as a refuelling stop; since then, services to French Somaliland and Aden started on a twice-weekly basis. EAL was allowed to fly to Aden using Sheik 'Othman Airport, located away from the city, whereas BOAC used the Khormaksar Airport facilities, just from the city. Aden was under British rule at the time as was Sudan, and the British Empire denied EAL landing rights at Khartoum, forcing the airline to move the refuelling stop on the Aden route to Port Sudan. The carrier recorded a £40,000 profit for 1949.
The 1950s: start of long-haul routes
Services to Bombay were withdrawn in . Also this year, a loan granted from the Ex-Im Bank enabled the carrier to incorporate Convair CV-240s, aimed at operating international routes. Two CV-240s, named "Eagle of Ethiopia" and "Haile Selassie I", entered the fleet in December 1950; starting January 1951, these aircraft were subsequently deployed on the Addis Ababa–Cairo, Addis Ababa–Nairobi, and Addis Ababa–Jeddah–Dhahran–Karachi routes, with Dhahran and Sharjah being incorporated to the route network on 20 February. In April 1952, the airline was appointed general sales agent for TWA in Kenya, Tanganyka, Uganda and Zanzibar, and by May the same year the fleet consisted of two Convair-Liner 240s and nine Douglas DC-3s or their subtypes, operating a route network that was long. Services to India and Sharjah were discontinued in 1953. On 14 July, a new agreement with TWA that succeeded the original one was signed. Unlike other companies, the airline's preamble stated that it was "the ultimate aim that EAL shall eventually be operated entirely by Ethiopian personnel".
A new service to Athens via Khartoum and Wadi Halfa was launched on 3 April 1954. A third Convair CV-240 ("The Spiritual Power") was purchased from Sabena in 1955 for . These aircraft were equipped with rocket-assisted take-off devices. This was a common practice for a small number of airlines in the World that EAL had abandoned by . Also in 1955, Ethiopian inaugurated a self-owned maintenance facility. That year, Vic Harrell succeeded Swede Golien as general manager of the company. The carrier was in need of newer and larger aircraft, and three different aircraft types —two from the Lockheed Corporation, the Constellation and the Electra, and the Douglas DC-6— were considered for the fleet renewal programme. Two Douglas DC-6Bs were eventually ordered in 1956 for million, including spares; an option for a third machine was also taken. Another loan obtained from the Ex-Im Bank, a million one dating back to 1955, was partly used to finance the two purchased aircraft.
Benghazi was briefly served between 7 November 1956 and 15 January 1957. In 1957, a third DC-6B was purchased. Likewise, that year the airline had been asked to take a Lockheed L-749 that had been given as a gift to the Emperor, who declined it. Ethiopian paid million for this airframe, and it was incorporated into the fleet on 4 June; the aircraft was destroyed by fire on 10 Jul in an accident in Sudan. Two Yemeni cities, Hodeida and Taiz were first served on 1 September 1957. On , flights to Wadi Halfa were terminated. The incorporation of three Douglas DC-6Bs took place between May and July, and EAL started a new link between Addis Ababa and Athens, via Cairo, using these recently delivered aircraft. On 21 Jun, the route was extended both to the north and to the south so that Frankfurt and Nairobi became linked by the same corridor, operated with DC-6Bs. By this time, the Convairs were redeployed to serve domestic and regional routes. Given that radio operators were no longer required as part of flight crews, they were assigned other tasks with the airline. Swissair handled the pilot training for the DC-6B aircraft at Zurich. The suspension of fifth freedom rights between Djibouti and Aden prompted the discontinuance of the route that linked them. EAL joined the International Air Transport Association (IATA) on 1 January 1959. During the year, two Boeing 720Bs were ordered and scheduled for delivery in December 1961, two more DC-6Bs entered the fleet, services to Nairobi were suspended once more and the airline list of domestic destinations saw the incorporation of Bulchi, Dodollo, Lalibela and Masawa.
The 1960s and 1970s: the jet age
Port Sudan was removed from the list of destinations on . The airline had its first fatal accident on 15 July when a DC-3 crashed en route from Bulchi to Jimma, killing the pilot. A Convair 240 was sold to Allied Stores of Israel on 18 July. On 12 August, an order with Boeing for two Boeing 720B aircraft was placed. EAL general manager had already brought the idea of acquiring two jet aircraft for long-haul operations up already in February, suggesting the Boeing 720B. The Sud SE-210 Caravelle, the de Havilland D.H.106 Comet 4 and the Boeing 720B were all taken into account. Hot and high condition of some EAL operations made the Caravelle inappropriate, whereas the Comet was considered obsolete. The first east–west link made by an African airline started on 8 November, when the Addis Ababa–Accra–Lagos–Monrovia route was launched using DC-6B equipment.
The second fatal accident took place on 5 September 1961 when another DC-3 crashed shortly after takeoff from Sendafar; a flight attendant and four passengers lost their lives in the accident. The event urged the Civil Aviation Department to investigate the accidents. It was found that the lack of infrastructure at many airfields, marginal even for DC-3 operations, was a major contribution. Landing sites at Gore, Mizan Teferi and Tippi were included in the list of airfields that would require closure. On 13 January 1962, the crew and passengers lost their lives in another accident involving a DC-3 ET-T-1, EAL first aircraft of the type—this time the crash taking place at Tippi while the aircraft was taking off. The event prompted the government to decide to close the airfields at both Mizan Teferi and Tippi. In March 1962, more DC-3s were acquired, and registered ET-ABE and ET-ABF. During the year, the "ET-T-" registration would change to simply "ET-". Jack B. Asire became general manager in April 1962.
It was also decided to build a new airport to replace the Lideta Airfield, which was unable to accommodate the Boeing 720 jetliner the company intended to acquire. This was the birth of Bole International Airport, where the company set its headquarters.
In December 1962, the arrival of Boeing 720s ordered directly from Boeing marked the carrier entrance into the jet age. These two aircraft were registered ET-AAG and ET-AAH and were named the "Blue Nile" and "White Nile", respectively. The first jet service took place on 15 January 1963 when one of these aircraft was deployed on the route to Nairobi. The following day, a new service to Madrid was flown using the new jet equipment, with Frankfurt joining the jet network soon afterward. On 1 April, the Boeing 720 replaced the DC-6B on the Addis Ababa–Athens route; during that month, the West African corridor also benefited from jet operations. The airline entered into a pool agreement with Aden Airways and Sudan Airways on the Khartoum–Asmara–Aden service. A new flight to Conakry was launched on 8 May 1963. Kano, which had been served since 18 March 1962, was removed from the list of destinations that day. On 30 November 1963, the airline lost another DC-3 (ET-AAT) in a test flight at Addis Ababa; the crew of suffered minor injuries. Rome was served for the first time on 5 June 1964 on a weekly basis; the flight was routed via either Khartoum or Athens as part of a pool agreement with Alitalia.
Also in the early 1960s, the carrier provided some initial aviation support to the Ethiopia-United States Mapping Mission in its operation to acquire topographic maps of Ethiopia. The firm changed from a corporation to a share company in 1965 and changed its name from Ethiopian Air Lines to Ethiopian Airlines.
By 1966, the contractual relationship with TWA was adjusted to reflect the transfer of management with the appointment of an Ethiopian deputy general manager, and Col. Semret Medhane was appointed to the post.
Two Boeing 720s were in operation and a Boeing 707-320C was due to be phased in by March 1968, when the carrier ordered a second -320C.
In 1970, the fifth renewal of the original 1945 contract changed TWA's role from manager to adviser. On its 25th anniversary in 1971, the company was ready to continue without foreign assistance. Since then, Ethiopian Airlines has been managed and staffed by Ethiopian personnel. The first Ethiopian General Manager was Col. Semret Medhane, appointed in 1971. Two Boeing 720Bs were acquired from Continental Airlines in 1973. In 1975, the carrier ordered five Dash 7s. By then, Ethiopian Airlines had ended its 30-year relationship with TWA. The airline became a new customer for the Boeing 727 in 1978, ordering two. The 727s arrived in the late 1970s as a replacement for the oldest Boeing 720s.
The 1980s and 1990s
The DHC-5 Buffalo entered Ethiopian's fleet in the early 1980s. In 1982, Ethiopian became the first African carrier in ordering the Boeing 767, as well as the first airline to order the Boeing 767-200ER. On 1984-6-1, the first of these aircraft set a new distance record for a twinjet, flying non-stop from Washington, D.C. to Addis Ababa, on delivery to the company. The came to replace the remaining Boeing 720s. ATR 42s and Twin Otters were incorporated into the fleet in the mid-1980s, with the first of six Twin Otters entering the fleet in early 1985. The Boeing 737-200 joined the fleet in late 1987.
In 1990, Ethiopian became the first passenger airline in taking delivery of the Boeing 757 Freighter, receiving the first of five a year later. By 1996 the airline was flying to Bangkok, Beijing, Durban and Johannesburg; routes to Ivory Coast and Senegal were also being operated. Furthermore, the Fokker 50 entered the fleet to operate domestic routes; actually, Ethiopian became the last company in taking delivery of this aircraft in 1997, just after the collapse of Fokker due to financial problems. In the late 1990s the carrier saw the incorporation of Copenhagen and Maputo to its international network, as well as New York City and Washington as transatlantic destinations; the frequent flyer programme, named "Sheba Miles" after the legendary Queen of Sheba, was launched too. In 1998, the airline disrupted their flights to the Eritrean capital Asmara after a war erupted between the two countries.
2000present
A fleet renewal started in the early 2000s, with the incorporation of the Boeing 737-700 and the Boeing 767-300ER; The airline discontinued its service to Newark in favour of serving Washington in 2004. In the late 2000s the airline announced it would be the launch customer of the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, and placed orders to acquire brand new Airbus A350-900s, Boeing 777-200LRs and Bombardier equipment.
In late September 2010, Ethiopian Airlines was officially invited to join Star Alliance under the mentoring of Lufthansa. The carrier became a member of the alliance in December 2011, the third Africa-based carrier in doing so—following EgyptAir and South African Airways—and the 28th member worldwide.
Corporate affairs
Management and ownership
The current CEO is Mesfin Tasew, who was appointed by the airline's board of directors on 24 March 2022. Mesfin has been working at Ethiopian Airlines since 1984. He also was the CEO of Asky Airlines, a strategic partner of Ethiopian Airlines. Prior to that, Tewolde Gebremariam has been serving as the airline's Group CEO from 2011 until his resignation on March 2022. The airline, which is wholly owned by the Government of Ethiopia, has traditionally been unfettered by government intervention, even during times of significant turmoil and domestic hardship. Whereas many African state-owned airlines were and remain often poorly run, with staffings often serving nepotistic purposes, and business decisions being made on political grounds, Ethiopian Airlines remained professionally run and managed, leading The Christian Science Monitor to term it in 1988 a "capitalist success in Marxist Ethiopia".
The Derg, after expanding the airline's workforce, which had resulted in a decline in service quality and revenues, allowed the airline to be run on a "strictly commercial basis". Captain Mohammed Ahmed was appointed CEO in 1980 and slashed the workforce by 10%. The airline continued the acquisition of Western, rather than Soviet aircraft, despite the links between the communist government and the Soviet Union, purchasing the Boeing 727 in 1979 and the Boeing 767 in 1984. Despite famine, unfavorable exchange rates, and general economic disarray, the airline managed to retain its reputation, particularly in the provision of maintenance and training. The Financial Times noted that it managed to remain one of the most profitable airlines in Africa throughout the decade.
Despite the violent overthrow of the communist government by the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front in 1991, the airline managed to post a profit for the fiscal year. In 1994, 40 top executives including the general manager Capt. Zelleke Demissie were fired after they signed a letter rebuking a government report, and a new general manager from outside the industry, Dr. Ahmed Kellow, was appointed.
The airline would regain operational independence when longtime company veteran Bisrat Nigatu was appointed to the top post in 1997, and remained fiscally sound, despite disruptions caused by the Eritrean-Ethiopian War.
In 2018 it was announced that the Ethiopian government would partially or wholly privatize several state-owned enterprises, amongst them Ethiopian Airlines, although it would retain a majority stake in key firms, including the airline. In October 2020, the Ministry of Finance postponed the planned privatization of the state owned airline.
Organization
The Ethiopian government reorganized the airline as a fully owned aviation holding group in July 2017. The aim was to maximize efficiency, enhance customer service to a global standard, and ease of longterm planning. The initial group consisted of: The Ethiopian Airports Enterprise (EAE), the Passenger Airline company, Cargo Airline, and Logistics Company, Ethiopian Aviation Academy, Ethiopian In-flight Catering Services, Ethiopian MRO Services, and Ethiopian Hotel and Tourism Services. The MRO Services is the largest such operation serving the continent and the Med-Eastern region; fully accredited by FAA and EASA. The Cargo and Logistical division are expanding to increase annual capacity to 1.5 million tons.
Head office
Ethiopian Airlines currently has its head office at Bole International Airport, Addis Ababa, but intends to build a new head office facility. A contest for the design was held in 2009, but none of those plans were proceeded with. On 16 February 2011, it held a second round, and in September 2011 it was announced that BET Architect Plc won the contest. The airline stated that the estimated Br300 million complex will be constructed on a plot at Bole International Airport. The company that received 4th place in the competition's second round has threatened to take legal action, accusing the airline of not giving due consideration to the proposed design.
Business trends
Performance figures for the government-owned Ethiopian Airlines are available in their Annual Reports and occasional press reports. Available recent trends are (as at year ending 30 June):
Strategic ambitions and landmarks
The airline was featured by The Economist as an example of excellence in late 1987, and economist Paul B. Henze recognised it in 2000 as being "one of the most reliable and profitable airlines in the Third World". In July 2011, Ethiopian was named Africa's most profitable airline for the year 2010 by Air Transport World, and it has also been praised by AFRAA for its sustained profitability over recent years.
As a longterm company policy, in addition to the carrier's main activities, revenues are also generated by providing aircraft maintenance to foreign airlines, and specialist training for both Ethiopian and foreign trainees. Every year, pilots and technicians graduate from both the Pilot School, inaugurated in 1964, and the Aviation Maintenance Technician School, established in 1967. The American Federal Aviation Administration accredited the airline's maintenance division with licence No. ETIY 102F.
Ethiopian Airlines started "Vision 2010" in 2005, which aimed to increase passenger traffic to 3 million, revenue to billion and employees to 6,000 by 2010. By 2010, Ethiopian had exceeded all goals set in "Vision 2010", and the company's net profit for the fiscal year ended 2010-6-30 was million. The results were attributed in part to an aggressive marketing campaign and major cost-cutting measures.
In 2010, Ethiopian adopted "Vision 2025", a 15-year development strategy, under which the airline anticipates increasing its fleet to 120, the number of destinations to 90, carrying more than 18 million passengers and of cargo, with 17,000 employees. "Vision 2025" also considers a fourfold expansion of the capacity building for trainees in the airline's aviation academy.
Ethiopian signed in July 2013 a deal for the acquisition of 49% of the Malawian carrier Air Malawi. The new airline will be named Malawian Airlines. The remaining shareholding will be held by the government of Malawi and private Malawian investors. Malawian Airlines started operations in January 2014. For the operation year 2013–14, Ethiopian Airlines was ranked the most profitable airline in Africa and 18th most profitable airline in the world with a profit of $228 million.
In January 2018, Ethiopian signed a strategic partnership agreement with the Zambian government to assist in the relaunch of Zambia Airways. The airline has a 45% stake in the airline; the rest of the shares are held by the Zambian government. This move is aimed at developing Lusaka as an aviation hub for Southern Africa and fits with the airline's multiple hub strategy outlined in its 15-year Vision 2025 strategic plan.
In February 2018, Ethiopian and its Togo based regional airline partner ASKY Airlines formed a strategic partnership with the Guinean government to establish a startup carrier Guinea Airlines by June. This partnership is in line with the airline's 15-year Vision 2025 strategic plan to establish strategic partnerships with many African countries, enabling them to regain market share for travel. It is also in line with the recently launched African Single Air Transport Market.
Ethiopian Cargo and Logistical co. have formed a joint venture entity, yet unnamed, with DHL. The focus for the new company will be providing ground logistics to and from airports, seaports, and the rapidly expanding industrial parks of the region.
The business growth continued with an announcement, in April 2018, of a planned aerospace manufacturing facility. There is a small existing unit, under Ethiopian MRO Services, that manufactures wire-harnesses for the Boeing co. The new division, a joint venture with Aerosud of South Africa, will be capable of designing, and manufacturing, aircraft parts for plane makers. Negotiations are underway with Boeing, Honeywell, Airbus, and Bombardier Aerospace among others in search of clients. Accreditation will be sought from the FAA and EASA. The needed human resource will be groomed from the local technical schools and higher learning institutions. In July 2018 Ethiopian Airlines signed an agreement with German ACM Aerospace to set up a facility that will manufacture and supply aircraft seat covers, safety belts, carpets, and other interior parts.
Ethiopian Airlines launched a Mozambican subsidiary, Ethiopian Mozambique Airlines, in December 2018. The carrier competed with LAM Mozambique Airlines and Fastjet in the country's domestic market.
In January 2021, Ethiopian Airlines signed an interline agreement with South African carrier CemAir.
In May 2021, Ethiopian Mozambique Airlines ceased operations.
Destinations
, the carrier served 127 international, 22 domestic passenger destinations, and 58 cargo destinations. Ethiopian serves more destinations in Africa than any other airline. , the carrier's five densest routes were Addis Ababa–Dubai, Addis Ababa–Johannesburg, Addis Ababa–Guangzhou, Addis Ababa–Nairobi and Addis Ababa–Beijing.
In late April 2012, the airline said it planned to start serving the Latin American market but no firm dates were disclosed. In August that year, Abuja, Accra, Douala, Dubai, Entebbe, Frankfurt, Johannesburg, Harare, Kilimanjaro, Lagos, Lomé, London, Luanda, Lusaka, Malabo, Maputo, Mombasa, Mumbai, Nairobi and Rome would be served on an rotational basis with the first Boeing 787 Dreamliner, and that upon delivery of the second aircraft of the type these would be assigned on fixed scheduled routes.
In February 2013, unofficial reports disclosed the carrier plans to launch new services to Ho Chi Minh City, Manila and Seoul starting in June the same year, as well as the company's intention to start flying the São Paulo–Lomé–Addis Ababa–Guangzhou run in July 2013. In June 2013, unofficial sources reported that the launch of flights to both Ho Chi Minh City and Manila were cancelled, and that they will be replaced with a flight to Singapore starting in September 2013; as announced, flights to Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo commenced in July the same year. Flights to Singapore were launched in December 2013. A new link to Shanghai was launched in March 2014, while new services to Vienna started in June 2014 and to Doha in December the same year.
Tokyo-Narita was added on 20 April 2015. Other new destinations are Los Angeles (the carrier point to be served in the Americas) and Dublin. A new service to Manila was launched in July 2015. The Addis Ababa–Lomé–Newark run commenced on 3 July 2016.
Buenos Aires became the second stop for the airline in the continent starting on 8 March 2018 as an addition to the existing Addis Ababa-São Paulo run. The list of cargo destinations has grown with the recent addition of: Los Angeles, Mexico City, and three
additional cities in Africa. The daily uplift now stands at 650 tons. The plan, by 2025, is to grow the service points to 57 with a fleet of 18 aircraft, having the capacity to uplift 1.5 million tons annually.
Nosy-Be became the second stop, after Antananarivo, in Madagascar starting on 27 March 2018. The thrice-weekly service will be an outbound extension of the existing connection to the Comoros with a direct return to Addis Ababa. On the same day Kisangani and Mbuji Mayi, in the DRC, joined the Ethiopian network; bringing the total points served in Africa to 58.
As part of normalising relations between Ethiopia and Eritrea, the carrier restored service to the latter's capital Asmara on 18 July 2018.
Alliances and codeshare agreements
Alliances
In October 2007, Ethiopian Airlines' frequent flyer programme ShebaMiles and Lufthansa's Miles & More entered into partnership, allowing members of each programme to earn and spend miles on both airlines' networks. In July 2008, the carrier entered a strategic partnership with Lomé-based start-up airline ASKY Airlines, in which Ethiopian holds a 40% stake. Ethiopian Airlines is responsible for aircraft maintenance and operational management. The plan is to turn Lomé into Ethiopian Airline's regional hub for the West African market. ASKY started operations in January 2010 and became profitable after a few months. Ethiopian officially joined Star Alliance in December 2011.
Codeshare agreements
Ethiopian Airlines has codeshare agreements with the following airlines:
Aegean Airlines
Air Canada
Air China
Air Côte d'Ivoire
Air Europa
Air India
All Nippon Airways
Asiana Airlines
ASKY Airlines
Austrian Airlines
Azul
EgyptAir
El Al
Flynas
ITA Airways
Kuwait Airways
LAM Mozambique Airlines
Lufthansa
Malawi Airlines
Malaysia Airlines
Oman Air
RwandAir
Saudia
Scandinavian Airlines
Shenzhen Airlines
Singapore Airlines
South African Airways
SriLankan Airlines
TAP Air Portugal
Turkish Airlines
United Airlines
Fleet
Recent developments
In February 2005, Ethiopian Airlines signed a preliminary agreement to buy up to ten Boeing 787 Dreamliners (five firm orders plus five options), becoming the first African carrier to order 787s. On 31 May 2005, Boeing announced that Ethiopian had exercised its purchase rights and confirmed a firm order for ten aircraft. The carrier was the first African airline to order and to operate the Boeing 777-200LR. and took possession of its first (the 900th delivered 777 model) in November 2010. Ethiopian Airlines was also the first African airline to begin operating the Airbus A350 aircraft in 2016.
Services
Cloud Nine and Economy Class are the two classes available on most of Ethiopian Airlines' flights, but not on all-economy-layout Dash 8s.
Food and drinks
On all flights, passengers are provided with food and complimentary beverages onboard, in both classes. The food service consists of hot meals, hot or cold snacks, or light refreshments, depending on the length of the flight and the time of the day. The choice of acquiring special drinks at an extra cost is available too. The airline also offers assorted menus for passengers having special meal requirements.
In-flight entertainment
Cloud Nine
Ethiopian Airlines' Business Class is named Cloud Nine. Passengers travelling in this class are provided with onboard amenities and a wide variety of reading material. On routes operated with Boeing 777-200LR equipment passengers are provided with sleeper seats and on-demand audio and video services, with 85 channels on 15.4 inch IFE screens.
Economy Class
A variety of meals —ranging from light snacks to hot dishes— and amenities are provided to passengers flying on this class, both depending upon the length of the flight. Reclining seats and on-demand audio and video, with 80 channels and 8.9-inched screens, are available on Boeing 777-200LR services.
Lounges
Ethiopian Airlines passengers are offered two lounges at Bole International Airport. Cloud Nine passengers can wait for the departure of flights at the Cloud Nine Lounge, where they are provided with a wide variety of amenities, as well as personal computers or wireless connection. Likewise, ShebaMiles cardholders with Gold or Silver status can make use of the Sheba Miles Lounge facilities. Customer Service agents are available at both lounges in order to assist passengers with any query regarding their flights.
Accidents and incidents
According to the Aviation Safety Network records for Ethiopian Airlines, the airline has had 61 accidents and incidents since 1965, plus six more for Ethiopian Air Lines, the airline's former name. , these occurrences resulted in 494 deaths. On 10 March 2019, Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302, a 4-month-old Boeing 737 MAX 8 crashed shortly after takeoff from Addis Ababa en route to Nairobi, killing all 157 people on board from more than 30 different nations. Prior to the 2019 accident, a hijacking was the carrier's deadliest accident, when an aircraft crashed into the Indian Ocean due to fuel starvation in 1996. The third-deadliest accident occurred in 2010, when an aircraft crashed into the Mediterranean Sea shortly after it departed Beirut–Rafic Hariri International Airport, killing all 90 people on board. The crash of a Boeing 737-200 in 1988 led to 35 fatalities and is the fourth deadliest accident experienced by the company.
Controversies
Ethnic profiling allegations
In November and December 2020, Ethiopian Airlines was accused of banning or placing on leave those who are ethnic Tigrayans a minority, in relation to the Tigray War. The company denied the allegation, stating no employee was "suspended or terminated due to their ethnic background". A December 2020 article in The New York Times claimed the airlines' CEO, Tewolde Gebremariam, who is of Tigrayan origin, was also banned from leaving Ethiopia after the Tigray War started. Tewolde has been seen and interviewed at international events in October 2021.
CNN allegations of military activities
A CNN investigation alleged that Ethiopian Airlines Cargo airplanes transported weapons to airports in Eritrea during the Tigray War. The airline billed Ethiopia's Ministry of Defense at least six times in November 2020. The article's reporter claimed that using civil aircraft to "smuggle" military weapons violates international aviation law. However, CNN aviation analyst Mary Schiavo explained in a subsequent interview that it is not a violation of international law for commercial airlines to provide cargo services to governments in times of war. Ethiopian Airlines denied transporting weapons for the war and stated the goods transported were "food stuff and refill". On 7 October 2021, a since-deleted post on Ethiopian Airlines' Facebook page quoted the CEO as saying the airline had started an investigation of "treasonous" employees and that the airline "will continue fulfilling demands of the government. The airline later stated that the Facebook account was temporarily compromised and the posted statement was fake.
Government possible involvement regarding China-Airline stake
Recently, Girma Wake, the Airlines's current Chairman and former CEO of the Airlines: has resigned, and has been replaced by current Ethiopian Airforce Marshal Yilma Merdasa. This has been speculated that the Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed replaced such a key airlines figure due to the fact that Mr. Wake denied the PM's purpose to sell the Airline's Cargo department to China. The matter is still ungoing, and other details can be unraveled.
See also
List of airlines of Ethiopia
Transport in Ethiopia
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Profile
African Airlines Association
Airlines established in 1945
Airlines of Ethiopia
Government-owned airlines
1945 establishments in Ethiopia
Companies based in Addis Ababa
Government-owned companies of Ethiopia
Star Alliance
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellarmine%20University
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Bellarmine University
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{{Infobox university
|name = Bellarmine University
|image = Seal-bellarmine.png
|image_size = 175px
|image_upright = 0.9
|former_name = Bellarmine College (1950–2000)
|motto = In Veritatis Amore
|mottoeng = In the Love of Truth
|established =
|type = Private university
|religious_affiliation = Roman Catholic
|endowment = $80.1 million
|president = Susan M. Donovan
|provost = Paul Gore
|city = Louisville
|state = Kentucky
|country = United States
|students = 3,973
|undergrad = 2,635
|postgrad = 1,338
|administrative_staff = 240
|campus = Urban
|mascot = Valor the Knight
|sports_nickname = Knights
| sporting_affiliations = NCAA Division I
|colors = Scarlet and Silver
| academic_affiliations =
|website =
|logo = BellarmineWaterMark.png
|logo_size = 150px
}}
Bellarmine University ( ; BU) is a private Catholic university in Louisville, Kentucky. It opened on October 3, 1950, as Bellarmine College, established by Archbishop John A. Floersh of the Archdiocese of Louisville and named after Saint Robert Bellarmine. In 2000, it became Bellarmine University. The university is organized into seven colleges and schools and confers bachelor's and master's degrees in more than 50 academic majors, along with five doctoral degrees; it is classified among "D/PU: Doctoral/Professional Universities".
The university has an enrollment of over 3,200 students on its main academic and residential campus in Louisville's Belknap neighborhood. In 2011, the school awarded 780 undergraduate and graduate degrees, an increase from 700 in the previous academic year.
Its athletic teams are known as the Knights. Bellarmine is a member of NCAA Division I and competes in the ASUN Conference, with exceptions in: wrestling (Southern Conference), field hockey (Mid-American Conference), and men's and women's swimming & diving (Coastal Collegiate Sports Association). Bellarmine's men's basketball team won the 2011 NCAA Men's Division II Basketball Tournament, the first athletic national championship in school history.
History
Early history
Bellarmine University has been led by four presidents: Alfred Horrigan (1950–1972), Eugene V. Petrik (1973–1990), Joseph J. McGowan (1990–2016), and Susan M. Donovan (2017–present). Horrigan, elevated to Domestic Prelate by the pope in 1955, led the school during its formative years. Petrik strengthened Bellarmine's financial footing. McGowan led the school in a massive building program, culminating in his Vision 2020 plan. Fr. Raymond J. Treece served as interim president in 1972–73, between Presidents Horrigan and Petrik. Dr. John Oppelt served as acting president during McGowan's sabbatical in 1999.
The first important public announcement of the establishment of Bellarmine College was made in November 1949 by the Archbishop of Louisville, John A. Floersh. He selected Horrigan and Treece, associate editors of the Louisville Archdiocesan newspaper, The Record, to begin the school. The two designed a curriculum and the school's core philosophy, taking cues from The Catholic University of America in Washington, DC, and seeking advice from a number of Catholic institutions, including the University of Notre Dame, the University of Scranton, and the University of St. Thomas in Houston, Texas.
In 1950, The Catholic Archdiocese of Louisville founded Bellarmine College with a pioneer class of 115 freshmen. The only building, Pasteur Hall, was still without its front door on the first day of classes. Archbishop John A. Floersh called the school into existence at its first Convocation, saying, "We are looking forward to the day when the college ranks with the great colleges of our country." From its opening day under founding President Horrigan, Bellarmine welcomed people of all faiths and races. In 1953 the college added the Administration Building (now Horrigan Hall). At its first commencement in 1954, Bellarmine graduated 42 students. The Korean War interrupted or ended the educations of many in the pioneer class, but the school persevered despite rumors of closure. In December 1956, the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools formally announced Bellarmine's accreditation. Enrollment rose from the initial 115 in 1950 to 1,033 in 1959.
Expansion and growth
The 1960s was an era of growth for the university. The university added Knights Hall, Bonaventure Hall, Lenihan Hall, Newman Hall, Kennedy Hall, an addition to Pasteur Hall and a small student activities building. 1963 witnessed the arrival of students from 17 states and 2 foreign countries. In 1964 the school awarded its 1,000th diploma. By the end of the decade, enrollment exceeded 2,000 and the college installed its first computer.
In 1967, Thomas Merton designated Bellarmine as the official repository of all his manuscripts leading to the formation of Bellarmine's Catholic identity in the inclusive Merton spirit. And in 1968, Bellarmine College merged with Ursuline College, becoming coeducational and independent of the Archdiocese. The college now had its own self-perpetuating board of trustees.
In May 1971, President Horrigan issued a report describing the state of Bellarmine College, especially in light of the Second Vatican Council, noting that the school's board of trustees consisted of representatives from a number of groups, reflecting the "open, progressive, ecumenical and experimental spirit" of that papal council. Also mentioned were various distinctions Bellarmine's students had achieved, including 14 Woodrow Wilson Fellowships, 7 National Science Foundation fellowships, 3 Fulbright Scholars, and 2 Danforth Fellowships and two East-West Fellowships, achievements he attributed to Bellarmine's commitment to excellence.
The college welcomed its second president when Horrigan resigned in 1972. His vice president, Fr. Raymond J. Treece, served as interim president for one year. Enrollment had fallen sharply, to 1,306 by 1973, and several years of deficit budgets put the school at risk of closure. The Board of Trustees appointed Dr. Eugene V. Petrik of California to the presidency in 1973 and he quickly began to revitalize the college with new programs and directions. He added the first graduate program – the MBA in 1975 – found resources for marketing and publicity, and brought enrollment back above 2,000. The school also added women's basketball in 1973, and men's soccer and women's volleyball in 1976.
The 1980s saw another decade of growth. Enrollment rose from 2,284 to 2,660. The Brown Activities Center (named for George G. Brown), Wyatt Center for the Arts (named for Wilson W. Wyatt), Norton Fine Arts Complex (named for Jane Morton Norton), Alumni Hall (Humanities Building), and Maurice D.S. Johnson quadrangle (named for former board chair) were added during these years, along with the W. Fielding Rubel School of Business and the Donna and Allan Lansing School of Nursing and Health Sciences (1984). The subject of changing the name of the school from Bellarmine College to Bellarmine University was broached, but it was decided that the school should become a university in fact before it became one in name. More opportunities were added for women to participate in athletics, including softball, track, cross country, tennis and field hockey. A $20 million capital campaign propelled the college into the 1990s.
Recent history
Dr. Joseph J. McGowan, became Bellarmine's third president in 1990. McGowan named buildings on campus for his predecessors, Horrigan and Petrik, and oversaw the addition of Miles Hall and the W.L. Lyons Brown Library. The Annsley Frazier Thornton School of Education was added in 1998, study abroad jumped from seven students in 1995 to 70 in 1999, and the school added women's soccer and women's golf. The decade also saw the beginning of Bellarmine's transition from a commuter school to a residential college. In 1995, a record 396 students lived in residence halls. McGowan sought to make Bellarmine "the region's premier residential liberal arts college", citing Stanford University, Vanderbilt University, and Duke University as models. In 1991, McGowan began instituting change in the form of a Five Year Strategic Plan, which later became the Master Plan. In 1994, the school began making perennial appearances in the Princeton Review and U.S. News & World Report, which both list Bellarmine among the top regional universities.
In 2000, the school's 50th anniversary, the board of trustees changed the name from Bellarmine College to Bellarmine University to reflect its status as a Masters-I university. In 2005, McGowan announced Vision 2020, the university's plan to become "the premier Independent Catholic University in the South, and thereby the leading private institution in the Commonwealth and region." Among other things, the plan calls for tripling enrollment, doubling the number of buildings on campus, and adding schools of architecture, law, pharmacy, and veterinary medicine by 2020. In addition, the possibility of moving the remaining athletic programs to NCAA Division I (joining lacrosse) will be considered. Under McGowan's leadership, a construction, acquisition and renovation boom that continues still today included Our Lady of the Woods Chapel, The President's Residence in Glenview, the 2120 Building, the Norton Health Sciences Center (named in honor of Norton Healthcare support), The Siena Residence Halls complex, Owsley B. Frazier Stadium, Joseph A. and Janet P. Clayton Field, Via Cassia and Ponte Juneja, and the expansion of Miles Hall. Enrollment reached a record 2,881 students by 2009, with more than 700 in residence on the campus, and the average ACT score of entering Bellarmine students reached a record high. Bellarmine launched many new academic programs including The School of Continuing and Professional Studies, the Institute of Media, Culture and Ethics and the School of Communication, The Center for Regional Environmental Studies and Bellarmine Farm.
Growth at the university includes 20 new academic programs, a 60% increase in full-time enrollment and a 56% increase in the number of residential students. The campus was expanded from 15 buildings in 1990 to 40 buildings, winning 11 architectural awards. Future plans include a new life fitness and recreation center with an Olympic pool, and Bellarmine Centro, a campus center to be anchored by an extensively remodeled Horrigan Hall connected to three new buildings.
McGowan died on March 1, 2016. Bellarmine's executive vice president, Dr. Doris Tegart, was appointed the university's interim president, with a national search planned for a new president.
In February 2017, the Board of Trustees unanimously selected Susan M. Donovan as the university's fourth president. She assumed the presidency on June 1, 2017, following a long career at Loyola University Maryland.
Academics
Bellarmine is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS). The Bellarmine W. Fielding Rubel School of Business is accredited by AACSB. Bellarmine offers more than 50 majors in the arts and sciences, business, communication, education, nursing and health sciences. The university comprises seven colleges and schools.
Bellarmine also offers a study abroad program, and during the summer months, the university hosts Kentucky's Governor's Scholar Program.
Colleges and schools
Bellarmine College of Arts & Sciences
Bellarmine College is the home to departments that support undergraduate and graduate degrees in the fine and performing arts, the humanities, and natural and social sciences.
Annsley Frazier Thornton School of Education
In 1998, Bellarmine's department of education was dedicated as the "School of Education." Three years later in 2001 it was named the Annsley Frazier Thornton School of Education (AFTSE). The school offers 20 different programs, including a doctorate in education and social change.
College of Health Professions
The College of Health Professions supports an undergraduate program in Health and Aging Services, a Master's in Health Science with emphases in health care leadership and biomedical sciences, and an online doctoral program in Health Professions Education.
Study abroad
Bellarmine offers study abroad options on six continents in over 50 countries around the globe, ranging from departmental programs to summer enclave programs and semester or academic year exchanges at over 150 partner universities. Study abroad is available not only for foreign language students but for all other academic areas as well, and it is accessible to all students regardless of social and economic background. More than 35% of Bellarmine's full-time students engage in an international experience during their tenure at Bellarmine.
Campus facilities
Over 40 buildings stand on the hills of Bellarmine's campus in Louisville's Belknap neighborhood, at the western edge of the larger Highlands area.
The Owsley B. Frazier Stadium
The multi-purpose stadium serves as home to Bellarmine's soccer, field hockey, lacrosse, and track and field teams. The stadium opened on August 24, 2007, in a Bellarmine Knights women's soccer game, and was officially dedicated on August 28. Construction took approximately 18 months and cost $5.1 million. The stadium features Joseph P. and Janet A. Clayton Field, which is composed of artificial turf with permanent markings for soccer, field hockey and lacrosse games. Surrounding the field is an eight-lane, 400 meter track. The track has a dual-durometer, polyurethane poured surface provided by Beynon Sport Surfaces, a company that has installed tracks at other college facilities including Illinois, Maryland, and Purdue.
Our Lady of The Woods Chapel
The chapel was dedicated on May 11, 2001, as a place of worship for Bellarmine students. Alfred Horrigan, the original president of Bellarmine University, always dreamed of building a chapel on campus. Although the project was not completed under his presidency, his vision for the chapel was respected during construction. Construction for Our Lady of the Woods was completed under Joseph McGowan's presidency and stands in memory of Archbishop of Louisville John A. Floersh, who founded Bellarmine in 1950. Although construction was completed in 2001, Alfred Horrigan did not consider the project complete until he published the book Our Lady of the Woods Chapel just before his death in 2005.
The interior building has two large stained glass windows, designed by Guy Kemper, an artist from Lexington, KY. The stained glass windows reflect different colors depending on the season and weather. On a bright day, you are more likely to see the blue and white reflections while the gray and lead are reserved for winter weather. The green and yellow of the stained glass are evident through most of the seasons with the exception of winter when the bare branches cast an illusion of intermingling with the lead. The majestic purple is always present, allowing visitors focus and peace. Stations of the Cross can seen etched into the walls of the chapel. They depict the 14 stops that Jesus made on his way to the cross where He was crucified.
Outside of the chapel is the Grotto. It is located down the steps that lead to a little nook tucked away beneath the chapel. There you'll find a wall of candles surrounding a statue of Our Lady of Lourdes. Bellarmine provides candles to give students, staff, and alumni a chance to light a candle and meditate.
The surrounding community celebrates Mass in the chapel on Sundays and holy days of obligation, and uses the chapel for retreats and interfaith services. Because it does not have parish status, its use is restricted. No weddings, baptisms, or funerals are held there. There is no "Our Lady of the Woods" in Catholic tradition. The statue in the chapel is actually Our Lady of Grace. Bellarmine College's earliest administrators had a particular devotion to Mary and suggested the chapel be named for her. Because of its setting, the chapel committee chose the name "Our Lady of the Woods."
Siena Complex
The Siena Complex is composed of four residence halls: Siena Primo, Siena Secondo, Siena Terzo and Siena Quarto. The complex is modeled after the Piazza del Campo, the main town center of Siena, Italy. Bellarmine's namesake, St. Robert Bellarmine, was a native of Tuscany, where Siena is. The Siena buildings were built by F.W. Owens Co. Inc. and designed by Godsey Associates Architects Inc. They have private restrooms, wireless Internet access, kitchens, balconies, laundry facilities, group study spaces, lobby gathering areas, and a 200-seat dining hall. When completed, the four buildings will enclose a landscaped courtyard with fountains, a small amphitheater and possibly bocce courts. The Siena Housing Project is a project to have half of the school's undergraduate population live on campus. Cumulatively, the Siena Complex will house 519 students and cost $33.6 million.
University Dining Hall
In 2010 Bellarmine opened a new 540-seat, dining hall. It features indoor and outdoor seating areas with a tall panoramic window that provides natural light and view of rolling hills. It was built as part of a $7.5 million overhaul of the George G. Brown Center, which also includes a renovated and expanded School of Communication and the Amelia Brown Frazier Convocation Hall. The dining hall is managed by Sodexo Inc., which operated the previous cafeteria.
Knights Hall
Knights Hall is home to Bellarmine's volleyball team; the men's and women's basketball teams practice in Knights Hall but play in Louisville's Freedom Hall as of 2020. The arena was built in 1960 and can seat up to 2,600 fans. It is also used for high school games, graduation ceremonies, and concerts. The hall was dedicated in 1960 with a home game against the University of Louisville and has hosted matchups with rival and NAIA national champion Kentucky State, Fly Williams and his teams from Austin Peay, and the Knights women's basketball regional championship games of the 1990s. The arena has also hosted some very special guests including Mother Teresa, the Grateful Dead, Jimmy Buffett and Pete Rose, among others. In 2007, Knights Hall was featured on ESPN when NBA greats such as Bill Walton, Darrell Griffith, and Kenny Walker judged the McDonald's High School All-American Slam Dunk Contest.
The W.L. Lyons Brown Library
The campus library was completed in the fall of 1996, costing $6.5 million. Its exterior is made up of brown brick, anodized aluminum-frame windows and slate roofs. It has long spanning brick arches with vertical piers, limestone columns and banding, steep sloping roofs, and a clock tower marking the entry, establishing a focal point on campus.
The library supports 150,000 volumes and includes a print and electronic-based reference center, micro forms, media services, periodicals, general collections, and a special-collections center. It houses the campus computer center and is wired throughout to promote flexibility in computer usage.
Eddie Weber Tennis Complex & SuRF Center
The Eddie Weber Tennis Complex was dedicated on September 12, 2009, and is adjacent to the Student Recreation and Fitness Center (SuRF). The courts are named for Eddie Weber, the only man to have been a head coach for both the University of Louisville and Bellarmine. The complex houses 6 outdoor tennis courts with 3 additional indoor courts in the SuRF Center. Inside the SuRF Center are two multi-purpose basketball courts, the exercise and fitness area, locker rooms, and offices. The fitness area is supplied with treadmills, bikes, elliptical weight machines, and free weights.
Norton Health Science Center
Bellarmine's main science and research facility is the Norton Health Science Center (NHSC). NHSC was completed in 2004 and has of floor space. The floor space is divided into laboratories, faculty offices and classrooms. The facility also includes a courtyard for the science quadrangle and an animal holding facility for the Psychology Department. NHSC cost $6.5 million to build and was funded primarily by private donations.
Horrigan Hall
Horrigan Hall is named after the university's first president, Msgr. Alfred Horrigan, and serves as the campus center. Architects Thomas J. Nolan & sons designed the facility in "modern" 1950s style and Al J. Schneider Company was the general contractor. The exterior is of rough textured brick with limestone trim. The three-story building sits atop a hill on campus featuring a six-story tower. Originally known as the Administration Building, Horrigan Hall was constructed in February 1953, costing $1 million. The facility was completely funded by private donations. Horrigan Hall has gone through a few remodeling and upgrades over the years. In December 1961 a new sound system was added, with central air following in 1970. In 1986–87 an elevator was installed and a new 2001 Newburg Road entrance was added as an alternative to the original 2000 Norris Place street entrance. Further remodeling and expansion is planned. Three new buildings have been proposed in front of and connected to the existing hall. The project is dubbed "Bellarmine Centro" and calls for the addition of more than of new space and approximately of remodeled space in the existing building. There will be space for a new Graduate School of Management, bookstore, admissions, registrar, bursar and financial aid offices. Classrooms will be added and expanded and a new space dedicated to triple the size of the Thomas Merton Center, the official repository of Merton's manuscripts, which hosts approximately 3,000 research international scholars and visitors annually. A garden and green space will be added, including a green roof accessible to students and faculty. Bellarmine Centro is estimated to cost $38 million and will be funded entirely by private sources.
Athletics
The Bellarmine athletic teams are called the Knights. The university is a member of the NCAA Division I ranks, primarily competing in the ASUN Conference for most sports since the 2020–21 academic year. The Knights previously competed in the Great Lakes Valley Conference (GLVC) of the NCAA Division II ranks from 1978–79 to 2019–20.
Bellarmine competes in 25 intercollegiate varsity sports: Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, golf, lacrosse, soccer, sprint football, swimming, tennis, track & field and wrestling; while women's sports include basketball, cross country, field hockey, golf, soccer, softball, swimming, tennis, track & field, volleyball; and co-ed sports include cheerleading and dance.
Notes
Overview
Bellarmine sponsors five sports that are not sponsored by the ASUN, one of which will become an ASUN sport in July 2021. The men's lacrosse team, the only NCAA Division I lacrosse team in Kentucky, is a member of the Southern Conference (SoCon) through the 2021 season, after which it will join the ASUN's relaunched men's lacrosse league. Bellarmine added men's wrestling to its SoCon membership when it joined the ASUN. Men's and women's swimming and diving joined the Coastal Collegiate Sports Association (CCSA) upon the Knights' arrival in the ASUN. The women's field hockey team was independent for its first Division I season in 2020–21, and will become a single-sport member of the Mid-American Conference (MAC) in July 2021.
Accomplishments
In 2011 the Knights won the NCAA Men's Division II Basketball Championship. In 2015, the Bellarmine University Dance Team won their first national title at the 2015 NDA collegiate championship. In 2019, the team won their second national title at the 2019 NDA collegiate championship. In 2012 Bellarmine announced the start of its swimming program. The university's newest sport is wrestling, added for the 2016–17 school year; Bellarmine effectively absorbed the wrestling program of St. Catharine College, an NAIA member that closed at the end of the 2015–16 school year. This returned NCAA wrestling to the state of Kentucky for the first time since the University of Kentucky dropped the sport in 1982. Bellarmine wrestling will continue to compete in the SoCon after most other sports move to the ASUN.
Honorary societies
Phi Alpha Theta (History)
Lambda Pi Eta (Communications)
Pi Sigma Alpha (Political Science)
Notable people
Alumni
John Young Brown III, Secretary of State of Kentucky from 1996 to 2004
Joseph C. Burke, former President of State University of New York at Plattsburgh; former Acting Chancellor of the State University of New York
Susan Cameron, Reynolds American CEO; former CEO at Brown & Williamson Tobacco Corporation
Joseph P. Clayton, former President & CEO, DISH Network; former CEO and chairman of Sirius Satellite Radio, Inc.
William J. Donahue, retired lieutenant general for the United States Air Force
Chris Dowe (born 1991), professional basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Kelly Downard, Louisville Metro Council member (16th District) (2006)
Shawn Evans, National Lacrosse League (NLL) player and 2013 NLL MVP
Dapo Fagbenle, London-based music video director and entertainer
Braydon Hobbs, professional basketball player
Jeremy Kendle, professional basketball player
Quentin Letts, journalist
John MacLeod, veteran NBA coach
Kyle Sorensen, National Lacrosse League player
Frank L. Schmidt, psychologist
Bruce Tinsley, syndicated cartoonist and creator of the Mallard Fillmore'' comic strip
Todd Wellemeyer, Major League Baseball player
Brandon Pfaadt, Major League Baseball player
Faculty
Jerry Abramson, Former Executive-in-residence, former Mayor of Louisville Metro, former Lieutenant Governor of Kentucky, and former White House Director of Intergovernmental Affairs
Radio station
Bellarmine University has a radio station named Bellarmine Radio, catering mainly to the campus community. Initially, the radio station broadcast via a radio frequency, but, in 2005, it began to broadcast as an online radio station. Bellarmine Radio provides daily announcements about events on campus, extended coverage of Bellarmine athletics, and a variety of specialty shows.
See also
Spalding University
Religion in Louisville, Kentucky
References
External links
Official athletics website
Universities and colleges established in 1950
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Louisville
Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities
Universities and colleges in Louisville, Kentucky
1950 establishments in Kentucky
Catholic universities and colleges in Kentucky
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranil%20Wickremesinghe
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Ranil Wickremesinghe
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Ranil Wickremesinghe (born March 24, 1949) is a Sri Lankan politician who is the 9th and current President of Sri Lanka. He also holds several ministerial positions, including the Minister of Finance, Minister of Defence, Minister of Technology and Minister of Women, Child Affairs and Social Empowerment.
Wickremesinghe has led the United National Party since 1994. He has served as Prime Minister of Sri Lanka on five separate occasions, leading six governments, from 1993 to 1994, 2001 to 2004, 2015 to 2018, 2018 to 2019, and for a few months in 2022. He has also served as Leader of the Opposition from 1994 to 2001 and from 2004 to 2015.
Born to a wealthy political family, he graduated from University of Ceylon and qualified as an advocate from the Ceylon Law College in 1972. Entering active politics in the mid-1970s with the UNP, he was first elected to Parliament from the Biyagama electorate in the 1977 parliamentary elections and was appointed Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs, by his uncle and President J. R. Jayewardene. He was thereafter appointed as the Minister of Youth Affairs and Employment, becoming the youngest cabinet minister in Sri Lanka.
In 1989, President Ranasinghe Premadasa, appointed Wickremesinghe as the Minister of Industry, Science and Technology and Leader of the House. He succeeded D. B. Wijetunga as Prime Minister in 1993 following the assassination of Premadasa and Wijetunga's succession to the presidency. He was appointed Leader of the Opposition in November 1994 following the assassination of Gamini Dissanayake during the campaign for the 1994 presidential election. Wickremesinghe was the UNP nominee in the 1999 and 2005 presidential elections, but was defeated by Chandrika Kumaratunga and Mahinda Rajapaksa, respectively.
On 8 January 2015, Wickremesinghe was appointed as prime minister by President Maithripala Sirisena, who had defeated President Mahinda Rajapaksa in the 2015 presidential election. His coalition alliance, the United National Front for Good Governance, won the 2015 parliamentary election with 106 seats. Although it fell short of an outright majority, Wickremesinghe was re-elected as Prime Minister, with over 35 Sri Lanka Freedom Party members joining his cabinet. Wickremesinghe was removed as Prime Minister on 26 October 2018 by President Maithripala Sirisena with the appointment of former President Mahinda Rajapaksa as Prime Minister, which Wickremesinghe refused to accept, resulting in a constitutional crisis. The crisis ended with Sirisena re-appointing Wickremesinghe as Prime Minister on 16 December 2018. He resigned as Prime Minister on 20 November 2019, and was again succeeded by Mahinda following the 2019 presidential election. He contested the 2020 parliamentary election but failed to secure a seat in Parliament.
He re-entered Parliament as a National List MP of the United National Party, and was sworn in as a member of parliament on 23 June 2021. In May 2022, Wickremesinghe was re-appointed as prime minister by President Gotabaya Rajapaksa. On 9 July 2022, Wickremesinghe announced that he was willing to resign amidst mass anti-government protests that saw his personal residence set ablaze, along with the residence of then-President Gotabaya Rajapaska taken over by protestors. He agreed to resign as prime minister once a new government is formed.
Wickremesinghe became the acting president on 14 July 2022, after his predecessor Gotabaya Rajapaksa fled the country. Rajapaksa resigned on 14 July 2022, and the same day, Wickremesinghe was sworn in as acting president of Sri Lanka. The same day, he decided to formally abolish the presidential standard and remove the style "His Excellency" when addressing the president. On 20 July 2022, Wickremesinghe was elected as the 9th President via an election by parliament. On 21 July 2022, he took the presidential oath in parliament as president of Sri Lanka.
Early life and education
Born on 24 March 1949 in Colombo, Wickremesinghe was the second son of Esmond Wickremesinghe and Nalini Wickremesinghe née Wijewardena. His father was a lawyer who became a press baron taking over the Lake House Group of newspapers. His grandfathers were Cyril Wickremesinghe of the Ceylon Civil Service and the press baron, D. R. Wijewardhena.
Wickremesinghe was educated at the Royal Preparatory School and at the Royal College, Colombo where he was a classmate and friend of Anura Bandaranaike, son of then Prime Minister S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike; and Dinesh Gunawardena, son of socialist leader Philip Gunawardena. Wickremesinghe entered the Faculty of Law of the University of Ceylon at its Colombo Campus which is now the University of Colombo. After graduation, he completed the law exams at the Ceylon Law College and took oaths as an advocate in 1972 after having apprenticed under H. W. Jayewardene, QC. He became an Attorney at law following the changes to the legal profession in 1973. Wickramasinghe received an honorary doctorate from Deakin University in Australia on 14 February 2017 for his significant contributions in reforms in economy, education and human rights.
Political career
Wickremesinghe joined the United National Party (UNP) and progressed through its ranks. He was appointed as the chief organizer of the Kelaniya Electorate in the mid-1970s, and was later appointed as the chief organizer of the Biyagama Electorate, which he won in the 1977 parliamentary elections and entered parliament. He was appointed Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs in the new government of J. R. Jayewardene, and was soon promoted to the post of Minister of Youth Affairs & Employment on 5 October 1977, which made him the youngest cabinet minister of Sri Lanka. During his term as minister, he initiated the Sri Lanka National Guard and the National Youth Services Council (NYSCO), which provides vocational and career training to school leavers. Wickremesinghe was later made the Minister of Education on 14 February 1980.
Under the Presidency of Ranasinghe Premadasa, Wickremesinghe was appointed as the Minister of Industry on 18 February 1989, under which he initiated industrial reforms and established the Biyagama Special Economic Zone. In 1990, he was given the additional portfolios of Science and Technology. Wickremesinghe had competition from his senior colleagues in the UNP, Lalith Athulathmudali and Gamini Dissanayake, who had been rivals of President Premadasa. He was appointed the Leader of the House in 1989.
Batalanda incident
It was alleged by the People's Alliance government that Wickremesinghe, as Minister, was the political authority behind an illegal detention centre in the Batalanda housing and industrial complex outside Colombo between 1988 and 1990 which was allegedly run by a government-backed counter-subversive unit as part of the state's operation to put down an armed insurgency by the JVP. The People's Alliance government of President Chandrika Kumaratunga, appointed a Special Presidential Commission of Inquiry to investigate activities of Batalanda and on 3 September 1997 Wickremesinghe was summoned to testify before the commission. The commissions report was released on 12 April 1998. The commission was a fact-finding mission and had no judicial powers; however, it recommended the government to "bring the guilty to book". One of its findings was that "Wickremesinghe and the SSP Nalin Delgoda, are indirectly responsible for the maintenance of places of unlawful detention and torture chambers in houses at the Batalanda Housing Scheme". It further stated that Wickremesinghe held "unauthorised meetings of police officers involved in counter-insurgency operations in the housing complex, and that as such, he had abused his authority". No criminal proceedings took place thereafter.
First premiership (1993–1994)
On 7 May 1993, Wickremesinghe was sworn in as prime minister after President Ranasinghe Premadasa was assassinated by the Tamil Tigers and Prime Minister D. B. Wijetunga was appointed president. During his ephemeral term, he was credited for pushing the country through an impressive economic transformation and was generally backed by the business community.
Opposition (1994–2001)
In the 1994 parliamentary elections, the UNP lost to Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga's People's Alliance (PA), and Kumaratunga was appointed Prime Minister of the country. Wickremesinghe was defeated in the race for Opposition Leader by two votes by fellow UNP member Gamini Dissanayake, who had re-joined the party. This gave Gamini Dissanayake the default leadership of the party and made him the presidential nominee of the UNP. The UNP was progressing well under Gamini Dissanayake's leadership, when he too was assassinated by the Tamil Tigers. Gamini Dissanayake's widow, Srima replaced him as the candidate of the UNP in the 1994 election. Securing just 35% of the vote, she lost to Chandrika Kumaratunga in all electorates except Mahiyangana. Afterwards, Wickremesinghe was appointed as the opposition leader as well as the UNP leader.
Wickremesinghe was seen as a cooperative opposition leader who gave the government a chance to carry out its agenda in its early days.
In the 1999 election, Wickremesinghe was nominated as UNP's presidential candidate. After a tense election campaign in the wake of the violent North Western Provincial Council election, the Tamil Tigers blasted a suicide bomb in an election campaign rally, in which President Kumaratunga lost her right eye. Voting was held two days later 21 December 1999 amidst a wave of sympathy, and Kumaratunga was re-elected with 51% of the popular vote to remain as Executive President. After this electoral loss, Wickremesinghe unsuccessfully led his party in the 2000 parliamentary elections, again losing out to the PA.
Second premiership (2001–2004)
In the parliamentary general election 2001, Ranil Wickremesinghe led UNF to win 109 seats and PA was able to obtain only 77 seats. Consequently, he was able to form a new UNF government and sworn as the 17th Prime Minister of Sri Lanka on 9 December 2001. However, Chandrika Kumaratunga still remained the President of the country. This led to a confusing situation where the President and the Prime Minister were from two opposite parties. Although, according to the constitution, both head of state and head of government was the President, Prime Minister Ranil Wickremesinghe was able to appoint his own cabinet and he had the actual control over the government. President Chandrika Kumaratunga also chaired cabinet meetings as de facto head, but her influence over decision making was strictly limited.
During his second premiership, he proposed to initiate the "Western Region Megapolis" project. Planned with the assistance of architects and town planners of a Singaporean firm CESMA, it proposed to build a large new city in the western province that can rival major cities in the world. However, the project did not proceed after the fall of his government. He also requested international community to assist in development during the ceasefire – the Tokyo Donor Conference on Reconstruction and Development of Sri Lanka was held in June 2003, during which Sri Lanka received more than 4.5 billion dollars in reconstruction and development aid.
Wickremesinghe's foreign policy during his tenant as Prime Minister pushed closer relations with the west. He expected their economical backing to overcome the economic crisis. He also largely took assistance, especially from Norway, to resolve the ongoing ethnic problem in Sri Lanka. In July 2002 he was able to meet George W. Bush, the President of the United States during that period. It was the first time after 18 years a Sri Lankan leader met the US leader in the White House. This visit was primarily focused on building new relationships based on economical links between United States and Sri Lanka. Furthermore, the US government pledged to support his peace efforts with LTTE. He also met the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair, the Prime Minister of Japan Junichiro Koizumi and the Prime Minister of India Atal Bihari Vajpayee.
Wickremesinghe believed a political solution based on a United Sri Lanka was the permanent solution to the ethnic problem in the country. He also believed that such a solution could be reached through a peaceful negotiation process with LTTE. Three months after the election Ranil Wickremesinghe's government entered into a ceasefire agreement (CFA) with LTTE. The agreement was signed on 22 February 2002 at different locations in the war zone by both parties and the Norwegian Ambassador to Sri Lanka Jon Westborg acted as the facilitator. It was said that the main objective of this agreement was to find a negotiated solution to the ongoing ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka. Both parties agreed to halt all offensive military operations. An international monitoring mission called Sri Lanka Monitoring Mission (SLMM) was formed to inquire into any instance of violation of the terms and conditions of this agreement. In the aftermath of signing the CFA, the island was deemed a safe place once again, after decades of war. Especially the tourism industry experienced a significant escalation where the number of tourists arriving in the country was suddenly increased. The A9 Highway was reopened up to Kilinochchi on 15 February 2002 after 18 years.
A few days after LTTE proposed the Interim Self Governing Authority (ISGA), President Chandrika Kumaratunga sacked three ministers of the cabinet and took over the ministries using her constitutional powers, ending the uneasy coalition between her and the Prime Minister Ranil Wickremesinghe while he was out of the country. Addressing the nation she claimed that this decision was taken in the interest of national security. Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna also decided to ally with PA to defeat the Ranil Wickremesinghe's government which they claimed as a threat to the sovereignty of the country. Consequently, President Chandrika Kumaratunga dissolved the parliament on 7 February 2004 which effectively ended Ranil Wickremesinghe's regime.
Peace talks
After signing CFA, Ranil Wickremesinghe held a few rounds of peace talks with LTTE between 2002 and 2003. Prof. G. L. Peiris, minister Milinda Moragoda and minister Rauff Hakeem led the government delegation and LTTE theoretician Anton Balasingham, LTTE political wing leader S.P. Thamilselvan and military leader Karuna Amman led the LTTE faction during the peace talks. The Norwegian government acted as the chief facilitator during the peace talks. There were six rounds of peace talks which were held at different locations around the world:
16–18 September 2002, Bangkok
31 October-3 November 2002, Bangkok
2–5 December 2002, Oslo
6–9 January 2003, Bangkok
7–8 February 2003, Berlin
18–21 March 2003, Tokyo
After the Oslo round of peace talks in December 2003, a concluding statement was declared by the Norwegian facilitators which later became known as Oslo Declaration. In this statement it was stated that "both parties have decided to explore a political solution founded on internal self-determination based on a federal structure within a united Sri Lanka". This was considered one of the most significant incidents in the history of finding a political solution to the ethnic problem in Sri Lanka.
After the sixth round of peace talks in March 2003, LTTE abruptly withdrew from the peace talks. However, in October 2003 LTTE again showed some intentions of entering into the peace process, calling for an Interim Self Governing Authority (ISGA). The proposal was handed over to the government through Norwegian Ambassador Hans Brattskar.
Analysts saw Wickremesinghe was fanning the internecine feuds among the Tigers and systematically weakening them and a foreign policy intended to tighten the global dragnet against the LTTE. Agreements were signed with the US which allowed Sri Lanka to get assistance in terms of military training, military technology, intelligence, special training in counter-terrorism and direct monetary assistance for military development. During the ceasefire period United States Pacific Command assessment team conducted a study from 12–2 Sep, 002 to 24 October 2002, which made several recommendations to strengthen the capabilities of the Sri Lanka Army, Sri Lanka Navy and Sri Lanka Air Force in case of the peace process failing. After studying the weakness of the military the study recommended the use of cluster bombs (Which weren't banned until 2010 when the Cluster Munitions Convention came into effect)to destroy unarmoured area targets and recommended arming Kafirs and Mi-24 gunships with guided weapons in case of fighting close to enemy forces. The US also donated the SLNS Samudura during this time.
The opposition and the nationalistic movements of the country strongly opposed CFA and the overall peace process of Ranil Wickremesinghe's regime. They continuously criticized and protested against CFA claiming it as a threat to the sovereignty of the country which ultimately leads the way to a separate state for LTTE, so-called Eelam. It was later claimed by Karuna Amman who defected from the LTTE during Ranil Wickremesinghe's regime that the LTTE dragged the peace talks to smuggle weapons and ammunition including aircraft.
LTTE continuously violated CFA in great many occasions. In August 2007 SLMM agreed that LTTE had violated CFA in total 3830 occasions while government of Sri Lanka had violated CFA in only 351 occasions. Several Sri Lankan Army intelligence operatives were allegedly killed by LTTE during this period.
Opposition (2004–2015)
In the 2004 Parliamentary Elections held on 2 April Ranil Wickremesinghe's UNF lost governmental office. Despite the expectation of a full six-year term, and planned projects cut short by the defeat, the UNP was optimistic that it could regain power in a future election. Within 14 months of UPFA's victory, the radical JVP wing's (composed of over 30 members) parting of ways with the government, left the UPFA's parliamentary composition well short of the required majority. He remained in the post of the Opposition Leader until 2015, when Maithripala Sirisena who was sworn in as the President, appointed him as the Prime Minister.
In December 2004, Wickremesinghe was chosen by the United National Party as its presidential candidate for Presidential Elections due in late 2005. The Supreme Court decided in August 2005 that the elections should be held that year despite the President's argument that her term would end in 2006. Mahinda Rajapaksa, then Prime Minister, was nominated as the Presidential candidate of the Sri Lanka Freedom Party. In the presidential election held on 17 November 2005, Wickremesinghe was defeated narrowly by Mahinda Rajapaksa, who gained 50.29% of the vote to Wickremesinghe's 48.43%. A large number of the minority Tamil population in the Northern and Eastern parts of the country, who were largely expected to back Wickremesinghe were prevented from voting by the LTTE, which had enforced a boycott of the polls.
With the success in defeating LTTE in war, the government held a series of provincial elections in 2008 and 2009 for 8 provincial councils (Eastern, North Central, Sabaragamuwa, North Western, Central, Western, Uva, and Southern). On all occasions, UNP was soundly defeated by a large margin by UPFA. Of all the elections UNP obtained only 30% of the total polled and UPFA was able to gain 59% of the total polled. The margin was 2,527,783compared to 180,786 in Presidential Election in 2005.
Ranil Wickremesinghe signed an Alliance Agreement with twelve other opposition parties in November 2009 and he announced that a common candidate would be fielded for the presidential election which would be held in 2010. Later, he announced that the former Army Commander, Sarath Fonseka had been selected as the common candidate and pledged to support him.
In August 2012, Minister of Health and SLFP general secretary Maithripala Sirisena alleged that during the 1994 presidential election campaign, all campaign details concerning the UNP presidential candidate Gamini Dissanayake were being secretly passed on to his opponent, Chandrika Kumaratunga by Wickremesinghe. Minister Sirisena made this disclosure while addressing an election committee meeting held at Siripura, Polonnaruwa. Sirisena asserted that he has ample proof to validate his claim and allegations. Consequently, both parties started to challenge each other for open media debates.
UNP along with several other parties and civil organizations signed an Understanding Agreement and decided to field the then Secretary-General of Sri Lanka Freedom Party, Maithripala Sirisena as the Common Candidate for the presidential election and the Common Candidate pledged to appoint Ranil Wickremesinghe, as the Prime Minister if he would win the election. In the elections held on 8 January 2015, Common Candidate Maithripala Sirisena was selected as the 6th President of Sri Lanka and on 9 January 2015 when he was sworn in, he appointed Ranil Wickremesinghe as the Prime Minister of the Sri Lankan Parliament.
Dissent within the UNP
After the defeat in the 2004 parliamentary election, a senior member of UNP and a former minister of Ranil Wickremesinghe's 2001–2004 government, Rohitha Bogollagama, switched sides and allied with the government. Soon after the defeat in the presidential election in 2005, Mahinda Samarasinghe and Keheliya Rambukwella defected to the government.
In 2007, Wickremesinghe established a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with the Mahinda Rajapaksa government agreeing to UNP's collaboration with the government on issues of national interest. However, shortly afterwards, 17 of the UNP's 60 members in parliament, including the group who had challenged Wickremesinghe's leadership, led by deputy leader Karu Jayasuriya crossed over to the governing UPFA ranks in parliament and were given ministerial appointments. The group consisted of senior members of UNP and many of them were former ministers of Ranil Wickremesinghe's 2001–2004 government: Karu Jayasuriya (Deputy Leader of UNP), M. H. Mohamed (former speaker of the parliament), Milinda Moragoda, G. L. Peiris, Bandula Gunawardane, Lakshman Yapa Abeywardena, Gamini Lokuge, P. Dayaratna, Mano Wijeyeratne, Rajitha Senaratne, R.A.D. Sirisena, Mahinda Wijesekara, Naween Dissanayake, Hemakumara Nanayakkara, R. M. Dharmadasa Banda, Neomal Perera and Chandrasiri Sooriyaarachchi. The defection of the party stalwarts to join the government continued thereafter with several members such as; Susantha Punchinilame, Mahinda Ratnatilaka, Nandimithra Ekanayake, Thilanga Sumathipala, R. Duminda Silva, Ravindra Randeniya and Ashoka Wadigamangawa. However, in late 2008, Jayasuriya crossed over once again to the opposition and was given back the deputy leader post.
In February 2008, Wickremesinghe was under pressure to step down from the party leadership to accept an advisory position, from a majority of the UNP's parliamentary group. In March, the UNP working committee decided to create a new post called Senior Leader of the party and appointed Wickremesinghe to the post. This was amid discussion with the UNP's parliamentary group about the need for the Wickremesinghe to relinquish his post (of party leader) so that a new leader could be appointed. However, in late March the party working committee decided that he should remain as the party leader.
Wickremesinghe was accused of being a dictator in UNP during his time as opposition leader. Udugama Sri Buddharakkitha Thero said that Wickremesinghe was acting like a dictator. On 2010, UNP MP Dayasiri Jayasekara accused that within the constitution of the UNP, Ranil Wickremesinghe Rajapaksa is not a democratic leader but a dictator. Former minister and UNP MP Mahinda Wijesekara commented that "We don't need a dictator in the party," saying that Wickremesinghe opposed party reforms.
More than 60 UNP MPs allegedly left the party during Wickremesinghe's leadership as opposition leader.
Third, fourth and fifth premierships (2015–2019)
Following the 2015 presidential election's UNP-led common candidate Maithripala Sirisena having won 51.28% of votes and under Memorandum of Understanding agreement, Wickremesinghe was appointed as prime minister for the 100-day program plan and this was his third term as Prime Minister of Sri Lanka. UNP/UNFGG-led by Wickremesinghe won the General Parliamentary Elections held on 17 August 2015, making himself the Prime Minister for his 4th term, with 106 seats in 225-member Parliament of Sri Lanka forming the government (though short of 7 seats to secure the simple majority of the Parliament) defeating the political rivalry UPFA leader and former President Mahinda Rajapaksa in his bid to return as prime minister after his defeat as president. Wickremesinghe also scored the highest preferential votes in the election with 500,556 votes, beating his rival Rajapaksa by a considerable margin whilst setting a new record as the candidate with the highest number of preferential votes in Sri Lankas' elections history.
Wickremesinghe vowed to regain the majority in the Parliament and make it as the United National Party's Government, at the same time he also promised to secure the futures of younger generations and instantly confirmed that the Government will launch 1 million jobs for the youth as well advancement for the education and health sectors will maintain as promised. He also took steps to develop the former war-zones by touring the affected areas and met civil activists to discuss the issues faced by the Jaffna civilians and schools and to expedite investigations of missing persons. He also took steps to uplift Northern Province communities and to improve their standard of living.
Wickremesinghe also restarted the Megapolis plan which he started in when he was PM in 2001–2004. Surbana was consulted to revise the master plan to suit newer needs. The Ministry of Megapolis and Western development was created for project and the project which expects to convert the currently unplanned Western Province into a major megapolis by 2030 with an estimated population of 8.4 million and expects to solve the issues concerning traffic congestion, waste management and slum dwellers in urban areas. Wickremesinghe also showed interest in Surbana creating a similar plan for Trincomalee in the Eastern province and an agreement was later signed with Surbana for the purpose.
Wickremesinghe proposed major economic reforms and proposed a knowledge based social market economy which will be built on social justice principles that will also focus on the availability of global opportunities for education and strengthening of the health system to face health concerns of the 21st century. He also planned on reducing high income disparity levels in the domestic economy and increasing exports. He launched a plan to reform state-owned enterprise, enter into trade agreements with India and China to increase market access and regain GSP+ to regain EU markets, restructure key investment promotion agencies, develop tourism, attract high spending tourists, and develop the rural economy. Special economic zones and a special financial and business hub in Colombo were also proposed. Wickremesinghe also organized the Sri Lanka Economic forum 2016 with the presence of international investor and Founder Chairman of Open Society George Soros and Nobel Laureate Economist Joseph Stiglitz and many other experts such as Ricardo Hausmann. The forum was seen as a boost to the Sri Lankan economy and during the forum Soros decided to invest in Sri Lanka the initial investments were expected to be around $300 Million. He also launched a loan and grant scheme for small and medium enterprises named "Swa Shakthi" empower rural entrepreneurs and develop the rural economy. However, in 2017, during his tenure Sri Lanka recorded just 3.1% economic growth rate, the lowest for 16 years.
During the Rajapaksa regime which oversaw the rise of lawlessness and abuse of state power by Rajapaksa's government ministers and officers after the defeat of the regime, Prime Minister Wickremesinghe decided to set up the Financial Crimes Investigation Division. This led to arrest Basil Rajapaksa the younger brother of Mahinda Rajapaksa and his political henchmen who were involved in large-scale corruption also were arrested within months after forming the committee. However several family members and friends of Rajapaksa were questioned by the FCID, Rajapaksa fears that his entire family and friends could be prosecuted and brought down to justice. Former President Rajapaksa asked President Sirisena over the pending charges against his family members and political associations be dropped. However, President Sirisena refused to drop the charges that were ongoing, The meeting between President Sirisena and former President Rajapaksa ended up unsuccessful over the President's refusal to consider the key demands of Rajapaksa to be appointed as Prime Ministerial candidate and the charges against his family members and close associations to be dropped. Rajapaksa's faction in SLFP criticised that the FCID were used as a tool to revenge on his associations and threatened to take legal action against FCID.
The United National Party led by Wickramasinghe suffered a landslide defeat in the 2018 local authority elections. His party was only able to secure 34 councils out of 340 total councils. Mahinda Rajapaksa’s proxy Sri Lanka Podujana Peramuna won 231 councils. After the election defeat some MPs of UNP and party members asked Ranil Wickramasinghe Rajapaksa to resign from the party leadership and Prime Minister position. Some media reported that President Maithripala Sirisena also urged Ranil Wickramasinghe Rajapaksa to resign from his position. On the evening of 26 October 2018, President Maithripala Sirisena appointed Mahinda Rajapaksa as Prime Minister after the United People's Freedom Alliance withdrew from the unity government. He also informed Ranil Wickremesinghe was removed from office. Wickremesinghe said he refused to accept the dismissal claiming that it was unconstitutional which triggered a constitutional crisis. Following rulings by the Supreme court and the Appeal court, Rajapaksa backed down and Wickremesinghe was re-instated at prime minister on 16 December 2018.
Following many internal party negotiations Wickremesinghe agreed to back Sajith Premadasa as the party candidate for the 2019 Sri Lankan presidential election. Premadasa was defeated by Gotabaya Rajapaksa who gained 52.25% of the votes against 41.99% by Premadasa.
Foreign policy
His foreign policy in his third premiership was aimed at re-balancing relations with India and the West that were strained during the previous regime and keeping good relations with China as well. He also chose to restart discussions to solve the Indo-Sri Lanka fishing dispute but strongly defended the Sri Lankan navy's right to shoot Indian fishermen that fish in Sri Lankan waters, stating:
His foreign policy was seen as moving away from the Rajapaksa government's isolationist policies, which distanced Sri Lanka from the western world. His policies were seen to attract investments and financial aid.
His government allowed a 99-year lease of a port to a Chinese company which caused protests in 2017.
He also worked to develop relations with Japan and Singapore, choosing them as his second and third foreign state visits after being elected as prime minister. During his visit to Japan, he promised to support Japan's bid to secure a seat on the United Nations Security Council and entered to a "comprehensive partnership" with Japan covering political, economic and security issues. During his visit to Singapore, in an interview with The Straits Times he invited Singaporean submarines and frigates to visit Sri Lanka.
Government bonds controversy
In February 2015 CBSL advertised the sale of Rs. 1 billion in 30 year government bonds at a coupon of 12.5%, though several accounts erroneously cite an indicative rate of 9.5%. The sale was oversubscribed with 36 bids totaling Rs. 20 billion. The majority of bidders, 26, bidded for Rs. 100 million or less at a rate of 9.5%–10.5%. However, a few bidders, including Perpetual Treasuries Limited, wanted interest rates of 11%–12%. On 27 February 2015 the CBSL accepted Rs. 10 billion in bids at rates of 9.5%–12.5%. The issuing of ten times the advertised bonds, and at a higher than expected rate, was alleged to cost the Sri Lankan government an additional Rs. 1.6 billion ($10.6 million), though this was disputed by the Leader of the House of Parliament. A petition was lodged in the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka contesting the methodology used to allege such a loss. Perpetual Treasuries was issued, directly and indirectly, with Rs. 5 billion in bonds at 12.5%. Perpetual Treasuries was one of the primary dealers in the sale and is owned by son-in-law of the Governor of the Central Bank of Sri Lanka Arjuna Mahendran, who was appointed by Wickremesinghe.
On 28 October 2016 the Committee On Public Enterprises, after a lengthy investigation, found Mahendran responsible for the bond issue scam and recommended legal action be taken against him. However, President Maithripala Sirisena announced that he had appointed a Special Presidential Commission of Inquiry to further investigate the case. The commission handed over the report on Central Bank bond issuance to Sirisena on 30 December 2017, and the Presidential Secretariat made available the full report in PDF form from its website for public viewing. During the investigation Wickramesinghe had to appear before the Special Presidential Commission of Inquiry. A group of ministers from the President's party along with opposition MPs failed in a recent attempt to pass a motion of no-confidence against the Prime Minister in Sri Lanka's Parliament. On 15 March 2018 Colombo Fort Magistrate's Court issued an arrest warrant on Arjuna Mahendra on charges of criminal breach of trust for allegedly providing confidential information of the Central Bank of Sri Lanka to Perpetual Treasuries Limited.
Opposition (2019–2022)
Following his defeat, Premadasa left the party to form his own party, Samagi Jana Balawegaya from which he contested the 2020 Sri Lankan parliamentary election. Wickremesinghe led the remaining party members in the parliamentary election which was delayed by the COVID-19 pandemic. The 2020 parliamentary elections resulted in a landslide victory of the Sri Lanka Podujana Peramuna led by Mahinda Rajapaksa gaining 59.09% of the votes and securing 145 seats in parliament and the Samagi Jana Balawegaya gained 23.90% of votes and 54 seats. The United National Party suffering the worst defeat in its history received a total of 249,435 votes, which was 2.15% of votes cased. For the first time in its history, it failed to win a single seat in parliament, having only gained one national list seat. Wickremesinghe was sworn in as the national list member of parliament of the UNP on 23 June 2021.
Wickremesinghe actively continued to serve as vice chairman of the International Democrat Union and chairman of the Asia Pacific Democrat Union.
Sixth premiership (2022)
By May 2022, the country was in sovereign default and facing hyperinflation, leading to political and social unrest. With events leading to Mahinda Rajapaksa's resignation on 9 May 2022, due to the 2022 Sri Lankan protests, President Gotabaya Rajapaksa appointed Wickremesinghe as prime minister on 12 May 2022. He was assured the support of the Sri Lanka Podujana Peramuna members of parliament, while other parties refused to join his cabinet initially.
Reuters described Wickremesinghe as an "economic liberal who has experience dealing with the International Monetary Fund". Wickremesinghe has stated that he intends to form a national government with the participation of all political parties in the parliament and lead the country through the worst economic crisis in its history with less than one million USD in foreign reserves and unable to import essential fuel, food, and medicines, calling the months to come the most difficult in the country's history.
On 25 May, Wickremesinghe was appointed Minister of Finance, Economic Stability and National Policies.
On 9 July, Prime Minister's office announced that Wickremesinghe was ready to resign to make way for an all-party government as protesters stormed and burned his residence that day. Later in the evening, protesters broke into the 115 Fifth Lane– Wickremesinghe's private residence in Colombo and set it on fire.
Presidency (2022–present)
On 13 July, President Gotabaya Rajapaksa fled the country to Maldives, with Wickremesinghe claiming the charge of presidency in an acting capacity due to his premiership and imposing a state of emergency in Sri Lanka. Following Rajapaksa's official resignation, Wickremesinghe was sworn in as the acting president of Sri Lanka before Chief Justice Jayantha Jayasuriya on 15 July. Wickremesinghe, who had formerly been a National List MP with his party represented by only one seat in the Parliament, became the President, Prime Minister, Minister of Defense, Minister of Technology, and Minister of Finance all at the same time. Upon becoming the acting president, Wickremesinghe prohibited the usage of "His Excellency" as an honorific prefix for the President and officially abolished the usage of a Presidential flag.
On 20 July, he was elected as the 9th President of Sri Lanka by the Parliament of Sri Lanka in a secret ballot to serve the remainder of Rajapaksa's term, which was supposed to end in November 2024. He defeated his main rival, Dullus Alahapperuma, with 134 votes to 82. On 21 July, he sworn in as the ninth (eighth executive) President of Sri Lanka at Parliament premises before Chief Justice Jayantha Jayasuriya. A day later, he appointed Dinesh Gunawardena as the Prime Minister.
In September 2022 Wickremesinghe visited the UK as the head of state to attend the funeral of Queen Elizabeth II, at the invitation of King Charles III.
Crackdown on anti-government protests
Soon after he was appointed as the president, Wickremesinghe vowed to crack down on the 2022 anti-government protests. Wickremesinghe claimed the protestors to be "fascists". Security forces raided the protest site in Galle Face Green in the early hours of 22 July, a day after Wickremesinghe was sworn in. 50 protestors were injured and two were hospitalised. BBC journalists were also attacked during the raid. Saliya Pieris, president of the Bar Association of Sri Lanka, condemned the raid. British High Commissioner to Sri Lanka, Sarah Hulton, also expressed concerns.
Handling of economic crisis
Wickremesinghe continued the government policies for economic recovery initiated during the last few days of his predecessor's term. His administration continued power rationing and introduced fuel rationing to control the country's energy crisis, while increasing direct taxes with the aim of increasing government revenue to secure an IMF bailout package by late 2022. These tax increases were largely unpopular and triggered protests organized by the effected sectors. Sri Lanka saw a contraction of 11% of its economy in 2022, with inflation peaking at 54% in December 2022. Wickremesinghe was criticized for hosting celebrations of the 75th anniversary of Sri Lankan independence on 4 February 2023, while the country was amidst a crisis.
A significant milestone was achieved by the Wickremesinghe administration in early March 2023, when Wickremesinghe announced to parliament that the IMF has approved the first tranche of US$330 million of its bailout package for Sri Lanka. The IMF bailout was expected to open up additional support of over US$3.75 billion from the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank and other lenders; paying the way for Sri Lanka to rework substantial part of its $84bn worth of public debt.
Family and personal life
Wickremesinghe married Maithree Wickremesinghe, Sri Lankan academic and Professor of English in 1994. Wickremesinghe has made several efforts to keep his private life out of politics. His personal life is rarely publicized or discussed. Maithree Wickremesinghe avoided the political spotlight until Wickremesinghe's re-election as prime minister in 2015.
His paternal grandfather was Cyril Leonard Wickremesinghe, of the Ceylon Civil Service who was the first Sinhalese Land Commissioner and his grandmother was Esme Moonemalle Goonewardene, daughter of Proctor Edward Goonewardene and Ada Moonemalle of Moonemalle Walawwa, Kurunegala whose brother was Theodore Barcroft L. Moonemalle Proctor and Member of the Legislative Council of Ceylon.
His maternal grandfather was D. R. Wijewardena son of Muhandiram Tudugalage Don Philip Wijewardena and Helena Wijewardena née Dep Weerasinghe. His grandmother was Alice Ruby Meedeniya, daughter of J. H. Meedeniya Adigar of Meedeniya Walawwa, Ruwanwella and Corneliya Magdleine Senanayake whose mother was Corneliya Regina Senanayake née Obeyesekere, sister of Lambertus Obeyesekere Maha Mudaliyar of Kataluwa Walawwa.
A number of Wickremesinghe's close relations were active in the government. His cousins Ruwan Wijewardene was the State Minister of Defence, Wasantha Senanayake was the State Minister of Foreign Affairs and his aunt Amari Wijewardene was the Sri Lanka High Commissioner to the United Kingdom.
Honours
Robert E. Wilhelm Fellow – Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2014)
Doctor of Laws (honorary) – Deakin University (2017)
See also
List of political families in Sri Lanka
List of international prime ministerial trips made by Ranil Wickremesinghe
List of international presidential trips made by Ranil Wickremesinghe
Notes
References
Further reading
Ranil Wickramasinghe (2005), Desapalanaya saha dharmaya, Publisher: Nugeegoda Sarasavi Prakasanayo,
Jayaratna, A. E. (2005), Ranil Wickramasinghe: Darshanaya Saha Saame Mawatha,
External links
Ranil Wickremesinghe – MP profile at the Parliament of Sri Lanka official website
1949 births
Acting presidents of Sri Lanka
Alumni of Royal College, Colombo
Alumni of Royal Preparatory School
Alumni of the University of Ceylon (Colombo)
Candidates in the 2024 Sri Lankan presidential election
Candidates in the 2022 Sri Lankan presidential election
Candidates in the 2005 Sri Lankan presidential election
Candidates in the 1999 Sri Lankan presidential election
Ceylonese advocates
Culture ministers of Sri Lanka
Deputy ministers of Sri Lanka
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Chivington
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John Chivington
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John Milton Chivington (January 27, 1821 – October 4, 1894) was a Methodist pastor, and Mason who served as a colonel in the United States Volunteers during the New Mexico Campaign of the American Civil War. He led a rear action against a Confederate supply train in the Battle of Glorieta Pass, and was then appointed a colonel of cavalry during the Colorado War.
Colonel Chivington gained infamy for leading the 700-man force of Colorado Territory volunteers responsible for one of the most heinous atrocities in American military history: the November 1864 Sand Creek massacre. An estimated 70 to 600 peaceful Cheyenne and Arapaho – about two-thirds of whom were women, children, and infants – were murdered and mutilated by Col. Chivington and the volunteer troops under his command. Chivington and his men also took scalps and many other human body parts as trophies, including unborn fetuses, as well as male and female genitalia. The Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War conducted an investigation of the massacre, but while they condemned Chivington's and his soldiers' in the strongest possible terms, no court-martial proceedings were brought to bear against him or them. The only punishment Col. Chivington suffered was public exposure and the end of his political aspirations.
Three years prior to Sand Creek, on August 2, 1861, he became the first Grand Master of Masons of Colorado. Several Freemasons, some of whom were present at the Sand Creek Massacre, objected to Chivington's actions and publicly denounced them, while others supported him.
Early life
Chivington was born in Lebanon, Ohio on January 27, 1821, the son of Isaac and Jane Chivington, who had fought under General William Henry Harrison against members of Tecumseh's Confederacy at the Battle of the Thames.
Drawn to Methodism, Chivington became a minister. Following ordination in 1844, his first appointment was to Payson Circuit in the Illinois Conference. On the journey from Ohio to Illinois, Chivington contracted smallpox. He served the Illinois conference for ten years. In 1853, he worked in a Methodist missionary expedition to the Wyandot people in Kansas, a part of the Kansas–Nebraska Annual Conference. His outspoken views in favor of abolitionism put him in danger, and upon the advice of "Congressman Craig and other friends," Chivington was persuaded to leave the Kansas Territory for the Nebraska Territory.
As a result, the Methodist Church transferred Chivington to a parish in Omaha, Nebraska. Chivington left this position after a year. Historian James Haynes said of Chivington's pastoral abilities: "Mr. Chivington was not as steady in his demeanor as becomes a man called of God to the work of the ministry, giving his ministerial friends regret and even trouble in their efforts to sustain his reputation."
In May 1860, Chivington moved, with his family, to the Colorado Territory and settled in Denver. From there, he sought to establish missions in the South Park mining camps in Park County. He was elected Presiding Elder of the new Rocky Mountain District and served in that capacity until 1862. Controversy began to mar Chivington's appointment, who stopped performing his function as presiding elder. Chivington was not reappointed at the 1862 conference; rather, his name was recorded as "located." According to early Methodist polity, describing a minister as "located" means that the minister has effectively been retired. Historian of Methodism Isaac Beardsley, a personal friend of Chivington, suggested that Chivington was "thrown out" because of his involvement with the armed forces. Chivington's status as being "located" did not remove him completely from Methodist politics. His name appears as a member of the executive board of Colorado Seminary, the historic precursor of the University of Denver and the Iliff School of Theology. His name also appears in the incorporation document issued by the Council and House of Representatives of the Colorado Territory, which was approved by then governor John Evans.
Civil War
When the Civil War broke out, Colorado Territorial Governor William Gilpin offered him a commission as a chaplain, but Chivington refused it, saying he wanted to fight. He was commissioned a major in the 1st Colorado Infantry Regiment under Colonel John P. Slough.
During Confederate General Henry Hopkins Sibley's offensive in the East Arizona and New Mexico territories, Chivington led a 418-man detachment to Apache Canyon. On March 26, 1862, they surprised about 300 Confederate Texans under Major Charles L. Pyron. The startled Texans were routed with 4 killed, 20 wounded and 75 captured, while Chivington's men lost 5 killed and 14 wounded. This small victory raised morale in Slough's army. On March 28, Slough sent Chivington and his men on a circling movement, with orders to hit Sibley in the flank once Slough's main force had engaged his front at Glorieta Pass, New Mexico. Chivington got into position above the Pass, but waited in vain for either Slough or Sibley to arrive. While they waited, scouts reported that Sibley's entire supply train was nearby at Johnson's Ranch.
Chivington's command, among whom there was a detail of Colorado Mounted Rangers, descended the slope and crept up on the supply train. They waited for an hour in concealment, then attacked, driving off or capturing the small Confederate guard detail without any casualties. Chivington ordered the supply wagons burned, and the horses and mules slaughtered. Meanwhile, the Battle of Glorieta Pass was raging at Pigeon's Ranch. Chivington returned to Slough's main force to find it rapidly falling back. The Confederates had won the Battle of Glorieta Pass, but because of Chivington and his forces, they had no supplies to sustain their advance and were forced to retreat. Chivington had completely reversed the result of the battle. Sibley's men reluctantly retreated back to Texas and never again threatened New Mexico.
Chivington earned high praise for his decisive stroke at Johnson's Ranch, even though his discovery of the Confederate supply train was accidental. Critics have suggested that had Chivington returned quickly to reinforce Slough's army when he heard gunfire, his 400 extra men might have allowed the Union to win the battle.
In April 1862, Chivington was appointed colonel of the 1st Colorado Cavalry Regiment. The darker side of Chivington was revealed in the complaints of a captured Confederate chaplain, who wrote that Chivington had threatened to kill the prisoners whom he took at Johnson's Ranch. In November 1862, Chivington was appointed brigadier general of volunteers, but the appointment was withdrawn in February 1863.
Sand Creek Massacre
In the fall of 1864, several events took place. Major Edward Wynkoop received a letter from Black Kettle requesting a peace council and an exchange of prisoners, and Wynkoop succeeded in holding a conference with multiple Cheyenne and Arapaho chiefs, including Black Kettle and Left Hand, and securing the release of some prisoners who had been taken during earlier Dog Soldier raids. Wynkoop and Captain Silas Soule, after the peace conference, traveled to Denver with both the returned prisoners and some of the chiefs. Wynkoop convinced a reluctant Territorial Governor John Evans to meet with the chiefs. Known as the Camp Weld Conference, it resulted in Evans making an offer of protection to those Indians who would surrender to Major Wynkoop at Fort Lyon. The chiefs agreed, and, after gathering their peaceful tribes, camped about 40 miles north of Fort Lyon, at Big Sandy Creek.
Around the same time, Gov. Evans received permission from the War Department to found the 3rd Colorado Cavalry Regiment, which would consist of volunteers who would sign on for 100 days. The purported purpose of the regiment was to protect Denver and the Platte road, and it was assigned to the District of Colorado, commanded by Chivington. For political reasons, Evans had stoked the fears of the populace regarding Indian attacks, and he and Chivington had hoped successful military engagements against the Indians would further their careers. But most of the Indian war parties and attacks were occurring hundreds of miles away.
In October 1864, the 100-day enlistment of the 3rd Colorado Cavalry Regiment was nearing an end, and Chivington's Civil War enlistment had expired, meaning he would soon lose his command position. After learning of the agreement reached with the chiefs, Chivington complained to the head of the Department of Kansas, Samuel R. Curtis, that Major Wynkoop was too conciliatory to the Indians. Curtis replaced Wynkoop with Major Scott Anthony, who agreed with Chivington's goal of Indian eradication. But Major Anthony requested that Wynkoop stay and advise him for a short period, despite being under orders from Curtis to end the protection of the Arapaho and Cheyenne encamped near Fort Lyon, and end the distribution of provisions that had also been promised.
After resettling his mostly Southern Cheyenne people, and hearing from Major Anthony that the distribution of provisions was ended, Black Kettle sent most of his warriors to hunt, leaving only 60 men in the village, most of them too old or too young to hunt. Dog soldiers and other Indian warriors were not part of the Sand Creek encampment.
In November, setting out from Fort Lyon, Colonel Chivington and his eight hundred troops of the 1st and 3rd Colorado cavalry regiments along with a company of 1st New Mexico Volunteer Infantry marched nearly to the reservation. On the night of November 28, after camping, Chivington's men drank heavily and celebrated the anticipated fight. On the morning of November 29, 1864, Chivington ordered his troops to attack.
Captain Silas Soule believed the Indians to be peaceful and refused to follow Chivington's order and told his men to hold fire. Other soldiers in Chivington's force, however, immediately attacked the village. Ignoring the U.S. flag, and a white flag they raised shortly after the soldiers began firing, Chivington's soldiers massacred the majority of the mostly unarmed Cheyenne, taking scalps and other body parts as battle trophies, including human fetuses and male and female genitalia. The attack became known as the Sand Creek Massacre.
The Colorado forces lost 15 killed and more than 50 wounded, mostly due to friendly fire (likely caused by their heavy drinking). Between 150 and 200 Indians were estimated dead, nearly all women and children. Chivington testified before a Congressional committee that his forces had killed 500 to 600 Indians and that few of them were women or children. Others testified against him.
A prominent mixed-race Cheyenne witness named Edmund Guerrier, said that about 53 men and 110 women and children were killed.
With Chivington's declaring his forces had won a battle against hostile Cheyenne, the action was initially celebrated as a victory. Some soldiers displayed Indian body parts as trophies in Denver saloons. However, the testimony of Soule and his men resulted in a U.S. Congressional investigation into the incident, which concluded that Chivington had acted wrongly.
Soule and some of the men whom he commanded testified against Chivington at his U.S. Army court martial. Chivington denounced Soule as a liar. Within three months, Soule was murdered by a soldier who had been under Chivington's command at Sand Creek. Some believed Chivington may have been involved.
Chivington was soon condemned for his part in the massacre, but he had already resigned from the Army. The general post-Civil War amnesty meant that criminal charges could not be filed against him. An Army judge publicly stated that the Sand Creek massacre was "a cowardly and cold-blooded slaughter, sufficient to cover its perpetrators with indelible infamy, and the face of every American with shame and indignation". Public outrage at the brutality of the massacre, particularly considering the mutilation of corpses, was intense. It was believed to have contributed to public pressure to change Indian policy. The Congress later rejected the idea of a general war against the Indians of the Middle West.
The panel of the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War declared:
As to Colonel Chivington, your committee can hardly find fitting terms to describe his conduct. Wearing the uniform of the United States, which should be the emblem of justice and humanity; holding the important position of commander of a military district, and therefore having the honor of the government to that extent in his keeping, he deliberately planned and executed a foul and dastardly massacre which would have disgraced the verist [sic] savage among those who were the victims of his cruelty. Having full knowledge of their friendly character, having himself been instrumental to some extent in placing them in their position of fancied security, he took advantage of their in-apprehension and defenceless [sic] condition to gratify the worst passions that ever cursed the heart of man. Whatever influence this may have had upon Colonel Chivington, the truth is that he surprised and murdered, in cold blood, the unsuspecting men, women, and children on Sand creek, who had every reason to believe they were under the protection of the United States authorities.
Later life and death
Chivington resigned from the army in February 1865. In 1865 his son, Thomas, drowned and Chivington returned to Nebraska to administer the estate. There he became an unsuccessful freight hauler. He seduced and then married his daughter-in-law, Sarah. In October 1871, she obtained a decree of divorce for non-support.
Public outrage forced Chivington to withdraw from politics and kept him out of Colorado's campaign for statehood. The editor of the Omaha Daily Herald tagged Chivington a "rotten, clerical hypocrite."
In July 1868, Chivington went to Washington, D.C. in an unsuccessful pursuit of a $37,000 (~$ in ) claim for Indian depredations. He returned to Omaha, but journeyed to Troy, New York during 1869 to stay with Sarah's relatives. He borrowed money from them but did not repay. Sarah recalled that they returned to Washington in the spring of 1870 and Chivington "spent his time trying to get money without labor. ...
The early spring of 1871 he skipped as I heard afterward to Canada ... Left me without means of support. I had no desire to live with a criminal.
After living briefly in California, Chivington returned to Ohio to farm. Later he became editor of a local newspaper. In 1883, he campaigned for a seat in the Ohio legislature, but withdrew when his opponents drew attention to the Sand Creek Massacre.
He returned to Denver where he worked as a deputy sheriff until shortly before his death from cancer in 1894. His funeral took place at the city's Trinity United Methodist Church before his remains were interred at Fairmount Cemetery.
To the end of his life, Chivington maintained that Sand Creek had been a successful operation. He argued that his expedition was a response to Cheyenne and Arapaho raids and torture inflicted on wagon trains and white settlements in Colorado.
Chivington violated official agreements for protection of Black Kettle's friendly band. He also overlooked how the massacre caused the Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Sioux to strengthen their alliance and to accelerate their raids on white settlers. Until he died, Chivington still claimed to have been justified in ordering the attack, consistently stating, "I stand by Sand Creek."
Legacy
In 1887, the unincorporated settlement of Chivington, Colorado, was established and named after John Chivington. The railroad town on the Missouri Pacific Railroad line was fairly close to the site of the massacre. In the 1920s and 1930s, it was largely depopulated by the Dust Bowl, but some buildings still remain.
Because of Chivington's position as a lay preacher, in 1996 the General conference of the United Methodist Church expressed regret for the Sand Creek massacre. It issued an apology to the Southern Cheyenne for the "actions of a prominent Methodist".
In 2005, the City Council of Longmont, Colorado, agreed to change the name of Chivington Drive in the town following a two-decade campaign. Protesters had objected to Chivington being honored for the Sand Creek Massacre. The street was renamed Sunrise Drive.
In popular culture
In George Sherman's 1951 Western Tomahawk, set several years after the Sand Creek massacre, Army Lt. Rob Dancy brags to Julie Madden, whose wagon his patrol is escorting, about having ridden with Chivington years before. The movie's main character, frontiersman Jim Bridger, later tells Julie that his wife had been chief Black Kettle's daughter and that the teenage Cheyenne girl accompanying him, Monahseetah, is her sister and the only survivor of a massacre perpetrated by Chivington and his men. Bridger suspects Dancy to be his wife's murderer and pursues him after Dancy escapes from a battle with the Sioux he had provoked against orders. When confronted, Dancy confirms Bridger's suspicion by claiming to have acted on orders. While Bridger is still beating him up, Dancy is shot by a young Sioux whose friend Dancy had killed (thus initiating the conflict) early in the story.
The American television series Playhouse 90 broadcast "Massacre at Sand Creek" on December 27, 1956. It recounted the massacre and the court-martial of Chivington, but changed the names of those involved. Chivington became John Templeton, played by Everett Sloane.
Ainslie Pryor had an uncredited role as Chivington in the 1957 film, The Guns of Fort Petticoat, with Audie Murphy as Lt. Frank Hewitt, Hope Emerson as Hannah Lacey, Jeanette Nolan as Cora Melavan, and Sean McClory as Emmett Kettle.
The episode "Handful of Fire" (December 5, 1961) of NBC's Laramie western series is loosely based on historical events. A Colonel John Barrington, played by George Macready, and presumably modeled on John Chivington, escapes while facing a court martial at Fort Laramie for his role in the Wounded Knee Massacre in South Dakota in 1890. The Laramie episode reveals that series character Slim Sherman (John Smith) had been present at Wounded Knee and hence testified against Barrington. Then Barrington's daughter, Madge, played by Karen Sharpe, takes Slim hostage. She has papers which she contends justify her father's harsh policies against the Indians. Slim escapes but is trapped by the Sioux and must negotiate with the Indians to save the party from massacre.
Notes
References
United States Congress. (1867). Condition of the Indian Tribes. Report of the Joint Special Committee Appointed Under Joint Resolution of March 3, 1865, with an Appendix. (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
United States Senate. (1865). "Massacre of the Cheyenne Indians". Report of the Joint Committee on The Conduct of the War. (3 vols.) Senate Report No. 142, 38th Congress, Second Session. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. pp. I–VI, 3–108
Brown, Dee. (1970). Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West, Owl Books. .
Frazer, Donald S. (1995). Blood and Treasure: The Confederate Empire in the Southwest. Texas A & M University Press. .
Michno, Gregory F. (2003). Encyclopedia of Indian Wars: Western Battles and Skirmishes 1850-1890. Missoula, MT: Mountain Press Publishing Company. .
West Film Project and WETA. (2001). "John M. Chivington (1821-1894)", New Perspectives on the West: Documents on the Sand Creek Massacre. PBS.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafic%20Hariri
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Rafic Hariri
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Rafic Bahaa El Deen al-Hariri (; 1 November 1944 – 14 February 2005), or Rafiq al-Hariri, was a Lebanese business tycoon and politician, who served as the Prime Minister of Lebanon from 1992 to 1998 and again from 2000 until his resignation on .
Hariri headed five cabinets during his tenure. He was widely credited for his role in constructing the Taif Agreement that ended the 15-year Lebanese Civil War. He also played a huge role in reconstructing the Lebanese capital, Beirut. He was the first post-civil war prime minister and the most influential and wealthiest Lebanese politician until his assassination.
Hariri was assassinated on 14 February 2005 by a suicide truck bomb in Beirut. Four Hezbollah members were indicted for the assassination and are being tried in absentia by the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, but others have linked the assassination to the Syrian government. The outcome of a 15-year investigation led to the guilty verdict of multiple people in Hezbollah's party taking part; however, the only one left alive would be Salim Ayyash, a well-connected, mid-level operative in Hezbollah.
The assassination was a catalyst for dramatic political change in Lebanon. The massive protests of the Cedar Revolution helped achieve the withdrawal of Syrian troops and security forces from Lebanon and a change in governments.
At one point, Hariri was one of the world's 100 wealthiest men and the fourth-richest politician.
Early life and education
Hariri was born on 1 November 1944 to a modest Sunni Muslim family in the Lebanese port city of Sidon. He had two siblings (brother Shafic and sister Bahia). He attended elementary and secondary school in Sidon, and graduated in business administration from Beirut Arab University.
Career
In 1965, Hariri went to Saudi Arabia to work. There, he taught for a short period of time before shifting to the construction industry. In 1978, he gained Saudi Arabian citizenship, in addition to his Lebanese citizenship.
In 1969, Hariri established Ciconest, a small subcontracting firm, which soon went out of business. He then went in business with the French construction firm Oger for the construction of a hotel in Ta’if, Saudi Arabia, the timely construction of which earned praise from King Khaled. Hariri took over Oger, forming Saudi Oger, which became the main construction firm used by the Saudi Royal family for all their important developments. As a result, a few years after his first contract with King Khaled, Hariri had become a multi-billionaire.
Having accumulated his wealth, Hariri started a number of philanthropic projects, including the building of educational facilities in Lebanon. His first initiative in Lebanon was the Islamic Association for Culture and Education, which he founded in 1979. The association was later renamed the Hariri Foundation. Hariri became progressively more embroiled in politics. His appeals to the United Nations and services as an emissary to the Saudi Royal family won him international recognition on the political stage for his humanitarian efforts.
In 1982, Hariri donated $12 million to Lebanese victims of the 1978 South Lebanon conflict and helped clean up Beirut's streets with his company's money and contributed to early reconstruction efforts during lulls in the Lebanon war. Said to have heavily financed opposing militias during the war, his former deputy Najah Wakim later accused him of helping to destroy downtown Beirut in order to rebuild it again and make billions of dollars in the process. After the conflict, he acted as an envoy of the Saudi royal family to Lebanon. He laid the groundwork that led to the 1989 Taif Accord, which Saudi Arabia organised to bring the warring factions together. Taif put an end to the civil war, building goodwill for Hariri politically. While acting as the Saudi envoy to Lebanon, he spent more time in Damascus than in Beirut where he ingratiated himself with the Assad regime; he had a new presidential palace built in Damascus as a gift to the Syrian dictator but Assad didn't use it personally.
Political career
Hariri returned to Lebanon in the early 1980s as a wealthy man and began to build a name for himself by making large donations and contributions to various groups in Lebanon. However, he continued to serve as a political advisor to Prince Bandar bin Sultan in 1983. He was implanted as the Saudis' strong man following the collapse of the PLO and the paucity of any viable Sunni leadership in the country as well as a response to the rising power of the Shiite militia Amal. As a former Saudi diplomatic representative, he played a significant role in constructing the 1990 Taif Agreement that ended Lebanon's sixteen-year civil war. In 1992, Hariri became the first post-civil war prime minister of Lebanon under president Elias Hrawi. In addition, he was the minister of finance. After the 1996 elections he also took on the role of minister of post and telecommunications. Hariri put the country back on the financial map through the issuing of Eurobonds and won plaudits from the World Bank for his plan to borrow reconstruction money as the country's debt grew to become the largest per capita in the world. Between 1992 and 1996 the public debt grew from $3 billion to $9 billion. His first premiership lasted until 1998, and Hariri was replaced by Salim Hoss as prime minister. In fact, as a result of the power struggle between Hariri and newly elected president Émile Lahoud, he left office.
In October 2000, Hariri was again appointed prime minister, replacing Salim Hoss, and formed the cabinet. In September 2004, Hariri defended UN Security Council Resolution 1559, which called for "all remaining foreign forces to withdraw from Lebanon." On 20 October 2004, his second term ended when he resigned from office. Omar Karami succeeded him as prime minister.
1992–1998 economic policies
Hariri implemented an aggressive new economic policy. In 1992 inflation was running at 131% but such was the confidence in Hariri’s leadership that within two years it had been reduced to 12%. Perhaps Hariri's most important creation in the beginning of his career was "Horizon 2000" the government's name for its new rejuvenation plan. A large component of "Horizon 2000" was Solidere, the privately owned construction company that was established to reconstruct post-war Lebanon. Solidere was owned by the government and private investors. Solidere was largely focused on redeveloping Beirut's downtown and turning it into a new urban center as quickly as possible as one aspect of the various infrastructure redevelopment plans that would be implemented by "Horizon 2000". Solidere was given powers of compulsory purchase, compensating in Solidere shares rather than cash, and was accused of harassment and underpaying former land owners. Another aspect of the decade-long plan was the privatization of major industries. Numerous contracts were awarded in important industries such as energy, telecommunications, electricity, airports and roads.
The last and perhaps most significant aspect of "Horizon 2000" was economic stimulus via foreign direct investment. Specifically, Hariri supported foreign firms and individuals taking an interest in Lebanon's developmental potential. Hariri simplified tax codes and provided tax breaks to foreign investors. Due to his previous successes in the private sector and the numerous resulting international connections, Hariri was able to garner a significant amount of low-interest loans from foreign investors. Hariri also pursued aggressive macroeconomic policy such as maintaining strict regulations on bank reserves and inter-bank interest rates to curb inflation and raise the value of the Lebanese pound relative to the dollar.
Hariri's economic policies were a remarkable success during his first year in office. From 1992 to 1993 there was a 6 percent increase in real national income, the capital base of commercial banks effectively doubled, the budgetary earnings hovered at around a billion dollars, and commercial banks' consolidated balance sheets increased about 25%. By 1998, however, real GDP growth was around 1%, a year later it would be -1%, national debt had skyrocketed 540% from two to eighteen billion dollars, Lebanon's economy was in a miserable state.
In 1996 it was estimated that 30% of Lebanon’s population were living below the poverty line and that there were 500,000 Syrian labourers working illegally in the country.
Hariri and Lebanon's political environment
Amid the political crisis brought on by the extension of President Émile Lahoud's term, Hariri resigned as Prime Minister, saying: "I have... submitted the resignation of the government, and I have declared that I will not be a candidate to head the (next) government."
During a BBC interview in 2001, Harīrī was asked by Tim Sebastian why he refused to hand over members of Hezbollah that were accused by America of being terrorists. He responded that Hezbollah were the ones protecting Lebanon against the Israeli occupation and called for implementation of passed United Nations resolutions against Israel. He was further accused of making the American coalition in the war on terrorism worthless and asked if he was ready for the consequences of his refusal, reminding him that George W. Bush had said: "Either you are with us, or you are with the terrorists." He replied that he had hoped there would be no consequences, but would deal with them if they arrive. Hariri further said that he opposed the killing of all humans – Israeli, Palestinian, Syrian or Lebanese – and believed in dialogue as a solution. He further went on to say that Syria would have to stay in Lebanon for protection of Lebanon until they are no longer needed and Lebanon asks them to leave.
Lebanese Druze leader Walid Jumblatt, a recent recruit of the anti-Syrian opposition, emboldened by popular anger and civic action now being called Lebanon's Cedar Revolution, alleged in the wake of the assassination that on 26 August 2004 Syrian President Bashar al-Assad threatened Hariri, saying "[President of Lebanon] Lahoud is me. ... If you and Chirac want me out of Lebanon, I will break Lebanon." He was quoted as saying "When I heard him telling us those words, I knew that it was his condemnation of death." This meeting between Hariri and Assad, which had been on 26 August 2004, lasted for just fifteen minutes.
On 22 June 2005, Beirut International Airport was renamed Rafic Hariri International Airport. Additionally, Beirut General University hospital was renamed Rafiq Hariri Hospital. Rafic Hariri was succeeded by his son Saad Hariri as leader of the Future Party.
Corruption
Hariri was accused of corruption that plagued Lebanon during the Syrian occupation. Among the allegations made against him was that his wealth grew from less than $1 billion when he was appointed prime minister in 1992, to over $16 billion when he died. The
Company for the Development and Reconstruction of Beirut's Central District (French: Société Libanaise pour le Développement et la Reconstruction du Centre-ville de Beyrouth), more commonly known by the French-derived acronym "Solidere", expropriated most property in the central business district of Beirut, compensating each owner with shares in the company which were worth as little as 15% of the property's value. As the primary shareholder of the company, Hariri and his business associates profited immensely from this project. Moreover, it was reported in November 1996 that $26 million had been embezzled from the Ministry of Finance, which Hariri headed in addition to being prime minister during his first two terms in office.
Hariri and his protégés were not the only beneficiaries of this spending spree. In order to secure support from militia chieftains and pro-Syrian ideologues that Damascus had installed in the government, Hariri allowed kickbacks from public spending to enrich all major government figures. Contracts for the import of petroleum were awarded to the two sons of President Elias Hrawi.
As result of the growing criticism and popular discontent with Hariri's policies, the government banned public demonstrations in 1994 and relied upon the Lebanese Army to enforce the decree. Supporters of Michel Aoun were also perpetually harassed and detained. In return for a relatively free hand in economic matters, Hariri cooperated with Syria's drive to consolidate its control over Lebanon. Under the guise of "regulating" the audiovisual media, the government placed control of all major television and radio stations in the hands of pro-Syrian elites, a process which began on 17 September 1996 when Information Minister Farid Makari ordered a ban on the broadcasting of news programs. This was followed eight days later by a government decree ordering the closure of Lebanon’s 150 privately owned radio stations and 50 TV stations. Licenses were to be issued to Hariri's Future Television, the Christian-owned Lebanese Broadcasting Corporation International (LBCI), Murr Television (MTV) owned by the brother of Interior Minister Michel Murr, and the National Broadcasting Network (NBN) being set up by Nabih Berri. The radio stations which were to be given licenses were Hariri’s Orient Radio, Berri’s NBN, and the Lebanese Forces’s Voice of Free Lebanon. It was estimated that the move would result in the loss of 5,000 jobs.
Personal life
Hariri married twice. He had six children. In 1965, he married an Iraqi woman, Nidal Bustani, who is the mother of his three sons; Bahaa (born 1967), who is a businessman, Saad, who succeeded his father as leader of the future movement, and Houssam—who died in a traffic accident in the US in the late 1980s. They divorced. He married his second spouse, Nazik Audi, in 1976 and she is the mother of three of Hariri's children: Ayman, Fahd and Hind.
From 1982 until his death, Hariri owned 2–8a Rutland Gate, a large house in London's Knightsbridge district. The house was gifted to the Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia, Sultan bin Abdulaziz, after Hariri's assassination.
Assassination
On 14 February 2005, Hariri was killed when explosives equivalent to around of TNT concealed inside a parked Mitsubishi van were detonated as his motorcade drove near the St. George Hotel in Beirut. 23 people, including Hariri himself, were killed. Among the dead were several of Hariri's bodyguards and his friend and former Minister of the Economy Bassel Fleihan. Hariri was buried along with his bodyguards, who died in the bombing, in a location near Mohammad Al-Amin Mosque.
A 2006 report by Serge Brammertz indicated that DNA evidence collected from the crime scene suggests that the assassination might be the act of a young male suicide bomber.
In its first two reports in 2014, the United Nations International Independent Investigation Commission indicated that the Syrian government may be linked to the assassination. Lawyers tasked with prosecuting those responsible for the 2005 bombing said they had received evidence linking Bashar Assad's phone to the case. In its tenth report, the UNIIIC concluded "that a network of individuals acted in concert to carry out the assassination of Rafiq Hariri.”
A Canadian Broadcasting Corporation news investigation claimed that the special UN investigation team had found evidence for the responsibility of Hezbollah in the assassination. A UN-backed tribunal issued four arrest warrants to members of Hezbollah.
Hezbollah blamed the assassination on Israel.
Alleged Hezbollah supporters Salim Jamil Ayyash, Hassan Habib Merhi, Hussein Hassan Oneissi, and Assad Hassan Sabra have been indicted for the assassination and were tried in absentia by the Special Tribunal for Lebanon.
Aftermath
Hariri was well regarded among international leaders, for example, he was a close friend of French President Jacques Chirac. Chirac was one of the first foreign dignitaries to offer condolences to Hariri's widow in person at her home in Beirut. The Special Tribunal for Lebanon was also created at his instigation. Syria was initially accused of the assassination, which led to the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon following widespread protests.
Major General Jamil Al Sayyed, then head of Lebanese General Security, Brigadier General Mustafa Hamdan, Major General Ali Hajj and Brigadier General Raymond Azar were all arrested in August 2005 at the request of German prosecutor Detlev Mehlis, who was carrying out the UN investigation about the assassination. Sayyed was one of the persons who decided to assassinate Rafik Hariri according to a leaked draft version of the Mehlis report along with other Syrian high-rank intelligence and security officers and officials, namely Assef Shawkat, Maher Assad, Hassan Khalil and Bahjat Suleyman. However, later reports about the assassination did not repeat the allegations against Jamil Al Sayyed and other three Lebanese generals. Four Lebanese generals were held in Roumieh prison, northeast of Beirut from 2005 to 2009. They were released from the prison due to lack of evidence in 2009.
Following Hariri's death, there were several other bombings and assassinations against minor anti-Syrian figures. These included Samir Kassir, George Hawi, Gebran Tueni, Pierre Amine Gemayel, Antoine Ghanem and Walid Eido. Assassination attempts were made on Elias Murr, May Chidiac, and Samir Shehade (who was investigating Hariri's death).
An indictment against alleged Hezbollah members Salim Jamil Ayyash, Mustafa Amine Badreddine, Hussein Hassan Oneissi, and Assad Hassan Sabra was issued and confirmed by the Pre-Trial Judge of the United Nations special tribunal (see Special Tribunal for Lebanon) in 2011. In February 2014, the case against Hassan Habib Merhi was joined with the Ayyash et al. case. Proceedings against the accused Mustafa Badreddine were terminated in July 2016 following credible reports of his death. Salim Jamil Ayyash, Hassan Habib Merhi, Hussein Hassan Oneissi, and Assad Hassan Sabra currently remain on trial in absentia.
Hezbollah accused Israel of the assassination of Hariri. According to Hezbollah officials, the assassination of Hariri was planned by the Mossad as a means of expelling the Syrian army from Lebanon. In August 2010, Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah presented evidence, consisting of intercepted Israeli spy-drone video footage, which he said implicated Israel in the assassination of Hariri. After an altercation between male Tribunal staff and women at a gynecology clinic in October 2010, Hezbollah demanded that the Lebanese government stop all cooperation with the Special Tribunal, claiming the tribunal to be an infringement on Lebanese sovereignty by western governments. On 1 November 2010, a report was leaked by Al Akhbar, a local secular, leftist newspaper, stating that Hezbollah drafted plans for a quick takeover of the country in the case an indictment against its members is issued by the UN Special Tribunal. The report states that Hezbollah conducted a simulation of the plan on 28 October, immediately following a speech by its secretary general.
On the other side, it was revealed by leaked US embassy cables that then Egyptian General Intelligence Directorate director Omar Suleiman reported that Syria "desperately" wanted to stop the investigation of the Tribunal.
See also
List of assassinated Lebanese politicians
List of Lebanese people in Saudi Arabia
Hariri Tribunal, officially called the Special Tribunal for Lebanon
Notes
References
Sources
Sallam, Qasim (1980). Al-Baath wal Watan Al-Arabi [Arabic, with French translation] ("The Baath and the Arab Homeland"). Paris: EMA.
Stephan, Joseph S. (2006) Oeuvres et performances du president martyr Rafic Hariri, les performances economico-financieres avant Paris 2 et apres, le philanthrope batisseur
Blandford, Nicholas (2006). Killing Mr Lebanon: The Assassination of Rafik Hariri and Its Impact on the Middle East
Vloeberghs, Ward (2015). Architecture, Power and Religion in Lebanon: Rafiq Hariri and the Politics of Sacred Space in Beirut
External links
Rafic Hariri () – Official site with news, video, press releases, speeches, statements, government policy, Cabinet decisions and UN resolutions
Print articles
Family of Slain Lebanese Leader Demands Probe into Killing -The Associated Press/New York Times 17 February 2005
Death of Businessman By Ajami, Fouad The Wall Street Journal-17 February 2005 Page A12
1944 births
2005 deaths
Rafic
People from Sidon
21st-century Lebanese politicians
Prime Ministers of Lebanon
Finance ministers of Lebanon
Beirut Arab University alumni
Businesspeople in construction
Lebanese billionaires
American University of Beirut trustees
Future Movement politicians
Assassinated Lebanese politicians
Terrorism deaths in Lebanon
Lebanese terrorism victims
People murdered in Lebanon
Deaths by car bomb in Lebanon
Lebanese emigrants to Saudi Arabia
Naturalised citizens of Saudi Arabia
Lebanese mass media owners
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Star of Romania
Recipients of the Order of the Liberator General San Martin
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour
20th-century Lebanese businesspeople
20th-century Lebanese politicians
Assassinations in Lebanon
People of the Lebanese Civil War
2000s assassinated politicians in Asia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interim%20leader%20%28Canada%29
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Interim leader (Canada)
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An interim leader, in Canadian politics, is a party leader appointed by the party's legislative caucus or the party's executive to temporarily act as leader when a gap occurs between the resignation or death of a party leader and the election of their formal successor. Usually a party leader retains the leadership until a successor is formally chosen — however, in some situations this is not possible, and an interim leader is thus appointed by the party's caucus or the party executive. An interim leader may also be appointed while a leader is on a leave of absence due to poor health or some other reason, and then relinquish the position upon the leader's return.
An interim leader has all the rights and responsibilities of an elected party leader, with the exception that the person does not have the discretion to choose the timing of their departure — an interim leader serves only until the party organizes and holds a leadership convention. By virtue of lacking a mandate from the party membership, however, an interim leader is not generally seen as possessing the authority to truly put his or her own ideological and organizational stamp on the party, and is thus effectively limited to a caretaker role in most cases.
There have been a number of instances where instead of a competitive leadership race between multiple candidates, the leadership convention directly ratified the interim leader as the party's new permanent leader, but a convention must still take place in some form.
By convention, if a competitive leadership race between sitting members of the party's caucus is taking place, the interim leader should be a caucus member who is not standing as a candidate in the leadership race, so they do not gain unfair advantage in the contest. Only in rare exceptions, such as when a minor party whose interim leader is also its only caucus member in the legislature or when no no other caucus colleagues are competing for the leadership positions; with rare exceptions, will an interim leader stand as a candidate for permanent leadership.
An interim leader may, if necessary, lead the party into an election, but by Canadian custom, an election is usually not called while one of the parties is in a leadership race.
Practice
In most circumstances, a leader who has decided to step down gives extended notice, and a leadership convention is organized to choose their successor. The outgoing leader remains in the position for the duration of the leadership campaign, and then hands over power to the successor shortly after the convention.
However, sudden vacancies may occur for a variety of reasons.
Death in office
Wilfrid Laurier died in 1919, while holding the leadership of the Liberal Party. Daniel Duncan McKenzie was selected as the party's interim leader, serving until William Lyon Mackenzie King was selected as the party's leader later in the year.
Jack Layton initially took a leave of absence from the leadership of the New Democratic Party in 2011 for cancer treatment, and Nycole Turmel was named the interim leader of the party; Layton died before his intended date of return to office, and Turmel continued as interim leader pending the results of the 2012 leadership election.
Scandal
Glen Clark was forced to resign the leadership of the British Columbia New Democratic Party, and the premiership, after a criminal investigation against him was announced. He was succeeded by Dan Miller, who served until Ujjal Dosanjh won the resulting leadership convention.
Creation of a new party
In 2000, after the Reform Party was folded into the new Canadian Alliance, Deborah Grey served as the party's interim leader until the party's first leadership convention selected Stockwell Day. Similarly, after the Canadian Alliance and the Progressive Conservatives merged in 2003, Senator John Lynch-Staunton was named interim leader of the new Conservative Party until the first leadership convention selected Stephen Harper.
Internal dissension
In 1983, Joe Clark received only 66.9 per cent support in an internal leadership review process conducted by the Progressive Conservative Party. Feeling that he did not have sufficiently strong support within the party, he thus scheduled a leadership convention. Initially, he remained the party's leader in the meantime — however, as he was also standing as a candidate in the leadership process, he eventually stepped down and Erik Nielsen was installed as the party's interim leader.
In early 2002, Stockwell Day's leadership of the Canadian Alliance came under criticism due to party infighting. Like Clark, he thus announced a new leadership campaign in which he would reoffer as a candidate, and John Reynolds became the party's interim leader.
Leader defeated in an election
In several cases, a party's leader has been defeated in his or her own riding in an election, and has resigned soon afterward. A resignation is not necessarily required in such a scenario, as other leaders in the same situation have retained the leadership until they were able to run in a by-election. However, for personal or political reasons some leaders have opted to immediately resign the leadership instead.
Andy Brandt became interim leader of the Ontario Progressive Conservative Party following the party's defeat in the 1987 provincial election, in which leader Larry Grossman lost his own seat. He served until 1990, when he was succeeded by Mike Harris following a leadership convention.
Jean Charest became interim leader of the federal Progressive Conservatives following the party's defeat in the 1993 election, in which Kim Campbell lost her own seat. At the next leadership convention in 1995, Charest was acclaimed to the full leadership of the party. Additionally, having subsequently become leader of the Quebec Liberal Party, Charest resigned as leader following the party's defeat in the 2012 provincial election, in which he lost his seat. As a result, Jean-Marc Fournier was named interim leader.
Joy MacPhail served as interim leader of the New Democratic Party of British Columbia from 2001 to 2003, following the party's defeat in the 2001 provincial election, in which Ujjal Dosanjh lost his seat. She served until Carole James was selected as the party's new leader in 2003.
John Tory was defeated in the 2007 Ontario election, in which he ran in a different seat than the one where he was an incumbent. He stayed on as leader, despite facing some internal criticism — notably, a leadership review in 2008 gave him just 66.9 per cent support, the very same result which Joe Clark had deemed not sufficient to justify staying on as leader of the federal Progressive Conservatives in 1983. Bob Runciman served as interim parliamentary leader, but Tory retained the actual leadership of the party. Tory eventually resigned in 2009, after losing a by-election in Haliburton—Kawartha Lakes—Brock, and Runciman became the party's interim leader.
Bob Rae was named interim leader of the Liberal Party following the 2011 election, in which his party's previous leader, Michael Ignatieff, was defeated in his own riding.
Internal disorganization
In one case, Ontario Liberal Party interim leader W.E.N. Sinclair led his party through two consecutive elections in 1926 and 1929. He was interim leader from 1923 to 1930 since, due to the party's state of disorganization, there was no leadership convention held in that period to choose a successor to Wellington Hay. When a convention was finally held, Sinclair drew little support and withdrew before balloting began. He was succeeded by future Premier Mitchell Hepburn.
Leader accepts another position
Sometimes an outgoing leader decides to resign immediately in order to ensure party unity, because they have accepted an appointment or chosen to stand as a candidate for (or been elected to) another position.
Following the resignation of Daniel Johnson as leader of the Quebec Liberal Party in 1998, the prospect of Jean Charest becoming the party's new leader began to attract widespread public support. When Charest subsequently decided to stand as a candidate, he resigned as leader of the federal Progressive Conservatives, and Elsie Wayne became the party's interim leader.
Similarly, Thomas Kennedy served as interim leader of the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario from 1948 to 1949, after George Drew resigned to contest the leadership of the federal Progressive Conservatives.
Leave of absence
From November 1954 to February 1955 William Earl Rowe acted as interim Leader of the Opposition when Progressive Conservative leader George A. Drew was in poor health following an attack of meningitis. Drew returned but later fell ill again, and Rowe again became as interim leader of the opposition in August 1956. Drew resigned in September and Rowe became interim party and opposition leader until December, when John Diefenbaker was elected party leader.
An interim leader, Nycole Turmel was appointed to lead the NDP on July 28, 2011, while Jack Layton was on a medical leave of absence to fight cancer. She continued in the position following Layton's death on August 22, 2011.
Political circumstances
Following the 2008–2009 Canadian parliamentary dispute, Stéphane Dion's continued leadership of the federal Liberals was felt to be an impediment to the party's popular support, but with a situation where the party had to be almost immediately prepared to either take over the government or face an election, many party members felt that the party did not have the time to go through a conventional leadership race. After some internal debate, leadership candidates Dominic LeBlanc and Bob Rae withdrew from the race, and the only remaining candidate, Michael Ignatieff, was immediately named interim leader. His leadership was formally ratified at a party convention in May 2009.
Personal circumstances
Pam Barrett resigned the leadership of the Alberta New Democrats in 2000, but for health reasons she opted not to retain the leadership until her successor could be chosen, instead announcing that her resignation was effective immediately. Raj Pannu was named interim leader, and was then acclaimed leader at the subsequent convention. Brian Mason, who succeeded Pannu to the leadership in 2004, also took the position of interim leader before securing the full leadership at convention.
Danny Williams resigned the leadership of the Progressive Conservative Party of Newfoundland and Labrador, similarly choosing to step down immediately rather than serving until a leadership convention, and Deputy Premier Kathy Dunderdale was elevated to the interim leadership of the party and to the premiership.
Federal interim party leaders
Conservative Party of Canada (historic)
Hugh Guthrie October 11, 1926 – October 12, 1927 (following Arthur Meighen's loss of his seat in the general election and resignation)
Richard Hanson May 14, 1940 – November 12, 1941 (following Robert James Manion's loss of his seat in the general election and resignation)
Progressive Conservative Party of Canada
William Earl Rowe September 21, 1956 – December 14, 1956 (following George A. Drew's resignation)
Erik Nielsen February 19, 1983 – June 11, 1983 (following Joe Clark's resignation)
Jean Charest December 14, 1993 – April 29, 1995 (following Kim Campbell's loss of her seat in the general election and resignation and his own ratification as permanent leader)
Elsie Wayne April 2, 1998 – November 14, 1998 (following Jean Charest's resignation to seek the leadership of the Quebec Liberal Party)
Canadian Alliance
Deborah Grey March 27, 2000 – July 8, 2000 (following the creation of the party, until its first leadership convention)
John Reynolds December 12, 2001 – March 20, 2002 (following the resignation of Stockwell Day)
Conservative Party of Canada
John Lynch-Staunton December 8, 2003 – March 20, 2004 (following the creation of the party, until its first leadership convention)
Rona Ambrose November 5, 2015—May 27, 2017 (following the resignation of Stephen Harper after losing the 2015 federal election, until the election of Andrew Scheer as party leader)
Candice Bergen February 2, 2022—September 10, 2022 (following the removal as leader of Erin O'Toole, until the election of Pierre Poilievre as party leader)
Green Party of Canada
Harry Garfinkle 1997 (following the abrupt resignation of Wendy Priesnitz over differences between the party's stated goals and the beliefs of its membership)
Chris Bradshaw 2001 – February 2003 (following the resignation of Joan Russow)
Jo-Ann Roberts November 4, 2019 – October 3, 2020 (following the resignation of Elizabeth May after the 2019 Canadian federal election)
Amita Kuttner November 24, 2021 – November 19, 2022 (following the resignation of Annamie Paul after the 2021 Canadian federal election)
Liberal Party of Canada
Daniel Duncan McKenzie February 17, 1919 – August 7, 1919 (following the death of Sir Wilfrid Laurier)
Bill Graham March 19, 2006 – December 1, 2006 (following the resignation of Paul Martin)
Michael Ignatieff December 10, 2008 – May 2, 2009 (following the resignation of Stephane Dion, until being elected permanent leader)
Bob Rae May 25, 2011 – April 13, 2013 (following the resignation of Ignatieff who lost his seat in the 2011 federal election)
Co-operative Commonwealth Federation
J. S. Woodsworth August 1, 1932 – July 1933 (acting leader from founding meeting until its first national convention a year later when he was elected permanent leader)
New Democratic Party
Nycole Turmel July 28, 2011 – March 24, 2012 (following the death of Jack Layton)
Social Credit Party of Canada
Alexander Bell Patterson March 9, 1967 – June 30, 1968 (following the defection of Robert N. Thompson to the Progressive Conservatives)
Gilles Caouette June 29, 1977 – April 11, 1978 (following the death of André-Gilles Fortin)
Charles-Arthur Gauthier April 11, 1978 – May 7, 1978 and February 23, 1979 – March 30, 1979 (following the resignations of Gilles Caouette and Lorne Reznowski respectively)
Ken Sweigard July 15, 1983 – June 22, 1986 (following the resignation of Martin Hattersley)
James Keegstra July 27, 1987 – July 30, 1987 (following Harvey Lainson's suspension from the party, until his reinstatement)
Bloc Québécois
Gilles Duceppe January 16, 1996 – February 17, 1996 (following the resignation of Lucien Bouchard after losing the Quebec 1995 referendum)
Vivian Barbot May 2, 2011 – December 11, 2011 (following the resignation of Gilles Duceppe after losing his seat at the 2011 Canadian federal election)
Rhéal Fortin October 22, 2015 – March 18, 2017 (following the resignation of Gilles Duceppe after failing to win a seat at the 2015 Canadian federal election)
Mario Beaulieu June 13, 2018 – January 17, 2019 (following the resignation of Martine Ouellet after losing a leadership review)
Provincial and territorial interim party leaders
British Columbia Liberal Party
Thomas Dufferin Pattullo October 1928 – January 1929 (following the resignation of John Duncan MacLean)
Rich Coleman August 4, 2017 – February 3, 2018 (following the resignation of Christy Clark, after losing the 2017 provincial election)
Green Party of British Columbia
Tom Hetherington 2000 (following the resignation of Stuart Parker for losing the leadership vote)
Christopher Bennett 2007 (following the resignation of Adriane Carr)
Adam Olsen 2013-2015 (following the resignation of Jane Sterk)
Green Party of Prince Edward Island
Darcie Lanthier 2012 (following the resignation of Sharon Labchuk)
Ontario Liberal Party
John Fraser June 14, 2018 – March 7, 2020, and August 3, 2022 – present (following the resignations of Kathleen Wynne and Steven Del Duca respectively)
Prince Edward Island Liberal Party
Lorne Bonnell 1965
Bennett Campbell 1978 (following the retirement of Alexander B. Campbell, until his election as permanent leader)
Gilbert Clements 1981 (following Bennett Campbell's resignation)
Ron MacKinley 2000-2003 (MacKinley was the only member of the party elected in the 2000 provincial election)
Robert Mitchell 2019 (following Wade MacLauchlan's resignation after losing his seat in the 2019 provincial election)
Sonny Gallant 2019 - (following Robert Mitchell's resignation as interim leader)
Interim parliamentary leaders
In certain circumstances, a party may also have an interim parliamentary leader who is not officially the party's leader, particularly when the party leader is not a sitting member of the legislature. Herb Gray served as parliamentary leader of the Liberals following the selection of Jean Chrétien as leader in 1989, until Chrétien could run in a by-election to enter the House of Commons. Similarly, Bob Runciman served as parliamentary leader of the Ontario Progressive Conservative Party following the 2007 election, in which party leader John Tory lost his seat in the legislature. He became the party's full interim leader in 2009 after Tory was defeated in an attempt to re-enter the Legislative Assembly in a by-election.
Bill Graham served as interim parliamentary leader of the Liberals in early 2006, while outgoing party leader Paul Martin was still sitting as an MP and retained the formal leadership of the party. After this situation created some media confusion over which man would lead the party into an election if one were to occur, Martin stepped down as party leader in March, and Graham assumed the full interim leadership until Stéphane Dion was selected as leader in December.
Louis Plamondon became interim parliamentary leader of the Bloc Québécois on June 2, 2011, at the beginning of the first session of the 41st Canadian Parliament, following the 2011 federal election and the defeat and resignation of BQ leader Gilles Duceppe, while Vivian Barbot succeeded Duceppe as interim president of the BQ.
Major James Coldwell became parliamentary leader of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation in October 1940, following the stroke and incapacitation of party leader J. S. Woodsworth, who retained the title of "honorary president" (leader). Coldwell was officially elected leader in July 1942, several months following Woodsworth's death.
References
Political terminology in Canada
Government occupations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antakya
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Antakya
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Antakya (; Local Turkish: Anteke), modern form of Antioch (; ; ), is a municipality and district of Hatay Province, Turkey. Its area is 703 km2, and its population is 399,045 (2022). It is the capital of Hatay Province, the southernmost province of Turkey. The city is located in a well-watered and fertile valley on the Orontes River, about from the Levantine Sea.
Today's city stands partly on the site of the ancient Antiochia (, , also known as "Antioch on the Orontes"), which was founded in the fourth century BC by the Seleucid Empire. Antioch later became one of the Roman Empire's largest cities, and was made the capital of the provinces of Syria and Coele-Syria. It was also an influential early center of Christianity; the New Testament asserts that the name "Christian" first emerged in Antioch. The city gained much ecclesiastical importance in the Byzantine Empire. Captured by Umar ibn al-Khattab in the seventh century, the medieval Antakiyah (, ) was conquered or re-conquered several times: by the Byzantines in 969, the Seljuks in 1084, the Crusaders in 1098, the Mamluks in 1268, and eventually the Ottomans in 1517, who would integrate it to the Aleppo Eyalet then to the Aleppo Vilayet. The city joined the Hatay State under the French Mandate before joining the Turkish Republic.
On 6 February 2023, the city was heavily damaged by two powerful earthquakes with their epicentre in Kahramanmaraş. Some of the historical sites, including the Church of St Paul, have been destroyed.
History
Antiquity
Humans have occupied the area of Antioch since the Calcolithic era (6th millennium BC), as revealed by archaeological excavations of the mound of Tell-Açana, among others.
The Macedonian King Alexander the Great, after defeating the Persians in the Battle of Issus in 333 BC, followed the Orontes south into Syria and occupied the area. The city of Antioch was founded in 300 BC, after the death of Alexander, by the Hellenistic Seleucid King Seleucus I Nicator. It played an important role as one of the largest cities in the Hellenistic Seleucid Kingdom, in the Roman Empire, and in the Byzantine Empire. The city swapped hands between the Byzantines and the Persian Sassanids in the 3rd century and was the battleground for the siege of Antioch where Shapur I defeated the Roman army, and a later Battle of Antioch (613) where the Persians were successful at capturing the city for the last time. It was a key city during the early history of Christianity, in particular that of the Syriac Orthodox Church and the Antiochian Orthodox Church, as well as during the rise of Islam and the Crusades.
Rashidun period
In 637, during the reign of the Byzantine emperor Heraclius, Antioch was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate during the Battle of the Iron Bridge. The city became known in Arabic as (). Since the Umayyad Caliphate was unable to penetrate the Anatolian plateau, Antioch found itself on the frontline of the conflicts between two hostile empires during the next 350 years, so that the city went into a precipitous decline. After demise of Umayyads, Antioch was part of Abbasids (except for a brief rule of Tulunids), Ikhshidids and Hamdanids.
In 969, the city was reconquered for the Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas by Michael Bourtzes and the stratopedarches Peter. It soon became the seat of a dux, who commanded the forces of the local themes and was the most important officer on the Empire's eastern border, held by such men as Nikephoros Ouranos. In 1078, Philaretos Brachamios, an Armenian hero, seized power. He held the city until the Seljuk Turks captured it from him in 1084. The Sultanate of Rum held it only fourteen years before the Crusaders arrived.
Crusader era
The Crusaders' Siege of Antioch between October 1097 and June 1098 during the First Crusade resulted in its fall. The Crusaders caused significant damage, including a massacre of its population, both Christian and Muslim. Following the defeat of Seljuk forces arriving with the aim to break the siege only four days after its capture by the crusaders, Bohemond I became its overlord. It remained the capital of the Latin Principality of Antioch for nearly two centuries.
In 1268 it fell to the Egyptian Mamluk Sultan Baybars after another siege. Baibars proceeded to massacre the Christian population. In addition to suffering the ravages of war, the city lost its commercial importance because trade routes to East Asia moved north following the 13th-century Mongol conquests. Antioch never recovered as a major city, with much of its former role falling to the port city of Alexandretta (İskenderun). An account of both cities as they were in 1675 appears in the diary of the English naval chaplain Henry Teonge.
Ottoman city
The city was initially the centre of the Sanjak of Antakya, part of the Damascus Eyalet. It was laterly centre of Sanjak of Antakya in Aleppo Eyalet. It was finally kaza centre in Sanjak of Aleppo, part of Aleppo Vilayet.
In 1822 (and again in 1872), Antakya was hit by an earthquake and damaged. When Egyptian general Ibrahim Pasha established his headquarters in the city in 1835, it had only some 5,000 inhabitants. Supporters hoped the city might develop thanks to the Euphrates Valley Railway, which was supposed to link it to the port of Sueida (now Samandağı), but this plan never came to fruition. This scheme is the subject of Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poem (1836) in which she reflects of the superiority of trade and commerce over war and conflict. The city suffered repeated outbreaks of cholera due to inadequate infrastructure for sanitation. Later the city developed and rapidly resumed much of its old importance when a railway was built along the lower Orontes Valley.
French Mandate and Turkish annexation
Antioch was part of the Sanjak of Alexandretta during the Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon, until it was made the Hatay State in 1938, after Turkish pressure. An Arab nationalist newspaper in the city, run by Zaki al-Arsuzi, was shut down by the Turks. The annexation of the Hatay State by Turkey in 1939, creating the Hatay Province, caused an exodus of Christians and Alawites from Antioch east to the French Mandate.
The district Antakya was created in 2013 from part of the former central district of Hatay.
Demographics
Language
A British traveller visiting Antakya in 1798 reported that generally, Turkish was spoken, while, by contrast, the prevalent language in Aleppo at the time was Arabic. Most Alawites and Armenians spoke Turkish as a second language.
Religion
In 1935, Turkish and Arab Muslims made more than 80% of the population.
Antakya was home to one of the most ancient Jewish communities for over 2,200 years.
Recent history
Mount Habib-i Neccar (Habib An-Najar in Sura al-Yassin 36:13) and the city walls which climb the hillsides symbolise Antakya, making the city a formidable fortress built on a series of hills running north-east to south-west. Antakya was originally centred on the east bank of the river. Since the 19th century, the city has expanded with new neighbourhoods built on the plains across the river to the south-west, and four bridges connect the old and new cities. Many of the buildings of the last two decades are styled as concrete blocks, and Antakya has lost much of its classic beauty. The narrow streets of the old city can become clogged with traffic.
Antakya is a provincial capital of considerable importance as the centre of a large district. The draining of Lake Amik and development of land have caused the region's economy to grow in wealth and productivity. The town is a lively shopping and business centre with many restaurants, cinemas and other amenities. This district is centred on a large park opposite the governor's building and the central avenue Kurtuluş Caddesı. The tea gardens, cafes and restaurants in the neighbourhood of Harbiye are popular destinations, particularly for the variety of meze in the restaurants. The Orontes River can be malodorous when water is low in summer. Rather than formal nightlife, in the summer heat, people will stay outside until late at the night to walk with their families and friends, and munch on snacks.
Its location near the Syrian border makes Antakya more cosmopolitan than many cities in Turkey. It did not attract the mass immigration of people from eastern Anatolia in the 1980s and 1990s that radically swelled the populations of Mediterranean cities such as Adana and Mersin. Both Turkish and Arabic are still widely spoken in Antakya, although written Arabic is rarely used. A mixed community of faiths and denominations co-exist peacefully here. While almost all the inhabitants are Muslim, a substantial proportion adhere to the Alevi and Alawite traditions, in 'Harbiye' there is a place to honour the saint Hızır. Numerous tombs of saints, of both Sunni and Alawite, are located throughout the city. Several small Christian communities are active in the city, with the largest church being St. Peter and St. Paul on Hürriyet Avenue. With its long history of spiritual and religious movements, Antakya is a place of pilgrimage for Christians. The Jewish community of Antakya had shrunk to 14 members in 2014. In 2023, the last Jew in the city announced that he was leaving the city after a devastating earthquake.
It has a reputation in Turkey as a place for spells, fortune telling, miracles and spirits.
Local crafts include a soap scented with the oil of bay tree.
2023 earthquake
On 6 February 2023, Antakya suffered heavy damage as a result of a major earthquake. As of 7 February, the BBC reported that at least 1,200 buildings in the city center and the districts of Kırıkhan and İskenderun were razed. Officials said "almost all" houses in the Cebrail District had collapsed. Many historical sites, including churches and mosques, were destroyed, St. Paul's Church being one of them. The historic Antakya Synagogue and Hatay State Assembly Building were also destroyed.
Geography
Antakya is located on the banks of the Orontes River (), approximately inland from the Mediterranean coast. The city is in a valley surrounded by mountains, the Nur Mountains (ancient Amanos) to the northwest and Mount Keldağ (Jebel Akra) to the south, with the 440 m high Mount Habib-i Neccar (the ancient Mount Silpius) forming its eastern limits. The mountains are a source of a green marble. Antakya is at the northern edge of the Dead Sea Rift and vulnerable to earthquakes.
The plain of Amik to the north-east of the city is fertile soil watered by the Orontes, the Karasu and the Afrin rivers; the lake in the plain was drained in 1980 by a French company. At the same time channels were built to widen the Orontes and let it pass neatly through the city centre. The Orontes is joined in Antakya by the Hacı Kürüş stream to the north-east of the city near the church of St Peter, and the Hamşen which runs down from Habib-i Neccar to the south-west, under Memekli Bridge near the army barracks. Flora includes the bay trees and myrtle.
Composition
There are 95 neighbourhoods in Antakya District:
Açıkdere
Akasya
Akçaova
Akcurun
Akevler
Akhisar
Aksaray
Alaattin
Alahan
Alazı
Altınçay
Anayazı
Apaydın
Arpahan
Aşağıoba
Avsuyu
Aydınlıkevler
Bağrıyanık
Barbaros
Biniciler
Bitiren
Boşin
Bozhüyük
Büyükdalyan
Cebrail
Cumhuriyet
Demirköprü
Derince
Dikmece
Doğanköy
Dutdibi
Ekinci
Emek
Esenlik
Esentepe
Fevziçakmak
Gazi
Gazipaşa
General Şükrü Kanatlı
Gökçegöz
Gülderen
Güllübahçe
Günyazı
Güzelburç
Habib-i Neccar
Hacı Ömer Alpagot
Haraparası
Hasanlı
Havuzlar
İplik Pazarı
Kantara
Karaali
Karaalibölüğü
Kardeşler
Karlısu
Kisecik
Kışlasaray
Kocaabdi
Küçükdalyan
Kuruyer
Kuyulu
Kuzeytepe
Madenboyu
Mansurlu
Maraşboğazı
Maşuklu
Melekli
Meydan
Narlıca
Odabaşı
Oğlakören
Orhanlı
Ovakent
Paşaköy
Saçaklı
Saraycık
Saraykent
Şehitler
Serinyol
Şeyhali
Şirince
Sofular
Suvatlı
Tahtaköprü
Tanışma
Üçgedik
Ulucami
Ürgenpaşa
Üzümdalı
Uzunaliç
Yaylacık
Yenicami
Yeşilova
Zenginler
Zülüflühan
Climate
The city experiences a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa) with hot and dry summers, and mild and wet winters; however due to its higher altitude, Antakya has slightly cooler temperatures than the coast.
Education
Mustafa Kemal University, abbreviated as MKU, has several faculties including Engineering and Medicine, while having a campus called Tayfur Sökmen located in Serinyol district , north of Antakya (centrum). Established in 1992, currently more than 32,000 students enrolled at the university.
Besides the campus in Serinyol, MKU has its faculties spread out in all main districts of the province including Altınözü, Antakya, Belen, Dörtyol, Erzin, Hassa, İskenderun, Kırıkhan, Reyhanlı, Samandağ and Yayladağı.
Main sights
The long and varied history has created many architectural sites of interest. There is much for visitors to see in Antakya, although many buildings have been lost in the rapid growth and redevelopment of the city in recent decades.
Hatay Archaeology Museum has the second largest collection of Roman mosaics in the world.
The rock-carved Church of St Peter, with its network of refuges and tunnels carved out of the rock, a site of Christian pilgrimage. There are also tombs cut into the rock face at various places along the Orontes valley.
Old market district: It offers plenty of traditional shops, where you can explore what you have not seen before. It is exactly in the city centre, you are in when you see the sign Uzun Çarşı Caddesi.
The seedy Gündüz cinema in the city centre was once used as parliament building of the Republic of Hatay.
The waterfalls at the Harbiye / Daphne promenade.
The Ottoman Habib'i Neccar Mosque, the oldest mosque in Antakya and one of the oldest in Anatolia.
The labyrinth of narrow streets and old Antakya houses. This district is the oldtown in fact.
Vespasianus Titus Tunnel-Samandagı. It is approximately 35 km. far from the centre.
Beşikli Cave and Graves (the antique city of Seleukeia Pierria)
St. Simon Monastery
Bagras (Bakras) Castle, which was built in antiquity and restored many times in later centuries (particularly during the Crusades, when it was a stronghold of the Knights Templar), served as a watchtower on the mountain road from İskenderun (Alexandretta) to Antakya (Antioch).
The panoramic view of the city from the heights of Mount Habib-i Neccar
St. Paul Orthodox Church
With its rich architectural heritage, Antakya is a member of the Norwich-based European Association of Historic Towns and Regions. The Roman bridge (thought to date from the era of Diocletian) was destroyed in 1972 during the widening and channelling of the Orontes.
Transport
The city is served from Hatay Airport.
Sports
Antakya has one male professional football club, Hatayspor, who play in the Süper Lig. There is also a female professional team called Hatay Büyükşehir Belediyesi. Hatay Büyükşehir Belediyespor, a woman's basketball team, is also present, and plays in the Turkish Women's Basketball League.
Cuisine
The cuisine of Antakya is renowned. Its cuisine is considered Levantine rather than Turkish. The cuisine offers plenty of meals, where beef and lamb are mainly used. Popular dishes include the typical Turkish kebab, served with spices and onions in flat unleavened bread, with yoghurt as ali nazik kebab, oruk, kaytaz böreği and katıklı ekmek. Hot, spicy food is a feature of this part of Turkey, along with Turkish coffee and local specialties. Here are some savoury foods:
İçli köfte and other oruk varieties: varieties of the Arabic kibbeh, deep-fried balls of bulgur wheat stuffed with minced meat; or baked in ovens in cylinder-cone shape. Saç oruğu is made of the same ingredients, however in circular shape.
Kaytaz böreği: It is patty that is made of wheat, beef, tomato and onion.
Katıklı ekmek: Ingredients in Katıklı Ekmek usually consist of wheat, traditional pepper (paste), spices such as sesame and theme, çökelek or cheese. It looks like an ancestor of pizza. Not a lot of restaurants serve it, however it can be found in old-market that is located in the centre and Harbiye.
Pomegranate syrup, used as a salad dressing, called debes ramman, a traditional Levantine Arabic dressing.
Semirsek, a thin bread with hot pepper, minced meat or spinach filling
Spicy chicken, a specialty of Harbiye
Za'atar (Zahter) a traditional Levantine Arabic paste of spiced thyme, oregano, and sesame seeds, mixed with olive oil, spread on flat (called pide or in English pita) bread.
Fresh chick peas, munched as a snack.
Hirise, boiled and pounded wheat meal.
Aşur, meat mixed with crushed wheat, chickpea, cumin, onion, pepper and walnut
Meze
Hummus - the chick-pea dip
pureed fava beans
Patlıcan salatası: Patlıcan salatası or babaganoush, made of baked and sliced aubergines that mixed
with pepper and tomato. It is usually served with pomegranate syrup.
Taratur: Known also as Tarator, made of walnuts, 'tahin', yoghurt and garlic.
Süzme yoğurt: A type of yoghurt that its water content is removed with traditional methods.
Ezme biber: It is made of pepper and walnuts.
Surke - dried curds served in spicy olive oil
Çökelek - the spicy sun-dried cheese
Eels from the Orontes, spiced and fried in olive oil
Sweets/desserts
Künefe - a hot cheese, kadaif-based sweet. Antakya is Turkey's künefe capital; the pastry shops in the centre compete to claim being kings of the pastry.
Müşebbek - rings of deep fried pastry.
Peynirli irmik helvası - Peynirli İrmik Helvası is a dessert that is made of semolina, sugar and traditional cheese that is the same as used in künefe. It is served warm, especially in restaurants in the region Harbiye, rather than künefe shops that are located in the centre.
Twin towns
Antakya is twinned with:
Aalen, Germany (since 1995).
Notable people
Alexandros (1st century BC) Greek sculptor
George of Antioch
Ignatius of Antioch, Patriarch of Antioch
John Chrysostom (349–407) Patriarch of Constantinople
Saint Luke, first century AD, Christian evangelist and author of the Gospel of St. Luke and Acts of the Apostles
Yağısıyan, Seljukid governor of the city up to its capture by the Crusaders
Selâhattin Ülkümen - Righteous among the nations
Tayfur Sökmen - The president of the Republic of Hatay during its existence between the years 1938 and 1939.
References
External links
Pictures of Antakya
Pictures of Antakya Museum
Populated places in Hatay Province
Çukurova
Archaeological sites in Hatay Province
Populated places along the Silk Road
Crusade places
Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey
Seleucid colonies in Anatolia
Holy cities
New Testament places
Roman sites in Turkey
Populated places established in the 4th century BC
Jewish communities in Turkey
300s BC establishments
Arab settlements in Turkey
Aleppo vilayet
Populated places destroyed by earthquakes
Districts of Hatay Province
Metropolitan district municipalities in Turkey
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395009
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddie%20Fenech%20Adami
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Eddie Fenech Adami
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Edoardo "Eddie" Fenech Adami, (born 7 February 1934) is a Maltese politician and Nationalist politician who served as the prime minister of Malta from 1987 until 1996, and again from 1998 until 2004. Subsequently, he was the seventh president of Malta from 2004 to 2009. He led his party to win four general elections, in 1987, 1992, 1998 and 2003, as well as the majority of votes in 1981. Staunchly pro-European, Fenech Adami was fundamental for Malta's accession to the European Union.
Originally a lawyer, Fenech Adami was co-opted Member of Parliament (MP) in 1969. He served in a number of senior party positions, including president of the Administrative and General Councils, and was elected to succeed Dr Giorgio Borġ Olivier as party leader. From April 1977 onwards, Fenech Adami led the Nationalist opposition in a campaign of civil disobedience against the Mintoff and Mifsud Bonnici administrations of the late seventies and eighties, focusing on a message of respect for democratic principles and human rights.
Upon moving into Auberge de Castille in 1987, Fenech Adami began a policy of national reconciliation, initiating a series of political and economic reforms intended to open up the economy, reverse high unemployment and the islands' problems following sixteen years of socialist policies. His political ideology and economic policies highlighted deregulation, more flexible labour markets, the overhaul of the country's physical infrastructure and the privatisation of state-owned companies. The legal and business structures were also overhauled and trade liberalised. The communications, financial services and banking sectors were deregulated or privatised. Malta also began a period of integration with the EU, formally applying for membership in 1990.
Fenech Adami was re-elected with a modest majority in 1992; his popularity, however, wavered during his second term of office amid further economic reforms, particularly the introduction of VAT, and the re-branding of the main opposition party with a new and more dynamic leader, Alfred Sant. Losing power in 1996, Fenech Adami was returned as prime minister within twenty-two months, after the Labour government's decision to call a snap election backfired. Reversing the unpopular economic policies of the Labour Party, Fenech Adami reactivated Malta's EU membership application and initiated further economic reforms.
He successfully led the pro-EU movement in the 2003 EU membership referendum campaign and won the successive election. He signed Malta's Accession Treaty with the European Union and represented Malta in various EU Summits and Commonwealth meetings. Fenech Adami resigned as Leader of the Nationalist Party in February 2004, resigning his premiership and giving up his parliamentary seat in March 2004. He became the seventh President of Malta in April 2004.
Education and professional career
Edward (Edoardo) Fenech Adami was born in Birkirkara, British Malta, the son of Josephine Fenech Adami, née Pace, and Luigi Fenech Adami, a customs officer. The fourth boy in a family of five children, his early childhood was marked by the air raids and deprivation in Malta during the Second World War.
He began his education at St Aloysius' College in Birkirkara, continuing his studies there until sitting for his matriculation exams. He attended the Royal University of Malta, studying economics, classics, and then law. He was called to the bar in 1959, and started his career in the law courts. He was married to Mary née Sciberras, who died in 2011. The couple had five children – John, Beppe (a Nationalist MP), Michael (a Nationalist Local Councillor for Birkirkara), Maria and Luigi.
Early political career
Fenech Adami joined the Nationalist Party in the early sixties, first as a constituency official, then as president of the Administrative and General Councils, assistant secretary general, and editor of its newspaper Il-Poplu (English: The People). He contested two unsuccessful campaigns in 1962 and 1966, becoming a Member of Parliament in 1969 following a by-election for the newly vacant seat of Ġorġ Caruana. Prime Minister Borġ Olivier was instrumental in picking Fenech Adami for this co-option to Parliament.
Believing that the Borġ Olivier administration ought to seize the initiative, Fenech Adami pleaded with Borġ Olivier to reshuffle the cabinet, and call early elections in 1970 when the British were negotiating the renewal of the islands' financial and defence agreement. The Nationalist Party was returned to the Opposition in 1971, with the Party's clubs being in the islands' villages and towns being vandalised or destroyed – a trend which continued right up to the late eighties. Fenech Adami served as spokesman for the Opposition on labour relations and social services. His political frailty peaked with his agreement with Mintoff to declare a Maltese republic in 1974, without consulting the electorate; at the time, Guido de Marco called this "an unacceptable act of betrayal." Borġ Olivier's growing weakness led to a successive electoral defeat in 1976. Fenech Adami resisted strongly the Party's proposal to abolish income tax as not being credible. Ultimately, the loss of two successive elections brought about Borġ Olivier's downfall and opened up the Nationalist Party for the choice of a new leader, and modernisation. This only happened following a 1977 Opposition parliamentary group meeting in de Marco's Ħamrun home, which forced Borġ Olivier to accept a designate-leader in his stead.
Leader of the Nationalist Party
A relative newcomer to the Party, Fenech Adami contested the party leadership election against two other established MPs, Ċensu Tabone and de Marco in 1977. Fenech Adami swept the leadership contest in April 1977 with a two-thirds majority; upon his election, Fenech Adami chose to keep his two contenders in highly visible roles. Taking the lead from Borġ Olivier in 1978, Fenech Adami immediately set out to reform the Nationalist Party, adapting to the needs of a more socially aware electorate. This modernisation process attracted a new, and younger party membership.
On 15 October 1979, following hearsay about an attempt on the life of Dom Mintoff, a large group of thugs attacked and burnt down the premises and printing presses of the independent newspaper, The Times of Malta. The thugs proceeded to ransack various Nationalist Party clubs and the private residence of Fenech Adami in Birkirkara. Fenech Adami's neighbours locked themselves in their homes as soon as they heard the commotion. Approaching her house from mass, Mary Fenech Adami was shocked at the mayhem: the front door was wide open, with ten men inside ransacking valuables and stealing heirlooms, smashing glass doors and shutters, hurling books and furniture outside onto the street. The thugs had wooden clubs, which appeared to be solid sawn-off table legs. The six rooms forming the ground floor of the Fenech Adami residence were completely wrecked. Mary Fenech Adami was attacked and slammed against a wall. Her earrings were ripped off, and she was punched on her chest and face. She was then kicked and pushed onto the street. Mary Fenech Adami, her four sons and her mother-in-law only escaped by going up to the third storey of their house and jumping onto a neighbour's house. These incidents marked an escalation of violence in the islands, and came to be known as Black Monday. The attack consolidated Fenech Adami's leadership, with a mass meeting held outside Fenech Adami's residence attracting one of the largest crowds ever, signalling the changing mood in the country.
The Nationalist Party's support grew enough to attract the majority of votes in the controversial 1981 elections, but failed to gain a majority of seats. This was caused by heavily gerrymandered districts, which ensured Labour would retain the Constitutionally required majority of seats in Parliament. The election led to years of bitter struggles against an entrenched Labour government. Fenech Adami led a successful campaign of civil disobedience, boycotting Parliament repeatedly from 1981 to 1983. An upsurge in political violence against the Nationalist Party began, with Fenech Adami pushing for democratic renewal in the nation. The Nationalist Party instructed supporters to boycott government-friendly businesses, bringing prominent Labour supporters to their knees thus forcing Labour to acknowledge the anomalous situation. In March 1983, the Nationalist opposition returned to their seats in Parliament on the basis of starting negotiations to enact constitutional amendments to prevent perverse results in future general elections.
On 30 November 1986, Nationalist Party supporters gathered on the Tal-Barrani road to walk towards Żejtun, where Fenech Adami was to address a mass meeting. This was only allowed after the Party challenged its right to do so in the Constitutional Court. The crowd found that the road to Żejtun was blocked by boulders, poles and burning tyres. A group of Labour supporters, some wearing balaclavas, began to assault the crowd. The situation precipitated with the arrival on site of the police's Special Mobile Unit, which fired tear-gas canisters and rubber bullets on the Nationalist Party supporters. Twenty-three people were injured, with many treated at an improvised emergency clinic at the Party headquarters in Tal-Pietà. This incident was followed a month later by the murder of Raymond Caruana, who was killed by a stray bullet fired through the door of a Nationalist Party club in Gudja by unknown Labour activists. In Parliament, Fenech Adami uses his allotted Budget reply to denounce the crime, and the subsequent arrest of Pietru Pawl Busuttil, who was a Nationalist Party activist framed for the murder by the police. Fenech Adami held that the Budget was irrelevant for the Maltese people, in that the defence of liberty and democracy is what the Maltese people shall vote for. The parliamentary session and Fenech Adami's speech were interrupted by animated Labour MPs, led by ministers Wistin Abela and Lorry Sant, who almost assault him.
Prime Minister (1987–1996)
Following a set of constitutional changes, the party winning an absolute majority of votes would be guaranteed a parliamentary majority. In 1987, following a two-month-long campaign and thousands of workers employed with governmental agencies, parastatal and state-owned enterprises, the Nationalist Party won the general elections with a majority of 5,000 votes.
Between 1987 and 1992, Fenech Adami ushered a major period of change in Malta. Foreign relations were expanded, with Malta starting its transition towards a modern European democracy. Under Fenech Adami, the islands steered a more pro-Western course. Malta maintained its economic and political ties with Libya, diplomatic ties it built under the socialist administration, but the friendship treaty between the two countries was renegotiated. Fenech Adami widened Malta's political distance with Gaddafi, eliminating military obligations on both sides. Fenech Adami also severed Malta's air links with Libya, and honoured the UN embargo on the country.
The country's physical infrastructure was completely overhauled, with many roads reconstructed, a new airport, reverse osmosis plants and power station built, as well as the removal of import licenses and quotas. Telecommunications, financial services and the banking sectors were deregulated or privatised. By the early nineties, Fenech Adami started to direct his economic and governmental policies to integrate Malta into the European Economic Community. This included the gradual removal of local import and customs duties. As prime minister he asked for a number of presidential pardons including one for Joseph Fenech, who was a well known criminal. The pardon was proffered on the basis of Joseph Fenech acting as a star witness in a trial for the attempted murder of Richard Cachia Caruana, then personal assistant to prime minister Fenech Adami.
Fenech Adami was reconfirmed as Prime Minister in the February 1992 elections, with a modest majority. The gradual decrease in income taxes, and the reduction in levies on trade with EEC countries led to a worrying decrease in government revenues. In order to ensure sustainable public finances, the Nationalist government introduced a value-added tax (VAT) to counterbalance the loss in tariff income. VAT proved to be very unpopular, with the new leader of the Labour Party, Alfred Sant, riding a wave of popular dissatisfaction at the pace and depth of the reforms intended to allow Malta to join the European Union. Disgruntled businesses, vocal minority groups (such as hunters and trappers) and the newly found dynamism of the Labour Party led to the loss of the 1996 general elections, with the Nationalist Party gaining only 47.8% of cast votes.
Leader of the Opposition (1996–1998)
Between 1996 and 1998, Fenech Adami served as Leader of the Opposition. The Labour government held a one-seat majority, which led to a period of severe political instability. Labour introduced several economic policies, fulfilling its pledge to remove VAT by replacing it with a complex customs and excise tax system (CET), the introduction of further taxes to counter the shortfall in revenues, and increased utility bills. The delicate situation, which saw the resignation of the finance minister, and other prominent members of the party and government, was further complicated with the actions of Dom Mintoff.
The latter, who was a backbencher in the Sant government, rose against his own government. Unable to contain Mintoff's protests against the austere 1997 Budget, and a waterfront redevelopment project in Cottonera, the Labour government called snap elections. Fenech Adami reclaimed the floating vote, winning a 13,000 vote majority, with his Party returned to office in September 1998.
Prime Minister (1998–2004)
Malta's European Union application, which was put on hold by the previous Labour government, was reactivated and negotiations were concluded by December 2002. Fenech Adami successfully led the pro-EU movement in the 2003 EU membership referendum campaign, and won the successive election. He signed Malta's Accession Treaty with the European Union on 16 April 2003, and represented Malta in various EU Summits and Commonwealth meetings. In December 2003, he received the European of the Year 2003 Award from the influential Brussels-based newspaper European Voice in recognition of his unfaltering efforts to bring Malta into the European Union. Fenech Adami resigned as Leader of the Nationalist Party in February 2004, resigning his premiership and giving up his parliamentary seat on 23 March 2004, thus becoming the longest serving Prime Minister since Malta's independence.
President of Malta
Following his resignation as Prime Minister, Fenech Adami was appointed President of Malta on 4 April 2004. He served a five-year term, leaving office on 4 April 2009, when he was succeeded by George Abela.
Honours
Maltese honours
Companion of Honour of the National Order of Merit (1990) by right as a Prime Minister, later President of Malta
Foreign honours
Grand-Cross of the Order of Prince Henry, Portugal (09.11.1994)
Commander Grand-Cross of the Order of the Three Stars, Latvia (2004)
Grand Cross with Chain of the Order of the Star of Romania (2004)
Knight Grand-Cross with Grand Cordon of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (2005)
Honorary Knight Grand-Cross of the Order of the Bath, United Kingdom (2005)
Knight Grand-Cross of the Grand Order of King Tomislav, Croatia (2006)
Grand Cross with Chain of the Order of Merit of Hungary (2007)
Grand-Collar of the Order of Prince Henry, Portugal (11.12.2008)
Knight of the Order of the White Eagle, Poland (2009)
Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour, France (2010)
Other
Fenech Adami is an Honorary Member of the International Raoul Wallenberg Foundation.
See also
List of prime ministers of Malta
External links
Eddiefenechadami.org
References
1934 births
Living people
Presidents of Malta
Prime Ministers of Malta
Members of the House of Representatives of Malta
University of Malta alumni
Maltese Roman Catholics
Nationalist Party (Malta) politicians
People from Birkirkara
Companions of Honour of the National Order of Merit (Malta)
Knights Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
Grand Crosses with Chain of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary (civil)
Recipients of the Order of the Star of Romania
Recipients of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana, 1st Class
Foreign ministers of Malta
20th-century Maltese politicians
21st-century Maltese politicians
Leaders of the Opposition (Malta)
Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)
Recipients of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, 1st class
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Think%20Tank%20%28Blur%20album%29
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Think Tank (Blur album)
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Think Tank is the seventh studio album by the English rock band Blur, released on 5 May 2003. Continuing the jam-based studio constructions of the group's previous album, 13 (1999), the album expanded on the use of sampled rhythm loops and brooding, heavy electronic sounds. There are also heavy influences from dance music, hip hop, dub, jazz, and African music, an indication of songwriter Damon Albarn's expanding musical interests.
Recording sessions started in November 2001, taking place in London, Morocco and Devon, and finished a year later. The album's primary producer was Ben Hillier with additional production by Norman Cook (Fatboy Slim), and William Orbit. At the start of the sessions, guitarist Graham Coxon had been in rehab for alcoholism. After he re-joined, relationships between him and the other members became strained. After initial recording sessions, Coxon left, leaving little of his presence on the finished album. This is the only Blur album to not feature Coxon as a full-time member; he returned to the band for their next album The Magic Whip (2015).
Think Tank is a loose concept album, which Albarn has stated is about "love and politics". Albarn, a pacifist, had spoken out against the invasion of Afghanistan and, after Western nations threatened to invade Iraq, took part in the widespread protests against the war. Anti-war themes are recurrent in the album as well as in associated artwork and promotional videos.
After leaking onto the internet in March, Think Tank was released on 5 May 2003 and entered the UK Albums Chart at number one, making it Blur's fifth consecutive studio album to reach the top spot. The album was later certified Gold. Think Tank also reached the top 20 in many other countries, including Austria, Switzerland, Germany, Norway and Japan. It was their highest charting album in the United States at the time, reaching number 56 on the Billboard 200. The album produced three singles, which charted at number 5, number 18 and number 22 respectively on the UK Singles Chart. After the album was released, Blur announced a world tour with Simon Tong filling in for Coxon.
Background
Although Blur had been associated with the Britpop movement, they had experimented with different musical styles more recently, beginning with Blur (1997) which had been influenced by indie rock bands under the suggestion of guitarist Graham Coxon. Since the mid to late 1990s, Blur's members had been working on other projects as well as Blur: Albarn had co-created Gorillaz, a virtual band, in 1998 with comic artist Jamie Hewlett whom Albarn had met through Coxon. Gorillaz' 2001 debut was financially successful and received critical acclaim. Since composing the Blur song, "You're So Great", Coxon had started a solo career and as of 2001 had released three solo albums. The members' differing musical interests had alienated some of the band members, with Coxon explaining, "we're all very concerned for each other and we do genuinely like each other an awful lot. Because we're into so much different stuff, it becomes daunting." Nevertheless, Coxon, along with Alex James and Dave Rowntree were keen for a new album, whilst Albarn was more reluctant.
Blur's prior album, 13, had made heavy use of experimental and electronic music with the guidance of producer William Orbit. Despite the success of the album and its associated singles, the overall sound of the album had been deemed as "deliberately uncommercial" compared to their previous efforts. Despite the broader musical landscaping which Blur were engaging in, Albarn said in a January 2001 interview that he wanted to make a more accessible album again, stating "I'm trying to go back to the kind of songwriting aesthetic I had on (hit album) Parklife. They won't be arranged in the same way at all – they'll just be songs that are accessible to the public." He also explained his reasoning for this approach, stating that "it's too complicated being anything other than mainstream with Blur. That's where it belongs. We still feel that the mainstream in Britain is not represented well enough by intelligent musicians."
After the September 11 attacks, a series of controversial military campaigns were launched, known as the War on Terror. In November 2001, shortly after the Invasion of Afghanistan, the MTV Europe Music Awards were held in Frankfurt, where Gorillaz won an award for Best Dance Act. As Albarn and Hewlett walked onto stage to make a speech, Albarn sported a T-shirt with the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament logo on it. In Albarn's speech, he said "So, fuck the music. Listen. See this symbol here, [pointing to the t-shirt] this the symbol for the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. Bombing one of the poorest countries in the world is wrong. You've got a voice and you have got to do what you can about it, alright?"
In 2002, Iraq was under threat of invasion from western nations. Opposition from the public led to protests being organised by a number of organisations. Albarn, who has described himself as being anti-war, spoke out against the invasion, citing the lack of democratic process as an issue. Anti-war views had been shared with Albarn's parents and grandparents. His grandfather, Edward Albarn, had died after going on a hunger strike the previous year.
Albarn teamed up with Robert "3D" Del Naja of Massive Attack and various campaigns to raise awareness of the potential dangers of the UK's involvement in the war. Albarn was due to speak in Hyde Park on the rally in March 2003 when a million people took to the streets of London in protest at the imminent war. In the event, he was too emotional to deliver his speech.
Recording
Recording sessions for Think Tank started in November 2001 at Albarn's 13 Studio in London. Albarn, James and Rowntree had come to the studio along with Ben Hillier, who explained that "there was tension to begin with. Alex had made some belittling comment about Gorillaz in the press, but there was a 'fuck you' and a 'fuck you' and it was all mates again but for the fact that Graham was missing". During 2001, Coxon had been battling alcoholism and depression, and was unable to attend the initial recording session due to being in rehabilitation. Despite Coxon's absence, the rest of the band decided to start recording without him.
By January 2002, the rest of the band were mainly recording demos that Albarn had started on a four-track and subsequently transferred into Logic with 13's in-house engineers Tom Girling, Jason Cox and assistant, James Dring. Coxon rejoined the rest of the band for recording sessions in February and May 2002, with the foreknowledge that it would be "tense in the studio". Coxon spent, what he described as "awkward afternoons", contributing on the tracks "Battery in Your Leg", "The Outsider", "Morricone", and "Some Glad Morning", with only the first of them ending up on the final album. Coxon left the band after these recording sessions. The remaining members of Blur decided to carry on recording, Albarn stating that "the spirit of Blur was more important than the individuals".
In June, the band went back into the studio, doing "tracking, overdubs and reworking what we'd already done, and all the time new songs would be popping up – I think we had 28 of them at one point." Albarn desired to have multiple producers involved in the album, wanting to get a "name producer" involved. Albarn had previously been in talks with Norman Cook, commonly known as Fatboy Slim, to be involved on the record, although he originally wanted to contribute "just feedback and nothing else". Albarn eventually invited him to try and work with the band. Hillier and the band also spent time working with other producers, including the Dust Brothers, whilst the Neptunes were also reported to be involved at one point.
In August, the remaining members of Blur, along with Hillier, travelled to Morocco. James released a statement on the band's website saying "I suppose the idea at the bottom of this is to escape from whatever ghetto we're in and free ourselves by going somewhere new and exciting." The band settled at Marrakesh where they equipped an old barn with a studio. Albarn claimed that most of the album's lyrics were written "under a cypress tree in Morocco". The sessions in Marrakesh produced "Crazy Beat", "Gene by Gene", and "Moroccan Peoples Revolutionary Bowls Club". The vocal sessions took place at this time. While in Morocco, Albarn wrote a song about Cook and his partner, Zoë Ball, who were having troubles with their relationship. The song started out as a jam session, eventually evolving into "Put It Back Together", which ended up on Fatboy Slim's fourth studio album, Palookaville, which was released in October 2004. After the band came back from Morocco, the remaining sessions took place in a barn on National Trust land in Devon.
William Orbit, who was the main producer on 13 was also involved in the album's production, with Hillier stating that "we sent a couple of tunes to William to work on in his studio, working round the clock in a computer environment the way he does. He's a nutter and works all night. That was quite an interesting juxtaposition, us doing office hours then going to see William after work, just as he was getting up!" Of Orbit's productions, "Sweet Song" ended up on the album. Coxon's absence also bolstered the role of Alex James and Dave Rowntree who provided backing vocals throughout the album. Rowntree also played the electric guitar on "On the Way to the Club" and provided a rap on a demo version of "Sweet Song". A Moroccan orchestra is featured on the lead single, "Out of Time".
Musical style
Despite Albarn stating that he originally wanted to return to their more commercial sound, Think Tank continues the jam-based studio constructions of previous album 13. The album expanded on the use of sampled rhythm loops and brooding, heavy electronic sounds. Almost entirely written by Albarn, Think Tank placed more emphasis on lush backing vocals, simple acoustic guitar, drums, bass guitar, and a variety of other instruments.
"We knew we had to come back with the best thing we'd ever done," observed James. "I think it is. It's next level shit!"
Like many of Blur's previous albums, Think Tank is a loose concept album. Albarn has stated that it is an album about "love and politics", stating that "[Unease] forces people to value what they've got. And that, hopefully, will pay dividends and help change the world to a better place. Hopefully. Touch wood." Albarn also stated that the album is about "what are you supposed to do as an artist other than express what is going on around you." Some of the songs are concerned with a sense of paranoia and alienation in British club culture. Damon also cited punk rock music, particularly the Clash, as an inspiration.
The album's opening track, "Ambulance", starts off with a complex drum beat. Sam Bloch of Stylus Magazine praised the song's intro, describing the beat as "an offbeat rhythmic synapse that nearly collapses into itself [...] Heavy electronic drums. A flash. A kick. At first, it's really hard to believe that this is a song, functioning on its own. The beat needs crutches to stand upright." Devon Powers of PopMatters wrote that "the first bars [...] are stricken with throbbing beats that sound simultaneously futuristic and primitive." Bloch went on to write: "as a low, thunderous bass enters [the listener's] speakers, the whole thing slowly grows. Distinctive African percussion is leisurely incorporated into the bass overtone—it's the darkness in a thunderstorm, the pure, simple fury that comes before a glorious lightning streak."
At 0:52 Albarn's lead vocals come in, repeating the lyrics "I ain't got nothin' to be scared of" in a "gauzy" falsetto. This is accompanied by a "languid" bass groove and backing vocals described by Bloch as "gospel-twinged", as well as a baritone sax line described by Powers as "[cutting] underneath the back-up singers, at an angle—so quirky it feels like Morphine could have played it." As Albarn delivers the next line (cause I love you"), a synthesizer kicks in, described by stylus as "illustrious", "otherworldly" and "flooding the song's deathly stomp. But within this death there is love. Albarn makes this clear in the structure of this song." In Albarn's next vocal lines, he drops out of falsetto into "his low swinging monotone". Powers stated that he "croons, carelessly, almost as if he's freestyling. Things change again. They keep changing." Powers speculated that the song was about love but said "it's also a fitting introduction to a record that's such an extreme departure from their past work, and so drastically left field from the garage and post-punk and easily accessible poprock currently drenching the airwaves".
In an XFM radio interview, Albarn spoke on the composition of the track, stating, "I try to do a lot of stuff once I've got the melody and the chord structure. I try to just sing it in one go without thinking about it too much. It comes out a sort of partially formed song and sometimes you're lucky and it comes out almost kind of sort of perfect and sometimes it's just a mess." He stated that this was a case of the former. James said that "Ambulance" was "the first song that I thought, right this is Blur again. Like I'm in the right place again. I suppose the lyrics have something to do with that, you know, having nothing to be scared of anymore."
Greenwald claimed that "Out of Time" was "the album's highlight". Describing the song as "failure-soaked" and "heart-stoppingly lovely", Greenwald went on to say that it "perfectly captures the jumble of beauty and dread that defines life under orange alert. "Are we out of time?" Albarn asks, desperate for one last peace march or one last snog." Powers described the song as "a much more straightforward, apace ballad [compared to the previous song]. Dominant in the track are Albarn's unadulterated vocals and steady, simplistic drums, but beyond that are ethereal, hard-to-identify noises. In the middle of the track, an Andalucian string group rears its head, as does a tambourine."
"Crazy Beat" was compared to "Song 2" from the band's self-titled album. XFM described the song as "Fatboy Slim meets Middle Eastern Punk rock ... energetic, punked-out rocker. But as much as this song might appeal to the neo-DIY set—complete with its jumpy chorus and lively melody—Blur are anything but. If there's one thing Blur are known for, it's lots and lots and lots of production. Norman Cook (aka Fatboy Slim), builds this number with tons of sound, so there's always another active level to uncover." According to Albarn, the song "started off in such a different way. The nearest thing I could compare it to is a really bad version of Daft Punk. So, we got sick of it and then put in that descending guitar line over it to rough it up a bit." He also stated "It had this sort of mad vocoder-ish vocal and the melody was over a real sort of skanky groove and just this almost descending semi tonal guitar. The melody worked over it and it was amazing coz it shouldn't have worked, another little magic moment for us."
Powers claimed that "the best moments of this album are those when vintage Blur styles are evoked with new expertise. The meandering "Good Song" is a beautiful case in point. Acoustic guitar picking is matched with temperate drums and a sweet, steady bass countermelody. Albarn's singing is mostly in his mid-range, falling out as easily as breath. Signature background vocal harmonies are there to brighten up the track, but their muted nature doesn't descend into campiness. What's also new is the expert use of electronic noises and drumbeats to fatten the sound." Albarn said "well, that was originally called 'De La Soul' on our huge list of songs, half finished ideas. It was called 'De La Soul you know, right until the end. And I just always thought it was a good song and just called it 'Good Song'. I love that, I love the sort of intimacy of it and I just think everyone really played gently on it, the melodies. It was a good melody."
"On the Way to the Club" was described by Albarn as "a hangover song which we sort of write from time to time." Albarn also said that "it's definitely got a very individual sound. Someone said that it's a sort of revived Screamadelica. Yeah, it's kind of the good intentions of which you participate in revelry and then actually the reality of it."
"Brothers and Sisters" was one of the last additions to the album. "It was a kind of track that took quite a different direction for most of its life", said Rowntree. "...And then right at the end we switched about and took it in a different direction, it wasn't quite so dark." "It sounded more like The Velvet Underground when we started", claimed Albarn. "It was too overtly about one thing. It was too druggy, in a way, which is a kind of weird thing, 'cause the song is all about drugs so I think we just pushed ourselves a bit more with it and gave it a lot more space – countered by the list and the list was kind of sort of inspired by the life of JFK and his need to have 28 drugs everyday of his Presidency just to keep him functioning."
Albarn described "Caravan" as "a kind of song that you could play anywhere. And I mean I remember we just finished it and when everyone left to go back to London, I went down to Mali for a couple of days 'cause Honest Jon's [were] still working with musicians and stuff. I was sitting in a mango grove with a wild turkey and had a little CD player and I put it on there. It was just nice seeing everyone sitting around getting stoned to it. It was nice, 'cause the guitar is very, much inspired by Afel; a great Malian tradition of blues guitar." "I think this one's about the sun going down, for me", James claimed. "That was like a perfect studio moment; sitting on top of a strange barn in the Moroccan desert listening to Damon do a vocal and it a was a perfectly still time of day and the sun was perfectly red and there was just an immense sense of calm and this music."
Albarn claimed that "Sweet Song" was inspired by Coxon. Explaining the habit of putting 'song' in the title, Albarn stated that it was "another African thing that I've picked up. They do call things like 'Tree Song'. You know what I mean; they give it something quite simple. It's not, it doesn't have an agenda so much, it's offered out as a nice bit of music to everyone and that's something that has changed massively in my life, I don't see the ownership of things quite so strongly anymore."
There is a hidden track, "Me, White Noise" in the pregap before track 1 on some CD copies. The song guest features Phil Daniels, who previously appeared on "Parklife", on vocals. Japanese versions of the album feature the song at track 30, after silent tracks at index points 15–29. On the Blur 21 edition, the hidden track is placed after a few minutes of silence at the end of the last track.
The case contains a Parental Advisory logo in some regions, because "Brothers and Sisters" contains many drug references. Also, the hidden track "Me, White Noise" is one of the few Blur songs to contain an expletive.
Artwork and packaging
The album cover was stenciled by the graffiti artist Banksy. Despite Banksy stating that he normally avoids commercial work, he later defended his decision to do the cover, saying: "I've done a few things to pay the bills, and I did the Blur album. It was a good record and [the commission was] quite a lot of money. I think that's a really important distinction to make. If it's something you actually believe in, doing something commercial doesn't turn it to shit just because it's commercial. Otherwise you've got to be a socialist rejecting capitalism altogether, because the idea that you can marry a quality product with a quality visual and be a part of that even though it's capitalistic is sometimes a contradiction you can't live with. But sometimes it's pretty symbiotic, like the Blur situation." The album's cover art sold at auction in 2007 for £75,000. The fold out booklet of the album features the text "Celebrity Harvest", which was the working name for a proposed, but ultimately unmade Gorillaz film.
Release
Prior to the album's official release, it was leaked onto the internet. Rowntree said "I'd rather it gushed" and "I'm rabidly pro the internet and as many people hearing our albums as possible. If it hadn't been leaked by someone we probably would've leaked it ourselves". Albarn speculated that the leak helped the reception of their live shows, due to the songs' lyrics being more familiar to the audience.
Commercial performance
The album debuted in the US at number 56 with first-week sales of 20,000, becoming the highest peak of any Blur album in the US at that time. It has sold 94,000 copies in the US as of April 2015.
In the UK, the album debuted at the top spot, becoming their fifth consecutive number one album. The album remained in the top 10 for three weeks and the top 75 for a total of eight weeks, lacking the longevity and sales success of their previous releases.
Critical reception
Think Tank received mostly positive reviews. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 83, which indicates "universal acclaim", based on 26 reviews. Drowned in Sound writer Andrew Future deemed the album "a genuine pleasure to behold" and whilst stating that previous albums Blur and 13 were "full of jump-start arrangements and fractured experimentalism", he described Think Tank as being "lush in melody, flowing in windswept electronica with a myriad of bombastic orchestral backing one minute, before retracting into cocoons of melancholic and clustered acoustics the next." Playlouder called the album "an extraordinary record that pushes boundaries and sets new standards." "The beat-driven tracks," observed Steve Lowe in Q, "veer towards the arty, white-boy-with-beatbox line of Talking Heads and The Clash (actually, the low-slung hip-pop of 'Moroccan Peoples Revolutionary Bowls Club' even recalls Big Audio Dynamite). Only the trudging, tedious six-minute squib 'Jets' really needs taking back to the shops." However, Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic wrote that the album "is the sound of Albarn run amuck, a (perhaps inevitable) development that even voracious Blur supporters secretly feared could ruin the band — and it has." He also described Think Tank as a "lousy album" on which the few strong tracks are "severely hurt by Coxon's absence".
According to Acclaimed Music, Think Tank is the 995th most critically acclaimed album of all time.
Albarn became critical of the record over time. In 2015 he said: "It's... got some real stinkers on it – there's some bollocks on there."
Accolades
Blur received a number of awards and nominations for Think Tank. At the 2003 Q Awards, Think Tank won the award for Best Album. This was the third time the band had received this award, previously winning in 1994 and 1995 for Parklife and The Great Escape respectively. Blur also received nomination for Best Act in the World Today and, along with Ben Hillier, were nominated in the Best Producer category. The album also won in the Best Album category at the South Bank Show Awards in 2004 and was nominated in a similarly titled category at the Danish Music Awards the same year. Think Tank was nominated for Best British Album at the 2004 Brit Awards. The promo videos for "Out of Time" and "Good Song" also won several awards.
At the end of the year, The Observer listed Think Tank as the best album of 2003, Miranda Sawyer writing that, "Think Tank is the band's first warm album. They have hopped genres in the past, from baggy to mod to pop to grunge to art-rock, but the sound has always stayed urban, Western, cool. Think Tank is none of these things. It's all over the place, and that place is foreign. Odd noises, strange instruments, keening vocals; its tunes wind themselves around your heart like drifting smoke. They waft in from faraway lands; trail and trickle their scent across your life. It is the most peculiar stuff that stays with you; "Ambulance"'s slurred symphony; "Caravan"'s star-speckled wonder."
Tour
After the album's release, Blur went on a world tour with former the Verve's guitarist and keyboardist Simon Tong filling in for Coxon on guitar. However, Albarn later said that he felt the live shows were "rubbish" and bassist Alex James admitted that touring was not the same without Coxon.
Since Blur's reunion with Coxon in 2009, the album has largely been absent from Blur's setlists, with the exception of "Out of Time" (in a new arrangement with additional guitar parts by Coxon) and occasional performances of "Battery in Your Leg" in 2009 and "Caravan" in 2015.
Track listing
All lyrics by Damon Albarn.
All music by Damon Albarn/Alex James/Dave Rowntree except where noted.
The song "Me, White Noise" is a hidden track placed in the pregap of the first track on first presses or at the end of "Battery in Your Leg" after about 90 seconds of silence on the 2-CD deluxe edition.
Personnel
Blur
Damon Albarn – lead and backing vocals, guitars, keyboards, producer
Alex James – bass guitar, backing vocals, production
Dave Rowntree – drums, drum programming, backing vocals, guitar on "On the Way to the Club", production
Additional musicians and production
Paul Wood - bongos
Bezzari Ahmed – rabab
Moullaoud My Ali – oud
Mohamed Azeddine – oud
Norman Cook – producer (Track 3 & 12)
Jason Cox – production assistance, engineer
Graham Coxon – guitars on "Battery in Your Leg"
Phil Daniels – backing vocals on "Me, White Noise"
James Dring – engineer, additional drum programming
Ben Hillier – producer, engineer, percussion
Gueddam Jamal – cello, violin
Abdellah Kekhari – violin
Ait Ramdan El Mostafa – kanoun
Desyud Mustafa – orchestral arrangement
El Farani Mustapha – tere
Dalal Mohamed Najib – darbouka
Hijaoui Rachid – violin
M. Rabet Mohamid Rachid – violin
Mike Smith – saxophone
Kassimi Jamal Youssef – oud
William Orbit – producer (Track 10)
Charts and certifications
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
References
External links
Think Tank at YouTube (streamed copy where licensed)
2003 albums
Blur (band) albums
Albums produced by Ben Hillier
Albums produced by William Orbit
Albums produced by Damon Albarn
Albums recorded at Studio 13
Parlophone albums
Virgin Records albums
Concept albums
Works by Banksy
Art pop albums
Art rock albums
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20libraries
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List of libraries
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This is an alphabetical list of notable libraries around the world. It includes both notable public lending libraries and research libraries.
Alphabetical
A
Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, Scotland
African Heritage Research Library and Cultural Centre, Adeyipo Village, Ibadan, Nigeria
Alexandria Library, Alexandria, Virginia, United States
Alice Springs Public Library, Alice Springs, Australia
Allahabad Public Library, Allahabad, India
Allegheny County Library Association, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States
Aloghar Library, Dhaka, Bangladesh
American Memorial Library, Berlin, Germany
Ann Arbor District Library, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States
Archive for Research in Archetypal Symbolism
Argostoli Public Library, Kefalonia, Greece
Arlanza Branch Library, Riverside, California, United States
Astan Quds Razavi's Central Library, Mashhad, Iran
Australian National University Library, Canberra, Australia
B
Baltimore County Public Library, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
Barrow-in-Furness Main Public Library, Cumbria, England
Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich, Bavaria, Germany
Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, New Haven, Connecticut, United States
Beit Ariela, Tel Aviv, Israel
Berlin Art Library (Kunstbibliothek Berlin), Berlin, Germany
Berlin Central and Regional Library, Berlin, Germany
Berlin State Library, Berlin, Germany
Bhaikaka Library, Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat, India
Biblioteca de Catalunya, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
Biblioteca Estense, Modena, Italy
Biblioteca Nacional de Chile, Santiago, Chile
Biblioteca Nacional de España, Madrid, Spain
Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal, Lisbon, Portugal
Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale Firenze, Firenze, Italy
Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale Roma, Rome, Italy
Biblioteca Nacional, San Jose, Costa Rica
Biblioteca Pública de Pichilemu, Pichilemu, Chile
Bibliotheca Alexandrina, Egypt
Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris, France
Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal, Paris, France
Bibliothèque universitaire des langues et civilisations, Paris, France
Birmingham Central Library, England
Bizzell Memorial Library, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, United States
Bodleian Library, Oxford, England
Boston Public Library, United States
Botanical Research Institute of Texas Library, Fort Worth, Texas, United States
British Library, London, England
British Library of Political and Economic Science, London, England
Brooklyn Public Library, United States
Broward County Library, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, United States
Bugvia library, Bhera, Pakistan
Burton Barr Central Library, Phoenix, Arizona, United States
C
Cal Poly Pomona University Library at Cal Poly Pomona, United States
Calgary Public Library, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Cambridge University Library, England
Canada Institute for Scientific and Technical Information (CISTI), Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States
Carolina Rediviva at Uppsala University, Sweden
Catholic National Library, Farnborough, Hampshire, England
Center for Jewish History, Manhattan, United States
Cerritos Millennium Library in Cerritos, California, United States
Changhua City Library, Changhua County, Taiwan
Charles V. Park Library at Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, Michigan, United States
Chekhov Library in Taganrog, Russia
Chetham's Library in Manchester, England
Chicago Public Library, Chicago, Illinois, United States
Chincoteague Island Library, Chincoteague Island, Virginia, United States
Chongqing Library, Chongqing, China
Cincinnati Public Library, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States
City of Playford Library Service in Adelaide, Australia
Cleveland Public Library, Cleveland, Ohio, United States
Clinton-Macomb Public Library, Clinton Charter Township, Michigan, United States
College of DuPage Library, Glen Ellyn, Illinois, United States
Cologne Public Library, Cologne, Germany
Columbia Public Library, Columbia, Missouri, United States
Columbus Metropolitan Library, Columbus, Ohio, United States
Connemara Public Library, Chennai, India
Contra Costa County Library, Pleasant Hill, California, United States
Cornish Studies Centre, Redruth, Cornwall, England
Cory Library for Historical Research, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa
Cosy Nook Library, Bangalore, India
County of Los Angeles Public Library, Los Angeles County, California, United States
Cuyahoga County Public Library, Cleveland, Ohio, United States
D
Danish Royal Library in Copenhagen, Denmark
David Lubin Memorial Library, Rome, Italy
Detroit Public Library, Detroit, Michigan
Deutsche Bücherei Leipzig, Leipzig
District of Columbia Public Library
Doe Library, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States
Dr. Mahmud Hussain Library, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan
Dr. Vijay Pal Memorial Library, Delhi, India
Dr Williams's Library, Bloomsbury, London
Drill Hall Library, Chatham, Kent, England
Duchess Anna Amalia Library, Weimar, Germany
Dyal Singh Trust Library, Lahore, Pakistan
E
Edmonton Public Library, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
Elyachar Central Library, Haifa, Israel
Enoch Pratt Free Library, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
EveningHour Library, Hyderabad, India
F
Fairfax County Public Library, Fairfax, Virginia, United States
Family History Library, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States
Film Reference Library, Toronto, Canada
Folger Shakespeare Library, Washington, DC, United States
Francis Skaryna Belarusian Library and Museum, London, United Kingdom
Frank Melville Jr. Memorial Library, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, United States
Free Library of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
G
German Central Library for the Blind, Leipzig, Germany
German National Library, Frankfurt am Main, Leipzig, Berlin, Germany
German National Library of Economics, Kiel and Hamburg
German National Library of Medicine, Cologne and Bonn
German National Library of Science and Technology, Hanover
Ghalib Library, Karachi, Pakistan
Glasgow University Library, Scotland
Göttingen State and University Library, Germany
Grande Bibliothèque du Québec, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Guangzhou Library, Guangzhou, China
Greifswald University Library, Greifswald, Germany
H
Halifax Central Library
Haskell Free Library and Opera House
Hesburgh Library, Notre Dame, Indiana, United States
Hessian State Library, Wiesbaden, Germany
Hershey Public Library, Hershey, Pennsylvania, United States
Hilandar Research Library, Ohio State University, United States
Williams Research Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States
Homer Babbidge Library, University of Connecticut, Storrs, United States
Hong Kong Central Library, Causeway Bay, Hong Kong Island
Houston Public Library, Houston, Texas, United States
Hummelstown Public Library, Hummelstown, Pennsylvania, United States
Huntington Library, San Marino, California, United States
I
Illinois State Library, Springfield, Illinois
Imperial College London Abdus Salam Library, London, England
Imperial Library of Constantinople
International Association of Aquatic and Marine Science Libraries and Information Centers
International Library of African Music, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa
J
Jacksonville Public Library
James V. Brown Library
Jenkins Law Library, Philadelphia
John Crerar Library
John Rylands Library
John Rylands University Library
Jubilee Library, Brighton
K
Kedermister Library
Kenton County Public Library, Kentucky
Kenton County Public Library, Oregon
Khaliq Dina Hall, Karachi, Pakistan
Knight Library, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon
Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Netherlands
L
Leiden University Library, Leiden, Netherlands
Liberei
Library of Alexandria, Ancient Egypt
Library of Birmingham, Birmingham
Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
Library of Parliament, Ottawa
Library of Sir Thomas Browne
Library of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Library of Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
Lied Library, University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Lilly Library, Indiana University Bloomington, Indiana
Linen Hall Library, Belfast
Lithuanian Technical Library, Vilnius
London Library
Los Angeles Central Library
Louisville Free Public Library, Louisville, Kentucky
Louisville Public Library, Louisville, Ohio, USA
Ludwigshafen University Library, Ludwigshafen, Germany
Luís Ángel Arango Library, Bogotá, Colombia
M
Madan Puraskar Pustakalaya, Nepal
Makerere University Library, Uganda
Malcolm A. Love Library (San Diego State University), San Diego, California
Malek National Library, Tehran, Iran
Manchester Central Library, England
Marathon County Public Library (MCPL), Wausau, Wisconsin
Mário de Andrade Library in São Paulo
Mark O. Hatfield Library, at Willamette University
Marsh's Library in Dublin
Martynas Mažvydas National Library of Lithuania, Vilnius
Masood Jhandir Research Library, Mailsi, Pakistan
Maughan Library at King's College London
McGill University Library, Montreal
Merton College Library, at Merton College, Oxford (oldest continually functioning library in the world)
Miami-Dade Public Library System
Michigan State University Libraries
Milli Kütüphane (National Library of Turkey, Ankara)
Minneapolis Public Library, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Mitchell Library, Glasgow
Moncton Public Library, Moncton, New Brunswick
Montgomery County Public Libraries, Rockville, Maryland
Moorland-Spingarn Research Center
Merri-bek City Libraries, City of Merri-bek, Australia
Morton Grove Public Library, Morton Grove, Illinois
Multnomah County Library, Multnomah County, Oregon
Musical Electronics Library, Auckland, New Zealand
N
National Agricultural Library
National Central Library, Florence
National Central Library, Rome
National Diet Library, Tokyo and Kyoto, Japan
National Library of Armenia, Yerevan
National Library of Australia, Canberra
National and University Library of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sarajevo
National Library of Brazil, Rio de Janeiro
National Library of Canada
National Library of China, Beijing, China
National Library of India, Kolkata
National Library of Iran, Tehran
National Library of Ireland, Dublin
National Library of Israel, Jerusalem, Israel
National Library of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur
National Library of Medicine
National Library of New Zealand, Wellington
National Library of Nigeria, Abuja
National Library of Pakistan, Islamabad, Pakistan
National Library of Public Information, Taichung, Taiwan
National Library of Russia in St Petersburg
National Library of Scotland, Edinburgh
National Library of Serbia, Belgrade
National Library of South Africa, Cape Town and Pretoria
National Library of Wales, Aberystwyth
National Library, Singapore
New Orleans Public Library
New York Public Library, New York, New York
Newberry Library, Chicago, Illinois
Nottingham Subscription Library, Nottingham
O
Openbare Bibliotheek Amsterdam, Netherlands
O'Meara Mathematics Library, Notre Dame, Indiana
Orange County Library System, Orlando, Florida
Oregon State Library, Salem, Oregon
Orlando East Public Library, Soweto, South Africa
Ottawa Public Library, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
P
Pack Memorial Library, Asheville, North Carolina
Palm Beach County Library System, West Palm Beach, Florida
Park Ridge Public Library, Park Ridge, Illinois
Parker Library, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge
Peckham Library
Peking University Library, Beijing, China
Pepys Library, Magdalene College, Cambridge
Perpustakaan Tun Sri Lanang, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi
Pikes Peak Library District, Colorado Springs, Colorado
Plainfield Public Library District, Plainfield, Illinois
Powell Library, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
Prince George's County Memorial Library System, Largo, Maryland
Pritzker Military Library, Chicago, Illinois
Public Library (Közkincs Könyvtár), Budapest
Public Library of Charlotte and Mecklenburg County
Punjab Public Library, Lahore
Q
Quaid-e-Azam Library, Lahore
Queens Library, New York, New York
R
Regenstein Library, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
Regina Public Library, Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada
Rhodes University Library, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa
Rock Island Public Library, Rock Island, Illinois
Robarts Library, University of Toronto, Canada
Royal Danish Library
Royal Library of Sweden
Ruskin Library at Lancaster University, UK
Russian State Children's Library, Moscow
Russian State Library, Moscow
S
Sacramento Public Library, Sacramento, California
St. Louis Public Library, St. Louis, Missouri
Salt Lake City Public Library, Salt Lake City, Utah
San Antonio Public Library, San Antonio, Texas
San Diego County Library, San Diego, California
San Diego Public Library, San Diego, California
San Francisco Public Library, San Francisco, California
San José Public Library, San Jose, California
Santa Clara County Library District
Saxon State and University Library Dresden, Dresden, Germany
Scarabelli library, Caltanissetta, Italy
Schlesinger Library
Scientific and Technical Library, National Technical University "Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute", Ukraine
Seattle Central Library, Seattle Washington
Shanghai Library, Shanghai, China
Sichuan Library, Chengdu, China
Smyrna Public Library, Smyrna, Georgia
South San Francisco Public Library
Southfield Public Library, Southfield, Michigan
SS. Cyril and Methodius National Library, Sofia, Bulgaria
State Central Library, Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India
State Library of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
State Library of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
State Library of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia
State Library of Württemberg, Stuttgart, Germany
Stockholm Public Library, Stockholm, Sweden
Stretford Library, Trafford
Sun Yat-sen Library of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, China
T
Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS) SDTM Library, Mumbai, India
Texas A&M University Libraries, College Station, Texas
Thomas S. Power Library, Offutt AFB, Nebraska
Topeka & Shawnee County Public Library, Topeka, Kansas
Toronto Public Library, Toronto
Toronto Reference Library, Toronto
Troy Public Library, Troy, New York
Twinsburg Public Library
Tribhuvan University Central Library, Kathmandu, Nepal
U
U. Grant Miller Library, Washington & Jefferson College
University of Central Florida Libraries, Orlando, Florida
University of Coimbra General Library, Coimbra, Portugal
University of Florida Library System
University of Applied Sciences Augsburg Library
University of Houston Libraries
University of Queensland Library, Brisbane, Australia
University of South Florida Tampa Library, Tampa, Florida
University of Sydney Library, Sydney, Australia
University of Zambia Library
V
Valley Library, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon
Vancouver Public Library, Vancouver
Vancouver Tool Library and Community Access Center (VTLCAC), Tool Library, Vancouver, Washington
Vatican Library in Vatican City
Vilnius University Library
W
W.E.B. Du Bois Library, University of Massachusetts Amherst
Wiener Library for the Study of the Nazi Era and the Holocaust, Tel Aviv, Israel
Wellcome Library, London
West German Audio Book Library for the Blind, Münster, Germany
William F. Ekstrom Library, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky
William T. Young Library, University of Kentucky
Windhoek Public Library in Windhoek, Namibia
Winnipeg Public Library, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
Wren Library, Trinity College, Cambridge
Y
Yale University Library, Yale University
YeungNam University Library, South Korea
Yiu Tung Public Library, Shau Kei Wan, Hong Kong Island, Hong Kong
Younes and Soraya Nazarian Library, Haifa, Israel
Z
Zillur Rahman Library, Aligarh, India
See also
Esperanto libraries
List of destroyed libraries
List of largest libraries
List of libraries in the ancient world
List of national libraries
List of libraries by country
List of archives
List of librarians
References
External links
American Library Association's list of largest US libraries, ala.org
libraries.org: a directory of about 200,000 worldwide libraries maintained by Marshall Breeding, librarytechnology.org
Libraries of the world and their catalogues, compiled by a retired librarian, sylviamilne.co.uk
National libraries of Europe, theeuropeanlibrary.org
LIBweb - directory of library servers in 146 countries via WWW
UNESCO libraries portal - over 14000 links worldwide, unesco.org
Libraries
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395130
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20in%20Slovakia
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Education in Slovakia
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Education in Slovakia consists of a free education system based on 10 years of compulsory school attendance.
General characteristics
Most schools, especially universities, are owned by the state, though since the 1990s there are also church-owned and private schools (see Statistics section).
Slovakia has 10 years of compulsory education.
Students go to school five days a week, from Monday until Friday. Saturdays as school days were cancelled before the 1980s. Summer break is from the 1st of July until the 2nd of September (at universities also in June). Other breaks occur a week around Christmas and Easter, in spring, and on official holidays.
A school year consists of two semesters. The first one ends at the end of January in all schools, the second one before the beginning of the summer holidays (see above). Primary and secondary school students usually have around 6 classes a day (less at the beginning of the education, more later). Classes last for 45 minutes, and there (several short ones and one longer one – the so-called "big break" (or by the students often just "big one")). The state financed education and all textbooks and instructional material below the university level are free (returned at the end of the semester) – in most cases at least. However, there are also private schools which are paid.
Students at standard schools receive marks in almost all subjects. The marks go from 1 (best) to 5 (worst), and may include unofficial intermediary marks (such as to assess a single project, test, etc. but never on student's final reports). Compared to western European countries, there is an intrinsic "tradition" of teachers granting students rather more marks at the "good" end of the scale, i.e. more 1s, 2s and 3s than they would receive in western Europe, for example. Students below the university level receive school reports (lists of final marks) at the end of each semester.
History
See: Education in Czechoslovakia and List of colleges and universities in Slovakia
System
Primary education
Primary schools are usually preceded by kindergartens where children can spend up to 4 years, which in turn can be preceded by day nurseries.
Generally, children start primary school in the year in which they reach 6 years of age. Standard primary schools last 9 years (8 before approx. the mid-1990s), however since the early 1990s students can visit an "8-year" gymnasium, where they can start attending after just 5 years (4 prior to the school year of 2009/2010) of primary school.
The primary education system is formally divided in two "stages". The second stage is characterized by many changes in the subjects treated as compared to the first stage:
first primary education stage- age 6 to 10, works as platform for next studies
second primary education stage- age 10 to 15, this "stage" can be spent either in a 9-year primary school or in an 8-year gymnasium.
Many primary schools have been closed down since about 2000 due to unfavourable demographic development.
Subjects at the second primary education stage (many of them are taught even earlier however) include:
Slovak language and literature (includes Slovak and world literature and Slovak grammar; Slovak is to be replaced with Hungarian or Ukrainian in minority schools; usually one class every day),
foreign language(s) (usually two,English and students can choose between German, French, Russian or Spanish, depending on the school, not every school has all 4. Before 1990 Russian was compulsory with 4 classes a week) Usually 3-5 classes per week of the main language (usually English) and 2 classes per week of the other language,
mathematics (incl. geometry; one class every day),
geography (political and physical alike, usually 2 classes a week),
biology (incl. botany, animal biology, human biology, geology and environmental studies; usually 2 classes a week),
chemistry (usually 2 classes a week),
physics (usually 2 classes a week),
history (usually 2 classes a week),
religion or ethics (students may choose between one or the other, usually 1 class a week),
physical education (usually 2 classes a week),
musical education (usually 1 class a week; sometimes skipped altogether due to lack of equipment, funds, teachers),
artistic education (usually 1 class a week, sometimes skipped altogether due to lack of equipment, funds, teachers),
technical education (usually 1 class a week, sometimes skipped altogether due to lack of equipment, funds, teachers)
There are also many facultative "primary art schools" — afternoon schools for particular music instruments, theatre, painting, etc. These have had a long tradition in Slovakia and are attended by a large portion of pupils.
Secondary education
Before entering any school of secondary education (including 8-year gymnasium) for which there are more applicants than places offered, the applicants have to pass entrance examinations.
Secondary schools usually last for 4 years (from the age of 16 to the age of 19). A gymnasium can also last up to 8 years (up to the age of 18) depending on how many years the student spent in primary school.
There are four types of secondary schools:
general education (non-vocational):
gymnázium (i.e. gymnasium, also translated as grammar school or high school) – 4, 5 (for bilingual gymnasiums) 8 years, i.e. age 16 to 19 or age 10 to 18; prepares students for higher education; teaches at least 2 foreign languages
various vocational schools (visited by students interested in arts, crafts or any special skills):
stredná odborná škola(secondary professional school) – usually age 16 to 19; usually also prepares for higher education
stredné odborné učilište (secondary vocational school) – usually age 16 to 19; training center
združená stredná škola ('grouped' secondary school) – usually age 16 to 19; rare
The gymnasia (high schools) are usually considered "prestigious" schools, because they explicitly prepare for higher education and because they are often highly selective - only the brightest students from elementary schools may be accepted. In fact, most students who attend them later continue their education at a school of higher education in Slovakia or abroad. The high schools that are the most competitive are usually located either in Bratislava (Gamča, Gymnázium Metodova, Gymnázium Jura Hronca (GJH), ŠPMNDAG A school for the exceptionally talented children), in Košice (Gymnázium Poštová etc.), and a boarding gymnasium in the city of Sučany Bilingválne Gymnázium Milana Hodžu often abbreviated to GBAS - meaning Gymnasium Bilingual English-Slovak. Of the latter GBAS is considered the most prestigious in the central region, Poštová in the eastern region, and GJH as well as GAMČA in the western region where the capital, Bratislava, is located. These schools annually accept only a very low percentage of applicants often below 15% or 10%, and tend to accept a large proportion of commuting or boarding students subject to tradition. Despite providing general education, many gymnasia have specialized classes . Some of them specialize in languages or are even "bilingual" Slovak-German/English/French etc. (e.g. Gymnázium Milana Hodžu, Gymnázium Metodova, Gymnázium Jura Hronca), others are specialized in mathematics or computer programming, for example Gamča and Gymnázium Jura Hronca. Gamča is notable for being founded in 1626 which is exactly 113 years after the gymnasium in Levoča was founded in 1513. On the other hand, GBAS is noted for being established only in 1993 through a close cooperation of the Slovak Ministry of Education with the British Council of Slovakia holding the name of a respected Slovak statesman Milan Hodža. The 1st Slovak debate club was established at GBAS, and noted educationalists argue GJH and GBAS started a wave of sending the most talented students to the most selective of English. French and American high schools (such as Eton group, ESAO, UWC ...) as well as universities (including Harvard University, Oxford University, Cambridge University. Imperial College London, LSE. Science Po Paris campus, Princeton University, Bocconi University in Milan and others).
After finishing secondary school students usually take a school-leaving exam (matura in German, "maturita" in Slovak), which is a basic prerequisite for visiting a school of higher education (college), especially a university. Before 1990 this included obligatory exams in mathematics (written nationwide standardized + oral), Slovak incl. literature (written nationwide standardized + oral) and Russian and in one subject of the students's choice. After 1990, the system was changed, so that every school prepared its own tests and questions – at gymnasia in the subjects: Slovak incl. literature (written and oral), a foreign language (written and oral), two subjects of the student's choice (oral). The obvious problem of this system was low or missing comparability of the results. The maturita system was modified in 2005 again. The new system is supposed to replace the current entrance examinations to schools of higher education (colleges) in the future. The main changes are: one additional exam subject (for gymnasia), nationwide unified written tests for languages and mathematics (other subjects are supposed to follow in the future), a high degree of standardization of other exams, as well as the possibility for the student to choose whether they want to pass an A-level exam (the simplest one), a B-level exam or a C-level exam (the most difficult one, only for languages). At gymnasia, the exam subjects include: Slovak incl. literature (written and oral), a foreign language (written and oral), a natural science subject, and two other subjects of the student's choice [Details in Slovak: ]
Higher education
The Slovak term "vysoká škola" ("school of higher education", literally "high school", compare the German name Hochschule), which for lack of other expressions is also translated into English as "college", can refer to all schools of higher (i.e. tertiary) education, or in a narrower sense only to those schools of higher education that are not universities.
The first university on the territory of Slovakia was the Universitas Istropolitana (=Academia Istropolitana) founded in 1465. The main and largest current university in Slovakia is the Comenius University. For other current universities and colleges see List of colleges and universities in Slovakia.
The 2002 Act on Schools of Higher Education dinstinguishes public, state, and private schools of higher education (colleges):
Public schools of higher education are the basic case. They are established by law. The vast majority of schools of higher education is of this type. They are financed by the government and possible business activities.
State institutions of higher education are all military, police and medical schools. They are established through the corresponding ministries of the government. They are financed by the government and possible business activities.
Private institutions of higher education are established and financed by non-government institutions, but approved by the Ministry of Education. This type of school is still quite rare.
Studies at the state and public universities is available free of charge for residents of Slovakia (?)and of the EU. School fees are being planned, however. Other students have to pay from US$2,500 to US$6,500 for one academic year.
Before entering any school of higher education for which there are more applicants than places offered, the applicants have to pass entrance examinations. These examinations take very different forms at particular schools. The "maturita" results of the applicant are usually also taken into account when evaluating whether he can become student of the school. Since the number of branches of study and of schools of higher education increased considerably in the course of the late 18th century (although at the cost of quality of the studies), the general percentage of those not being accepted to these schools decreased considerably over the same time period. Also, an increasing number of Slovaks studies abroad, especially in the Czech Republic due to a low language barrier, a slightly better economic situation (and job perspectives) in that country, as well as similarities of the two educational systems. As a result, the percentage of Slovaks with higher education has increased considerably over the last decade.
The studies are organized within the following study programmes and "stages" (also translated as levels). Each school must provide at least Stage 1:
Stage 1: Bachelor study programme; 3–4 years; title: "Bachelor" (bakalár, abbr. "Bc.")
Stage 2, or Stage 1 + Stage 2 (Stage 2 lasts 1–3 years):
Master's study programme; title: "Master" (magister, abbr. "Mgr.") [in art studies: Master of Arts (magister umenia, abbr. "Mgr. art.")];
Engineer study programme; title: "Engineer" (inžinier, abbr. "Ing.") [in architecture "Engineer of Architecture" (inžinier architekt, abbr. "Ing. arch.")]
Doctor study programme ; titles:
a) in human medicine: "Doctor of Medicine" (doktor medicíny, abbr. "MUDr.")
b) in veterinary medicine: "Doctor of Veterinary Medicine" (doktor veterinárnej medicíny, abbr. "MVDr.")
c) in dental medicine: "Doctor of Denatal Medicine" (doktor zubného lekárstva, abbr. "MDDr."), studying since 2010
Stage 2/3:
Doctor after writing a rigorous thesis and passing a viva voce and rigorous exam are:
a) in natural science "Doctor of Natural Sciences" (doktor prírodných vied, abbr. "RNDr."),
b) in pharmacy "Doctor of Pharmacy" (doktor farmácie, abbr. "PharmDr."),
c) in social sciences and art sciences "Doctor of Philosophy" (doktor filozofie, abbr. "PhDr."),
d) in law studies "Doctor of Laws" (doktor práv, abbr. "JUDr."),
e) in teaching and PE studies "Doctor of Pedagogy" (doktor pedagogiky, abbr. "PaedDr."),
f) in theology (except for Catholic theology) "Doctor of Theology" (doktor teológie, abbr. "ThDr.").
Stage 3:
Doctor and study programme; 3–4 years; titles (placed behind the name):
a) basic title "Philosophiae Doctor" (doktor, abbr. "PhD.")
b) in art studies "Doctor Artis" (doktor umenia, abbr. "ArtD.")
c) in Catholic theology "Licentiate of Theology" (licenciát teológie, abbr."ThLic.") or "Doctor of Theology" (doktor teológie, abbr. "ThDr.")
specialisation studies in medicine
The Act on Schools of Higher Education 2002 dinstinguishes:
university-type schools of higher education: They provide study programmes at all three stages and with a considerable proportion of the 2nd and 3rd stage. Only these schools are allowed to use the word "university" in their name.
non-university-type schools of higher education = professional schools of higher education: These are the remaining schools (providing predominantly the first stage only)
The academic year begins on 1 September of the current year and ends on 31 August of the next year (in reality, however it ends in May/June). The studies in one academic year may be divided into two semesters or rarely in three trimesters. The teaching process includes various forms of instruction such as lectures, seminars, exercises, laboratory work, projects, practical training, consultations, etc. The credit system following the rules of the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) has been introduced in 1998 for the organisation of all levels and forms of higher education study. The student's standard load is expressed by the number of sixty credits per academic year and thirty credits per semester. The school of higher education determines the total number of credits required for due completion of the study in its respective stages.
Students who live further away from their university may apply for a dorm, however private housing is increasingly popular among students despite its higher cost. Dormitories and schools provide a canteen with very low prices for students. All study materials must be obtained by students. Students receive a wide range of discounts and the state pays their health insurance and for social security payments. Students of both public and private universities can enjoy the listed benefits if they are younger than 26 year old and are student of a daily program. The current setup of universities in Slovakia makes it possible for even the poorest to attend if they can afford the first fees for application, the first payment for a dormitory, and the first purchase of study materials.
Universities offer external study program as an alternative to the daily program. The external study is longer by 1 year for both Bachelor's and Master's courses and students of external study aren't eligible for state benefits. The major difference between external study and a daily study program is the number of courses and the scheduling modified to favor employed people. The final exams for both daily and external program students are the same.
Among the most desired by employers are STEM degrees with primacy held by degrees in IT, preferably from Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava and engineering degrees. Other desirable degrees for employees are from economics, mostly from University of Economics in Bratislava.
Statistics
Schools and students (school year 2004/2005)
Unless stated otherwise, the numbers give daily studies (i.e. non-external studies). The first number gives the number of schools, the number in brackets the number of students.
A) Kindergartens and primary education (excl. special schools)
Kindergartens (materské školy) : 3000 (147317) state, 16 (598) private, 30 (1317) church
Primary schools (základné školy): 2217 (530 770) state, 16 (1159) private, 109 (25392) church
Primary art schools (základné umelecké školy): 180 (92146), 34 (7934) private, 7 (2239) church
B) Secondary education (excl. special schools)
''Note: Strictly speaking, this section also includes professional schools and vocational schools that are post-secondary education."
Gymnasia/grammar schools/high schools (gymnáziá): 161 (84984) state, 22 (3362) private, 51 (14392) church, - (1634) external st. at these schools; out of which:
8-years gymnasium: - (32902) state, - (7531) private , - (1731) church,
4-years gymnasium: - (48285) state, - (6693) private, - (1594) church , - (1634) external
5-years gymnasium (usually bilingual):- (424) state, - (168) private, - (37) church
6-years gymnasium: - (373) state
Secondary professional schools + professional schools (stredné odborné školy + odborné školy):
"public": 191 (74258) state, 35 (3974) private, 6 (1223) church, - (1178) external st. at these schools, 4 (2778) external schools; comprise:
in terms of school type: 81 industrial, 98 economic, 20 agricultural, 3 forestry, 1 librarian, 11 pedagogical, 10 conservatories, and 12 girls' professional schools; out of which:
in terms of the type of studies:
8-years schools: rare, conservatories only
"superstructure" studies (nadstavbové štúdium): rare, 1–3 years, agricultural and pedagogical
4-years school with a maturita: the rule
5-years school with a maturita: rare
"higher" studies (vyššie štúdium): 3 years /conservatories 6 years
"post-maturita" studies (pomaturitné štúdium): 1–3 years
1-3-years school without a maturita: rare, one pedagogical school only
professional schools of the Ministry of Health: 22 (6637) state, 8 (1441) church, - (2693) external st. at these schools
professional schools of other ministries: 3 (1014) state, 1 (715) external school
"Grouped" secondary schools (združené stredné školy): 105 (62772) state, 3 (1310) private, 1 (656) church, - (1248) external st. at these schools; comprise:
"superstructure" studies (nadstavbové štúdium): 2 years
4-years school with a maturita
5-years school with a maturita
"higher" studies (vyššie štúdium): 3 years
"post-maturita" studies (pomaturitné štúdium): 1–3 years
1-3-years school without a maturita
specially adapted curricula (zvlášť upravené učebné plány, ZUUP): 1–3 years
gradual preparation (stupňovitá príprava): 1–3 years
Secondary vocational schools + vocational schools (stredné odborné učilištia + učilištia):202 (63886), 26 (8433), 5 (1206), - (3848) external st. at these schools; comprise:
"superstructure" studies (nadstavbové štúdium): 2 years
4-years school with a maturita
5-years school with a maturita
2-3-years school without a maturita
specially adapted curricula (zvlášť upravené učebné plány, ZUUP): 56-98 decades
gradual preparation (stupňovitá príprava): 1–3 years
C) Special schools (špeciálne školy)
(incl. special kindergartens, primary schools, gymnasia etc.): 418 (32210) state, 5 (82) church, 12 (490) private
D) Schools of higher/tertiary education (vysoké školy)
"public" and "private" schools of tertiary education: 20 (106194) state, 4 (828) private, - (53018) external st. at these schools
"state" schools of tertiary education: 3 (1280) schools of the ministries (Health, Police, Defence), - (1755) external st. at these schools
Other statistics
Graduates (tertiary education: calendar year 2004, otherwise: school year 2003/2004):
secondary education: 75988 non-external st., 3390 external st.
tertiary education: 19742 non-external st., 10166 external st.
Teachers 2004/2005:
kindergartens, primary and secondary education: 81403 internal, 6873 external
tertiary education: 10604 internal, 1965 external
Average monthly teachers' pay in 2004:
primary and secondary education: ca. 14750 SKK (ca. 380 EUR) [the number roughly equaled the general average pay in the Slovak economy at that time]
tertiary education (excl. private schools): ca. 23500 SKK (ca. 600 EUR)
Number of schools:
primary (excl. special):
1989:2302
1999:2471
2004:2342
secondary (excl. special):
1989:620
1999:949
2004:841
tertiary:
until 1991:13
1992-1996:14
1997-1999:18
2000-2002:23
2003:25
2004:27
Number of graduates from tertiary schools (including postgradual "doctor" degree):
1989: 10415
1993: 11090
1997: 15048
2001: 24120
2002: 25630
2003: 28272
2004: 30762
Language of all schools as of 2004 (incl. kindergartens):
Slovak: 5840 (including 19 "bilingual"[e.g. Slovak-English/Spanish/German etc.] gymnasia)
Hungarian:585 + 1 university
Slovak and Hungarian:194
Ukrainian: 34
Slovak and Ukrainian:
Other: 5
References
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395136
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State%20defense%20force
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State defense force
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In the United States, state defense forces (SDFs) are military units that operate under the sole authority of a state government. State defense forces are authorized by state and federal law and are under the command of the governor of each state , , .
State defense forces are distinct from their state's National Guard in that they cannot become federal entities. All state National Guard personnel (to include the National Guard of the District of Columbia, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and the territories of Guam and the Virgin Islands) can be federalized under the National Defense Act Amendments of 1933 with the creation of the National Guard of the United States. This provides the basis for integrating units and personnel of the Army National Guard into the U.S. Army and, since 1947, units and personnel of the Air National Guard into the U.S. Air Force.
The federal government recognizes state defense forces, as per the Compact Clause of the U.S. Constitution, under which provides that state defense forces as a whole may not be called, ordered, or drafted into the armed forces of the United States, thus preserving their separation from the National Guard. However, under the same law, individual members serving in the state defense force are not exempt from service in the armed forces (i.e., they are not excluded from the draft). Under 32 USC § 109(e), "A person may not become a member of a defense force ... if he is a member of a reserve component of the armed forces."
Nearly every state has laws authorizing state defense forces, and twenty-two states, plus the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, have active forces with different levels of activity, support, and strength. State defense forces generally operate with emergency management and homeland security missions. Most SDFs are organized as ground units, but air and naval units also exist. Depending on the state, they may be variously named as state military, state military force, state guard, state militia, or state military reserve.
History
Origins
From its founding until the early 1900s, the United States maintained only a minimal army and relied on state militias to supply the majority of its troops, with the training and readiness of the latter varying widely. As a result of the Spanish–American War and the performance of the militias and other volunteer units during that conflict, Congress was called upon to reform and regulate the training and qualification of state militias. In 1903, with passage of the Militia Act of 1903, the predecessor to the modern-day National Guard was formed. It required the states to divide their militias into two sections. The law recommended the title "National Guard" for the first section, for federal administration, and "Reserve Militia" for the individual states.
World War I
During World War I, Congress authorized the states to maintain Home Guards, which were reserve forces outside the National Guard forces that were then being deployed by the Federal Government as part of the National Army. The Secretary of War was authorized to furnish these Home Guard units with rifles, ammunition, and supplies.
Interwar years
In 1933, Congress finalized the split between the National Guard and the traditional state militias by mandating that all federally funded soldiers take a dual enlistment/commission and thus enter both the state National Guard and the newly created National Guard of the United States, a federal reserve force.
World War II
In 1940, with the onset of World War II and as a result of its federalizing the National Guard, Congress amended the National Defense Act of 1916, and authorized the states to maintain "military forces other than National Guard."
Cold War
In 1950, with the outbreak of the Korean War and at the urging of the National Guard, Congress reauthorized the separate state military forces for a time period of two years. These state military forces were authorized military training at federal expense, as well as "arms, ammunition, clothing, and equipment," as deemed necessary by the Secretary of the Army. At the end of the two years, however, they were not reauthorized under federal law.
In 1956, Congress finally revised the law and authorized "state defense forces" permanently under Title 32, Section 109, of the United States Code. Two years later, Congress amended the law and changed the name from "State defense forces" to "defense forces." Still, it was not until the early Ronald Reagan administration that many states developed their defense forces into elements that existed beyond paper, when the U.S. Department of Defense actively encouraged states to create and maintain SDF units.
By the late 1980s, however, a series of high-profile reports caused several states to shut down or significantly restructure their forces. In 1987, the governor of Utah removed all but 31 officers from the Utah State Guard, after a probe revealed that its ranks were "peppered with neo-Nazis, felons and mental patients." Meanwhile, in 1990, the Virginia General Assembly launched an investigation and subsequent overhaul of its state's force after receiving tips that the volunteers were "saving money to buy a tank."
Contemporary
With the end of the Cold War came a general decrease of interest in state defense forces. The September 11 attacks, however, generated additional attention and, with it, greater scrutiny from some in the United States military who questioned the training and equipment of the units and whether they provided an outlet for "warrior wannabes" who would not otherwise qualify for service in the armed forces.
In 2008, Alaska disarmed its state defense force after an investigation concluded the lack of training intensity or standardization was a potential legal liability to the state. By 2010 the status of the force had been downgraded even further, with the Adjutant-General of the Alaska National Guard informing volunteers that they would only be called upon as a "reserve of last resort to be used only in the most extreme emergencies." The ASDF remained deliberately hamstrung for several years, until Governor Bill Walker overruled the Adjutant-General in 2016 when he announced his intention to reform the Alaska State Defense Force by expanding it further into rural Alaska and improving training standards.
Further controversy was stoked by a New York Times report which found many senior officers in the New York Guard had little or no formal military training despite holding, in some cases, general officer ranks. The former commander of the force, Pierre David Lax, noted that, "if you are friendly with the governor and you always wanted to be a general, you ask the governor to make you a general, and poof, you are a brigadier general." Another former commander asserted he regularly awarded titles to members of the New York legislature in exchange for their support of budgetary allocations to the force. The report also noted that a majority of the unit's rare deployments involved providing ceremonial support, such as bands and color guards, to the state government.
An April 2014 Department of Defense report by the Inspector General's office reported confusion and inconsistency among state adjutant generals as to the use and status of state defense forces. The Inspector General's office reported an under-utilization of state defense force capabilities due to a lack of clarity in the US Code regarding the use of SDFs, fueling fear that using funds and assets acquired through the federal government for state defense forces could run afoul of regulations. (While the National Guard is operated by the states, most of their equipment and funding comes from the federal government.) This fear of violating regulations also inhibited their use and integration with their National Guard counterparts, preventing them from conducting joint operations alongside one another, and also from volunteering in support of federal missions. Other problems cited by the Inspector General's office were a lack of standardization in training and physical fitness, raising questions as to the ability of SDFs to work alongside their National Guard counterparts, and a lack of coordination with and support from the Department of Defense. During a survey conducted by the Inspector General of SDF commanders and adjutant generals, 18 of 19 considered their SDFs to be part of the organized militia and subject to the Code of Military Justice, 14 of 18 considered the members of SDFs to be "soldiers", 14 of 18 considered SDF personnel to be "lawful belligerents" under the rules of war, and only 4 of 19 authorized their personnel to conduct firearms training. Almost all of the missions reported to the IG's office were non-military in nature, including small-scale search and rescue, disaster management, and other unarmed, homeland security related-tasks.
Due to public fears over the Jade Helm 15 exercises held throughout a number of southwestern states, on 28 April 2015, Gov. Greg Abbott of Texas ordered a call-up of the Texas State Guard to monitor the exercises and facilitate communication between US special operations forces conducting training and the governor's office.
In early 2020, a number of state defense forces were activated to combat the COVID-19 pandemic. As of April 2020, the Alaska State Defense Force, the California State Guard, the Governor's Guards of Connecticut, the Georgia State Defense Force, the Indiana Guard Reserve, the Maryland Defense Force, the New York Guard, the Ohio Military Reserve, the South Carolina State Guard, the Tennessee State Guard, the Texas State Guard, and the Virginia Defense Force had all contributed members to their respective states' efforts in combating the pandemic.
Future
A 2003 article in the United States Army War College's Parameters journal recommended that "United States Northern Command (NORTHCOM) should ensure that future contingency planning efforts for homeland security operations fully incorporate the valuable capabilities that State Defense Forces can provide." In the decade following that article, however, no significant action has been taken on the recommendation.
Several bills have been unsuccessfully introduced in Congress since the early 1990s seeking to improve the readiness of state defense forces. The most recent, H.R. 206, introduced in 2009 by Rep. Joe Wilson of South Carolina, would have allowed the U.S. Secretary of Defense to transfer surplus U.S. military equipment to state defense forces. Co-sponsors of the bill included Jim Marshall and Frank Wolf. Congress took no action on the measure before adjourning.
In recent years, state defense forces have focused on retooling their capabilities to be better prepared for future missions by improving their professionalism and interoperability with other agencies. The development of professional commands to support the National Guard, especially medical commands to buttress civil authorities during a civil crisis, has become an emerging trend.
Several state defense forces have begun to shift their focus to preparing for larger emergencies which may require multiple states to coordinate relief efforts. In July 2015, the Virginia Defense Force headed a multi-state communications exercise, the first ever of its kind, where the VDF practiced long-distance radio communications with the Tennessee State Guard, Indiana Guard Reserve, Texas State Guard, and the California State Military Reserve. Further efforts at standardizing training between state defense forces by setting competency requirements have been undertaken by the State Guard Association, which followed its Military Emergency Management Specialist training program with a JAG Academy an Engineer Specialty Qualification Badge, and plans for a Medical Academy in the future.
Individual states have made efforts to increase their capabilities to be prepared to take on future missions. In March 2017, the California State Military Reserve activated its Maritime Component to lead and assist in future homeland security missions while working in conjunction with other agencies, including the Coast Guard Auxiliary, the California Department of Fish and Wildlife, CalTrans, and other civilian departments. As of May 2017, the Maryland Defense Force has significantly reorganized; the number of available officer billets has been shrunk, and the job descriptions reorganized, in order to avoid having a top-heavy organizational structure. New units, including the Maryland Emergency Management Agency (MEMA) Support Unit, have been approved, and others, such as the MDDF Cyber Unit, have planned expansions. Training standards were also heightened, with the MDDF requiring that drill participation, age, height, and weight requirements be more strictly enforced. Further, all new soldiers are currently required to earn their Military Emergency Management Specialist Badge. These changes were made with the goal that the future MDDF would be able to "seamlessly integrate into missions with the National Guard."
List of state defense forces
There are currently 20 active state defense forces. The Puerto Rico State Guard includes an air support component, the 1st Air Base Group, that support the operations of the Puerto Rico Air National Guard.
* Colorado does not operate an active state defense force, but rather has a statutory state defense force staffed by one individual appointed by the governor.
Structure
Personnel and training
Some state defense forces advertise recruitment and physical standards lower than the U.S. military with relaxed waiver standards. While other state defense forces, and specific units, advertise professional military and physical fitness standards to retain integration with National Guard counterparts and more physically demanding state and interagency missions.
California, for instance, requires no physical fitness test prior to entry and has weight/height standards significantly more relaxed than the federal service for certain units, but require passing an arduous physical fitness test, pack hikes, and comprehensive tryouts for certain jobs like firefighters, search and rescue, and certain maritime search and rescue/dive personnel within the Cal Guard's Emergency Response Command and Maritime Service. California State Guard wildland firefighters, for example, must complete the National Wildfire Coordinating Group Red Card standards, then complete a rigorous Cal Fire interagency training program alongside their National Guard counterparts. In the Texas State Guard, there are minimal requirements for general accession, but joining specialized teams like the Dive, Rescue, and Recovery (DR&R) Team requires comprehensive physical fitness testing and completion of the Texas Dive School.
Officer Candidate Schools are also maintained by the active State Defense Forces of the United States by direction of their respective state military departments and by the state's National Guard Adjutant General. Similar to their state's National Guard counterparts who take a dual federal and state military commission, military officers who are commissioned through a SDF Officer Candidate School take a sole military commission to the state that they support, recognized by their state's military code and . In states with full integration of state military resources (SDF and National Guard counterparts) the curriculum is often similar, with the National Guard curriculum taking on additional requirements to meet federal recognition (referred to as FEDREC). For example, California maintains both Officer Candidate Schools at Camp San Luis Obispo, with the State Guard OCS being 11–12 months and the National Guard OCS being 16–18 months, both celebrate a joint graduation.
The Military Emergency Management Specialist Badge, created by the State Guard Association of the United States, has become a common training focal point among state defense forces. Alabama, California, Indiana, Ohio and others have adopted the MEMS Badge as a basic qualification required of all members desiring promotion. Training is conducted both online, and through MEMS academies in each state, and includes course material provided by FEMA and other agencies, as well as practical experience in local disaster planning and exercise management.
Community Emergency Response Teams (CERTs) are being organized by several SDFs by utilizing training offered by the Federal Emergency Management Agency's Citizen Corps. Some states follow the lead of the Army and offer a permanent tab (worn in a similar manner as the Army's Ranger and Sapper tabs) as an incentive to become certified as part of the local or unit CERT team.
State defense forces may incorporate Medical Reserve Corps units into their organizational structure. The 47th Medical Company (MRC), of the New Mexico State Defense Force, the 10th Medical Regiment of the Maryland Defense Force, and the Medical Brigade of the Texas State Guard receive training and recognition from the Medical Reserve Corps program sponsored by the Office of the Surgeon General of the United States through the Citizen Corps program, and are simultaneously organized as units of their respective state defense force.
Weapons qualification and training is provided in some SDFs. However, most SDFs do not require weapons proficiency. A 2006 report by the U.S. Freedom Foundation, an organization affiliated with the State Guard Association of the United States, recommended minimum standards for state defense forces, including weapons training, but the report has been largely ignored. Some SDFs have laws that in the event of deployment by order of the state legislature and/or governor, they will become armed.
Uniforms
As a general rule, state defense forces wear standard U.S. military uniforms with insignia closely matching those of their federal counterparts. SDF units generally wear red name tags on service uniforms (as specifically prescribed by AR 670-1 for SDF units when adopting the Army Service Uniform or Battle Dress Uniform (BDU), and name tapes on Army Combat Uniform (ACU) or BDU uniforms use the state defense force name or state name rather than "U.S. Army." Standard U.S. Army branch insignia are often used or a unique "state guard" branch insignia consisting of a crossed musket and sword is alternatively used.
Where berets are worn, some state defense forces use a beret flash similar to the one the U.S. Army uses, but in bright red thread instead of the Army's blue. Other states have beret flashes that are often based on their state flag.
Uniforms vary from state to state and tend to have only subtle differences. For example, the Texas State Guard wears standard U.S. Army camouflage uniforms, a state guard unit patch, and the "U.S. Army" name tape replaced with one reading "Texas State Guard." Similarly, the California State Military Reserve wears a uniform identical to their National Guard counterparts except for the unit patch, beret flash, and the "California" name tape. Outer garments such as a Gore-Tex jacket have a subdued "CA" beneath the rank insignia. A similar pattern can be found in the New York Guard. The Georgia State Defense Force often works in tandem with and support of federal troops. The Georgia State Defense Force wears the OCP pattern of the ACU with a unique Georgia SDF red flash on the U.S. Army's black beret and "Georgia" in place of the "U.S. Army" uniform name tape. The Tennessee State Guard and Alabama State Defense Force can wear either BDU's or the "tactical response uniform" (TRU) in the Woodland pattern but whose cut and accouterments match the ACU but cannot mix pieces. The Alabama State Defense Force has also recently introduced a new "Standard Service Uniform" composed of a blue "tactical" shirt, and khaki "tactical" pants.
The few states with both SDF air and naval units wear modified USAF and USN/USMC uniforms. Currently, only Ohio, Alaska and New York have uniformed naval militias. Only California, Vermont, and Puerto Rico have an air wing, though Indiana formerly had an Air Guard Reserve. In all cases, the state adjutant general has final say on uniforms worn by state defense forces, though federal service regulations generally shape the policies of each state.
State defense force utility uniforms
Special units
SDFs include a variety of special units including medical, aviation, and ceremonial units. The following are examples:
Cyber Security Command, Maryland Defense Force
Cavalry Troop A, Maryland Defense Force
121st Engineer Regiment, Maryland Defense Force
10th Medical Regiment, Maryland Defense Force
61st Medical Company, Tennessee State Guard
Finance Corps, Maryland Defense Force
Judge Advocate Corps, Maryland Defense Force
Maryland Defense Force Band
Governor's Foot Guard, Governor's Horse Guard & Band, Connecticut State Militia
1st Medical Company, Georgia State Defense Force
1st Platoon – DECON/CBRN-e
Quick Reaction Teams (QRT) (now disbanded) – Small units attached to a number of Texas State Guard Civil Affairs (CA) regiments. QRT undergo specialized training and qualify with approved NATO 9mm sidearm. QRT compete in the Governor's Twenty competition with the Texas Army National Guard and Texas Air National Guard.
Small Arms Training Team – Small arms and crew served weapons team of the California State Military Reserve
Search and Rescue Company, Puerto Rico State Guard
The 1st Air Base Group, Puerto Rico Air State Guard
The Georgia State Defense Force OPFOR unit
RAIDER School, South Carolina State Guard
143rd CSMR Support Battalion, State MP Unit, California State Military Reserve.
Federal activation
The U.S. Constitution, coupled with several statutes and cases, details the relationship of state defense forces to the federal government. Outside of 32 U.S.C. 109, the U.S. Supreme Court noted: "It is true that the state defense forces 'may not be called, ordered, or drafted into the armed forces.' 32 U.S.C. 109(c). It is nonetheless possible that they are subject to call under 10 U.S.C. 331–333, which distinguish the 'militia' from the 'armed forces,' and which appear to subject all portions of the 'militia' – organized or not – to call if needed for the purposes specified in the Militia Clauses" (Perpich v. Department of Defense, 496 U.S. 334 (1990)). The Court, however, explicitly noted that it was not deciding this issue. The following is an extract of the laws which the Court cited as possibly giving the federal government authority to activate the state defense forces:
10 U.S.C. 251 – "Federal aid for State governments"
Whenever there is an insurrection in any State against its government, the President may, upon the request of its legislature or of its governor if the legislature cannot be convened, call into Federal service such of the militia of the other States, in the number requested by that State, and use such of the armed forces, as he considers necessary to suppress the insurrection.
10 U.S.C. 252 – "Use of militia and armed forces to enforce Federal authority"
Whenever the President considers that unlawful obstructions, combinations, or assemblages, or rebellion against the authority of the United States, make it impracticable to enforce the laws of the United States in any State or Territory by the ordinary course of judicial proceedings, he may call into Federal service such of the militia of any State, and use such of the armed forces, as he considers necessary to enforce those laws or to suppress the rebellion.
10 U.S.C. 253 – "Interference with State and Federal law"
The President, by using the militia or the armed forces, or both, or by any other means, shall take such measures as he considers necessary to suppress, in a State, any insurrection, domestic violence, unlawful combination, or conspiracy, if it -
(1) so hinders the execution of the laws of that State, and of the United States within the State, that any part or class of its people is deprived of a right, privilege, immunity, or protection named in the Constitution and secured by law, and the constituted authorities of that State are unable, fail, or refuse to protect that right, privilege, or immunity, or to give that protection; or
(2) opposes or obstructs the execution of the laws of the United States or impedes the course of justice under those laws.
In any situation covered by clause (1), the State shall be considered to have denied the equal protection of the laws secured by the Constitution.
State defense force reactivation efforts
A number of legislators have spearheaded attempts to reactivate the state defense forces of their states. In 2011, a bill was introduced in the New Hampshire General Court which, if passed, would permanently reestablish the New Hampshire State Guard. The bill did not pass. The same year, Governor Jan Brewer signed a bill which authorized the organization of a state defense force in Arizona. In 2018, Kansas state senator Dennis Pyle petitioned the Governor of Kansas to reactivate the Kansas State Guard, in part to offer an additional security resource for schools.
In 2019, Pennsylvania State Representative Chris Rabb proposed legislation which would reactivate and modernize the Pennsylvania State Guard in order to "address the epidemic of gun violence, domestic terrorism, and other inter-related public health crises."
In December 2021, Florida Governor Ron DeSantis announced plans to reestablish the Florida State Guard as a 200-person volunteer force that would act independently of the federal government in disaster relief efforts. The reactivated Florida State Guard was announced in June 2022.
In January 2022, Oklahoma State Senator Nathan Dahm introduced legislation to reactivate the Oklahoma State Guard. The bill failed in the Republican-led Oklahoma Senate Veterans Committee in February 2022.
Notable members
Radio host Clark Howard retired from the Georgia State Defense Force after more than 20 years of service.
Former New York state Republican Party chairman Joseph Mondello was a member of the New York Guard.
David P. Weber, former Assistant Inspector General of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission and whistleblower, is a Lieutenant Colonel JAG officer in the Maryland Defense Force, attached to the Maryland Army National Guard.
Lauren Guzman, who was crowned Miss Texas USA in 2014, is a member of the Texas State Guard.
Cooper Hefner, Son of Hugh Hefner, was a member of the California State Guard.
Alvin C. York, one of the most decorated United States Army soldiers of World War I, served in the Tennessee State Guard.
Former Heavyweight champion boxer Lt. Jack Dempsey served in the New York Guard.
Notes
a.Pub. L. 114–328 renumbered 10 U.S.C. 331-333 as 10 U.S.C. 251-253
See also
Awards and decorations of the State Defense Forces
Civil Air Patrol
Militia (United States)
Paramilitary
State Guard Association of the United States
United States Coast Guard Auxiliary
United States Guards
References
External links
National Guard Regulation 10-4, "National Guard Interaction With State Defense Forces", 2011.
U.S. Army War College Paper "State Defense Forces and Homeland Security"; Arthus Tulak, Robert Kraft, and Don Silbaugh, 2004.
DoD Report to the Senate and House Armed Services Committees on Homeland Defense Force for Homeland Defense and Homeland Security Missions, November 2005 HR Report 108–491.
America's State Defense Forces: An Historical Component of National Defense
The Militia You've Never Heard Of, published by the Manhattan Institute for Policy Research.
Emergency management in the United States
Militia in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81lvar%20N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez%20Cabeza%20de%20Vaca
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Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca
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Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca (; 1488/90/92 after 19 May 1559) was a Spanish explorer of the New World, and one of four survivors of the 1527 Narváez expedition. During eight years of traveling across what is now the US Southwest, he became a trader and faith healer to various Native American tribes before reconnecting with Spanish civilization in Mexico in 1536. After returning to Spain in 1537, he wrote an account, first published in 1542 as La relación y comentarios ("The Account and Commentaries"), which in later editions was retitled Naufragios y comentarios ("Shipwrecks and Commentaries"). Cabeza de Vaca is sometimes considered a proto-anthropologist for his detailed accounts of the many tribes of Native Americans that he encountered.
In 1540, Cabeza de Vaca was appointed adelantado of what is now Paraguay, where he was governor and captain general of New Andalusia. He worked to build up the population of Buenos Aires but, charged with poor administration, he was arrested in 1544 and then transported to Spain for trial in 1545. Although his sentence was eventually commuted, he never returned to the Americas. He introduced the story of the India Juliana in his accounts.
Early life and family
Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca was born around 1490 in the Andalusian town of Jerez de la Frontera, Cádiz. His father, Francisco de Vera was an , a rank of minor Spanish nobility. His mother was Teresa Cabeza de Vaca, also from an hidalgo family. He was named after his mother's great-grandfather, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, but the real influence in his life was his paternal grandfather, Pedro de Vera.
Pedro de Vera was described by contemporaries as an expert in fighting battles on land and sea. He led raids against the Moors in North Africa and in 1483 completed the conquest of Grand Canaria, one of the major islands of the Canaries. He was appointed military governor of the island and used his position to capture Canary natives (Guanches) and sell them as slaves in Spain. When natives on the neighboring island of Gomera revolted, he brutally put down the rebellion, killing males over the age of fifteen and selling the women and children into slavery. He was heavily fined for his actions and recalled to Castile in 1490. Cabeza de Vaca would have heard of these exploits growing up; many years later he named a province in South America, Vera, in honor of his grandfather.
Cabeza de Vaca's father and grandfather died around 1506 and his mother died in 1509, leaving behind a modest estate for her seven children. His younger siblings went to live with their aunt but Álvar had already entered the service of Juan Alfonso Pérez de Guzmán, 3rd Duke of Medina Sidonia in 1503. The house of Medina Sidonia was one of the most powerful in Andalusia and was a dominant force in Seville, the commercial center of Spain's growing overseas empire. Cabeza de Vaca served as a page and then chamberlain for the duke. In 1511 he traveled to Italy to fight against the French in the Italian Wars. In February 1512 he took part in the Battle of Ravenna where the Spanish were badly defeated and Cabeza de Vaca was wounded. He later served as the royal standard-bearer in Gaeta, near Naples.
In 1513 he returned to Spain, still in the service of Medina Sidonia. At some point he married María Marmolejo, member of a prominent converso family in Seville. When the Revolt of the Comuneros broke out in 1520 against the new Spanish king, Charles V, Cabeza de Vaca fought alongside the duke on behalf of the crown. When the comuneros tried unsuccessfully to seize control in Seville in September, the duke put him in charge of defending one of the city gates; in December he fought to liberate the city of Tordesillas; and on 23 April 1521 he participated in the defeat of the comuneros at the battle of Villalar. Later in 1521 when the French king, Francis I, invaded Navarre, Cabeza de Vaca fought against them in the battle of Puente de la Reina.
In 1527, Cabeza de Vaca appeared at the royal court in Valladolid and received an appointment as royal treasurer for an expedition to be led by conquistador Pánfilo de Narváez to explore and conquer La Florida, a portion of North America roughly comprising today's southeastern United States. The reasons for his selection are not known but his history of loyal military service to the crown was certainly a critical qualification. He also had a relative, Luis Cabeza de Vaca, serving on the all-important Council of the Indies.
Narváez expedition
On 11 December 1526, Charles V commissioned Pánfilo de Narváez to explore, conquer and settle a portion of North America called La Florida, a territory vaguely described as stretching along the Gulf coast from Mexico to Florida. Cabeza de Vaca was named treasurer by royal appointment, a position that put him second in command and made him chiefly responsible to look after the emperor's interests during the expedition. He was promised an annual salary of 130,000 maravedies, payable upon his return. Their fleet of five vessels set sail from Spain on 17 June 1527, carrying 600 soldiers and colonists, including a few married women and African slaves.
When they stopped in Hispaniola for supplies, Narváez lost more than 140 of his men, who chose to stay behind rather than continue with the expedition. They spent forty-five days on the island re-provisioning the fleet, and bought a sixth ship. They were especially anxious to acquire horses, but there was a shortage of them in Hispaniola, so the expedition continued to Cuba, where they hoped to recruit more men and buy horses. Narváez anchored at Santiago de Cuba and ordered Cabeza de Vaca to take two ships and proceed further up the coast to pick up additional provisions at Trinidad. In October, while Cabeza de Vaca was ashore negotiating for supplies, a hurricane hit the coast, resulting in the destruction of both ships and the loss of sixty men and twenty horses. Narváez arrived in early November to pick up the survivors. Fearful of encountering another storm, Narváez decided to overwinter in Cuba. The four remaining ships anchored in the Bay of Jagua under the command of Cabeza de Vaca.
While Cabeza de Vaca watched over the ships and crew, Narváez remained on shore to find replacements for the lost ships and hire more men. In February 1528, he returned to the Bay of Jagua with one additional ship and another one waiting for them in Havana. They resumed their expedition to La Florida with the intention of first stopping in Havana to pick up the final ship and more supplies. Before reaching Havana however, they were hit by another storm and blown off course into the Gulf of Mexico. Short of supplies and fresh water, they decided to push on toward Florida rather than try to get back to Cuba. In April they sighted land, anchored and went ashore. Although the location of their landing has been much debated, more recent opinion leans toward the vicinity of Tampa Bay.
During a quick reconnaissance of the area, they came upon a few small villages of Indians belonging to the Safety Harbor culture. Communicating with them through sign language, the Spanish were informed that a community or region called Apalachee lay to the north and was rich with food and gold. Cabeza de Vaca later noted that whenever Narváez expressed interest in something, the Indians assured him it could be found in great quantities at Apalachee. As a result, Narváez was determined to lead a force north into the interior to find this rich country.
Despite strong objections from Cabeza de Vaca, Narváez decided to split his expedition. He would lead some 300 men and 42 horses overland to Apalachee while the remaining crew, including the women, would sail ahead to find a suitable harbor and wait their return. Cabeza de Vaca protested that dividing their forces would put both groups in danger without any certainty that they would be able to find each other again. He advised that everyone remain with the ships until a suitable harbor could be found to serve as their base camp. Narváez ignored his advice and suggested that if Cabeza de Vaca was afraid, he should stay with the ships. Cabeza de Vaca rejected the suggestion of cowardice and participated in the overland march. He later wrote, "I preferred risking my life to placing my honor in jeopardy."
Narváez and his men set off overland in early May, 1528. They marched north for 15 days without seeing any Indians or native settlements. Then, as they were attempting to cross a swift-flowing river (probably the Withlacoochee), they were confronted by a group of 200 Indians. The encounter quickly turned into a fight and the Indians were driven off. Nearby, the Spaniards found a village where they stayed for several days and helped themselves to the stored maize. Cabeza de Vaca pleaded with Narváez to send a scouting expedition downriver in hopes of finding a bay where their ships might be waiting. Narváez relented and ordered Cabeza de Vaca to lead a reconnaissance. After two attempts to find their way through the swamps and heavy forest, their search yielded no ships or suitable harbor.
Narváez still hoped to find riches at Apalachee, so the expedition pressed forward using captive Indians as guides. Seven weeks after leaving their ships, they came upon the largest village they had found so far, a collection of forty houses. Their guides assured them this was a major Apalachee settlement, so Narváez ordered Cabeza de Vaca to lead about fifty soldiers to seize the village. There was no resistance to their attack and Cabeza de Vaca found only women and children whom he rounded up to serve as hostages. A thorough search of the houses found plenty of food but none of the hoped for gold and gems.
Apalachee had no gold but had only corn, but the explorers were told a village known as Aute, about 5 or 9 days away, was rich. They pushed on through the swamps, harassed by the Native Americans. A few Spanish men were killed and more wounded. When they arrived in Aute, they found that the inhabitants had burned down the village and left. But the fields had not been harvested, so at least the Spanish scavenged food there. After several months of fighting native inhabitants through wilderness and swamp, the party decided to abandon the interior and try to reach Pánuco.
Slaughtering and eating their remaining horses, they gathered the stirrups, spurs, horseshoes and other metal items. They fashioned a bellows from deer hide to make a fire hot enough to forge tools and nails. They used these to make five primitive boats in hopes of reaching Mexico. The small flotilla launched on 22 September 1528, carrying the 242 survivors. Cabeza de Vaca commanded one of the vessels, each of which held approximately 50 men. Depleted of food and water, they followed the coast westward. But when they reached the mouth of the Mississippi River, the powerful current swept them out into the Gulf, where the five rafts were separated by a hurricane. Some lives were lost forever, including that of Narváez.
In November 1528, two crafts with about 40 survivors each, including Cabeza de Vaca, wrecked on or near Galveston Island (now part of Texas). Of the 80 or so survivors, only 15 lived past that winter. The explorers called the island Malhado (“Ill fate” in Spanish), or the Island of Doom. They tried to repair the rafts, using what remained of their own clothes as oakum to plug holes, but they lost the rafts to a large wave.
As the number of survivors dwindled rapidly, they were enslaved for four years by various American Indian nomadic tribes of the upper Gulf Coast. The tribes to which Cabeza de Vaca was enslaved included the Hans and the Capoques, and tribes later called the Karankawa and Coahuiltecan. Only four men managed to escape: Cabeza de Vaca, Andrés Dorantes de Carranza, Alonso del Castillo Maldonado, and an African slave of Dorantes, Estevanico.
Traveling mostly with this small group, Cabeza de Vaca walked generally west through what is now the U.S. state of Texas, as well as the northeastern Mexican states of Tamaulipas, Nuevo León and Coahuila, and possibly smaller portions of New Mexico and Arizona. He traveled on foot through the then-colonized territories of Texas and the Gulf Coast, but encountered no other Europeans. He continued through Coahuila and Nueva Vizcaya (present-day states of Chihuahua and Durango); then down the Gulf of California coast to what is now Sinaloa, Mexico, over a period of roughly eight years. Throughout those years, Cabeza de Vaca and the other men adapted to the lives of the indigenous people they stayed with, whom he later described as Roots People, the Fish and Blackberry People, or the Fig People, depending on their principal foods.
During his wanderings, passing from tribe to tribe, Cabeza de Vaca later reported that he developed sympathies for the indigenous peoples. He became a trader and a healer, which gave him some freedom to travel among the tribes. His group attracted numerous native followers, who regarded them as "children of the sun", endowed with the power to heal and destroy. As Cabeza de Vaca grew healthier, he decided that he would make his way to Pánuco, supporting himself through trading.
He finally decided to try to reach the Spanish colony in Mexico. Many natives were said to accompany the explorers on their journey across what is now known as the American Southwest and northern Mexico.
After finally reaching the colonized lands of New Spain, where he first encountered fellow Spaniards near modern-day Culiacán, Cabeza de Vaca and the three other men reached Mexico City. From there he sailed back to Europe in 1537.
Numerous researchers have tried to trace his route across the Southwest. As he did not begin writing his chronicle until he was back in Spain, he had to rely on memory. He did not have instruments to determine his location; he had to rely on dead reckoning, and was uncertain of his route. Aware that his recollection has numerous errors in chronology and geography, historians have worked to put together pieces of the puzzle to discern his paths.
Return to America
In 1540, Cabeza de Vaca was appointed adelantado of the Río de la Plata in South America. The colony comprised parts of what is now Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Cabeza de Vaca was assigned to find a usable route from this colony to the colony in Peru, on the other side of the Andes Mountains on the Pacific Coast.
En route, he disembarked from his fleet at Santa Catarina Island in modern Brazil. With an indigenous force, plus 250 musketeers and 26 horses, he followed native trails discovered by Aleixo Garcia overland to the district's Spanish capital, Asunción, far inland on the great Paraguay River. Cabeza de Vaca is thought to have been the first European to see the Iguaçu Falls.
In March 1542, Cabeza de Vaca met with Domingo Martínez de Irala and relieved him of his position as governor. The government of Asunción pledged loyalty to Cabeza de Vaca, and Irala was assigned to explore a possible route to Peru. Once Irala returned and reported, Cabeza de Vaca planned his own expedition. He hoped to reach Los Reyes (a base that Irala set up) and push forward into the jungle in search of a route to the gold and silver mines of Peru. The expedition did not go well, and Cabeza de Vaca returned to Asunción.
During Cabeza de Vaca's absence, Irala had stirred up resistance to his rule and capitalized on political rivalries. Scholars widely agree that Cabeza de Vaca had an unusually sympathetic attitude towards the Native Americans for his time. The elite settlers in modern Argentina, known as encomenderos, generally did not agree with his enlightened conduct toward the Natives; they wanted to use them for labor. Because he lost elite support, and Buenos Aires was failing as a settlement, not attracting enough residents, Martínez de Irala arrested Cabeza de Vaca in 1544 for poor administration. The former explorer was returned to Spain in 1545 for trial.
Although he was eventually exonerated, Cabeza de Vaca never returned to South America. He wrote an extensive report on the Río de la Plata colony in South America, strongly criticizing the conduct of Martínez de Irala. The report was bound with his earlier La Relación and published under the title Comentarios (Commentary). He died in Jerez de la Frontera or Valladolid on an uncertain date, although there are no surviving records of him after 19 May 1559.
La relación de Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca
("The story of Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca") is the account of his experiences with the Narváez expedition and after being wrecked on Galveston Island in November 1528. Cabeza de Vaca and his last three men struggled to survive. They wandered along the Texas coast as prisoners of the Han and Capoque American Indians for two years, while Cabeza de Vaca observed the people, picking up their ways of life and customs. They traveled through the American Southwest and ultimately reached Mexico City, nearly eight years after being wrecked on the island.
In 1537, Cabeza de Vaca returned to Spain, where he wrote his narratives of the Narváez expedition. These narratives were collected and published in 1542 in Spain. They are now known as The Relation of Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca. The narrative of Cabeza de Vaca is the “first European book devoted completely to North America.” His detailed account describes the lives of numerous tribes of American Indians of the time. Cabeza de Vaca showed compassion and respect for native peoples, which, together with the great detail he recorded, distinguishes his narrative from others of the period.
Role of observer
Cabeza de Vaca reported on the customs and ways of American Indian life, aware of his status as an early European explorer. He spent eight years with various peoples, including the Capoque, Han, Avavare, and Arbadao. He describes details of the culture of the Malhado people, the Capoque, and Han American Indians, such as their treatment of offspring, their wedding rites, and their main sources of food. Cabeza de Vaca and his three fellow survivors at times served as slaves to the American Indians to survive. Through his observations, Cabeza de Vaca provides insights into 16th-century American Indian life near the present-day Mexico-Texas border.
For many peoples the accounts of Cabeza de Vaca and Hernando de Soto are the only written records of their existence. By the time of the next European contact, many had vanished, possibly from diseases carried by Cabeza de Vaca and his companions.
Ambassador for Christ
One of Cabeza de Vaca's greatest accomplishments in his journey was bringing peace throughout the land. As the travellers passed from one tribe to the next, warring tribes would immediately make peace and become friendly, so that the natives could receive the party and give them gifts. Cabeza noted in his personal account of the journey that, in this way, "We left the whole country in peace." Cabeza de Vaca saw these events as part of his purpose in America, writing that he believed that "God was guiding us to where we could serve Him."
Cabeza de Vaca's greatest challenge as an ambassador came when he attempted to bring peace between the conquering Spanish army and the natives. As Cabeza approached the area of Spanish settlement, he and his companions grieved to see the destruction of the native villages and enslavement of the native peoples. The fertile land lay uncultivated and the natives were nearly starving, hiding in the forest, for fear of the Spanish army.
Cabeza de Vaca then encountered Diego de Alcaraz, commander of a slaving expedition of about 20 horsemen, and attempted to negotiate peace between them and the natives. However, as soon as they departed, Alcaraz went back on his word and plundered Cabeza de Vaca's entourage of natives that he had sent back home. Not long afterward, Cabeza de Vaca encountered the chief alcalde (Spanish captain of the province), Melchor Díaz. Díaz ordered Cabeza de Vaca to bring the natives back from the forests so that they would resume cultivating the land. Cabeza de Vaca and Díaz invited the natives to convert to Christianity, and the natives did so willingly. Cabeza de Vaca then instructed them to build a large wooden cross in each village, so that Spanish soldiers would pass through the village and not attack it. Soon afterward, Alcaraz's expedition returned and explained to Díaz that they were amazed to find, on their return journey, that not only was the land repopulated, but the natives coming to greet them with crosses in hand and also gave them provisions. Díaz then ordered Alcaraz to do no harm to these natives.
Personal report
Cabeza de Vaca wrote this narrative to Charles V to “transmit what I saw and heard in the nine years I wandered lost and miserable over many remote lands”. He wanted to convey “not merely a report of positions and distances, flora and fauna, but of the customs of the numerous indigenous people I talked with and dwelt among, as well as any other matters I could hear of or observe”. He took care to present facts, as a full account of what he observed. The Relation is the only account of many details concerning the indigenous people whom he encountered. The accuracy of his account has been validated by later reports of others, as well as by the oral traditions of descendants of some of the tribes.
Cabeza's account also served as a petition to the King of Spain to both establish a permanent Christian mission and eventually establish the native tribes as a nation under the governance of Spain. In his reflection Cabeza writes to the king of Spain:
May God in His infinite mercy grant that in the days of Your Majesty and under your power and sway, these people become willingly and sincerely subjects of the true Lord Who created and redeemed them. We believe they will be, and that Your Majesty is destined to bring it about, as it will not be at all difficult.
Cabeza continued to be a strong advocate for the rights of Native American Indians throughout his lifetime.
American Indian nations noted by name
Cabeza De Vaca identified the following peoples by name in his La Relación (1542). The following list shows his names, together with what scholars suggested in 1919 were the likely tribes identified by names used in the 20th century. By that time, tribal identification was also related to more linguistic data.
Possible Karankawan groups:
Capoques – Cocos
Deaguanes – Cujanes
Quevenes – Copanes
Guaycones – Guapites
Camones – Karankaguases?
Related to Karankawa:
Charruco – Bidai-Orcoquiza
Han – Bidai-Orcoquiza
Possible Tonkawan groups:
Mendica – Tamiques
Mariames – Jaranames
Iguaces – Anaquas
Possible Coahuiltecan or desert groups:
Quitoles
The "Fig People"
Acubadaos
Avavares
Anegados
Cutalchuches
Maliacones
Susolas
Comos – Comecrudo
Cuayos
Arbadaos
Atayos
Cuchendados
Comentarios
In 1555, after a four-year position as Adelantado in Rio de la Plata, Cabeza de Vaca wrote from memory a chronicle of his in South America. It is believed that his secretary at the time, Pero Hernández, transcribed Cabeza de Vaca's account in what is known as Comentarios. The publication of Comentarios was appended to La relación as a joint publication in Valladolid, Spain entitled: Naufragios. At that time, explorers often published their reports of travels in foreign lands.
Later editions
In 1906, Naufragios was published in a new edition in Madrid, Spain. The introduction says the intent of this edition was to publicize Cabeza de Vaca's observations and experiences to strengthen authentic representations. This has been described as having the objective of portraying Cabeza de Vaca as less aggressive , while trying to authenticate his role as a sympathetic observer of the natives.
Place in Chicano literature
Herrera (2011) classifies Cabeza de Vaca's La Relacion as the first major contribution to Chicano literature. Scholars have identified five major periods of Chicano literature: Spanish Mexican, Mexican American, Annexation, Chicano Renaissance, and Modern. Cabeza de Vaca is classified as part of the Spanish Mexican period; he recounted eight years of travel and survival in the area of Chicano culture: present-day Texas, New Mexico, and northern Mexico. His account is the first known written description of the American Southwest.
Film adaptation
The drama feature film Cabeza de Vaca (1991), a Mexican production, was directed by Nicolás Echevarría and starred Juan Diego. Based on Naufragios, the film was entered into the 41st Berlin International Film Festival.
Representation in other media
Laila Lalami's novel, The Moor's Account (2014), is a fictional memoir of Estevanico, the Moroccan slave who survived the journey and accompanied Cabeza de Vaca through the Southwest. He is considered to be the first black explorer of North America.
Lord Buckley created a monologue The Gasser based on Haniel Long's novella. This was first recorded in 1954 and again in 1959.
His story is noted in the first episode of Ken Burns' The West, a PBS documentary which first aired in 1996.
Russell Persson's The Way of Florida (Little Island Press, 2017) is a highly stylized novelization of Cabeza de Vaca's Relación.
The Great Journey of Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca is a work composed between 1981 and 1988 by Colin Matthews.
Bibliography
English editions
Cabeza de Vaca, Álvar Núñez. The Journey of Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and his companions from Florida to the Pacific 1528-1536. Translation of La Relacion, ed. Ad. F. Bandelier. New York, Allerton Book Co. 1904.
Cabeza de Vaca, Álvar Núñez. The Narrative of Cabeza De Vaca, Translation of La Relacion, ed. Rolena Adorno and Patrick Charles Pautz. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press 2003. (one of many editions)
Cabeza de Vaca, Álvar Núñez. Cabeza de Vaca's Adventures in the Unknown Interior of America, Translation of La Relación by Cyclone Covey. Santa Fe, NM: University of New Mexico Press 1983.
Cabeza de Vaca, Álvar Núñez. Chronicle of the Narváez Expedition, Translation of La Relacion, translated by David Frye, edited by Ilan Stavans. Norton Critical Edition, 2013.
Cabeza de Vaca, Álvar Núñez. The Commentaries of Alvar Nunez Cabeza De Vaca., The Conquest of the River Plate, part II. London: Hakluyt, 1891 (first English edition).
See also
Choctaw
Campeiro
Criollo
Mississippian culture
Pinus remota
Quivira and Cíbola
Francisco Vásquez de Coronado, another Spanish explorer in North America
Bust of Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Houston, Texas
Notes
References
Bibliography
Adorno, Rolena and Pautz, Patrick Charles. Alvar Nunez Cabeza De Vaca: His Account, His Life and the Expedition of Panfilo De Narvaez, 3 volumes, in English; University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, London (1999); hardcover;
Krieger, Alex D. We Came Naked and Barefoot: The Journey of Cabeza de Vaca across North America. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002. .
Long, Haniel. Interlinear to Cabeza de Vaca (1936), a fictionalized account of Cabeza de Vaca's journey
Reséndez, Andrés. A Land So Strange: The Epic Journey of Cabeza de Vaca, Basic Books, Perseus, 2007.
Schneider, Paul. Brutal Journey, Cabeza de Vaca and the Epic First Crossing of North America, New York: Henry Holt, 2007.
Udall, Stewart L. Majestic Journey: Coronado's Inland Empire, Museum of New Mexico Press, 1995.
Wild, Peter (1991). Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca. Boise, ID: Boise State University, 1991. (print and on-line)
Spanish
Adorno, Rolena and Pautz, Patrick Charles; Alvaro Núñez Cabeza de Vaca: sus logros, su vida y la expedición de Pánfilo de Narváez, 3 volumes, in Spanish; University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, London (15 September 1999); hardcover; 1317 pages;
Maura, Juan Francisco. (October 2013).“El libro 50 de la Historia General y Natural de las Indias («Infortunios y Naufragios») de Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo (1535): ¿génesis e inspiración de algunos episodios de Naufragios de Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca (1542)?” Lemir 17, 87-100. University of Valencia
Italian
Giovan Battista Ramusio: Delle navigationi et viaggi Terzo volume , pp. 310–330 – "Relatione che fece Alvaro Nunez detto Capo di vacca" – Venetia, 1565 (1606 edition)
External links
La Relación online
The Journey of Alvar Nuñez Cabeza De Vaca (1542), Translated by Fanny Bandelier (1905). (pdf version).
Cabeza de Vaca's Adventures in the Unknown Interior of America (English translation from 1961)
The journey of Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca and his companions from Florida to the Pacific, 1528–1536, hosted by the Portal to Texas History
(in Spanish)
Resources
Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca at American Journeys
"The Journey of Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca", American Journeys, Wisconsin History.
Cabeza de Vaca Primary Source Adventure, lesson plan hosted by The Portal to Texas History
Cabeza de Vaca; La Salle. published in 1901, Portal to Texas History.
Audio-visual
PBS documentary The Conquistadors PBS, website includes a map of the proposed southern route through Texas and northern Mexico.
"Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca", The West, a documentary by Ken Burns for PBS (Episode 1)
Spanish explorers of North America
15th-century births
16th-century deaths
Explorers of Argentina
People from New Spain
Spanish slaves
16th-century travel writers
Spanish travel writers
Writers of captivity narratives
16th-century Spanish writers
16th-century male writers
Explorers of the United States
Explorers of Mexico
Explorers of Spanish Florida
People from Jerez de la Frontera
16th century in the Viceroyalty of Peru
16th-century explorers
16th-century Spanish people
Spanish explorers of South America
16th-century slaves
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedmen%27s%20Bureau
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Freedmen's Bureau
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The Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, usually referred to as simply the Freedmen's Bureau, was an agency of early Reconstruction, assisting freedmen in the South. It was established on March 3, 1865, and operated briefly as a U.S. government agency, from 1865 to 1872, after the American Civil War, to direct "provisions, clothing, and fuel...for the immediate and temporary shelter and supply of destitute and suffering refugees and freedmen and their wives and children".
Background and operations
In 1863, the American Freedmen's Inquiry Commission was established. Two years later, as a result of the inquiry the Freedmen's Bureau Bill was passed, which established the Freedmen's Bureau as initiated by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln. It was intended to last for one year after the end of the Civil War. The Bureau became a part of the United States Department of War, as Congress provided no funding for it. The War Department was the only agency with funds the Freedmen's Bureau could use and which had an existing presence in the South.
Headed by Union Army General Oliver O. Howard, the Bureau started operations in 1865. From the beginning, its representatives found its tasks very difficult, in part because Southern legislatures passed Black Codes that restricted movement, conditions of labor, and other civil rights of African Americans, nearly replicating the conditions of slavery. Also, the Freedmen's Bureau only controlled a limited amount of arable land.
The Bureau's powers were expanded to help African Americans find family members from whom they had become separated during the war. It arranged to teach them to read and write—skills considered critical by the freedmen themselves as well as by the government. Bureau agents also served as legal advocates for African Americans in both state and federal courts, mostly in cases dealing with family issues. The Bureau encouraged former major planters to rebuild their plantations and pay wages to their previously enslaved workers. It kept an eye on the contracts between the newly free laborers and planters, given that few freedmen had yet gained adequate reading skills, and pushed whites and blacks to work together in a free-labor market as employers and employees rather than as masters and slaves.
In 1866 Congress renewed the charter for the Bureau. President Andrew Johnson, a Southern Democrat who had succeeded to the office following Lincoln's assassination in 1865, vetoed the bill, arguing that the Bureau encroached on states' rights, relied inappropriately on the military in peacetime, gave blacks help that poor whites had never had, and would ultimately prevent freed slaves from becoming self sufficient by rendering them dependent on public assistance. Though the Republican controlled Congress, overrode Johnson's veto, by 1869 Southern Democrats in Congress had deprived the Bureau of most of its funding, and as a result it had to cut much of its staff. By 1870 the Bureau had been weakened further due to the rise of Ku Klux Klan (KKK) violence across the South; members of the KKK and other terrorist organizations, attacked both blacks and sympathetic white Republicans, including teachers. Northern Democrats also opposed the Bureau's work, painting it as a program that would make African Americans "lazy".
In 1872 Congress abruptly abandoned the program, refusing to approve renewal legislation. It did not inform Howard, whom U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant had transferred to Arizona to settle hostilities between the Apache and settlers. Grant's Secretary of War William W. Belknap was hostile to Howard's leadership and authority at the Bureau. Belknap aroused controversy among Republicans by his reassignment of Howard.
Achievements
Day-to-day duties
The Bureau mission was to help solve everyday problems of the newly freed slaves, such as obtaining food, medical care, communication with family members, and jobs. Between 1865 and 1869, it distributed 15 million rations of food to freed African Americans and 5 million rations to impoverished whites, and set up a system by which planters could borrow rations in order to feed freedmen they employed. Although the Bureau set aside $350,000 for this latter service, only $35,000 (10%) was borrowed by planters.
The Bureau's humanitarian efforts had limited success. Medical treatment of the freedmen was severely deficient, as few Southern doctors, all of whom were white, would treat them. Much infrastructure had been destroyed by the war, and people had few means of improving sanitation. Blacks had little opportunity to become medical personnel. Travelers unknowingly carried epidemics of cholera and yellow fever along the river corridors, which broke out across the South and caused many fatalities, especially among the poor.
Gender roles
Freedman's Bureau agents initially complained that freedwomen were refusing to contract their labor. One of the first actions black families took for independence was to withdraw women's labor from fieldwork. The Bureau attempted to force freedwomen to work by insisting that their husbands sign contracts making the whole family available as field labor in the cotton industry, and by declaring that unemployed freedwomen should be treated as vagrants just as black men were. The Bureau did allow some exceptions, such as married women with employed husbands, and some "worthy" women who had been widowed or abandoned and had large families of small children to care for. "Unworthy" women, meaning the unruly and prostitutes, were usually the ones subjected to punishment for vagrancy.
Before the Civil War the enslaved could not marry legally, and most marriages had been informal, although planters often presided over "marriage" ceremonies for their enslaved. After the war, the Freedmen's Bureau performed numerous marriages for freed couples who asked for it. As many husbands, wives, and children had been forcibly separated under slavery, the Bureau agents helped families reunite after the war. The Bureau had an informal regional communications system that allowed agents to send inquiries and provide answers. It sometimes provided transportation to reunite families. Freedmen and freedwomen turned to the Bureau for assistance in resolving issues of abandonment and divorce.
Education
The most widely recognized accomplishments of the Freedman's Bureau were in education. Prior to the Civil War, no Southern state had a system of universal, state-supported public education; in addition, most had prohibited both enslaved and free blacks from gaining an education. This meant learning to read and write, and do simple arithmetic. Former slaves wanted public education while the wealthier whites opposed the idea. Freedmen had a strong desire to learn to read and write; some had already started schools at refugee camps; others worked hard to establish schools in their communities even prior to the advent of the Freedmen's Bureau.
Oliver Otis Howard was appointed as the first Freedmen's Bureau Commissioner. Through his leadership, the bureau set up four divisions: Government-Controlled Lands, Records, Financial Affairs, and Medical Affairs. Education was considered part of the Records division. Howard turned over confiscated property including planters' mansions, government buildings, books, and furniture to superintendents to be used in the education of freedmen. He provided transportation and room and board for teachers. Many Northerners came south to educate freedmen.
By 1866, Northern missionary and aid societies worked in conjunction with the Freedmen's Bureau to provide education for former slaves. The American Missionary Association was particularly active, establishing eleven "colleges" in Southern states for the education of freedmen. The primary focus of these groups was to raise funds to pay teachers and manage schools, while the secondary focus was the day-to-day operation of individual schools. After 1866, Congress appropriated some funds to operate the freedmen's schools. The main source of educational revenue for these schools came through a Congressional Act that gave the Freedmen's Bureau the power to seize Confederate property for educational use.
George Ruby, an African American, served as a teacher and school administrator and as a traveling inspector for the Bureau, observing local conditions, aiding in the establishment of black schools, and evaluating the performance of Bureau field officers. Blacks supported him, but planters and other whites opposed him.
Overall, the Bureau spent $5 million to set up schools for blacks. By the end of 1865, more than 90,000 former slaves were enrolled as students in such public schools. Attendance rates at the new schools for freedmen were about 80%. Brigadier General Samuel Chapman Armstrong created and led Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute in Virginia in 1868. It is now known as Hampton University.
The Freedmen's Bureau published their own freedmen's textbook. They emphasized the bootstrap philosophy, encouraging freedmen to believe that each person had the ability to work hard and to do better in life. These readers included traditional literacy lessons, as well as selections on the life and works of Abraham Lincoln, excerpts from the Bible focused on forgiveness, biographies of famous African Americans with emphasis on their piety, humbleness, and industry; and essays on humility, the work ethic, temperance, loving your enemies, and avoiding bitterness.
J. W. Alvord, an inspector for the Bureau, wrote that the freedmen "have the natural thirst for knowledge," aspire to "power and influence … coupled with learning," and are excited by "the special study of books." Among the former slaves, both children and adults sought this new opportunity to learn. After the Bureau was abolished, some of its achievements collapsed under the weight of white violence against schools and teachers for blacks. Most Reconstruction-era legislatures had established public education but, after the 1870s, when white Democrats regained power of Southern governments, they reduced funds available to fund public education, particularly for blacks. Beginning in 1890 in Mississippi, Democratic-dominated legislatures in the South passed new state constitutions disenfranchising most blacks by creating barriers to voter registration. They then passed Jim Crow laws establishing legal segregation of public places. Segregated schools and other services for blacks were consistently underfunded by the Southern legislatures.
By 1871, Northerners' interest in reconstructing the South had waned. Northerners were beginning to tire of the effort that Reconstruction required, were discouraged by the high rate of continuing violence around elections, and were ready for the South to take care of itself. All of the Southern states had created new constitutions that established universal, publicly funded education. Groups based in the North began to redirect their money toward universities and colleges founded to educate African-American leaders.
Teachers
Written accounts by northern women and missionary societies resulted in historians' overestimating their influence, writing that most Bureau teachers were well-educated women from the North, motivated by religion and abolitionism to teach in the South. In the early 21st century, new research has found that half the teachers were southern whites; one-third were blacks (mostly southern), and one-sixth were northern whites. Few were abolitionists; few came from New England. Men outnumbered women. The salary was the strongest motivation except for the northerners, who were typically funded by northern organizations and had a humanitarian motivation. As a group, the black cohort showed the greatest commitment to racial equality; and they were the ones most likely to remain teachers. The school curriculum resembled that of schools in the north.
Colleges
The building and opening by the AMA and other missionary societies of schools of higher learning for African Americans coincided with the shift in focus for the Freedmen's Aid Societies from supporting an elementary education for all African Americans to enabling African-American leaders to gain high school and college educations. Some white officials working with African Americans in the South were concerned about what they considered the lack of a moral or financial foundation seen in the African-American community and traced that lack of foundation back to slavery.
Generally, they believed that Blacks needed help to enter a free labor market and rebuild a stable family life. Heads of local American Missionary Associations sponsored various educational and religious efforts for African Americans. Later efforts for higher education were supported by such leaders as Samuel Chapman Armstrong of the Hampton Institute and Booker T. Washington of the Tuskegee Institute (from 1881). They said that black students should be able to leave home and "live in an atmosphere conducive not only to scholarship but to culture and refinement".
Most of these colleges, universities and normal schools combined what they believed were the best fundamentals of a college with that of the home, giving students a basic structure to build acceptable practices of upstanding lives. At many of these institutions, Christian principles and practices were also part of the daily regime.
Educational legacy
Despite the untimely dissolution of the Freedman's Bureau, its legacy influenced the important historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs), which were the chief institutions of higher learning for blacks in the South through the decades of segregation into the mid-20th century. Under the direction and sponsorship of the Bureau, together with the American Missionary Association in many cases, from approximately 1866 until its termination in 1872, an estimated 25 institutions of higher learning for black youth were established. The leaders among them continue to operate as highly ranked institutions in the 21st century and have seen increasing enrollment. (Examples of HBCUs include Howard University, St. Augustine's College, Fisk University, Johnson C. Smith University, Clark Atlanta University, Dillard University, Shaw University, Virginia Union University, and Tougaloo College).
, there exist approximately 105 HBCUs that range in scope, size, organization, and orientation. Under the Education Act of 1965, Congress officially defined an HBCU as "an institution whose principal missions were and are the education of Black Americans". HBCUs graduate over 50% of African-American professionals, 50% of African-American public school teachers, and 70% of African-American dentists. In addition, 50% of African Americans who graduate from HBCUs pursue graduate or professional degrees. One in three degrees held by African Americans in the natural sciences, and half the degrees held by African Americans in mathematics, were earned at HBCUs.
Perhaps the best known of these institutions is Howard University, founded in Washington, D.C., in 1867, with the aid of the Freedmen's Bureau. It was named for the commissioner of the Freedmen's Bureau, General Oliver Otis Howard.
Church establishment
After the Civil War, control over existing churches was a contentious issue. The Methodist denomination had split into regional associations in the 1840s prior to the war, as had the Baptists, when Southern Baptists were founded. In some cities, Northern Methodists seized control of Southern Methodist buildings. Numerous northern denominations, including the independent black denominations of the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) and African Methodist Episcopal Zion, sent missionaries to the South to help the freedmen and plant new congregations. By this time the independent black denominations were increasingly well organized and prepared to evangelize to the freedmen. Within a decade, the AME and AME Zion churches had gained hundreds of thousands of new members and were rapidly organizing new congregations.
Even before the war, blacks had established independent Baptist congregations in some cities and towns, such as Silver Bluff and Charleston, South Carolina; and Petersburg and Richmond, Virginia. In many places, especially in more rural areas, they shared public services with whites. Often enslaved blacks met secretly to conduct their own services away from white supervision or oversight. After the war, freedmen mostly withdrew from the white-dominated congregations of the Baptist, Methodist and Presbyterian churches in order to be free of white supervision. Within a short time, they were organizing black Baptist state associations and organized a national association in the 1890s.
Northern mission societies raised funds for land, buildings, teachers' salaries, and basic necessities such as books and furniture. For years they used networks throughout their churches to raise money for freedmen's education and worship.
Continuing insurgency
Most of the assistant commissioners, realizing that African Americans would not receive fair trials in the civil courts, tried to handle black cases in their own Bureau courts. Southern whites objected that this was unconstitutional. In Alabama, the Bureau commissioned state and county judges as Bureau agents. They were to try cases involving blacks with no distinctions on racial grounds. If a judge refused, the Freedmen's Bureau could institute martial law in his district. All but three judges accepted their unwanted commissions, and the governor urged compliance.
Perhaps the most difficult region reported by the Freedmen's Bureau was Louisiana's Caddo and Bossier parishes in the northwest part of the state. It had not suffered wartime devastation or Union occupation, but white hostility was high against the black majority population. Well-meaning Bureau agents were understaffed and weakly supported by federal troops, and found their investigations blocked and authority undermined at every turn by recalcitrant plantation owners. Murders of freedmen were common, and white suspects in these cases were not prosecuted. Bureau agents did negotiate labor contracts, build schools and hospitals, and aid freedmen, but they struggled against the violence of the oppressive environment.
In addition to internal parish problems, this area was reportedly invaded by insurgents from Arkansas, described as Desperadoes by the Bureau agent in 1868. In September 1868, for example, whites arrested and convicted 21 blacks accused of planning an insurrection in Bossier Parish. Henry Jones, accused of being the leader of the purported insurrection, was shot and left to burn by whites, but he survived, badly hurt. Other freedmen were killed or driven from their land by Arkansas Desperadoes. Whites were anxious about their power as blacks were to receive the franchise, and tensions were rising over land use. In early October, blacks arrested two whites from Arkansas "accused of being part of a mob ... that killed several Negroes." The agent reported 14 blacks had been killed in this incident, then said that another eight to ten had been killed by the same Desperadoes. Blacks were reported to have killed the two white men in the altercation. The whites' Arkansas friends and local whites went on a rampage against blacks in the area, resulting in more than 150 blacks being killed.
In March 1872, at the request of President Ulysses S. Grant and the Secretary of the Interior, Columbus Delano, General Howard was asked to temporarily leave his duties as Commissioner of the Bureau to deal with Indian affairs in the west. Upon returning from his assignment in November 1872, General Howard discovered that the Bureau and all of its activities had been officially terminated by Congress, effective as of June (Howard, 1907). While General Howard was dealing with Indian affairs in the west, the Freedmen's Bureau was steadily losing its support in Congress. President Johnson had opposed the Freedmen's Bureau and his attitude encouraged many people, especially white Southerners, to challenge the Bureau. But insurgents showed that the war had not ended, as armed whites attacked black Republicans and their sympathizers, including teachers and officeholders. Congress dismantled the Bureau in 1872 due to pressure from white Southerners. The Bureau was unable to change much of the social dynamic as whites continued to seek supremacy over blacks, frequently with violence.
In his autobiography, General Howard expressed great frustration about Congress having closed down the bureau. He said, "the legislative action, however, was just what I desired, except that I would have preferred to close out my own Bureau and not have another do it for me in an unfriendly manner in my absence." All documents and matters pertaining to the Freedmen's Bureau were transferred from the office of General Howard to the War Department of the United States Congress.
State programs
Alabama
The Bureau began distributing rations in the summer of 1865. Drought conditions resulted in so much need that the state established its own Office of the Commissioner of the Destitute to provide additional relief. The two agencies coordinated their efforts starting in 1866. The Bureau established depots in eight major cities. Counties were allocated aid in kind each month based on the number of poor reported. The counties were required to provide transportation from the depots for the supplies. The ration was larger in winter and spring, and reduced in seasons when locally grown food was available.
In 1866, the depot at Huntsville provided five thousand rations a day. The food was distributed without regard to race. Corruption and abuse was so great that in October 1866, President Johnson ended in-kind aid in that state. One hundred twenty thousand dollars was given to the state to provide relief to the end of January 1867. Aid was ended in the state. Records show that by the end of the program, four times as many White people received aid than did Black people.
Florida
The Florida Bureau was assessed to be working effectively. Thomas Ward Osborne, the assistant commissioner of the Freedmen's Bureau for Florida, was an astute politician who collaborated with the leadership of both parties in the state. He was warmly praised by observers on all sides.
Georgia
The Bureau played a major role in Georgia politics. It was especially active in setting up, monitoring, and enforcing labor contracts for both men and women. It also set up a new system of healthcare for the freedmen. Although a majority of the agency's relief rations went to freedpeople, a large number of whites also benefited. In Georgia, poor whites received almost one-fifth of the Bureau's rations.
North Carolina
In North Carolina, the bureau employed: 9 contract surgeons, at $100 per month; 26 hospital attendants, at average pay each per month $11.25; 18 civilian employees, clerks, agents, etc., at an average pay per month of $17.20; 4 laborers, at an average pay per month of $11.90; enlisted men are detailed as orderlies, guards, etc., by commanding officers of the different military posts where officers of the Bureau are serving.
Some misconduct was reported to the bureau main office that bureau agents were using their posts for personal gains. Colonel E. Whittlesey was questioned but said he was not involved in nor knew of anyone involved in such activities. The bureau exercised what whites believed were arbitrary powers: making arrests, imposing fines, and inflicting punishments. They were considered to be disregarding the local laws and especially the statute of limitations. Their activities resulted in resentment among whites toward the federal government in general. These powers invoked negative feelings in many southerners that sparked many to want the agency to leave. In their review, Steedman and Fullerton repeated their conclusion from Virginia, which was to withdraw the Bureau and turn daily operations over to the military.
South Carolina
In South Carolina, the bureau employed, nine clerks, at average pay each per month $108.33, one rental agent, at monthly pay of $75.00, one clerk, at monthly pay of $50.00, one storekeeper, at monthly pay of $85.00, one counselor, at monthly pay of $125.00, one superintendent of education, at monthly pay of $150.00, one printer, at monthly pay of $100.00, one contract surgeon, at monthly pay of $100.00, twenty-five laborers, at average pay per month $19.20.
General Saxton was head of the bureau operations in South Carolina; he was reported by Steedman and Fullerton to have made so many "mistakes and blunders" that he made matters worse for the freedmen. He was replaced by Brigadier General R.K. Scott. Steedman and Fullerton described Scott as energetic and a competent officer. It appeared that he took great pains to turn things around and correct the mistakes made by his predecessors.
The investigators learned of reported murders of freedmen by a band of outlaws. These outlaws were thought to be people from other states, such as Texas, Kentucky and Tennessee, who had been part of the rebel army (Ku Klux Klan chapters were similarly started by veterans in the first years after the war.) When citizens were asked why the perpetrators had not been arrested, many answered that the Bureau, with the support of the military, had the primary authority.
In certain areas, such as the Sea Islands, many freedmen were destitute. Many had tried to cultivate the land and began businesses with little to no success in the social disruption of the period.
Texas
Suffering much less damage in the war than some other Deep South states, Texas became a destination for some 200,000 refugee blacks from other parts of the South, in addition to 200,000 already in Texas. Slavery had been prevalent only in East Texas, and some freedmen hoped for the chance of new types of opportunity in the lightly populated but booming state. The Bureau's political role was central, as was close attention to the need for schools.
Virginia
The Freedmen's Bureau had 58 clerks and superintendents of farms, paid average monthly wages $78.50; 12 assistant superintendents, paid average monthly wages 87.00; and 163 laborers, paid average monthly wages 11.75; as personnel in the state of Virginia. Other personnel included orderlies and guards.
During the war, slaves had escaped to Union lines and forts in the Tidewater, where contraband camps were established. Many stayed in that area after the war, seeking protection near the federal forts. The Bureau fed 9,000 to 10,000 blacks a month over the winter, explaining:
"A majority of the freedmen to whom this subsistence has been furnished are undoubtedly able to earn a living if they were removed to localities where labor could be procured. The necessity for issuing rations to this class of persons results from their accumulation in large numbers in certain places where the land is unproductive and the demand for labor is limited. As long as these people remain in the present localities, the civil authorities refuse to provide for the able-bodied, and are unable to care for the helpless and destitute among them, owing to their great number and the fact that very few are residents of the counties in which they have congregated during the war. The necessity for the relief extended to these people, both able-bodied and helpless, by the Government, will continue as long as they remain in their present condition, and while rations are issued to the able-bodied they will not voluntarily change their localities to seek places where they can procure labor.'
Bureau records
In 2000, the U.S. Congress passed the Freedmen's Bureau Preservation Act, which directed the National Archivist to preserve the extensive records of the Bureau on microfilm, and work with educational institutions to index the records. In addition to those records of the Bureau headquarters, assistant commissioners, and superintendents of education, the National Archives now has records of the field offices, marriage records, and records of the Freedmen's Branch of the Adjutant General on microfilm. They are being digitized and made available through online databases. These constitute a major source of documentation on the operations of the Bureau, political and social conditions in the Reconstruction Era, and the genealogies of freedpeople.
The Freedmen's Bureau Project (announced on June 19, 2015) was created as a set of partnerships between FamilySearch International and the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), the Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture, the Afro-American Historical and Genealogical Society (AAHGS), and the California African American Museum. With the help of more than 25, 000 volunteers, the project was completed on June 20, 2016. Information about millions of African Americans is now accessible, allowing families to build their family trees and connect with their ancestors.
In October 2006, Virginia governor Tim Kaine announced that Virginia would be the first state to index and digitize Freedmen's Bureau records.
See also
History of African-American education
United States House Committee on Freedmen’s Affairs
Freedmen's Savings Bank
Forty acres and a mule
Freedmen's Cemetery Chalmette, Louisiana
Freedmen's Schools
Notes
References
Sources
General
Bentley, George R. A History of the Freedmen's Bureau (1955) a scholarly history; online
Carpenter, John A.; Sword and Olive Branch: Oliver Otis Howard (1999); full biography of Bureau leader
Cimbala, Paul A. The Freedmen's Bureau: Reconstructing the American South after the Civil War (2005)
Cimbala, Paul A. and Trefousse, Hans L. (eds), The Freedmen's Bureau: Reconstructing the American South After the Civil War. 2005; essays by scholars.
W. E. Burghardt Du Bois, The Freedmen's Bureau (1901).
Foner, Eric. Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (1988).
Goldberg, Chad Alan. Citizens and Paupers: Relief, Rights, and Race, from the Freedmen's Bureau to Workfare (2007) compares the Bureau with the WPA in the 1930s and welfare today excerpt and text search
Litwack, Leon F. Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery, 1979.
McFeely, William S. Yankee Stepfather: General O.O. Howard and the Freedmen (1994); biography of Bureau's head. online
McPherson, James M. The struggle for equality: Abolitionists and the Negro in the Civil War and Reconstruction (Princeton University Press, 1964) online
McPherson, James M. The abolitionist legacy: From reconstruction to the NAACP (Princeton University Press, 1995). online
Supporting education
Abbott, Martin. "The Freedmen's Bureau and Negro Schooling in South Carolina," South Carolina Historical Magazine, Vol. 57#2 (Apr., 1956), pp. 65–81 in JSTOR
Anderson, James D. The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935 (1988).
Butchart, Ronald E. Northern Schools, Southern Blacks, and Reconstruction: Freedmen's Education, 1862–1875 (1980).
Cimbala, Paul, and Randall Miller, eds. The Freedmen's Bureau and Reconstruction (Fordham University Press, 2020). online book review
Crouch, Barry A. "Black Education in Civil War and Reconstruction Louisiana: George T. Ruby, the Army, and the Freedmen's Bureau" Louisiana History 1997 38(3): 287–308. .
Hornsby, Alton. "The Freedmen's Bureau Schools in Texas, 1865–1870," Southwestern Historical Quarterly, Vol. 76#4 (April, 1973), pp. 397–417 in JSTOR
Jackson, L. P. "The Educational Efforts of the Freedmen's Bureau and Freedmen's Aid Societies in South Carolina, 1862–1872," The Journal of Negro History (1923), vol 8#1, pp 1–40. in JSTOR
Jones, Jacqueline. Soldiers of Light and Love: Northern Teachers and Georgia Blacks, 1865–1873 (1980).
Morris, Robert C. Reading, 'Riting, and Reconstruction: The Education of Freedmen in the South, 1861–1870 (1981).
Myers, John B. "The Education of the Alabama Freedmen During Presidential Reconstruction, 1865–1867," Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 40#2 (Spring 1971), pp. 163–171 in JSTOR
Parker, Marjorie H. "The Educational Activities of the Freedmen's Bureau" (PhD dissertation, The University of Chicago; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1951. T-01438).
Parker, Marjorie H. "Some Educational Activities of the Freedmen's Bureau," Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 23#1 (Winter, 1954), pp. 9–21. in JSTOR
Richardson, Joe M. Christian Reconstruction: The American Missionary Association and Southern Blacks, 1861–1890 (1986)
Richardson, Joe M. "The Freedmen's Bureau and Negro Education in Florida," Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 31#4 (Autumn, 1962), pp. 460–467. in JSTOR
Span, Christopher M. "'I Must Learn Now or Not at All': Social and Cultural Capital in the Educational Initiatives of Formerly Enslaved African Americans in Mississippi, 1862–1869," The Journal of African American History, 2002, pp. 196–222.
Tyack, David, and Robert Lowe. "The Constitutional Moment: Reconstruction and Black Education in the South," American Journal of Education, Vol. 94#2 (February 1986), pp. 236–256 in JSTOR
Vaughn, William Preston, "Schools for All: The Blacks and Public Education in the South, 1865–1877" (1974). online
Williams, Heather Andrea; "'Clothing Themselves in Intelligence': The Freedpeople, Schooling, and Northern Teachers, 1861–1871", The Journal of African American History, 2002, pp. 372+.
Williams, Heather Andrea. Self-Taught: African American Education in Slavery and Freedom (2006). online edition
Specialized studies
Bethel, Elizabeth . "The Freedmen's Bureau in Alabama," Journal of Southern History Vol. 14, No. 1, (February 1948) pp. 49–92 in JSTOR.
Bickers, John M. "The Power to Do What Manifestly Must Be Done: Congress, the Freedmen's Bureau, and Constitutional Imagination", Roger Williams University Law Review, Vol. 12, No. 70, 2006 online at SSRN.
Cimbala, Paul A. "On the Front Line of Freedom: Freedmen's Bureau Officers and Agents in Reconstruction Georgia, 1865–1868," Georgia Historical Quarterly 1992 76(3): 577–611. .
Cimbala, Paul A. Under the Guardianship of the Nation: the Freedmen's Bureau and the Reconstruction of Georgia, 1865–1870 (1997).
Click, Patricia C. Time Full of Trial: The Roanoke Island Freedmen's Colony, 1862–1867 (2001).
Crouch, Barry. The Freedmen's Bureau and Black Texans (1992).
Crouch; Barry A. "The 'Chords of Love': Legalizing Black Marital and Family Rights in Postwar Texas," The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 79, 1994.
Downs, Jim. Sick from Freedom: African-American Illness and Suffering during the Civil War and Reconstruction (Oxford University Press, 2012)
Durrill, Wayne K. "Political Legitimacy and Local Courts: 'Politicks at Such a Rage' in a Southern Community during Reconstruction," in Journal of Southern History, Vol. 70 #3, 2004 pp. 577–617.
Farmer-Kaiser, Mary. "'Are They Not in Some Sorts Vagrants?' Gender and the Efforts of the Freedmen's Bureau to Combat Vagrancy in the Reconstruction South," Georgia Historical Quarterly 2004 88(1): 25–49. .
Farmer-Kaiser, Mary. Freedwomen and the Freedmen's Bureau: Race, Gender, and Public Policy in the Age of Emancipation (Fordham University Press, 2010); describes how freedwomen found both an ally and an enemy in the Bureau.
Finley, Randy. From Slavery to Future: the Freedmen's Bureau in Arkansas, 1865–1869 (1996).
Lieberman, Robert C. "The Freedmen's Bureau and the Politics of Institutional Structure," Social Science History 1994 18(3): 405–437. .
Morrow Ralph Ernst. Northern Methodism and Reconstruction (1956)
May J. Thomas. "Continuity and Change in the Labor Program of the Union Army and the Freedmen's Bureau," Civil War History 17 (September 1971): 245–54.
Oubre, Claude F. Forty Acres and a Mule. (1978).
Pearson, Reggie L. "'There Are Many Sick, Feeble, and Suffering Freedmen': the Freedmen's Bureau's Health-care Activities During Reconstruction in North Carolina, 1865–1868," North Carolina Historical Review 2002 79(2): 141–181. .
Richter, William L. Overreached on All Sides: The Freedmen's Bureau Administrators in Texas, 1865–1868 (1991).
Rodrigue, John C. "Labor Militancy and Black Grassroots Political Mobilization in the Louisiana Sugar Region, 1865–1868" in Journal of Southern History, Vol. 67 #1, 2001, pp. 115–45.
Schwalm, Leslie A. "'Sweet Dreams of Freedom': Freedwomen's Reconstruction of Life and Labor in Lowcountry South Carolina," Journal of Women's History, Vol. 9 #1, 1997 pp. 9–32.
Smith, Solomon K. "The Freedmen's Bureau in Shreveport: the Struggle for Control of the Red River District," Louisiana History 2000 41(4): 435–465. .
Williamson, Joel. After Slavery: The Negro in South Carolina during Reconstruction, 1861–1877 (1965).
Freedmen's Bureau in Texas, Texas Handbook of History online
Primary sources
Berlin, Ira, ed. Free at Last: A Documentary History of Slavery, Freedom, and the Civil War (1995)
Howard, O.O. (1907). Autobiography of Oliver Otis Howard/ Major General United States Army (Volume Two). New York: The Baker & Taylor Company.
Stone, William. "Bitter Freedom:" William Stone's Record of Service in the Freedmen's Bureau, edited by Suzanne Stone Johnson and Robert Allison Johnson (2008), memoir by white Bureau official
Minutes of the Freedmen's Convention, Held in the City of Raleigh, North Carolina, October, 1866
Freedmen's Bureau Online
Reports and Speeches
General Howard's report for 1869: The House of Representatives, Forty-first Congress, second session
External links
Africana Archives: Freedmen's Bureau Records at the USF Africana Heritage Project
Criminal Offenses Texas, Freedmen's Bureau ...Office Records, 1865–1870, Sumpter, Roll 26, Letters sent, vol (158), June–Dec 1867, Apr–Dec 1868 .p. 112 Image 60
Freedmen's Bureau Online
"Freedmen's Bureau Marriage Records, 1815–1866", 2007, Ancestry.com website
Freedmen of the 47th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry, retrieved online September 2022.
Freedmen's Bureau in Georgia, New Georgia Encyclopedia
* Joseph P. Reidy, "Slave Emancipation Through the Prism of Archives Records", Prologue Magazine, (1997)
38th United States Congress
Defunct agencies of the United States government
Reconstruction Era
1865 establishments in the United States
United States Department of War
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science%20fiction%20convention
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Science fiction convention
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A science fiction convention is a gathering of fans of science fiction. Historically, science fiction conventions had focused primarily on literature, but the purview of many extends to such other avenues of expression as films, television, comics, animation, and games. The format can vary but will tend to have a few similar features such as a guest of honour, discussion panels, readings and large special events such as opening/closing ceremonies and some form of party or entertainment. Science fiction conventions started off primarily in the UK and US but have now spread further and several countries have their own individual conventions as well as playing host to rotating international conventions.
History
The precise time and place of the first science fiction convention is a matter of some dispute. The idea and form was clearly anticipated in Robert Bloch's short story about a large convention of writers, "The Ultimate Ultimatum" (Fantasy Magazine, August 1935), "It was a big convention. Lovecraft was there." Sometime in 1936, a group of British fans made plans to have an organized gathering, with a planned program of events in a public venue in early 1937. However, on October 22, 1936, a group of six or seven fans from New York City, including David Kyle and Frederik Pohl, traveled by train to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where for several hours they visited a similar number of local fans at the house of Milton A. Rothman. They subsequently declared that event to be the first "science fiction convention." This small get-together set the stage for a follow-up event held in New York, in February 1937, where "30 or 40" fans gathered at Bohemian Hall in Astoria, Queens. Attendees at this event included James Blish, Charles D. Hornig, Julius Schwartz, and Willis Conover. This event came to be known as the "Second Eastern" and set the stage for the successful Third Eastern held in Philadelphia on October 30, 1937, and the subsequent Fourth Eastern held on May 29, 1938, which attracted over 100 attendees to a meeting hall in Newark, NJ and designated itself as "The First National Science Fiction Convention." It was at this event that a committee was named to arrange the first World Science Fiction Convention in New York in 1939; formalizing planning that had begun at the Third Eastern. The "First National", which included the participation of a number of well-known New York editors and professionals from outside fan circles, was a milestone in the evolution of science-fiction conventions as a place for science-fiction (SF) professionals, as well as fans, to meet their colleagues in person.
On January 3, 1937, the British fans held their long-planned event at the Theosophical Hall in Leeds. Around twenty fans, including Eric Frank Russell and Arthur C. Clarke, attended. To this day, many fan historians, especially those in the United Kingdom, contend that the Philadelphia meeting was a convention in name only, whereas other fan historians point out that many similar gatherings since then have been called "conventions" without eliciting any disagreement.
Long after science fiction conventions were sufficiently common to be recognized as a type of event, the Royal Albert Hall asserted that the Vril-Ya Bazaar and Fete, a charitable event held at the Hall in 1891, was the world's first science fiction convention. The event was a multi-day fundraising event themed around the popular 1871 science fiction novel The Coming Race by Edward Bulwer-Lytton, which involves the Vril-Ya, a subterranean race of winged superhuman beings. The event at the Royal Albert Hall featured elements similar to those of later science fiction conventions (in particular modern commercial events), such as special guests (although apparently none directly related to the novel or science fiction generally), special events and other performances, costumes (essentially what later came to be called cosplay), and stalls selling merchandise related to the event's theme. However, the event was not contemporaneously referred to as a science fiction convention and was primarily a fundraiser for the London Massage and Galvanic Hospital, one of a number of such events held with other, non-science fictional, themes put on by the hospital's founder Herbert Tibbits. (The event not only failed as a fundraiser, but led to Tibbits' personal bankruptcy.)
Regardless of what gathering is held to have been the first science fiction convention, American fans had organized sufficiently by 1939 to hold, in conjunction with the 1939 World's Fair, the first "World Science Fiction Convention," in New York City. Subsequent conventions were held in Chicago in 1940 and Denver in 1941. Like many other cultural events, it was suspended during World War II. Conventions resumed in 1946 with the hosting of the World Science Fiction Convention in Los Angeles, California. The first Worldcon held outside the United States was Torcon I in Toronto in 1948; since then, Worldcons have been held in Britain, Germany, the Netherlands, Canada, Australia, Japan, Finland, and Ireland, although the majority of Worldcons are still held in the United States.
Types
Since the first conventions in the late 1930s, such as the first Worldcon, hundreds of local and regional science fiction conventions have sprung up around the world either as one-time or annual events. At these conventions, fans of science fiction come together with the professional writers, artists, and filmmakers in the genre to discuss its many aspects. Some cities have a number of science-fiction conventions, as well as a number of special interest conventions for anime, media, or other related groups. Some conventions move from city to city, serving a particular country, region, or special interest. Nearly every weekend of the year now has at least one convention somewhere and some conventions are held on holiday weekends where four or more days can be devoted to events.
International conventions
World Science Fiction Convention
Worldcon, or more formally The World Science Fiction Convention, is a science fiction convention that has been held each year since 1939 (except for the years 1942 through 1945, during World War II). It is the annual convention of the World Science Fiction Society (or WSFS), an unincorporated body whose members are defined as "all people who have paid membership dues to the Committee of the current Worldcon" (i.e., that are either upcoming or currently under way). These members of WSFS vote both to select the site of the Worldcon two years in advance and to select the winners of the Hugo Awards, which are presented at the convention. The rules for venue selection are deliberately drafted to ensure the convention occurs in a different city each year.
World Fantasy Convention
Fantasy is usually considered alongside science fiction at conventions (the terms were used interchangeably for most of the period from 1926–1966). Conventions that are nominally science-fiction conventions such as Worldcon, are also fantasy conventions in all but name. World Fantasy Convention was begun in 1975, and has since been held on an annual basis. The World Fantasy Convention, however, is less oriented toward the fan community, and is primarily a professional gathering (for writers, editors, publishers, etc.). Many of those who attend "World Fantasy" also attend Worldcon. However, this convention is more focused on authors and publishing, with a much higher proportion of authors in attendance; as such it does not usually include the broad range of events (masquerade, dances, video room, etc.) that one would normally find at a general-interest convention.
World Horror Convention
The World Horror Convention is an annual gathering of professionals of the World Horror Society and other interested parties. Up till 2009, all World Horror Conventions had been held in the United States or Canada, usually alternating between the east and west sides of the country. The 2010 convention was held in Brighton in the UK, the first time it took place outside North America. The Horror Writers Association's Bram Stoker Award ceremony has been held in conjunction with the convention for the last few years.
National conventions
A National Convention is usually held annually in a number of countries. The British Eastercon is the oldest of these. National conventions are often run by, or in association with, a national Science-fiction organization or club.
Regional conventions
Before the age of inexpensive travel, regional conventions arose to attract fans from broad geographical areas. The oldest of these is Westercon, whose meetings are held on a rotational basis among regions in the western United States and Canada. Eurocon is held each year somewhere in Europe, often in eastern European countries where fandom is a new phenomenon. A North American Science Fiction Convention (NASFiC) is held in North America in any year when the Worldcon is outside of North America. DeepSouthCon is held in the Southern United States, with a focus on Southern culture in science fiction.
Local conventions
Local conventions, which are offshoots of the main regional conventions, draw fans from the immediate area in which the convention is being held, though these have very few attendees who have traveled from afar to attend the main convention. Some local conventions, including events run by student groups from high schools or colleges, draw their attendance solely from the student body and campus neighborhood. Others, such as those run by UK universities, may draw from a wider audience than just the university itself.
Media conventions
Some conventions are focused on (audio-visual) "media", that is, science fiction on film and television. There are general media conventions covering a broad range of science fiction in media, such as Toronto Trek, and then there are conventions focused on a single body of work, such as "Celebration," the official Star Wars convention; "Galaxyfest," the yearly event in Vulcan, Alberta dedicated to Star Trek; and BotCon, the official Transformers convention. Most media conventions are commercial shows run for profit, though some are organized by non-profit fan groups similar to general science-fiction conventions.
Comic and "popular culture" conventions
From comics and media fandom, a category of "popular culture" conventions has emerged, such as Comic-Con International and Dragon*Con, featuring a wide range of "pop culture" events ranging from animation, drive-in movie theaters, old-time radio, horror movies, and cowboy celebrities. These events have become much larger than traditional SF conventions; nearly a hundred thousand people attend Comic-Con in San Diego each year. Although not all of them are commercial ventures, they tend to suffer the same drawbacks as commercial shows (long lines, overcrowding, etc.) due to the sheer size of the events.
Special interest conventions
There are many conventions focused on particular special interests within science fiction. For example, Wiscon, in addition to being the Wisconsin Science Fiction Convention, is focused on feminist SF/fantasy and gender, race, and class issues/studies.
Diversicon concentrates on the vastness of human diversity.
Filking conventions such as Ohio Valley Filk Fest, FilkOntario, and GaFilk gather those interested in science fiction-related music.
Costume-Con gathers people from around the world who are mainly interested in science fiction, fantasy, and historical costuming.
Penguicon combines science fiction with technology, particularly Linux and open source software.
The term "relaxacon" is used for conventions which tend to be less about programming, and more about socializing within the fan community; this is quite different from "sercon" (SERious CONstructive discussion of science-fiction topics) conventions.
Commercial shows vs. volunteer conventions
An important distinction can be made between commercial events (often called "shows") – those run by dedicated companies who specialize in con organization, or by local for-profit firms – and volunteer-run cons.
Usually run for profit, commercial events tend to charge for "tickets" or "admission" rather than having "memberships". A primary focus of commercial events is meeting celebrities, such as stars of science fiction TV show and movies, anime voice actors, etc. There are frequently very long lines of people waiting for autographs at commercial events; while famous actors like William Shatner of Star Trek are paid tens of thousands of dollars per convention, minor and obscure bit players pay to set up booths to sell autographs and memorabilia. Commercial events also tend to have less small-scale programming; panels will more often be composed of famous actors, directors, etc. on press junkets, where the panels are held in very large rooms with very high attendance. The largest cons (in terms of attendance) tend to be commercial ones. Commercial events tend to be more likely to be about comics, manga, anime, and popular visual media than volunteer cons, and they also tend to attract the younger generation, but this is not absolute by any means. Some commercial conventions have official licences from the company which produces a particular movie or TV show to run a convention about a particular movie or show. They have been known to aggressively go after fan-run conventions via their legal teams.
Volunteer cons, on the other hand, tend to be smaller in scope and more intimate in character. Panels may be more lightly attended; however, it is the fans themselves who mostly take part in the panels. Although there are frequent autograph sessions, they tend to be less of an attraction for volunteer cons. Admission to volunteer cons is usually called "membership", thus emphasizing that the fans themselves are the ones who make up the con, rather than the staff who run commercial cons. A community of fans who run such conventions has developed, and many of them share their best practices and keep convention-running traditions alive, including at specialist con-running conventions such as SMOFcon.
Anatomy of a typical convention
Although wide variations exist between different conventions, there is a general pattern to which most adhere.
Guests of Honor
Most conventions have Guest(s) of Honor (GoH). These guests are to some extent the headliners of the convention. A convention may have as many Guests of Honor as the convention committee wishes. Along with Author and perhaps Fan Guests of Honor (fans who are not necessarily celebrities but have made a significant contribution to the fan community), a convention may have an Artist GoH, Editor GoH, Filk or Music GoH, a Toastmaster, and Special Guests. A Memorial Guest of Honor (as at Readercon) or Ghost of Honor (as at Worldcon 2008/Denvention 3) is a deceased individual who is selected as a focal point of the festivities. Potlatch, however, has an annual Book of Honor instead.
Professionals at conventions
Conventions provide a forum for fans to see first-hand and meet their favorite authors and artists. They also serve the interests of authors, editors, and other publishing professionals, providing opportunities for networking, promotion, and a convenient location for contract negotiations and other business meetings. At traditional science-fiction conventions, there is little or no distinction made between the "pros" and the "fans." Many professionals in the field began as fans, and may still consider themselves fans; and more than a few fans have also worked professionally or semi-professionally in the field. At a small number of cons, there is a category for "Attending Professionals," professionals who are paying full con price to enter but also get a special name badge that proclaims them to be professionals in whatever field they are involved in.
Program
Panel-led discussions, or Panels, usually fill up the daytime hours of most conventions with typically one-hour discussions of topics related to science fiction, fantasy, and fandom in general. Some conventions have well-attended, scheduled panels starting as late as midnight. Panel members (even professionals) are not customarily paid for their appearance, although many North-American conventions waive membership fees for program participants or rebate them after the convention.
Some program items are set presentations by experts. Science speakers are among the most popular program items at many conventions. Slides (either photographic or computer), video clips, or handouts might be used for such presentations.
Readings and "kaffeeklatsches" are program items where a single author either reads from their work or has an informal discussion with fans.
Special events
The first night of the convention "Opening Ceremonies" are often held, where organizers and marquee guests are introduced and speeches might be made. Sometimes, conventions will have a skits, musical performances, video clips, or other samples of the convention as part of the Opening Ceremonies.
A costume contest called a masquerade is often held where persons go on stage and compete for nominal prizes based on their skill in assembling and presenting genre-inspired outfits. This, however, would be more accurately labelled a "talent show" rather than the "fancy dress ball" that the term suggests (although British fandom sometimes uses the term "fancy dress"). Anime fans might refer to the masquerade as cosplay, but there are notable and subtle distinctions between the terms.
Some conventions feature award ceremonies, in which the best works and most notable individuals are recognized for their contributions to the field. Worldcon has several award ceremonies, most notably the Hugo Awards, but also the Sidewise Award for Alternate History and other awards. VCON in Vancouver, BC features the Elron Awards for dubious distinctions in science fiction, including an annual award for John Norman author of the Gor series.
Just as art shows display the visual aspect of science fiction, many conventions include concerts or other music-oriented events as part of the convention. Often these are performances by filkers, though other musicians may also appear at a con.
A convention may have one or more auctions. The Art Auction is an event where the most popular items from the art show are sold to the most interested buyers at the convention. Many conventions also have auctions for charities, either formal or fannish; the latter would include auctions on behalf of TAFF (the Trans-Atlantic Fan Fund) or DUFF (the Down Under Fan Fund).
Evening entertainment often includes a combination of official and unofficial events, including concerts, dances, formal invitational dinners, and fandom-themed room parties. Additionally, other convention committees hold room parties in order to promote their own convention and to increase their membership. A bid party is a room party held to influence the choice of the location of a future convention (such as Worldcon) by advertising its advantages.
Some conventions have a Closing Ceremony to formally mark the end of the convention. Depending on the convention, this can be a major gathering of most of the membership, or it may be lightly attended or dispensed with entirely as members are occupied with packing up and checking out of the hotel.
Exhibits and fixed functions
A Dealers or Hucksters' Room is available, where merchants sell wares which may be of interest to fans. These include books, action figures, prop replicas and t-shirts. Similarly, there is often an Art Show where genre-inspired art is displayed and usually made available for auction or purchase. Smaller conventions may simply have an informal Dealers' Row, a section of hotel rooms from which dealers sell goods, while larger conventions may have both an official dealers' room and an unofficial dealers' row.
The Art Show is generally an open art exhibition; that is, it is open to all comers and all art submitted is exhibited for sale. This naturally leads to a wide variety of types of artwork, from professional illustrations to outsider art, with many amateur works. The subject matter is tailored to the interests of fandom, i. e. many spaceships, dragons, unicorns, vampires, cat girls etc. Art shows often permit sales by artists, these sales constituting a significant source of income for some artists.
Traditionally, many conventions have had video rooms in which genre-related audiovisual presentations take place, typically commercial Hollywood movies, genre television show episodes, and anime. If there are multiple media rooms, each one may have themed content. Larger conventions may also have a genuine Film Room, for presentation of actual movies on film instead of video.
Game Rooms are also available at some conventions for attendees to play a variety of genre games, including collectible card games like Magic: The Gathering, role-playing games like Dungeons & Dragons, miniatures games like Warhammer 40,000, and board games like The Settlers of Catan. Easy, fast-playing card games, e.g. Apples to Apples, are popular as they don't require a large time commitment or deep knowledge of rules, thus allowing casual gamers to join in.
Con suite
At North American conventions, a convention hospitality suite or consuite is often provided as a room reserved for light refreshments, a quiet conversation, and a place to briefly rest. The refreshments typically include coffee, tea, juice or soda, and light meals appropriate for the time of day. Depending on local liquor distribution and liability laws, the suite may serve alcohol. At conventions in the rest of the world, the hotel or convention centre bar typically offers the same social function. At conventions in the United Kingdom, the provision of cask ale is generally considered essential.
Dead dog party
Many conventions have a "dead dog party" in the evening of the last day of the convention, after closing ceremonies. This is the traditional winding-down party where the remaining attendees are unlikely to have huge amounts of energy. This party is an attempt to ease people back into the real world outside of the convention and can be an effective method of warding off the depression which is often associated with the end of a major event. A dead dog party can last until the following morning.
Idiosyncrasy
Many con-goers take pride in being interesting and unusual, and naturally many cons are highly idiosyncratic. Cons often have activities, running jokes, organizational methods and other features that not only differentiate them from other cons but are often a point of pride. Most cons vary from the above outline in one or more important ways, and many have their own unique cultural characteristics.
For example:
Capricon in Wheeling, Illinois, always includes an entire track of spoof programming. Originally held in the Phineas Taylor B room, it is now slated for the Lake Wobegon room.
At an early Minicon, the President of Mnstf (the con's sponsoring organization) declared himself to be President for Life. This was resolved by play-assassinating the President. Ever since then, the President has been "assassinated" by various humorous means at Closing Ceremonies.
Many cons have idiosyncratic names, including puns, in-jokes, or portmanteaus.
Most cons will tend to evolve many of their own idiosyncrasies along these lines. To fans, these are often part of the charm each convention offers.
Peace-bonding and weapons policies
A peace-bond' is a conspicuous lock, tie, or mark which makes or identifies something unusable, such as a weapon, and shows that the owner's intentions are purely peaceful.
At some conventions, attendees carry real weapons or costume props that appear to be weapons. To forestall concerns about mis-use of real weapons at such events, the security team "peace-bonds" anything that might look like a weapon.
The event's "weapons policy" may offer objective criteria to determine what looks like a weapon. For example, a weapons policy may require a peace-bond for anything that a reasonable person might recognize as a weapon from a short distance in dim light. Real weapons, if allowed, are disabled, secured, and marked. For example, bright orange zip ties may be used to hold a sword in a scabbard or to hold a pistol in a holster. Simulated or costume props may require conspicuous marks, such as bright ribbons or zip ties, to show that security has deemed them safe to be carried. Simulated weapons or props which can be used as a weapon may be disabled or secured in the way as real weapons.
Peace-bonding helps security control the use or abuse of real weapons at a convention or other event: anything that looks like a weapon but which is not peace-bonded is immediately deemed to be suspicious. SF writer C. J. Cherryh writes on her website, "I was a witness of pre-peacebonding times, was narrowly missed, and assure you this is a good idea. Read the convention weapons policy."
See also
Anime convention
Fan convention
Furry convention
Gaming convention
List of science fiction conventions
References
External links
.
.
.
.
.
. A listing site for mainly European events plus the major global events.
Nerd culture
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tucows
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Tucows
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Tucows Inc. is an American-Canadian publicly traded Internet services and telecommunications company headquartered in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, and incorporated in Pennsylvania, United States. The company is composed of three independent businesses: Tucows Domains, Ting Internet, and Wavelo.
Originally founded in 1993 as a shareware and freeware software download site, Tucows shuttered its downloads business in 2021. Tucows Domains is the second-largest domain registrar worldwide and operates OpenSRS, Ascio, and Hover.
In 2012, Tucows launched Ting Mobile, a wireless service provider and used the same brand to launch its fiber Internet provider business Ting Internet in 2015. In 2020, Tucows sold its wireless business to Dish Network, while they continued to operate Ting Internet. The billing platform Tucows built for Ting Mobile was spun off into an independent OSS/BSS SaaS business, Wavelo.
The company was formed in Flint, Michigan, United States, in 1993. The Tucows logo was two cow heads, a play on the homophone "two cows".
Origins
Scott Swedorski, a Flint native, started working as a computer lab manager at Flint's Mott Community College in 1991. By late 1992, Swedorski left Mott College to work at the Genesee County Library System as a system administrator for FALCON (Flint Area Library Cooperative Online Network) and saw a need to bring shareware reviews to the public. In 1993 he formed TUCOWS (The Ultimate Collection Of Winsock Software) leading all editorial, reviews, HTML programming and scripting.
Company history
In the early 1990s, Tucows was hosted on university and public servers (much like Yahoo! and Google were in their early stages). TUCOWS' mission was to provide users with downloads of both freeware and trial versions of shareware. Internet Direct, owned and operated by John Nemanic, Bill Campbell, and Colin Campbell, acquired Tucows in 1996. STI Ventures acquired Tucows in 1999.
The company employed roughly 30 employees in Flint, Michigan, in 1998 with additional employees in Canada. For several years Scott Swedorski personally oversaw day-to-day activity in the Flint office located in the White House building on Beecher Road.
In 2000, Tucows acquired Linux Weekly News (which was then "unacquired" in 2002).
In 2001, Tucows was acquired by Infonautics, which then changed its name to Tucows, a business tactic called a "reverse takeover". On August 26, 2002, Tucows sold eLibrary and Encyclopedia.com, its search and reference services properties inherited from Infonautics, to Alacritude.
Internet Archive preserves a full copy of the Tucows Software Library, with thousands of software titles both in the latest versions, as well as in older versions not yet available through Tucows.
In 2004, Tucows acquired Boardtown Corporation, a billing software provider based in Starkville, Mississippi.
On August 19, 2005, Tucows went public, after completing a secondary offering, listing on the Toronto Stock Exchange as TC and the NASDAQ as TCX.
In January 2006, Tucows completed its acquisition of certain assets of Critical Path, an outsourced email services provider.
In June 2006 Tucows paid $18 million to purchase Mailbank.com Inc, a company that owns over 17,000 domain names for common surnames, such as smith.net and brown.org. Mailbank generates income from ads on its websites (from domain parking) and also from customers who want e-mail accounts with their surname in the domain name.
On June 15, 2006, Noss disclosed that the portfolio of NetIdentity's domain names acquired by Tucows represents at least 68% of surnames in the United States and Europe, and that the cost of the acquisition was $18 million. On February 19, 2008, Tucows announced that they were launching a "Personal Names Service" using their portfolio of 39,000 domain names. "The launch of the Personal Names Service marks the complete integration of the surname assets we acquired with NetIdentity into our wholesale channel", said Elliot Noss, President and CEO of Tucows.
On August 26, 2006, Tucows won an eBay auction for the web calendar site Kiko.com. The company planned to roll Kiko's features into their existing email platform.
On July 27, 2007, Tucows acquired ItsYourDomain.com (IYD), another privately held ICANN-accredited wholesale registrar offering domain services through a network of over 2,500 affiliates with over 700,000 domains under management, paying US$10.35 million. ItsYourDomain.com managed 699,951 domains compared to Tucows's 5,919,987, at the time of the sale in July 2007 ItsYourDomain.com's monthly growth of 29,181 exceeded Tucows growth of 21,126.
By June 2008, Tucows had a total of three domain name registration services called ItsYourDomain (IYD), NetIdentity, and DomainDirect. Tucows decided to discontinue these three services, and merge them into one new domain name registration service, called Hover. Hover is a simple domain name registration service powered by Tucows Inc, that started in July 2008. All IYD, DomainDirect, and NetIdentity customers are fulfilled by Hover.com.
On November 6, 2008, Tucows announced that they were launching Butterscotch.com, an online video network with video tutorials to explain Internet technology, starting with 35 video tutorials and plans to reach 500 clips by Spring 2009. On October 14, 2011, Butterscotch.com producer Sean Carruthers stated production had been shut down.
In December 2014, Tucows launched RealNames, offering e-mail service using domain names acquired from Mailbank.com Inc.
On January 20, 2017, the company acquired eNom for $83.5 million, making Tucows the second-largest domain registrar in the world.
The company announced in January 2021 it was shuttering its Downloads business, as it was no longer essential to the rest of the company's business, but had transferred all of its assets and content to the Internet Archive prior to its closure.
Business lines
In July 2008, Tucows rebranded its wholesale services as "Open SRS".
As of July 2023, Tucows is the third-largest accredited registrar in the world.
Domain portfolio management
Tucows has three sources of income from its domain portfolio: 1) Advertising from pages of domains within their domain name portfolio; 2) Sales of domains from their portfolio, which is constantly being replenished; 3) Auction of the steady stream of thousands of domain names that expire every day and become available for resale.
On November 14, 2007, Tucows disclosed that they offer pay-per-click advertising on the pages of domains within their domain name portfolio. When a user types one of these domain names into the address of the browser (direct navigation), they are presented with dynamically generated links which are pay-per-click advertising. Every time a user clicks on one of the links listed on a web page, it generates revenue for Tucows through its partnership with third parties who provide syndicated pay-per-click results.
On February 7, 2008, Tucows disclosed that it had switched from Google Ads to a new advertising partner in 2007, which led to a one-third increase in its revenue.
On May 7, 2008, Tucows announced it put a process in place for the regular sale of direct navigation names. These domain names would come from names that expire each month from customers who decide they no longer want the domain names and that Tucows is able to select the ones they want to keep from these domain names.
Tucows announced on June 12, 2008, that they have reached an agreement with Afternic to auction Tucows’ large daily inventory of expired domain names. "We have over eight million domains under management and thousands expiring every day, so this deal provides us with a great way to share revenue with our resellers while participating in Afternic’s popular secondary domain name marketplace”, said Bill Sweetman, General Manager of Tucows Domain Portfolio. Tucows will share 10% of the gross sale price with the reseller for the sale of expired domains that were originally registered through the reseller. Revenue will be shared automatically without the reseller having to take any additional action. Tucows chose Afternic as a partner even though SnapNames with Register.com and NameJet with NetSol/eNom are the dominant players in expired domains.
On October 29, 2008, Tucows announced that it would begin direct sales from their inventory of premium domain names under the brand name of Yummy Names. The service was created especially for marketers to obtain a high-quality domain name from Tucows inventory. Customers have the option of purchasing a premium domain name outright or leasing the name. In 2009 one of Tucows' subsidiaries, Buydomains Holdings, sold another premium domain name for a record $50,000 for Myhomepage.com.
On February 20, 2008, Tucows announced a portfolio of over 1,000 domain names that have the high potential value such as "Jewellers.com", "Actresses.com", "BasketballPlayers.com", and "ProjectManagers.com".
In February 2008, Tucows successfully defended against an arbitration proceeding over Batchelor.com, which it had acquired as part of its NetIdentity purchase. The complaint had been filed by Ken Batchelor Cadillac Company, a car dealership. A National Arbitration Forum panel determined that the dealership had not established rights in the mark "Batchelor". In fact, Tucows has won all surname-related arbitration proceedings.
In 2007, Weidner Investment Services filed a complaint claiming that Weidner was its trademark or service mark and asked the National Arbitration Forum to order the transfer of Weidner.com from Tucows to Weidner. Tucows failed to respond, and the National Arbitration Forum ordered Tucows to transfer Weidner.com to Weidner Investment Services.
In January 2017, eNom was sold to Canadian domain seller Tucows for $83.5M Canadian.
Email services
Tucows provides millions of email boxes through their network of over 9,000 service providers. Customers of Tucows fully hosted email service are provided with POP3, IMAP, WAP and webmail access. Providers using Tucows Email Service have the option of using Tucows' spam and virus filtering with their current email infrastructure.
As part of the NetIdentity acquisition, Tucows had problems migrating retail customers' email from a third-party provider to Tucows in-house mail systems in September 2006.
Starting August 12, 2008, Tucows Email Service running on their servers designated as Cluster A experienced a multi-day outage lasting until August 15, 2008. On October 6, 2008, Cluster A again suffered another multi-day outage affecting at least 50% of users and at times all users. As of the afternoon of October 9, 2008, this cluster was still partially down ("degraded") preventing an unknown number of users from being able to retrieve email.
Retail services
Tucows sells services to consumers and small businesses and offers personalized email through net identity. Tucows also offers customers hosting and other services with NetIdentity. Tucows also expected to receive income for pay per click advertising revenue from domain parking the surnames.
Mobile phone services
In February 2012, Tucows launched a new mobile virtual network operator in the United States known as Ting, which resells voice and data services on the T-Mobile US network. As of July 2018, the service had approximately 286,000 subscribers.
In 2017, Tucows acquired Canadian MVNO Roam Mobility from Otono Networks. Roam Mobility ran for three years until it was shut down in June 2020, likely due to travel slowdown from the COVID-19 pandemic.
On August 3, 2020, Tucows announced that it would sell the Ting Mobile business to Dish Network (owner of Boost Mobile) and serve as its provider of backend services for its new wireless businesses.
As of 2022, Tucows no longer runs its mobile phone service and has shifted focus to software enablement for other providers.
Internet services
On December 15, 2014, Tucows announced its acquisition of the Charlottesville, Virginia ISP Blue Ridge InternetWorks, which was building a fiber to the home network. The services were brought under Tucows' Ting branding. They began offering symmetrical gigabit fiber internet without bandwidth caps. Since expanding the existing fiber network in Charlottesville, Ting Internet is currently in 12 markets wth more on the way.
Software (SaaS)
In January 2022, Tucows launched Wavelo, a software as a service (SaaS) company that builds telecom billing and operations software for Mobile Virtual Network Operators and Fiber Internet Services. They have two products: MONOS (Mobile Network Operating System) currently used by Dish Network and ISOS (Internet Services Operating System) currently used by Ting Internet.
De-emphasis and divestment of business lines
De-emphasis of software downloads
Tucows maintains a download archive that includes more than 30,000 software titles in its worldwide network of partner sites. Although some listing features now have fees, basic listing remains free. Tucows founder Scott Swedorski announced his resignation in November 2003. On March 10, 2006, Tucows Content division closed its satellite office located in Flint, Michigan, and relocated the remaining editorial functions to its corporate head office in Toronto. On February 7, 2008, Tucows disclosed that Tucows plans to de-emphasize the software download aspect of their business. The download service was finally closed down in January 2021.
Divestment of web hosting accounts
On May 6, 2008, Tucows announced that they are getting out of the web hosting business. As part of the divestment Tucows signed an agreement for Hostopia to purchase about 14,000 Domain Direct, NetIdentity and ItsYourDomain.com (IYD) customer web hosting accounts and would migrate the web hosting accounts to Hostopia's unified web service platform by July 2008.
Divestment of equity interest in Afilias
On November 5, 2008, Tucows announced that it was selling its entire 7.38% equity interest in Afilias for $7.4 million. Afilias is the registry operator of the .info and .aero TLDs, and the service provider of the .org generic top-level domain (gTLD), .mobi mobile phone TLD, and a provider of domain name registry services for several countries around the world, including .AG (Antigua and Barbuda), .BZ (Belize), .GI (Gibraltar), .HN (Honduras), .IN (India), .ME (Montenegro), .SC (the Seychelles), and .VC (St. Vincent and the Grenadines).
Reputation
Domain name add grace period (AGP) abuse
On January 8, 2008, Tucows explained its values and position on domain name front running: "We work to uphold the rights of Registrants. That means, for example, not putting 60-day locks on domains when a Registrant makes a change to their WHOIS information effectively locking some into a renewal and blocking domain name transfers to other Registrars. That also means having a clear, defined policy surrounding expiry and redemption periods." Tucows addresses domain tasting "by charging our Resellers a monetary fee on domain name registrations that are cancelled within the five-day Add Grace Period (AGP)", but it "doesn’t use WHOIS query data or search data from our API to front-run domain names".
Although it supports ICANN’s fee to discourage domain tasting and Google's decision to drop names added and deleted during the AGP from its AdSense program, Tucows claimed that AGP abuse could be further curbed by shortening the AGP period to 12 hours or less, sufficient time for registrants to correct spelling mistakes—AGP's original purpose.
Registrations to sites selling illegal goods and connections to terrorism
In 2015, the U.S. Trade Representative included Tucows on its annual "notorious markets" list—the first time it has named a domain name registrar—in order to set an example for what happens to registrars that do not block or suspend sites that sell illegal goods. Tucows responded that it suspended dozens of sites every day, but that "unlike some competitors, it considered all complaints carefully to ensure they were justified".
Tucows used to be the domain name registrar for the notorious American imageboard 8chan, which has been delisted by Google for hosting child pornography, and also seen numerous swatting attacks and terrorist attacks announced and planned by users, notably the 2019 New Zealand Terror Attack.
It is also a domain name registrar for the social media platform Truth Social and the white nationalist website Stormfront.
in 2021, Tucows launched a framework to explain their role in dealing with domain name abuse.
Leadership
Elliot Noss - President & Chief Executive Officer - Tucows and Ting Internet
Dave Singh - Chief Financial Officer
Bret Fausett - Chief Legal Officer
Justin Reilly - chief executive officer - Wavelo
David Woroch - chief executive officer - Tucows Domains
Source:
Board of directors
Robin Chase - chairperson of the Board of Directors
Allen Karp, Q.C.
Marlene Carl
Erez Gissin
Jeffery Schwartz
Brad Burnham
Elliot Noss
Source:
See also
Domain name registrar
Hover (domain registrar)
References
External links
Tucows Corporate Website
Companies listed on the Nasdaq
Companies listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange
Companies formerly listed on NYSE American
Software companies of Canada
2005 initial public offerings
Software companies established in 1993
1993 establishments in Michigan
Companies based in Toronto
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20introduced%20species
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List of introduced species
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A complete list of introduced species for even quite small areas of the world would be dauntingly long. Humans have introduced more different species to new environments than any single document can record. This list is generally for established species with truly wild populations— not kept domestically—that have been seen numerous times, and have breeding populations. While most introduced species can cause a negative impact to new environments they reach, some can have a positive impact, just for conservation purpose.
Australia
Mammals
Platypus in Kangaroo Island
Koala in South Australia
Water buffalo
Cattle
Sheep
Pig
Dromedary
Red deer from Europe
Fallow deer from Europe
Chital
Indian hog deer
Javan rusa
Sambar deer
Donkey
Brumby
Banteng
Goat
Brown hare
Red fox
Dog
Cat
House mouse
Northern palm squirrel - established in Perth
European rabbit from Europe
Rats
Black rat
Brown rat
Birds
Acridotheres tristis (common myna)
Alauda arvensis (Eurasian skylark)
Anas platyrhynchos (mallard)
Cacatua galerita (sulphur-crested cockatoo) - Western Australia from east Australia
Cacatua tenuirostris (long-billed corella) - to coastal areas from inland
Callipepla californica (California quail)
Carduelis carduelis (European goldfinch)
Cereopsis novaehollandiae (Cape Barren goose) - reintroduced onto Australian islands
Chloris chloris (European greenfinch)
Cygnus olor (mute swan)
Dacelo novaeguineae (laughing kookaburra) - artificially expanded range
Dromaius novaehollandiae (emu) - reintroduced onto Australian islands
Columba livia (feral pigeon)
Australian brushturkey in Kangaroo Island
Gallus gallus (red junglefowl)
Gallus varius (green junglefowl) on Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Padda oryzivora (Java sparrow) - Cocos (Keeling) Islands and Christmas Island
Lonchura punctulata (nutmeg mannikin)
Meleagris gallopavo (wild turkey)
Menura novaehollandiae (superb lyrebird) - Tasmania from mainland
Numida meleagris (helmeted guineafowl)
Passer domesticus (house sparrow)
Passer montanus (Eurasian tree sparrow)
Pavo cristatus (Indian peafowl)
Phasianus colchicus (common pheasant)
Pycnonotus jocosus (red-whiskered bulbul)
Spilopelia chinensis (spotted dove)
Spilopelia senegalensis (laughing dove)
Struthio camelus (ostrich)
Sturnus vulgaris (common starling)
Gang-gang cockatoo in Kangaroo Island
Trichoglossus moluccanus (rainbow lorikeet) – to Western Australia from east Australia
Turdus merula (Eurasian blackbird)
Turdus philomelos (song thrush)
Tyto novaehollandiae (Australian masked owl) - Lord Howe Island from mainland
Zosterops natalis (Christmas white-eye) - Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Fish
Acanthogobius flavimanus
Asian carp
Astronotus ocellatus (oscar)
Brook trout
Brown trout
Chameleon goby
Common carp
Common roach
Eastern mosquitofish
European perch
Goldfish
Green swordtail
Jack Dempsey
Mozambique tilapia
Convict cichlid
Pearl cichlid
Pelmatolapia mariae (spotted tilapia)
Pond loach
Rainbow trout
Rosy barb
Rudd
Southern platyfish/Variatus platy
Tench
White Cloud Mountain minnow
Siamese fighting fish
Reptiles
House gecko
Trachemys scripta elegans (red-eared slider)
Amphibians
Cane toad
Arthropods
Argentine ant
Black Portuguese millipede
Western honeybee
Red imported fire ant from South America via North America
Yellow crazy ant
Pharaoh ant
European wasp
Silverleaf whitefly
Carcinus maenas
Paratrechina Longicornis (Longhorn crazy ant)
Apis Cerana (Eastern Honey Bee)
Aedes albopictus (tiger mosquito)
Aethina tumida (small hive beetle)
Aphis spiraecola (green citrus aphid)
Bactrocera cucurbitae (melon fly)
Bruchophagus roddi (alfalfa seed chalcid)
Cerataphis lataniae (palm aphid)
Ceratitis capitata (Mediterranean fruit fly)
Corythucha ciliata (sycamore lace bug)
Cryptotermes brevis (West Indian drywood termite)
Diuraphis noxia (Russian wheat aphid)
Forficula auricularia (common earwig)
Frankliniella occidentalis (western flower thrips)
Hylurgus ligniperda (red-haired pine bark beetle)
Idioscopus nitidulus (mango leafhopper)
Maconellicoccus hirsutus (hibiscus mealybug)
Pheidole megacephala (coastal brown ant)
Phylacteophaga froggatti (leafblister sawfly)
Pineus pini (pine adelgid)
Sitobion miscanthi (Indian grain aphid)
Solenopsis geminata (ginger ant)
Spodoptera litura (Oriental leafworm moth)
Tapinoma melanocephalum (ghost ant)
Tremex fuscicornis (tremex wasp)
Trichomyrmex destructor (destructive trailing ant)
Vespula vulgaris (common wasp)
Wasmannia auropunctata (electric ant)
Xanthogaleruca luteola (elm-leaf beetle)
Xyleborinus saxesenii (fruit-tree pinhole borer)
Molluscs
Asian trampsnail
Cernuella virgata
Cochlicella acuta
Cochlicella barbara
Cornu aspersum
Maoricolpus roseus
Theba pisana
Deroceras invadens (tramp slug)
Deroceras laeve (marsh slug)
Arcuatula senhousia
Pacific oyster
Perna viridis
Echinoderms
Northern Pacific seastar
Worms
Sabella spallanzanii
Plants
Around 15% of Australia's flora is made up of introduced species. The following is a non-inclusive list of some of the more significant plant species.
Bridal creeper
Patterson's curse
Koster's curse – Clidemia hirta
Scotch thistle
Lantana
Bitou bush
Pinus radiata
Cestrum nocturnum
British Isles and other European islands
Further information can be found at the, which has a free tool kit of resources on non-native species, including a photo gallery, ID sheets, risk assessments, projects database, case studies and resources for local action groups.
Mammals
Grey squirrel from North America
Greater white-toothed shrew from mainland Europe and Africa
Erinaceus europaeus (European hedgehog) - Uist
Feral horse from mainland Europe
Equus asinus (donkey) - Cyprus
Feral cat from mainland Europe
Brown rat
Black rat
House mouse
Bank vole from the UK; introduced to Ireland
Edible dormouse from continental Europe
Ferret from continental Europe to various islands around the British isles
European rabbit from continental Europe
European hare from continental Europe
American mink from North America
Reeves's muntjac from China
Fallow deer from continental Europe
Sika deer from Asia
Water deer
Reindeer - Iceland
Feral goat
Kashmir goat in Great Orme
Bennett's wallaby from Australia
South American coati from South America
Striped skunk from North America
Raccoon dog
Birds
Haliaeetus albicilla (white-tailed eagle) - reintroduced into Scotland
Pandion haliaetus (osprey) - reintroduced into England
Little owl from mainland Europe
White-cheeked turaco from Africa
Violet turaco from Africa
Rose-ringed parakeet from Asia
Monk parakeet from South America
Tetrao urogallus (western capercaillie) - reintroduced into Scotland
Tetrao tetrix (black grouse) - reintroduced into parts of England
Lagopus lagopus (willow ptarmigan) - reintroduced into southern England
Red-legged partridge
Golden pheasant from Asia
Common pheasant
Anser anser (greylag goose) - reintroduced over Britain and Ireland
Canada goose
Barnacle goose
Egyptian goose
Mandarin duck from Japan
Ruddy duck from North America
Anser canagicus (emperor goose) - small population on Walney Island
Cairina moschata (Muscovy duck)
Columba livia (rock dove)
Netta rufina (red-crested pochard)
Acridotheres tristis (common myna) - Balearic Islands
Fish
Zander
Wels catfish
Rainbow trout
Walleye
Bitterling
Bluegill
Brook trout
Common carp
Black bullhead
Goldfish
Grass carp
Orfe
Pumpkinseed
Topmouth gudgeon
Sunbleak
Fathead minnow
Pink salmon (humpback salmon)
Alburnus alburnus (common bleak) Cyprus
Gambusia holbrooki (eastern mosquitofish) Cyprus, Corsica
Leuciscus leuciscus (common dace) Ireland
Pseudorasbora parva (stone moroko)
Rutilus rutilus (common roach) Ireland
Amphibians
Alpine newt
Midwife toad
Yellow-bellied toad
Marsh frog
African clawed frog
European tree frog
Pelophylax esculentus (edible frog)
Reptiles
Aesculapian snake
European pond terrapin
Pond slider
Common wall lizard
Western green lizard
Crustaceans
Signal crayfish
Chinese mitten crab
Killer shrimp
Chelicorophium curvispinum (Caspian mud shrimp)
Elminius modestus (Australasian barnacle)
Hemimysis anomala (bloody-red mysid)
Orconectes virilis (Virile crayfish)
Insects
Asian giant hornet
Stick insects
Aphis spiraecola (green citrus aphid) Mediterranean Islands
Ceratitis capitata (Mediterranean fruit fly) Mediterranean Islands
Cinara cupressi (Cypress aphid)
Corythucha ciliata (sycamore lace bug)
Ctenarytaina eucalypti (blue gum psyllid)
Dreyfusia nordmannianae (silver fir adelges)
Drosophila suzukii (spotted wing drosophila) Mediterranean Islands
Frankliniella occidentalis (western flower thrips)
Gilpinia hercyniae (European spruce sawfly)
Hypogeococcus pungens (cactus mealybug) Corsica
Icerya purchasi (cottony cushion scale)
Thaumastocoris peregrinus (bronze bug) Sicily
Vespula germanica (European wasp) Malta
Vespula vulgaris (common wasp) Iceland
Butterflies and moths
Large blue butterfly from Sweden
Psychoides filicivora moth from the Far East
Azalea leaf miner moth from East Asia
Argyresthia cupressella moth from United States
Brown house moth from Asia
Tachystola acroxantha moth from Australia
Coleotechnites piceaella moth from United States
Cotoneaster webworm moth from United States
Blastobasis adustella moth
Blastobasis lacticolella moth
Adoxophyles oporana moth
Carnation tortrix
Light brown apple moth Epiphyas postvittana from Australia
Codling moth
Cameraria ohridella (horse-chestnut leaf miner)
Cydalima perspectalis (box tree moth)
Thaumetopoea processionea (oak processionary)
Paysandisia archon (castniid palm borer) Mediterranean Islands
Ants
Pharaoh ant from United States
Crematogaster scutellaris (cork ant)
Lasius neglectus
Linepithema humile (Argentine ant)
Paratrechina longicornis (longhorn crazy ant)
Pheidole megacephala (big-headed ant)
Tapinoma melanocephalum (ghost ant)
Coleoptera (beetles)
Harlequin ladybird (Harmonia axyridis)
Dendroctonus micans (great spruce bark beetle)
Diabrotica virgifera (Western corn rootworm)
Lilioceris lilii (scarlet lily beetle)
Arachnids
Argiope bruennichi (wasp spider)
Euscorpius flavicaudis (European yellow-tailed scorpion)
Molluscs
Arion vulgaris (Spanish slug)
Brachidontes pharaonis (variable mussel) Mediterranean Islands
Petricolaria pholadiformis (false angel wing)
Pinctada radiata (Atlantic pearl-oyster)
Potamopyrgus antipodarum (New Zealand mud snail)
Worms
Arthurdendyus triangulatus (New Zealand flatworm)
Australoplana sanguinea (Australian flatworm)
Bothriocephalus acheilognathi (Asian tapeworm)
Other Animals
Cordylophora caspia (euryhaline hydroid)
Plants
American willow herb
Autumnal crocus
Bermuda buttercup
Canadian pond weed
Common field speedwell
Evening primrose
Floating pennywort
Fox and cubs
Giant hogweed
Guernsey fleabane
Himalayan balsam
Hottentot fig
Japanese knotweed
Jewelweed
Kudzu
Least duckweed
New Zealand willowherb
Oxford ragwort
Pigmy weed
Purple dewplant
Purple pitcher
Rhododendron
Water fern
Hawaiian Islands
Mammals
*Wild pig
Feral goat
Chital deer
Mule deer
Cattle
Sheep
Ovis orientalis (mouflon)
Feral cat
Dog
Small Asian mongoose
Brown rat
Black rat
Pacific rat
House mouse
Brush-tailed rock-wallaby - small population on Oahu
Birds
Primary source for this list is Robert L. Pyle and Peter Pyle, The Birds of the Hawaiian Islands unless otherwise stated
Barn owl
Branta sandvicensis (nene) - reintroduced onto some islands
Anas platyrhynchos (mallard) – vagrant but also introduced
Anas wyvilliana (Hawaiian duck) - reintroduced onto some islands
Black swan
Mute swan
Cattle egret
Wild turkey
California quail
Gambel's quail
Chukar
Black francolin
Grey francolin
Erckel's francolin
Japanese quail
Red junglefowl
Kalij pheasant
Common pheasant
Green pheasant - previous considered to be a subspecies of common pheasant
Common peafowl
Chestnut-bellied sandgrouse
Feral pigeon
Spotted dove
Zebra dove
Mourning dove
Rose-ringed parakeet
Mitred parakeet
Red-masked parakeet
Red-crowned amazon
Mariana swiftlet
Eurasian skylark
Red-vented bulbul
Red-whiskered bulbul
Japanese bush warbler
White-rumped shama
Greater necklaced laughingthrush
Chinese hwamei
Red-billed leiothrix
Japanese white-eye
Northern mockingbird
Common myna
Yellow-faced grassquit
Saffron finch
Red-crested cardinal
Yellow-billed cardinal
Northern cardinal
Western meadowlark
House finch
Telespiza cantans (Laysan finch) - artificially expanded range
Yellow-fronted canary
Atlantic canary
House sparrow
Red-cheeked cordon-bleu
Lavender waxbill
Orange-cheeked waxbill
Black-rumped waxbill
Common waxbill
Red avadavat
African silverbill
Scaly-breasted munia
Chestnut munia
Java sparrow
Reptiles
Anolis sagrei (brown anole)
Anolis carolinensis (Carolina anole)
Chamaeleo calyptratus (veiled chameleon)
Gehyra mutilata (four-clawed gecko)
Hemidactylus frenatus (common House Gecko)
Hemidactylus garnotii (Indo-Pacific gecko)
Hemiphyllodactylus typus (Indopacific tree gecko)
Iguana iguana (green Iguana)
Lampropholis delicata (delicate skink)
Lepidodactylus lugubris (mourning gecko)
Phelsuma grandis (Madagascar giant day gecko)
Phelsuma guimbeaui (Mauritius lowland forest day gecko)
Phelsuma laticauda (gold dust day gecko)
Trioceros jacksonii (Jackson's chameleon)
Palea steindachneri (wattle-necked softshell turtle)
Pelodiscus sinensis (Chinese softshell turtle)
Trachemys scripta (red-eared slider)
Amphibians
Primary source for this list is Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database unless otherwise stated.
Common coquí
American bullfrog
Cane toad
Green and black poison dart frog
Greenhouse frog
Japanese wrinkled frog
Fish
Primary source for this list is Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database unless otherwise stated.
Amatitlania nigrofasciata (convict cichlid)
Amphilophus citrinellus (Midas cichlid)
Amphilophus labiatus (red devil cichlid)
Astronotus ocellatus (oscar)
Carassius auratus (goldfish)
Cephalopholis argus (roi)
Channa maculata (blotched snakehead)
Cichla ocellaris (butterfly peacock bass)
Cichlasoma spilurum (blue-eyed cichlid)
Clarias fuscus (whitespotted clarias)
Corydoras aeneus (bronze corydoras)
Ctenopharyngodon idella (grass carp)
Cyprinus carpio (common carp)
Dorosoma petenense (threadfin shad)
Fundulus grandis (Gulf killifish)
Gambusia affinis (mosquitofish)
Gambusia holbrooki (eastern mosquitofish)
Hemichromis elongatus (banded jewelfish)
Herklotsichthys quadrimaculatus (bluestripe herring)
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (silver carp)
Ictalurus punctatus (channel catfish)
Lepomis cyanellus (green sunfish)
Lepomis macrochirus (bluegill)
Limia vittata (Cuban limia)
Lutjanus fulvus (blacktail snapper)
Lutjanus kasmira (bluestripe snapper)
Micropterus dolomieu (smallmouth bass)
Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass)
Misgurnus anguillicaudatus (pond loach)
Monopterus albus (Asian swamp eel)
Morone saxatilis (striped bass)
Mugilogobius cavifrons (mangrove goby)
Omobranchus ferox (gossamer blenny)
Oncorhynchus mykiss (rainbow trout)
Oreochromis macrochir (longfin tilapia)
Oreochromis mossambicus (Mozambique tilapia)
Osteomugil engeli (kanda)
Parablennius thysanius (tasseled blenny)
Parachromis managuensis (jaguar cichlid)
Pelvicachromis pulcher (krib)
Poecilia latipinna (sailfin molly)
Poecilia reticulata (guppy)
Pseudotropheus johannii (bluegray mbuna)
Pterygoplichthys multiradiatus (long-fin armored catfish)
Rocio octofasciata (Jack Dempsey)
Salmo trutta (sea trout)
Salvelinus fontinalis (brook trout)
Sardinella marquesensis (marquesan sardinella)
Sarotherodon melanotheron (blackchin tilapia)
Thorichthys meeki (firemouth cichlid)
Tilapia zillii (redbelly tilapia)
Upeneus vittatus (bandedtail goatfish)
Xenentodon cancila (freshwater garfish)
Xiphophorus hellerii (green swordtail)
Xiphophorus maculatus (southern platyfish)
Arthropods
* Adoretus sinicus (Chinese rose beetle)
Aedes albopictus (tiger mosquito)
Aethina tumida (small hive beetle)
Aleurotrachelus atratus (palm-infesting whitefly)
Anoplolepis gracilipes (yellow crazy ant)
Aphis spiraecola (Spirea aphid)
Apis mellifera (Africanized bee)
Argulus japonicus (Japanese fishlouse)
Aulacaspis yasumatsui (cycad aulacaspis scale)
Bactrocera cucurbitae (melon fly)
Bactrocera dorsalis (oriental fruit fly)
Bactrocera latifrons (solanaceous fruit fly)
Blattella germanica (German cockroach)
Cactoblastis cactorum (cactus moth)
Callinectes sapidus (blue crab)
Cerataphis lataniae (palm aphid)
Ceratitis capitata (Mediterranean fruit fly)
Chilo suppressalis (striped rice stem borer)
Chthamalus proteus
Coptotermes formosanus (Formosan subterranean termite)
Cryptotermes brevis (powderpost termite)
Culex quinquefasciatus (southern house mosquito)
Darna pallivitta (nettle caterpillar)
Drosophila suzukii (spotted wing drosophila)
Elatobium abietinum (green spruce aphid)
Epiphyas postvittana (light brown apple moth)
Euwallacea fornicatus (tea shot-hole borer)
Exomala orientalis (oriental beetle)
Frankliniella occidentalis (western flower thrips)
Glycaspis brimblecombei (red gum lerp psyllid)
Homarus americanus (American lobster)
Hypogeococcus pungens (cactus mealybug)
Icerya purchasi (cottony cushion scale)
Isometrus maculatus (lesser brown scorpion)
Lernaea cyprinacea (anchor worm)
Linepithema humile (Argentine ant)
Litopenaeus vannamei (whiteleg shrimp)
Maconellicoccus hirsutus (pink hibiscus mealybug)
Macrobrachium lar (Tahitian prawn)
Macrobrachium rosenbergii (giant river prawn)
Monomorium pharaonis (pharaoh ant)
Mythimna unipuncta (rice armyworm)
Neocaridina davidi (cherry shrimp)
Neolecanium cornuparvum (magnolia scale)
Nesticella mogera (cave-dwelling spider)
Opogona sacchari (banana moth)
Oryctes rhinoceros (coconut rhinoceros beetle)
Paratrechina longicornis (crazy ant)
Pheidole megacephala (big-headed ant)
Pineus pini (pine woolly aphid)
Procambarus clarkii (red swamp crayfish)
Pseudaulacaspis pentagona (mulberry scale)
Pseudococcus viburni (obscure mealybug)
Quadrastichus erythrinae (erythrina gall wasp)
Schistocerca nitens (gray bird grasshopper)
Sepedomerus macropus (liverfluke snail predator fly)
Sepedon aenescens (snail-killing fly)
Simosyrphus grandicornis (common hover fly)
Solenopsis papuana (Papuan thief ant)
Sophonia orientalis (two-spotted leafhopper)
Tapinoma melanocephalum (ghost ant)
Trichomyrmex destructor (Singapore ant)
Varroa destructor (Varroa mite)
Vespula pensylvanica (western yellowjacket)
Wasmannia auropunctata (little fire ant)
Xyleborinus saxesenii (fruit-tree pinhole borer)
Xylocopa sonorina (Sonoran carpenter bee)
Xylosandrus compactus (shot-hole borer)
Xylosandrus crassiusculus (Asian ambrosia beetle)
Xylosandrus germanus (black timber bark beetle)
Xylosandrus morigerus (brown twig beetle)
Plants
Canoe plants
Other species
Corbicula fluminea - Asian clam
Cornu aspersum (common garden snail)
Euglandina rosea (rosy predator snail)
Limax maximus (leopard slug)
Magallana gigas (Pacific oyster)
Mytilus galloprovincialis (Mediterranean mussel)
Pomacea bridgesii - spike-topped apple snail
Pomacea canaliculata - channeled applesnail
Lophopodella carteri - freshwater bryozoan
Plumatella repens - a bryozoan
Carijoa riisei (snowflake coral)
Phyllorhiza punctata (Australian spotted jellyfish)
New Zealand
Mammals
Common brushtail possum from Australia
Cat from Europe
Deer:
Red deer from Europe
Elk
Sika deer from Asia
Rusa deer from Asia
White-tailed deer from North America
Fallow deer
Sambar deer
Donkeys: the Ponui donkey from Europe
Cattle from Europe
Goat from Europe
Sheep
European hare from Europe
Horse from Europe
European hedgehog from Europe
Himalayan tahr from Himalaya
Chamois from Europe
Pig
Rabbit from Europe
Rats:
Brown and black rats from Europe
Pacific rat (kiore) from Pacific islands
House mouse
Least weasel from Europe
Stoat from Europe
Ferret from Europe
Wallabies:
Parma wallaby - population on Kawau Island
Red-necked wallaby
Swamp wallaby - population on Kawau Island
Tammar wallaby
Birds
Acanthis flammea (common redpoll)
Acridotheres tristis (common myna) from India
Alauda arvensis (Eurasian skylark)
Alectoris chukar (chuckor)
Anas platyrhynchos (mallard)
Anser anser (greylag goose)
Athene noctua (little owl)
Branta canadensis (Canada goose)
Cacatua galerita (sulphur-crested cockatoo)
Eolophus roseicapilla (galah)
Callipepla californica (Californian quail)
Carduelis carduelis (European goldfinch)
Chloris chloris (European greenfinch)
Colinus virginianus (bobwhite quail).
Columba livia (rock dove)
Corvus frugilegus (rook)
Coturnix ypsilophora (brown quail)
Cygnus olor (mute swan)
Dacelo novaeguineae (laughing kookaburra)
Emberiza cirlus (cirl bunting)
Emberiza citrinella (yellowhammer)
Fringilla coelebs (chaffinch)
Gymnorhina tibicen (magpie) from Australia
Meleagris gallopavo (wild turkey)
Passer domesticus (house sparrow) from UK
Pavo cristatus (Indian peafowl)
Phasianus colchicus (common pheasant) from Asia
Platycercus elegans (crimson rosella)
Platycercus eximius (eastern rosella)
Prunella modularis (dunnock, hedge sparrow or hedge accentor) from Europe
Spilopelia chinensis (spotted dove)
Sturnus vulgaris (starling) from Europe
Turdus merula (common blackbird) from Europe
Turdus philomelos (song thrush) from Europe
Reptiles
Lampropholis delicata (delicate skink)
Amphibians
Green and golden bell frog
Southern bell frog
Fish
Brown trout
Salmon
Catfish
Gambusia affinis (western mosquitofish)
Scardinius erythrophthalmus (common rudd)
Insects
Monarch butterfly from US
Common housefly from Europe
Honey bee from Europe
Polistes chinensis (Asian paper wasp)
Polistes humilis (common paper wasp)
Vespula germanica (European wasp)
Vespula vulgaris (common wasp)
Arachnids
Varroa destructor (Varroa mite)
Redback spider (from Australia)
Other Animals
Didemnum vexillum (carpet sea squirt)
Plants
Up to 26,000 plants have been introduced into New Zealand. This list is a few of the more common and more invasive species.
Gorse from Scotland
Common broom – Cytisus scoparius
Blackberry
Lupin
Ragwort
Scotch thistle
Californian thistle – Cirsium arvense
Mistflower – Ageratina riparia
Kahili ginger – Hedychium gardnerianum
Japanese honeysuckle
Old man's beard - Clematis vitalba
United States and Canada
Mammals
Equus asinus (feral donkey) from Europe
Equus caballus (feral horse) from Europe (known as mustangs)
Feral camel from Egypt, Turkey and Tunisia
Ammotragus lervia (Barbary sheep) from Africa
Antilope cervicapra (blackbuck) in Texas
Bison bison (American bison) in California
Bos taurus (feral cattle) from Europe
Boselaphus tragocamelus (nilgai) in Texas
Capra aegagrus (feral goat, bezoar ibex) from Europe
Hemitragus jemlahicus (Himalayan tahr) from Asia (in New Mexico)
Ovis aries (feral sheep) from Europe
Ovis aries musimon
Oryx gazella (gemsbok) in New Mexico
Sus scrofa (wild boar) from Europe
Phacochoerus (warthog) from Africa to Texas
Deer
Axis axis (chital) from Asia
Cervus canadensis (American elk) in Florida
Alces alces (moose) in Newfoundland
Cervus elaphus (red deer) from Europe
Cervus nippon (sika deer) from Asia
Dama dama (fallow deer) From Europe
Rusa unicolor (sambar deer) from Asia
Canis latrans (coyote) into Florida and Georgia through introduction and natural expansion
Canis familiaris (feral dog) from Europe
Felis silvestris (feral cat) from Europe
Nasua narica (white-nosed coati) from South America (in Florida)
Procyon lotor (raccoon) onto Prince Edward Island
Lemur catta (ring-tailed lemur) from Madagascar (in St. Catherines Island, Georgia)
Chlorocebus pygerythrus (vervet monkey) from Africa (in Florida)
Macaca mulatta (rhesus macaque) from Asia (in Florida and South Carolina)
Saimiri sciureus (common squirrel monkey) from South America (in Florida)
Cricetomys gambianus (Gambian pouched rat) from Africa
Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris (capybara) from South America (in Florida)
Mus musculus (house mouse) from Europe
Myocastor coypus (nutria) from South America
Rattus norvegicus (brown rat) from Asia
Rattus tanezumi (Asian house rat) from Asia
Rattus rattus (black rat) from Europe
Sciurus aberti (Abert's squirrel) into non-native areas of Arizona
Sciurus aureogaster (Mexican red-bellied squirrel) from Mexico (in Florida)
Sciurus niger (fox squirrel) into western US
Spermophilus parryii (Arctic ground squirrel) to Unalaska Island, Kavalga Island, and Umnak Island in the Aleutian Archipelago from mainland Alaska
Lepus europaeus (European hare) From Europe
Oryctolagus cuniculus (European rabbit) from southwest Europe and northwest Africa
Didelphis virginiana (Virginia opossum) from Eastern USA (in California)
Dasypus novemcinctus (nine-banded armadillo) in Florida - there has been a natural extension of the armadillo's range into the US since 1870, reaching Florida by 1970, however the Florida population originates from established introductions dating to the 1920s.
Birds
Pitangus sulphuratus (great kiskadee) - Bermuda
Alauda arvensis (Eurasian skylark)
Red-whiskered bulbul from Asia (in California and Florida)
Pycnonotus cafer (red-vented bulbul)
Estrilda melpoda (orange-cheeked waxbill)
Scaly-breasted munia from Asia
Pin-tailed whydah from Africa
House crow
Carduelis carduelis (European goldfinch)
Calocitta collie (black-throated magpie-jay) in California
Chukar from Asia
Eurasian tree sparrow from Europe
House finch (in the rest of mainland North America and Hawaii)
European starling from Europe
Shiny cowbird from South America
Common hill myna
Common myna
Gray partridge from Europe
Himalayan snowcock from Asia, in Nevada
House sparrow from Europe
Spot-breasted oriole
Budgerigar from Australia (in Florida)
Rosy-faced lovebird from Africa
Blue-crowned parakeet from South America (in California)
Mitred conure from South America (in California)
Nanday parakeet from South America
Yellow-chevroned parakeet
Red-masked parakeet
Red-crowned amazon
Lilac-crowned amazon in California
Red-lored amazon in California
Yellow-headed amazon
Turquoise-fronted amazon
Monk parakeet from South America
Rose-ringed parakeet from Africa/Asia
White-winged parakeet from South America
Chestnut-fronted macaw from South America (in Florida)
Blue-and-yellow macaw in Florida from South America
Common cardinal in California from elsewhere in North America
Northern red bishop from Africa (in California)
Muscovy duck from Central America and South America
Anas platyrhynchos (mallard) - artificially expanded range
Mandarin duck from Asia
Bar-headed goose from Asia
Branta canadensis (Canada goose) - reintroduced into many areas lost in North America
Cygnus buccinator (trumpeter swan) - artificially expanded range
Mute swan from Europe
Ortalis vetula (plain chachalaca) - to Georgia from Texas
Bonasa umbellus (ruffed grouse) - artificially expanded range
Francolinus francolinus (black francolin)
Ring-necked pheasant from Asia and Europe
Common peafowl from Asia (in California)
Chicken from Asia
Oreortyx pictus (mountain quail) - artificially expanded range
Wild turkey from Eastern USA (in California)
Callipepla squamata (scaled quail) - artificially expanded range
Callipepla californica (California quail) - artificially expanded range
Callipepla gambelii (Gambel's quail) - artificially expanded range
Colinus virginianus (northern bobwhite) - artificially expanded range
Pelecanus occidentalis (brown pelican) - reintroduced into Louisiana
Rock pigeon from Europe
Spotted dove from Asia (in California)
Barbary dove/African collared dove from Africa
Eurasian collared-dove from Europe
Grey-headed swamphen
Sacred ibis from Africa
Gymnogyps californianus (California condor) - reintroduced to California and Arizona
Falco peregrinus (peregrine falcon) - reintroduced into many areas lost in North America
Reptiles
Spectacled caiman (in the Caribbean islands, Florida, and other states)
Jackson's chameleon in Florida and California
Brown anole in California, Georgia, Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama
Green anole in California
Hispaniolan green anole in Florida
Puerto Rican crested anole in Florida
Largehead anole in Florida
Bark anole in Florida
Knight anole in Florida
Cuban green anole in Florida
Jamaican giant anole in Florida
Green iguana
Brown basilisk in Florida
Mexican spiny-tailed iguana
Black spiny-tailed iguana in Florida
Common agama
Oriental garden lizard
Common butterfly lizard in Florida
Ashy gecko in Florida
Ocellated gecko in Florida
Common house gecko
Indo-Pacific gecko
Mediterranean house gecko in Florida and Kansas.
Flat-tailed house gecko
Ringed wall gecko
Moorish wall gecko
Tropical house gecko
Tokay gecko
Western green lizard in Kansas.
Ameiva ameiva in Florida
Cnemidophorus motaguae
Eutropis multifasciata
Italian wall lizard in Kansas.
Common wall lizard (in northeast United States)
Northern curlytail lizard in Florida
Hispaniolan curlytail lizard in Florida
Nile monitor (in California and Florida)
Common snapping turtle (in nonnative parts of USA including California, Nevada, Oregon, Arizona, and other states)
Spiny softshell turtle (in California)
Chinese softshell turtle
Twist-necked turtle
Red-eared slider in California, from other parts of US
Painted turtle - Phoenix, Arizona, and California
Brahminy blind snake
Elephant trunk snake
Banded water snake into Texas and California introduced from the southern US
Nerodia sipedon (northern watersnake) into California from native US
Boa constrictor
Burmese python (in the Everglades only)
Amphibians
Primary source for this list is Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database unless otherwise stated.
Pacific tree frog in Alaska
Greenhouse frog
Cuban tree frog
Eastern tiger salamander into California, Nevada and Arizona from native areas of the US
Common mudpuppy (in Maine and other Northeastern states)
American bullfrog (in California, Arizona, Utah, non-native parts of Colorado and Nebraska, Oregon, Washington, Hawaii, and Nantucket island)
Cane toad (in Florida only)
Northern red-legged frog (in Alaska only)
African clawed frog (in California and Arizona only)
Eleutherodactylus coqui (common coquí)
Fish
Primary source for this list is Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database unless otherwise stated.
Acanthogobius flavimanus (Oriental goby) from Japan (in California and Florida)
Alosa pseudoharengus (Alewife) (in Great Lakes)
Amatitlania nigrofasciata (convict cichlid) from Central America
Ameiurus nebulosus (brown bullhead) into western North America from eastern North America
Amphilophus citrinellus (Midas cichlid) - Florida
Astronotus ocellatus (oscar) from South America
Belonesox belizanus (pike topminnow) - Florida
Carassius auratus (goldfish) from Asia
Channa argus (northern snakehead)
Channa marulius (bullseye snakehead) - Florida
Chitala ornata (clown featherback) - Florida
Cichla ocellaris (butterfly peacock bass) from South America (in Florida)
Cichlasoma bimaculatum (black acara) - Florida
Clarias batrachus (walking catfish) from Asia (in Florida)
Coptodon zillii (redbelly tilapia)
Ctenopharyngodon idella (grass carp) from Asia
Cyprinella lutrensis (red shiner) from Mississippi River basin into non-native areas
Cyprinus carpio (common carp) from Europe
Gambusia holbrooki (eastern mosquitofish) - from eastern US to non-native areas
Gramma loreto (royal gramma) - Florida
Gymnocephalus cernua (Eurasian ruffe) from Eurasia
Hemichromis letourneuxi (African jewelfish) - Florida
Zebrafish - from Asia
Heros severus (banded cichlid) - Florida
Heterotilapia buttikoferi (zebra tilapia) - Florida
Hoplosternum littorale (tamuatá) - Florida
Hypomesus nipponensis (wakasagi) - California
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (silver carp) from Asia
Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (bighead carp) from China
Hypostomus plecostomus (suckermouth catfish) - Texas: misidentification, it concerns Pterygoplichthys species
Hypsoblennius invemar (tessellated blenny)
Ictalurus furcatus (blue catfish) - from Mississippi River basin into non-native areas
Ictalurus punctatus (channel catfish) - from central North America into non-native areas
Ictiobus cyprinellus (bigmouth buffalo) - from the Eastern United States to California
Leuciscus idus (ide)
Lepomis cyanellus (green sunfish) - from central North America into non-native areas
Macrognathus siamensis (peacock eel) - Florida
Mayaheros urophthalmus (Mayan cichlid) from Asia (in Florida)
Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass) - from central North America into non-native areas
Misgurnus anguillicaudatus (pond loach) from Asia
Monopterus albus (Asian swamp eel) from Asia
Morone americana (white perch) - from eastern US into non-native areas
Morone chrysops (white bass) from Oklahoma (in California)
Mylopharyngodon piceus (black carp) from Asia
Neogobius melanostomus (round goby) from Eurasia
Oreochromis aureus (blue tilapia) from Africa
Oreochromis mossambicus (Mozambique tilapia)
Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia)
Oreochromis urolepis (Wami tilapia) - California
Parachromis managuensis (jaguar cichlid) - Florida
Pelmatolapia mariae (spotted tilapia) - Florida
Petromyzon marinus (sea lamprey) (introduced into the Great Lakes through the Welland canal c. 1921)
Poecilia mexicana (shortfin molly)
Poecilia reticulata (guppy) from South America
Poecilia sphenops (short-finned molly)- Montana and Nevada
Proterorhinus semilunaris (Western tubenose goby) from Europe
Pterois miles (common lionfish)
Pterois volitans (red lionfish) (in Caribbean seas and shorelines on the east coast of the U.S.A only)
Pterygoplichthys anisitsi (Paraná sailfin catfish) - Florida
Pterygoplichthys disjunctivus (Vermiculated sailfin catfish) - Florida, North Carolina
Pterygoplichthys multiradiatus (Orinoco sailfin catfish)- Florida
Pterygoplichthys pardalis (leopard pleco) - North Carolina
Rhinogobius brunneus (Amur goby) - Washington
Rhodeus amarus (European bitterling) - New York
Rivulus hartii (giant rivulus) - California
Rocio octofasciata (Jack Dempsey) - South Dakota
Sander lucioperca (zander) - North Dakota
Sarotherodon melanotheron (blackchin tilapia) - Florida
Scardinius erythrophthalmus (common rudd) from Europe
Tinca tinca (tench) from Eurasia
Trichromis salvini (Salvin's cichlid) - Florida
Trichopsis vittata (croaking gourami) - Florida
Tridentiger barbatus (Shokihaze goby) - California
Tridentiger bifasciatus (Shimofuri goby) - California
Tridentiger trigonocephalus (chameleon goby) - California
Xiphophorus hellerii (green swordtail)
Xiphophorus maculatus (southern platyfish)
Xiphophorus variatus (variatus platy)
Crustaceans
Primary source for this list is Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database unless otherwise stated.
European green crab from Atlantic coasts of Europe and Northern Africa
Chinese mitten crab from the coastal rivers and estuaries of the Yellow Sea
Japanese shore crab from Japan
Orconectes virilis (virile crayfish) native to North America, but now widespread outside its normal habitat
Pacifastacus leniusculus (signal crayfish) into California from elsewhere in North America
Procambarus clarkii (red swamp crawfish) now widespread in North America, from its native range in the Gulf of Mexico basin
Spiny waterflea from northern Europe and western Russia
Fishhook waterflea from the Ponto-Caspian region
Daphnia lumholtzi
Penaeus monodon
Macrobrachium rosenbergii
Hemimysis anomala
Echinogammarus ischnus
Bosmina coregoni
Eubosmina maritima
Argulus japonicus
Megacyclops viridis
Neoergasilus japonicus
Canthocamptus hibernicus
Nitokra incerta
Schizopera borutzkyi
Thermocyclops crassus
Amphibalanus amphitrite
Amphibalanus improvisus (bay barnacle)
Limnoria quadripunctata (gribble)
Mollusks
Marine
Arcuatula senhousia (Asian date mussel)
Crepidula fornicata (American limpet, common slipper shell) into the coasts of British Columbia and Washington state from the Western Atlantic Ocean
Littorina littorea (common periwinkle) from Europe
Myosotella myosotis (mouse ear snail)
Perna viridis (Asian green mussel) - Florida
Potamocorbula amurensis (overbite clam)
Rapana venosa (veined rapa whelk) from the Sea of Japan
Venerupis philippinarum (Manila clam)
Freshwater
Bellamya chinensis (Chinese mystery snail) from Asia
Bithynia tentaculata (mud bithynia) from Europe
Cipangopaludina japonica (Japanese mysterysnail)
Corbicula fluminea (Asian clam) from Asia
Dreissena bugensis (quagga mussel) from Caspian and Black Seas
Dreissena polymorpha (zebra mussel) from the Caspian and Black Seas
Marisa cornuarietis (Colombian ramshorn apple snail)
Melanoides tuberculata (red-rimmed melania) from northern Africa to southern Asia
Pisidium amnicum (greater European peaclam)
Pisidium henslowanum (Henslow peaclam)
Pisidium moitessierianum (pygmy peaclam)
Pisidium supinum (humpbacked peaclam)
Pomacea canaliculata (channeled applesnail)
Pomacea haustrum (titan applesnail) - Florida
Pomacea maculata (island applesnail)
Potamopyrgus antipodarum (New Zealand mud snail) from New Zealand
Radix auricularia (big-ear radix)
Sphaerium corneum (European fingernailclam) from Europe
Valvata piscinalis (European stream valvata) - Great Lakes
Terrestrial
Cepaea hortensis (white-lipped snail) from Europe
Cepaea nemoralis (grove snail) from Europe
Cornu aspersum (garden snail) from Europe
Deroceras invadens (tramp slug)
Deroceras reticulatum (grey field slug)
Limax maximus (leopard slug) from Europe
Lissachatina fulica (giant African snail)
Theba pisana (white garden snail) from Europe
Zachrysia provisoria (Cuban brown snail)
Xerolenta obvia (Heath Snail)
Worms
Medicinal leech
Ficopomatus enigmaticus - Australian tubeworm
Dendrodrilus rubidus - trout worm
Platydemus manokwari
Anguillicoloides crassus (swim bladder worm)
Bothriocephalus acheilognathi (Asian tapeworm)
Globodera rostochiensis (golden nematode)
Lumbricus rubellus (leaf worm)
Lumbricus terrestris (common earthworm)
Insects
Beetles and relatives
Mottled water hyacinth weevil from South America
Rhinocyllus conicus (thistle-head weevil)
Gonipterus scutellatus
Diaprepes abbreviatus
Asian long-horned beetle
European chafer
Brown spruce longhorn beetle from Europe
Harlequin ladybug
Emerald ash borer from Asia
European elm bark beetle
Elm leaf beetle
Japanese beetle
Paropsisterna m-fuscum
Xyleborus glabratus
Xyleborus dispar (pear blight beetle)
Xyleborus similis
Eucalyptus Longhorned Borer
Aethina tumida (small hive beetle)
Diabrotica virgifera (Western corn rootworm)
Euwallacea fornicatus (Polyphagous and Kuroshio shot hole borers)
Epitrix tuberis (tuber flea beetle)
Lilioceris lilii (scarlet lily beetle)
Metamasius callizona (bromeliad beetle)
Scolytus schevyrewi (banded elm bark beetle)
Xyleborinus saxesenii (fruit-tree pinhole borer)
Xylosandrus compactus (black twig borer)
Xylosandrus germanus (black timber bark beetle)
Crickets
Southern mole cricket
Flies and allies
Asian tiger mosquito
Culex quinquefasciatus (southern house mosquito)
European crane fly
Birch leafminer
Olive fruit fly
Anastrepha ludens (Mexican fruit fly)
Anastrepha suspensa (Greater Antilliean fruit fly)
Drosophila suzukii
Liriomyza huidobrensis
Rhagoletis pomonella (apple maggot)
Termites
Formosan subterranean termite
Cryptotermes brevis (West Indian drywood termite)
Sawflies
Larch sawfly
European pine sawfly
European spruce sawfly
Diprion similis (introduced pine sawfly)
Aphids, whiteflies, and scale insects
Hemlock woolly adelgid from Japan
Balsam woolly adelgid
Phorid fly from South America
Ash whitefly
Silverleaf whitefly
Aleurocanthus woglumi (citrus blackfly)
Singhiella simplex
Aleurodicus dugesii
Beech scale
Saissetia oleae
Aonidiella aurantii
Coccus pseudomagnoliarum (citricola scale)
Aulacaspis yasumatsui (cycad aulacaspis scale)
Icerya purchasi (cottony cushion scale)
Neolecanium cornuparvum (magnolia scale)
Paratachardina pseudolobata (lobate lac scale)
Diaphorina citri
Glycaspis brimblecombei
Ctenarytaina eucalypti (blue gum psyllid)
Shivaphis celti
Toxoptera citricida
Aphis spiraecola (green citrus aphid)
Cerataphis lataniae (palm aphid)
Elatobium abietinum (green spruce aphid)
Pineus pini (pine woolly aphid)
Planococcus ficus
Hypogeococcus pungens (cactus mealybug)
Maconellicoccus hirsutus (pink hibiscus mealybug)
Paracoccus marginatus (papaya mealybug)
Phenacoccus solenopsis (cotton mealybug)
Pseudococcus viburni (obscure mealybug)
Homalodisca vitripennis (glassy-winged sharpshooter)
Ants
Pharaoh ant from Africa
Red imported fire ant from South America
Black imported fire ant from Argentina
Black-headed ant from Africa or Eurasia
Hairy ant from Africa
Argentine ant from Argentina
Singapore ant from Singapore
Floral ant from Asia
European fire ant from Europe
Caribbean crazy ant from Caribbean islands
Asian needle ant from Asia
Big-headed ant from Cameroon
Technomyrmex albipes from Indonesia
Electric ant from South America
Plagiolepis alluaudi (the little yellow ant) from Madagascar
Bees
Western honeybee from Europe
Africanized bee from Africa and South America
Green orchid bee from Central America to Florida
Wasps
Vespula germanica
Polistes dominula
Sirex woodwasp
Selitrichodes globulus
Moths and butterflies
Acrolepiopsis assectella (leek moth)
Archips fuscocupreanus (exotic leafroller moth)
Cactoblastis cactorum (cactus moth)
Coleophora laricella (larch casebearer)
Crocidosema plebejana (cotton tipworm)
Duponchelia fovealis
Epiphyas postvittana (light brown apple moth)
Lymantria dispar (gypsy moth) from Europe
Operophtera brumata (winter moth)
Opogona sacchari (banana moth)
Phyllocnistis citrella (citrus leafminer)
Pieris rapae (cabbage white or small white) butterfly from Europe
Rhyacionia buoliana (European pine shoot moth)
Thymelicus lineola (European or Essex skipper) butterfly from Europe
Other insects
Brown marmorated stink bug from Asia
Bagrada hilaris
Scantius aegyptius
Thaumastocoris peregrinus
Pseudacysta perseae
Taeniothrips inconsequens
Scirtothrips dorsalis
Scirtothrips perseae
Frankliniella occidentalis (western flower thrips)
Thrips palmi (melon thrips)
Forficula auricularia (common earwig)
Arachnids
Lesser brown scorpion from Asia
European false widow spider from Europe
Latrodectus geometricus
Varroa mite from Asia
Oligonychus perseae
Acarapis woodi (honey bee tracheal mite)
Aculops fuchsiae (fuchsia gall mite)
Raoiella indica (red palm mite)
Jellyfishes
Craspedacusta sowerbii from China
Blackfordia virginica
Australian spotted jellyfish from Australia
Other animals
Cordylophora caspia - freshwater hydroid
Lophopodella carteri - freshwater bryozoan
Stephanella hina - bryozoan
Diadumene lineata - orange-striped green sea anemone
Botrylloides violaceus - a colonial sea squirt
Botryllus schlosseri - star ascidian
Styela clava - stalked sea squirt
Plants
This is a non-exhaustive list of some of the more significant plant species
Ailanthus altissima – tree-of-heaven from Eurasia
Acacia nilotica - Gum Arabic tree
Acacia auriculiformis - Northern black wattle
Acacia crassicarpa - Northern wattle
Acacia saligna - Port Jackson wattle
Acacia melanoxylon - Australian blackwood
Heptapleurum actinophyllum - Umbrella tree
Falcataria moluccana -Batai wood
Samanea saman - Rain tree
Prunus cerasus – dwarf cherry from Eurasia
Ficus benjamina – weeping fig from Asia
Ficus benghalensis – banyan from Asia
Ficus religiosa – sacred fig from Asia
Acer platanoides – Norway maple from Europe
Taraxacum officinale – dandelion from Europe
Nymphaea odorata – American waterlily in California from native parts of North America
Eurasian watermilfoil from Europe, Asia and northern Africa
Ice plant from South Africa
Eucalypts from Australia
Hesperis matronalis – dame's rocket from Eurasia
Vicia cracca – cow vetch from Eurasia
Vicia villosa – hairy vetch from Eurasia
Lonicera japonica – Japanese honeysuckle
Lonicera maackii – amur honeysuckle
Rosa multiflora – multiflora rose
Lythrum salicaria – purple loosestrife
Pueraria montana – kudzu (a.k.a. Pueraria lobata) from Japan
Bambusa vulgaris - common bamboo from China
Phyllostachys aurea - Golden bamboo
Phyllostachys aureosulcata - Yellow groove bamboo
Allium sativum – garlic
Daucus carota - wild carrot
Radish
Allium neapolitanum - false garlic
Celastrus orbiculatus – Oriental bittersweet
Elaeagnus umbellata – autumn olive
Alliaria petiolata – garlic mustard
Hydrilla verticillata – hydrilla from India and Sri Lanka
Trapa natans – water caltrop from Eurasia
Eichhornia crassipes – water hyacinth from South America
Pistia stratiotes – water lettuce from South America
ipomoea aquatica – water spinach from India and southeast Asia
Arundo donax – giant reed from the Mediterranean
Conium maculatum – poison hemlock from Europe
Salvinia molesta – giant salvinia from Brazil
Hedera helix – english ivy from Europe
Robinia pseudoacacia - Black locust (in non-native parts of the United States)
Gleditsia triacanthos - Honey locust (in non-native parts of the United States)
Fucus serratus – rockweed from Europe
Codium fragile subsp. tomentosoides – green sea fingers
Centaurea diffusa – diffuse knapweed
Cytisus scoparius – Scotch broom from Europe
Sorghum halepense – Johnson grass from Europe
Sargassum horneri
Kali tragus – a tumbleweed from Eurasia
Cynanchum louiseae (black swallow-wort)
Reynoutria japonica (syn. Fallopia japonica) (Japanese Knotweed)
Oomycetes
Phytophthora ramorum - the cause of sudden oak death
Central America, Caribbean islands and Mexico
Mammals
Donkey
Horse
Fallow deer - Guiana Island and Barbuda
Odocoileus virginianus (white-tailed deer) - onto several islands
Cattle - at least Hispaniola
Goat
Barbary sheep - Mexico
Nilgai - Mexico by natural colonisation from the introduced Texan population
Pig
Monkeys:
Mona monkey from Africa (in Grenada)
Green monkey (previously identified as the vervet monkey) (From Africa, In Barbados
Stump-tailed macaque - small population on the islands in Laguna Catemaco
Rhesus macaque - there were established populations in Puerto Rico up until 2010. There has since been an unpublicised eradication program by the Puerto Rican government, which may have been successful, which would limit the population to research establishments.
Patas monkey from Africa (in Puerto Rico)
Small Asian mongoose from Asia (in Caribbean islands)
Dog
Cat
European rabbit - population on Clarion Island not yet eradicated
European hare - on Barbados
Lowland paca - on Cuba
Red-rumped agouti - on Dominica, Grenada, and Virgin Islands
Brown rat
Black rat
House mouse
Procyon lotor (raccoon) onto Bahamas, Guadeloupe, and Martinique
Birds
Cathartes aura (turkey vulture) Puerto Rico
Chicken
Numida meleagris (helmeted guineafowl)
Alectoris chukar (chukar partridge)
Colinus virginianus (northern bobwhite) artificially expanded range
Colinus cristatus (crested bobwhite) artificially expanded range
Alectoris barbara (Barbary partridge)
Eurasian collared dove
Feral pigeon
European starling
Pin-tailed whydah into Puerto Rico
Javan myna into Puerto Rico
Common hill myna into Puerto Rico
Java sparrow
Common waxbill
Village weaver
Passer domesticus (house sparrow)
Euplectes afer (yellow-crowned bishop)
Estrilda melpoda (orange-cheeked waxbill)
Lonchura cucullata (bronze mannikin)
Lonchura punctulata (scaly-breasted munia)
Sicalis flaveola (saffron finch)
Sicalis luteola (grassland yellow finch) Lesser Antilles
Tiaris canorus (Cuban grassquit) Bahamas
Icterus icterus (Venezuelan troupial)
Quiscalus lugubris (Carib grackle)
Molothrus bonariensis (shiny cowbird)
Cockatiel
Sulphur-crested cockatoo
Scarlet macaw into Puerto Rico from native parts of the Americas
Red-and-green macaw into Puerto Rico from native parts of the Americas
Blue-and-yellow macaw into Puerto Rico from native parts of the Americas
Orange-winged amazon
Budgerigar
Monk parakeet
White-winged parakeet into Puerto Rico
Nanday parakeet into Puerto Rico
Green-rumped parrotlet
Eupsittula pertinax (brown-throated parakeet) Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands
Amazona ventralis (Hispaniolan amazon) Puerto Rico and US Virgin Is.
Reptiles
Spectacled caiman - Cuba and Puerto Rico
Burmese python - Puerto Rico
Boa constrictor - Puerto Rico
Green Anaconda - Trinidad and Tobago
Anolis sagrei (brown anole)
Anolis wattsi (Watts' anole)
Trachemys scripta elegans (red-eared slider)
Amphibians
Common coquí - U.S. Virgin Islands, Dominican Republic
Greenhouse frog - Jamaica, Bahamas
Cuban tree frog
Scinax ruber - Puerto Rico, Lesser Antilles
Cane toad
American bullfrog
Fish
Mozambique tilapia
Gambusia holbrooki (eastern mosquitofish)
Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass)
Xiphophorus hellerii (green swordtail)
Insects
Leaf-cutting ant into Guadeloupe from South America
Cactoblastis cactorum
Aethina tumida (small hive beetle)
Aleurocanthus woglumi (citrus blackfly)
Aphis spiraecola (green citrus aphid)
Aulacaspis yasumatsui (cycad aulacaspis scale)
Cerataphis lataniae (palm aphid)
Ceratitis capitata (Mediterranean fruit fly)
Cryptotermes brevis (West Indian drywood termite)
Culex quinquefasciatus (southern house mosquito)
Frankliniella occidentalis (western flower thrips)
Hypogeococcus pungens (cactus mealybug)
Icerya purchasi (cottony cushion scale)
Maconellicoccus hirsutus (pink hibiscus mealybug)
Papilio demoleus (common lime butterfly)
Paracoccus marginatus (papaya mealybug)
Paratachardina pseudolobata (lobate lac scale)
Pheidole megacephala (big-headed ant)
Phenacoccus solenopsis (cotton mealybug)
Phyllocnistis citrella (citrus leafminer)
Sternochetus mangiferae (mango seed weevil)
Tapinoma melanocephalum (ghost ant)
Thrips palmi (melon thrips)
Toxoptera citricida (brown citrus aphid)
Trichomyrmex destructor (destructive trailing ant)
Wasmannia auropunctata (electric ant)
Xyleborinus saxesenii (fruit-tree pinhole borer)
Xylosandrus compactus (black twig borer)
Xylosandrus crassiusculus (Asian ambrosia beetle)
Xylosandrus morigerus (brown twig beetle)
Arachnids
Raoiella indica (red palm mite)
Rhipicephalus microplus (Asian blue tick)
Worms
Bothriocephalus acheilognathi (Asian tapeworm)
Platydemus manokwari (New Guinea flatworm)
Crustaceans
Amphibalanus improvisus (bay barnacle)
Mollusks
Deroceras invadens (tramp slug)
Deroceras laeve (marsh slug)
Euglandina rosea (rosy wolfsnail)
Lissachatina fulica (giant African snail)
Marisa cornuarietis (Colombian ramshorn apple snail)
Melanoides tuberculata (red-rimmed melania)
Pomacea canaliculata (channeled applesnail)
Zachrysia provisoria (Cuban brown snail)
South America
Mammals
Beaver from North America to Tierra del Fuego
Muskrat
Brown rat
Black rat
House mouse
European hare from Europe to Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Argentina, Chile, Uruguay and Brazil
European rabbit
Small Asian mongoose from Asia to Venezuela, Guyana and Suriname
American mink
Dog
Cat
Chital from Asia to Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and Chile
Elk from North America
Red deer from Europe
Blackbuck from Asia to Argentina and Uruguay
Himalayan tahr from New Zealand (originally from Asia)
Fallow deer
Water buffalo - at least Brazil
Cattle
Wild boar from Europe
Goat
Feral horse from Europe
Hippopotamus from Africa to Colombia, Originally kept by Pablo Escobar
Birds
Anas platyrhynchos (mallard)
Anser anser (greylag goose)
Brotogeris versicolurus (white-winged parakeet) – Peru
Callipepla californica (California quail)
Carduelis carduelis (European goldfinch)
Chloris chloris (European greenfinch)
Columba livia (rock dove)
Estrilda astrild (common waxbill)
Passer domesticus (house sparrow)
Ploceus cucullatus (village weaver)
Rhea pennata (Darwin's rhea) - introduced to Tierra del Fuego from mainland
Shiny cowbird (shiny cowbird) – Chile
Thraupis episcopus (blue-gray tanager) - Lima
Amphibians
American bullfrog
Fish
Arapaima gigas from the Amazon rivers
Cherry barb from Sri Lanka
Mozambique tilapia
Pterois volitans (Red lionfish)
Salmo trutta (Brown trout)
Oncorhynchus mykiss (Rainbow trout)
Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia)
Cyprinus carpio (Common carp)
Micropterus salmoides (Largemouth bass)
Trichogaster pectoralis (Snakeskin gourami)
Insects
Aedes albopictus (tiger mosquito)
Anastrepha fraterculus (South American fruit fly)
Aphis spiraecola (green citrus aphid)
Bemisia tabaci (silverleaf whitefly)
Cerataphis lataniae (palm aphid)
Ceratitis capitata (Mediterranean fruit fly)
Cinara cupressi (cypress aphid)
Cryptotermes brevis (West Indian drywood termite)
Ctenarytaina eucalypti (blue gum psyllid)
Icerya purchasi (cottony cushion scale)
Linepithema humile (Argentine ant)
Maconellicoccus hirsutus (hibiscus mealybug)
Nylanderia fulva (Crazy ant)
Phenacoccus solenopsis (cotton mealybug)
Arachnids
Raoiella indica (red palm mite)
Crustaceans
Carcinus maenas (shore crab)
Charybdis hellerii (Blue Jaiba crab)
Cherax cainii
Cherax quadricarinatus (Australian red claw crayfish)
Daphnia lumholtzi
Macrobrachium rosenbergii (giant river prawn)
Penaeus monodon (Asian tiger shrimp)
Procambarus clarkii (red swamp crawfish)
Mollusks
Achatina fulica (Giant African snail)
Deroceras invadens (tramp slug)
Deroceras laeve (marsh slug)
Cornu aspersum (Garden snail)
Melanoides tuberculata (red-rimmed melania)
Continental Europe
Mammals
Barbary macaque - Gibraltar (from North Africa)
Common raccoon - (from North America)
North African hedgehog - (from Africa)
Raccoon dog - throughout Central and Eastern Europe into E Scandinavia (from Asia)
European brown bear - through most of its range in mainland Europe (reintroduced)
American mink - Spain, N. France, Belgium, The Netherlands, Scandinavia, Lithuania, Belarus, etc. (from North America)
Egyptian mongoose - Portugal, southern Spain, island of Mljet (from North Africa)
Small Asian mongoose - Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Adriatic islands
Common genet - from Africa to Europe
Cat
Deer:
Sika deer - France, Germany, Ireland, Denmark, Poland, Austria (from Asia)
Axis deer - Italy, Slovenia, Poland, Ukraine, Georgia, Russia east of Black Sea (from South Asia)
White-tailed deer - S Finland (from North America)
Chinese water deer - France (from China)
Elk - at least one example into Italy
Barbary sheep - Spain (from Africa)
Ovis orientalis (mouflon) - neolithic expansion of range through semi-domestication
Goat
Greenland muskox - Norway, Sweden (from Greenland)
European bison - mainland Europe (reintroduced)
European beaver - Finland (reintroduced)
North American beaver - Finland, Russia
Grey squirrel - Italy, Scotland, England, Ireland (from North America)
Finlayson's squirrel
Pallas's squirrel
Siberian chipmunk - France, Germany, Austria, Netherlands, Finland, England (from further east in Eurasia)
Muskrat - E Scandinavia, W France, north to Denmark, east to Ukraine, south to N Greece
Brown rat - throughout (from Asia)
Black rat - throughout (from South-East Asia or China, via India and Middle East)
House mouse - throughout (from N Iran border)
Coypu - (from South America)
Cottontail rabbit - Spain, France, Italy (from North America)
Lepus europaeus (European hare) - Norway, Sweden
Bennett's wallaby - from Australia
Birds
Griffon vulture - in most of its range in Europe (reintroduced)
Bubo bubo (Eurasian eagle-owl) - reintroduced into Sweden
Sacred ibis - France (from Africa)
Phoenicopterus chilensis (Chilean flamingo)
Black swan - Poland, Netherlands (from Australia)
Canada goose - N Europe (France to Scandinavia) (from North America)
Swan goose - (from Asia)
Bar-headed goose - UK, Netherlands
Egyptian goose - UK, Netherlands (from Africa)
Mandarin duck from Asia
Ruddy duck - spreading from UK (from North America)
Columba livia (rock dove) - into northern Europe
Alectoris chukar (chukar partridge)
Alectoris rufa (red-legged partridge) - into northern Europe
Alectoris barbara (Barbary partridge)
Perdix perdix (grey partridge) - reintroduced to many parts of Europe
Common pheasant - throughout (from Asia)
Northern bobwhite - C France (from North America)
Reeves's pheasant - France, Czech Republic (from China)
Wild turkey - Germany (from North America)
Rose-ringed parakeet - Spain, Netherlands, Belgium, W Germany
Monk parakeet - Italy, Slovakia (from South America)
Common mynah - Russia (from India)
Acridotheres cristatellus (crested myna)
Leiothrix lutea (red-billed leiothrix)
Ploceus cucullatus (village weaver)
Ploceus melanocephalus (black-headed weaver)
Euplectes afer (yellow-crowned bishop)
Estrilda troglodytes (black-rumped waxbill)
Euodice cantans (African silverbill)
Common waxbill - Portugal (from Africa)
Red avadavat - Spain, Po Delta (from India)
Greater rhea - Germany (from South America)
Corvus splendens (House crow)
Reptiles
Pond slider - (from North America)
Knight anole - (from Cuba)
Chamaeleo chamaeleon (common chameleon)
Chamaeleo africanus (African chameleon)
California kingsnake - Spain
Spur-thighed tortoise - Italy, Spain, Malta, Sardinia, Sicily, and Balaeric Islands (from Africa)
Chinese softshell turtle - Spain (from China)
Amphibians
Bullfrog - southern Europe (from North America)
African clawed frog - (from Africa)
Axolotl - in Germany
Newt Paramesotriton labiatus - (from Asia)
Fish
Alburnus alburnus (common bleak)
Ameiurus melas (black bullhead) - (from North America)
Ameiurus nebulosus (brown bullhead) - (from North America)
Australoheros facetus (Chameleon cichlid)
Carassius auratus (goldfish)
Carassius gibelio (Prussian carp)
Cyprinus carpio (common carp)
Esox lucius (northern pike)
Fundulus heteroclitus (mummichog)
Gambusia holbrooki (eastern mosquitofish) - (from North America)
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (silver carp) - (from East Asia)
Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (bighead carp) - (from East Asia)
Lepomis gibbosus (pumpkinseed) - (from North America)
Liza haematocheilus (haarder) - (from East Asia)
Micropterus salmoides (Largemouth Bass)
Neogobius fluviatilis (monkey goby)
Neogobius melanostomus (round goby)
Oncorhynchus mykiss (rainbow trout)
Perccottus glenii (Chinese sleeper) - (from China)
Pseudorasbora parva (stone moroko) - (from China)
Rutilus rutilus (common roach)
Sander lucioperca (Sander lucioperca)
Tridentiger trigonocephalus (chameleon goby) - (from East Asia)
Crustaceans
Balanus improvisus (Bay barnacle)
Cercopagis pengoi (fishhook waterflea)
Chelicorophium curvispinum (Caspian mud shrimp)
Elminius modestus (Australasian barnacle)
Hemigrapsus takanoi (brush-clawed shore crab)
Hemimysis anomala (bloody-red mysid)
Limnomysis benedeni (Donau-Schwebgarnele)
Limnoria lignorum (gribble)
Orconectes limosus.
Palaemon elegans (rockpool shrimp)
Paralithodes camtschaticus (Red king crab)
Percnon gibbesi (Sally Lightfoot crab)
Pontogammarus robustoides
Procambarus clarkii (Louisiana crawfish)
Insects
Adelges piceae (balsam woolly adelgid)
Aedes albopictus (tiger mosquito)
Aleurodicus dispersus (spiralling whitefly)
Aphis spiraecola (green citrus aphid)
Aromia bungii (red necked longicorn)
Cacyreus marshalli (geranium bronze)
Cameraria ohridella (horse-chestnut leaf miner)
Ceratitis capitata (Mediterranean fruit fly)
Chilo suppressalis (striped rice stem borer)
Cinara cupressi (Cypress aphid)
Corythucha ciliata (sycamore lace bug)
Cryptotermes brevis (West Indian drywood termite)
Ctenarytaina eucalypti (blue gum psyllid)
Cydalima perspectalis (box tree moth)
Dendroctonus micans (great spruce bark beetle)
Diabrotica virgifera (Western corn rootworm)
Dreyfusia nordmannianae (silver fir adelges)
Drosophila suzukii (spotted wing drosophila)
Dryocosmus kuriphilus (chestnut gall wasp)
Frankliniella occidentalis (western flower thrips)
Harmonia axyridis (Asian lady beetle)
Hypogeococcus pungens (cactus mealybug)
Icerya purchasi (cottony cushion scale)
Lasius neglectus (invasive garden ant)
Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Colorado beetle)
Linepithema humile (Argentine ant)
Lysiphlebus testaceipes
Opogona sacchari (banana moth)
Monomorium pharaonis (Pharaoh ant)
Paratrechina longicornis (longhorn crazy ant)
Paysandisia archon (castniid palm borer)
Pheidole megacephala (big-headed ant)
Phoracantha semipunctata (Australian Eucalyptus longhorn)
Rhagoletis cingulata (eastern cherry fruit fly)
Thaumastocoris peregrinus (bronze bug)
Vespa velutina (Asian predatory wasp) (in France)
Xylosandrus germanus (black timber bark beetle)
Molluscs
Arcuatula senhousia (Asian date mussel)
Arion vulgaris (Spanish slug)
Brachidontes pharaonis (variable mussel)
Corbicula fluminalis
Corbicula fluminea (Freshwater bivalve mollusk)
Crassostrea gigas (Pacific oyster)
Crepidula fornicata (Common slipper shell)
Deroceras invadens (tramp slug)
Dreissena polymorpha (Zebra mussel)
Dreissena rostriformis bugensis (Quagga mussel)
Ensis directus (American jack-knife clam)
Petricolaria pholadiformis (false angel wing)
Pinctada radiata (Atlantic pearl-oyster)
Rapana venosa (Veined rapa whelk)
Sinanodonta woodiana (Chinese pond mussel)
Other Animals
Anguillicoloides crassus (swim bladder worm)
Bothriocephalus acheilognathi (Asian tapeworm)
Bugula neritina (brown bryozoan)
Cordylophora caspia (euryhaline hydroid)
Ficopomatus enigmaticus (Australian tubeworm)
Globodera rostochiensis (yellow potato cyst nematode)
Lumbricus terrestris (common earthworm)
Marenzelleria neglecta (red gilled mud worm)
Microcosmus squamiger
Mnemiopsis leidyi (warty comb jelly)
Polyandrocarpa zorritensis
Rhopilema nomadica (nomad jellyfish)
Schizoporella errata (branching bryozoan)
Styela clava (Stalked sea squirt)
Tricellaria inopinata
Asia excluding Japan
Mammals
Macaca fascicularis (crab-eating macaque) into Hong Kong
Canis familiaris (dog)
Felis catus (cat) from Africa
Neogale vison (American mink) from North America
Procyon lotor (common raccoon) from North America
Myocastor coypus (nutria) from South America
Ondatra zibethicus (muskrat) from North America
Oryctolagus cuniculus (European rabbit) from Europe
Rattus norvegicus (brown rat) onto islands from mainland Asia
Rattus rattus (black rat)
Ceratotherium simum (southern white rhinoceros) from Africa to China
Equus africanus (donkey) - Sri Lanka
Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata (reticulated giraffe) - Arabia (see Sir Bani Yas)
Ovibos moschatus (muskox) - Russia
Ovis aries (sheep) into Tibet
Birds
Acridotheres cinereus (pale-bellied myna) into Borneo
Acridotheres cristatellus (crested myna) artificially expanded range
Acridotheres tristis (common myna) into non-native areas
Amandava amandava (red avadavat) artificially expanded range
Cacatua galerita (sulphur-crested cockatoo) artificially expanded range into eastern Indonesia
Cacatua sulphurea (yellow-crested cockatoo) Hong Kong
Corvus splendens (house crow) into non-native areas
Eclectus roratus (eclectus parrot) artificially expanded range into eastern Indonesia
Euodice cantans (African silverbill)
Francolinus pintadeanus (Chinese francolin) Philippines from mainland
Garrulax canorus (Chinese hwamei) into non-native areas
Geopelia striata (zebra dove) artificially expanded range
Geronticus eremita (northern bald ibis) reintroduced into Turkey
Lonchura atricapilla (chestnut munia) Maluku Islands
Lonchura leucogastroides (Javan munia) Singapore and S Malay Peninsula
Padda oryzivora (Java sparrow) artificially expanded range
Passer montanus (Eurasian tree sparrow) artificially expanded range
Perdix dauurica (Daurian partridge) Philippines from mainland
Psittacula krameri (rose-ringed parakeet) into Israel
Spilopelia chinensis (spotted dove) eastern Indonesia
Tanygnathus lucionensis (blue-naped parrot) Borneo
Trichoglossus haematodus (coconut lorikeet) Hong Kong
Reptiles
Common snapping turtle
Pond slider
Brown anole into Taiwan
Brahminy blind snake into non-native areas
Burmese python into Singapore
Amphibians
Cane toad
American bullfrog
Fish
Arapaima gigas from South America
Abbottina rivularis (Chinese false gudgeon) into non-native areas
Amatitlania nigrofasciata (convict cichlid)
Atractosteus spatula (alligator gar)
Clarias gariepinus (African sharptooth catfish)
Colossoma macropomum (tambaqui) from South America
Coptodon zillii (redbelly tilapia)
Gambusia affinis (mosquitofish)
Gambusia holbrooki (eastern mosquitofish)
Hemibarbus maculatus (spotted steed) into non-native areas
Hemiculter leucisculus (sharpbelly) into Central Asia
Ictalurus punctatus (channel catfish)
Lepomis macrochirus (bluegill)
Mayaheros urophthalmus (Mayan cichlid)
Micropterus dolomieu (smallmouth bass)
Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass)
Oreochromis mossambicus (Mozambique tilapia)
Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia)
Poecilia reticulata (guppy)
Poecilia sphenops (molly)
Pseudorasbora parva (stone moroko) into non-native areas
Pterygoplichthys disjunctivus (suckermouth armored catfish)
Rhodeus ocellatus (rosy bitterling) into non-native areas
Salvelinus fontinalis (brook trout)
Xiphophorus hellerii (green swordtail)
Insects
Aleurodicus dispersus (spiralling whitefly)
Belostoma bifoveolatum (giant water bug) from South America
Bemisia tabaci (silverleaf whitefly)
Blattella germanica (German cockroach)
Cameraria ohridella (horse-chestnut leaf miner)
Ceratitis capitata (Mediterranean fruit fly)
Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screwworm fly)
Cinara cupressi (cypress aphid)
Corythucha ciliata (sycamore lace bug)
Ctenarytaina eucalypti (blue gum psyllid)
Cydalima perspectalis (box tree moth)
Dendroctonus micans (great spruce bark beetle)
Dendroctonus pseudotsugae (Douglas-fir beetle)
Frankliniella occidentalis (western flower thrips)
Hypera postica (alfalfa weevil)
Hyphantria cunea (fall webworm)
Icerya purchasi (cottony cushion scale)
Linepithema humile (Argentine ant)
Liriomyza sativae (vegetable leaf miner)
Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus (rice water weevil)
Monomorium pharaonis (pharaoh ant)
Oracella acuta (loblolly pine mealybug)
Pheidole megacephala (big-headed ant)
Phenacoccus manihoti (cassava mealybug)
Phenacoccus solenopsis (cotton mealybug)
Pineus pini (pine woolly aphid)
Quadrastichus erythrinae (Erythrina gall wasp)
Solenopsis geminata (fire ant)
Solenopsis invicta (red imported fire ant)
Spodoptera frugiperda (fall armyworm)
Trialeurodes vaporariorum (greenhouse whitefly)
Trichomyrmex destructor (destructive trailing ant)
Vespa velutina (Asian predatory wasp)
Wasmannia auropunctata (electric ant)
Xyleborus volvulus
Other arthropods
Latrodectus geometricus (brown widow)
Procambarus clarkii (red swamp crawfish)
Amphibalanus amphitrite (striped barnacle)
Amphibalanus improvisus (bay barnacle)
Molluscs
Ambigolimax valentianus (threeband gardenslug)
Brachidontes pharaonis (variable mussel) into Mediterranean Sea
Cornu aspersum (garden snail)
Euglandina rosea (rosy wolfsnail)
Limnoperna fortunei (golden mussel) into non-native areas
Lissachatina fulica (giant African snail)
Mytilopsis sallei (black-striped mussel)
Mytilus galloprovincialis (Mediterranean mussel)
Pinctada radiata (Atlantic pearl-oyster) into Mediterranean Sea
Pomacea canaliculata (channeled applesnail)
Potamopyrgus antipodarum (New Zealand mud snail)
Rapana venosa (veined rapa whelk) into Mediterranean Sea
Rumina decollata (decollate snail)
Venerupis philippinarum (Manila clam) into Mediterranean Sea
Other Animals
Molgula manhattensis (sea grapes)
Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (pine wood nematode)
Globodera rostochiensis (golden nematode)
Platydemus manokwari (New Guinea flatworm)
Ficopomatus enigmaticus (Australian tubeworm)
Hydroides elegans
Bugula neritina (brown bryozoan)
Japan
Mammals
Macaca cyclopis (Formosan rock macaque) in Japan (from mainland Asia)
Macaca mulatta (rhesus macaque) in Japan (from mainland Asia)
Canis familiaris (dog)
Felis catus (cat) from Africa
Neogale vison (American mink) from North America
Martes melampus (Japanese marten)
Mustela itatsi (Japanese weasel)
Mustela sibirica (Siberian weasel)
Nyctereutes procyonoides (common raccoon dog)
Procyon lotor (common raccoon) from North America
Urva auropunctata (small Asian mongoose) in Japan (from mainland Asia)
Paguma larvata (masked palm civet) in Japan (from Taiwan)
Erinaceus amurensis (Amur hedgehog) to Japan from mainland Asia
Pipistrellus abramus (Japanese house bat) from native parts of Japan to Hokkaido
Crocidura dsinezumi (Dsinezumi shrew)
Eutamias sibiricus (Siberian chipmunk)
Mus musculus (house mouse)
Rattus exulans (Polynesian rat)
Rattus norvegicus (brown rat)
Rattus rattus (black rat)
Sciurus vulgaris (red squirrel)
Callosciurus erythraeus (Pallas's squirrel) into Japan
Callosciurus finlaysonii (Finlayson's squirrel) into Japan
Myocastor coypus (nutria) from South America
Ondatra zibethicus (muskrat) from North America
Oryctolagus cuniculus (European rabbit) from Europe (see also Ōkunoshima, also known as Japanese rabbit island)
Bos taurus (cattle)
Capra aegagrus (feral goat)
Muntiacus reevesi (Reeves's muntjac)
Sus scrofa (wild boar)
Birds
Acridotheres cristatellus (crested myna)
Acridotheres tristis (common myna)
Amandava amandava (red avadavat)
Bambusicola thoracicus (Chinese bamboo partridge) Japan from China
Branta canadensis (Canada goose)
Colinus virginianus (northern bobwhite)
Columba livia (rock dove) into Japan
Cygnus atratus (black swan)
Cygnus olor (mute swan) into Japan from mainland Asia
Garrulax canorus (Chinese hwamei)
Garrulax cineraceus (moustached laughing thrush)
Garrulax sannio (white-browed laughing thrush)
Gracupica contra (Asian pied starling) in Japan from mainland Asia
Himantopus mexicanus (black-necked stilt) into Japan. Possible subspecies of the native Himantopus himantopus
Leiothrix lutea (red-billed leiothrix) into Japan
Padda oryzivora (Java sparrow)
Lonchura atricapilla (chestnut mannikin)
Lonchura malacca (tricolored mannikin)
Lonchura striata (white-rumped munia)
Melopsittacus undulatus (budgerigar)
Paroaria coronata (red-crested cardinal)
Pavo cristatus (Indian peafowl) in Japan
Phasianus colchicus (common pheasant) into Japan
Pica pica (Eurasian magpie) Japan from mainland
Psittacula alexandri (red-breasted parakeet) in Japan
Psittacula eupatria (Alexandrine parakeet) in Japan
Psittacula krameri (ring-necked parakeet)
Pycnonotus jocosus (red-whiskered bulbul) in Japan
Pycnonotus sinensis (light-vented bulbul)
Vidua macroura (pin-tailed whydah)
Reptiles
Chinese box turtle in Japan
Chinese pond turtle in Japan
Common snapping turtle
Pond slider
Yellow pond turtle into Japan from Taiwan
Pelodiscus sinensis (Chinese softshell turtle)
Carolina anole
Gekko hokouensis (Hokou gecko)
Hemidactylus frenatus (common house gecko)
Hemiphyllodactylus typus (Indopacific tree gecko)
Japalura swinhonis (Swinhoe's tree lizard)
Lepidodactylus lugubris (mourning gecko)
Brahminy blind snake
Orthriophis taeniurus (beauty rat snake)
Protobothrops elegans (elegant pitviper)
Protobothrops mucrosquamatus (brown spotted pit viper)
Amphibians
Cane toad
American bullfrog
Common tree frog into Japan from Philippines
African clawed frog
Chinese giant salamander into Japan from China
Fish
Acheilognathus cyanostigma (striped bitterling)
Acheilognathus macropterus
Acheilognathus rhombeus (kanehira)
Acheilognathus typus (zenitanago)
Amatitlania nigrofasciata (convict cichlid)
Channa argus (northern snakehead) into Japan
Channa asiatica (small snakehead)
Clarias batrachus (walking catfish) into at least Okinawa Island from mainland Asia
Clarias fuscus (whitespotted clarias)
Channa maculata (blotched snakehead)
Coptodon zillii (redbelly tilapia)
Ctenopharyngodon idella (grass carp)
Cyprinus carpio (common carp)
Danio albolineatus (pearl danio)
Danio rerio (zebrafish)
Gambusia affinis (mosquitofish)
Gambusia holbrooki (eastern mosquitofish)
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (silver bighead)
Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (striped bighead)
Ictalurus punctatus (channel catfish)
Lepomis macrochirus (bluegill)
Macropodus ocellatus (paradise fish)
Micropterus dolomieu (smallmouth bass)
Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass)
Monopterus albus (Asian swamp eel)
Mylopharyngodon piceus (black carp)
Odontesthes bonariensis (Argentinian silverside)
Oncorhynchus mykiss (rainbow trout)
Oreochromis mossambicus (Mozambique tilapia)
Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia)
Otopharynx lithobates
Parambassis ranga (Indian glassy fish)
Paramisgurnus dabryanus (kara-dojou)
Poecilia reticulata (guppy)
Poecilia sphenops (molly)
Pterygoplichthys disjunctivus (suckermouth armored catfish)
Rhodeus ocellatus (rosy bitterling)
Salmo trutta (brown trout)
Salvelinus fontinalis (brook trout)
Salvelinus namaycush (lake trout)
Silurus asotus (Amur catfish)
Tridentiger brevispinis (numachichibu)
Xiphophorus hellerii (green swordtail)
Insects
Agriosphodrus dohrni
Anoplolepis gracilipes (yellow crazy ant)
Aromia bungii (red-necked longhorn)
Bemisia tabaci (silverleaf whitefly)
Blattella germanica (German cockroach)
Bombus terrestris (buff-tailed bumblebee)
Cavelerius saccharivorus (oriental chinch bug)
Coptotermes formosanus (Formosan subterranean termite)
Corythucha ciliata (sycamore lace bug)
Cylas formicarius (sweet potato weevil)
Delta pyriforme
Drosophila suzukii (spotted wing drosophila)
Dryocosmus kuriphilus (chestnut gall wasp)
Epilachna varivestis (Mexican bean beetle)
Erionota torus (rounded palm-redeye)
Euscepes postfasciatus (West Indian sweetpotato weevil)
Frankliniella occidentalis (western flower thrips)
Hestina assimilis (red ring skirt)
Hylurgus ligniperda (red-haired pine bark beetle)
Hypera postica (alfalfa weevil)
Hyphantria cunea (fall webworm)
Icerya purchasi (cottony cushion scale)
Linepithema humile (Argentine ant)
Liriomyza sativae (vegetable leaf miner)
Liriomyza trifolii (serpentine leafminer)
Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus (rice water weevil)
Monomorium pharaonis (pharaoh ant)
Nealsomyia rufella
Opisthoplatia orientalis
Paraglenea fortunei
Parasa lepida (nettle caterpillar)
Pheidole megacephala (big-headed ant)
Phenacoccus solenopsis (cotton mealybug)
Protaetia orientalis
Quadrastichus erythrinae (Erythrina gall wasp)
Rhabdoscelus obscurus (sugarcane weevil borer)
Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (red palm weevil)
Sericinus montela (sericin swallow-tail butterfly)
Solenopsis geminata (fire ant)
Thrips palmi (melon thrips)
Trialeurodes vaporariorum (greenhouse whitefly)
Unaspis yanonensis (arrowhead snow scale)
Vespa velutina (Asian predatory wasp)
Xyleborus volvulus
Xylocopa tranquebarorum (Taiwanese bamboo carpenter bee)
Other Arthropods
Aculops lycopersici (tomato russet mite)
Latrodectus geometricus (brown widow)
Latrodectus hasseltii (redback spider)
Chamberlinius hualinensis
Carcinus aestuarii (Mediterranean green crab)
Pacifastacus leniusculus (signal crayfish)
Procambarus clarkii (red swamp crawfish)
Pyromaia tuberculata (tuberculate pear crab)
Amphibalanus amphitrite (striped barnacle)
Amphibalanus improvisus (bay barnacle)
Megabalanus coccopoma (titan acorn barnacle)
Crangonyx floridanus (Florida crangonyctid)
Molluscs
Ambigolimax valentianus (threeband gardenslug)
Corbicula fluminea (Asian clam)
Crepidula fornicata (common slipper shell)
Crepidula onyx (onyx slippersnail)
Euglandina rosea (rosy wolfsnail)
Limnoperna fortunei (golden mussel)
Lissachatina fulica (giant African snail)
Mytilopsis sallei (black-striped mussel)
Mytilus galloprovincialis (Mediterranean mussel)
Nassarius sinarus (Nassarius snail)
Perna viridis (Asian green mussel)
Pomacea canaliculata (channeled applesnail)
Potamopyrgus antipodarum (New Zealand mud snail)
Rumina decollata (decollate snail)
Xenostrobus securis (small brown mussel)
Other Animals
Molgula manhattensis (sea grapes)
Polyandrocarpa zorritensis
Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (pine wood nematode)
Globodera rostochiensis (golden nematode)
Platydemus manokwari (New Guinea flatworm)
Ficopomatus enigmaticus (Australian tubeworm)
Hydroides elegans
Bugula neritina (brown bryozoan)
Africa
Mammals
African elephant in Swaziland (reintroduced)
Wild boar (native to certain parts of North Africa; introduced populations rare and concentrated in the southern part of the continent)
Black wildebeest (in Namibia)
Impala (in Gabon)
Sable antelope (in Swaziland)
Nyala (in Botswana and Namibia)
Feral goat
Ammotragus lervia (Barbary sheep) onto Canary Islands from mainland Africa
Ovis orientalis (mouflon) onto Canary Islands
European rabbit (introduced mainly to islands; native to a small area in northwestern Africa)
European hare - on Réunion
Indian hare
Coypu - Kenya
Fallow deer
Himalayan tahr (largely eradicated)
Rusa deer
Red deer - South Africa
Feral horse - see Namib Desert Horse
Feral donkey
Feral cat
Feral dog
House mouse
Brown rat
Black rat
Grey squirrel (restricted to the extreme southwestern corner of the continent)
Crab-eating macaque - Mauritius
Small Asian mongoose - Mauritius
Small Indian civet - Madagascar
Asian house shrew
Tailless tenrec - Comoros, Mauritius, Réunion, and Seychelles
Common brown lemur from Madagascar (in the island of Mayotte)
Birds
Acridotheres tristis (common mynah)
Agapornis fischeri (Fischer's lovebird) - coastal Tanzania and Kenya from inland
Agapornis personatus (yellow-collared lovebird) - Kenya from Tanzania
Alectoris barbara (Barbary partridge) - onto Canary Islands from mainland
Alectoris rufa (red-legged partridge)
Amandava amandava (red avadavat)
Anas platyrhynchos (mallard)
Bubulcus ibis (cattle egret) – Seychelles
Carduelis carduelis (European goldfinch) – Cape Verde
Columba livia (rock pigeon)
Corvus splendens (house crow)
Coturnix coturnix (common quail) - Réunion
Crithagra mozambica (yellow-fronted canary) - numerous islands from mainland
Cygnus olor (mute swan) - South Africa
Estrilda astrild (common waxbill) - numerous islands from mainland
Foudia madagascariensis (red fody) – Indian Ocean islands from mainland
Francolinus pintadeanus (Chinese francolin) - Mauritius
Francolinus pondicerianus (grey francolin)
Fringilla coelebs (chaffinch) - restricted to a few suburbs of Cape Town, a city in the southwest of South Africa
Gallus gallus (red junglefowl)
Geopelia striata (zebra dove)
Padda oryzivora (Java sparrow)
Lonchura punctulata (scaly-breasted munia)
Oxyura jamaicensis (ruddy duck)
Passer domesticus (house sparrow)
Ploceus cucullatus (village weaver) - Mauritius
Psittacula krameri (rose-ringed parakeet)
Pycnonotus jocosus (red-whiskered bulbul)
Quelea quelea (red-billed quelea) - on to Réunion
Serinus canicollis (Cape canary) - Réunion
Spilopelia chinensis (spotted dove)
Streptopelia roseogrisea (African collared dove) - onto Canary Islands from mainland
Sturnus vulgaris (common starling)
Tyto alba (western barn owl)
Reptiles
Wattle-necked softshell turtle
Emys orbicularis (European pond turtle)
Gehyra mutilata (stump-tailed gecko)
Hemidactylus frenatus (common house gecko)
Lepidodactylus lugubris (mourning gecko)
Tarentola mauritanica (Moorish wall gecko)
Trachemys scripta ssp. elegans (red-eared slider)
Alligator snapping turtle - South Africa
Amphibians
Amietophrynus gutturalis (guttural toad)
Fish
Ctenopharyngodon idella (grass carp)
Cyprinus carpio (common carp)
Gambusia affinis (western mosquitofish)
Gambusia holbrooki (eastern mosquitofish)
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (silver carp)
Lates niloticus (Nile perch)
Lepomis macrochirus (bluegill)
Micropterus dolomieu (smallmouth bass)
Micropterus floridanus (Florida bass)
Micropterus punctulatus (spotted bass)
Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass)
Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia)
Perca fluviatilis (European perch)
Pterygoplichthys disjunctivus (vermiculated sailfin catfish)
Salmo salar (Atlantic salmon)
Tinca tinca (tench)
Crustaceans
Carcinus maenas (European shore crab)
Cherax quadricarinatus (redclaw crayfish)
Limnoria quadripunctata (gribble)
Percnon gibbesi (Sally Lightfoot crab)
Procambarus clarkii (red swamp crawfish)
Procambarus fallax (Marmorkrebs)
Insects
Aedes albopictus (Asian tiger mosquito)
Aleurodicus dispersus (spiralling whitefly)
Aleurothrixus floccosus (woolly whitefly)
Aleurotrachelus atratus (palm-infesting whitefly)
Anoplolepis gracilipes (yellow crazy ant)
Aphis spiraecola (green citrus aphid)
Aulacaspis yasumatsui (cycad aulacaspis scale)
Bactrocera cucurbitae (melon fly)
Bactrocera dorsalis (Oriental fruit fly)
Bactrocera invadens (Asian fruit fly)
Bactrocera zonata (peach fruit fly)
Bemisia tabaci (silverleaf whitefly)
Cactoblastis cactorum (cactus moth)
Ceratitis capitata (Mediterranean fruit fly)
Ceratitis rosa (Natal fruit fly)
Chionaspis pinifoliae (pine needle scale insect)
Cinara cupressi (cypress aphid)
Coptotermes formosanus (Formosan subterranean termite)
Cosmopolites sordidus (banana root borer)
Cryptotermes brevis (West Indian drywood termite)
Ctenarytaina eucalypti (blue gum psyllid)
Diuraphis noxia (Russian wheat aphid)
Eulachnus rileyi (pine needle aphid)
Euwallacea fornicatus (tea shot hole borer)
Frankliniella occidentalis (western flower thrips)
Harmonia axyridis (Asian lady beetle)
Hylastes ater (black pine bark beetle)
Hylurgus ligniperda (red-haired pine bark beetle)
Icerya purchasi (cottony cushion scale)
Linepithema humile (Argentine ant)
Liriomyza trifolii (American serpentine leafminer)
Maconellicoccus hirsutus (hibiscus mealybug)
Orthotomicus erosus (Mediterranean pine engraver)
Phenacoccus manihoti (cassava mealybug)
Phenacoccus solenopsis (cotton mealybug)
Pineus pini (pine woolly aphid)
Polistes dominula (European paper wasp)
Prostephanus truncatus (larger grain borer)
Pseudococcus calceolariae (Citrophilus mealybug)
Sirex noctilio (Sirex woodwasp)
Spodoptera frugiperda (fall armyworm)
Technomyrmex albipes (white-footed ant)
Thaumastocoris peregrinus (bronze bug)
Trialeurodes ricini (castor bean whitefly)
Trichomyrmex destructor (destructive trailing ant)
Vespula germanica (European wasp)
Wasmannia auropunctata (electric ant)
Xyleborinus saxesenii (fruit-tree pinhole borer)
Xyleborus perforans (island pinhole borer)
Xylosandrus compactus (black twig borer)
Molluscs
Aplexa marmorata (marbled tadpole snail)
Bradybaena similaris (Asian trampsnail)
Cochlicella barbara (potbellied helicellid)
Cornu aspersum (garden snail)
Deroceras invadens (tramp slug)
Deroceras laeve (marsh slug)
Euglandina rosea (rosy wolfsnail)
Limax flavus (yellow slug)
Milax gagates (greenhouse slug)
Mytilus galloprovincialis (Mediterranean mussel)
Pinctada radiata (Gulf pearl oyster)
Pseudosuccinea columella (mimic lymnaea)
Semimytilus algosus (Pacific mussel)
Tarebia granifera (quilted melania)
Theba pisana (white garden snail)
Zonitoides arboreus (quick gloss)
Worms
Ficopomatus enigmaticus (Australian tubeworm)
Boccardia proboscidea (shell worm)
Other Animals
Ciona intestinalis (sea vase)
Plants
Brazilian pepper tree
Bugweed
Camphor tree
Spanish broom
Prickly pear
Stone pine
Cluster pine
Pampas grass
Guava
St John's wort
Weeping willow
Water hyacinth
Acacia cyclops
Acacia mearnsii
Acacia saligna
Centranthus ruber
Eucalyptus
Hakea
Lantana
Tipuana tipu
Oceania and remote islands
Mammals
Bos taurus (cattle)
Bubalus bubalis (water buffalo)
Canis familiaris (dog)
Capra aegagrus (feral goat)
Equus africanus (donkey)
Felis catus (feral cat)
Urva auropunctata (small Asian mongoose) – Fiji
Macaca fascicularis (crab-eating macaque)
Mus musculus (house mouse)
Mustela putorius (ferret) – Azores
Oryctolagus cuniculus (European rabbit)
Ovis aries (sheep)
Rattus norvegicus (brown rat)
Rattus rattus (black rat)
Rusa marianna (Philippine deer)
Sciurus carolinensis (eastern gray squirrel) - Pitcairn Islands
Suncus murinus (Asian house shrew)
Sus scrofa (wild boar)
Birds
Acridotheres fuscus (jungle myna)
Acridotheres tristis (common myna)
Alectoris chukar (chukar partridge) - Saint Helena
Amandava amandava (red avadavat)
Anas acuta (northern pintail) - Île Amsterdam
Anas platyrhynchos (mallard) - arrived naturally at Macquarie Island from introduced populations in New Zealand and Australia
Bubulcus ibis (cattle egret) - Chagos Archipelago
Cacatua galerita (sulphur-crested cockatoo) - Palau
Callipepla californica (California quail) - Norfolk Island
Chloris chloris (European greenfinch) - Azores
Circus approximans (swamp harrier) - Tahiti
Columba livia (rock dove)
Corvus moneduloides (New Caledonian crow) - Maré Island
Crithagra flaviventris (yellow canary) - Saint Helena, Ascension Island
Dicrurus macrocercus (black drongo) - Mariana Islands
Diuca diuca (common diuca finch) - Easter Island
Eclectus roratus (eclectus parrot) - Palau
Estrilda astrild (common waxbill)
Excalfactoria chinensis (king quail) - Guam
Foudia madagascariensis (red fody) - Chagos Archipelago, Saint Helena
Francolinus francolinus (black francolin) - Guam
Gallinula chloropus (common moorhen) - Saint Helena
Gallus gallus (red junglefowl)
Geopelia striata (zebra dove) - Saint Helena
Gymnorhina tibicen (Australian magpie) - Fiji
Lonchura atricapilla (chestnut munia) - Palau
Lonchura castaneothorax (chestnut-breasted mannikin)
Lonchura punctulata (scaly-breasted munia)
Neochmia temporalis (red-browed finch) - French Polynesia
Nesoenas picturatus (Malagasy turtle dove) - Chagos Archipelago
Nothoprocta perdicaria (Chilean tinamou) - Easter Island
Padda oryzivora (Java sparrow)
Passer domesticus (house sparrow)
Passer montanus (Eurasian tree sparrow)
Phalcoboenus chimango (chimango caracara) - Easter Island
Phasianus colchicus (common pheasant) - Saint Helena
Platycercus elegans (crimson rosella) - Norfolk Island
Pternistis afer (red-necked spurfowl) - Ascension Island
Pycnonotus cafer (red-vented bulbul)
Ramphocelus dimidiatus (crimson-backed tanager) – Tahiti
Spilopelia chinensis (spotted dove) - New Caledonia, Fiji
Streptopelia dusumieri (Philippine collared dove) - Mariana Islands
Sturnus vulgaris (common starling)
Vini kuhlii (Kuhl's lorikeet) - Kiribati
Zosterops lateralis (silvereye) - Tahiti
Reptiles
Boiga irregularis (brown tree snake)
Hemidactylus frenatus (common house gecko)
Lacerta dugesii (Madeiran wall lizard) - Azores
Iguana iguana (green iguana) – Fiji
Trachemys scripta (red-eared slider)
Amphibians
Duttaphrynus melanostictus (Asian common toad) - New Guinea
Eleutherodactylus planirostris (greenhouse frog) - Guam
Rhinella marina (cane toad)
Xenopus laevis (African clawed frog) - Ascension Island
Insects
Adoretus sinicus (Chinese rose beetle)
Aedes albopictus (tiger mosquito)
Aleurotrachelus atratus (palm-infesting whitefly) – Samoa
Anoplolepis gracilipes (yellow crazy ant)
Aphis spiraecola (green citrus aphid)
Aulacaspis yasumatsui (cycad aulacaspis scale)
Bactrocera cucurbitae (melon fly)
Bactrocera dorsalis (Oriental fruit fly)
Blattella germanica (German cockroach)
Cactoblastis cactorum (cactus moth)
Cerataphis lataniae (palm aphid) – Guam
Ceratitis capitata (Mediterranean fruit fly)
Coptotermes formosanus (Formosan subterranean termite) - Marshall Islands
Crocidosema plebejana (cotton tipworm)
Cryptotermes brevis (West Indian drywood termite)
Ctenarytaina eucalypti (blue gum psyllid) – Azores
Culex quinquefasciatus (southern house mosquito)
Euwallacea destruens
Euwallacea fornicatus (tea shot hole borer)
Euwallacea piceus
Homalodisca vitripennis (glassy-winged sharpshooter) - French Polynesia
Hylurgus ligniperda (red-haired pine bark beetle) - Saint Helena
Icerya purchasi (cottony cushion scale)
Kallitaxila crini (green tropiduchid) – Guam
Linepithema humile (Argentine ant)
Maconellicoccus hirsutus (hibiscus mealybug)
Macrosiphum euphorbiae (potato aphid)
Monomorium pharaonis (pharaoh ant)
Omorgus suberosus (hide beetle)
Orthotomicus erosus (Mediterranean pine beetle) – Fiji
Paratrechina longicornis (longhorn crazy ant)
Pheidole megacephala (big-headed ant)
Phenacoccus solenopsis (cotton mealybug) - New Caledonia
Polistes chinensis (Japanese paper wasp) - Norfolk Island
Pseudococcus viburni (obscure mealybug)
Quadrastichus erythrinae (Erythrina gall wasp)
Simosyrphus grandicornis (common hover fly)
Solenopsis geminata (tropical fire ant)
Sophonia orientalis (two-spotted leafhopper) - French Polynesia
Tapinoma melanocephalum (ghost ant)
Tapinoma minutum (dwarf pedicel ant) – Cook Islands
Trichomyrmex destructor (destructive trailing ant)
Vespula germanica (European wasp) - Ascension Island
Vespula vulgaris (common wasp) - Saint Helena
Wasmannia auropunctata (electric ant)
Xyleborinus saxesenii (fruit-tree pinhole borer) – New Guinea
Xyleborus perforans (island pinhole borer)
Xyleborus similis
Xyleborus volvulus
Xylosandrus compactus (black twig borer)
Xylosandrus crassiusculus (Asian ambrosia beetle)
Xylosandrus morigerus (brown twig beetle)
Molluscs
Cornu aspersum (garden snail)
Deroceras invadens (tramp slug)
Deroceras laeve (marsh slug)
Euglandina rosea (rosy wolfsnail)
Gonaxis kibweziensis (kibwezi gonaxis)
Limax maximus (great grey slug) - Saint Helena, Azores
Lissachatina fulica (giant African snail)
Magallana gigas (Pacific oyster)
Mytilopsis sallei (black-striped mussel) – Fiji
Oxychilus alliarius (garlic snail)
Perna viridis (Asian green mussel) – Fiji
Pinctada radiata (Atlantic pearl-oyster) – Azores
Pomacea canaliculata (channeled applesnail) – Guam, New Guinea
Veronicella cubensis (Cuban slug)
Worms
Globodera rostochiensis (golden nematode) - Norfolk Island
Platydemus manokwari (New Guinea flatworm)
See also
Introduced species
List of invasive species
Invasive species in South America
List of adventive wild plants in Israel
Norwegian Black List
List of introduced bird species
List of introduced mammal species
References
DAISIE (eds.). 2009. Handbook of Alien Species in Europe. Springer, Dordrecht. 399 p.
Macdonald, D. and P. Barrett (1993) Collins Field Guide: Mammals of Britain & Europe. HarperCollins, London.
Svensson, L., P.J. Grant, K. Mullarney and D. Zetterström (1999) Collins Bird Guide. HarperCollins, London. ()
External links
List of Non-native Arthropodos in North America
Ecology lists
Taxonomic lists (species)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Simon%20%28politician%29
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Paul Simon (politician)
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Paul Martin Simon (November 29, 1928 – December 9, 2003) was an American author and politician from Illinois. He served in the United States House of Representatives from 1975 to 1985 and in the United States Senate from 1985 to 1997. A member of the Democratic Party, he unsuccessfully ran for the 1988 Democratic presidential nomination.
After his political career, he founded the Public Policy Institute at Southern Illinois University Carbondale in Carbondale, Illinois, which was later named for him. There he taught classes on politics, history and journalism.
Simon was famous for his distinctive bowtie and horn-rimmed glasses.
Early life and career
Simon was born in Eugene, Oregon on November 29, 1928. He was the son of Martin Paul Simon, a Lutheran minister and missionary to China, and Ruth Lilly (née Tolzmann) Simon, a Lutheran missionary as well. His family was of German descent.
Simon attended Concordia University, a Lutheran school in Portland. He later attended the University of Oregon and Dana College in Blair, Nebraska, but never graduated.
After meeting with local Lions Club members, he borrowed $3,600 to take over the defunct Troy Call newspaper in 1948, becoming the nation's youngest editor-publisher, of the renamed Troy Tribune in Troy, Illinois, and eventually built a chain of 14 weekly newspapers. His activism against gambling, prostitution, and government corruption while at the Troy Tribune influenced the newly elected governor, Adlai Stevenson II, to take a stand on these issues, creating national exposure for Simon that later resulted in his testifying before the Kefauver Commission.
In May 1951, Simon left his newspaper and enlisted in the United States Army. Simon served in West Germany during the Korean War. Assigned to the Counterintelligence Corps, he attained the rank of private first class and was discharged in June 1953.
State political career
Upon his discharge, Simon was elected to and began his political career in the Illinois House of Representatives. As a state representative, Simon was an advocate for civil rights, and once hosted an event attended by former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt. After a primary debate with two other candidates, a newspaper account of a debate stated "the man with the bowtie did well," and he adopted his trademark bowtie and horned glasses.
In 1963, Simon was elected to the Illinois State Senate, serving until 1969. In the State Senate, Simon was part of a group of anti-machine liberal reformers called the "Kosher Nostra" that also included Anthony Scariano, Abner Mikva, and Robert E. Mann.
In 1968, Simon was elected Lieutenant Governor of Illinois. As a Democrat, he served with Republican Governor, Richard B. Ogilvie. Their bipartisan teamwork produced the state's first income tax and paved the way for the state's 1969 constitutional convention, which created the fourth and current Illinois Constitution. The Ogilvie-Simon administration was the only one in Illinois history in which the elected governor and lieutenant governor were from different political parties: The Illinois constitution now pairs the offices as running mates on a ticket.
In 1972, Simon ran for the Democratic nomination for governor. Despite his longtime reputation as a political reformer, he was supported by the Cook County Democratic machine, led by Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley. Nevertheless, Simon lost to Dan Walker, who went on to win the general election.
Out of office
In the years between his gubernatorial defeat and political comeback, Simon taught at Sangamon State University, where he started the Public Affairs Reporting master's degree program, and the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University.
Rise to national prominence
US House of Representatives
Simon resumed his political career in 1974 when he was elected to Congress from Illinois's 24th congressional district, defeating former Harrisburg mayor Val Oshel. He was re-elected four times. He was later redistricted to Illinois's 22nd congressional district.
In 1978, Simon was the first recipient of the Foreign Language Advocacy Award, presented by the Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages in recognition of his service on the President's Commission on Foreign Language and International Studies and his support for language study.
According to the New York Times, Simon was never particularly popular with his House colleagues.
US Senate
In 1984, he ran for, and was elected to the US Senate, defeating three-term incumbent Charles H. Percy in an upset election, winning 50% of the vote.
He won re-election to the U.S. Senate in 1990 by defeating U.S. Representative Lynn Morley Martin with 65%, compared to Martin's 35%. While serving in the Senate, he co-authored an unsuccessful Balanced Budget Amendment with Republican Senator Orrin Hatch of Utah.
Simon gained national prominence after criticizing President George H. W. Bush during the 1992 presidential campaign, after Bush claimed a central role in causing the collapse of the Eastern bloc of the Soviet Union. During a speech at Chicago's Taste of Polonia, Bush had aggressively promoted the success of his own presidency and his importance as Vice President in the Reagan administration's role in Eastern Europe. This was an attempt by Bush to carry Chicago's Polish community in order to win Illinois during the election. Bush's claims were roundly denounced by Simon, and Bush eventually lost the state in the general election, possibly due to Simon's remarks. Simon did not seek reelection in 1996.
Presidential campaign
Simon sought the Democratic nomination for President in 1988. Mostly unknown outside of Illinois and in low single digits in national polls after his March 1987 announcement, Simon made a name for himself as the oldest, some thought most old-fashioned, candidate, with horn rimmed glasses and bow tie, and one who proudly associated himself with the New Deal liberalism associated with Presidents Franklin Roosevelt and Harry Truman.
Simon surged ahead in Iowa in October, and was, by December, the clear front-runner in that state. However, in February 1988, Simon narrowly lost the Iowa caucus to Representative Dick Gephardt of Missouri, and finished third in the New Hampshire primary the following week, with weak showings in Minnesota and South Dakota a week later. Out of money and momentum, Simon largely skipped the key Southern "Super Tuesday" primaries on March 8, concentrating on his home state a week later, where key local Democrats were running as Simon delegates on the delegate selection ballot, and wanted to attend the Democratic National Convention regardless of Simon's slim chance of winning the nomination. Simon won the Illinois primary, and decided to make a final effort in the Wisconsin Primary in early April, but dropped out after he finished behind Governor of Massachusetts Michael Dukakis, Reverend Jesse Jackson, and Tennessee Senator Albert Gore. Simon endorsed Dukakis, who won the Democratic nomination in July, with Jackson the last active challenger.
To boost his campaign, Simon made an appearance on Saturday Night Live (SNL), co-hosting with musician Paul Simon (to whom he was not related).
Political positions
Social issues
Simon was fiercely against obscenity and violence in the media during the 1990s, and his efforts against media violence helped lead to the adoption of the V-chip.
During the 1990s, Simon opposed both the Republicans' Contract with America, and President Bill Clinton's welfare reforms. He was one of 21 Senators to vote against the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act. In 1996, Simon joined thirteen other senators (including his fellow U.S. Senator from Illinois, Carol Moseley Braun) in voting against the Defense of Marriage Act, which prohibited federal recognition of same-sex marriage.
Fiscal issues
Simon was considered a fiscal conservative, who described himself as "a pay-as-you-go Democrat." As a senator, Simon helped overhaul the college student loan program to allow students and their families to borrow directly from the federal government, thus saving money by not using private banks to disburse the loans.
Foreign affairs
Simon promoted a military response to Somalia during the presidency of George H. W. Bush. Simon was an outspoken critic of President Bill Clinton's response to the 1994 Rwandan genocide. Simon believed that America should have acted faster, and Clinton later said his belated response was the biggest mistake of his presidency. He is, together with Jim Jeffords, supported by Canadian Lieutenant-General Roméo Dallaire, Force Commander of the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda from 1993 to 1994, for actively lobbying the Clinton administration into mounting a humanitarian mission to Rwanda during the genocide. According to Dallaire's book Shake Hands with the Devil, he "owe[s] a great debt of gratitude" to both senators.
Presidency
Simon believed modern presidents practice "followership," rather than leadership, saying, "We have been more and more leaning on opinion polls to decide what we're going to do, and you don't get leadership from polls... and not just at the Presidential level. It's happening with Senators, House members, and even state legislators sometimes, [when they] conduct polls to find out where people stand on something."
Simon was also a supporter of Taiwan and opposed United States policy to isolate Taiwan. He helped convince President Clinton to allow Taiwanese President Lee Teng-hui to visit the United States. He also was impressed as a teen listened to Mme Chiang Kai-shek speech and met her at 50th Anniversary of World War II reception at Capitol Hill in 1995.
Personal life
Education
Simon rose to national attention in the 1960s, due in part to his well-researched book, Lincoln's Preparation for Greatness: The Illinois Legislative Years. Despite being published 100 years after Abraham Lincoln's death, it was the first book to exhaustively cite original source documents from Lincoln's eight years in the General Assembly. He later went on to write more than 20 books on a wide range of topics, including interfaith marriages (he was a Lutheran and his wife, Jeanne, was a Catholic), global water shortages, United States Supreme Court nomination battles that focused heavily on his personal experiences with Robert Bork and Clarence Thomas, his autobiography, and even a well-received book on martyred abolitionist publisher Elijah Lovejoy. His final book, Our Culture of Pandering, was published in October 2003, two months before his death.
After his primary defeat for governor in 1972, Simon founded the Public Affairs Reporting graduate program at Sangamon State University in Springfield, Illinois, which helped launch the careers of more than 500 journalists. Simon, who had written four books at the time, also taught a course titled "Non-Fiction Magazine and Book Writing" at Sangamon State, and also taught at the John F. Kennedy School of Government in 1973.
Simon lived for many years in the small town of Makanda, Illinois, south of Carbondale, where he was a professor and director of the SIU Public Policy Institute. While there, he tried to foster the institute into becoming a think tank that could advance the lives of all people. Activities included going to Liberia and Croatia to monitor their elections, bringing major speakers to campus, denouncing the death penalty, trying to end the United States embargo against Cuba, fostering political courage among his students, promoting an amendment to the United States Constitution to end the electoral college, and attempting to limit the president to a single six-year term of office. During the electoral college fiasco that followed the 2000 election, Simon said: "I think if somebody gets the majority vote, they should be president. But, I don't think the system is going to be changed."
Family
Simon was the brother of Arthur Simon, founder of Bread for the World.
On April 21, 1960, Simon married Jeanne Hurley Simon, a member of the Illinois state legislature. It was the first time in Illinois history that two sitting members of the Illinois General Assembly married. She was an integral part of her husband's rise to national prominence. She later became a successful lawyer, author, and chair of National Commission on Libraries and Information Science. She died in February 2000 of brain cancer. Upon her death, Illinois Senator Dick Durbin delivered a tribute to Mrs. Simon on the senate floor. Their daughter, Sheila Simon, became the 46th Lieutenant Governor of Illinois in January, 2011. She previously served as a councilwoman in Carbondale, Illinois and was a law professor at Southern Illinois University.
Simon made a brief cameo appearance as himself in the 1993 political comedy film Dave.
In May 2001, Simon remarried to Patricia Derge, the widow of former Southern Illinois University President David Derge.
Culture
Simon appeared on Saturday Night Live with host and singer Paul Simon (no relation) on December 19, 1987. Also on SNL, Simon was played by Al Franken who would later become a senator himself.
Awards
Paul Simon was inducted as a Laureate of The Lincoln Academy of Illinois and awarded the Order of Lincoln (the state's highest honor) by the Governor of Illinois in 1998 in the area of Government. In 1999, Simon received The Lincoln Forum's Richard Nelson Current Award of Achievement.
Death and aftermath
Simon died in Springfield, Illinois, on December 9, 2003, at the age of 75 following heart surgery. WBBM-TV reported his death as a "massive gastric blow-out." Just four days before, despite being hospitalized and awaiting surgery, he had endorsed Howard Dean's 2004 presidential bid via a telephone conference call he conducted from his hospital bed. He was also an early supporter of Barack Obama's 2004 bid for Senate. After Simon's death, his daughter, Sheila, made a television commercial in which she declared "Barack Obama will be a U.S. Senator in the Paul Simon tradition." The ad was considered a major reason for Obama's surprise victory in the Democratic primary. In the Senate, Obama praised Simon as a "dear friend."
In July 2005, the Paul Simon Historical Museum was opened in Troy, Illinois, where Simon lived for 25 years. It included memorabilia from throughout his life, including the desk and camera from his days as a young editor of the Troy Tribune, items from his presidential campaign, and his lieutenant governor license plates. The museum closed in June 2012, due to lack of funding.
Paul Simon Chicago Job Corps is a government funding school in which was named after him. PSCJC is located in the city of Chicago in Little Village on South Kedzie Ave and is available to people between the ages of 16–24 who are looking to better themselves and create a positive future for themselves.
Publications
References
External links
Retrieved on 2008-07-20
Senator Paul Simon Papers at Southern Illinois University Carbondale Special Collections Research Center
Jeanne Hurley Simon Papers at Southern Illinois University Carbondale Special Collections
U.S. Senator Paul Simon Museum
Paul Simon Public Policy Institute
CNN obituary
Paul Simon Tribute in Daily Egyptian
Our Culture of Pandering,
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1928 births
2003 deaths
20th-century American politicians
American Lutherans
United States Army personnel of the Korean War
American people of German descent
Concordia University (Oregon) alumni
Dana College alumni
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois
Democratic Party United States senators from Illinois
Elijah Parish Lovejoy Award recipients
Historians of the United States
Democratic Party Illinois state senators
Harvard Kennedy School staff
Lieutenant Governors of Illinois
Democratic Party members of the Illinois House of Representatives
People from Carbondale, Illinois
People from Troy, Illinois
Politicians from Eugene, Oregon
South Eugene High School alumni
Southern Illinois University Carbondale faculty
United States Army officers
Candidates in the 1988 United States presidential election
University of Illinois at Springfield faculty
University of Oregon alumni
Writers from Illinois
Writers from Oregon
20th-century Lutherans
Military personnel from Illinois
Military personnel from Oregon
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing%20invasion%20of%20Joseon
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Qing invasion of Joseon
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The Qing invasion of Joseon () occurred in the winter of 1636 when the newly established Qing dynasty invaded the Joseon dynasty, establishing the former's status as the hegemon in the Imperial Chinese Tributary System and formally severing Joseon's relationship with the Ming dynasty. The invasion was preceded by the Later Jin invasion of Joseon in 1627.
The invasion resulted in a Qing victory. Joseon was forced to establish a tributary relationship with the Qing Empire, as well as cut ties with the declining Ming. The crown prince of Joseon along with his younger brother were taken as hostages, but they came back to Joseon after a few years. One of the two later became the King Hyojong. He is best known for his plan for an expedition to the Qing dynasty.
Names
In Korean, the Qing invasion (1636–1637) is called 'Byeongja Horan' (), where 1636 is a 'Byeongja' year in the sexagenary cycle and 'Horan' means a disturbance caused by northern or western foreigners, from 胡 (ho; northern or western, often nomadic barbarians) + 亂 (ran; chaos, disorder, disturbance, turmoil, unrest, uprising, revolt, rebellion).
Background
The Kingdom of Joseon continued to show ambivalence toward the Qing dynasty after the invasion in 1627. Later Jin accused Joseon of harboring fugitives and supplying the Ming army with grain. In addition, Joseon did not recognize Hong Taiji's newly declared dynasty. The Manchu delegates Inggūldai and Mafuta received a cold reception in Hanseong, and King Injo refused to meet with them or even send a letter, which shocked the delegates. A warlike message to Pyongan Province was also carelessly allowed to be seized by Inggūldai.
The beile (Qing princes) were furious with Joseon's response to Qing overtures and proposed an immediate invasion, but Hong Taiji chose to conduct a raid against Ming first. At one point the Qing forces under Ajige got as close to Beijing as the Marco Polo Bridge. Although they were ultimately repelled, the raid made it clear that Ming defenses were no longer fully capable of securing their borders. After this successful operation, Hong Taiji turned towards Joseon and launched an attack in December 1636.
Prior to the invasion, Hong Taiji sent Abatai, Jirgalang, and Ajige to secure the coastal approaches to Korea, so that Ming could not send reinforcements. The defector Ming mutineer Kong Youde, ennobled as the Qing dynasty's Prince Gongshun, joined the attacks at Ganghwa Island and Ka Island. The defectors Geng Zhongming and Shang Kexi also played prominent roles in the Korean invasion.
Diplomatic front
After the 1627 invasion, Joseon maintained a nominal but reluctant friendship with Later Jin. However, the series of events involving three countries (Joseon, Later Jin, and Ming) caused the deterioration of the relationship between Later Jin and Joseon.
Defection of the Ming generals Kong and Geng
Having previously defected to the Later Jin by the end of the Wuqiao mutiny, Kong Youde and Geng Zhongming assisted the Qing with sizable forces numbering 14,000 soldiers and 185 warships under their command. Appreciating the usefulness of their navy in future war effort, Later Jin offered highly favorable terms of service to Kong and Geng and their forces.
Joseon received conflicting requests for aid from both Later Jin and Ming during the mutiny. An official letter of installation of King Injo's late father (Prince Jeongwon) from the Ming government resulted in Joseon siding with Ming and supplying their soldiers only. This gave Later Jin the impression that Joseon would side with Ming when in decisive engagements and suppressing Joseon became a prerequisite for a future successful campaign against Ming. In addition, the naval strength of the Ming defectors gave Later Jin leaders confidence that they could easily strike Joseon leadership even if they evacuated to a nearby island such as Ganghwa. This provided Later Jin with military background in maintaining a strong position against Joseon.
Inadequate war preparation of Joseon
First, a Ming envoy, Lu Weining, visited Joseon in June 1634 to preside over the installation ceremony of the crown prince of Joseon. However, the envoy requested an excessive bribe in return for the ceremony. In addition, quite a few Ming merchants who accompanied the envoy sought to make a huge fortune by forcing unfair trades upon their Joseon counterparts. This envoy visit eventually cost Joseon more than 100,000 taels of silver.
Having accomplished the installations of both his father Prince Jeongwon and his son with help from the Ming, King Injo now attempted to relocate the memorial tablet of his late father into the Jongmyo Shrine. As Prince Jeongwon had never ruled as the king, this attempt was met with severe opposition from government officials, which lasted until early 1635. Adding to this, the mausoleum of King Seonjo was accidentally damaged in March 1635 and the political debate about its responsibility continued for the next few months. These political gridlocks prohibited Joseon from taking sufficient measures to prepare for a possible invasion from Later Jin.
Severance of diplomatic relations
In February 1636, Later Jin envoys led by Inggūldai visited Joseon to participate in the funeral of Joseon's late queen. However, as the envoys included 77 high-ranking officials from the recently conquered Mongolian tribes, the real purpose of the envoys was to boast the recent expansion of the Later Jin sphere of influence and examine the opinion of Joseon about the upcoming ascension of Hong Taiji as the "Emperor". The envoys informed King Injo about their ever-growing strength and requested celebration of Hong Taiji's ascension from Joseon.
This greatly shocked Joseon, as the Ming Emperor was the only legitimate emperor from their perspective. It was followed by extremely hostile opinions growing towards Later Jin in both government and non-government sectors. Envoys themselves had to go through life-threatening experiences as Sungkyunkwan students called for their execution and fully armed soldiers loitered around the places in the itinerary of the envoys. Finally, the envoys wore forced to evacuate from Joseon and return to Later Jin territory. The diplomatic relationship between Later Jin and Joseon was virtually severed.
Hong Taiji became the Emperor in April 1636 and changed the name of his country from Later Jin to Qing. Envoys from Joseon who were at the ceremony refused to bow to the emperor. Although the emperor spared them, the Joseon envoys had to carry his message home. The message included denunciation of the past Joseon activities that were against the interest of Later Jin/Qing and also declared the intention of invading Joseon unless Joseon showed willingness to alter its policy by providing one of Joseon's princes as hostage.
After confirming the message, hardliners against Qing gained voice in Joseon. They even requested execution of the envoys for failing to immediately destroy the message in front of Hong Taiji himself. In June 1636, Joseon eventually transmitted their message to Qing, which blamed Qing for the deteriorating relations between the two nations.
Eve of battle
Now, preparation for war was all that remained for Joseon. Contrary those who supported a war, officials who suggested viable plans and strategies were not taken seriously. Instead,King Injo, afraid of head-on clash with the mighty Qing army, listened to the advice of Choe Myeong-gil and Huang Sunwu, a Ming military advisor, and decided to dispatch peace seeking messengers to Shenyang in September 1636. Although the messengers gathered some intelligence about the situation in Shenyang, they were denied a meeting with Hong Taiji. This further enraged hardliners in Joseon and led to the dismissal of Choe Myeong-gil from office. Although King Injo dispatched another team of messengers to Shenyang in early December, this was after the execution of the Qing plan to invade Joseon on November 25.
War
On 9 December 1636, Hong Taiji led Manchu, Mongol, and Han Chinese Banners in a three pronged attack on Joseon. Chinese support was particularly evident in the army's artillery and naval contingents.
Im Gyeong-eop with 3,000 men at the Baengma Fortress in Uiju successfully held off attacks by the 30,000 strong western division led by Dodo. Dodo decided not to take the fortress and passed it instead. Similarly elsewhere Manchu forces of the main division under Hong Taiji bypassed northern Joseon fortresses as well. Dorgon and Hooge led a vanguard Mongol force straight to Hanseong to prevent King Injo from evacuating to Ganghwa Island like in the previous war. On 14 December, Hanseong's garrisons were defeated and the city was taken. Fifteen thousand troops were mobilized from the south to relieve the city, but they were defeated by Dorgon's army.
King Injo, along with 13,800 soldiers, took refuge at the Namhan Mountain Fortress (Namhansanseong) which did not have enough provisions stockpiled for such a large number of people. Hong Taiji's main division, 70,000 strong, laid siege to the fortress. Provincial forces from around the country began moving in to relieve King Injo and his small retinue of defenders. Forces under Hong Myeong-gu and Yu Lim, 5,000 strong, engaged 6,000 Manchus on 28 January. The Manchu cavalry attempted frontal assaults several times but was turned back by heavy musket fire. Eventually they circumnavigated a mountain and ambushed Hong's troops from the rear, defeating them. Protected by the mountainous terrain, Yu's forces fared better and successfully decimated the Manchu forces after defeating their attacks several times throughout the day. The Joseon troops within the fortress, which consisted of both capital and prefectural armies, also successfully defended the fortress against Manchu assaults, forcing their actions to be relegated to small-scale clashes for a few weeks.
Despite working on tight rations by January 1637, the Joseon defenders were able to effectively counter Manchu siegeworks with sorties and even managed to blow up the powder magazine of an artillery battery that was assailing the East Gate of the fortress, killing its commander and many soldiers. Some walls crumbled under repeated bombardment, but were repaired overnight. Despite their successes, Dorgon occupied Ganghwa Island on 27 January, and captured the second son and consorts of King Injo. King Injo surrendered the day after.
The surrendering delegation was received at the Han River, where King Injo turned over his Ming seals of investiture and three pro-war officers to Qing, as well as agreeing to the following terms of peace, which required Joseon to:
Stop using the Ming era name, and abandon the use of the Ming seal, imperial patent, and jade books.
Send King Injo's first and second sons (Yi Wang and Yi Ho), as well as the sons or brothers of ministers as hostages to Shenyang.
Accept the Qing calendar.
Pay Qing tributes.
Send troops and supplies to assist Qing in the war against Ming.
Supply warships for transporting Qing soldiers.
Encourage ministers of Joseon and Qing to become related by marriage.
Deny entry to refugees from Qing territory.
No longer build & rebuild fortresses.
Hong Taiji set up a platform in Samjeondo in the upper reach of the Han River. At the top of the platform he accepted Injo of Joseon kneeling thrice and bowed nine times, as was customary with the other subjects of the Qing court. Then he was called to eat with the others, sitting the closest to the left of Hong Taiji, higher than even the Hošo-i Cin Wang. Then, a monument in honor of the so-called excellent virtues of the Manchu Emperor was erected at Samjeondo there. In accordance with the terms of surrender, Joseon sent troops to attack Ka Island at the mouth of the Yalu River.
Ming officer Shen Shikui was well ensconced in Ka Island's fortifications and hammered his attackers with heavy cannon for over a month. In the end, Ming and Joseon defectors including Kong Youde landed 70 boats on the eastern side of the island and drew out his garrison in that direction. On the next morning, however, he found that the Qing—"who seem to have flown"—had landed to his rear in the northwest corner of the island in the middle of the night. Shen refused to surrender, but was overrun and beheaded by Ajige. Official reports put the casualties as at least 10,000, with few survivors. The Ming general Yang Sichang then withdrew the remaining Ming forces in Korea to Denglai in northern Shandong.
Aftermath
In 1648, Prince regent Dorgon, friendlier to Joseon, asked the first official foreign marriage request by a foreign monarchy since the first emperor of Ming offered his daughter's hand to Prince Uian of Joseon (which was botched and canceled by Ming in 1397). In 1650 Dorgon married the Joseon Princess Uisun (義順公主), the daughter of Prince Geumnim, who had to be adopted by King Hyojong beforehand. Upon meeting her, he endearingly gave her the nickname meaning "hawk," and she was appointed to the foremost among the official wives of Dorgon's household as his Amba Fujin (ᠠᠮᠪᠠ ᡶ᠋ᡠᠵᡳᠨ, 大福晉, "Great Fortune"). Dorgon later married a servant of Princess Uisun at Lianshan as a Ashan i Fujin (ᠠᠰᡥᠠᠨ ᡳ ᡶ᠋ᡠᠵᡳᠨ 側福晉," Peripheral Fortune"), and from her had his only child, a daughter known as Dong'e Gege (東莪格格). The Manchurian ruling class seemed to want Koreans as an alliance of marriage like they had with the Mongols to keep them at a close distance, but no one would marry a Joseon woman after Dorgon. Dorgon himself died 7 months from overwork, and Uisun returned to Korea when her father asked out of personal request that he wants to see his daughter again.
Many families spent a lot of money for ransoms to get their family back from Manchu captivity. Tobacco was a much desired good among the Manchurians, so much tobacco was grown and used to pay off the ransoms. But after they were paid to be repatriated, they were found to be raped at the hands of the Qing forces, and as a result were not welcomed by their families. Injo decreed that nobody is allowed to divorce anyone for this reason.
Koreans continued to harbor a defiant attitude towards the Qing dynasty in private while they officially yielded obedience and sentiments of Manchu "barbarity" continued to pervade Korean discourse. Joseon scholars secretly used Ming era names even after that dynasty's collapse. Upon the collapse of the Ming dynasty, just like the Vietnamese, Japanese, and the Ryukyu, Joseon also thought they should be the legitimate successor of the Ming dynasty and Chinese civilization instead of the "barbaric" Manchu's Qing, much like European countries succeeding the fallen Roman Empire.
This was cemented further when Joseon envoys went to Qing dynasty China for tribute, Han Chinese scholars, by now forced to wear Manchurian attire and cut their hair in Manchurian queue hairstyle under threat of death, and harassed by increasingly brutal literary inquisitions, wept, lamenting the Joseon envoy attire is that of their ancestors they are forbidden to wear.
Despite the peace treaty forbidding construction of fortresses, fortresses were erected around Hanseong and in the northern region. The future Hyojong of Joseon lived as a hostage for seven years in Mukden (Shenyang). He planned an invasion of Qing called Bukbeol (북벌, 北伐, Northern expedition) during his ten years on the Joseon throne, though the plan died with his death on the eve of the expedition.
As the Qing dynasty became more sinicized over the centuries, and grew more lenient with tributary trade relations and dispensing gifts larger than was given as was tradition of the sinosphere, reconciliatory voices grew and some in Joseon even came to respect the Qing's advances, especially those of the Bukhak school of thought.
From 1639 until 1894, the Joseon court trained a corps of professional Korean-Manchu translators. They replaced earlier interpreters of Jurchen, who had been trained using textbooks in the Jurchen script. Joseon's first textbooks of Manchu were drawn up by Shin Gye-am, who had previously been an interpreter of Jurchen, and he transliterated old Jurchen textbooks into the Manchu script. Shin's adapted textbooks, completed in 1639, were used for the yeokgwa (special examinations for foreign languages) until 1684. The Manchu examination replaced the Jurchen examination, and the examination's official title was not changed from "Jurchen" to "Manchu" until 1667.
For much of Joseon's historical discourse following the invasion, the Qing invasion was seen as a far more important event than the Japanese invasions of Korea from 1592 to 1598, which, while devastating the economy and kidnapping thousands of technicians in acculturating Japan, ultimately ended in Japanese defeat and the weakened Toyotomi western Japanese forces' demise at the hands of eastern Japanese of the Tokugawa clan, the latter which Joseon was able to establish a superior diplomatic position with. However, the defeat at the hands of the "barbarian" Manchus who generations ago were tributary vassals, the perceived humiliation of the Joseon kings and Yi family, as well as the destruction of the Ming dynasty, had a deeper psychological impact on contemporary Korean society than the Japanese invasions. The Japanese invasions had not created a fundamental change in the Ming sinospheric world order of which Joseon had been part. It was only after the rise of Japan during the late 19th century and the following invasion and annexation of Korea reattempted 300 years later by the begrudging western Japanese, that the 16th-century Japanese invasions by Toyotomi Hideyoshi became more significant.
Popular culture
The novel Namhansanseong by South Korean novelist Kim Hoon is based on the second invasion.
The 2009 musical, Namhansanseong, is based on the novel of the same name, but focuses on the lives of common people and their spirit of survival during harsh situations. It stars Yesung of boy band Super Junior as villain "Jung Myung-su", a servant-turned-interpreter. It was shown from 9 October to 14 November at Seongnam Arts Center Opera House.
The 2011 South Korean movie War of the Arrows is based on an event in which Choe Nam-yi risked his life to save his sister.
The 2017 South Korean movie The Fortress is based on real historical events during the Qing invasion of Joseon.
The 2023 South Korean TV series My dearest tells the story of events of this invasion using two pairs of fictional lovers, and placing them as protagonists in key events of the invasion and its aftermath.
See also
Later Jin invasion of Joseon
History of Korea
Yeongeunmun
Independence Gate
Samjeondo Monument
Korean–Jurchen border conflicts
References
Citations
Bibliography
.
Wars involving Joseon
Wars involving Imperial China
Wars involving the Qing dynasty
Invasions of Korea
17th century in Korea
1636 in Asia
1637 in Asia
Conflicts in 1636
Conflicts in 1637
Eight Banners
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peja%20Stojakovi%C4%87
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Peja Stojaković
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Predrag Stojaković (, ; born 9 June 1977), known by his nickname Peja (Peđa, Пеђа, ), is a Serbian professional basketball executive and former player who was most recently the assistant general manager and director of player personnel and development of the Sacramento Kings of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He was inducted into the Greek Basket League Hall of Fame in 2022.
Standing at 6 ft 10 (2.08 m), Stojaković played mostly at the small forward position. He won the NBA Three-Point Contest two times, and was the first European-born player to win one of the All-Star Weekend competitions. Stojaković made 1,760 three-point field goals in his career which ranked 10th all-time at the point of his retirement. Stojaković currently ranks 23rd in this category.
After starting in Crvena zvezda and while playing for PAOK, Stojaković was drafted fourteenth overall by the Sacramento Kings in the 1996 NBA draft. In the NBA, he had a breakthrough season in 2000–01 following two seasons on the bench, averaging 20.4 points and 5.8 rebounds while shooting .400 from three-point range in his first season as a starter. He finished second in voting for the 2001 Most Improved Player Award. A three-time All-star and a member of the 2004 All-NBA Second Team, Stojaković enjoyed success with the Kings reaching the 2002 Western Conference Finals. He also played for the Indiana Pacers, New Orleans Hornets and Toronto Raptors. Stojaković won an NBA Championship in 2011 as a member of the Dallas Mavericks.
Stojaković helped to lead the senior FR Yugoslavian national team to gold medals in the 2001 FIBA EuroBasket and the 2002 FIBA World Championship. Often considered to be one of the greatest European basketball players ever, Stojaković was named the Euroscar Basketball Player of the Year by the Italian sports newspaper Gazzetta dello Sport and the Mister Europa Player of the Year twice by the Italian sports magazine Superbasket. HoopsHype named Stojaković one of the 75 Greatest International Players Ever in 2021.
On 19 December 2011 he announced his retirement from playing professional basketball. On 16 December 2014 the Sacramento Kings retired his number.
Early life
Predrag "Peja" Stojaković was born into an ethnic Serb family, to parents Miodrag and Branka Stojaković, in Požega, SR Croatia, SFR Yugoslavia. The Stojakovićs hail from the Papuk mountain region. However, his family later fled to Belgrade, at the start of the Yugoslav wars.
In 1993, at the age of 16, Stojaković moved to Thessaloniki, Greece. Stojaković's father stayed behind in his homeland, and fought in the Army of the Republic of Serbian Krajina, against the Croatian Army, until the fall of western Slavonia, in 1995, when he joined his son in Thessaloniki. Many of Stojaković's relatives now live in Serbia.
Professional career
Red Star Belgrade (1992–1993)
At 15 years of age, Stojaković joined the Crvena zvezda (Red Star Belgrade) basketball club. With Red Star, he played in 2 senior men's level seasons (1992–93 and 1993–94 seasons). With the club, he also won a FR Yugoslav national championship, in the 1992–93 season. In the 1993–94 season, he only played in the FR Yugoslav national cup tournament. With Red Star, he played in a total of 39 games, in which he scored a total of 113 points, for a scoring average of 2.9 points per game.
PAOK Thessaloniki (1993–1998)
Stojaković moved to Greece in 1993, at the age of 16, and joined the Greek League club PAOK Thessaloniki one year later.
With PAOK, he won the 1994–95 Greek Cup tournament. He also played in the European-wide secondary level FIBA European Cup (FIBA Saporta Cup)'s 1995–96 season's Final.
Stojaković scored a memorable last-second three-pointer against Olympiacos, in Piraeus, in a 1998 Greek League playoff semifinals series, which won the game for PAOK, by a score of 58–55. That victory, which ended the five-year reign of Olympiacos as Greek League champions, allowed PAOK to face Panathinaikos in the league's finals series, although the club had a disadvantage in home games, and ultimately lost the five game series (and the league's championship) 3–2. Stojaković, who was closely guarded throughout the series by his future head coach in New Orleans, Byron Scott, who was wrapping up his basketball playing career, as one of Panathinaikos' key players, did not play at his normal level.
In his final season with PAOK, Stojaković averaged 23.9 points, 4.9 rebounds, 2.5 assists, and 1.2 steals per game in the Greek League, and 20.9 points, 3.6 rebounds, and 1.5 assists per game in the European-wide top level EuroLeague's 1997–98 season.
Sacramento Kings (1998–2006)
Stojaković was selected by the Sacramento Kings in the first round (14th overall pick) of the 1996 NBA draft while playing in Greece. He continued to play there until the Kings signed him prior to the 1998–99 NBA lockout season. After two seasons on the bench with Sacramento, he had a breakthrough season in 2000–01, averaging 20.4 points and 5.8 rebounds while shooting .400 from three-point range in his first season as a starter. He finished second in voting for the 2001 Most Improved Player Award.
In 2001–02, he played in the NBA All-Star Game for the first time. His scoring average went up to 21.2 ppg, and he reached career highs in shooting percentage (.484) and three-point percentage (.416). His scoring average dropped slightly to 19.2 ppg in 2002–03, but he played again in the All-Star Game. In both seasons, he won the Three-Point Contest conducted during All-Star Weekend.
In 2003–04, Stojaković was again selected as an All-Star, and finished second in the league in scoring with a career-high 24.2 ppg. He finished fourth in MVP voting and was voted on to the All-NBA 2nd Team. He also led the NBA in free-throw percentage (.933) and three-pointers made for the season (240). In 2004–05, he missed 16 games to injury, and was somewhat hampered in several games, but still averaged 20.1 ppg. Stojaković's number 16 was retired by the Sacramento Kings on 16 December 2014.
Indiana Pacers (2006)
On 25 January 2006 Stojaković was traded to the Indiana Pacers in exchange for forward Ron Artest, ending his eight-year tenure with the Kings. However, he missed four games of their first round playoff series with the New Jersey Nets, all losses.
New Orleans Hornets (2006–2010)
During the 2006 offseason, he agreed to a deal with the then-New Orleans/Oklahoma City Hornets worth $64 million over five years. On 14 November 2006 Stojaković scored a career-high 42 points against the Charlotte Bobcats, and became the first player in NBA history to open the game with 20 straight points for his team. His strong start to the season was halted by injuries, as a result missing all but the first 13 games of the 2006–07 season.
Stojaković bounced back the following season, starting all 77 games he played in, and was a key contributor in helping the Hornets win a franchise-record 56 games, and their first ever division title. In the first two games of their second round match-up against the defending champion San Antonio Spurs, both wins, Stojaković averaged 23.5 points per game while shooting 63.7% from the three-point line. The Hornets ultimately lost to the Spurs in seven games, ending their run.
The Hornets core of Chris Paul, Tyson Chandler, David West and Stojaković would keep the Hornets in contention the following year, but injuries and the trade of Chandler forced New Orleans into a team rebuild, making the veteran Stojaković expendable.
Toronto Raptors (2010–2011)
On 20 November 2010 Stojaković was traded to the Toronto Raptors along with Jerryd Bayless in exchange for Jarrett Jack, Marcus Banks, and David Andersen.
After appearing in only two games, on 20 January 2011, Stojaković was released by the Raptors. He had missed 26 games due to a left knee injury.
Dallas Mavericks (2011)
On 24 January 2011 Stojaković signed a deal with the Dallas Mavericks. The Mavericks won the NBA championship that year, with Stojaković averaging 7.1 points per game during the Mavericks' playoff run. He scored more than 20 points in two different playoff games for the Mavericks.
On 19 December 2011 Stojaković announced his retirement, citing ongoing back and neck problems that hindered his play later in his career.
Post-playing career
In August 2015, Stojaković was appointed director of player personnel and development for the Sacramento Kings. In May 2018, Stojaković was announced as Assistant General Manager. In this role, he is serving as General Manager for the Stockton Kings, the Kings' NBA Development League affiliate. On 15 August 2020 the Sacramento Kings announced that Stojaković had stepped down from his position of assistant general manager.
National team career
As a member of the senior FR Yugoslavia national basketball team, Stojaković earned a bronze medal at the 1999 edition of the FIBA EuroBasket, which was held in France. He also competed at the 2000 edition of the Summer Olympic Games.
He also won gold medals at the 2001 FIBA EuroBasket, which was held in Turkey, and at the 2002 edition of the FIBA World Championship, which was held in Indianapolis, Indiana. Stojaković was named the MVP of the 2001 FIBA EuroBasket, and he was also named a member of the FIBA World Championship All-Tournament Team at Indianapolis, in 2002. Joining him on that All-Tournament Team were fellow NBA stars Manu Ginóbili, Dirk Nowitzki, and Yao Ming, as well as New Zealand's Pero Cameron.
He finished out his national team career at EuroBasket 2003 where the newly formed Serbia and Montenegro finished sixth.
Personal life
Stojaković acquired full Greek citizenship at the age of 17, while he was playing with PAOK in Greece. His name, in Greek transliteration, is Prentragk "Petza" Kinis Stogiakovits (). Stojaković also speaks Greek.
He is married to Greek model Aleka Kamila. The couple has three children, including Andrej (born 2004). In 2014, the family lived in Glyfada, Greece.
Stojaković served in the Hellenic Army, a mandatory service by each male Greek citizen. He also runs the Peja Stojaković Children's Foundation, which is a charity that is designed to help improve the lives of children in the Balkan countries of Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece.
NBA career statistics
Regular season
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Sacramento
| 48 || 1 || 21.4 || .378 || .320 || .851 || 3.0 || 1.5 || .9 || .1 || 8.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Sacramento
| 74 || 11 || 23.6 || .448 || .375 || .882 || 3.7 || 1.4 || .7 || .1 || 11.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Sacramento
| 75 || 75 || 38.7 || .470 || .400 || .856 || 5.8 || 2.2 || 1.2 || .2 || 20.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Sacramento
| 71 || 71 || 37.3 || .484 || .416 || .876 || 5.3 || 2.5 || 1.1 || .2 || 21.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Sacramento
| 72 || 72 || 34.0 || .481 || .382 || .875 || 5.5 || 2.0 || 1.0 || .1 || 19.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Sacramento
| 81 || 81 || 40.3 || .480 || .433 || style="background:#cfecec;"|.927* || 6.3 || 2.1 || 1.3 || .2 || 24.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Sacramento
| 66 || 66 || 38.4 || .444 || .402 || .920 || 4.3 || 2.1 || 1.2 || .2 || 20.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Sacramento
| 31 || 31 || 37.0 || .403 || .397 || .933 || 5.3 || 2.2 || .6 || .1 || 16.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Indiana
| 40 || 40 || 36.4 || .461 || .404 || .903 || 6.3 || 1.7 || .7 || .2 || 19.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| New Orleans
| 13 || 13 || 32.7 || .423 || .405 || .816 || 4.2 || .8 || .6 || .3 || 17.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| New Orleans
| 77 || 77 || 35.2 || .440 || .441 || style="background:#cfecec;"|.929* || 4.3 || 1.2 || .7 || .1 || 16.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| New Orleans
| 61 || 59 || 34.2 || .399 || .378 || .894 || 4.3 || 1.2 || .9 || .0 || 13.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| New Orleans
| 62 || 55 || 31.4 || .404 || .375 || .897 || 3.7 || 1.5 || .8 || .1 || 12.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| New Orleans
| 6 || 0 || 14.8 || .424 || .440 || .857 || 1.0 || 1.0 || .3 || .0 || 7.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Toronto
| 2 || 0 || 11.0 || .700 || .667 || 1.000 || 1.5 || .5 || .0 || .0 || 10.0
|-
| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;| †
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 25 || 13 || 20.2 || .429 || .400 || .938 || 2.6 || .9 || .4 || .1 || 8.6
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career
| 804 || 665 || 33.5 || .450 || .401 || .895 || 4.7 || 1.8 || .9 || .1 || 17.0
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| All-Star
| 3 || 0 || 14.7 || .364 || .385 || .000 || 2.0 || 1.0 || .3 || .0 || 7.0
Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1999
| style="text-align:left;"| Sacramento
| 5 || 0 || 21.6 || .346 || .214 || 1.000 || 3.8 || .4 || .6 || .0 || 4.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2000
| style="text-align:left;"| Sacramento
| 5 || 0 || 25.8 || .400 || .462 || .667 || 3.4 || .6 || .8 || .0 || 8.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2001
| style="text-align:left;"| Sacramento
| 8 || 8 || 38.4 || .406 || .346 || .968 || 6.4 || .4 || .6 || .4 || 21.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2002
| style="text-align:left;"| Sacramento
| 10 || 7 || 33.8 || .376 || .271 || .897 || 6.3 || 1.0 || .5 || .0 || 14.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2003
| style="text-align:left;"| Sacramento
| 12 || 12 || 40.5 || .480 || .457 || .850 || 6.9 || 2.5 || .8 || .4 || 23.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2004
| style="text-align:left;"| Sacramento
| 12 || 12 || 43.1 || .384 || .315 || .897 || 7.0 || 1.5 || 1.8 || .3 || 17.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2005
| style="text-align:left;"| Sacramento
| 5 || 5 || 40.4 || .470 || .367 || .955 || 5.2 || 1.4 || .8 || .2 || 22.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2006
| style="text-align:left;"| Indiana
| 2 || 2 || 25.5 || .444 || .000 || .857 || 4.5 || 2.0 || .5 || .5 || 11.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2008
| style="text-align:left;"| New Orleans
| 12 || 12 || 37.9 || .436 || .549 || .926 || 5.4 || .5 || .5 || .1 || 14.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2009
| style="text-align:left;"| New Orleans
| 5 || 5 || 32.4 || .367 || .308 || .923 || 2.8 || .4 || .8 || .2 || 11.2
|-
| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba; width:3em;"| 2011†
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 19 || 0 || 18.4 || .408 || .377 || .778 || 1.7 || .4 || .6 || .1 || 7.1
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career
| 95 || 63 || 32.7 || .418 || .376 || .900 || 4.9 || 1.0 || .8 || .2 || 14.4
Awards and achievements
NBA Champion: 2011
All-NBA Team:
Second Team: 2004
3× NBA All-Star: 2002, 2003, 2004
2× NBA Three-Point Contest Champion: 2002, 2003
4th in NBA history in career free-throw percentage at .895
23rd in NBA history in 3-pointers made with 1,760
9th in NBA playoff history in free-throw percentage at .900
28th in NBA history in 3-pointers attempted with 4,392
First player in NBA history to start a game off by scoring 20 consecutive points for his team.
He and Steve Nash of Phoenix were the only players to rank in the top 25 in both free-throw and 3-point percentage during the '04–'05 and '05–'06 seasons.
FIBA EuroLeague Top Scorer: 1998
FIBA EuroStar: 2007
Greek Cup Winner: 1995
Greek League MVP: 1998
2× Greek League All-Star: 1996 II, 1997
2× Greek All-Star Game MVP: 1996 II, 1997
FR Yugoslav League Best Young Player: 1993
FIBA EuroBasket All-Tournament Team: 2001
FIBA EuroBasket MVP: 2001
Won the 2001 Euroscar, given to the best European basketball player by Italian newspaper La Gazzetta dello Sport.
Named Mister Europa Player of the Year in 2001 and 2002 by Italian weekly magazine Superbasket.
HoopsHype's 75 Greatest International Players Ever: 2021
Greek Basket League Hall of Fame: 2022
See also
List of National Basketball Association career 3-point scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association season statistical leaders
List of National Basketball Association annual free throw percentage leaders
List of National Basketball Association annual three-point field goals leaders
List of European basketball players in the United States
List of Serbian NBA players
Notes
References
External links
Predrag Stojakovic at FIBA Europe
1977 births
Living people
2002 FIBA World Championship players
Basketball players at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Serbia and Montenegro men's basketball players
Dallas Mavericks players
Euroscar award winners
FIBA EuroBasket-winning players
FIBA World Championship-winning players
Greek expatriate basketball people in Canada
Naturalised basketball players
Greek expatriate basketball people in the United States
Greek Basket League players
Greek basketball executives and administrators
Greek men's basketball players
Greek people of Serbian descent
Indiana Pacers players
KK Crvena zvezda players
National Basketball Association All-Stars
National Basketball Association players from Croatia
National Basketball Association players from Serbia
National Basketball Association players with retired numbers
Naturalized citizens of Greece
New Orleans Hornets players
Olympic basketball players for Serbia and Montenegro
P.A.O.K. BC players
People from Požega, Croatia
Sacramento Kings draft picks
Sacramento Kings executives
Sacramento Kings players
Serbian basketball executives and administrators
Serbian men's basketball players
Serbian expatriate basketball people in Canada
Serbian expatriate basketball people in the United States
Serbian expatriate basketball people in Greece
Serbs of Croatia
Small forwards
Toronto Raptors players
Yugoslav men's basketball players
Yugoslav Wars refugees
Serbia and Montenegro expatriate sportspeople in Greece
Serbia and Montenegro expatriate sportspeople in the United States
Serbia and Montenegro expatriate sportspeople in Canada
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenpoint%2C%20Brooklyn
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Greenpoint, Brooklyn
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Greenpoint is the northernmost neighborhood in the New York City borough of Brooklyn, in the U.S. state of New York. It is bordered on the southwest by Williamsburg at Bushwick Inlet Park and McCarren Park; on the southeast by the Brooklyn–Queens Expressway and East Williamsburg; on the north by Newtown Creek and the neighborhood of Long Island City in Queens; and on the west by the East River. The neighborhood has a large Polish immigrant and Polish-American community, containing many Polish restaurants, markets, and businesses, and it is often referred to as Little Poland.
Originally farmland—many of the farm owners' family names, such as Meserole (Messerole) and Calyer, are current street names—the residential core of Greenpoint was built on parcels divided during the Industrial Revolution and late 19th century, with rope factories and lumber yards lining the East River to the west, while the northeastern section along the Newtown Creek through East Williamsburg became an industrial maritime area.
Greenpoint has long held a reputation of being a working class and immigrant neighborhood, and it initially attracted families and workers with its abundance of factory jobs, heavy industry and manufacturing, shipbuilding, and longshoreman or dock work. Since the early 2000s, a building boom in the neighborhood has made the neighborhood increasingly a center of nightlife and gentrification, and a 2005 rezoning enabled the construction of high density residential buildings on the East River waterfront. There have also been efforts to reclaim the rezoned East River waterfront for recreational use and also to extend a continuous promenade into the Newtown Creek area.
Greenpoint is part of Brooklyn Community District 1, and its primary ZIP Code is 11222. It is patrolled by the 94th Precinct of the New York City Police Department.
History
Early colonization and agricultural era
At the time of European settlement in New York, Greenpoint was inhabited by the Keskachauge (Keshaechqueren) Indians, a sub-tribe of the Lenape. Contemporary accounts describe the area as remarkably verdant and beautiful, with Jack pine and oak forest, meadows, fresh water creeks and briny marshes. Water fowl and fish were abundant. European settlers originally used the "Greenpoint" name to refer to a small bluff of land jutting into the East River at what is now the westernmost end of Freeman Street, but eventually it came to describe the whole peninsula.
In 1638, the Dutch West India Company negotiated the right to settle Brooklyn from the Lenape. The first recorded European settler of what is now Greenpoint was Dirck Volckertsen (Batavianized from Holgerssøn), a Norwegian immigrant who in 1645 built a -story farmhouse there with the help of two Dutch carpenters. It was built in the contemporary Dutch style just west of what is now the intersection of Calyer Street and Franklin Street. There he planted orchards and raised crops, sheep and cattle. He was called Dirck de Noorman by the Dutch colonists of the region, Noorman being the Dutch word for "Norseman" or "Northman." The creek that ran by his farmhouse became known as Norman Kill (Creek); it ran into a large salt marsh and was later filled in.
Volckertsen received title to the land after prevailing in court one year earlier over a Jan De Pree, who had a rival claim. He initially commuted to his farm by boat and may not have moved into the house full time until after 1655, when the small nearby settlement of Boswyck was established, on the charter of which Volckertsen was listed along with 22 other families. Volckertsen's wife, Christine Vigne, was a Walloon. Volckertsen had had periodic conflicts with the Keshaechqueren, who killed two of his sons-in-law and tortured a third in separate incidents throughout the 1650s. Starting in the early 1650s, he began selling and leasing his property to Dutch colonists, among them Jacob Haie (Hay) in 1653, who built a home in northern Greenpoint that was burned down by Indians two years later. Jan Meserole established a farm in 1663; his farmhouse at what is now 723 Manhattan Avenue stood until 1919 and last served as a Young Women's Hebrew Association.
The Hay property and other holdings came into the possession of Pieter Praa, a captain in the local militia, who established a farm near present-day Freeman Street and McGuinness Boulevard, and went on to own most of Greenpoint. Volckertsen died in about 1678 and his grandsons sold the remainder of the homestead to Pieter Praa when their father died in 1718; the name of Norman Avenue remains as testimony to Volckertsen's legacy. Praa had no male heirs when he died in 1740, but the farming families of his various daughters formed the core of Greenpoint for the next hundred years or so. By the time of the American Revolutionary War, Greenpoint's population was entirely five related families:
Abraham Meserole, a grandson of Pieter Praa, and his family lived on the banks of the East River between the present-day India and Java Streets;
Jacob Meserole (brother of Abraham) and his family farmed the entire south end of Greenpoint and built a house between present day Manhattan Avenue and Lorimer Street near Norman Avenue;
Jacob Bennett, son-in-law of Pieter Praa, and his family farmed the land in the northern portion of Greenpoint and built their house near present-day Clay Street roughly between present day Manhattan Avenue and Franklin Street;
Jonathan Provoost, son-in-law of Pieter Praa, and his family farmed the eastern portion of Greenpoint, and lived in the house built by Praa;
Jacobus Calyer, a grandson-in-law of Pieter Praa, and his family farmed the western portion of Greenpoint, and lived in the house built by Volckertsen.
The British Army had an encampment in Greenpoint during the American Revolution, which caused considerable hardship for the families; Abraham Meserole's son was imprisoned on suspicion of revolutionary sympathies.
Throughout the 18th and early 19th centuries, the farms were quite isolated from the rest of Brooklyn, connected only to one another by farm lanes and to the rest of Bushwick Township by a single road, Wood Point Road (now Bushwick Avenue). The families used long boats to travel to Manhattan to sell their farm produce. Little historical information exists about this period of Greenpoint's history other than the personal papers and recorded oral history of these five families.
19th-century industrialization
Greenpoint first began to change significantly when entrepreneur Neziah Bliss married into the Meserole family in the early 1830s after purchasing land from them. He eventually bought out most of the land in Greenpoint. In 1834 he had the area surveyed, and in 1839 opened a public turnpike along what is now Franklin Street. He established regular ferry service to Manhattan around 1850. All of these initiatives contributed to the rapid and radical transformation of Greenpoint, which was annexed to the City of Brooklyn in 1855.
In the years that followed Greenpoint established itself as a manufacturing district. Its largest industries were shipbuilding, porcelain and pottery, and glassworks, but the area had other industrial concerns such as brass and iron foundries; breweries; drug plants; book, furniture, box, and boiler makers; sugar refineries; and machine shops. Germans and Irish arrived in the mid-19th century and large numbers of Poles began arriving before the turn of the century. The homes built for the merchants and the buildings erected for their workers sprang up along streets that lead down to the waterfront. Today, this area is on the National Register of Historic Places as the Greenpoint Historic District.
Greenpoint's East River waterfront holds the maritime history of the community. The buildings that formerly manufactured the ropes for the shipbuilding industry are still there. Long a site of shipbuilding, the neighborhood's dockyards were used to build the , the Union Army's first ironclad fighting ship built during the American Civil War. It was launched on Bushwick Creek. The Monitor, together with seven other ironclads, was built at the Continental Ironworks in Greenpoint. In 1866, the largest wooden ship ever built up to that time, The Great Republic, was built along Newtown Creek. Glass-making was also a large industry in Greenpoint, and by the 1880s the neighborhood housed 18 of the 20 glass makers in the city of Brooklyn, as well as all of the porcelain and pottery manufacturers in the city.
Charles Pratt's Astral Oil Works also opened on the Greenpoint waterfront in the 1860s. Pratt sold his interest to John D. Rockefeller's recently formed Standard Oil Trust in 1874. By 1875 Greenpoint had some 50 refineries. The Astral Apartments were built as housing for workers at Astral Oil in 1886.
An American manufacturer of porcelain wares who operated between 1862 and 1922, the Union Porcelain Works, had their factory located at 300 Eckford Street in Greenpoint. According to the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designation report the company was "one of the most famous in the country, both for its innovative approach to the manufacture of porcelain and for the quality of its products which was highly regarded on both sides of the Atlantic" and was "a major force in shaping an American stylistic tradition for ceramics and porcelain".
20th and 21st centuries
The petroleum industry continued to expand, despite the occasional catastrophe. On September 13, 1919, the Standard Oil refinery caught fire and soon spread flaming liquids into neighboring oil works and Newtown Creek.
In 1933 Greenpoint gained access to the New York City Subway, with the opening of the IND Crosstown Line (currently serving the ), running under Manhattan Avenue from Nassau Avenue to Queens. In 1937 the line was extended to Downtown Brooklyn, providing direct access from Greenpoint to points south.
The manufacturing industry of Greenpoint declined after World War II. Eberhard Faber's pencil factory, once the largest manufacturer of lead pencils in the United States, operated on West Street from 1872 until 1956. The company's former buildings were designated a historic district by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 2007.
The Greenpoint Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983.
Environmental difficulties and litigation
Greenpoint community residents and activists have periodically banded together, sometimes with the aid of their local representatives, to fight highly polluting facilities and practices in the neighborhood. Such organization led the city to close the huge Greenpoint incinerator in 1994, which was out of compliance with all city, state and federal regulations. In the late 1980s, after an increasing series of highly odorous releases from the Sewage Treatment Plant which served a good portion of Lower Manhattan, a local group formed calling itself GASP (Greenpointers Against Smell Pollution) that compelled the city to control the outflows and to plan a vastly expanded facility that took 20 years to build. The mid-1980s saw a great increase in the number of trucks driving through the neighborhood with municipal waste, often toxic waste, to be held at "transfer stations."
During the 1950 Greenpoint oil spill, at the time the largest oil spill in United States history, of oil spilled into Newtown Creek. Oil is believed to have been seeping into the groundwater since then. Groundwater in this area is not used as drinking water, as all of New York City's drinking water presently comes from upstate reservoirs. However, local activists have been campaigning ever since to clean up the spill. On October 20, 2005, residents near the oil recovery operation, which is located in the predominantly commercial/industrial eastern section of Greenpoint near the East Williamsburg Industrial Park, filed a lawsuit against ExxonMobil, BP and Chevron Corporation in Brooklyn State Supreme Court, alleging they have suffered adverse health consequences. ExxonMobil, which has been slowly removing oil from its former facilities in the area, have denied liability for the oil leaking into Newtown Creek and suggested fault lies instead with Chevron. The Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) "Newtown Creek/Greenpoint Oil Spill Study Brooklyn, New York" states that vapor concentrations in "some commercial establishments" were found "above the Upper Explosive Limit"; i.e. there was so much vapor that no explosion could ignite. The same EPA study said, "A review of the data collected by the NYSDEC shows that, in general, chemicals were detected at all locations in each home, but not in a pattern that would typically represent a vapor intrusion phenomenon."
2005 rezoning
On May 11, 2005, New York City's Department of City Planning approved a rezoning of 175 blocks in Greenpoint and Williamsburg. According to the project's Environmental Impact Statement, the rezoning was expected to bring approximately 16,700 new residents to the neighborhood by 2013 in 7,300 new units of housing. of new retail space are projected, along with a corresponding loss of just over of existing industrial capacity. The rezoning also includes a waterfront park. Included in its requirements are provisions for a promenade along the East River, built piecemeal by the developers of existing waterfront lots. An inclusionary housing plan was included in the resolution and provides height bonuses along the waterfront and in Northside Williamsburg for developers providing apartments at rates considered affordable for low-income households (below 80% of the area's median income); on the waterfront, these bonuses could allow for up to seven-story height increases.
The rezoning was a dramatic change in scale to a previously low-slung, industrial neighborhood. The proposed changes were the subject of much debate, including a letter written by activist Jane Jacobs to mayor Michael Bloomberg criticizing the proposed development.
Other organizations, including the city government and various advocacy groups such as the Manhattan Institute, argued that residential construction in underused manufacturing zones is essential to meet growing housing demand. Rezoning promised double-digit percentage growth in the number of housing units, leading these groups to claim that it would help to alleviate the city's housing shortage and possibly slow rent increases. Critics argued that the existing community's character would be changed as existing residents were forced to move, and, further, that public transportation and public safety infrastructure would be unable to accommodate the projected 40,000 new residents.
A boom in construction followed the rezoning, leading to complaints from neighborhood residents and their elected representatives. The zoning plan was modified on March 2, 2006, to include anti-harassment provisions for tenants and add height limits in portions of upland Williamsburg. Neighborhood organizations made differing opinions known: the Greenpoint-Williamsburg Association for Parks and Planning expressed approval of the proposal (with reservations), but many neighborhood residents and members of Community Board 1 continue to voice their objections. One of the largest developments to be built after the rezoning was Greenpoint Landing, which includes ten residential towers containing 5,500 units, a public elementary and middle school, and of parkland. Greenpoint Landing began construction in 2015 and is expected to be completed before 2027. By spring 2017, one building had opened.
Demographics
Greenpoint's population was largely working class and multi-generational; it was common to find three generations of family members living in the community. The neighborhood is sometimes referred to as "Little Poland" due to its large population of Polish immigrants and Polish-Americans, reportedly the second largest concentration in the United States after Chicago. Although Polish immigrants and people of Polish descent are present in force, there is a significant Latino population living mostly north of Greenpoint Avenue, and Greenpoint has a significant number of South Asian and North African residents.
Based on data from the 2010 United States census, the population of Greenpoint was 34,719, a decrease of 3,102 (8.2%) from the 37,821 counted in 2000. Covering an area of , the neighborhood had a population density of .
The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 76.9% (26,691) White and 14.7% (5,099) Hispanic or Latino. Other ethnicities include 1.2% (433) African American, 0.1% (48) Native American, 4.9% (1,689) Asian, 0.0% (10) Pacific Islander, 0.5% (161) from other races, and 1.7% (588) from two or more races.
The entirety of Community Board 1, which comprises Greenpoint and Williamsburg, had 199,190 inhabitants as of NYC Health's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 81.1 years. This is about the same as the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods. Most inhabitants are middle-aged adults and youth: 23% are between the ages of 0 and 17, 41% between 25 and 44, and 17% between 45 and 64. The ratio of college-aged and elderly residents was lower, at 10% and 9% respectively.
As of 2016, the median household income in Community Board 1 was $76,608. In 2018, an estimated 17% of Greenpoint and Williamsburg residents lived in poverty, compared to 21% in all of Brooklyn and 20% in all of New York City. Less than one in fifteen residents (6%) were unemployed, compared to 9% in the rest of both Brooklyn and New York City. Rent burden, or the percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 48% in Greenpoint and Williamsburg, higher than the citywide and boroughwide rates of 52% and 51% respectively. Based on this calculation, , Greenpoint and Williamsburg are considered to be gentrifying.
As according to the 2020 census data from New York City Department of City Planning, there were between 20,000 and 29,999 White residents and between 5,000 and 9,999 Hispanic residents, meanwhile each the Asian and Black populations were each under 5000 residents.
Political representation
Politically, Greenpoint is in New York's 12th congressional district. It is in the New York State Senate's 18th and 26th districts, the New York State Assembly's 50th districts, and the New York City Council's 33rd district.
Police and crime
Greenpoint is patrolled by the 94th Precinct of the NYPD, located at 100 Meserole Avenue. The 94th Precinct ranked 50th safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010. , with a non-fatal assault rate of 34 per 100,000 people, Greenpoint and Williamsburg's rate of violent crimes per capita is less than that of the city as a whole. The incarceration rate of 305 per 100,000 people is lower than that of the city as a whole.
The 94th Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 72.9% between 1990 and 2018. The precinct reported 1 murder, 6 rapes, 63 robberies, 115 felony assaults, 141 burglaries, 535 grand larcenies, and 62 grand larcenies auto in 2018.
Fire safety
The New York City Fire Department (FDNY) operates two fire stations in Greenpoint. Engine Company 238/Ladder Company 106 is located at 205 Greenpoint Avenue and serves most of the neighborhood. The southern part of Greenpoint is served by Engine Company 229/Ladder Company 146, located at 75 Richardson Street.
Health
, preterm births and births to teenage mothers are less common in Greenpoint and Williamsburg than in other places citywide. In Greenpoint and Williamsburg, there were 54 preterm births per 1,000 live births (the lowest in the city, compared to 87 per 1,000 citywide), and 16.0 births to teenage mothers per 1,000 live births (compared to 19.3 per 1,000 citywide). Greenpoint and Williamsburg has a relatively low population of residents who are uninsured, or who receive healthcare through Medicaid. In 2018, this population of uninsured residents was estimated to be 7%, which is lower than the citywide rate of 12%.
The concentration of fine particulate matter, the deadliest type of air pollutant, in Greenpoint and Williamsburg is , higher than the citywide and boroughwide averages. Seventeen percent of Greenpoint and Williamsburg residents are smokers, which is slightly higher than the city average of 14% of residents being smokers. In Greenpoint and Williamsburg, 23% of residents are obese, 11% are diabetic, and 25% have high blood pressure—compared to the citywide averages of 24%, 11%, and 28% respectively. In addition, 23% of children are obese, compared to the citywide average of 20%.
Ninety-one percent of residents eat some fruits and vegetables every day, which is greater than the city's average of 87%. In 2018, 79% of residents described their health as "good," "very good," or "excellent," more than the city's average of 78%. For every supermarket in Greenpoint and Williamsburg, there are 25 bodegas.
There are medical clinics in the Greenpoint area, though no hospitals are located in the neighborhood. The nearest large hospitals are Woodhull Medical Center in Bedford–Stuyvesant and Mount Sinai Queens in Astoria, Queens.
Post office and ZIP Code
Greenpoint is covered by ZIP Code 11222. The United States Postal Service operates the Greenpoint Station post office at 66 Meserole Avenue.
Education
Greenpoint and Williamsburg generally has a higher ratio of college-educated residents than the rest of the city . Half of the population (50%) has a college education or higher, 17% have less than a high school education and 33% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 40% of Brooklynites and 38% of city residents have a college education or higher. The percentage of Greenpoint and Williamsburg students excelling in reading and math has been increasing, with reading achievement rising from 35 percent in 2000 to 40 percent in 2011, and math achievement rising from 29 percent to 50 percent within the same time period.
Greenpoint and Williamsburg's rate of elementary school student absenteeism is slightly higher than the rest of New York City. In Greenpoint and Williamsburg, 21% of elementary school students missed twenty or more days per school year, compared to the citywide average of 20% of students. Additionally, 77% of high school students in Greenpoint and Williamsburg graduate on time, higher than the citywide average of 75% of students.
Schools
Greenpoint contains the following public elementary schools which serve grades PK-5:
PS 31 Samuel F Dupont
PS 34 Oliver H Perry
PS 110 The Monitor
The following public middle school serves grades 6–8:
John Ericsson Middle School 126
The following public high schools serve grades 9–12:
Automotive High School
Frances Perkins Academy
Library
The Brooklyn Public Library (BPL)'s Greenpoint branch is located at 107 Norman Avenue near Leonard Street. The site originally housed a Carnegie library that opened in 1906, but it was replaced in the 1970s. The library closed in mid-2017 for a two-year renovation, which would necessitate the replacement of the existing building with a new facility called the Greenpoint Library & Environmental Education Center. The renovation of the Greenpoint branch was originally supposed to be completed in late 2018, but was delayed because of safety violations during construction.
Transportation
Greenpoint is served by the Greenpoint Avenue and Nassau Avenue stations on the IND Crosstown Line () of the New York City Subway. It is served by the New York City Bus routes.
In June 2011, NY Waterway started service to points along the East River. On May 1, 2017, that route became part of the NYC Ferry's East River route, which runs between Pier 11/Wall Street in Manhattan's Financial District and the East 34th Street Ferry Landing in Murray Hill, Manhattan, with five intermediate stops in Brooklyn and Queens. Greenpoint is served by the East River Ferry's India Street stop, which is temporarily closed.
There are plans to build the Brooklyn–Queens Connector (BQX), a light rail system that would run along the waterfront from Red Hook through Greenpoint to Astoria in Queens. However, the system is projected to cost $2.7 billion, and the projected opening has been delayed until at least 2029.
Landmarks and attractions
Street grid
When Neziah Bliss created Greenpoint, he named the east–west streets in alphabetical order from north to south. Originally, these streets were simply given lettered names such as "A Street" and "B Street", but in the mid-19th century, the streets were given longer names. This system persists today with a few exceptions: Ash, Box, Clay, Dupont, Eagle, Freeman, Green, Huron, India, Java, Kent, Greenpoint (Avenue), Milton, Noble, Oak, Calyer, and Quay Streets. Greenpoint Avenue was formerly named Lincoln Street. There would have been a street starting with the letter "P" between Oak and Quay Streets, but it was named Calyer Street early in Greenpoint's history, after the patriarch of a nearby family.
Parks
Parks include McCarren Park (formerly known as Greenpoint Park), the neighborhood's largest green space, and the smaller McGolrick Park (formerly known as Winthrop Park), which contains both the landmarked Shelter Pavilion (1910) and an allegorical monument to the ironclad ship USS Monitor (1938). On the East River, WNYC Transmitter Park opened in 2012 on the site of a former radio transmission antenna. A small playground called "Right Angle Park" is located at Commercial, Dupont, and Franklin Streets, so named because the park is located on a city block that is shaped like a right triangle.
Architectural and historic landmarks
The Greenpoint Historic District is roughly bounded by Kent, Calyer, Noble, and Franklin Streets, Clifford Place, Lorimer Street and Manhattan Avenue.
Of architectural interest in Greenpoint are: the Episcopal Church of the Ascension (1853), the oldest church in Greenpoint on Kent Street; the Astral Apartments (1885) on Franklin Street; the Saint Anthony of Padua Roman Catholic Church (1875) on Manhattan Avenue; the Eberhard Faber Pencil Factory on Greenpoint Avenue at Franklin Street; the Russian Orthodox Cathedral of the Transfiguration of Our Lord (1921) on North 12th Street; PS 34, the Oliver H. Perry School (1867) on Norman Avenue (the oldest continuously operating public school building in New York City); the Capital One (formerly Green Point) Savings Bank (1908); the Saint Stanislaus Kostka Roman Catholic Church (1896) on Humboldt Street, which serves as a Catholic shrine for the Polish community; and the synagogue building of Congregation Ahavas Israel (1903) on Noble Street (the sanctuary, with stained glass windows and a Torah ark with turn of the century wood carvings, is currently open only during services on Saturday mornings).
A commercial building called Keramos Hall, on Manhattan Avenue, was restored and won a Lucy G. Moses Preservation Award from the New York Landmarks Conservancy in 2013. The conservancy wrote: "Picturesque features had been hidden under asbestos shingles for decades, but when owners discovered a vintage photograph, they began putting funds aside for this work. Now, the revelation of the Stick Style façade, Italianate roof tower, and Swiss Chalet brackets stops passersby in their tracks." The Kickstarter headquarters, located in Greenpoint, is housed in the former Eberhart Faber Pencil Factory on Kent Street, which was renovated in 2013–2014. The restoration received a Moses Preservation Award as well as a MASterworks Award from the Municipal Art Society.
St. Cecilia's Roman Catholic Church and School, on Monitor Street between Richardson and Herbert Streets, has served the community since 1871. The school, which dates to 1906, was closed in June 2008. The current church building dates to 1891.
Notable people
Notable individuals who were born in or lived in Greenpoint include:
Awkwafina (born 1988), rapper and actress.
Pat Benatar (born 1953), pop singer
Ralph Albert Blakelock (1847–1919), painter
Margaret Wise Brown (1910–1952), children's book author who wrote Goodnight Moon and The Runaway Bunny
Bull Dempsey (born 1988), professional wrestler
Joseph Di Prisco (born 1950), poet, novelist, memoirist, book reviewer and teacher.
John Franzese (1917–2020), mobster.
Charles Evans Hughes (1862–1948), statesman, politician and jurist who served as the 11th Chief Justice of the United States from 1930 to 1941.
John Mulvany ( – 1906), artist best known for his paintings of the American West.
Mickey Rooney (1920–2014), actor
Mae West (1893–1980), actress.
In popular culture
Greenpoint is a popular filming location for New York TV and film productions due to its varied architecture, waterfront access, mixed zoning and relatively low street traffic, and because it is also the primary home of two of New York's film and TV stage companies, Broadway Stages, and CineMagic Studios. Several TV shows house their permanent soundstages in the neighborhood's industrial area between Greenpoint Avenue and Norman Avenue east of McGuinness Boulevard.
Television
The HBO show How to Make It in America has a character who lives in Greenpoint: Ben Epstein.
The HBO series Girls
MTV's I Just Want My Pants Back
The animated series Lucas Brothers Moving Company.
The main boardwalk set for Boardwalk Empire – a show about Atlantic City, New Jersey – was built on the Greenpoint waterfront, until it was exploded as part of the plotline in season three of the series.
Rescue Me was filmed in a warehouse in Greenpoint and on the neighborhood's streets.
The Black Donnellys was also filmed in a warehouse in Greenpoint and on the neighborhood's streets.
Lipstick Jungle was also filmed in a warehouse in Greenpoint and on the neighborhood's streets.
Third Watch
Person of Interest
Fringe
Ray Donovan
Stella
Life on Mars
Lie to Me
The Good Wife
Blue Bloods, which has a studio on Greenpoint Avenue
Law and Order: Special Victims Unit
Homeland
The Punisher
Daredevil
Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt
Films
The park scene in Going In Style, the original with George Burns, Art Carney, and Lee Strasberg, was filmed in McGolrick Park in Greenpoint.
Donnie Brasco, based in part on Greenpoint native Dominick "Sonny Black" Napolitano
The Sitter
Anger Management
The Departed
Sleepers
Dead Presidents
All Is Bright
Romeo Is Bleeding
In the Mix
Street Trash
The Siege
On the Waterfront: An early cultural reference to Greenpoint is found in the first minutes of the film, in which a minor gangster, after holding back money from Johnny Friendly, is told to "go back to Greenpoint."
The Meyerowitz Stories
Music videos
The scene of Jay-Z playing basketball against LeBron James in "D.O.A. (Death of Auto-Tune)" was filmed here.
Jedi Mind Tricks's "Heavy Metal Kings"
The Roots's "Clones"
Other
The lead singer of Franz Ferdinand, Alex Kapranos, lived for a time in Greenpoint, and the neighborhood is mentioned in the song "Eleanor Put Your Boots On".
Greenpoint hosts New York City's Nuit Blanche festival. The first two festivals were held along the neighborhood's waterfront in 2010 and 2011, and it was held in a Greenpoint event space in 2012.
The book series The Mortal Instruments has a main character named Magnus Bane who resides there.
The neighborhood is the location of a memoir by Tommy Carbone.
See also
Greenpoint Renaissance Enterprise Corporation
References
External links
Forgotten New York: Greenpoint
Greenpoint Landmarks
Neighborhoods in Brooklyn
Polish-American culture in New York City
Polish communities in the United States
1661 establishments in the Dutch Empire
1661 establishments in North America
Establishments in New Netherland
New York City designated historic districts
New York City Designated Landmarks in Brooklyn
Historic districts in Brooklyn
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine%20Lodge%20Treaty
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Medicine Lodge Treaty
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The Medicine Lodge Treaty is the overall name for three treaties signed near Medicine Lodge, Kansas, between the Federal government of the United States and southern Plains Indian tribes in October 1867, intended to bring peace to the area by relocating the Native Americans to reservations in Indian Territory and away from European-American settlement. The treaty was negotiated after investigation by the Indian Peace Commission, which in its final report in 1868 concluded that the wars had been preventable. They determined that the United States government and its representatives, including the United States Congress, had contributed to the warfare on the Great Plains by failing to fulfill their legal obligations and to treat the Native Americans with honesty.
The U.S. government and tribal chiefs met at a place traditional for Native American ceremonies, at their request. The first treaty was signed October 21, 1867, with the Kiowa and Comanche tribes. The second, with the Kiowa-Apache, was signed the same day. The third treaty was signed with the Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho on October 28.
Under the Medicine Lodge Treaty, the tribes were assigned reservations of diminished size compared to territories defined in an 1865 treaty. The treaty tribes never ratified the treaty by vote of adult males, as it required. In addition, by changing allotment policy under the Dawes Act and authorizing sales under the Agreement with the Cheyenne and Arapaho (1890) and the Agreement with the Comanche, Kiowa and Apache (1892) signed with the Cherokee Commission, the Congress effectively further reduced their reservation territory. The Kiowa chief Lone Wolf filed suit against the government for fraud on behalf of the tribes in Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock. In 1903 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled against the tribes, determining that the Congress had "plenary power" and the political right to make such decisions. In the aftermath of that case, Congress acted unilaterally on land decisions related to other reservations as well.
Because of the outstanding issues with the treaty and subsequent government actions, in the mid-20th century, the Kiowa, Arapaho and Comanche filed several suits for claims against the U.S. government. Over decades, they won substantial settlements of monetary compensation in the amount of tens of millions of dollars, although it took years for the cases to be resolved.
Indian Peace Commission
On July 20, 1867, Congress established the Indian Peace Commission to negotiate peace with Plains Indian tribes who were warring with the United States. The Peace Commission met in St. Louis, Missouri, on August 6, 1867, where it elected Nathaniel G. Taylor, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, as its president. Commissioners agreed that lasting peace was contingent upon separating Indians regarded as "hostile" from those regarded as friendly, removing all Indian tribes onto reservations away from the routes of U.S. westward expansion, and making provision for their maintenance.
The official report of the Commission to the President of the United States, dated January 7, 1868, describes detailed histories of the causes of the Indian Wars including: numerous social and legal injustices to Indians, repeated violations of numerous treaties, acts of corruption by many of the local agents, and culpability of Congress in failing to fulfill certain legal obligations. The report asserts that the Indian Wars were completely preventable had the United States government and its representatives acted with legal and moral honesty in dealing with the Indians.
Other members of the peace commission were Lieutenant General William T. Sherman, commander of the Military Division of the Missouri; Major General William S. Harney (retired), who had taken part in earlier conflicts with the Cheyenne and Sioux along the Platte River; Brigadier General Alfred H. Terry, commander of the Military Department of Dakota; Senator John B. Henderson of Missouri, Chairman of the Senate Indian Appropriations Committee, who had introduced the bill that created the peace commission; Colonel Samuel F. Tappan, formerly of the First Colorado Volunteer Cavalry and a peace advocate who had led the U.S. Army's investigation of the Sand Creek massacre; Major General John B. Sanborn, formerly commander of the Upper Arkansas District, who had previously helped to negotiate the Little Arkansas Treaty of 1865. Sherman, having made public remarks indicating his disagreement with the peace policy, was called to Washington, D.C., and could not be present at the councils on the southern plains, including the council at Medicine Lodge Creek. Major General Christopher C. Augur, commander of the Military Department of the Platte, replaced him as a temporary appointment.
Medicine Lodge River councils
After an abortive meeting with northern Plains Indians in September, the commission gathered at Fort Leavenworth (Kansas) in early October and traveled from there by rail to Fort Harker. There it was joined by an escort of five hundred troops of the 7th U.S. Cavalry Regiment and Battery B of the 4th artillery, armed with two Gatling guns. They were under the command of Maj. Joel H. Elliott, who had been excused from attending the court martial proceedings for Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer then underway at Fort Leavenworth. The commission was also accompanied by numerous newspaper reporters, who provided detailed coverage of the people and events related to the commission's work.
The commission arrived at Fort Larned (present-day Kansas) on October 11, where some chiefs were already present, including Black Kettle of the Cheyenne, Little Raven of the Arapaho, and Satanta of the Kiowa. At the insistence of the tribes, the meetings were moved from Larned to Medicine Lodge River (near present day Medicine Lodge, Kansas), a traditional Indian ceremonial site. Preliminary discussions beginning on October 15 concluded that the Hancock expedition led earlier in 1867 by Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock, during which a large Cheyenne and Sioux village at Pawnee Fork had been approached, and when found empty, destroyed - had been ill-conceived. This conclusion, and the commissioners' apology for the village's destruction, served to clear the air. It created a more positive atmosphere for the councils, which began in earnest on October 19.
Treaty terms and signatories
The treaties negotiated at Medicine Lodge Creek were similar in their terms, involving surrender of traditional tribal territories in exchange for much smaller reservations in Indian Territory (present day Oklahoma) and allowances of food, clothing, equipment, and weapons and ammunition for hunting.
Treaties with the Kiowa, Comanche, and Plains Apache
Under the first of the three Medicine Lodge treaties, the Kiowa and Comanche were compelled to give up more than of traditional tribal territories in exchange for a reservation in the southwest corner of Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma), most of it lying between the North Fork of the Red River and the North Canadian River. The tribes would also be provided houses, barns, and schools worth $30,000, which the tribes had not requested. By a second treaty, the Plains or Kiowa-Apache were incorporated into the first treaty; this treaty was signed by all the Kiowa and Comanche signatories of the first treaty, along with several Plains Apache chiefs. The treaties with the Kiowa, Comanche, and Plains Apache tribes were concluded on October 21, 1867.
Kiowa chiefs signing
Satank, or Sitting Bear
Sa-tan-ta, or White Bear
Wa-toh-konk, or Black Eagle
Ton-a-en-ko, or Kicking Eagle (Kicking Bird)
Fish-e-more, or Stinging Saddle
Ma-ye-tin, or Woman's Heart
Sa-tim-gear, or Stumbling Bear
Sit-par-ga, [Sa-pa-ga] or One Bear
Cor-beau, or The Crow
Sa-ta-more, or Bear Lying Down
Comanche chiefs signing
Parry-wah-say-men, or Ten Bears
Tep-pe-navon, or Painted Lips
To-sa-in (To-she-wi), or Silver Brooch
Cear-chi-neka, or Standing Feather
Ho-we-ar, or Gap in the Woods
Tir-ha-yah-gua-hip, or Horse's Back
Es-a-nanaca (Es-a-man-a-ca), or Wolf's Name
Ah-te-es-ta, or Little Horn
Pooh-yah-to-yeh-be, or Iron Mountain
Sad-dy-yo, or Dog Fat
Plains Apache chiefs signing
Mah-vip-pah, Wolf's Sleeve
Kon-zhon-ta-co, Poor Bear
Cho-se-ta, or Bad Back
Nah-tan, or Brave Man
Ba-zhe-ech, Iron Shirt
Til-la-ka, or WhiteHorn
At that conference, the Comanche Chief Parry-wah-say-men (Ten Bears) gave an address that foretold the future of his people:
Treaty with the Cheyenne and Arapaho
Under the Little Arkansas Treaty of 1865, the Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes had been assigned as a reservation those portions of Kansas and Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma) between the Arkansas and Cimarron rivers and lying east of an imaginary line running north from Buffalo Creek on the Cimarron up to the Arkansas. Under the Medicine Lodge Treaty, their assigned territory was cut to less than half of the 1865-treaty territory, reduced to that land south of the Kansas state line, for a total of of land. Additionally, the tribes were to be permitted to continue to hunt north of the Arkansas River for as long as the buffalo remained, as long as they stayed away from white settlements and roads. This concession was made to obtain participation of the Dog Soldiers to the treaty terms. A separate treaty version for the Northern Cheyenne was created, but they did not sign, as they were allied with Red Cloud and the Oglala Lakota in hostilities against the US. The Cheyenne didn't properly understand the treaty. One cavalry captain said "The Cheyennes have no idea what they are giving up. The treaty amounts to nothing, and we will certainly have another war sooner or later with the Cheyennes, and probably with the other Indians, in consequence of the misunderstandings of the terms." One mixed-race interpreter feared for his mother's people: "This was, in a way, the most important treaty ever signed by the Cheyennes." he later wrote. "and it marked the beginning of the end of the Cheyenne as a free and independent warrior and hunter."
Southern Cheyenne chiefs signing
O-to-ah-nac-co, Bull Bear
Moke-tav-a-to, Black Kettle
Nac-co-hah-ket, Little Bear
Mo-a-vo-va-ast, Spotted Elk
Is-se-von-ne-ve, Buffalo Chief
Vip-po-nah, Slim Face
Wo-pah-ah, Gray Head
O-ni-hah-ket, Little Rock
Ma-mo-ki, or Curly Hair
O-to-ah-has-tis, Tall Bull
Wo-po-ham, or White Horse
Hah-ket-home-mah, Little Robe
Min-nin-ne-wah, Whirlwind
Mo-yan-histe-histow, Heap of Birds
Arapaho chiefs signing
Little Raven
Yellow Bear
Storm
White Rabbit
Spotted Wolf
Little Big Mouth
Young Colt
Tall Bear
Unratified
The Medicine Lodge Treaty required the approval of 3/4 of the adult males on the reservation for any further cessions of land. In 1887 the Congress changed national policy on allotment of Native American lands by passing the Dawes Act, which promoted allotment of parcels to individual households (they thought 160 acres per household would be adequate for cultivation) to break up the communal land held by tribes, with the government authorized to sell the resulting "surplus". In the case of the southern Plains Indians, a commission was assigned to gain their agreement to such allotments and sales. The Jerome Agreement of 1892, although never ratified by the tribes, implemented the new allotment policy, effectively removing millions of acres from the reservation. The commission negotiating the agreement had evaded telling the Indians what the sale price would be. The Kiowa chief Lone Wolf sued the Secretary of the Interior on behalf of the entirety of the Kiowa, Comanche, and Apache tribes, based on their being defrauded by the government at the time.
The case, Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock, was ultimately decided by the US Supreme Court in 1903. In its ruling, the Court conceded that the Indians had not agreed to the land cessions. But, it concluded that the Congress had the "plenary power" to act unilaterally, so the circumstance did not matter. Its decision expressed the nineteenth-century attitude toward the Native Americans. Quoting from United States v. Kagama (1855) 118 U.S.375 in its ruling, the court reiterated the description of the Indian tribes as "wards of the nation... Dependent largely [on the United States] for their daily food... there arises the duty of protection, and with it the power."
Aftermath
Following the Supreme Court decision, the Congress continued to make unilateral changes to reservation lands without getting agreement by the tribes, beginning in 1903 and 1904 with the Rosebud Indian Reservation in South Dakota. The Commissioner of Indian Affairs, then William Arthur Jones, noted his intention to proceed without Native American consent. As the historian Blue Clark found, Jones wrote that he planned to report officially on land bills before Congress in favor "of Congress taking the property of Indians without their consent." As another example, in 1907 Congress authorized the sale of "surplus" land at Rosebud, again without Indian consent.
The outstanding issues were challenged again in the mid-twentieth century, beginning in 1948. Combined Kiowa, Apache and Comanche representatives filed suit against the US government for compensation due to the original treaty and subsequent actions, including sales under the unratified Jerome Agreement. Over the following decades and through several claims, the tribes won substantial compensation of tens of millions of dollars from the Indian Claims Commission.
The Medicine Lodge Treaty is dramatized in the 1962 episode, "The Truth Teller", on the syndicated television anthology series, Death Valley Days, hosted by Stanley Andrews. In the episode, Barney Phillips was cast as General Winfield Scott Hancock and Charles Carlson as Wild Bill Hickok, long after Guy Madison played Hickok in a weekly syndicated series.
See also
Medicine Lodge Peace Treaty Site, a U.S. National Historic Landmark
Notes
References
"REPORT TO THE PRESIDENT BY THE INDIAN PEACE COMMISSION, JANUARY 7, 1868", in Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1868, (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1868), 26–50.
Cozzens, Peter, ed. (2003). Eyewitnesses to the Indian Wars, Volume Three: Conquering the Southern Plains], Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. .
Greene, Jerome A. (2004). Washita, The Southern Cheyenne and the U.S. Army. Campaigns and Commanders Series, vol. 3. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. .
Hoig, Stan. (1980). [https://books.google.com/books?id=esuewT_lSwwC&q=%22the+battle+of+the+washita%22+hoig The Battle of the Washita: The Sheridan-Custer Indian Campaign of 1867–69. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. . Previously published in 1976 (Garden City, NY: Doubleday). .
"Treaty with the Kiowa and Comanche, 1867" (Medicine Lodge Treaty). 15 Stats. 581, October 21, 1867. Ratified July 25, 1868; proclaimed August 25, 1868. In Charles J. Kappler, compiler and editor,Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties — Vol. II: Treaties, pp. 977–982. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904. Through Oklahoma State University Library, Electronic Publishing Center.
"Treaty with the Kiowa, Comanche, and Apache, 1867" (Medicine Lodge Treaty). 15 Stats. 589, October 21, 1867. Ratified July 25, 1868; proclaimed August 25, 1868. In Charles J. Kappler, compiler and editor, Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties — Vol. II: Treaties, pp. 982–984. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904. Through Oklahoma State University Library, Electronic Publishing Center.
"Treaty with the Cheyenne and Arapaho, 1867" (Medicine Lodge Treaty). 15 Stats. 593, October 28, 1867. Ratified July 25, 1868; proclaimed August 19, 1868. In Charles J. Kappler, compiler and editor, Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties — Vol. II: Treaties, pp. 984–989. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904. Through Oklahoma State University Library, Electronic Publishing Center.
A.A. Taylor, "MEDICINE LODGE PEACE COUNCIL", Chronicles of Oklahoma, Volume 2, No. 2, June 1924 (first-person account by Alfred A. Taylor, future governor of Tennessee, about events when he accompanied his father Nathaniel Green Taylor of the IPC)
External links
1867 in American law
Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains
Medicine Lodge
Comanche campaign
Apache
Arapaho
Cheyenne
Kiowa
1867 treaties
Native American history of Kansas
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasi%20lemak
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Nasi lemak
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Nasi lemak is a dish originating in Malay cuisine that consists of fragrant rice cooked in coconut milk and pandan leaf. It is commonly found in Malaysia, where it is considered as the national dish. It is also a native dish in neighbouring areas with significant ethnic Malay populations such as Singapore and Southern Thailand. In Indonesia it can be found in several parts of Sumatra, especially the Malay regions of Riau, Riau Islands and Medan. It is considered an essential dish for a typical Malay-style breakfast. Nasi lemak is featured as a national dish in most of the country's tourism brochures and promotional materials.
Nasi lemak can also be found in the Bangsamoro region of Mindanao, prepared by Filipino Moros, as well as Australia's external territories of Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands.
History
Nasi lemak was mentioned in a book The Circumstances of Malay Life, written by Sir Richard Olof Winstedt in 1909. With roots in Malay culture and Malay cuisine, its name in Malay literally means "fat rice", but is taken in this context to mean "rich" or "creamy". The name is derived from the cooking process whereby rice is soaked in coconut cream and then the mixture steamed. The rice is normally cooked with pandan leaves that gives its distinct flavour.
Traditionally, nasi lemak is wrapped and served in banana leaves, being served with a hot spicy sauce (sambal), and usually includes various garnishes, including fresh cucumber slices, small fried anchovies (ikan bilis), roasted peanuts, and hard-boiled or fried eggs.
As a more substantial meal, nasi lemak may also be served with an additional protein dish such as ayam goreng (fried chicken), sambal sotong (cuttlefish in chili), small fried fish, cockles, and rendang daging (beef stewed in coconut milk and spices). Other accompaniments include stir fried water convolvulus (kangkong), and spicy pickled vegetables salad acar. Traditionally most of these accompaniments are spicy in nature.
Nasi lemak is widely eaten in Malaysia and Singapore. More commonly consumed as breakfast in both countries, it is sold in hawker food centres and roadside stalls in Malaysia and Singapore. In Malaysia, nasi lemak can also be found in night markets pasar malam along with a variety of dishes.
In Indonesia, nasi lemak is a favourite local breakfast fare; especially in Eastern Sumatra (Riau Islands, Riau and coastal North Sumatra provinces).
In the Palembang and Jambi provinces, it is also a favourite local dish with the name nasi gemuk, since in Palembang Malay, gemuk is a synonym of lemak. This unique dish often comes wrapped in banana leaves, newspapers, or in some shops is served on a plate. However, owing to its popularity there are restaurants which serve it as a noon or evening meal, allowing it to be eaten any time of day.
On 31 January 2019, Google released a Google Doodle celebrating nasi lemak.
Variations
In Malaysia and Singapore, nasi lemak comes in many variations as they are prepared by different chefs from different cultures. The original nasi lemak in Malaysia is arguably a typical southern and central Peninsular Malaysia breakfast, and is considered of Malay origin. However, due to the popularity of the dish, it is regarded as a national dish. Nasi lemak kukus which means "steamed nasi lemak" is another name given to nasi lemak served as steamed rice.
In northwestern Peninsular Malaysia, nasi lemak dishes typically incorporate curry into their recipe. The sambal served with the dish varies in spiciness, ranging from being mild in flavour to being very spicy, with a subtle sweet underlying flavours. Hotels often feature nasi lemak on their menu with elaborate dishes, such as beef rendang and the addition of other seafood.
Hawker centres in Singapore and Malaysia usually wrap the dish in banana leaves to enhance its flavour. Roadside stalls sell them ready-packed, known as "nasi lemak bungkus", with minimal additions that cost between RM 1.50 – 6.00 per pack. Seafood outlets often serve nasi lemak to accompany barbecued seafood.
There are Malaysian Chinese and Malaysian Indian versions, as well as Singaporean Malay and Singaporean Chinese versions. Some people suggest that sambal is the most important part of a nasi lemak meal. If not prepared properly, it could ruin the entire dish.
Malaysia
Traditional Malaysian version
A traditional Malaysian nasi lemak calls for rice and a serving of sambal, ikan bilis (anchovies), peanuts and boiled egg. In addition, some nasi lemak stalls can be found serving them with fried egg, a variety of sambal, i.e. sambal kerang (blood cockles) and sambal ikan (fish), chicken or beef rendang, or even fried squids, chicken or fish.
A special feature of this dish is the white rice used, although variations using brown rice may be preferred by health-conscious consumers. Cooked with fresh coconut milk, and pandanus leaves (screwpine) thrown in, the rice is served on naturally fragrant banana leaves. This traditional serving style has been inherited for many generations -from a little stall by the road to commercials, it serves as simple way to fulfil the craving for this dish in large cities.
Alor Setar variant
Also known as nasi lemak kuning (yellow nasi lemak) or nasi lemak royale, this version of nasi lemak is prevalent around parts of northern Kedah, especially in Alor Setar, as well as Perlis. It has a distinct taste, composition, form and texture in contrast to conventional nasi lemak. The rice is yellow in colour and commonly eaten with curries, although some stalls may offer sambals. The rendition of the dish in Alor Setar is closer to nasi kandar.
However, as both variations of nasi lemak are widely available in northern Kedah and Perlis, locals commonly refer to the traditional nasi lemak as nasi lemak daun pisang (banana leaf nasi lemak) to distinguish between the two interpretations of the meal.
Terengganu variant
In the east coast state of Terengganu, the nasi lemak is largely similar with the traditional version. However, ikan aye/aya/tongkol (mackerel tuna) is one of the unique complimentary side dishes found in the state. The fish is commonly cooked in a sambal sauce and eaten together with the nasi lemak. This regional version of nasi lemak is a highly popular breakfast option especially in Terengganu's coastal areas.
Malaccan variant
In Malacca, kangkung is usually served to accompany nasi lemak, a contrast from the cucumber that is commonly used in the standard version of the dish.
Malaysian Chinese variant
Although it is not common to see Chinese stalls and restaurants selling nasi lemak, there is a non-halal version that contains pork, sold in towns and cities such as Malacca, Penang, Perak and certain parts of Kuala Lumpur. Some Malaysian Chinese hawkers are known to make pork and wild boar curry, sambal and rendang. It is available in most non-halal restaurants and it is served in a variety of pork, such as luncheon meat, pork petai, pork sausage, braised pork, and grilled pork chop.
Malaysian Indian variant
The Malaysian Indian variation is similar to the original version. However, many Malaysian Indians are Hindus, and thus do not eat beef. Nasi lemak in the Malaysian Indian version is served with curry, such as chicken curry, fish curry or lamb curry. Moreover, Malaysian Indians also serve a rendition of the dish alongside their very own version of rendang.
Vegetarian variant
In certain parts of Malaysia and Singapore, hawkers and restaurants may offer vegetarian nasi lemak to cater for vegan clientele. In this vegan variant the dried anchovies and the shrimp paste for sambal are replaced with vegetarian substitutes. The vegetarian nasi lemak is served with stir fried vegetables and also plant-based imitation fish or meat substitution.
Strawberry variant
Usually regarded as a unique Cameron Highlands specialty where strawberries are commercially grown and harvested. This variation of nasi lemak saw a combination of the fruit in its sambal. The rice is also dark pink in colour, to highlight its distinct identity.
Indonesia
Right across the Malacca Strait, the Malay Indonesians of Sumatran east coast shares close kinship and common Malay cuisine heritage with their Malaysian counterpart. As the result, nasi lemak is also native cuisine to Riau Islands and Riau province, also several neighbouring provinces in Sumatra.
Riau Islands variant
In the Riau Archipelago, nasi lemak is considered a native Malay dish as well as a favourite breakfast fare among locals. Being an archipelagic region, seafood are usually used to accompany nasi lemak, such as ikan bilis (anchovy), ikan tamban (Sardinella longiceps), ikan selar kuning (Selaroides leptolepis), sotong or cumi-cumi (squid) or small prawns. Nasi lemak from the Riau Islands is quite similar to Malaysian version; it comes as a platter of coconut rice wrapped in banana leaf, with cucumber slices, small dried anchovies (ikan bilis), roasted peanuts, hard boiled egg, and hot spicy sauce (sambal).
The Riau Islands version however, comes with an addition of small fish locally known as ikan tamban, usually fried with sambal chili paste and very crispy, the whole fish is edible. Prawns and squids are also commonly stir-fried in chili paste as sambal udang or sambal cumi. In Indonesia, nasi lemak is often sprinkled with bawang goreng (crispy fried shallot granules).
Riau variant
In Pekanbaru city in Sumatran province of Riau however, locally caught freshwater river fishes are commonly used as lauk to accompany nasi lemak. The freshwater fishes includes ikan selais (Kryptopterus cryptopterus) and ikan patin (Pangasius). Other fish such as ikan lomek (Harpadon nehereus) is also commonly used. These fishes are usually cooked in Minang style lado ijo (green chili pepper), minced and fried as perkedel ikan, or just plainly fried.
In Pekanbaru, nasi lemak is also a popular breakfast fare. Just like other variants, the Riau nasi lemak is also rice cooked in rich coconut milk and pandan leaf to add aroma. Other than fried freshwater fish, Pekanbaru's nasi lemak might also served with fried anchovies, boiled egg, sambal, slices of cucumber, fried tempeh, beef cooked as gulai or rendang, and also stir fried long beans often cooked in spicy coconut milk.
Medan variant
The Medan Melayu Deli version of nasi lemak is usually served with choice of side dishes either rendang (beef or chicken) or balado (egg or shrimp in chili sauce). A set of complete Medan's nasi lemak includes a sprinkle of crispy fried shallot, slices of omelette, kripik kentang balado (spicy potato chips), tempe orek (seasoned fried tempeh), perkedel (fried potato patties), sambal chili paste, slices of cucumber, and slightly bitter emping cracker. Some traditional restaurant chains have dedicated their business to serving nasi lemak Medan.
Next to rendang and balado, the vegetable dish sayur masak lemak (vegetables including long beans, cabbage, and long green chilies in coconut milk) is also offered. It is a popular street food in Medan sold in humble tarp tents warung, and usually sold together with Lontong Medan. Since Medan is located near the Aceh border, and there are numbers of Aceh people that reside in the city, the term nasi lemak and nasi gurih are often used interchangeably in the city, since the terms refer to a similar coconut rice dish.
Singapore
Singaporean Malay variant
For most of the Singaporean Malay variation, the sambal of the nasi lemak has more of a sweeter and less spicy taste when compared to other variations. As the sambal is a crucial portion of the nasi lemak, it is preferred to be less spicy so as not to overpower the taste of the coconut based rice and the other ingredients. The sides to this dish includes ikan bilis (anchovies), peanuts and an omelette or fried egg, which is rather similar to the Malaysian version, although the use of a boiled egg as with the Malaysian version is somewhat less common. Occasionally, a variant using the long grain basmati rice may also be found. The rice is sometimes artificially colored green to indicate that it has been flavored with green pandan leaves.
Singaporean Chinese variant
Retaining the familiar aroma of pandan leaves, the Singaporean Chinese variation comes with a variety of sides that includes deep fried drumstick, chicken franks, fish cake, curried vegetables and tongsan luncheon meat. There is also the traditional way of serving it with just the ikan bilis (anchovies), peanuts and fried egg similar to the classic Malay version. Sometimes the rice is also coloured emerald green with the use of pandan extract, that perfumes the rice with a nice fragrance when added to the rice with the coconut milk as well as giving it its bright green colour. The use of the colour may have arisen as a gimmick to entice customers.
Similar dishes
Nasi lemak's closest analogue is probably the Sumatran nasi gemuk (lit. "fatty rice"), commonly found in the Indonesian cities of Jambi and Palembang. It is arguably that the difference is only due to dialects variant, in which the term lemak in Johor and Riau Malay dialect is synonymous with gemuk in Jambi and Palembang Malay dialect.
The rice cooked in coconut milk is actually very common in Southeast Asia. This is the same process used to make similar rice dishes from neighbouring Indonesia, which are nasi uduk from Jakarta, nasi gurih from Aceh and Javanese nasi liwet. However, there are differences in taste because knotted leaves of pandan screwpine are steamed with the rice to impart flavour and fragrance. Less often other spices such as ginger and occasionally herbs like lemon grass may be added for additional fragrance.
Nasi lemak is not as popular as the indigenous nasi dagang, nasi berlauk, and nasi kerabu in the northeast parts of Malay peninsula, particularly the states of Kelantan and Terengganu. Nasi dagang is also sold in neighbouring region in Pattani, Yala and Narathiwat in Thailand and Natuna in Indonesia. Although both dishes are often served for breakfast, nasi lemak however, can be served in a variety of ways, it is often eaten throughout the day.
Nasi lemuni is a similar savoury rice dish traditionally found in northern Peninsular Malaysia. Its preparation is almost similar with nasi lemak, however the former differs by the combination of lemuni leaf (Vitex trifolia) in the coconut milk and rice admixture. The introduction of the herb influenced its taste, aroma and contributed to the dark grey and black colourings on the rice. It is also believed that this variant is a healthier alternative of nasi lemak. This meal is often paired together with the side dishes typically associated in a classic nasi lemak sambal, fried anchovies and boiled egg.
In Borneo, it is regarded as a speciality imported dish in Sabah and Sarawak. The dish is also different from nasi katok in Brunei Darussalam; the latter is distinguished with the usage of plain white rice, a contrast from the coconut milk base found in nasi lemak.
Health
In March 2016, nasi lemak was mentioned as one of the 10 healthy international breakfast foods by Time magazine. However, this opinion may be misleading as the writer might have been referring to the dish's "healthier" and smaller version, and comparing it to the larger American breakfast (fried bacon, eggs, pancakes/hash browns). A single, full size serving of nasi lemak with additional fried chicken, meat or fish, can be between 800 and well over 1,000 calories. The savoury coconut milk-infused rice also contains saturated fat, an ingredient connected to health problems, including diabetes. It is noticeable that although Malaysian main dishes have been related to high carbohydrate and protein contents, and lack of vegetables, a study done among 432 adults showed that Malaysian adults had a controllable consumption of local ready-to-eat cooked dishes as most of the dishes were consumed in low quantities.
See also
Cuisine of Malaysia
Cuisine of Singapore
Cuisine of Indonesia
Malay cuisine
Mamak stall
Nasi dagang
Nasi uduk
Nasi Kuning
Nasi ulam
Coconut rice
List of steamed foods
References
Malay cuisine
Malaysian rice dishes
Indonesian rice dishes
Singaporean rice dishes
Philippine rice dishes
Bruneian cuisine
Thai rice dishes
National dishes
Malay words and phrases
Foods containing coconut
Steamed foods
Christmas Island cuisine
Cocossian cuisine
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated%20carbon
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Activated carbon
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Activated carbon, also called activated charcoal, is a form of carbon commonly used to filter contaminants from water and air, among many other uses. It is processed (activated) to have small, low-volume pores that increase the surface area available for adsorption (which is not the same as absorption) or chemical reactions. Activation is analogous to making popcorn from dried corn kernels: popcorn is light, fluffy, and its kernels have a high surface-area-to-volume ratio. Activated is sometimes replaced by active.
Due to its high degree of microporosity, one gram of activated carbon has a surface area in excess of as determined by gas adsorption. Charcoal, before activation, has a specific surface area in the range of . An activation level sufficient for useful application may be obtained solely from high surface area. Further chemical treatment often enhances adsorption properties.
Activated carbon is usually derived from waste products such as coconut husks; waste from paper mills has been studied as a source. These bulk sources are converted into charcoal before being 'activated'. When derived from coal it is referred to as activated coal. Activated coke is derived from coke.
Uses
Activated carbon is used in methane and hydrogen storage, air purification, capacitive deionization, supercapacitive swing adsorption, solvent recovery, decaffeination, gold purification, metal extraction, water purification, medicine, sewage treatment, air filters in respirators, filters in compressed air, teeth whitening, production of hydrogen chloride, edible electronics, and many other applications.
Industrial
One major industrial application involves use of activated carbon in metal finishing for purification of electroplating solutions. For example, it is the main purification technique for removing organic impurities from bright nickel plating solutions. A variety of organic chemicals are added to plating solutions for improving their deposit qualities and for enhancing properties like brightness, smoothness, ductility, etc. Due to passage of direct current and electrolytic reactions of anodic oxidation and cathodic reduction, organic additives generate unwanted breakdown products in solution. Their excessive build up can adversely affect plating quality and physical properties of deposited metal. Activated carbon treatment removes such impurities and restores plating performance to the desired level.
Medical
Activated carbon is used to treat poisonings and overdoses following oral ingestion. Tablets or capsules of activated carbon are used in many countries as an over-the-counter drug to treat diarrhea, indigestion, and flatulence. However, activated charcoal shows no effect on intestinal gas and diarrhea, and is, ordinarily, medically ineffective if poisoning resulted from ingestion of corrosive agents, boric acid, or petroleum products, and is particularly ineffective against poisonings of strong acids or bases, cyanide, iron, lithium, arsenic, methanol, ethanol or ethylene glycol. Activated carbon will not prevent these chemicals from being absorbed into the human body. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.
Incorrect application (e.g. into the lungs) results in pulmonary aspiration, which can sometimes be fatal if immediate medical treatment is not initiated.
Analytical chemistry
Activated carbon, in 50% w/w combination with celite, is used as stationary phase in low-pressure chromatographic separation of carbohydrates (mono-, di-, tri-saccharides) using ethanol solutions (5–50%) as mobile phase in analytical or preparative protocols.
Activated carbon is useful for extracting the direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) such as dabigatran, apixaban, rivaroxaban and edoxaban from blood plasma samples. For this purpose it has been made into "minitablets", each containing 5 mg activated carbon for treating 1ml samples of DOAC. Since this activated carbon has no effect on blood clotting factors, heparin or most other anticoagulants this allows a plasma sample to be analyzed for abnormalities otherwise affected by the DOACs.
Environmental
Carbon adsorption has numerous applications in removing pollutants from air or water streams both in the field and in industrial processes such as:
Spill cleanup
Groundwater remediation
Drinking water filtration
Air purification
Volatile organic compounds capture from painting, dry cleaning, gasoline dispensing operations, and other processes
Volatile organic compounds recovery (SRU, Solvent Recovery Unit | SRP, Solvent Recovery Plant | SRS, Solvent Recovery System) from flexible packaging, converting, coating, and other processes.
During early implementation of the 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act in the US, EPA officials developed a rule that proposed requiring drinking water treatment systems to use granular activated carbon. Because of its high cost, the so-called GAC rule encountered strong opposition across the country from the water supply industry, including the largest water utilities in California. Hence, the agency set aside the rule. Activated carbon filtration is an effective water treatment method due to its multi-functional nature. There are specific types of activated carbon filtration methods and equipment that are indicated – depending upon the contaminants involved.
Activated carbon is also used for the measurement of radon concentration in air.
Agricultural
Activated carbon (charcoal) is an allowed substance used by organic farmers in both livestock production and wine making. In livestock production it is used as a pesticide, animal feed additive, processing aid, nonagricultural ingredient and disinfectant. In organic winemaking, activated carbon is allowed for use as a processing agent to adsorb brown color pigments from white grape concentrates.
It is sometimes used as biochar.
Distilled alcoholic beverage purification
Activated carbon filters (AC filters) can be used to filter vodka and whiskey of organic impurities which can affect color, taste, and odor. Passing an organically impure vodka through an activated carbon filter at the proper flow rate will result in vodka with an identical alcohol content and significantly increased organic purity, as judged by odor and taste.
Fuel storage
Research is being done testing various activated carbons' ability to store natural gas and hydrogen gas. The porous material acts like a sponge for different types of gases. The gas is attracted to the carbon material via Van der Waals forces. Some carbons have been able to achieve bonding energies of 5–10 kJ per mol. The gas may then be desorbed when subjected to higher temperatures and either combusted to do work or in the case of hydrogen gas extracted for use in a hydrogen fuel cell. Gas storage in activated carbons is an appealing gas storage method because the gas can be stored in a low pressure, low mass, low volume environment that would be much more feasible than bulky on-board pressure tanks in vehicles. The United States Department of Energy has specified certain goals to be achieved in the area of research and development of nano-porous carbon materials. All of the goals are yet to be satisfied but numerous institutions, including the ALL-CRAFT program, are continuing to conduct work in this field.
Gas purification
Filters with activated carbon are usually used in compressed air and gas purification to remove oil vapors, odor, and other hydrocarbons from the air. The most common designs use a 1-stage or 2 stage filtration principle in which activated carbon is embedded inside the filter media.
Activated carbon filters are used to retain radioactive gases within the air vacuumed from a nuclear boiling water reactor turbine condenser. The large charcoal beds adsorb these gases and retain them while they rapidly decay to non-radioactive solid species. The solids are trapped in the charcoal particles, while the filtered air passes through.
Chemical purification
Activated carbon is commonly used on the laboratory scale to purify solutions of organic molecules containing unwanted colored organic impurities.
Filtration over activated carbon is used in large scale fine chemical and pharmaceutical processes for the same purpose. The carbon is either mixed with the solution then filtered off or immobilized in a filter.
Mercury scrubbing
Activated carbon, often infused with sulfur or iodine, is widely used to trap mercury emissions from coal-fired power stations, medical incinerators, and from natural gas at the wellhead. However, despite its effectiveness, activated carbon is expensive to use.
Since it is often not recycled, the mercury-laden activated carbon presents a disposal dilemma. If the activated carbon contains less than 260 ppm mercury, United States federal regulations allow it to be stabilized (for example, trapped in concrete) for landfilling. However, waste containing greater than 260 ppm is considered to be in the high-mercury subcategory and is banned from landfilling (Land-Ban Rule). This material is now accumulating in warehouses and in deep abandoned mines at an estimated rate of 100 tons per year.
The problem of disposal of mercury-laden activated carbon is not unique to the United States. In the Netherlands, this mercury is largely recovered and the activated carbon is disposed of by complete burning, forming carbon dioxide ().
Food additive
Activated, food-grade charcoal became a food trend in 2016, being used as an additive to impart a "slightly smoky" taste and a dark coloring to products including hotdogs, ice cream, pizza bases and bagels. People taking medication, including birth control pills and antidepressants, are advised to avoid novelty foods or drinks that use activated charcoal coloring, as it can render the medication ineffective.
Structure of activated carbon
The structure of activated carbon has long been a subject of debate. In a book published in 2006, Harry Marsh and Francisco Rodríguez-Reinoso considered more than 15 models for the structure, without coming to a definite conclusion about which was correct. Recent work using aberration-corrected transmission electron microscopy has suggested that activated carbons may have a structure related to that of the fullerenes, with pentagonal and heptagonal carbon rings.
Production
Activated carbon is carbon produced from carbonaceous source materials such as bamboo, coconut husk, willow peat, wood, coir, lignite, coal, and petroleum pitch. It can be produced (activated) by one of the following processes:
Physical activation: The source material is developed into activated carbon using hot gases. Air is then introduced to burn out the gasses, creating a graded, screened and de-dusted form of activated carbon. This is generally done by using one or more of the following processes:
Carbonization: Material with carbon content is pyrolyzed at temperatures in the range 600–900 °C, usually in an inert atmosphere with gases such as argon or nitrogen
Activation/oxidation: Raw material or carbonized material is exposed to oxidizing atmospheres (oxygen or steam) at temperatures above 250 °C, usually in the temperature range of 600–1200 °C. The activation is performed by heating the sample for 1 h in a muffle furnace at 450 °C in the presence of air.
Chemical activation: The carbon material is impregnated with certain chemicals. The chemical is typically an acid, strong base, or a salt (phosphoric acid 25%, potassium hydroxide 5%, sodium hydroxide 5%, potassium carbonate 5%, calcium chloride 25%, and zinc chloride 25%). The carbon is then subjected to high temperatures (250–600 °C). It is believed that the temperature activates the carbon at this stage by forcing the material to open up and have more microscopic pores. Chemical activation is preferred to physical activation owing to the lower temperatures, better quality consistency, and shorter time needed for activating the material.
The Dutch company Norit NV, part of the Cabot Corporation, is the largest producer of activated carbon in the world. Haycarb, a Sri Lankan coconut shell-based company controls 16% of the global market share.
Classification
Activated carbons are complex products which are difficult to classify on the basis of their behaviour, surface characteristics and other fundamental criteria. However, some broad classification is made for general purposes based on their size, preparation methods, and industrial applications.
Powdered activated carbon (PAC)
Normally, activated carbons (R 1) are made in particulate form as powders or fine granules less than 1.0 mm in size with an average diameter between 0.15 and 0.25 mm. Thus they present a large surface to volume ratio with a small diffusion distance. Activated carbon (R 1) is defined as the activated carbon particles retained on a 50-mesh sieve (0.297 mm).
Powdered activated carbon (PAC) material is finer material. PAC is made up of crushed or ground carbon particles, 95–100% of which will pass through a designated mesh sieve. The ASTM classifies particles passing through an 80-mesh sieve (0.177 mm) and smaller as PAC. It is not common to use PAC in a dedicated vessel, due to the high head loss that would occur. Instead, PAC is generally added directly to other process units, such as raw water intakes, rapid mix basins, clarifiers, and gravity filters.
Granular activated carbon (GAC)
Granular activated carbon (GAC) has a relatively larger particle size compared to powdered activated carbon and consequently, presents a smaller external surface. Diffusion of the adsorbate is thus an important factor. These carbons are suitable for adsorption of gases and vapors, because gaseous substances diffuse rapidly. Granulated carbons are used for air filtration and water treatment, as well as for general deodorization and separation of components in flow systems and in rapid mix basins. GAC can be obtained in either granular or extruded form. GAC is designated by sizes such as 8×20, 20×40, or 8×30 for liquid phase applications and 4×6, 4×8 or 4×10 for vapor phase applications. A 20×40 carbon is made of particles that will pass through a U.S. Standard Mesh Size No. 20 sieve (0.84 mm) (generally specified as 85% passing) but be retained on a U.S. Standard Mesh Size No. 40 sieve (0.42 mm) (generally specified as 95% retained). AWWA (1992) B604 uses the 50-mesh sieve (0.297 mm) as the minimum GAC size. The most popular aqueous-phase carbons are the 12×40 and 8×30 sizes because they have a good balance of size, surface area, and head loss characteristics.
Extruded activated carbon (EAC)
Extruded activated carbon (EAC) combines powdered activated carbon with a binder, which are fused together and extruded into a cylindrical shaped activated carbon block with diameters from 0.8 to 130 mm. These are mainly used for gas phase applications because of their low pressure drop, high mechanical strength and low dust content. Also sold as CTO filter (Chlorine, Taste, Odor).
Bead activated carbon (BAC)
Bead activated carbon (BAC) is made from petroleum pitch and supplied in diameters from approximately 0.35 to 0.80 mm. Similar to EAC, it is also noted for its low pressure drop, high mechanical strength and low dust content, but with a smaller grain size. Its spherical shape makes it preferred for fluidized bed applications such as water filtration.
Impregnated carbon
Porous carbons containing several types of inorganic impregnate such as iodine and silver. Cations such as aluminium, manganese, zinc, iron, lithium, and calcium have also been prepared for specific application in air pollution control especially in museums and galleries. Due to its antimicrobial and antiseptic properties, silver loaded activated carbon is used as an adsorbent for purification of domestic water. Drinking water can be obtained from natural water by treating the natural water with a mixture of activated carbon and aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)3), a flocculating agent. Impregnated carbons are also used for the adsorption of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and thiols. Adsorption rates for H2S as high as 50% by weight have been reported.
Polymer coated carbon
This is a process by which a porous carbon can be coated with a biocompatible polymer to give a smooth and permeable coat without blocking the pores. The resulting carbon is useful for hemoperfusion. Hemoperfusion is a treatment technique in which large volumes of the patient's blood are passed over an adsorbent substance in order to remove toxic substances from the blood.
Woven carbon
There is a technology of processing technical rayon fiber into activated carbon cloth for carbon filtering. Adsorption capacity of activated cloth is greater than that of activated charcoal (BET theory) surface area: 500–1500 m2/g, pore volume: 0.3–0.8 cm3/g). Thanks to the different forms of activated material, it can be used in a wide range of applications (supercapacitors, [Odor Absorbers , CBRN-defense industry etc.).
Properties
A gram of activated carbon can have a surface area in excess of , with being readily achievable. Carbon aerogels, while more expensive, have even higher surface areas, and are used in special applications.
Under an electron microscope, the high surface-area structures of activated carbon are revealed. Individual particles are intensely convoluted and display various kinds of porosity; there may be many areas where flat surfaces of graphite-like material run parallel to each other, separated by only a few nanometers or so. These micropores provide superb conditions for adsorption to occur, since adsorbing material can interact with many surfaces simultaneously. Tests of adsorption behaviour are usually done with nitrogen gas at 77 K under high vacuum, but in everyday terms activated carbon is perfectly capable of producing the equivalent, by adsorption from its environment, liquid water from steam at and a pressure of 1/10,000 of an atmosphere.
James Dewar, the scientist after whom the Dewar (vacuum flask) is named, spent much time studying activated carbon and published a paper regarding its adsorption capacity with regard to gases. In this paper, he discovered that cooling the carbon to liquid nitrogen temperatures allowed it to adsorb significant quantities of numerous air gases, among others, that could then be recollected by simply allowing the carbon to warm again and that coconut based carbon was superior for the effect. He uses oxygen as an example, wherein the activated carbon would typically adsorb the atmospheric concentration (21%) under standard conditions, but release over 80% oxygen if the carbon was first cooled to low temperatures.
Physically, activated carbon binds materials by van der Waals force or London dispersion force.
Activated carbon does not bind well to certain chemicals, including alcohols, diols, strong acids and bases, metals and most inorganics, such as lithium, sodium, iron, lead, arsenic, fluorine, and boric acid.
Activated carbon adsorbs iodine very well. The iodine capacity, mg/g, (ASTM D28 Standard Method test) may be used as an indication of total surface area.
Carbon monoxide is not well adsorbed by activated carbon. This should be of particular concern to those using the material in filters for respirators, fume hoods or other gas control systems as the gas is undetectable to the human senses, toxic to metabolism and neurotoxic.
Substantial lists of the common industrial and agricultural gases adsorbed by activated carbon can be found online.
Activated carbon can be used as a substrate for the application of various chemicals to improve the adsorptive capacity for some inorganic (and problematic organic) compounds such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia (NH3), formaldehyde (HCOH), mercury (Hg) and radioactive iodine-131(131I). This property is known as chemisorption.
Iodine number
Many carbons preferentially adsorb small molecules. Iodine number is the most fundamental parameter used to characterize activated carbon performance.
It is a measure of activity level (higher number indicates higher degree of activation) often reported in mg/g (typical range 500–1200 mg/g).
It is a measure of the micropore content of the activated carbon (0 to 20 Å, or up to 2 nm) by adsorption of iodine from solution.
It is equivalent to surface area of carbon between 900 and 1100 m2/g.
It is the standard measure for liquid-phase applications.
Iodine number is defined as the milligrams of iodine adsorbed by one gram of carbon when the iodine concentration in the residual filtrate is at a concentration of 0.02 normal (i.e. 0.02N). Basically, iodine number is a measure of the iodine adsorbed in the pores and, as such, is an indication of the pore volume available in the activated carbon of interest. Typically, water-treatment carbons have iodine numbers ranging from 600 to 1100. Frequently, this parameter is used to determine the degree of exhaustion of a carbon in use. However, this practice should be viewed with caution, as chemical interactions with the adsorbate may affect the iodine uptake, giving false results. Thus, the use of iodine number as a measure of the degree of exhaustion of a carbon bed can only be recommended if it has been shown to be free of chemical interactions with adsorbates and if an experimental correlation between iodine number and the degree of exhaustion has been determined for the particular application.
Molasses
Some carbons are more adept at adsorbing large molecules.
Molasses number or molasses efficiency is a measure of the mesopore content of the activated carbon (greater than 20 Å, or larger than 2 nm) by adsorption of molasses from solution.
A high molasses number indicates a high adsorption of big molecules (range 95–600). Caramel dp (decolorizing performance) is similar to molasses number. Molasses efficiency is reported as a percentage (range 40%–185%) and parallels molasses number (600 = 185%, 425 = 85%).
The European molasses number (range 525–110) is inversely related to the North American molasses number.
Molasses Number is a measure of the degree of decolorization of a standard molasses solution that has been diluted and standardized against standardized activated carbon. Due to the size of color bodies, the molasses number represents the potential pore volume available for larger adsorbing species. As all of the pore volume may not be available for adsorption in a particular waste water application, and as some of the adsorbate may enter smaller pores, it is not a good measure of the worth of a particular activated carbon for a specific application. Frequently, this parameter is useful in evaluating a series of active carbons for their rates of adsorption. Given two active carbons with similar pore volumes for adsorption, the one having the higher molasses number will usually have larger feeder pores resulting in more efficient transfer of adsorbate into the adsorption space.
Tannin
Tannins are a mixture of large and medium size molecules.
Carbons with a combination of macropores and mesopores adsorb tannins.
The ability of a carbon to adsorb tannins is reported in parts per million concentration (range 200 ppm–362 ppm).
Methylene blue
Some carbons have a mesopore (20 Å to 50 Å, or 2 to 5 nm) structure which adsorbs medium size molecules, such as the dye methylene blue.
Methylene blue adsorption is reported in g/100g (range 11–28 g/100g).
Dechlorination
Some carbons are evaluated based on the dechlorination half-life length, which measures the chlorine-removal efficiency of activated carbon. The dechlorination half-value length is the depth of carbon required to reduce the chlorine concentration by 50%. A lower half-value length indicates superior performance.
Apparent density
The solid or skeletal density of activated carbons will typically range between 2000 and 2100 kg/m3 (125–130 lbs./cubic foot). However, a large part of an activated carbon sample will consist of air space between particles, and the actual or apparent density will therefore be lower, typically 400 to 500 kg/m3 (25–31 lbs./cubic foot).
Higher density provides greater volume activity and normally indicates better-quality activated carbon.
ASTM D 2854 -09 (2014) is used to determine the apparent density of activated carbon.
Hardness/abrasion number
It is a measure of the activated carbon's resistance to attrition.
It is an important indicator of activated carbon to maintain its physical integrity and withstand frictional forces. There are large differences in the hardness of activated carbons, depending on the raw material and activity levels (porosity).
Ash content
Ash reduces the overall activity of activated carbon and reduces the efficiency of reactivation: the amount is exclusively dependent on the base raw material used to produce the activated carbon (e.g. coconut, wood, coal, etc.).
The metal oxides (Fe2O3) can leach out of activated carbon resulting in discoloration. Acid/water-soluble ash content is more significant than total ash content. Soluble ash content can be very important for aquarists, as ferric oxide can promote algal growths. A carbon with a low soluble ash content should be used for marine, freshwater fish and reef tanks to avoid heavy metal poisoning and excess plant/algal growth.
ASTM (D2866 Standard Method test) is used to determine the ash content of activated carbon.
Carbon tetrachloride activity
Measurement of the porosity of an activated carbon by the adsorption of saturated carbon tetrachloride vapour.
Particle size distribution
The finer the particle size of an activated carbon, the better the access to the surface area and the faster the rate of adsorption kinetics. In vapour phase systems this needs to be considered against pressure drop, which will affect energy cost. Careful consideration of particle size distribution can provide significant operating benefits.
However, in the case of using activated carbon for adsorption of minerals such as gold, the particle size should be in the range of . Activated carbon with particle size less than 1 mm would not be suitable for elution (the stripping of mineral from an activated carbon).
Modification of properties and reactivity
Acid-base, oxidation-reduction and specific adsorption characteristics are strongly dependent on the composition of the surface functional groups.
The surface of conventional activated carbon is reactive, capable of oxidation by atmospheric oxygen and oxygen plasma steam, and also carbon dioxide and ozone.
Oxidation in the liquid phase is caused by a wide range of reagents (HNO3, H2O2, KMnO4).
Through the formation of a large number of basic and acidic groups on the surface of oxidized carbon to sorption and other properties can differ significantly from the unmodified forms.
Activated carbon can be nitrogenated by natural products or polymers or processing of carbon with nitrogenating reagents.
Activated carbon can interact with chlorine, bromine and fluorine.
Surface of activated carbon, like other carbon materials can be fluoralkylated by treatment with (per)fluoropolyether peroxide in a liquid phase, or with wide range of fluoroorganic substances by CVD-method. Such materials combine high hydrophobicity and chemical stability with electrical and thermal conductivity and can be used as electrode material for super capacitors.
Sulfonic acid functional groups can be attached to activated carbon to give "starbons" which can be used to selectively catalyse the esterification of fatty acids. Formation of such activated carbons from halogenated precursors gives a more effective catalyst which is thought to be a result of remaining halogens improving stability. It is reported about synthesis of activated carbon with chemically grafted superacid sites –CF2SO3H.
Some of the chemical properties of activated carbon have been attributed to presence of the surface active carbon double bond.
The Polyani adsorption theory is a popular method for analyzing adsorption of various organic substances to their surface.
Examples of adsorption
Heterogeneous catalysis
The most commonly encountered form of chemisorption in industry, occurs when a solid catalyst interacts with a gaseous feedstock, the reactant/s. The adsorption of reactant/s to the catalyst surface creates a chemical bond, altering the electron density around the reactant molecule and allowing it to undergo reactions that would not normally be available to it.
Reactivation and regeneration
The reactivation or the regeneration of activated carbons involves restoring the adsorptive capacity of saturated activated carbon by desorbing adsorbed contaminants on the activated carbon surface.
Thermal reactivation
The most common regeneration technique employed in industrial processes is thermal reactivation. The thermal regeneration process generally follows three steps:
Adsorbent drying at approximately
High temperature desorption and decomposition () under an inert atmosphere
Residual organic gasification by a non-oxidising gas (steam or carbon dioxide) at elevated temperatures ()
The heat treatment stage utilises the exothermic nature of adsorption and results in desorption, partial cracking and polymerization of the adsorbed organics. The final step aims to remove charred organic residue formed in the porous structure in the previous stage and re-expose the porous carbon structure regenerating its original surface characteristics. After treatment the adsorption column can be reused. Per adsorption-thermal regeneration cycle between 5–15 wt% of the carbon bed is burnt off resulting in a loss of adsorptive capacity. Thermal regeneration is a high energy process due to the high required temperatures making it both an energetically and commercially expensive process. Plants that rely on thermal regeneration of activated carbon have to be of a certain size before it is economically viable to have regeneration facilities onsite. As a result, it is common for smaller waste treatment sites to ship their activated carbon cores to specialised facilities for regeneration.
Other regeneration techniques
Current concerns with the high energy/cost nature of thermal regeneration of activated carbon has encouraged research into alternative regeneration methods to reduce the environmental impact of such processes. Though several of the regeneration techniques cited have remained areas of purely academic research, some alternatives to thermal regeneration systems have been employed in industry. Current alternative regeneration methods are:
TSA (thermal swing adsorption) and/or PSA (pressure swing adsorption) processes: through convection (heat transfer) using steam, "hot" inert gas (typically heated nitrogen (150–250 °C (302–482 °F))), or vacuum (T+VSA or TVSA, combining TSA and VSA processes) in situ regeneration
MWR (microwave regeneration)
Chemical and solvent regeneration
Microbial regeneration
Electrochemical regeneration
Ultrasonic regeneration
Wet air oxidation
See also
Activated charcoal cleanse
Biochar
Bamboo charcoal
Binchōtan
Bone char
Carbon filtering
Carbocatalysis
Conjugated microporous polymer
Hydrogen storage
Kværner process
Onboard refueling vapor recovery
References
External links
"Imaging the atomic structure of activated carbon" – Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter
"How Does Activated Carbon Work?" at Slate
"Worshiping the False Idols of Wellness" on activated charcoal as a useless wellness practice at The New York Times
Allotropes of carbon
Filters
Toxicology treatments
Excipients
World Health Organization essential medicines
Gas technologies
Charcoal
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395427
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian%20National%20Exhibition
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Canadian National Exhibition
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The Canadian National Exhibition (CNE), also known as The Exhibition or The Ex, is an annual event that takes place at Exhibition Place in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, on the third Friday of August leading up to and including Labour Day, the first Monday in September. With approximately 1.5 million visitors each year, the CNE is Canada's largest annual fair and the fifth largest in North America. The first Canadian National Exhibition took place in 1879, largely to promote agriculture and technology in Canada. Agriculturists, engineers, and scientists exhibited their discoveries and inventions at the CNE to showcase the work and talent of the nation. As Canada has grown as a country, the CNE has reflected the growth in diversity and innovation, though agriculture and technology remain a large part of the CNE. For many people in the Greater Toronto Area and the surrounding communities, the CNE is an annual family tradition.
Site
The CNE is held at Exhibition Place, which is a site located along Toronto's waterfront on the shores of Lake Ontario and just west of downtown Toronto. The site features several buildings and structures, many of which have been named as significant under the Ontario Heritage Act. There are several outdoor live music venues on-site including the permanent CNE Bandshell. All of the roads are named after the Canadian provinces and territories. The site includes a football and soccer stadium, parks, fountains, plazas, a rose garden, statues and parking lots.
The site was reserve lands for British and later Canadian military and was the site of Fort Rouillé, an 18th-century French fort. The area was cleared of forest in the early 19th century for use by the Toronto Garrison of Fort York. The Exhibition received permission to use part of the site in the 1870s and expanded to use the whole site by the 1920s. In the 1950s, the site was expanded south of Lake Shore Boulevard by landfill, and reduced in size on its northern boundary by the construction of the Gardiner Expressway.
Points of interest
Shows and attractions
The 18-day fair itself consists of a mix of shopping areas, exhibits, live entertainment, agricultural displays, sports events, a casino, and a large carnival midway with many rides, games and food. The Canadian International Air Show on Labour Day weekend has been a major feature of the fair since 1949, held over Lake Ontario just south of Exhibition Place.
Several buildings house exhibits and displays from vendors, government agencies and various industry associations. These include the International Pavilion of products from around the world, and the Arts, Crafts and Hobbies Building of crafts, collectibles and unusual items. The Enercare Centre complex holds the international pavilion, a garden show, the SuperDogs performances and a sand-sculpting competition. It also has exhibit space used for agricultural or industrial displays and a live stage. The Food Building houses a large number of vendors offering food from many cultures, reflecting Toronto's multicultural population. The Better Living Centre building is used for a casino on one side, and a farming display on the other. The CNE continues its tradition of agricultural produce competition and the winners are displayed in the Better Living Centre, along with a butter sculpting competition. Other exhibit areas are used differently in different years. There are a large number of vendors outside along the streets of the fair offering discount and unusual products. Some exhibits are only held for a few days of the year, such as the cat show.
The 1792 "Scadding Cabin" log cabin display dates back to the first year of the fair and is the only time the cabin is open to the public.
The carnival midway has a large children's area in the northwest corner of the park, with smaller rides suitable for children under 12. The main area is situated west of the Enercare Centre and has several dozen rides, including thrill rides, roller coasters, swing rides and a log plume ride. Along several pathways of the midway area are games of "skill", games of chance and many carnival food vendors. The CNE operates a "sky ride", with chairs similar to ski-lift chairs, to carry riders from one end of the midway to the other.
The Coca-Cola Coliseum is used for live shows. These have included high-wire acts, skating, and the RCMP Musical Ride in the past. Outdoors, the Bandshell is used for daily music and nightly headliners. Additionally, areas are set up at various points around the fair for outdoor entertainment. These include such things as beer gardens, musical acts, acrobatic acts, buskers, parkour displays, circus acts, children's shows and educational displays. There are two major parades at the CNE, the Warrior's Day Parade of veterans on the third Saturday of August and the Labour Day Parade of workers on Labour Day. Every evening a "Mardi Gras" parade is held.
Exhibition Place is also home to BMO Field, a large multi-purpose facility located in the centre of the grounds. The stadium is used by two professional sports teams based in Toronto, the Toronto Argonauts Canadian football team and the Toronto FC soccer (association football) team. In Coronation Park, located across Lake Shore Boulevard, opposite the Princes' Gates, the CNE holds a youth peewee baseball tournament and a women's fastball tournament.
In both 2013 and 2014 the CNE featured a zip line ride. Operated by Ziptrek Ecotours, the CNE zip line was the highest and longest temporary zip line in the world. The launch tower, positioned southeast of the Food Building, measured high. The landing tower, southwest of the current Enercare Centre, was . The zip line ride consisted of four lines, each measuring nearly . Zip line riders travelled at approximately 65 km/hour.
Food
Food is considered by many visitors to be a key part of the CNE experience. Many options are available across the 192-acre (78 ha) site during the 18 days of the fair. A major destination for CNE visitors, the Food Building offers a wide variety of food options ranging from classic fair favourites, such as Beaver Tails, Funnel Cakes and Tiny Tom Donuts, to international cuisine, to standard fare like pizza, hot dogs, hamburgers, and French fries, as well as novelty items, including Frosted Flake Battered Chicken on a Stick, Deep Fried Red Velvet Oreos and Bacon Wrapped Grilled Cheese. Halal, vegetarian and healthy food options are also widely available.
Since the 2012 season, the CNE has hosted a food truck rally called "Food Truck Frenzy." This event took place on Princes' Boulevard just inside the Princes' Gates at the east end of the grounds. The 2016 edition featured 26 food trucks serving specialty foods. A "Craft Beer Fest" was added to the event in 2015 and continued in 2016, which gave guests the opportunity to sample locally crafted beers.
Since 2007, the CNE has hosted a Ribfest in Bandshell Park during the fair. Vendors cook pork ribs and other barbecue-style foods on-site for sale to attendees. A beer garden is next to the food stands for attendees to consume alcohol. The rib vendors compete in a competition where a panel of judges selects a CNE Ribfest Champion. The Bandshell is also the site of daily music performances.
Several licensed restaurants operate on the grounds, including Bandshell Park Beer Garden; The Beach Bar; Casino Patio; Craft Taps; Glow Bar; Acqua Dolce Resto Venue; Northern Comfort Saloon; and Wine Garden.
Shopping
A number of shopping options are available for visitors to the CNE:
Arts, Crafts and Hobbies Pavilion (in the Queen Elizabeth Exhibit Hall)
At Home Pavilion (in Hall A of the Enercare Centre)
Garden Show (in Heritage Court of the Enercare Centre)
International Pavilion (in Hall B of the Enercare Centre)
Outdoor Marketplace
Piazza of Cultures
Shoppers' Market (in Hall C of the Enercare Centre)
Warehouse Outlets (in Hall C of the Enercare Centre)
Warriors Day Parade
The Warriors Day Parade was established in 1921 and is organised by the Warriors' Day Parade Council. The parade was held on the third Saturday of August and the second day of the Canadian National Exhibition.
History
The parade council was formed in Toronto in 1921, extending the work of the Canadian National Exhibition which had been hosting military parades and demonstrations beginning in 1879. The council desired a specific day to pay tribute to living veterans of the First World War. "Warriors' Day" was therefore declared; in early years, it was the first day of the Exhibition. The first parade was held in 1921, and the parade has continued to honour the service of Canadian men and women in the armed forces ever since.
The parade is often planned to commemorate specific events. In 2015, the parade commemorated veterans of World War II. In 2017, the parade was designed to commemorate the Battle of Vimy Ridge and the Dieppe Raid.
The 2020 and 2021 editions of the parade was cancelled due to COVID-19.
Participants
Following the world wars, participants in the parade included up to 30,000 military veterans. In 2019 the number of veterans participating was estimated at just below 3,000. A number of privately owned military vehicles and classic cars also take part in the parade.
History
In September 1846, a fair sponsored by the Provincial Agricultural Fair of Canada West, sponsored by the Provincial Agricultural Association and the Board of Agriculture for Canada West, was held in Toronto in the area near present-day King and Simcoe Streets. While primarily an agricultural event, it also displayed manufactured goods and decorative arts and crafts. The fair was a success and it was proposed that future fairs be held in different locations each year. In 1847, the fair was held in Hamilton and thereafter travelled to such cities as Cobourg, Kingston, Niagara and Brockville.
In 1852, the fair returned to the west side of University Avenue (see Grange Park (neighbourhood)), stretching from a bit north of Dundas Street to a bit south of College Street. It lasted four days. The Horse Park, on the west side of the grounds, was loaned to the fair by Mrs. Boulton, who lived in the Grange and it was bounded on the north by the Caer Howell Pleasure Grounds (in a way a forerunner of the midway). The Fair was a success, attracting more than 30,000 visitors.
In 1853, the fair moved on to another city and didn't return to Toronto until 1858 and then again in 1878. After the 1878 fair, Toronto City Council and the local Exhibition Committee approached the Provincial Agriculture Association with a proposition: that the fair remain permanently in Toronto. The Association thanked City Council and the Exhibition Committee for their work in delivering a successful fair in 1878 but informed them that a decision had already been made to move the fair to another city in 1879.
Undeterred, Toronto City Council, along with local businessmen, moved ahead with plans to establish a permanent fair in Toronto. That fair would be called the Toronto Industrial Exhibition. It opened on September 3, 1879, and lasted for three weeks (Sundays excepted). An attendance in excess of 100,000 paid admissions and 8,234 exhibits, spelled success for the new exhibition. The fair continued to grow and prosper and soon came to be known as the "Show Window of the Nation." Starting with just over in 1879, the fair, situated on a parcel of land which has become known as Exhibition Place, now stretching from the Gardiner Expressway (north end), to Lake Shore Boulevard and Lake Ontario to the south, and from Strachan Avenue (east end), to the Dominion Gates (west end), covering of land.
In 1912, the Toronto Industrial Exhibition changed its name to the Canadian National Exhibition to better reflect the scope and reach of the fair. In fulfilling its mandate, the CNE has featured exhibits on the latest technological advances in industry and agriculture. CNE patrons were introduced to electric railway transportation in 1883, to Edison's phonograph in 1888, to the wireless telephone in the 1890s, to radio in 1922, to television in 1939, to plastics and synthetics in the 1940s. The Government of Canada is not affiliated with the fair, however, it has often exhibited at the CNE.
In 1937, Conklin Shows was awarded the contract to provide amusement rides and games for the CNE midway. The company built the "Flyer" wooden roller-coaster on site as well as delivering rides and games each year during the CNE duration. The company continued to provide this service until 2004, at which point it merged with other leading midway operators to form North American Midway Entertainment, which continues to supply the CNE.
During the Second World War, as during the First World War, the CNE grounds became home to detachments of the Canadian military. In 1939, the Royal Canadian Air Force moved into the Coliseum. The Canadian Army took over the Horse Palace and the Royal Canadian Navy converted the Automotive Building into HMCS York. During the summers of 1940 and 1941, most of the troops stationed at the CNE were re-located. Those troops remaining either continued their regular administrative duties or participated in CNE displays and events aimed at promoting the Canadian war effort. CNE officials had hoped to continue the annual fair throughout the years of the war. In the spring of 1942, however, the CNE agreed to turn the grounds over to the Canadian military for use year-round. During the military occupation of the grounds, virtually every CNE building, large or small, was put to use by the Canadian armed forces. The CNE grounds remained closed and under the control of the Canadian military until 1946. Between 1945 and 1946, Exhibition Park acted as a demobilization centre for returning soldiers.
The CNE resumed in 1947. Canadians returned to the CNE to see the latest in consumer goods and agricultural advancements. The fair also remained a major hub for sporting events and entertainment. Over time, the CNE moved away from its country-fair heritage toward an increasingly modern, cosmopolitan look and feel. In recent years, the CNE has changed extensively to meet the needs of the growing and changing demographics of Toronto and Southern Ontario.
The first year that the CNE was allowed to open on Sundays was 1968.
21st century
In 2003, the CNE celebrated its 125th anniversary, despite the first four days of the exhibition being hampered by the Northeast blackout of 2003. In 2005, the CNE introduced a Mardi Gras parade. In 2007, the CNE was announced as a host location for Ribfest. In 2010, the CNE became first fair in North America and the first large-scale event on the continent to achieve EcoLogo Certification.
In 2012, Canadian Olympic gold-medalists Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir performed in La Vie: Aerial Acrobatics & Ice Skating Show during the first 15 days of the fair, and three-time World Champion and Olympic silver-medalist Elvis Stojko closes out the show Labour Day weekend. In 2015, Virtue and Moir starred in the CNE's ice skating and aerial acrobatics show, Bon Voyage!
On May 8, 2015, David Bednar retired as the general manager of the CNE. Bednar was replaced by Virginia Ludy. In the following year, the CNE saw the return of programming at the CNE waterfront with a daily water ski show, and national and international competitions—made possible as a result of infrastructure investment on the West Channel for the 2015 Pan American Games. The same year also saw the introduction of the inaugural CNE Innovation Garage, featuring a pitch competition and displays—a throwback to the CNE's history of being at the forefront of innovation.
On May 12, 2020, the CNE and all associated in-person events were cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic—the first time the CNE has been cancelled since World War II. The CNE reported that this caused a loss of over $35 million in potential revenue, and $128 million in economic impact to Ontario. On May 14, 2021, due to the continued pandemic, the city of Toronto cancelled all city-led and permitted outdoor in-person events through at least September 6, 2021, therefore cancelling the CNE and all associated in-person events for the second year in a row. As revenue from previous editions are reinvested into subsequent editions, the CNE stated that "the cancellations and financial losses of 2020 and 2021 will have a consequential impact on the future of the CNE."
The CNE resumed operations for 2022.
Economic impact
Research
A 2017 Economic Impact Assessment, conducted by Enigma Research Corporation, reports that the Canadian National Exhibition (CNE) generates an estimated $93.1 million for Greater Toronto Area and more than $128.3 million for the province of Ontario each year.
A 2009 study by the same corporation also reveals that the 2009 CNE attracted more than 275,000 out-of-town visitors to the city, and that fair-related hiring creates an equivalent of 633 full-year jobs in the region. Spending also supports $12.9 million of tax revenue at three levels of government.
This national research initiative, commissioned by the Canadian Association of Fairs and Exhibitions (CAFE), was conducted at 20 fairs of varying sizes throughout Canada in 2008. A total of 1,200 people were interviewed during the 2008 Canadian National Exhibition alone.
Other highlights of the research, included a sample size of 1,200 people in on-site, face-to-face interviews, include:
Local residents spend US$52 million related to the CNE
The average non-local spent 2.5 nights in Toronto
Tourism
The CNE works with several organizations to promote tourism to the Greater Toronto Area and the province of Ontario, including: Festivals and Events Ontario, Tourism Toronto and Attractions Ontario.
Jobs
One of the many ways the CNE helps to boost the local economy is through job creation. The CNE hires approximately 1,200 people starting in the spring of each year to assist in the planning and production of the annual fair. An additional 3,500 people are hired during the Fair itself by CNE partners including Emergency Services, Toronto Police, Toronto Fire, food vendors, exhibitors and concessionaires. For many young people growing up in Toronto, the CNE is their first employment experience.
Partners
With annual visitation of approximately 1.5 million people, the CNE gives companies an excellent venue to sell their wares and connect with their audiences face to face. Many corporate sponsors and over 700 exhibitors, including many Canadian and international businesses, contribute to the CNE.
Environmental initiatives
EcoLogo certification
In 2010, the Canadian National Exhibition became the first fair in North America and the first large-scale event on the continent to receive EcoLogo certification, one of North America's largest and most respected environmental standard and certification marks. EcoLogo certification is based on stringent criteria that examine the entire life-cycle of a product and the CNE's success in achieving this honour formally recognizes the fair as an environmental leader. (Canadian National Exhibition is EcoLogo - Certified to Events CCD-095.)
Environmental strategy
In addition to fulfilling EcoLogo certification requirements, the CNE's environmental strategy consists of three components:
Energy conservation
Decorative lighting on the Midway is turned off during daylight hours
Solar panels are utilized throughout the grounds in locations such as the Horse Palace roof, on staff golf carts, on the Midway games, and on garbage compactors
In 2008 the CNE introduced solar-powered concession games on the Midway
All of the CNE's decorative tree lighting has been replaced with LED lights to reduce electricity consumption
Emissions reduction
The CNE encourages visitors to take public transit, ride their bicycles, and/or walk to get to the site
Bicycle racks and bike parking areas are strategically placed around the grounds to accommodate cyclists
The vast majority of golf carts used by CNE staff are powered using electricity (vs. gas-powered)
On the CNE grounds there are bio-diesel generators that power rides at the fair
Waste diversion
A wide range of materials are recycled and diverted from landfills each season including, but not limited to, cardboard, paper, organic waste, paper hand towels, wood, metals, street sweepings, concrete/asphalt, hay, and cooking oil
The CNE provides water refill stations where guests may refill reusable water bottles to reduce the number of disposable plastic bottles that are used
During the fair a vast number of recycling, compost, and garbage receptacles are placed around the grounds
The use of polystyrene foam is no longer allowed on the CNE grounds, thus reducing the amount of waste that cannot be recycled
In the Food Building, tableware is predominantly compostable, which increases the amount of waste that the CNE is able to send to composting facilities, rather than to a landfill
Waste diversion rates:
2009 - 77.30%
2010 - 83.76%
2011 - 81.93%
2012 - 82.82%
2013 - 86.36%
Governance and organizational structure
The CNE is operated by the Canadian National Exhibition Association (CNEA) and its volunteer Board of Directors. The CNEA is governed under the jurisdiction of two Acts of the Province of Ontario: the Canadian National Exhibition Association Act, 2000, and the Agricultural and Horticultural Organizations Act, R.S.O. 1990, chapter A.9. The CNEA resides on a municipal site known as Exhibition Place, which is governed by the Board of Governors (BOG) of Exhibition Place, a local board of management of the City of Toronto.
Through various agreements with the City of Toronto, the CNEA operated as a program of the BOG until March 31, 2013. A Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) outlined the various administrative, financial and operational services to be provided to the CNEA by Exhibition Place. The MOU also provided for the use of the buildings and grounds for the annual CNE. During the decade leading up to independence, the CNEA contributed more than $20 million in site fees to the annual operating budget of the BOG, in addition to $7.3 million in operating surpluses. These contributions were included in consolidated annual financial results from the CNEA and BOG for the benefit of the City of Toronto.
On January 27, 2012, the BOG and CNEA announced that the CNEA will officially become financially independent from both the Board of Governors of Exhibition Place and the City of Toronto in 2013. "Chair of the Board [BOG], City Councillor Mark Grimes stated, 'The independence of the CNEA is good for both the CNEA and Exhibition Place. The agreement will protect the Board of Governors and the City against any negative financial consequences and at the same time allow the CNEA to reach financial and organizational stability for the newly independent organization.'" "It will be beneficial for the CNEA to be independent from the City of Toronto to be able to determine and implement consumer strategies and fiscal decisions that are made in the interest of the CNEA and its visitors, as experts within the fair business." As an independent organization, the CNEA will be able to retain its profits and re-invest in the fair. "'This is an extraordinary opportunity for the Canadian National Exhibition,' stated Brian Ashton, President of the Canadian National Exhibition Association (CNEA). 'We believe that as an independent business we can flourish and present an annual fair that will make Toronto and Canada proud!'" "Toronto City Council will be asked for approval of this new agreement at their March 5–6, 2012 meeting."
The new agreement was approved by Toronto City Council and the CNEA officially became independent on April 1, 2013. The CNEA is a non-share capital corporation and a tenant of the BOG to which it pays rent for the use of the grounds and buildings for the annual fair, as well as fees for operational services. The CNEA is not involved with year-round operations, events or development at Exhibition Place.
The CNEA has over 125 member individuals and associations representing each of the following sectors: Municipal, Manufacturers and Industry, Agriculture, and General and Liberal Arts. Member associations appoint a representative to the CNEA and approximately 15 members are appointed directly by the CNEA from the community-at-large. Each year a Board of Directors is elected from this membership, giving equal representation to each section. Six representatives of the Municipal section are appointed by Toronto City Council.
Current Board of Directors
May 2022 to Spring 2023 Term
Executive Committee:
See also
List of festivals in Canada
List of festivals in Ontario
List of festivals in Toronto
Notes
References
.
External links
Multimedia
CBC Archives Patty Conklin gives a tour of the CNE with CBC Radio (1958)
CBC Archives CBC Television story about Patty Conklin in 1971 as he helps set up the CNE.
Webpages
Canadian National Exhibition
CNE Heritage
Press Building
Canadian national exhibition, The Canadian Encyclopedia
Canadian national exhibition, "Toronto history"
Clara Thomas Archives and Special Collections, York University: archival images of the CNE from the Toronto Telegram fonds
Agricultural fairs in Canada
Exhibitions in Canada
Recurring events established in 1878
Tourist attractions in Toronto
1878 establishments in Ontario
Exhibition Place
Festivals established in 1879
Summer events in Canada
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exercise%20physiology
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Exercise physiology
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Exercise physiology is the physiology of physical exercise. It is one of the allied health professions, and involves the study of the acute responses and chronic adaptations to exercise. Exercise physiologists are the highest qualified exercise professionals and utilise education, lifestyle intervention and specific forms of exercise to rehabilitate and manage acute and chronic injuries and conditions.
Understanding the effect of exercise involves studying specific changes in muscular, cardiovascular, and neurohumoral systems that lead to changes in functional capacity and strength due to endurance training or strength training. The effect of training on the body has been defined as the reaction to the adaptive responses of the body arising from exercise or as "an elevation of metabolism produced by exercise".
Exercise physiologists study the effect of exercise on pathology, and the mechanisms by which exercise can reduce or reverse disease progression.
History
British physiologist Archibald Hill introduced the concepts of maximal oxygen uptake and oxygen debt in 1922. Hill and German physician Otto Meyerhof shared the 1922 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their independent work related to muscle energy metabolism. Building on this work, scientists began measuring oxygen consumption during exercise. Notable contributions were made by Henry Taylor at the University of Minnesota, Scandinavian scientists Per-Olof Åstrand and Bengt Saltin in the 1950s and 60s, the Harvard Fatigue Laboratory, German universities, and the Copenhagen Muscle Research Centre among others.
In some countries it is a Primary Health Care Provider. Accredited Exercise Physiologists (AEP's) are university-trained professionals who prescribe exercise-based interventions to treat various conditions using dose response prescriptions specific to each individual.
Energy expenditure
Humans have a high capacity to expend energy for many hours during sustained exertion. For example, one individual cycling at a speed of through over 50 consecutive days expended a total of 1,145 MJ (273,850 kcal; 273,850 dieter calories) with an average power output of 173.8 W.
Skeletal muscle burns 90 mg (0.5 mmol) of glucose each minute during continuous activity (such as when repetitively extending the human knee), generating ≈24 W of mechanical energy, and since muscle energy conversion is only 22–26% efficient, ≈76 W of heat energy. Resting skeletal muscle has a basal metabolic rate (resting energy consumption) of 0.63 W/kg making a 160 fold difference between the energy consumption of inactive and active muscles. For short duration muscular exertion, energy expenditure can be far greater: an adult human male when jumping up from a squat can mechanically generate 314 W/kg. Such rapid movement can generate twice this amount in nonhuman animals such as bonobos, and in some small lizards.
This energy expenditure is very large compared to the basal resting metabolic rate of the adult human body. This rate varies somewhat with size, gender and age but is typically between 45 W and 85 W.
Total energy expenditure (TEE) due to muscular expended energy is much higher and depends upon the average level of physical work and exercise done during the day. Thus exercise, particularly if sustained for very long periods, dominates the energy metabolism of the body. Physical activity energy expenditure correlates strongly with the gender, age, weight, heart rate, and VO2 max of an individual, during physical activity.
Metabolic changes
Rapid energy sources
Energy needed to perform short lasting, high intensity bursts of activity is derived from anaerobic metabolism within the cytosol of muscle cells, as opposed to aerobic respiration which utilizes oxygen, is sustainable, and occurs in the mitochondria. The quick energy sources consist of the phosphocreatine (PCr) system, fast glycolysis, and adenylate kinase. All of these systems re-synthesize adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the universal energy source in all cells. The most rapid source, but the most readily depleted of the above sources is the PCr system which utilizes the enzyme creatine kinase. This enzyme catalyzes a reaction that combines phosphocreatine and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) into ATP and creatine. This resource is short lasting because oxygen is required for the resynthesis of phosphocreatine via mitochondrial creatine kinase. Therefore, under anaerobic conditions, this substrate is finite and only lasts between approximately 10 to 30 seconds of high intensity work. Fast glycolysis, however, can function for approximately 2 minutes prior to fatigue, and predominately uses intracellular glycogen as a substrate. Glycogen is broken down rapidly via glycogen phosphorylase into individual glucose units during intense exercise. Glucose is then oxidized to pyruvate and under anaerobic conditions is reduced to lactic acid. This reaction oxidizes NADH to NAD, thereby releasing a hydrogen ion, promoting acidosis. For this reason, fast glycolysis can not be sustained for long periods of time.
Plasma glucose
Plasma glucose is said to be maintained when there is an equal rate of glucose appearance (entry into the blood) and glucose disposal (removal from the blood). In the healthy individual, the rates of appearance and disposal are essentially equal during exercise of moderate intensity and duration; however, prolonged exercise or sufficiently intense exercise can result in an imbalance leaning towards a higher rate of disposal than appearance, at which point glucose levels fall producing the onset of fatigue. Rate of glucose appearance is dictated by the amount of glucose being absorbed at the gut as well as liver (hepatic) glucose output. Although glucose absorption from the gut is not typically a source of glucose appearance during exercise, the liver is capable of catabolizing stored glycogen (glycogenolysis) as well as synthesizing new glucose from specific reduced carbon molecules (glycerol, pyruvate, and lactate) in a process called gluconeogenesis. The ability of the liver to release glucose into the blood from glycogenolysis is unique, since skeletal muscle, the other major glycogen reservoir, is incapable of doing so. Unlike skeletal muscle, liver cells contain the enzyme glycogen phosphatase, which removes a phosphate group from glucose-6-P to release free glucose. In order for glucose to exit a cell membrane, the removal of this phosphate group is essential. Although gluconeogenesis is an important component of hepatic glucose output, it alone cannot sustain exercise. For this reason, when glycogen stores are depleted during exercise, glucose levels fall and fatigue sets in. Glucose disposal, the other side of the equation, is controlled by uptake of glucose at the working skeletal muscles. During exercise, despite decreased insulin concentrations, muscle increases GLUT4 translocation of and glucose uptake. The mechanism for increased GLUT4 translocation is an area of ongoing research.
glucose control:
As mentioned above, insulin secretion is reduced during exercise, and does not play a major role in maintaining normal blood glucose concentration during exercise, but its counter-regulatory hormones appear in increasing concentrations. Principle among these are glucagon, epinephrine, and growth hormone. All of these hormones stimulate liver (hepatic) glucose output, among other functions. For instance, both epinephrine and growth hormone also stimulate adipocyte lipase, which increases non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) release. By oxidizing fatty acids, this spares glucose utilization and helps to maintain blood sugar level during exercise.
Exercise for diabetes:
Exercise is a particularly potent tool for glucose control in those who have diabetes mellitus. In a situation of elevated blood glucose (hyperglycemia), moderate exercise can induce greater glucose disposal than appearance, thereby decreasing total plasma glucose concentrations. As stated above, the mechanism for this glucose disposal is independent of insulin, which makes it particularly well-suited for people with diabetes. In addition, there appears to be an increase in sensitivity to insulin for approximately 12–24 hours post-exercise. This is particularly useful for those who have type II diabetes and are producing sufficient insulin but demonstrate peripheral resistance to insulin signaling. However, during extreme hyperglycemic episodes, people with diabetes should avoid exercise due to potential complications associated with ketoacidosis. Exercise could exacerbate ketoacidosis by increasing ketone synthesis in response to increased circulating NEFA's.
Type II diabetes is also intricately linked to obesity, and there may be a connection between type II diabetes and how fat is stored within pancreatic, muscle, and liver cells. Likely due to this connection, weight loss from both exercise and diet tends to increase insulin sensitivity in the majority of people. In some people, this effect can be particularly potent and can result in normal glucose control. Although nobody is technically cured of diabetes, individuals can live normal lives without the fear of diabetic complications; however, regain of weight would assuredly result in diabetes signs and symptoms.
Oxygen
Vigorous physical activity (such as exercise or hard labor) increases the body's demand for oxygen. The first-line physiologic response to this demand is an increase in heart rate, breathing rate, and depth of breathing.
Oxygen consumption (VO2) during exercise is best described by the Fick Equation: VO2=Q x (a-vO2diff), which states that the amount of oxygen consumed is equal to cardiac output (Q) multiplied by the difference between arterial and venous oxygen concentrations. More simply put, oxygen consumption is dictated by the quantity of blood distributed by the heart as well as the working muscle's ability to take up the oxygen within that blood; however, this is a bit of an oversimplification. Although cardiac output is thought to be the limiting factor of this relationship in healthy individuals, it is not the only determinant of VO2 max. That is, factors such as the ability of the lung to oxygenate the blood must also be considered. Various pathologies and anomalies cause conditions such as diffusion limitation, ventilation/perfusion mismatch, and pulmonary shunts that can limit oxygenation of the blood and therefore oxygen distribution. In addition, the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood is also an important determinant of the equation. Oxygen carrying capacity is often the target of exercise (ergogenic aids) aids used in endurance sports to increase the volume percentage of red blood cells (hematocrit), such as through blood doping or the use of erythropoietin (EPO). Furthermore, peripheral oxygen uptake is reliant on a rerouting of blood flow from relatively inactive viscera to the working skeletal muscles, and within the skeletal muscle, capillary to muscle fiber ratio influences oxygen extraction.
Dehydration
Dehydration refers both to hypohydration (dehydration induced prior to exercise) and to exercise-induced dehydration (dehydration that develops during exercise). The latter reduces aerobic endurance performance and results in increased body temperature, heart rate, perceived exertion, and possibly increased reliance on carbohydrate as a fuel source. Although the negative effects of exercise-induced dehydration on exercise performance were clearly demonstrated in the 1940s, athletes continued to believe for years thereafter that fluid intake was not beneficial. More recently, negative effects on performance have been demonstrated with modest (<2%) dehydration, and these effects are exacerbated when the exercise is performed in a hot environment. The effects of hypohydration may vary, depending on whether it is induced through diuretics or sauna exposure, which substantially reduce plasma volume, or prior exercise, which has much less impact on plasma volume. Hypohydration reduces aerobic endurance, but its effects on muscle strength and endurance are not consistent and require further study. Intense prolonged exercise produces metabolic waste heat, and this is removed by sweat-based thermoregulation. A male marathon runner loses each hour around 0.83 L in cool weather and 1.2 L in warm (losses in females are about 68 to 73% lower). People doing heavy exercise may lose two and half times as much fluid in sweat as urine. This can have profound physiological effects. Cycling for 2 hours in the heat (35 °C) with minimal fluid intake causes body mass decline by 3 to 5%, blood volume likewise by 3 to 6%, body temperature to rise constantly, and in comparison with proper fluid intake, higher heart rates, lower stroke volumes and cardiac outputs, reduced skin blood flow, and higher systemic vascular resistance. These effects are largely eliminated by replacing 50 to 80% of the fluid lost in sweat.
Other
Plasma catecholamine concentrations increase 10-fold in whole body exercise.
Ammonia is produced by exercised skeletal muscles from ADP (the precursor of ATP) by purine nucleotide deamination and amino acid catabolism of myofibrils.
interleukin-6 (IL-6) increases in blood circulation due to its release from working skeletal muscles. This release is reduced if glucose is taken, suggesting it is related to energy depletion stresses.
Sodium absorption is affected by the release of interleukin-6 as this can cause the secretion of arginine vasopressin which, in turn, can lead to exercise-associated dangerously low sodium levels (hyponatremia). This loss of sodium in blood plasma can result in swelling of the brain. This can be prevented by awareness of the risk of drinking excessive amounts of fluids during prolonged exercise.
Brain
At rest, the human brain receives 15% of total cardiac output, and uses 20% of the body's energy consumption. The brain is normally dependent for its high energy expenditure upon aerobic metabolism. The brain as a result is highly sensitive to failure of its oxygen supply with loss of consciousness occurring within six to seven seconds, with its EEG going flat in 23 seconds. Therefore, the brain's function would be disrupted if exercise affected its supply of oxygen and glucose.
Protecting the brain from even minor disruption is important since exercise depends upon motor control. Because humans are bipeds, motor control is needed for keeping balance. For this reason, brain energy consumption is increased during intense physical exercise due to the demands in the motor cognition needed to control the body.
Exercise Physiologists treat a range of neurological conditions including (but not limited to): Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, Traumatic Brain Injury, Spinal Cord Injury, Cerebral Palsy and mental health conditions.
Cerebral oxygen
Cerebral autoregulation usually ensures the brain has priority to cardiac output, though this is impaired slightly by exhaustive exercise. During submaximal exercise, cardiac output increases and cerebral blood flow increases beyond the brain's oxygen needs. However, this is not the case for continuous maximal exertion: "Maximal exercise is, despite the increase in capillary oxygenation [in the brain], associated with a reduced mitochondrial O2 content during whole body exercise" The autoregulation of the brain's blood supply is impaired particularly in warm environments
Glucose
In adults, exercise depletes the plasma glucose available to the brain: short intense exercise (35 min ergometer cycling) can reduce brain glucose uptake by 32%.
At rest, energy for the adult brain is normally provided by glucose but the brain has a compensatory capacity to replace some of this with lactate. Research suggests that this can be raised, when a person rests in a brain scanner, to about 17%, with a higher percentage of 25% occurring during hypoglycemia. During intense exercise, lactate has been estimated to provide a third of the brain's energy needs. There is evidence that the brain might, however, in spite of these alternative sources of energy, still suffer an energy crisis since IL-6 (a sign of metabolic stress) is released during exercise from the brain.
Hyperthermia
Humans use sweat thermoregulation for body heat removal, particularly to remove the heat produced during exercise. Moderate dehydration as a consequence of exercise and heat is reported to impair cognition. These impairments can start after body mass lost that is greater than 1%. Cognitive impairment, particularly due to heat and exercise is likely to be due to loss of integrity to the blood brain barrier. Hyperthermia also can lower cerebral blood flow, and raise brain temperature.
Fatigue
Intense activity
Researchers once attributed fatigue to a build-up of lactic acid in muscles. However, this is no longer believed. Rather, lactate may stop muscle fatigue by keeping muscles fully responding to nerve signals. The available oxygen and energy supply, and disturbances of muscle ion homeostasis are the main factor determining exercise performance, at least during brief very intense exercise.
Each muscle contraction involves an action potential that activates voltage sensors, and so releases Ca2+ ions from the muscle fibre's sarcoplasmic reticulum. The action potentials that cause this also require ion changes: Na influxes during the depolarization phase and K effluxes for the repolarization phase. Cl− ions also diffuse into the sarcoplasm to aid the repolarization phase. During intense muscle contraction, the ion pumps that maintain homeostasis of these ions are inactivated and this (with other ion related disruption) causes ionic disturbances. This causes cellular membrane depolarization, inexcitability, and so muscle weakness. Ca2+ leakage from type 1 ryanodine receptor) channels has also been identified with fatigue.
Endurance failure
After intense prolonged exercise, there can be a collapse in body homeostasis. Some famous examples include:
Dorando Pietri in the 1908 Summer Olympic men's marathon ran the wrong way and collapsed several times.
Jim Peters in the marathon of the 1954 Commonwealth Games staggered and collapsed several times, and though he had a five-kilometre (three-mile) lead, failed to finish. Though it was formerly believed that this was due to severe dehydration, more recent research suggests it was the combined effects upon the brain of hyperthermia, hypertonic hypernatraemia associated with dehydration, and possibly hypoglycaemia.
Gabriela Andersen-Schiess in the woman's marathon at the Los Angeles 1984 Summer Olympics in the race's final 400 meters, stopping occasionally and shown signs of heat exhaustion. Though she fell across the finish line, she was released from medical care only two hours later.
Central governor
Tim Noakes, based on an earlier idea by the 1922 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winner Archibald Hill has proposed the existence of a central governor. In this, the brain continuously adjusts the power output by muscles during exercise in regard to a safe level of exertion. These neural calculations factor in prior length of strenuous exercise, the planned duration of further exertion, and the present metabolic state of the body. This adjusts the number of activated skeletal muscle motor units, and is subjectively experienced as fatigue and exhaustion. The idea of a central governor rejects the earlier idea that fatigue is only caused by mechanical failure of the exercising muscles ("peripheral fatigue"). Instead, the brain models the metabolic limits of the body to ensure that whole body homeostasis is protected, in particular that the heart is guarded from hypoxia, and an emergency reserve is always maintained. The idea of the central governor has been questioned since ‘physiological catastrophes’ can and do occur suggesting that if it did exist, athletes (such as Dorando Pietri, Jim Peters and Gabriela Andersen-Schiess) can override it.
Other factors
Exercise fatigue has also been suggested to be affected by:
brain hyperthermia
glycogen depletion in brain cells
depletion of muscle and liver glycogen (see "hitting the wall")
reactive oxygen species impairing skeletal muscle function
reduced level of glutamate secondary to uptake of ammonia in the brain
Fatigue in diaphragm and abdominal respiratory muscles limiting breathing
Impaired oxygen supply to muscles
Ammonia effects upon the brain
Serotonin pathways in the brain
Cardiac biomarkers
Prolonged exercise such as marathons can increase cardiac biomarkers such as troponin, B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP), and ischemia-modified (aka MI) albumin. This can be misinterpreted by medical personnel as signs of myocardial infarction, or cardiac dysfunction. In these clinical conditions, such cardiac biomarkers are produced by irreversible injury of muscles. In contrast, the processes that create them after strenuous exertion in endurance sports are reversible, with their levels returning to normal within 24-hours (further research, however, is still needed).
Human adaptations
Humans are specifically adapted to engage in prolonged strenuous muscular activity (such as efficient long distance bipedal running). This capacity for endurance running may have evolved to allow the running down of game animals by persistent slow but constant chase over many hours.
Central to the success of this is the ability of the human body, unlike that of the animals they hunt, to effectively remove muscle heat waste. In most animals, this is stored by allowing a temporary increase in body temperature. This allows them to escape from animals that quickly speed after them for a short duration (the way nearly all predators catch their prey). Humans, unlike other animals that catch prey, remove heat with a specialized thermoregulation based on sweat evaporation. One gram of sweat can remove 2,598 J of heat energy. Another mechanism is increased skin blood flow during exercise that allows for greater convective heat loss that is aided by our upright posture. This skin based cooling has resulted in humans acquiring an increased number of sweat glands, combined with a lack of body fur that would otherwise stop air circulation and efficient evaporation. Because humans can remove exercise heat, they can avoid the fatigue from heat exhaustion that affects animals chased in a persistent manner, and so eventually catch them.
Selective breeding experiments with rodents
Rodents have been specifically bred for exercise behavior or performance in several different studies. For example, laboratory rats have been bred for high or low performance on a motorized treadmill with electrical stimulation as motivation. The high-performance line of rats also exhibits increased voluntary wheel-running behavior as compared with the low-capacity line. In an experimental evolution approach, four replicate lines of laboratory mice have been bred for high levels of voluntary exercise on wheels, while four additional control lines are maintained by breeding without regard to the amount of wheel running. These selected lines of mice also show increased endurance capacity in tests of forced endurance capacity on a motorized treadmill. However, in neither selection experiment have the precise causes of fatigue during either forced or voluntary exercise been determined.
Exercise-induced muscle pain
Physical exercise may cause pain both as an immediate effect that may result from stimulation of free nerve endings by low pH, as well as a delayed onset muscle soreness. The delayed soreness is fundamentally the result of ruptures within the muscle, although apparently not involving the rupture of whole muscle fibers.
Muscle pain can range from a mild soreness to a debilitating injury depending on intensity of exercise, level of training, and other factors.
There is some preliminary evidence to suggest that moderate intensity continuous training has the ability to increase someone's pain threshold.
Education in exercise physiology
Accreditation programs exist with professional bodies in most developed countries, ensuring the quality and consistency of education. In Canada, one may obtain the professional certification title – Certified Exercise Physiologist for those working with clients (both clinical and non clinical) in the health and fitness industry. In Australia, one may obtain the professional certification title - Accredited Exercise Physiologist (AEP) through the professional body Exercise and Sports Science Australia (ESSA). In Australia, it is common for an AEP to also have the qualification of an Accredited Exercise Scientist (AES). The premiere governing body is the American College of Sports Medicine.
An exercise physiologist's area of study may include but is not limited to biochemistry, bioenergetics, cardiopulmonary function, hematology, biomechanics, skeletal muscle physiology, neuroendocrine function, and central and peripheral nervous system function. Furthermore, exercise physiologists range from basic scientists, to clinical researchers, to clinicians, to sports trainers.
Colleges and universities offer exercise physiology as a program of study on various different levels, including undergraduate, graduate degrees and certificates, and doctoral programs. The basis of Exercise Physiology as a major is to prepare students for a career in field of health sciences. A program that focuses on the scientific study of the physiological processes involved in physical or motor activity, including sensorimotor interactions, response mechanisms, and the effects of injury, disease, and disability. Includes instruction in muscular and skeletal anatomy; molecular and cellular basis of muscle contraction; fuel utilization; neurophysiology of motor mechanics; systemic physiological responses (respiration, blood flow, endocrine secretions, and others); fatigue and exhaustion; muscle and body training; physiology of specific exercises and activities; physiology of injury; and the effects of disabilities and disease. Careers available with a degree in Exercise Physiology can include: non-clinical, client-based work; strength and conditioning specialists; cardiopulmonary treatment; and clinical-based research.
In order to gauge the multiple areas of study, students are taught processes in which to follow on a client-based level. Practical and lecture teachings are instructed in the classroom and in a laboratory setting. These include:
Health and risk assessment: In order to safely work with a client on the job, you must first be able to know the benefits and risks associated with physical activity. Examples of this include knowing specific injuries the body can experience during exercise, how to properly screen a client before their training begins, and what factors to look for that may inhibit their performance.
Exercise testing: Coordinating exercise tests in order to measure body compositions, cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength/endurance, and flexibility. Functional tests are also used in order to gain understanding on a more specific part of the body. Once the information is gathered about a client, exercise physiologists must also be able to interpret the test data and decide what health-related outcomes have been discovered.
Exercise prescription: Forming training programs that best meet an individual's health and fitness goals. Must be able to take into account different types of exercises, the reasons/goal for a client's workout, and pre-screened assessments. Knowing how to prescribe exercises for special considerations and populations is also required. These may include age differences, pregnancy, joint diseases, obesity, pulmonary disease, etc.
Curriculum
The curriculum for exercise physiology includes biology, chemistry, and applied sciences. The purpose of the classes selected for this major is to have a proficient understanding of human anatomy, human physiology, and exercise physiology. Includes instruction in muscular and skeletal anatomy; molecular and cellular basis of muscle contraction; fuel utilization; neurophysiology of motor mechanics; systemic physiological responses (respiration, blood flow, endocrine secretions, and others); fatigue and exhaustion; muscle and body training; physiology of specific exercises and activities; physiology of injury; and the effects of disabilities and disease. Not only is a full class schedule needed to complete a degree in Exercise Physiology, but a minimum amount of practicum experience is required and internships are recommended.
See also
Bioenergetics
Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC)
Hill's model
Physical therapy
Sports science
Sports medicine
References
External links
Athletic training
Endurance games
Evolutionary biology
Human evolution
Physiology
Strength training
Physical exercise
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyle%20Heights%2C%20Los%20Angeles
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Boyle Heights, Los Angeles
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Boyle Heights, historically known as Paredón Blanco (Spanish for "White Bluff"), is a neighborhood in Los Angeles, California, located east of the Los Angeles River. It is one of the city's most notable and historic Chicano/Mexican-American communities and is known as a bastion of Chicano culture, hosting cultural landmarks like Mariachi Plaza and events like the annual Día de los Muertos celebrations.
History
Boyle Heights was called ("White Bluff") during the Spanish, Mexican, and early American periods. During Mexican rule, what would become Boyle Heights became home to a small settlement of relocated Tongva refugees from the village of Yaanga in 1845. The villagers were relocated to this new site known as Pueblito after being forcibly evicted from their previous location on the corner Alameda and Commercial Street by German immigrant Juan Domingo (John Groningen), who paid Governor Pío Pico $200 for the land.
On August 13, 1846, Los Angeles was seized by invading American forces during the Mexican–American War. Under American occupation, Indigenous elimination became a core principal of governance and the Pueblito site was razed to the ground in 1847: "the Indians were required to live in dispersed settlements or with their employers in the city." The destruction of Pueblito was reportedly approved by the Los Angeles City Council and largely displaced the final generation of the villagers, known as Yaangavit, into the Calle de los Negros ("street of the dark ones") district.
The area became named after Andrew Boyle, an Irishman born in Ballinrobe, who purchased on the bluffs overlooking the Los Angeles River after fighting in the Mexican–American War for $4,000. Boyle established his home on the land in 1858. In the 1860s, he began growing grapes and sold the wine under the "Paredon Blanc" name. His son-in-law William Workman served as early mayor and city councilman and also built early infrastructure for the area.
To the north of Boyle Heights was Brooklyn Heights, a subdivision in the hills on the eastern bank of the Los Angeles River that centered on Prospect Park.
From 1889 through 1909 the city was divided into nine wards. In 1899 a motion was introduced at the Ninth Ward Development Association to use the name Boyle Heights to apply to all the highlands of the Ninth Ward, including Brooklyn Heights and Euclid Heights. XLNT Foods had a factory making tamales here early in their history. The company started in 1894, when tamales were the most popular ethnic food in Los Angeles. The company is the oldest continuously operating Mexican food brand in the United States, and one of the oldest companies in Southern California.
In the early 1910s, Boyle Heights was one of the only communities that did not have restricted housing covenants that discriminated against Japanese and other people of color. The Japanese community of Little Tokyo continued to grow and extended to the First Street Corridor into Boyle Heights in the early 1910s. Boyle Heights became Los Angeles’s largest residential communities of Japanese immigrants and Americans, apart from Little Tokyo. In the 1920s and 1930s, Boyle Heights became the center of significant churches, temples, and schools for the Japanese community. These include the Tenrikyo Junior Church of America, the Konko Church, and the Higashi Honganji Buddhist Temple; all designed by Yos Hirose. The Japanese Baptist Church was built by the Los Angeles City Baptist Missionary Society. A hospital, also designed by Hirose, opened in 1929 to serve the Japanese American community.
By the 1920s through the 1960s, Boyle Heights was racially and ethnically diverse as a center of Jewish, Mexican and Japanese immigrant life in the early 20th century, and also hosted significant Yugoslav, Armenian, African-American and Russian populations. Bruce Phillips, a sociologist who tracked Jewish communities across the United States, said that Jewish families left Boyle Heights not because of racism, but instead because of banks redlining the neighborhood (denying home loans) and the construction of several freeways through the community.
In 1961, the construction of the East LA Interchange began. At 135 acres in size, the interchange is three times larger than the average highway system, even expanding at some points to 27 lanes in width. The interchange handles around 1.7 million vehicles daily and has produced one of the most traffic congested regions in the world as well as one of the most concentrated pockets of air pollution in America. This resulted in the development of Boyle Heights, a multicultural, interethnic neighborhood in East Los Angeles whose celebration of cultural difference has made it a role model for democracy.
In 2017, some residents were protesting gentrification of their neighborhood by the influx of new businesses, a theme found in the TV series Vida and Gentefied, both set in the neighborhood.
Demographics
As of the 2000 census, there were 92,785 people in the neighborhood, which was considered "not especially diverse" ethnically, with the racial composition of the neighborhood at 94.0% Latino, 2.3% Asian, 2.0% White (non-Hispanic), 0.9% African American, and 0.8% other races. The median household income was $33,235, low in comparison to the rest of the city. The neighborhood's population was also one of the youngest in the city, with a median age of just 25.
As of 2011, 95% of the community was Hispanic and Latino. The community had Mexican Americans, Mexican immigrants, and Central American ethnic residents. Hector Tobar of the Los Angeles Times said, "The diversity that exists in Boyle Heights today is exclusively Latino".
Latino communities
Latino political influence
The emergence of Latino politics in Boyle Heights influenced the diversity in the community. Boyle Heights was a predominantly Jewish community with "a vibrant, pre-World War II, Yiddish-speaking community, replete with small shops along Brooklyn Avenue, union halls, synagogues and hyperactive politics ... shaped by the enduring influence of the Socialist and Communist parties" before Boyle Heights became predominantly associated with Mexicans/Mexican Americans. The rise of the socialist and communist parties increased the people's involvement in politics in the community because the "liberal-left exercised great influence in the immigrant community". Even with an ever-growing diversity in Boyle Heights, "Jews remained culturally and politically dominant after World War II".
Nevertheless, as the Jewish community was moving westward into new homes, the largest growing group, Latinos, was moving into Boyle Heights because to them this neighborhood was represented as upward mobility. With Jews and Latinos both in Boyle Heights, these men, part of the Jewish Community Relations Council (JCRC) — Louis Levy, Ben Solnit, Pinkhas Karl, Harry Sheer, and Julius Levitt — helped to empower the Latinos who either lived among the Jewish people or who worked together in the factories.
The combination of Jewish people and Latinos in Boyle Heights symbolized a tight unity between the two communities. The two groups helped to elect Edward R. Roybal to the City Council over Councilman Christensen; with the help from the Community Service Organization (CSO). In order for Roybal to win a landslide victory over Christensen, "the JCRC, with representation from business and labor leaders, associated with both Jewish left traditions, had become the prime financial benefactor to CSO .. labor historically backed incumbents ... [and] the Cold War struggle for the hearts and minds of minority workers also influenced the larger political dynamic".
In the 1947 election, Edward Roybal lost, but Jewish community activist Saul Alinsky and the Industrial Areas Foundation (IAF) garnered support from Mexican Americans to bring Roybal to victory two years later 1949.(Bernstein, 243) When Roybal took office as city councilman in 1949, he experienced racism when trying to buy a home for his family. The real-estate agent told him that he could not sell to Mexicans, and Roybal's first act as councilman was to protest racial discrimination and to create a community that represented inter-racial politics in Boyle Heights.(Bernstein, 224).
This Latino-Jewish relationship shaped politics in that when Antonio Villaraigosa became mayor of Los Angeles in 2005, "not only did he have ties to Boyle Heights, but he was elected by replicating the labor-based, multicultural coalition that Congressman Edward Roybal assembled in 1949 to become Los Angeles's first city council member of Latino heritage". Further, the Vladeck Center (named after Borukh Charney Vladeck) contributed to the community of Boyle Heights in a big way because it was not just a building, it was "a venue for a wide range of activities that promoted Jewish culture and politics".
Government and infrastructure
The Los Angeles County Department of Health Services operates the Central Health Center in Downtown Los Angeles, serving Boyle Heights.
The United States Postal Service's Boyle Heights Post Office is located at 2016 East 1st Street.
The Social Security Administration is located at 215 North Soto Street Los Angeles, CA 90033 1-800-772-1213
Transportation
Boyle Heights is home to four stations of the Los Angeles Metro Rail, all served by the E Line:
Pico/Aliso station
Mariachi Plaza station
Soto station
Indiana station
Education
Just 5% of Boyle Heights residents aged 25 and older had earned a four-year degree by 2000, a low percentage for the city and the county. The percentage of residents in that age range who had not earned a high school diploma was high for the county.
Public
SIATech Boyle Heights Independent Study, Charter High School, 501 South Boyle Avenue
Extera Public School, Charter Elementary, 1942 E. 2nd Street and 2226 E. 3rd Street
Extera Public School #2, Charter Elementary, 1015 S. Lorena Street
Francisco Bravo Medical Magnet High School, alternative, 1200 North Cornwell Street
Theodore Roosevelt High School, 456 South Mathews Street
Mendez High School 1200 Playa Del Sol
Animo Oscar De La Hoya Charter High School, 1114 South Lorena Street
Boyle Heights Continuation School, 544 South Mathews Street* Central Juvenile Hall, 1605 Eastlake Avenue
Hollenbeck Middle School, 2510 East Sixth Street
Robert Louis Stevenson Middle School, 725 South Indiana Street
KIPP Los Angeles College Preparatory, charter middle, 2810 Whittier Boulevard
Murchison Street Elementary School, 1501 Murchison Street
Evergreen Avenue Elementary School, 2730 Ganahl Street
Sheridan Street Elementary School, 416 North Cornwell Street
Malabar Street Elementary School, 3200 East Malabar Street
Breed Street Elementary School, 2226 East Third Street
First Street Elementary School, 2820 East First Street
Second Street Elementary School, 1942 East Second Street
Soto Street Elementary School, 1020 South Soto Street
Euclid Avenue Elementary School, 806 Euclid Avenue
Sunrise Elementary School, 2821 East Seventh Street
Utah Street Elementary School, 255 Gabriel Garcia Marquez Street
Bridge Street Elementary School, 605 North Boyle Avenue
Garza (Carmen Lomas) Primary Center, elementary, 2750 East Hostetter Street
Christopher Dena Elementary School, 1314 Dacotah Street
Learning Works Charter School, 1916 East First Street
Lorena Street Elementary School, 1015 South Lorena Street
PUENTE Learning Center, 501 South Boyle Avenue
East Los Angeles Occupational Center (Adult Education), 2100 Marengo Street
Endeavor College Preparatory Charter School, 1263 S Soto St, Los Angeles, CA 90023
Private
Bishop Mora Salesian High School, 960 South Soto Street
Santa Teresita Elementary School, 2646 Zonal Avenue
Assumption Elementary School, 3016 Winter Street
Saint Mary Catholic Elementary School, 416 South Saint Louis Street
Our Lady of Talpa, elementary, 411 South Evergreen Avenue
East Los Angeles Light and Life Christian School, 207 South Dacotah Street
Santa Isabel Elementary School, 2424 Whittier Boulevard
Dolores Mission School, elementary, 170 South Gless Street
Cristo Viene Christian School, 3607 Whittier Boulevard
Resurrection, elementary, 3360 East Opal Street
White Memorial Adventist School, 1605 New Jersey Street
PUENTE Learning Center, 501 South Boyle Avenue
Landmarks
Existing
Breed Street Shul, which was declared a historic-cultural monument in 1988
Self-Help Graphics and Art, the first community-based organization in the country to create a free public celebration of Day of the Dead
Los Angeles County+USC Medical Center/Keck School of Medicine of USC
Los Angeles County Department of Coroner
Estrada Courts Murals
Evergreen Cemetery
Hazard Park
Mariachi Plaza
Hollenbeck Park
Linda Vista Community Hospital (Now Hollenbeck Terrace Apartments, former Santa Fe Coast Lines Hospital)
Sears Building, Olympic Boulevard and Soto St.
Malabar Public Library
Lucha Underground Temple, where the television program Lucha Underground is taped.
St. Mary's Catholic Church (4th and Chicago Streets)
Demolished
Soto-Michigan Jewish Community Center
Aliso Village
Sisters Orphan Home, operated by Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul, 917 S. Boyle Ave. demolished due to earthquake damage and construction of freeway
Notable people
Politics
Sheldon Andelson, first openly gay person to be appointed to the University of California Regents or any high position in state government
Hal Bernson, Los Angeles City Council member, 1979–2003
Martin V. Biscailuz, attorney and Common Council member, 1884–85
Howard E. Dorsey, City Council member, 1937
Oscar Macy, county sheriff and member of the Board of Supervisors
Edward R. Roybal, Democrat in the U.S. House of Representatives for the 30th District and later for the 25th District of California; member of the Los Angeles City Council
Winfred J. Sanborn, City Council member, 1925–29
Antonio Villaraigosa, Mayor of Los Angeles
Zev Yaroslavsky, Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors, 3rd District
Sports
Lillian Copeland (1904–1964), Olympic discus champion; set world records in discus, javelin, and shot put
William Harmatz, jockey
Ron Mix (born 1938), Football Hall of Famer
Donald Sterling, Former Los Angeles Clippers owner
Crime
Mickey Cohen, gangster
Arts and culture
Oscar Zeta Acosta, attorney, writer, community activist
Lou Adler, record producer, manager
Herb Alpert
Greg Boyle, Catholic priest, community activist
Norman Granz
Josefina López, writer
Anthony Quinn, actor
Andy Russell, international singing star
Julius Shulman, photographer
Taboo, rapper
will.i.am, recording artist and music producer
Kenny Endo, taiko drummer, recording artist
Rubén Funkahuatl Guevara, writer, poet, musician, activist, music producer
Publishing
Jack T. Chick, publisher of Chick tracts
In popular culture
1917: Nuts in May
1957: The Pajama Game
1979: Boulevard Nights
1980: The Other Side of the Bridge ()
1987: Born in East L.A.
1992: American Me
1993: Blood In Blood Out
1995: Dangerous Minds
1998: The Wonderful Ice Cream Suit
1998–2009 Breaking the Magician's Code: Magic's Biggest Secrets Finally Revealed
2007: Under the Same Moon
2008: The Take
2011: A Better Life
2014–present: Lucha Underground
2015: East LA Interchange (documentary)
2015/2016: No más bebés
2018–2020: Vida
2020–2021: Gentefied
2021: Night Teeth
See also
List of Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monuments on the East and Northeast Sides
List of districts and neighborhoods in Los Angeles
References
Further reading
Boyle Heights: How a Los Angeles Neighborhood Became the Future of American Democracy. George F. Sanchez. Berkeley: Univ. of Calif. Press, 2021.
External links
Boyle Heights Neighborhood Council
Boyle Heights Beat
Self Help Graphics & Art
CASA 1010 Theater
Boyle Heights: Power of Place
History of Aliso Village
Breed Street Shul Project, Inc.
Boyle Heights Learning Collaborative
Boyle Heights Historical Society
Comments about living in Boyle Heights
Boyle Heights crime map and statistics
Chicano and Mexican neighborhoods in California
Neighborhoods in Los Angeles
Eastside Los Angeles
1875 establishments in California
Populated places established in 1875
Historic Jewish communities in the United States
Jews and Judaism in Los Angeles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20Future
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United Future
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United Future New Zealand, usually known as United Future, was a centrist political party in New Zealand. The party was in government between 2005 and 2017, first alongside Labour (2005–2008) and then supporting National (2008–2017).
United Future was formed from the merger of the liberal party United New Zealand and Christian-dominated conservative Future New Zealand to contest the 2002 election. It was represented in the New Zealand Parliament from its foundation until September 2017. The party won eight seats in 2002; however it was reduced to three Members of Parliament in 2005. Between 2008 and 2017, United Future was solely represented in Parliament by party leader Peter Dunne, who represented the Ōhāriu electorate in Wellington. Dunne was re-elected during both the 2011 and 2014 general elections.
In August 2017, Dunne announced his retirement from politics prior to the 2017 general election. Damian Light was appointed as the new leader on 23 August. During the 2017 general election, United Future lost its sole seat in Parliament and attained only 0.1% of the party vote.
In November 2017, a leaked email announced that United Future would move to dissolve after a unanimous decision by the party board to do so. On 14 November an announcement was made on the party's website signalling that the party had officially been dissolved. The party was formally de-registered on 28 February 2018.
History
Formation and early success
United Future was formed from the merger of liberal centrist party United New Zealand and Christian-dominated conservative Future New Zealand to contest the 2002 election. United, formed as a centrist party by a group of moderate Labour and National MPs, held one seat in parliament—that of Dunne. Future New Zealand, which was not represented in parliament, was a "secularised" evolution of the Christian Democrats, following the same basic principles as the Christian Democrats, but abandoning the explicit religious connection.
United Future's first party president, Ian Tulloch, stated that "United Future isn't a Christian party – it's a political party that has a lot of Christians in it, and a lot of non-Christians." Tulloch said that the "universal principles of family, of common sense, of looking after one another, of compassion, integrity" are equally valuable to both Christians and non-Christians.
Support for United Future, which was already growing in early 2002, was boosted further by Peter Dunne's strong television debating performance and the public response to it. The uplift in United Future support during the last two weeks of the campaign caught many commentators by surprise and drew votes away from National, Labour and the Green parties, who were engaged in a public squabble over genetic engineering.
United Future made a strong showing in the 2002 election, taking 6.7 percent of the vote and eight seats: Dunne's electorate seat of Ohariu-Belmont and seven list seats. It would have been assured of getting into parliament in any event, however; under New Zealand's mixed-member proportional system, any party that wins at least one electorate seat qualifies for list seats even if it falls short of the five-percent threshold. The party faced a minor embarrassment after the election, however, when it was discovered that one of its list MPs, Kelly Chal, was not a New Zealand citizen, and thus ineligible to stand for parliament.
Early activity
After 2002 United Future in its family law reform proposals took to heart the trauma and adverse impact on children caused by the separation of their parents. United Future MP Judy Turner made clear that then current government policies were failing in regard to keeping both parents in children's lives, and to this extent made a huge effort in promoting a member's bill on mandatory mediation by means of a national roll-out of the North Shore Family Court "Children in the Middle" pilot programme.
In December 2004, United Future MPs exercised their individual conscience votes to oppose a bill to enable civil unions. This bill, which passed Parliament by a vote of 65 to 55, provided some marriage-like benefits for same-sex couples (who could not marry in New Zealand until August 2013) and for opposite-sex couples who choose not to marry. However, Peter Dunne alone among United Future MPs voted for the subsequent Relationships (Statutory References) Bill in March 2005, which passed by 76 to 44 votes and removed discriminatory wording from a range of statutes.
In mid-2004 United Future announced that it would contest the 2005 general election in partnership with Outdoor Recreation New Zealand. Cynics pointed out that, like Future New Zealand, Outdoor Recreation was a minor party with no prospect of reaching the 5% threshold (Outdoor Recreation gained 1.28% of the vote in the 2002 election) seeking parliamentary representation via the security of Peter Dunne's electorate seat.
A month before the September 2005 election, list MP Paul Adams quit the party to stand as an independent in the East Coast Bays electorate. His daughter Sharee Adams, also on the United Future List, also quit to assist her father in his campaign. After the general election, disgruntled right-winger and ex-United Future MP Marc Alexander also voiced repeated criticisms of his former colleagues, in his "Marc My Words" political opinion column for Scoop, a New Zealand news website.
In the 2005 election, United Future had the support of the WIN Party, which was set up to fight the ban on smoking in bars and restaurants. WIN's leader, John van Buren, was United Future's candidate for Christchurch Central. This further spoke of alliances still to come. In this election, support plummeted to 2.8% and the party won only three seats. Peter Dunne retained Ohariu-Belmont, and Gordon Copeland and Judy Turner were returned on its party list.
United Future had tried to distance itself from its more assertive fundamentalist list MPs, such as Adams, Larry Baldock and Murray Smith. As Election New Zealand data revealed that the Outdoor Recreation Party still provided about 1% of the vote, 4.8% of the previous vote had gone elsewhere. During 2004–2005, the National Party had made renewed efforts to attract social conservative voters, through adoption of anti-abortion and anti-same-sex marriage voting records.
Following the 2005 election, New Zealand First and United Future entered into a confidence and supply agreement with Labour, under which Dunne became Minister of Revenue, outside Cabinet.
In March 2006 Outdoor Recreation New Zealand split with United Future, due to a dissatisfaction with what it saw as the Christian evangelism within the party. Outdoor Recreation acting chairman Phil Hoare said, "We strongly believe in the traditional bedrock values of our nation's heritage but we also affirm the separation of church and state." In 2006 several younger centrist members also departed from the party.
United Future, like most New Zealand Parliamentary parties, was caught up in the 2005 New Zealand election funding controversy. It voted in favour of the retrospective validating legislation, which was passed through the New Zealand Parliament in October 2006.
From February to April 2007, Peter Dunne exercised his own right to a conscience vote to support Sue Bradford's private members bill against parental corporal punishment of children, while Gordon Copeland vigorously opposed it, as did Judy Turner, but on a more subtle level.
On 16 May 2007, Copeland resigned from the party due to his dissatisfaction with Dunne's support for the aforementioned private members bill, although Turner did not follow suit. Copeland was subsequently part of forming the socially conservative Kiwi Party. Several other United Future members resigned in sympathy with Copeland, including former United Future List MPs Larry Baldock and Bernie Ogilvy. In 2011, the Kiwi Party ceased to exist as an independent entity after it merged with the Conservative Party of New Zealand, another conservative Christian dominated centre-right political party, currently unrepresented in Parliament.
On 13 August 2007 United Future unveiled a new logo which Dunne said was a revitalisation of the party before the 2008 election. The re-branding of the party was taken further on 3 September 2007 when Peter Dunne announced that United Future was becoming a moderate centrist party after the break with its former conservative Christian faction. Speaking of the departure of Copeland and the rest of the more strident Christians in the party, Dunne said, "I think it's taken a bit of a monkey off our back, frankly."
2008 election
In 2008 the United Future Party named candidates for 51 seats. Policies included tax cuts and various initiatives aimed at supporting parents, such as the extension of paid parental leave to 12 months; the option of income splitting for tax purposes for parents with dependent children and couples in which one partner relies on the other for financial support; and the promotion of shared parenting. There were also a number of health care policies including granting everyone one free health check per year.
Peter Dunne was re-elected as United Future's only Member of Parliament. He retained his parliamentary seat of Ohariu-Belmont, but United Future did not poll sufficiently highly to bring additional caucus members into Parliament. Some Future New Zealand members defected from United Future to establish The Kiwi Party, which was unsuccessful in retaining parliamentary representation after the election.
The National Party won the most seats overall and formed a minority government with support from United Future, the Māori Party and ACT New Zealand. Dunne retained his portfolios as Minister of Revenue and Associate Minister for Health.
2011 election
In 2011 United Future campaigned on income splitting, flexible superannuation and restricting asset sales.
Peter Dunne retained the electorate of Ōhariu electorate, formerly Ohariu-Belmont. The Labour candidate Charles Chauvel accused Dunne and the National Party of an "unprincipled political deal" which encouraged National voters to give their electorate vote to Dunne to ensure his survival as an MP.
As in 2008, the National Party won the most seats overall and formed a minority government with support from United Future, the Māori Party and ACT New Zealand. Together with his previous Revenue and Associate Health portfolios, Dunne became Associate Minister of Conservation. The agreement included provisions barring the sale of Kiwibank or Radio New Zealand, and public consultation on United Future's flexible superannuation policy.
Temporary party de-registration
On 31 May 2013 the Electoral Commission cancelled United Future's registration at the party's request after it failed to retain 500 members. The party became an unregistered party – unable to contest the party-list vote. However, on 10 June 2013, its party president made a media release stating that it had succeeded in attracting the needed 500 members for re-registration. It was subsequently reported that United Future was encountering difficulties over its re-registration, related to the need to acquire printed proof of sufficient membership, although Party President Robin Gunston had supplied the Electoral Commission with copies of traceable economic transactions associated with the influx of new members.
On 16 June 2013 the Electoral Commission noted that United Future had provided the aforementioned spreadsheet record, which contained names and details of putative party members. It noted that under Section 63 of the New Zealand Electoral Act 1993, bona fide registered political parties were bound to supply name, address, eligibility for membership, evidence of paid membership fees, member authorisation to record such details and to release them to a third party. The Commission stated that it would therefore accept signed and dated (although electronically submitted) membership forms from United Future and other eligible parties as evidence of membership enrolment. Signature and membership authenticity had yet to be assessed at that point
Events took a further turn when New Zealand Parliament Speaker David Carter ruled that as United Future could not guarantee that his party had 500 financially solvent members for another six to eight weeks after Dunne had submitted a membership list to the New Zealand Electoral Commission, Dunne would therefore have to sit as an "independent" Member of Parliament, and to forfeit NZ$100,000 parliamentary party leader operational funding unless and until United Future could conclusively establish whether or not it had sufficient membership to warrant re-registration. This occurred after New Zealand Labour Party MP Trevor Mallard contacted the New Zealand Attorney-General over the current legal status of United Future
On 8 July 2013 Dunne stated that his party had now been able to enrol sufficient members to satisfy the Electoral Commission's random sampling techniques, although he also noted that the process of evaluation and re-enrolment would take six to eight weeks. At the same time, the New Zealand Electoral Commission verified that this was indeed the case and then clarified what would happen next. There would be an interim period when it checked the actual status of the party's membership, then provided public notice of United Future's membership application and invitation of comments, then provide the applicant party's leadership with an opportunity to respond to the comments and then decide whether to refuse or approve the application from United Future On 30 July 2013, the New Zealand Electoral Commission requested input pending United Future's ultimate re-registration
On 13 August 2013 the electoral commission accepted United Future's re-registration.
2014 election
As in 2008 and 2011, the National Party won the most seats overall and formed a minority government with support from United Future's single MP (Dunne) and the Māori Party.
2017 election
During the 2017 general election, United Future ran 8 electorate candidates and 10 list candidates. On 21 August 2017, leader and MP Peter Dunne announced that he was quitting politics at the election, citing recent polling and his perception that there was a mood for change in his seat of Ōhāriu. Damian Light was announced as the new leader on 23 August. During the 2017 election, United Future gained only 0.1% of the party vote and lost its sole seat in Parliament.
On 13 November 2017, an email was sent to party members, stating that a decision had been made at the previous weekend's Annual General Meeting to disband United Future in light of poor electoral results and the unlikelihood of receiving enough votes to return to parliament in the future. On 14 November, Light and Dunne confirmed that United Future would be dissolving due to the loss of its Parliamentary presence. The party's registration was cancelled on 28 February 2018.
Policy
United Future adopted the following mission statement in early 2007:
"United Future is a modern centre party, focused on New Zealand's best interests. We promote strong families and vibrant communities. We seek a fair, and open society, free from poverty, ignorance and prejudice, and based on innovation, self-reliance, justice and integrity in business and personal dealings. We promote a sustainable environment, and a competitive economy which encourages growth, prosperity, ownership and opportunity through market policies where possible, and government where necessary. We want all New Zealanders, whatever their background, race or creed, to have the chance to enjoy everything that is good in our country."
Electoral results (2002–17)
Former MPs
Paul Adams, in 2008, Family Party candidate for East Coast Bays
Marc Alexander, in 2008, National Party candidate for Wigram
Larry Baldock, in 2008, Kiwi Party candidate for Tauranga
Bernie Ogilvy, Kiwi Party secretary (did not stand for election)
Murray Smith, in 2008, United Future candidate for Hutt South
Gordon Copeland, in 2008, Kiwi Party candidate for Rongotai
Judy Turner, in 2008, United Future candidate for East Coast; in 2009, United Future candidate for electorate by-election.
Leadership
Leader
Deputy Leader
See also
Politics of New Zealand
List of political parties in New Zealand § Historical parties
References
Defunct political parties in New Zealand
Political parties in New Zealand
Political parties established in 2000
2000 establishments in New Zealand
2017 disestablishments in New Zealand
Centrist parties in New Zealand
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annie%20Oakley
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Annie Oakley
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Annie Oakley (born Phoebe Ann Mosey; August 13, 1860 – November 3, 1926) was an American sharpshooter who starred in Buffalo Bill's Wild West.
Oakley developed hunting skills as a child to provide for her impoverished family in western Ohio. At age 15, she won a shooting contest against an experienced marksman, Frank E. Butler, whom she married in 1876. The pair joined Buffalo Bill in 1885, performing in Europe before royalty and other heads of state. Audiences were astounded to see her shooting out a cigar from her husband's hand or splitting a playing-card edge-on at 30 paces. She earned more than anyone except Buffalo Bill himself.
After a bad rail accident in 1901, she had to settle for a less taxing routine, and she toured in a play written about her career. She also instructed women in marksmanship, believing strongly in female self-defense. Her stage acts were filmed for one of Thomas Edison's earliest Kinetoscopes in 1894. Since her death, her story has been adapted for stage musicals and films, including Annie Get Your Gun.
Early life
Annie Oakley was born Phoebe Ann (Annie) Mosey on August 13, 1860, in a log cabin less than northwest of Woodland, now Willowdell, in Darke County, Ohio, a rural county along the state's border with Indiana. Her birthplace is about east of North Star. There is a stone-mounted plaque in the vicinity of the site, which was placed by the Annie Oakley Committee in 1981, 121 years after her birth.
Annie's parents were Quakers of English descent from Hollidaysburg, Blair County, Pennsylvania: Susan Wise, born 1830, and Jacob Mosey, born 1799, married in 1848. They moved to a rented farm (later purchased with a mortgage) in Patterson Township, Darke County, Ohio, sometime around 1855.
Born in 1860, Annie was the sixth of Jacob and Susan's nine children, and the fifth of the seven surviving. Her siblings were Mary Jane (1851–1867), Lydia (1852–1882), Elizabeth (1855–1881), Sarah Ellen (1857–1939), Catherine (1859–1859), John (1861–1949), Hulda (1864–1934) and a stillborn infant brother in 1865. Annie's father, who had fought in the War of 1812, was 61 years old at the time of Annie's birth and became an invalid from hypothermia during a blizzard in late 1865 and died of pneumonia in early 1866 at age 66. Her mother later married Daniel Brumbaugh, had another daughter, Emily (1868–1937), and was widowed once again.
Because of poverty following her father's death, Annie did not regularly attend school as a child, although she did attend later in childhood and in adulthood. On March 15, 1870, at age nine, she was admitted to the Darke County Infirmary along with her sister Sarah Ellen. According to her autobiography, she was put in the care of the infirmary's superintendent, Samuel Crawford Edington, and his wife Nancy, who taught her to sew and decorate. Beginning in the spring of 1870, she was "bound out" to a local family to help care for their infant son, on the false promise of fifty cents per week () and an education. The couple had originally wanted someone who could pump water and cook and who was bigger. She spent about two years in near slavery to them, enduring mental and physical abuse. One time, the wife put Annie out in the freezing cold without shoes, as a punishment because she had fallen asleep over some darning. Annie referred to them as "the wolves". Even in her autobiography, she never revealed the couple's real names.
According to biographer Glenda Riley, "the wolves" could have been the Studabaker family, but the 1870 U.S. Census suggests they were the Abram Boose family of neighboring Preble County. Around the spring of 1872, Annie ran away from "the wolves". According to biographer Shirl Kasper, it was only at this point that Annie met and lived with the Edingtons, returning to her mother's home around the age of 15.
Annie began trapping before the age of seven, and shooting and hunting by age eight, to support her siblings and her widowed mother. She sold hunted games to locals in Greenville, such as shopkeepers Charles and G. Anthony Katzenberger, who shipped it to hotels in Cincinnati and other cities. She also sold the game to restaurants and hotels in northern Ohio. Her skill paid off the mortgage on her mother's farm when Annie was 15.
Surname
There are a number of variations given for Oakley's family name, Mosey. Many biographers and other references give the name as "Moses". Although the 1860 U.S. Census shows the family name as "Mauzy", this is considered an error introduced by the census taker. Oakley's name appears as "Ann Mosey" in the 1870 U.S. Census and "Mosey" is engraved on her father's headstone and appears in his military record; "Mosey" is the official spelling by the Annie Oakley Foundation, maintained by her living relatives. The spelling "Mosie" has also appeared.
According to Kasper, Oakley insisted that her family name be spelled "Mozee", leading to arguments with her brother John. Kasper speculates that Oakley may have considered "Mozee" to be a more phonetic spelling. There is also popular speculation that young Oakley had been teased about her name by other children.
Prior to their double wedding in March 1884, both Oakley's brother John and one of her sisters, Hulda, changed their surnames to "Moses".
Marriage and career
Annie soon became well known throughout the region. On Thanksgiving Day 1875, the Baughman & Butler shooting act was being performed in Cincinnati. Traveling show marksman and former dog trainer Frank E. Butler (1847–1926), an Irish immigrant, placed a $100 bet per side () with Cincinnati hotel owner Jack Frost that Butler could beat any local fancy shooter. The hotelier arranged a shooting match between Butler and the 15-year-old Annie, saying, "The last opponent Butler expected was a 15-year-old girl named Annie." After missing on his 25th shot, Butler lost the match and the bet. Another account says that Butler hit on his last shot, but the bird fell dead about beyond the boundary line. He soon began courting Annie and they married. They never had any children.
According to a modern-day account in The Cincinnati Enquirer, it is possible that the shooting match took place in 1881 and not 1875. It appears the time of the event was never recorded. Biographer Shirl Kasper states the shooting match took place in the spring of 1881 near Greenville, possibly in North Star as mentioned by Butler during interviews in 1903 and 1924. Other sources seem to coincide with the North Fairmount location near Cincinnati if the event occurred in 1881.
The Bevis House hotel was still being operated by Martin Bevis and W. H. Ridenour in 1875. It opened around 1860 after the building was previously used as a pork packaging facility. Jack Frost did not obtain management of the hotel until 1879. The Baughman & Butler shooting act first appeared on the pages of The Cincinnati Enquirer in 1880. They signed with Sells Brothers Circus in 1881 and made an appearance at the Coliseum Opera House later that year.
Oakley and Butler were married a year afterward. A certificate on file with the Archives of Ontario, Registration Number 49594, reports that Butler and Oakley were wed on June 20, 1882, in Windsor, Ontario. Many sources say the marriage took place on August 23, 1876, in Cincinnati, but no recorded certificate validates that date. A possible reason for the contradictory dates is that Butler's divorce from his first wife, Henrietta Saunders, was not yet final in 1876. An 1880 U.S. Federal Census record shows Saunders as married. Sources mentioning Butler's first wife as Elizabeth are inaccurate; Elizabeth was his granddaughter, her father being Edward F. Butler. Throughout Oakley's show-business career, the public was often led to believe that she was five to six years younger than she was. The later marriage date would have better supported her fictional age.
Increase in popularity and touring
Annie and Frank Butler lived in Cincinnati for a time. Oakley, the stage name she adopted when she and Frank began performing together, is believed to have been taken from the city's neighborhood of Oakley, where they resided. Some people believe she took on the name because that was the name of the man who had paid her train fare when she was a child.
They joined Buffalo Bill's Wild West in 1885. At five feet tall, Oakley was given the nickname of "Watanya Cicilla" by fellow performer Sitting Bull, rendered "Little Sure Shot" in the public advertisements.
During her first engagement with the Buffalo Bill show, Oakley experienced a tense professional rivalry with rifle sharpshooter Lillian Smith. Smith was eleven years younger than Oakley, age 15 at the time she joined the show in 1886, which may have been a primary reason for Oakley to alter her age as six years younger in later years due to Smith's press coverage becoming as favorable as hers. Oakley temporarily left the Buffalo Bill show but returned two years later, after Smith departed, in time for the Paris Exposition of 1889. This three-year tour only cemented Oakley as America's first female star. She earned more than any other performer in the show, except Buffalo Bill himself. She also performed in many shows on the side for extra income. During her lifetime, the theatre business began referring to complimentary tickets as "Annie Oakleys". Such tickets traditionally have holes punched into them (to prevent them from being resold), reminiscent of the playing cards Oakley shot through during her sharpshooting act.
In Europe, she performed for Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, King Umberto I of Italy, President Marie François Sadi Carnot of France and other crowned heads of state. Oakley supposedly shot the ashes off a cigarette held by the newly crowned German Kaiser Wilhelm II at his request.
From 1892 to 1904, Oakley and Butler made their home in Nutley, New Jersey.
Oakley promoted the service of women in combat operations for the United States armed forces. She wrote a letter to President William McKinley on April 5, 1898, "offering the government the services of a company of 50 'lady sharpshooters' who would provide their own arms and ammunition should the U.S. go to war with Spain."
The Spanish–American War did occur, but Oakley's offer was not accepted. Theodore Roosevelt, did, however, name his volunteer cavalry the "Rough Riders" after the "Buffalo Bill's Wild West and Congress of Rough Riders of the World" where Oakley was a major star.
In 1901 (the same year as McKinley's assassination), Oakley was badly injured in a train accident but recovered after temporary paralysis and five spinal operations. She left the Buffalo Bill show and in 1902 began a less taxing acting career in a stage play written especially for her, The Western Girl. Oakley played the role of Nancy Berry who used a pistol, a rifle and rope to outsmart a group of outlaws.
Throughout her career, it is believed that Oakley taught more than 15,000 women how to use a gun. Oakley believed strongly that it was crucial for women to learn how to use a gun, as not only a form of physical and mental exercise, but also to defend themselves. She said: "I would like to see every woman know how to handle guns, as naturally as they know how to handle babies."
Film appearance
Buffalo Bill was friends with Thomas Edison, and Edison built the world's largest electrical power plant at the time for the Wild West Show. Buffalo Bill and 15 of his show Indians appeared in two Kinetoscopes filmed September 24, 1894.
In 1894, Oakley and Butler performed in Edison's Kinetoscope film Annie Oakley, also known as "Little Sure Shot" of the "Wild West", an exhibition of rifle shooting at stationary and moving objects, which was filmed November 1, 1894, in Edison's Black Maria studio by William Heise. It lasted 21 seconds at 30 frames and 39 feet. It was the eleventh film made after commercial showings began on April 14, 1894.
Libel cases
In 1904, sensational cocaine prohibition stories were selling well. Newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst published a false story that Oakley had been arrested for stealing to support a cocaine habit. The woman actually arrested was a burlesque performer who told Chicago police that her name was Annie Oakley.
Most of the newspapers that printed the story had relied on the Hearst article, and they immediately retracted it with apologies upon learning of the libelous error. Hearst, however, tried to avoid paying the anticipated court judgments of $20,000 () by sending an investigator to Darke County, Ohio, with the intent of collecting reputation-smearing gossip from Oakley's past. The investigator found nothing.
Oakley spent much of the next six years winning all but one of her 55 libel lawsuits against newspapers. She collected less in judgments than the total of her legal expenses.
Later years and death
In 1913, the Butlers built a brick bungalow style home in Cambridge, Maryland. It is known as the Annie Oakley House and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1996. In 1917, they moved to North Carolina and returned to public life.
Oakley continued to set records into her sixties and also engaged in extensive philanthropy for women's rights and other causes, including the support of young women she knew. She embarked on a comeback and intended to star in a feature-length silent movie. She hit 100 clay targets in a row from at age 62 in a 1922 shooting contest in Pinehurst, North Carolina.
In late 1922, the couple were in a car crash that forced Oakley to wear a steel brace on her right leg. She eventually performed again after more than a year of recovery, and she set records in 1924.
Oakley's health declined in 1925 and she died of pernicious anemia in Greenville, Ohio, at the age of 66 on November 3, 1926. She was cremated and her ashes buried at Brock Cemetery, near Greenville.
According to B. Haugen, Butler was so distraught by her death that he stopped eating and died 18 days later in Michigan; he was buried next to her ashes. Kasper reports that Butler's death certificate gave senility as the cause of death. One rumor claims that Oakley's ashes were placed in one of her trophies and placed with Butler's body in his coffin prior. Both body and ashes were interred in the cemetery on Thanksgiving Day, November 25, 1926.
After her death, her incomplete autobiography was given to stage comedian Fred Stone, and it was discovered that her entire fortune had been spent on her family and her charities.
Shooting prowess
Biographers, such as Shirl Kasper, repeat Oakley's own story about her very first shot at the age of eight. "I saw a squirrel run down over the grass in front of the house, through the orchard and stop on a fence to get a hickory nut." Taking a rifle from the house, she fired at the squirrel, writing later that, "It was a wonderful shot, going right through the head from side to side".
The Encyclopædia Britannica notes that:Oakley never failed to delight her audiences, and her feats of marksmanship were truly incredible. At 30 paces she could split a playing card held edge-on, she hit dimes tossed into the air, she shot cigarettes from her husband's lips, and, a playing card being thrown into the air, she riddled it before it touched the ground.
Association with Sitting Bull
R. A. Koestler-Grack reports that, on March 19, 1884, she was being watched by Chief Sitting Bull when:Oakley playfully skipped on stage, lifted her rifle, and aimed the barrel at a burning candle. In one shot, she snuffed out the flame with a whizzing bullet. Sitting Bull watched her knock corks off of bottles and slice through a cigar Butler held in his teeth. Oakley and Sitting Bull purportedly met and bonded while working together on a Buffalo Bill show in Minnesota. Sitting Bull joined with Buffalo Bill after being paroled, having led the last major Indian uprising against the federal government; his status as a great warrior and leader was legendary worldwide by the time he and Oakley met. The former Indian Chief was so impressed with Oakley's skills that he offered $65 (equal to $ today) for a photograph of him and her together. According to Oakley, the admiration and respect was mutual and only increased as they spent more time together. Sitting Bull felt Oakley must be "gifted" by supernatural means, in order to shoot so accurately with both hands. As a result of his esteem, Sitting Bull symbolically "adopted" Oakley as his daughter in 1884, naming her "Little Sure Shot" – a title that Oakley went on to use throughout her career.
Legacy
Oakley's worldwide stardom as a sharpshooter enabled her to earn more money than most of the other performers in the Buffalo Bill show. She did not forget her roots after gaining financial and economic power. She and Butler together often donated to charitable organizations for orphans.
Oakley also proved to be a great influence on women. She urged that women serve in war, though President William McKinley rejected her offer of woman sharpshooters for service in the Spanish–American War. Beyond this offer to the president, Oakley believed that women should learn to use a gun for the empowering image that it gave. Laura Browder discusses how Oakley's stardom gave hope to women and youth in Her Best Shot: Women and Guns In America. Oakley pressed for women to be independent and educated. She was a key influence in the creation of the image of the American cowgirl. Through this image, she provided substantial evidence that women are as capable as men when offered the opportunity to prove themselves.
A vast collection of Oakley's personal possessions, performance memorabilia, and firearms are on permanent exhibit in the Garst Museum and the National Annie Oakley Center in Greenville, Ohio. She has been inducted into the Trapshooting Hall of Fame, the National Cowgirl Museum and Hall of Fame in Fort Worth, Texas, the National Women's Hall of Fame, the Ohio Women's Hall of Fame, and the New Jersey Hall of Fame.
In popular culture
Barbara Stanwyck played Oakley in the film Annie Oakley (1935).
The Irving Berlin Broadway musical Annie Get Your Gun (1946) is loosely based on her life. The original stage production starred Ethel Merman, who also starred in the 1966 revival.
The 1950 film version of the musical starred Betty Hutton and Howard Keel.
Several years after headlining the 1948 national tour, Mary Martin returned to the role for a 1957 NBC television special that also featured John Raitt as Frank Butler.
Gail Davis played a fictionalized version of Oakley in the television series Annie Oakley (1954 to 1956).
Geraldine Chaplin portrayed Oakley in Buffalo Bill and the Indians, or Sitting Bull's History Lesson (1976).
Jamie Lee Curtis portrayed Oakley in Tall Tales & Legends (1985).
Reba McEntire portrayed Oakley in Buffalo Girls (1996), alongside Anjelica Huston and Melanie Griffith. She later replaced Bernadette Peters in the title role for the 1999 Broadway revival of Annie Get Your Gun alongside Tom Wopat.
Elizabeth Berridge portrayed Oakley in Hidalgo (2004).
Alyssa Edwards portrayed Oakley in RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars season 2 (2016), episode 3: "HERstory Of The World".
The Andy Pratt song "Avenging Annie" tells a story about Annie Oakley meeting Pretty Boy Floyd.
Author Kari Bovée published a trilogy of Annie Oakley historical mystery novels in 2020.
Oakley appears as the main character in the historical crime fiction story Sureshot, set during the aftermath of the 1901 train crash, published in the collection Crimeucopia 'Say What Now'.
Oakley is also the main character in "The Silver Bullets of Annie Oakley", set during a European tour through Germany with the traveling Wild West show. This is the 16th novel in the magical alternate history Elemental Masters series by fantasy author Mercedes Lackey.
Marvel Comics' predecessors Timely Comics and Atlas Comics published an Annie Oakley comic book for eleven issues from Spring 1948 to June 1956.
Filmography
See also
Belle Starr
Calamity Jane
Women in the military
References
Further reading
External links
Annie Oakley - Biography by Dorchester County Public Library, Cambridge, MD
Annie Oakley Center Foundation frequently asked questions about Annie Oakley
American Experience | Annie Oakley | People & Events | PBS
"Little Miss Sure Shot"The Saga of Annie Oakley
Scanned 1898 letter from Anne Oakley to President McKinley advocating the use of women in military combat (from the National Archives and Records Administration)
1860 births
1926 deaths
19th-century American people
20th-century American people
19th-century American women
20th-century American women
American autobiographers
American entertainers
American folklore
American stunt performers
Cowgirl Hall of Fame inductees
Gunslingers of the American Old West
Sharpshooters
Wild West show performers
Women autobiographers
American people of English descent
People from Darke County, Ohio
Deaths from pernicious anemia
Burials in Ohio
Articles containing video clips
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinclair%20BASIC
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Sinclair BASIC
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Sinclair BASIC is a dialect of the programming language BASIC used in the 8-bit home computers from Sinclair Research, Timex Sinclair and Amstrad. The Sinclair BASIC interpreter was written by Nine Tiles Networks Ltd.
Designed to run in only 1 kB of RAM, the system makes a number of decisions to lower memory usage. This led to one of Sinclair BASIC's most notable features, that the keywords were entered using single keystrokes; each of the possible keywords was mapped to a key on the keyboard, when pressed, the token would be placed into memory while the entire keyword was printed out on-screen. This made code entry easier whilst simplifying the parser.
The original ZX80 version supported only integer mathematics, which partially made up for some of the memory-saving design notes which had negative impact on performance. When the system was ported to the ZX81 in 1981, a full floating point implementation was added. This version was very slow, among the slowest BASICs on the market at the time, but given the limited capabilities of the machine this was not a serious concern.
Performance became a more serious issue with the release of the Sinclair Spectrum in 1983, which ran too slowly to make full use of the machine's new features. This led to an entirely new BASIC for the following Sinclair QL, as well as a number of 3rd party BASICs for the Spectrum and its various clones. The original version continued to be modified and ported in the post-Sinclair era.
History
Clive Sinclair initially met with John Grant, the owner of Nine Tiles, in April 1979 to discuss a BASIC for Sinclair's new computer concept. Sinclair was inspired to make a new machine after watching his son enjoy their TRS-80, but that machine's £500 price tag appeared to be a serious limit on its popularity. He wanted a new kit that would expand on their previous MK14 and feature a built-in BASIC at the target price of £79.95. To meet this price point, the machine would ship with only 1 kB of RAM and 4 kB of ROM. Grant suggested using the Forth language instead, but the budget precluded this. Grant wrote the BASIC interpreter between June and July 1979, but the code initially came in at 5 kB and he spent the next month trimming it down. It was initially an incomplete implementation of the 1978 American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Minimal BASIC standard with integer arithmetic only, termed 4K BASIC.
Even before the ZX80 was introduced in February 1980, the constant downward price-pressure in the industry was allowing the already inexpensive design to be further reduced in complexity and cost. In particular, many of the separate circuits in the ZX80 were re-implemented in a single uncommitted logic array from Ferranti, which allowed the price to be reduced to only £49.95 while increasing the size of the ROM to 8 kB. This work was assigned to Steve Vickers, who joined Nine Tiles in January 1980. Whilst Grant worked on the code interfacing with hardware, Vickers used the larger space to introduce floating-point arithmetic and a suite of trig functions, which were expected of any BASIC from that era, producing 8K BASIC. The initial version did not support the ZX Printer and had a bug in its square root function. Nine Tiles provided a new version to address these, but Sinclair was slow to include the new version in the ROMs. The new ROMs were eventually offered to owners of the earlier ZX80 as well.
When Sinclair lost the contest to build the BBC Computer, he moved ahead with plans to produce a low-cost color-capable machine that emerged as the ZX Spectrum of April 1982. ROM space would once again be increased, this time to 16 kB. In keeping with his philosophy of making systems for the lowest possible expenditure, Sinclair wanted the absolute minimum changes to the existing 8K BASIC. Although Nine Tiles felt that something much better would be needed for the new machine, the schedule would not allow it, and yet another expansion of the original code was produced. Due to the RAM also being increased, to 48 kB, this version was known as 48K BASIC and eventually 48 BASIC with the introduction of the ZX Spectrum 128 at which time the 16 KB Spectrum was no longer sold and most existing ones in use had been upgraded to 48 KB. The new version was available near the end of 1981, but it was "depressingly slow" and "snail like". Additionally, as no prototypes were available until the end of the year, it lacked support for the new line of peripherals Sinclair was planning.
In February 1982, Nine Tiles began to have disagreements with Sinclair over owed royalties for the various manuals that Nine Tiles had produced. Around the same time, Vickers and his Sinclair counterpart, Richard Altwasser, left their respective companies to start the Jupiter Ace project. When the Spectrum was launched the ROM was still not complete, and although Nine Tiles continued working on it until April 1982, by that point 75,000 Spectrums had already been sold and the project was cancelled. The missing functionality was later added by additional code in the ZX Interface 1. After Nine Tiles and Sinclair went their own ways, several new versions of 48 BASIC were created.
In 1983, as part of introducing the Spectrum to the US market as the TS2068, Timex modified it as T/S 2000 BASIC. The new version was incapable of running many Spectrum programs due to the memory location of machine's functions moving. A similar, but somewhat more compatible version, was introduced as part of the Spanish Spectrum 128 of 1985, 128 BASIC.
Amstrad purchased Sinclair Research in 1986. As Sinclair had never owned the copyright to the language, Amstrad had to arrange a new license with Nine Tiles. Several other versions also appeared in this period as various extensions and clones of the Spectrum were introduced. These included +3 BASIC, BASIC64 and Timex Extended Basic.
As of 2015, interpreters exist for modern operating systems, and older systems, that allow Sinclair Basic to be used easily.
Description
Program editing
Like most home computer BASICs, Sinclair BASIC is anchored around its line editor. When the machine is booted, it runs BASIC and displays an inverse video "K" at the bottom of the screen to indicate the entry point. When a line is entered and the key is pressed, it either runs immediately if it does not have a line number prefix, or clears the screen and performs the equivalent of a command, placing a ">" cursor after the line number in the most recently entered line.
In contrast to most machines of the era, the editor did not allow freeform editing at any point on the screen. Instead, when the user presses the current line of code is copied back to the bottom of the screen. The user can move horizontally through this line using the cursor keys and commits their changes by pressing again. In contrast, on common machines like the Commodore 64 or Atari 400, the up and down keys could be used to move among the lines in the program and edit them in-place.
The most notable feature of the editor was that keywords were entered using single keystrokes. For instance, on the ZX81, the key on the keyboard would cause the entire keyword to be entered into the currently editing line. Once a keyword has been entered, the cursor changes to an "L" to indicate what follows will be interpreted as normal text. For instance, pressing again at this point would enter a single letter, "P".
Keys generally had two separate keywords assigned to them, one above it and one below. Pressing the key in "K" mode would enter the keyword above the key, like for P. If the system was in "L" mode, one could return to "K" by pressing the shift key - the systems did not initially support lowercase text, so the shift was not otherwise needed. The keywords below the keys required a second keystroke, , which put the editor into "function mode", changing the cursor to an "F". Entering common code often resulted in a significant number of keystrokes.
The system had the advantage of representing all multi-character keywords as a single character in memory, which was a significant savings in the early machines that shipped with only 1 kB of RAM. This single-character representation included multi-character items like . This has the added advantages of simplifying the runtime, as it can immediately determine whether a character in the source code is a keyword or text, and also means that keywords are never entered directly, meaning that one can, for instance, have a variable named "PRINT" as the system can determine that it is not the same as the keyword.
As the systems evolved and added new keywords, the entry system became increasingly difficult to use. 48 BASIC in the Spectrum required every key to host up to four keywords. Entering keywords was a time consuming process of looking over the relatively small type on the keyboard for the appropriate key, and then correctly entering the multiple keystrokes needed to enter it properly. For instance, entering required one to type to access extended mode (later models include a separate key), keeping held down, and then and pressing . To improve the complex entry on the Spectrum, the keywords were colour-coded to indicate the required mode:
: key only
on the key itself: plus the key
above the key: followed by the key
below the key: followed by plus the key
This concept had run its course and later machines running 128 BASIC, ZX Spectrum 128, +2, +3, +2A, and +2B, featured a more traditional editor where the user typed in the keyword as individual characters, similar to other home computers of the era. This required a new tokenizer to convert the line into a similar internal format.
The resulting in-memory storage of the program was otherwise similar to Microsoft BASIC, in that only the keywords are presented as tokens, while non-keywords - like string and numeric constants and variable names, are left in their original typed-in format. However, that typed-in format was not ASCII, but an internal character code that contains both printable characters and the keyword tokens. Although portions of the table are in the same order as in ASCII, the capital letters A to Z for instance, but are at different numeric values, while other portions, like punctuation, have been moved about.
Data types
One uncommon feature of Sinclair BASIC is the way it stores variables in memory. Typically, interpreters will use a fixed-size entry to hold data, making it easy to scan the variable table. Due to the extremely limited memory of the ZX series, any wasted space had to be avoided, and this led to the use of a variable-length format. The data types included numbers stored in a 5-byte values, strings with a length and then the characters, and arrays of both of those types. The data was stored in the table itself, which contrasts with most BASICs of the era, where strings and array entries were stored in a separate heap.
The first byte for a variable entry always held the type in the first three bits, and the first character of the name in the next five bits. As was the case in most microcomputer dialects, A, A$, A() and A$() were all different variables, and could store different values. Most variables could only have a single-character name; the exception are numeric variables (not arrays), where an alternate format held the first character of the name in those same five bits, but was then followed by additional characters ending with one with its high-bit set. Long variable names were whitespace independent, and case insensitive in later versions, so LET Number Of Apples = 5 is the same as LET numberofapples = 5 referred to the same variable.
The downside to this approach is that scanning the table to look up the value of a variable reference is more complex. In addition to testing whether the name matches using the subset of the first byte, if the entry is not the one that is being looked for, the type has to be read from the upper three bits and then the next location of a variable in storage calculated using the type. For instance, if the program encounters the variable "A" and the table starts with the entry for "B$", it fails to match A with B, then reads the type to see it is a string, and then has to read the following length byte and skip forward by that amount of bytes to find the next entry in the table. To make this somewhat easier, arrays also stored a two-byte length so the entire structure could be skipped over more easily.
A unique feature was the "short float", or integer type. Any numeric variable could store either type, the storage itself did not change and used 5 bytes in either case. Integers were indicated by setting the exponent byte to zero, while floating point values were stored with an Excess-128 format exponent. This meant that it could not store zero as a float, and lost one possible exponent magnitude. It also did not use any less memory, as the values were still 5-bytes in memory. The advantage to this format is performance; the math library included tests to look for the zero exponent, and if it was seen, it would not attempt to perform various operations on the remaining 3 bytes under certain conditions.
Keyword details
The ZX81 8K BASIC used the shorter forms GOTO, GOSUB, CONT and RAND, whereas the Spectrum 48 BASIC used the longer forms GO TO, GO SUB, CONTINUE and RANDOMIZE. The ZX80 4K BASIC also used these longer forms but differed by using the spelling RANDOMISE. The ZX81 8K BASIC was the only version to use FAST, SCROLL, SLOW and UNPLOT. The ZX80 4K BASIC had the exclusive function TL$(); it was equivalent to the string operator in later versions.
Unique code points are assigned in the ZX80 character set, ZX81 character set and ZX Spectrum character set for each keyword or multi-character operator, i.e. <=, >=, <>, "" (tokenized on the ZX81 only), ** (replaced with ↑ on the Spectrum). These are expanded by referencing a token table in ROM. Thus, a keyword uses one byte of memory only, a significant saving over traditional letter-by-letter storage. This also meant that the BASIC interpreter could quickly determine any command or function by evaluating one byte, and that the keywords need not be reserved words like in other BASIC dialects or other programming languages, e.g., it is allowed to define a variable named PRINT and output its value with PRINT PRINT. This is also related to the syntax requirement that every line start with a command keyword, and pressing the one keypress for that command at the start of a line changes the editor from command mode to letter mode. Thus, variable assignment requires LET (i.e., LET a=1 not only a=1). This practice is also different from other BASIC dialects. Further, it meant that unlike other BASIC dialects, the interpreter needed no parentheses to identify functions; SIN x was sufficient, no SIN(x) needed (though the latter was allowed). The 4K BASIC ROM of the ZX80 had a short list of exceptions to this: the functions CHR$(), STR$(), TL$(), PEEK(), CODE(), RND(), USR() and ABS() did not have one-byte tokens but were typed in letter-by-letter and required the parentheses. They were listed as the INTEGRAL FUNCTIONS on a label above and to the right of the keyboard.
128 BASIC, present on ZX Spectrum 128, +2, +3, +2A, and +2B, stored keywords internally in one-byte code points, but used a conventional letter-by-letter BASIC input system. It also introduced two new commands:
PLAY, which operated the 128k models' General Instrument AY-3-8910 music chip
SPECTRUM, which switched the 128k Spectrum into a 48k Spectrum compatibility mode
The original Spanish ZX Spectrum 128 included four additional BASIC editor commands in Spanish, one of which was undocumented:
EDITAR (to edit a line number or invoke the full screen string editor)
NUMERO (to renumber the program lines)
BORRAR (to delete program lines)
ANCHO (to set the column width of the RS-232 device, but undocumented as the code was broken)
Unlike the LEFT$(), MID$() and RIGHT$() functions used in the ubiquitous Microsoft BASIC dialects for home computers, parts of strings in Sinclair BASIC are accessed by numeric range. For example, gives a substring starting with the 5th and ending with the 10th character of the variable a$. Thus, it is possible to replace the LEFT$() and RIGHT$() commands by simply omitting the left or right array position respectively; for example is equivalent to LEFT$(a$,5). Further, a$(5) alone is enough to replace MID$(a$,5,1).
Syntax
Keywords
On the 16K/48K ZX Spectrum (48 BASIC), there are 88 keywords in Sinclair BASIC, denoting commands (of which there are 50), functions and logical operators (31), and other keywords (16, including 9 which are also commands or functions):
Official versions
4K BASIC
4K BASIC for ZX80 (so named for residing in 4 KiB read-only memory (ROM)), was developed by John Grant of Nine Tiles for the ZX80. It has integer-only arithmetic.
System Commands: NEW RUN LIST LOAD SAVE
Control Statements: GOTO IF THEN GOSUB STOP RETURN FOR TO NEXT CONTINUE
Input/Output Statements: PRINT INPUT
Assignment Statement: LET
Other Statements: CLEAR CLS DIM REM RANDOMIZE POKE
8K BASIC
8K BASIC is the ZX81 BASIC (also available as an upgrade for the ZX80), updated with floating-point arithmetic by Steve Vickers, so named for residing in 8 KiB ROM.
Statements: PRINT RAND LET CLEAR RUN LIST GOTO CONT INPUT NEW REM PRINT STOP BREAK IF STOP FOR NEXT TO STEP SLOW FAST GOSUB RETURN SAVE LOAD CLS SCROLL PLOT UNPLOT PAUSE LPRINT LLIST COPY DIM POKE NEW
Functions: ABS SGN SIN COS TAN ASN ACS ATN LN EXP SQR INT PI RND FUNCTION LEN VALSTR$ NOT CODE CHR$ INKEY$ AT TAB INKEY$ PEEK USR
48 BASIC
48 BASIC is the BASIC for the original 16/48 KB RAM ZX Spectrum (and clones), with colour and more peripherals added by Steve Vickers and John Grant. It resides in 16 KB ROM and began to be called 48 BASIC with the introduction of the ZX Spectrum 128 at which time the 16 KB Spectrum was no longer sold and most existing ones in use had been upgraded to 48 KB.
128 BASIC
128 BASIC is the BASIC for the ZX Spectrum 128. It offers extra commands and uses letter-by-letter input.
New commands: LOAD ! SAVE ! MERGE ! ERASE ! PLAY SPECTRUM
+3 BASIC
+3 BASIC is the BASIC with disk support for the ZX Spectrum +3 and +2A.
New commands: FORMAT COPY
T/S 2000 BASIC
T/S 2000 BASIC is used on the Spectrum-compatible Timex Sinclair 2068 (T/S 2068) and adds the following six new keywords:
DELETE deletes BASIC program line ranges.
FREE is a function that gives the amount of free RAM. PRINT FREE will show how much RAM is free.
ON ERR is an error-handling function mostly used as ON ERR GO TO or ON ERR CONT.
RESET can be used to reset the behaviour of ON ERR. It was also intended to reset peripherals.
SOUND controls the AY-3-8192 sound chip.
STICK is a function that gives the position of the internal joystick (Timex Sinclair 2090).
BASIC64
BASIC64 by Timex of Portugal, is a software extension to allow better Basic programming with the 512×192 and dual display areas graphic modes available only on Timex Sinclair computers. This extension adds commands and does a complete memory remap to avoid the system overwriting the extended screen memory area. Two versions exist due to different memory maps - a version for TC 2048 and a version for T/S 2068 and TC 2068.
PRINT # Prints to a specific output channel.
LIST # Lists the program to a specific output channel.
CLS* Clears both display areas.
INK* Sets ink colour for both display areas
PAPER* Sets paper colour both display areas
SCREEN$ Selects the high / normal resolution modes.
PLOT* Plots a pixel and updates the drawing position.
LINE Draws a line from the previous PLOT position, supporting arc drawing
CIRCLE* Draws a circle or oval, depending on screen mode.
Timex Extended Basic
Timex Extended Basic by Timex of Portugal is used on the Timex Computer 3256, adding TEC - Timex Extended Commands commands supporting the AY-3-8912 sound chip, RS-232 network and the 512x192 pixel high resolution graphic mode.
RAM drive commands: LOAD! SAVE! CAT! MERGE! ERASE! CLEAR!
RS-232 commands: FORMAT! LPRINT LLIST
AY-3-8912 commands: BEEP!
512x192 resolution commands: SCREEN$ DRAW! PLOT! CIRCLE!
Other versions, extensions, derivatives and successors
Interpreters for the ZX Spectrum family
Several ZX Spectrum interpreters exist.
Beta BASIC by Dr. Andy Wright, was originally a BASIC extension, but became a full interpreter.
YS MegaBasic by Mike Leaman.
ZebraOS by Zebra Systems in New York, a cartridge version of T/S 2000 BASIC that used the 512×192 screen mode.
Sea Change ROM by Steve Vickers and Ian Logan, modified by Geoff Wearmouth, a replacement ROM with an enhanced Sinclair BASIC.
Gosh Wonderful by Geoff Wearmouth, a replacement ROM that fixes bugs and adds a tokenizer, stream lister, delete and renumber commands.
OpenSE BASIC (formerly SE BASIC) by Andrew Owen, a replacement ROM with bug fixes and many enhancements including ULAplus support, published as open source in 2011
Compilers for the ZX Spectrum family
Several ZX Spectrum compilers exist.
HiSoft COLT Compiler (a.k.a. HiSoft COLT Integer Compiler)
HiSoft BASIC (a.k.a. HiSoft BASIC Compiler), an integer and floating-point capable compiler
Laser Compiler
Softek 'IS' Integer Compiler (successor to Softek Integer Compiler)
Softek 'FP' Full Compiler
ZIP Compiler
Derivatives and successors for other computers
SuperBASIC, a much more advanced BASIC dialect introduced with the Sinclair QL personal computer, with some similarities to the earlier Sinclair BASICs
SAM Basic, the BASIC on the SAM Coupé, generally considered a ZX Spectrum clone
ROMU6 by Cesar and Juan Hernandez - MSX
Spectrum 48 by Whitby Computers - Commodore 64
Sparky eSinclair BASIC by Richard Kelsh, an operating system loosely based on ZX Spectrum BASIC - Zilog eZ80
Sinbas by Pavel Napravnik - DOS
Basic (and CheckBasic) by Philip Kendall - Unix
BINSIC by Adrian McMenamin, a reimplementation in Groovy closely modelled on ZX81 BASIC - Java
BASin by Paul Dunn, a complete Sinclair BASIC integrated development environment (IDE) based on a ZX Spectrum emulator - Windows
SpecBAS (a.k.a. SpecOS) by Paul Dunn, an integrated development environment (IDE) providing an enhanced superset of Sinclair BASIC - Windows, Linux, Pandora, and Raspberry Pi
ZX-Basicus by Juan-Antonio Fernández-Madrigal, a synthesizer, analyzer, optimizer, interpreter and debugger of Sinclair BASIC 48K for PCs, freely downloadable for Linux and Windows.
See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Sinclair ZX Spectrum BASIC Programming: The original 1982 manual by Steven Vickers (referenced above)
Sinclair ZX81 Basic Programming : also by Vickers
The History of Sinclair BASIC: By Andrew Owen
Timex Computer World: Basic 64 user manual for Timex Computer 2048
Sinclair BASIC grammar: A LL(1) grammar specification for parsing Sinclair BASIC 16/48K
ZX Spectrum
Sinclair Research
BASIC interpreters
Discontinued BASICs
BASIC programming language family
ZX80
ZX81
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice%20Benyovszky
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Maurice Benyovszky
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Count Maurice Benyovszky de Benyó et Urbanó (; ; ; 20 September 1746 – 24 May 1786) was a renowned military officer, adventurer, and writer from the Kingdom of Hungary, who described himself as both a Hungarian and a Pole. He is considered a national hero in Hungary, Poland, and Slovakia.
Benyovszky was born and raised in Verbó, Kingdom of Hungary (present-day Vrbové, Slovakia). In 1769, while fighting for the Polish armies under the Bar Confederation, he was captured by the Russians and exiled to Kamchatka. He subsequently escaped and returned to Europe via Macau and Mauritius, arriving in France. In 1773, Benyovszky reached agreement with the French government to establish a trading post on Madagascar. Facing significant problems with the climate, the terrain, and the native Sakalava people, he abandoned the trading post in 1776.
Benyovszky then returned to Europe, joined the Austrian Army and fought in the War of the Bavarian Succession. After a failed venture in Fiume (present-day Rijeka), he travelled to America and obtained financial backing for a second voyage to Madagascar. The French governor of Mauritius sent a small armed force to close down his operation, and Benyovszky was killed in May 1786.
In 1790, Benyovszky's posthumous and largely fictitious account of his adventures, entitled Memoirs and Travels of Mauritius Augustus Count de Benyowsky, Volume 1 and Volume 2 was published to great success.
Biography
Benyovszky's autobiographical Memoirs of 1790 makes many claims about his life. Critics from 1790 onwards have shown that many of these are either false or are highly questionable. Not the least is Benyovszky's opening statement that he was born in 1741, rather than 1746 – a birth-date which allowed him to claim having fought in the Seven Years' War with the rank of lieutenant and having studied navigation. The following biographical account includes only those facts which are (or could yet be) corroborated by other sources. It should also be noted here that, although Benyovszky freely used the titles "Baron" and "Count" for himself throughout his Memoirs and in correspondence up to 1776, he was never a "Baron" (his mother was the daughter of one) and he only became a "Count" in 1778.
Early years
Maurice Benyovszky was born on 20 September 1746 in the town of Verbó (present-day Vrbové near Trnava, Slovakia). He was baptised under the Latin names Mattheus Mauritius Michal Franciscus Seraphinus (Hungarian: Máté Móric Mihály Ferenc Szerafin). The additional name Augustus (Ágost) may also have been given, but this is not clear on his baptismal record.
Maurice was the son of Sámuel Benyovszky, who came from Turóc County in the Kingdom of Hungary (today partially Turiec region, in present-day Slovakia) and is said to have served as a colonel in the Hussars of the Austrian Army. His mother, Rozália Révay, was the daughter of a baron from the noble Hungarian Révay family; she was the great-granddaughter of Péter Révay, and the daughter of Count Boldizsár Révay de Szklabina. When she married Sámuel Benyovszky, she was the widow of an army general (Josef Pestvarmegyey, d.1743).
Maurice was the eldest of four children born to Sámuel and Rozália: he had one sister, Márta, and two brothers, Ferenc (1753–?) and Emánuel (1755–1799). Both brothers followed military careers. In addition, there were three step-sisters and one step-brother, born to Rozália from her previous marriage – Theresia (1735–1763), Anna (b. pre-1743), Borbála (b. 1740), and Peter (b. 1743).
Maurice spent his childhood in the Benyovszky mansion in Verbó and studied from 1759 to 1760 at the Piarist College in Szentgyörgy (present-day Svätý Jur), a suburb of Pressburg (present-day Bratislava). When both his parents died in 1760, the family home and estate was the subject of litigation between the two sets of siblings.
Marriage and military service
In 1765 Benyovszky occupied his mother's property in Hrusó (present-day Hrušové) near Verbó, which had been legally inherited by one of his step-brothers-in-law. This action led his mother's family to file a criminal complaint against him, and he was called to stand trial in Nyitra (present-day Nitra). Before the conclusion of the trial, Benyovszky fled to Poland to join his uncle, Jan Tibor Benyowski de Benyo, a Polish nobleman. His flight violated a legal edict forbidding him to leave the country.
He was arrested in July 1768 in Szepesszombat (present-day Spišská Sobota), a suburb of Poprád (present-day Poprad) in the house of a German butcher named Hönsch for trying to organize a Confederation of Bar militia. Shortly after his arrest, Benyovszky was briefly imprisoned in the nearby Stará Ľubovňa castle. At around this time, he married the daughter of this butcher, Anna Zusanna Hönsch (1750–1826). A child, Samuel, was born to this marriage on 9 December 1768 (d. Poprad, 22 September 1772.)
Three other children later came from this marriage: Charles Maurice Louis Augustus (b.1774?, Madagascar?, d. 11 July 1774, Madagascar); Roza (b. 1 January 1779, Beczko, Hungary; d. 26 October 1816, Vieszka, Hungary); and Zsofia, (b. after 1779).
Prisoner-of-war in Siberia
This period of Benyovszky's life has only been documented by Benyovszky himself, in his autobiographical Memoirs. There exists no independent verification of his life in the period between July 1768 and September 1770.
In July 1768, Benyovszky travelled to Poland to join the patriotic forces of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, who had organised resistance in the Confederation of Bar (Konfederacja Barska), a movement in rebellion against Polish king Stanisław August Poniatowski, lately installed by Russia. In April 1769, he was captured by the Russian forces near Ternopil in the Ukraine, imprisoned in the town of Polonne, before being transferred to Kiev in July, and finally to Kazan in September. An escape attempt from Kazan brought him to St Petersburg in November, where he was recaptured and sent to the far east of Siberia as a prisoner. In the company of several other exiles and prisoners – most notably the Swede August Winbladh, and the Russian army-officers Vasilii Panov, Asaf Baturin and Ippolit Stepanov, all of whom played a major role in Benyovszky's life in the next two years – he reached Bolsheretsk, at that time the administrative capital of Kamchatka, in September 1770.
Escape from Kamchatka
Over the next few months, Benyovszky and Stepanov, along with other exiles and disaffected residents of Kamchatka, organised an escape. From the list of those who participated in the escape (70 men, women, and children), it is evident that the majority were not prisoners or exiles of any sort, but just ordinary working people of Kamchatka. At the start of May, an armed uprising by the group overcame the garrison of Bolsheretsk, during which the commander, Grigorii Nilov, was killed. The supply ship St Peter and St Paul, which had been overwintering in Kamchatka, was seized and loaded with furs and provisions. On 23 May (Old Style: 12 May), the ship set sail from the mouth of the Bolsha River, and headed southwards.
Benyovszky's Memoirs state that the route taken by the ship, having rounded the southernmost point of Kamchatka, was generally north and eastwards, taking in Bering Island, the Bering Strait, Alaska, and the Aleutian Islands. However, in the time available (four weeks according to Benyovszky's own account), this 6000-mile itinerary is barely credible for a leaky ship and inexperienced crew. Such a route is completely absent from three other separate accounts of the voyage (by Ippolit Stepanov, Ivan Ryumin, and Gerasim Izmailov). Additionally, some of the events described by Benyovszky are so implausible that the entire voyage in this area must be considered a fiction.
The ship landed at the island of Simushir in the Kuril Islands chain, and stayed there between 29 May and 9 June to bake bread and take stock of their supplies and cargo. During this time, the sailor Izmailov who was judged to be organising a mutiny and two other Kamchatkans were left on the island when the ship finally sailed southwards. Izmailov subsequently carved out a career as an explorer and trader in the Aleutians and the Alaskan coast, providing information to Captain James Cook in the summer of 1778.
Their next known port of call was at Sakinohama on the island of Shikoku in Japan, where they rested between 19 and 23 July, and in the following days at Oshima island in Awa Province. Here the voyagers managed to trade with villagers, despite this being expressly forbidden by the Japanese authorities.
Taiwan
At the end of July, they landed on Amami-Oshima in the Ryükyü islands, where they also traded successfully. At the end of August they arrived on the island of Formosa (present-day Taiwan), probably at Black Rock Bay, where three of the voyagers were killed during a fight with native islanders.
According to a 1790 English translation of the Memoirs, an eighteen-person party landed on Taiwan's eastern shores in 1771. They met a few people and asked them for food. They were taken to a village and fed rice, pork, lemons, and oranges. They were offered a few knives. While making their way back to the ship, they were hit by arrows. The party fired back and killed six attackers. Near their ship, they were ambushed again by 60 warriors. They defeated their attackers and captured five of them. Benyovszky wanted to leave but his associates insisted on staying. A larger landing party rowed ashore a day later and were met by 50 unarmed locals. The party headed to the village and slaughtered 200 locals while eleven of the party members were injured. They then left and headed north with the guidance of locals.
Upon reaching a "beautiful harbor" they met Don Hieronemo Pacheco, a Spaniard who had been living among the aborigines for seven to eight years. The locals were grateful toward Benyovszky for killing the villagers, who they considered their enemies. Pacheco told Benyovszky that the western side of the island was ruled by the Chinese but the rest was independent or inhabited by aborigines. Pacheco told Benyovszky that it would take very little to conquer the island and drive out the Chinese. On the third day, Benyovszky was calling the harbor "Port Maurice" after himself. Conflict broke out again as the party was fetching fresh water and three members were killed. The party executed their remaining prisoners and slaughtered a boatful of the enemies. By the end, they had killed 1,156 and captured 60 aborigines. They were visited by a prince named Huapo who believed Benyovszky was prophesied to free them from the "Chinese yoke." With Benyovszky's arms, Huapo then defeated his Chinese aligned foes. Huapo gifted Benyovszky's crew with gold and other valuables to try to get them to stay but Benyovszky wanted to go so that he could see his wife and son.
There are reasons to suspect this account of events is either exaggerated or fabricated. Benyovszky's exploits have been questioned by several experts over the years. Ian Inkster's "Orientat Enlightenment: The Problematic Military Claims of Count Maurice Auguste Conte de Benyowsky in Formosa during 1771" criticizes the Taiwan section specifically. The population of Taiwan given by Benyovszky's account is inconsistent with estimates of that time. The stretch of coast he visited likely only had 6,000 to 10,000 inhabitants but somehow the prince was able to gather 25,000 warriors to fight 12,000 enemies. Even in Father de Mailla's account of Taiwan in 1715, in which he portrayed the Chinese in a very negative manner, and spoke of the entire east being in rebellion against the west, the aborigines were still unable to put up a fighting force of more than 30 or 40 armed with arrows and javelins. Huaco was also mentioned to have nearly 100 horsemen while having 68 to spare for the European party's use. Horses were introduced to Taiwan starting in the Dutch period but it is highly unlikely that aborigines of the northeast coast had acquired so many that they could train them for large scale warfare. In other 18th century accounts, it was mentioned that horses were in such scarce supply that Chinese oxen were used as substitutes.
Macao
Then they sailed to the Chinese mainland, at Dongshan Island. Following the coast down from there, they finally arrived at Macao on 22 September 1771.
Shortly after their arrival in Macao, 15 of the voyagers died, most likely from the effects of malnutrition. Benyovszky took responsibility for selling the ship and all the furs they had loaded at Kamchatka, and then negotiated with the various European trading establishments for passage back to Europe. In late January 1772, two French ships took the survivors away from Macao. Some of them (13) stopped on the island of Mauritius, others died en route (8), and the remainder (26) landed at the French port of Lorient in July.
First expedition to Madagascar
Benyovszky managed to get a passport to enter the mainland of France and he departed almost immediately for Paris, leaving his companions behind. Over the next months, he toured the ministries and salons of Paris, hoping to persuade someone to fund a trading expedition to one of the several places he claimed to have visited. Eventually, he managed to convince the French Foreign Minister d'Aiguillon and the Navy Secretary de Boynes to fund an expedition of Benyovszky and a large group of ‘Benyovszky Volunteers’, to set up a French colony on Madagascar.
This expedition arrived in Madagascar in November 1773 and were fully established there by the end of March 1774. They set up a trading-post at Antongil on the east coast and began to negotiate with the islanders for cattle and other supplies. It does not appear to have gone well, since the explorer Kerguelen arrived there shortly afterwards to discover that the Malagasy claimed Benyovszky was at war with them: supplies were therefore hard to come by. A ship which called in at Antongil in July 1774 reported that 180 of the original 237 ordinary ‘Volunteers’ had died, and 12 of their 22 officers, all taken by sickness. A year later, despite reinforcements, personnel numbers were still dwindling.
Benyovszky's Memoirs state that a son (Charles) was born to him and his wife Anna at some point during 1773 or 1774, and that the son died of fever in July 1774, though this is not verified anywhere else.
Despite these setbacks, over the following two years, Benyovszky sent back to Paris positive reports of his advances in Madagascar, along with requests for more funding, supplies, and personnel. The French authorities and traders on Mauritius, meanwhile, were also writing to Paris, complaining of the problems which Benyovszky was causing for their own trade with Madagascar. In September 1776, Paris sent out two government inspectors to see what Benyovszky had achieved. Their report was damning – little remained of any of the roads, hospitals or trading-posts of which Benyovszky had boasted. Benyovszky's own journal of events upon Madagascar suggests great successes against a recalcitrant people, who eventually proclaimed him to be their supreme chief and King (Ampansacabe); however, this sits at odds with his own reports (and those of the inspectors) of unceasing troubles and minor wars against those same people. In December 1776, just after the government inspectors had departed, Benyovszky left Madagascar. Following the arrival of the inspectors’ report in Paris, the few surviving ‘Benyovszky Volunteers’ were disbanded in May 1778 and the trading post was eventually dismantled by order of the French government in June 1779.
Europe and America
After leaving Madagascar, Benyovszky arrived back in France in April 1777. He managed to be granted a medal (Order of St Louis) and considerable amounts of money in back-pay, and lobbied the ministers for more money and resources for a different development plan for Madagascar. When this plan was turned down, he then petitioned Empress Maria Theresa of Austria for a pardon (for having fled Hungary for Poland in 1768) and made his way to Hungary where he received the title of ‘Count’ (a title he had been misusing, along with ‘Baron’, for several years before). In July 1778 he joined the Austrian forces fighting in the War of the Bavarian Succession – in which his brother Emanuel was also fighting – and then in early 1780 he formed a plan to develop the port of Fiume (present-day Rijeka) as a major trading-port for Hungary. He was here until the end of 1781, when he abandoned the project, leaving behind several large debts. He then made his way to the United States and, with a recommendation from Benjamin Franklin, whom he had met in Paris, attempted to persuade George Washington to fund a militia under Benyovszky's leadership, to fight in the American War of Independence. (His brother Ferenc was also at that time in America, fighting as a mercenary against the British). Washington remained unconvinced, and Benyovszky then returned to Europe, arriving in Britain in late 1783. Here he submitted a proposal to the British government for a colony on Madagascar, but was again turned down. Instead he managed to persuade the Royal Society of London luminary Jean Hyacinthe de Magellan to fund an independent expedition; in return, Magellan received full publishing rights over the manuscript of Benyovszky's Memoirs, and the grand title of ‘European Plenipotentiary’ for Benyovszky's new trading company. In September 1783, Benyovszky also acquired a document signed by Emperor Joseph II of Austria, which gave Benyovszky Austrian protection for the exploitation and government of Madagascar.
Second expedition to Madagascar
In April 1784, Benyovszky and several trading partners sailed to America, where a contract was agreed to with two Baltimore traders, Zollichofer and Meissonier. The deal was for monetary investment in return for a regular supply of slaves. In October of that year, the ship Intrepid sailed for Madagascar, arriving near Cap St Sebastien in north-west of the island, June 1785. Here the expedition was met with aggression from the Sakalava people; Benyovszky and a number of others were captured and disappeared, presumed dead. The surviving members of the company sailed for Mozambique, sold the ship and dispersed.
In January 1786, however, Benyovszky was reported to be alive and operating at Angonsty (near modern-day Ambohitralanana). Anxious about another disruption to trade, François de Souillac, the French governor of Mauritius waited for fair winds and then sent a small military force over to Madagascar to deal with Benyovszky. On 23 or 24 May 1786, Benyovszky was ambushed and killed by these troops, and was buried on the site of his encampment. (Most biographies cite 23 May based on the statement by Benyovszky's 1790 editor William Nicholson, but French sources documented by Prosper Cultru cite 24 May.)
The Warsaw newspaper Gazeta Warszawska, in its edition of 1 December 1787, reported that the famous Hungarian Baron Beniowski, who was said so many times to have died, was at that time in Vienna, where he had come from Istanbul. However, since there is no further report of Benyovszky being alive, this report was most likely a false rumour or misunderstanding.
Legacy
Much of what Benyovszky claimed to have done in Poland, Kamchatka, Japan, Formosa, and Madagascar is questionable at best, but in any case has left no lasting traces in the history of war, exploration, or colonialism. His legacy resides largely in his autobiography (Memoirs and Travels of Mauritius Augustus Count de Benyowsky), which was published in two volumes in 1790 by friends of Magellan, who was by then, as a result of the failed Malagasy venture, in serious financial difficulties. Even at the time of the first publication of the book, it was met with significant scepticism by reviewers. Despite this criticism, it was a great publishing success, and has since been translated into several languages; (German 1790, 1791, 1796, 1797; Dutch 1791; French 1791; Swedish 1791; Polish 1797; Slovak 1808; and Hungarian 1888).
The Kamchatkan portion of Memoirs was adapted into a number of successful plays and operas (plays by Kotzebue 1792 and Vulpius 1794 and Operas by Boieldieu 1800 and Doppler 1847) which were performed in suitable translation all over Europe and America. The Polish national bard Juliusz Słowacki published a poem about him in 1841. More recently, films and television series have been made – a Slovak-Hungarian television series in 1975 (Vivát Benyovszky!, director: Igor Ciel), “Die unfreiwilligen Reisen des Moritz August Benjowski“ (a television series in four episodes, director: Helmut Pigge, aired by the German ZDF in 1975), a documentary for Hungarian TV in 2009 (Benyovszky Móric és a malgasok földje, director: Zsolt Cseke), and a Hungarian film Benyovszky, the Rebel Count of 2012 (director Irina Stanciulescu).
In Hungary, Slovakia and Poland he is still celebrated as a significant national hero. A Hungarian-Malagasy Friendship organisation promotes the links between Benyovszky and Madagascar, arranges conferences and other meetings, and maintains a website dedicated to the celebration of Benyovszky's life.
The Polish writer Arkady Fiedler visited Madagascar in 1937, spent several months in the town of Ambinanitelo and later wrote a popular travel book describing his experiences. In it, he gives a romanticised version of Benyovszky's career. Fiedler appears to have made an effort to find out if Benyovszky was still remembered by the island's people – with mixed results. In fact his name did survive in Madagascar – in recent years, a street in the island capital Antananarivo was renamed 'Lalana Benyowski'.
Notes/Citations
Further reading
External links
Website (in English) containing background materials and links to other resources relevant to Benyovszky's life. Last accessed 24 Oct 2017
Website run by the Hungarian-Madagascan Friendship Society and dedicated to Benyovszky (in Hungarian). Last accessed 24 Oct 2017
Image of Maurice Benyovszky’s baptismal record. Last accessed 26 Sep 2018
Details of the 2015 film of Benyovszky’s life: ‘Benyovszky, the Rebel Count’ . Last accessed 26 Jul 2017
Digital version of Mor Jokai’s 1888 translation of Benyovszky’s Memoirs (in Hungarian) . Last accessed 24 Oct 2017
Benyovszky’s family tree (in Slovak). Last accessed 24 Oct 2017
Google Books digitisation of 1893 English edition of Volume 1 of Benyovszky’s Memoirs. Last accessed 25 Sep 2021
Google Books digitisation of 1790 English edition of Volume 2 of Benyovszky’s Memoirs. Last accessed 25 Sep 2021
Digitised version of 1908 Russian analysis by V.I.Stein of the escape from Kamchatka. Last accessed 24 Oct 2017
1746 births
1786 deaths
People from Vrbové
18th-century Hungarian people
18th-century Slovak people
18th-century Polish military personnel
Hungarian explorers
Hungarian nobility
Bar confederates
History of Madagascar
Order of Saint Louis recipients
Hungarian people of Slovak descent
Hungarian people of Polish descent
Slovak people of Polish descent
Hungarian expatriates in Poland
Hungarian expatriates in France
18th-century Polish nobility
Hungarian travel writers
Polish memoirists
People killed by armed forces
Violent deaths in Madagascar
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395562
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bowen%2C%20Queensland
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Bowen, Queensland
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Bowen is a coastal town and locality in the Whitsunday Region, Queensland, Australia. In the , the locality of Bowen had a population of 10,377 people.
The locality contains two other towns:
Heronvale ()
Merinda ().
The Abbot Point coal shipping port is also within the locality ().
Geography
Bowen is located on the north-east coast in North Queensland, at exactly twenty degrees south of the equator. Bowen is halfway between Townsville and Mackay, and by road from Brisbane.
Bowen sits on a square peninsula, with the Coral Sea to the north, east, and south. To the south-east is Port Denison and Edgecumbe Bay. On the western side, where the peninsula connects with the mainland, the Don River's alluvial plain provides fertile soil that supports a prosperous farming industry.
Merinda is a hinterland town west of the town of Bowen.
The Bruce Highway enters the locality from the east, approaches but does not enter the town of Bowen itself, but then turns west to pass through Merinda before exiting the locality to the north-west. The North Coast railway line follows a similar route, approaching the district from the south and served by the Bowen railway station located to the west of the town. After exiting the station, the line turns northwest over the Don river to its next major stop at Home Hill. At Merinda railway station, there is the junction with the Collinsville-Newlands railway line servicing the Bowen basin Coalfields. The Collinsville-Newlands line extends to the coal-handling port at Abbot Point, also within the locality of Bowen. The railway station servicing the port is the Abbot Point railway station.
Heronvale is a small coastal town by road south of the town of Bowen, accessed via the Bruce Highway and then Heronvale Road.
In the west of the locality is the Mount Aberdeen National Park.
Two of Bowen's main streets are named after officers of the British colonial paramilitary Native Police force. Powell Street is named after Lieutenant Walter David Taylor Powell and Williams Street is named after Lieutenant Ewan G. Williams.
History
Biri (also known as Birri) is a language of Central and North Queensland. Biri refers to a language chain extending from Central Queensland towards Townsville and is often used as a universal name for other languages and/or dialects across the region. The language area includes the towns of Bowen, Ayr, Collinsville and Nebo.
Yuru (also known as Juru, Euronbba, Juru, Mal Mal, Malmal) is an Australian Aboriginal language spoken on Yuru country. The Yuru language region includes the landscape within the local government boundaries of the Shire of Burdekin, including the town of Home Hill.
Captain James Cook named Cape Gloucester on his voyage of exploration up the Australian coast in 1770. This "cape" turned out to be an island, and Gloucester Island dominates the view from Bowen's eastern beaches. Behind the island is a bay that forms an excellent port, which the town came to be built around.
Shipwreck survivor, James Morrill, resided briefly in the area around the year 1850 with the local Aboriginal clan during his seventeen years living as a castaway.
In 1859 Captain Henry Daniel Sinclair led an expedition to the area in response to a reward offered by the colony of New South Wales for finding a port somewhere north of Rockhampton. They came across a "most splendid harbour" which Sinclair named Port Denison after the colonial governor of New South Wales, William Denison. On the shore they found "several acres of ground resembling a garden...full of a vegetable resembling nuts" which the local Aboriginal people had constructed.
On 11 September 1860, George Elphinstone Dalrymple on his naval excursion in the schooner Spitfire to search for the mouth of the Burdekin River, landed in Port Denison. He named and climbed Mount Gordon to survey the region and observed that a river (later named the Don River) traversed a valley just behind Port Denison and into the sea. This river was "lined with camps and bush fires of the natives" indicating "the locality to be very thickly inhabited". The Spitfire continued its exploration north to Magnetic Island, but the surveyors came to the conclusion that the northeastern shore of Port Denison was the most suitable site in the region for settlement especially as the large native wells present in a creek bed there could be utilised as a water supply. On 5 October, Dalrymple again came ashore to appropriate control of these wells. He wrote that:
Confident in having secured a beach-head, Dalrymple explored the immediate vicinity near the wells that was to become the town of Bowen. He found a large Aboriginal tomb in the hills behind the beach that was in the form of a raised mound covered in bark with its surroundings swept clean and the paths leading to it closed off with branches. A similar tomb was found on nearby Stone Island. After a few days, Dalrymple and his surveying party on the Spitfire returned south.
In 1861, George Elphinstone Dalrymple set out again for the area, leading an overland expedition from Rockhampton, complemented with a naval contingent to rendezvous at Port Denison and establish a permanent settlement. Dalrymple planned this two pronged entry into the area because 'a sudden cooperation of land and sea forces..would either strike terror, which would result in immediate flight, or enable a blow to be struck' against the local Aboriginal people of which many had been seen camped around the harbour. To facilitate this plan, Dalrymple travelled with Lieutenant Williams and six Native Police troopers, while Lieutenant Walter Powell and his troopers travelled on the ships. These ships were the Jeannie Dove and the Santa Barbara under the command of Capt. McDermott.
The maritime group arrived first and waited for Dalrymple's overland party by camping on Stone Island at the mouth of the harbour. Dalrymple's group, which included 140 horses and 121 cattle, arrived on 11 April 1861. He rode down to the area on the foreshore 'beside the native wells' (which was to be the water supply of the settlement) in order 'to clear off the aborigines from the same, should such be necessary' and to signal McDermott's group on Stone Island. The local Aboriginal people had already fled. The settlers on Stone Island then came over to the site and the town of Port Denison was founded. Dalrymple wrote that it was 'Deeply gratifying to me to see the British flag flying over the spot where..a few days ago, the wild aboriginal held undisputed sway', and that the settlement marked 'the advance of another great wave of Anglo-Australian energy'.
Within the first six weeks of colonisation, the Native Police and armed colonists conducted at least six operations against the Aboriginal people in the area, driving them off the land and also pursuing them by sea. In one of these missions, the whole available force in the town was utilised in an engagement where a large group of Aboriginal people were "speedily put to rout with a loss sufficient to teach them a severe and it is hoped, useful lesson." Newspapers published reports that the local Aboriginal population were "wretched caricatures of the human race...faithless stewards of the fine property on which they horde," and that it was "the duty of civilisation to occupy the soil which they disregard and disgrace," and that "force and even severity may be necessary to restrain their brutal disposition." Pastoralists were quick to enter the region through this new port and mark out land acquisitions in the hinterland, while buildings within the township were rapidly constructed.
After Queensland had separated from New South Wales, the town was renamed Bowen after the first Queensland colonial governor, Sir George Bowen. Port Denison Post Office opened in April 1861 and was renamed Bowen by 1865.
Between the 1860s and the 1880s, early colonists and settlers forecasted Bowen as the "capital of a new North Queensland Colony". Relics of this particular ambition can be seen today in Bowen's exacting road grid and town plan, and the avenue-like width of its central streets.
In 1863, settlers in the area encountered a sailor, James Morrill, who had been shipwrecked 17 years previously on a shoal in the Coral Sea. He had made it to the Queensland coast on a makeshift raft with a few companions. The others had all died within two years, but Morrill lived with the local Aborigines in the Townsville area. Rejoining European society after white settlement began in North Queensland, he settled in Bowen. His grave is in the Bowen cemetery.
Bowen State School opened in 1865. Between 1877 and 1922, it operated as two schools: Bowen Boys State School and Bowen Girls and Infants State School. A secondary department was added to Bowen State School in 1928. On 23 January 1961, the secondary department was replaced by Bowen State High School.
St Mary's School was opened on 1 September 1872 by Sister M. Gertrude and Sister M. de Sales, both members of the Sisters of St Joseph of the Sacred Heart founded by Mother Mary MacKillop. Following to ongoing conflict between MacKillop and James Quinn, the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Brisbane, over who controlled the schools operated by the Sisters in Queensland, Quinn expelled the sisters from his diocese in 1880 and they returned to South Australia where the order was first established. Quinn established a group of Diocesan Sisters using the name Sisters of the Holy Family who operated the school under Quinn's direct authority until 1885, when the Sisters of Mercy took over the running of the school withSister Mary Modwena Taylor, Sister M. Stanislaus Kostka Harding and Sister M. Winifred Duggan being transferred from The Range Convent School in Rockhampton.
The coral reefs around Bowen are the scene of several shipwrecks, including the SS Gothenburg, which sank in 1875 with a loss of more than 100 lives. Numerous relics of Bowen's history, from the Aboriginal past onwards, are on display at the Bowen Historical Society's museum.
On 22 February 1876, an F5 tornado hit the town, causing large amounts of damage.
Warden Bend Provisional School opened circa 1891. On 1 January 1909 it became Warden Bend State School. It closed in 1912.
Merinda Provisional School opened in 1898 and became Merinda State School on 1 January 1909.
On Sunday 30 April 1911, the foundation stone was laid for St Mary's Catholic Church. On Sunday 2 December 1912, the church was officially opened by James Murray, the Vicar Apostolic of Cooktown.
On 24 February 2006, Bishop Michael Putney dedicated the current St Mary's in Sinclair Street.
Roseville State School opened on 7 July 1913. It was along the Bowen-to-Proserpine tramway. The school closed on 1939.
Don Delta State School opened on 21 July 1913 and closed in 1964.
Eden Lassie Provisional School opened on 16 October 1916. In 1924 it became Eden Lassie State School. It closed in 1951, but later reopened and closed permanently in 1963. Opened as a provisional school in 1916 and was proclaimed a state school in 1924. It closed in 1951 and reopened before finally closing in 1963.
Twenty-five Mile Camp Provisional School opened on circa 1919. It may have been renamed Aberdeen Provisional School. In 1920 it was renamed Bogie Range Provisional School. It closed circa 1922.
Ballast Pit Provisional School opened on 11 April 1922. On 26 July 1923 it was renamed Bin Bee Provisional School. It closed in July 1927. It was on the Bowen Coalfields railway line.
Inverdon Road State School opened on 4 December 1922 and closed on 2 September 1955. It was at 174 Inverdon Road ().
Queens Beach State School opened on 25 November 1940.
Elements of the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) have been operating from Bowen for almost two decades, beginning in the late 1920s. Three RAAF flying boat squadrons and one flying boat maintenance unit operated from the shores of Port Denison during World War 2 operating PBY Catalina and Martin Mariner amphibious seaplanes. No.55 (RAAF) Radar Station also operated from Cape Edgecumbe north-east of the town. The concrete seaplane aprons and ramps are still present.
In 1944, Bowen elected a Communist, Fred Paterson, to Queensland Legislative Assembly. He was re-elected in 1947, but lost the seat in 1950 when the boundaries were changed to include Bowen in the seat of Whitsunday.
Bowen State High School opened on 23 January 1961, replacing the secondary department at Bowen State School which had operated since 1 July 1928.
Bowen was the administrative centre for the Shire of Bowen. On 15 March 2008, under the Local Government (Reform Implementation) Act 2007 passed by the Parliament of Queensland on 10 August 2007, the Shire of Bowen merged with the Shire of Whitsunday to form the Whitsunday Region. Although Proserpine is the administrative centre for the new regional council, the council maintains offices in Bowen and holds a number of council meetings in Bowen each year.
In the the locality of Bowen had a population of 10,377 people. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people made up 9.2% of the population. 74.2% of people were born in Australia. The next most common countries of birth were New Zealand 2.4%, England 2.0%, South Korea 1.3%, Philippines 1.1% and Taiwan 1.0%. 81.5% of people only spoke English at home. Other languages spoken at home included Mandarin 1.5% and Korean 1.2%, The most common responses for religion were No Religion 25.8%, Catholic 20.5% and Anglican 17.6%.
Heritage listings
Bowen has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:
Flemington Road: Flemington Road Cemetery
6 Herbert Street: Bowen Harbour Board Building
46 Herbert Street: Bowen Post Office
29 Kennedy Street: Bowen State School
30 Williams Street: Bowen Courthouse
Economy
The town enjoys a diversified economy primarily based on agriculture, fishing, tourism, and mining. Its dry climate plus its fertile alluvial soil, makes it an ideal place to grow a wide variety of small crops, including tomatoes, rockmelons (i.e., cantaloupes), and capsicums (i.e., bell peppers). Outside the alluvial plain, much of the Bowen area is used for beef cattle.
Just north of Bowen is the Abbot Point coal loading port. Coal mined inland of Bowen in Collinsville and other towns in the Bowen Basin is brought by rail to a deepwater pier to be loaded on bulk carriers. Coal is exported mainly to China and India.
Education
Bowen State School is a government primary (Early Childhood-6) school for boys and girls at 29 Kennedy Street (). In 2015, it had an enrolment of 480 students with 34 teachers (30 full-time equivalent). In 2018, the school had an enrolment of 448 students with 31 teachers (30 full-time equivalent) and 22 non-teaching staff (15 full-time equivalent). It includes a special education program.
Queens Beach State School is a government primary (Prep-6) school for boys and girls at 39 Tracey Street (). In 2014 (when it was a P-7 school), it had an enrolment of 452 students with 32 teachers (30 full-time equivalent). In 2018, the school had an enrolment of 426 students with 35 teachers (31 full-time equivalent) and 22 non-teaching staff (13 full-time equivalent).
Merinda State School is a government primary (Prep-6) school for boys and girls at Bergl Street (). In 2015, it had an enrolment of 87 students with 7 teachers (5 full-time equivalent). In 2018, the school had an enrolment of 55 students with 4 teachers and 6 non-teaching staff (3 full-time equivalent).
St Mary's Catholic School is a Catholic primary (Prep-6) school for boys and girls at 39 Poole Street (). In 2015, it had an enrolment of 83 students. In 2018, the school had an enrolment of 71 students with 11 teachers (5 full-time equivalent) and 9 non-teaching staff (5 full-time equivalent).
Bowen State High School is a government secondary (7-12) school for boys and girls at 1-9 Argyle Park Road (). In 2015, it had an enrolment of 657 students with 58 teachers (56 full-time equivalent). In 2018, the school had an enrolment of 622 students with 58 teachers (56 full-time equivalent) and 37 non-teaching staff (28 full-time equivalent). It includes a special education program.
TAFE Queensland North is a government co-educational tertiary institute for vocational skills. Its Bowen campus is at 98-158 Queens Road. Before 2013, the Bowen campus was part of the Barrier Reef Institute of TAFE.
Amenities
Whitsunday Regional Council operates Bowen Public Library at 67 Herbert Street. The library opened in 1965 with refurbishments in 1978 and 2012.
Major airlines service Proserpine (Whitsunday Coast) airport located south of Bowen, this is the nearest major airport to the town.
The Bowen branch of the Queensland Country Women's Association meets at the QCWA Hall at 52 Herbert Street ().
St Mary's Catholic Church is in Sinclair Street between Poole Street and Gordon Street (). It is part of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Townsville.
Bowen Uniting Church is at 37 Kennedy Street (), which was formerly the hall of the St James' Presbyterian Church. It provides services in English, Korean and Tongan languages.
Attractions
Bowen is on a peninsula, with ocean on three sides. This gives eight beaches surrounding the town, namely Kings Beach, Queens Beach, Horseshoe Bay, Murrays Bay, Greys Bay, Rose Bay, and the Front Beach. There is also the clothing-optional Coral Bay. Kings Beach offers views of nearby Gloucester Island.
The "Big Mango", costing $90,000 to create, was erected in 2002 as a tourist attraction at the Bowen Tourist Information Centre. In February 2014, the 10-metre high, seven-tonne fibreglass structure was reported to be "stolen" as part of a publicity stunt for the region.
Climate
The town has a tropical savannah climate (Köppen climate classification: Aw). It is noticeably drier than surrounding locations due to a rain shadow effect produced by the nearby Gloucester Island. Due to the town's latitude, the trade winds provide a pleasant breeze. The warmest month is January, with an average maximum temperature of 31.5 °C (88.7 °F). The coolest month is July, with an average maximum temperature of 24.5 °C (76.1 °F) and an average overnight minimum of 13.4 °C (55.9 °F).
Television
Bowen is serviced by free to air channels including the ABC, SBS, Seven Queensland (STQ), WIN Television (Nine Network affiliate), Southern Cross Television (Ten Network affiliate).
In popular culture
In December 2006, it was announced that Bowen was chosen as a filming location for part of the production of Australia, directed by Baz Luhrmann and starring Nicole Kidman and Hugh Jackman. Bowen was chosen as a prospect due to the financing of $500,000 by the Queensland Government. The production moved to Bowen on 14 May 2007; the town was used to depict 1940's Darwin.
The Big Mango in Bowen is one of the better known of Australia’s big things.
Notable residents
Sir Charles Newton Barton (1907 - 1987) commissioner of main roads and co-ordinator-general of public works.
Edith Bethel (1871 - 1929) political organiser.
Douglas James (Jim) Darwen (1906 - 1988) newspaper-owner and editor.
Korah Halcomb Wills (1828 - 1896) mayor of Bowen
Sister cities
Oseto-cho, Japan
See also
Bowen railway station
List of ports in Australia
References
Further reading
— full text available online via the National Library of Australia
External links
Tourism Bowen
Archived Town Profile on Rural Lifestyles Queensland Website
Town map of Bowen, 1977
Aerial film footage of Queensland places, State Library of Queensland. Contains aerial footage of Bowen
Towns in Queensland
Coastal towns in Queensland
North Queensland
Whitsunday Region
1861 establishments in Australia
Localities in Queensland
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395564
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax%20noncompliance
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Tax noncompliance
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Tax noncompliance is a range of activities that are unfavorable to a government's tax system. This may include tax avoidance, which is tax reduction by legal means, and tax evasion which is the non-payment of tax liabilities. The use of the term "noncompliance" is used differently by different authors. Its most general use describes non-compliant behaviors with respect to different institutional rules resulting in what Edgar L. Feige calls unobserved economies. Non-compliance with fiscal rules of taxation gives rise to unreported income and a tax gap that Feige estimates to be in the neighborhood of $500 billion annually for the United States.
In the United States, the use of the term 'noncompliance' often refers only to illegal misreporting. Laws known as a General Anti-Avoidance Rule (GAAR) statutes which prohibit "tax aggressive" avoidance have been passed in several developed countries including the United States (since 2010), Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Norway and Hong Kong. In addition, judicial doctrines have accomplished the similar purpose, notably in the United States through the "business purpose" and "economic substance" doctrines established in Gregory v. Helvering. Though the specifics may vary according to jurisdiction, these rules invalidate tax avoidance which is technically legal but not for a business purpose or in violation of the spirit of the tax code. Related terms for tax avoidance include tax planning and tax sheltering.
Individuals that do not comply with tax payment include tax protesters and tax resisters. Tax protesters attempt to evade the payment of taxes using alternative interpretations of the tax law, while tax resisters refuse to pay a tax for conscientious reasons. In the United States, tax protesters believe that taxation under the Federal Reserve is unconstitutional, while tax resisters are more concerned with not paying for particular government policies that they oppose. Because taxation is often perceived as onerous, governments have struggled with tax noncompliance since the earliest of times.
Differences between avoidance and evasion
The use of the terms tax avoidance and tax evasion can vary depending on the jurisdiction. In general, "evasion" applies to illegal actions and "avoidance" to actions within the law. The term "mitigation" is also used in some jurisdictions to further distinguish actions within the original purpose of the relevant provision from those actions that are within the letter of the law, but do not achieve its purpose. All pursue the same immediate goal, minimising the amount paid.
In particular, in the American legal system, tax evasion is a criminal action disciplined by 26 US Code §7201, under which the taxpayer who fails to pay or willfully underpays his tax liability (i.e., with criminal mens rea like stated in the James v. United States) will undergo to criminal penalties.
On the other side of the coin, tax avoidance happens when the taxpayer tries to lessen his tax obligation using deductions and credits to maximize after-tax income. All of this is considered legal by the IRS even though it foresees civil penalties.
All things considered, the main difference between tax evasion and tax avoidance is the taxpayer's guilty mind of minimization or failure to pay the tax liability.
Tax gap
The U.S. Internal Revenue Service provides formal definitions: "The gross tax gap is the difference between true tax liability for a given tax year and the amount that is paid on time. It is the nonfiling gap, the underreporting gap, and the underpayment (or remittance) gap. The net tax gap is the portion of the gross tax gap that will never be recovered through enforcement or other late payments."
Underground economy and tax gap
An important way to study the tax gap is to examine the size of the tax gap in a country by analyzing the size of the underground economy and its influencing factors. The size of the underground economy is directly related to the institutional infrastructure. The institutional infrastructure of a country mainly includes the intensity of government regulation, the establishment and implementation of laws, the degree of judicial independence, the size of effective tax rates, the effective provision of public goods or services, and the effective protection of property rights. It is generally believed that the higher the level of government regulation, the greater the size of its underground economy and the greater the tax gap. And vice versa, when government over-regulation occurs, an alternative relationship exists between the size of the underground economy and the size of the official economy. Representatives of this view are Levenson, Maloney, and Johnson. They believe that higher tax rates can raise higher tax revenues, and the government can provide higher levels of public services accordingly, thereby attracting more companies and individuals out of the underground economy, resulting in a healthy balance of "high tax rates, high taxes, high public services, and small-scale underground economy", but low-tax countries, because they do not have enough income to provide high levels of public services, will form a vicious balance of "low tax rates, low taxes, low public services, and high-scale underground economy." In the above-mentioned healthy balance, the tax gap is relatively small; in the vicious equilibrium, the tax gap is relatively large.
Tax customs and tax gaps
Tax custom is different from tax avoidance or tax evasion. It does not measure the taxation behavior of individuals, but the tax attitude of individuals. The tax custom can also be considered as the moral responsibility of the individual. Making a specific contribution to society by paying taxes on the government must fulfill this responsibility. It embodies the ethical code of conduct for individuals in taxation, although it does not require the form of law. The decline or deterioration of taxation practices will reduce the moral costs of taxpayers engaging in illegal operations or underground economic activities.
An empirical study by ALM on transition countries such as Russia found that there is a strong negative relationship between tax customary variables and underground economic size variables (which represent tax evasion or tax gaps) (correlation coefficient is -0.657). And both variables are significant at the 1% level.
Bird believed that a sustainable and efficient tax system must be based on perceived fairness and goodwill response to taxation. It must be connected organically with the provision of public goods or services. If taxpayers see their preferences reflected in governance and see efficient provision of government services, they stay in the official economy and fulfill tax obligations. Tax revenues increase while the tax gap narrows.
The economic experiments cited by Torgler and Schaltegger show that the extensive exercise of voting rights in tax affairs will significantly increase taxpayer compliance. The deeper the taxpayer participates in political decision making, the higher the tax contract performance efficiency and tax compliance. The taxpayer society in this state is a civil society with tax and good customs, and the taxpayer is a real citizen who has been given a wide range of powers.
Everest Phillips believes that the design of a reasonable and effective tax system is an important part of the construction in a country. The operation of this tax system must be based on the higher compliance of taxpayers and the goodness of taxation rather than relying on coercive measures. He pointed out that as the country's tax system for building important content must have the following five important characteristics:
Political participation. The wide participation of taxpayers in the political decision-making process is an important guarantee for establishing social taxation and good customs. When taxpayers lack effective access to decision-making, they will be concerned about tax revenue collection and the lack of efficiency in the provision of public goods or services. Tax compliance will be reduced, and taxation practices are likely to deteriorate. As a result, tax evasion scale will expand and tax gaps will increase. This situation will further weaken the ability of government to provide public goods or services, and thus trap the construction process into a vicious cycle.
Responsibility and transparency. The government should have a legitimate duty to use tax revenues, and procedures for providing public goods or services should be transparent to taxpayers.
Perceivable fairness. In a reasonable and effective tax system, taxpayers can perceive themselves as being treated equally and justly. With regard to tax incentives or tax exemptions, if taxpayers perceive that they are being treated unfairly, their tax willingness will inevitably decline.
Effectiveness. The government should have the ability to transform gradually increasing tax revenues into higher levels of public goods or services and enhance political stability.
Sharing a prosperous political commitment. The national taxation system should be closely linked with the national goal of promoting economic growth. Promoting economic growth is one of the strategic goals that the government has promised to taxpayers. The government can promote the realization of this strategic goal through taxation.
Tax collection management efficiency and tax gap
Under the premise of economic development level, the ability of a country to raise tax revenue is mainly determined by the tax system design in the country and the efficiency of its collection and management. From the perspective of taxation practices in various countries, the design of taxation system is affected and restricted by the efficiency of tax collection and management. Therefore, it can be said that the relative size of a country's tax revenue collection and tax gap is closely related to the tax collection and management efficiency of the s tax administration agencies in the country.
A reasonable explanation for the introduction of value-added tax by most developing countries in the world is to increase the taxpayer's compliance with tax payment through the mutual supervision mechanism between taxpayers without increasing the cost imposed by the tax administration authorities. This consideration for the factors of taxation determines that developing countries can only adopt the tax system that is mainly based on turnover tax. From the perspective of taxation, due to restrictions on the level of taxation in developing countries, tax revenues can only be raised through indirect taxes that focus on taxes such as value-added tax and consumption tax, while direct taxes represented by income taxes and property taxes are included in total tax revenue. The proportion is relatively low. Bird and Zolt pointed out that, contrary to the practice of taxation in developed countries, personal income tax still plays a very limited role in developing countries today, both in terms of income mobilization and adjustment of income disparities. In 2000, the income tax income of developed countries was 53.8% of total income, compared with 28.3% in developing countries. They believe that wages and other income of workers in the informal sector in developing countries are still free from tax collection. The same is true of the property tax situation. Due to the lack of necessary information and assessment mechanisms for the assessment of property values, property taxes cannot be successfully implemented in many developing countries; even if developing countries with property taxes exist, their income collection is still insufficient. From the above analysis, we can see that compared with indirect taxes, developing countries still have a large tax gap in terms of direct taxes.
Tax protesters and tax resisters
Some tax evaders believe that they have uncovered new interpretations of the law that show that they are not subject to being taxed (not liable): these individuals and groups are sometimes called tax protesters. Many protesters continue posing the same arguments that the federal courts have rejected time and time again, ruling the arguments to be legally frivolous.
Tax resistance is the refusal to pay a tax for conscientious reasons (because the resister finds the government or its actions morally reprehensible). They typically do not find it relevant whether that the tax laws are themselves legal or illegal or whether they apply to them, and they are more concerned with not paying for what they find to be grossly immoral, such as the bombing of innocents.
United States
In the United States "tax evasion" is evading the assessment or payment of a tax that is already legally owed at the time of the criminal conduct. Tax evasion is criminal, and has no effect on the amount of tax actually owed, although it may give rise to substantial monetary penalties.
By contrast, the term "tax avoidance" describes lawful conduct, the purpose of which is to avoid the creation of a tax liability in the first place. Whereas an evaded tax remains a tax legally owed, an avoided tax is a tax liability that has never existed.
For example, consider two businesses, each of which have a particular asset (in this case, a piece of real estate) that is worth far more than its purchase price.
Business One (or an individual) sells the property and underreports its gain. In this instance, tax is legally due. Business One has engaged in tax evasion, which is criminal.
Business Two (or an individual) consults with a tax advisor and discovers that the business can structure a sale as a "like-kind exchange" (formally known as a 1031 exchange, named after the Code section) for other real estate that the business can use. In this instance, no tax is due of the provisions of section 1031 of the Internal Revenue Code. Business Two has engaged in tax avoidance (or tax mitigation), which is completely within the law.
In the above example, tax may or may not eventually be due when the second property is sold. Whether and how much tax will be due will depend on circumstances and the state of the law at the time.
Definition of tax evasion in the United States
The application of the U.S. tax evasion statute may be illustrated in brief as follows. The statute is Internal Revenue Code section 7201:
Under this statute and related case law, the prosecution must prove, beyond a reasonable doubt, each of the following three elements:
the "attendant circumstance" of the existence of a tax deficiency – an unpaid tax liability; and
the actus reus (i.e., guilty conduct) – an affirmative act (and not merely an omission or failure to act) in any manner constituting evasion or an attempt to evade either:
the assessment of a tax, or
the payment of a tax.
the mens rea or "mental" element of willfulness – the specific intent to violate an actually known legal duty.
An affirmative act "in any manner" is sufficient to satisfy the third element of the offense. That is, an act which would otherwise be perfectly legal (such as moving funds from one bank account to another) could be grounds for a tax evasion conviction (possibly an attempt to evade payment), provided the other two elements are also met. Intentionally filing a false tax return (a separate crime in itself) could constitute an attempt to evade the assessment of the tax, as the Internal Revenue Service bases its initial assessment (i.e., the formal recordation of the tax on the books of the U.S. Treasury) on the tax amount shown on the return.
Application to tax protesters
The federal tax evasion statute is an example of an exception to the general rule under U.S. law that "ignorance of the law or a mistake of law is no defense to criminal prosecution". Under the Cheek Doctrine (Cheek v. United States), the United States Supreme Court ruled that a genuine, good faith belief that one is not violating the federal tax law (such as a mistake based on a misunderstanding caused by the complexity of the tax law itself) would be a valid defense to a charge of "willfulness" ("willfulness" in this case being knowledge or awareness that one is violating the tax law itself), even though that belief is irrational or unreasonable. On the surface, this rule might appear to be of some comfort to tax protesters who assert, for example, that "wages are not income."
However, merely asserting that one has such a good faith belief is not determinative in court; under the American legal system the trier of fact (the jury, or the trial judge in a non-jury trial) decides whether the defendant really has the good faith belief he or she claims. With respect to willfulness, the placing of the burden of proof on the prosecution is of limited utility to a defendant that the jury simply does not believe.
A further stumbling block for tax protesters is found in the Cheek Doctrine with respect to arguments about "constitutionality." Under the Doctrine, the belief that the Sixteenth Amendment was not properly ratified and the belief that the federal income tax is otherwise unconstitutional are not treated as beliefs that one is not violating the "tax law" – i.e., these errors are not treated as being caused by the "complexity of the tax law."
In the Cheek case the Court stated:
The Court continued:
The Court ruled that such beliefs – even if held in good faith – are not a defense to a charge of willfulness. By pointing out that arguments about constitutionality of federal income tax laws "reveal full knowledge of the provisions at issue and a studied conclusion, however wrong, that those provisions are invalid and unenforceable", the Supreme Court may have been impliedly warning that asserting such "constitutional" arguments (in open court or otherwise) might actually help the prosecutor prove willfulness. Daniel B. Evans, a tax lawyer who has written about tax protester arguments, has stated that
By contrast, under Canadian law, the honesty of a taxpayer in expressing his beliefs can be a mitigating factor in sentencing. In R. v. Klundert, 2011 ONCA 646, the Ontario Court of Appeal upheld a tax protestor's conviction, but allowed him to serve a conditional sentence in the community on the grounds that his behaviour was neither fraudulent nor deceitful. The one-year custodial sentence imposed by the trial judge was overturned on this basis:
Failing to file returns in the United States
According to some estimates, about three percent of American taxpayers do not file tax returns at all. In the case of U.S. federal income taxes, civil penalties for willful failure to timely file returns and willful failure to timely pay taxes are based on the amount of tax due; thus, if no tax is owed, no penalties are due. The civil penalty for willful failure to timely file a return is generally equal to 5.0% of the amount of tax "required to be shown on the return per month, up to a maximum of 25%.
In cases where a taxpayer does not have enough money to pay the entire tax bill, the IRS can work out a payment plan with taxpayers, or enter into a collection alternative such as a partial payment Installment Agreement, an Offer in Compromise, placement into hardship or "currently non-collectable" status or file bankruptcy.
For years for which no return has been filed, there is no statute of limitations on civil actions – that is, on how long the IRS can seek taxpayers and demand payment of taxes owed.
For each year a taxpayer willfully fails to timely file an income tax return, the taxpayer can be sentenced to one year in prison. In general, there is a six-year statute of limitations on federal tax crimes.
The IRS has run several Overseas Voluntary Disclosure Programs in 2009 and 2011, and its current one has "no set deadline for taxpayers to apply. However, the terms of this program could change at any time going forward.".
By contrast, the civil penalty for failure to timely pay the tax actually "shown on the return" is generally equal to 0.5% of such tax due per month, up to a maximum of 25%. The two penalties are computed together in a relatively complex algorithm, and computing the actual penalties due is somewhat challenging.
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom and jurisdictions following the UK approach (such as New Zealand) have recently adopted the evasion/avoidance terminology as used in the United States: evasion is a criminal attempt to avoid paying tax owed while avoidance is an attempt to use the law to reduce taxes owed. There is, however, a further distinction drawn between tax avoidance and tax mitigation. Tax avoidance is a course of action designed to conflict with or defeat the evident intention of Parliament: IRC v Willoughby.
Tax mitigation is conduct which reduces tax liabilities without "tax avoidance" (not contrary to the intention of Parliament), for instance, by gifts to charity or investments in certain assets which qualify for tax relief. This is important for tax provisions which apply in cases of "avoidance": they are held not to apply in cases of mitigation.
The clear articulation of the concept of an avoidance/mitigation distinction goes back only to the 1970s. The concept originated from economists, not lawyers. The use of the terminology avoidance/mitigation to express this distinction was an innovation in 1986: IRC v Challenge.
In practice, the distinction is sometimes clear, but often difficult to draw. Relevant factors to decide whether conduct is avoidance or mitigation include: whether there is a specific tax regime applicable; whether transactions have economic consequences; confidentiality; tax linked fees. Important indicia are familiarity and use. Once a tax avoidance arrangement becomes common, it is almost always stopped by legislation within a few years. If something commonly done is contrary to the intention of Parliament, it is only to be expected that Parliament will stop it.
So that which is commonly done and not stopped is not likely to be contrary to the intention of Parliament. It follows that tax reduction arrangements which have been carried on for a long time are unlikely to constitute tax avoidance. Judges have a strong intuitive sense that that which everyone does, and has long done, should not be stigmatised with the pejorative term of "avoidance". Thus UK courts refused to regard sales and repurchases (known as bed-and-breakfast transactions) or back-to-back loans as tax avoidance.
Other approaches in distinguishing tax avoidance and tax mitigation are to seek to identify "the spirit of the statute" or "misusing" a provision. But this is the same as the "evident intention of Parliament" properly understood. Another approach is to seek to identify "artificial" transactions. However, a transaction is not well described as "artificial" if it has valid legal consequences, unless some standard can be set up to establish what is "natural" for the same purpose. Such standards are not readily discernible. The same objection applies to the term "device".
It may be that a concept of "tax avoidance" based on what is contrary to "the intention of Parliament" is not coherent. The object of construction of any statute is expressed as finding "the intention of Parliament". In any successful tax avoidance scheme, a Court must have concluded that the intention of Parliament was not to impose a tax charge in the circumstances which the tax avoiders had placed themselves. The answer is that the expression "intention of Parliament" is being used in two senses.
It is perfectly consistent to say that a tax avoidance scheme escapes tax (there being no provision to impose a tax charge) and yet constitutes the avoidance of tax. One is seeking the intention of Parliament at a higher, more generalised level. A statute may fail to impose a tax charge, leaving a gap that a court cannot fill even by purposive construction, but nevertheless one can conclude that there would have been a tax charge had the point been considered. An example is the notorious UK case Ayrshire Employers Mutual Insurance Association v IRC, where the House of Lords held that Parliament had "missed fire".
History of avoidance/evasion distinction
An avoidance/evasion distinction along the lines of the present distinction has long been recognised but at first there was no terminology to express it. In 1860 Turner LJ suggested evasion/contravention (where evasion stood for the lawful side of the divide): Fisher v Brierly. In 1900 the distinction was noted as two meanings of the word "evade": Bullivant v AG. The technical use of the words avoidance/evasion in the modern sense originated in the US where it was well established by the 1920s. It can be traced to Oliver Wendell Holmes in Bullen v. Wisconsin.
It was slow to be accepted in the United Kingdom. By the 1950s, knowledgeable and careful writers in the UK had come to distinguish the term "tax evasion" from "avoidance". However, in the UK at least, "evasion" was regularly used (by modern standards, misused) in the sense of avoidance, in law reports and elsewhere, at least up to the 1970s. Now that the terminology has received official approval in the UK (Craven v White) this usage should be regarded as erroneous. But even now it is often helpful to use the expressions "legal avoidance" and "illegal evasion", to make the meaning clearer.
UK tax gap
The UK "tax gap" is the difference between the amount of tax that should, in theory, be collected by the tax collection agency HMRC, against what is actually collected. The tax gap for the UK in 2018/19 was £31 billion, or 4.7% of total tax liabilities.
UK tax resistors
In the UK case of Cheney v. Conn, an individual objected to paying tax that, in part, would be used to procure nuclear arms in unlawful contravention, he contended, of the Geneva Convention. His claim was dismissed, the judge ruling that "What the [taxation] statute itself enacts cannot be unlawful, because what the statute says and provides is itself the law, and the highest form of law that is known to this country."
France
France can be considered as having an average level of the European fiscal evasion (in terms of percentage of GDP) but in the upper ranks of the absolute level due to its high GDP. Indeed, the state budget is slashed by more than 160 billion euros every year (80 billions are slashed due to fiscal evasion and another 80 billion due to the abuse of social protection). The fiscal evasion is equivalent to 3% of the French GDP and the social protection is another 3%. In total, the French government is slashed of 6% of the country's GDP.
Europe
Richard Murphy, a professor in Public Policy at City, University of London, produced the following estimates of the tax gap in different European countries.
See also
By region
Tax evasion and corruption in Greece
Tax evasion in Switzerland
Tax gap in the UK
Tax evasion in the United States
Other countries
General
References
External links
UK Statistics on Tax Gaps
International Financial Centres Forum (IFC Forum) – research into the positive impacts of tax competition and tax planning
Tax Justice Network – research into "the negative impacts of tax avoidance, tax competition and tax havens"
Tax Me if You Can – PBS Frontline documentary into tax avoidance
The Tax Gap Special report from The Guardian about tax avoidance by big business
US Justice Dept Press Release on Jeffrey Chernick, UBS tax evader
US Justice Dept Press Release on Robert Moran and Steven Michael Rubenstein, two UBS tax evaders
US States Atty for Central Dist of California Press Release on John McCarthy of Malibu, Calif, UBS tax evader
Tax avoidance
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage%20in%20the%20Catholic%20Church
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Marriage in the Catholic Church
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Marriage in the Catholic Church, also known as holy matrimony, is the "covenant by which a man and woman establish between themselves a partnership of the whole of life and which is ordered by its nature to the good of the spouses and the procreation and education of offspring", and which "has been raised by Christ the Lord to the dignity of a sacrament between the baptized". Catholic matrimonial law, based on Roman law regarding its focus on marriage as a free mutual agreement or contract, became the basis for the marriage law of all European countries, at least up to the Reformation.
The Catholic Church recognizes as sacramental, (1) the marriages between two baptized non-Catholic Christians or between two baptized Orthodox Christians, as well as (2) marriages between baptized non-Catholic Christians and Catholic Christians, although in the latter case, consent from the diocesan bishop must be obtained, with this termed "permission to enter into a mixed marriage". To illustrate (1), for example, "if two Lutherans marry in the Lutheran Church in the presence of a Lutheran minister, the Catholic Church recognizes this as a valid sacrament of marriage". On the other hand, although the Catholic Church recognizes marriages between two non-Christians or those between a Catholic Christian and a non-Christian, these are not considered to be sacramental, and in the latter case, the Catholic Christian must seek permission from his/her bishop for the marriage to occur; this permission is known as "dispensation from disparity of cult".
Weddings in which both parties are Catholic Christians are ordinarily held in a Catholic church, while weddings in which one party is a Catholic Christian and the other party is a non-Catholic Christian can be held in a Catholic church or a non-Catholic Christian church, but in the latter case permission of one's Bishop or ordinary is required for the marriage to be free of defect of form.
Catholic Church view of the importance of marriage
The Catechism of the Catholic Church states: "The intimate community of life and love which constitutes the married state has been established by the Creator and endowed by him with its own proper laws. . . . God himself is the author of marriage. The vocation to marriage is written in the very nature of man and woman as they came from the hand of the Creator. Marriage is not a purely human institution despite the many variations it may have undergone through the centuries in different cultures, social structures, and spiritual attitudes. These differences should not cause us to forget its common and permanent characteristics. Although the dignity of this institution is not transparent everywhere with the same clarity, some sense of the greatness of the matrimonial union exists in all cultures. The well-being of the individual person and of both human and Christian society is closely bound up with the healthy state of conjugal and family life".
It also says: "The Church attaches great importance to Jesus' presence at the wedding at Cana. She sees in it the confirmation of the goodness of marriage and the proclamation that thenceforth marriage will be an efficacious sign of Christ's presence. In his preaching Jesus unequivocally taught the original meaning of the union of man and woman as the Creator willed it from the beginning: permission given by Moses to divorce one's wife was a concession to the hardness of hearts. The matrimonial union of man and woman is indissoluble; God himself has determined it, 'what therefore God has joined together, let no man put asunder'. This unequivocal insistence on the indissolubility of the marriage bond may have left some perplexed and could seem to be a demand impossible to realize. However, Jesus has not placed on spouses a burden impossible to bear, or too heavy – heavier than the Law of Moses. By coming to restore the original order of creation disturbed by sin, he himself gives the strength and grace to live marriage in the new dimension of the Reign of God".
History of marriage in the Catholic Church
Early period
Marriage was considered a necessary passage into adulthood, and strongly supported within the Jewish faith. The author of the letter to the Hebrews declared that marriage should be held in honor among all, and early Christians defended the holiness of marriage against the Gnostics and the Antinomians.
At the same time, some in the emerging Christian communities began to prize the celibate state higher than marriage, taking the model of Jesus as a guide. This was related to a widespread belief about the imminent coming of the Kingdom of God; and thus the exhortation by Jesus to avoid earthly ties. The apostle Paul in his letters also suggested a preference for celibacy, but recognized that not all Christians necessarily had the ability to live such a life: "Now as a concession, not a command, I say this. I wish that all were as I myself am. But each has his own gift from God, one of one kind and one of another. To the unmarried and the widows I say that it is good for them to remain single as I am. But if they cannot exercise self-control, they should marry. For it is better to marry than to burn with passion". This teaching suggested that marriage be used only as a last resort by those Christians who found it too difficult to exercise a level of self-control and remain abstinent, not having the gift of celibacy. Armstrong has argued that to a significant degree, early Christians "placed less value on the family" and saw celibacy and freedom from family ties as a preferable state for those capable of it. Nevertheless, this is tempered by other scholars who state Paul would no more impose celibacy than insist on marriage. What people instinctively choose manifests God's gift. Thus, he takes for granted that the married are not called to celibacy.
As the Church developed as an institution and came into contact with the Greek world, it reinforced the idea found in writers such as Plato and Aristotle that the celibate unmarried state was preferable and more holy than the married one. At the same time, it challenged some of the prevalent social norms such as the buying and selling of women into marriage, and defended the right of women to choose to remain unmarried virgins for the sake of Christ. The stories associated with the many virgin martyrs in the first few centuries of the Catholic Church often make it clear that they were martyred for their refusal to marry, not necessarily simply their belief in Christ.
The teaching on the superiority of virginity over marriage expressed by Saint Paul was accepted by the early Church, as shown in the 2nd-century Shepherd of Hermas. Justin Martyr, writing in the middle of the 2nd century, boasted of the "many men and women of sixty and seventy years of age who from their childhood have been the disciples of Christ, and have kept themselves uncorrupted". Virginity was praised by Cyprian (c. 200 – 258) and other prominent Christian figures and leaders. Philip Schaff admits that it cannot be denied that the later doctrine of the 16th century Council of Trent – "that it is more blessed to remain virgin or celibate than to be joined in marriage" – was the view that dominated the whole of the early Christian church. At the same time, the Church still discouraged anyone who would "condemn marriage, or abominate and condemn a woman who is a believer and devout, and sleeps with her own husband, as though she could not enter the Kingdom [of heaven]".
For much of the history of the Catholic Church, no specific ritual was therefore prescribed for celebrating a marriage – at least not until the late medieval period: "Marriage vows did not have to be exchanged in a church, nor was a priest's presence required. A couple could exchange consent anywhere, anytime".
Church Fathers
Markus notes this impact on the early Christian attitude, particularly as Christian anxiety about sex intensified after 400: "The superiority of virginity and sexual abstinence was generally taken for granted. But a dark undercurrent of hostility to sexuality and marriage became interwoven with the more benign attitudes towards the body. Attitudes diverged, and mainstream Christianity became infected with a pronounced streak of distrust towards bodily existence and sexuality. This permanent 'encratite' tendency was given powerful impetus in the debates about Christian perfection at the end of the fourth and the beginning of the fifth centuries".
While the Church Fathers of the Latin or Catholic Church did not condemn marriage, they nevertheless taught a preference for celibacy and virginity.
Bishop Ignatius of Antioch, writing around 110 to Bishop Polycarp of Smyrna said, "[I]t becomes both men and women who marry to form their union with the approval of the bishop, that their marriage may be according to God, and not after their own lust".
In his On Exhortation to Chastity Tertullian argued that a second marriage, after someone has been freed from the first by the death of a spouse, "will have to be termed no other than a species of fornication". Claiming to find in the Book of Leviticus a prohibition of remarriage by the priests of the Old Law similar to that for Christian clergy in the Pauline pastoral epistles, he used it as an argument against remarrying even on the part of lay Christians, whom Christ made "a kingdom, priests to his God and Father": "If you are a digamist, do you baptize? If you are a digamist, do you offer? How much more capital (a crime) is it for a digamist laic to act as a priest, when the priest himself, if he turn digamist, is deprived of the power of acting the priest! 'But to necessity', you say, 'indulgence is granted'. No necessity is excusable which is avoidable. In a word, shun to be found guilty of digamy, and you do not expose yourself to the necessity of administering what a digamist may not lawfully administer. God wills us all to be so conditioned, as to be ready at all times and places to undertake (the duties of) His sacraments".
In his earlier Ad uxorem also, Tertullian argued against second marriages, but said that, if one must remarry, it should be with a Christian. In other writings, he argued strongly against ideas like those he expressed in his On Exhortation to Chastity; and in his De Anima he explicitly stated that "the married state is blessed, not cursed by God". Adhémar d'Alès has commented: "Tertullian wrote a lot about marriage, and on no other subject has he contradicted himself as much".
Cyprian (c. 200 – 258), Bishop of Carthage, recommended in his Three Books of Testimonies against the Jews that Christians should not marry pagans.
Addressing consecrated virgins he wrote: "The first decree commanded to increase and to multiply; the second enjoined continency. While the world is still rough and void, we are propagated by the fruitful begetting of numbers, and we increase to the enlargement of the human race. Now, when the world is filled and the earth supplied, they who can receive continency, living after the manner of eunuchs, are made eunuchs unto the kingdom. Nor does the Lord command this, but He exhorts it; nor does He impose the yoke of necessity, since the free choice of the will is left".
Jerome (c. 347 – 420) commenting on Paul's letter to the Corinthians wrote: "If 'it is good for a man not to touch a woman', then it is bad for him to touch one, for bad, and bad only, is the opposite of good. But, if though bad, it is made venial, then it is allowed to prevent something which would be worse than bad. ... Notice the Apostle's carefulness. He does not say: 'It is good not to have a wife', but, 'It is good for a man not to touch a woman'. ... I am not expounding the law as to husbands and wives, but discussing the general question of sexual intercourse – how in comparison with chastity and virginity, the life of angels, 'It is good for a man not to touch a woman'". He also argued that marriage distracted from prayer, and so virginity was better: "If we are to pray always, it follows that we must never be in the bondage of wedlock, for as often as I render my wife her due, I cannot pray. The difference, then, between marriage and virginity is as great as that between not sinning and doing well; nay rather, to speak less harshly, as great as between good and better". Regarding the clergy, he said: "Now a priest must always offer sacrifices for the people: he must therefore always pray. And if he must always pray, he must always be released from the duties of marriage". In referring to Genesis chapter 2, he further argued that, "while Scripture on the first, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth days relates that, having finished the works of each, God saw that it was good, on the second day it omitted this altogether, leaving us to understand that two is not a good number because it destroys unity, and prefigures the marriage compact". Jerome reaffirmed ("God blessed them, and God said unto them, Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth") and ("Marriage is honourable in all"), and distanced himself from the disparagement of marriage by Marcion and Manichaeus, and from Tatian, who thought all sexual intercourse, even in marriage, to be impure.
There were, of course, counter-views. Pelagius thought Jerome showed bitter hostility to marriage akin to Manichaean dualism, an accusation that Jerome attempted to rebut in his Adversus Jovinianum: "We do not follow the views of Marcion and Manichaeus, and disparage marriage; nor, deceived by the error of Tatian, the leader of the Encratites, do we think all intercourse impure; he condemns and rejects not only marriage but also food which God created for the use of man. We know that in a great house, there are not only vessels of gold and silver, but also of wood and earthenware. [...] While we honour marriage we prefer virginity which is the offspring of marriage. Will silver cease to be silver, if gold is more precious than silver?" Elsewhere he explained: "Someone may say: 'And do you dare disparage marriage, which is blessed by the Lord?' It is not disparaging marriage when virginity is preferred to it. No one compares evil with good. Let married women glory too, since they come second to virgins. Increase, He says, and multiply, and fill the earth. Let him who is to fill the earth increase and multiply. Your company is in heaven". Mocking a monk who accused him of condemning marriage, Jerome wrote: "He must hear at least the echo of my cry, 'I do not condemn marriage', 'I do not condemn wedlock'. Indeed — and this I say to make my meaning quite clear to him — I should like every one to take a wife who, because they get frightened in the night, cannot manage to sleep alone".
It was Augustine (354–430), whose views subsequently strongly influenced Western theology, that was most influential in developing a theology of the sacramentality of Christian marriage. In his youth, Augustine had also been a follower of Manichaeism, but after his conversion to Christianity he rejected the Manichaean condemnation of marriage and reproduction for imprisoning spiritual light within material darkness. He subsequently went on to teach that marriage is not evil, but good, even if it is not at the level of choosing virginity: "Marriage and fornication are not two evils, whereof the second is worse: but marriage and continence are two goods, whereof the second is better".
In his On the Good of Marriage, of 401, he distinguished three values in marriage: fidelity, which is more than sexual; offspring, which "entails the acceptance of children in love, their nurturance in affection, and their upbringing in the Christian religion; and sacrament, in that its indissolubility is a sign of the eternal unity of the blessed. Like the other Church Fathers of East and West, Augustine taught that virginity is a higher way of life, although it is not given to everyone to live at that higher level. In his De bono coniugali (On the Good of Marriage), he wrote: "I know what people are murmuring: 'Suppose', they remark, 'that everyone sought to abstain from all intercourse? How would the human race survive?' I only wish that this was everyone's concern so long as it was uttered in charity, 'from a pure heart, a good conscience, and faith unfeigned'; then the city of God would be filled much more speedily, and the end of the world would be hastened". Armstrong sees this as an apocalyptic dimension in Augustine's teaching. Reynolds says that Augustine's comment on this wildly hypothetical objection by Jovinian may have been that the saintliness of a church in which all had chosen celibacy would mean that it comprised enough members to fill God's city or that the church would thereby gather souls to herself even more rapidly than she was already doing. Nevertheless, Augustine's name "could, indeed, be invoked through the medieval centuries to reinforce the exaltation of virginity at the expense of marriage and to curtail the role of sexuality even within Christian marriage".
Finally, Isidore of Seville (c. 560 – 636) refined and broadened Augustine's formulation and was part of the chain by which it was transmitted to the Middle Ages.
Although not a church father, but belonging to the same period, in Adomnan of Iona's biography of St Columba, the saint at one point is mentioned as meeting a woman who refuses to sleep with her husband and perform her marriage duties. When Columba meets the woman, she says that she would do anything, even to go to a monastery and become a nun, rather than to sleep with him. Columba tells the woman that the commandment of God is for her to sleep with her husband and not to leave the marriage to be a nun, because once they are married the two have become one flesh.
Medieval period
Sacramental development
The medieval Christian church, taking the lead of Augustine, developed the sacramental understanding of matrimony. However, even at this stage the Catholic Church did not consider the sacraments equal in importance. Marriage has never been considered either to be one of the sacraments of Christian initiation (Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist) or of those that confer a character (Baptism, Confirmation, Holy Orders).
With the development of sacramental theology, marriage was included in the select seven to which the term "sacrament" was applied. Explicit classification of marriage in this way came in reaction to the contrary teaching of Catharism that marriage and procreation are evil: the first official declaration that marriage is a sacrament was made at the 1184 Council of Verona as part of a condemnation of the Cathars. In 1208, Pope Innocent III required members of another religious movement, that of the Waldensians, to recognize that marriage is a sacrament as a condition for being received back into the Catholic Church. In 1254, Catholics accused Waldensians of condemning the sacrament of marriage, "saying that married persons sin mortally if they come together without the hope of offspring". The Fourth Lateran Council of 1215 had already stated in response to the teaching of the Cathars: "For not only virgins and the continent but also married persons find favour with God by right faith and good actions and deserve to attain to eternal blessedness". Marriage was also included in the list of the seven sacraments at the Second Council of Lyon in 1274 as part of the profession of faith required of Michael VIII Palaiologos. The sacraments of marriage and holy orders were distinguished as sacraments that aim at the "increase of the Church" from the other five sacraments, which are intended for the spiritual perfection of individuals. The Council of Florence in 1439 again recognised marriage as a sacrament.
The medieval view of the sacramentality of marriage has been described as follows: "Like the other sacraments, medieval writers argued marriage was an instrument of sanctification, a channel of grace that caused God's gracious gifts and blessings to be poured upon humanity. Marriage sanctified the Christian couple by allowing them to comply with God's law for marriage and by providing them with an ideal model of marriage in Christ the bridegroom, who took the church as his bride and accorded it highest love, devotion, and sacrifice, even to the point of death".
Liturgical practice
Matrimony, for most of Church history, had been celebrated (as in traditions such as the Roman and Judaic) without clergy and was done according to local customs. The first available written detailed account of a Christian wedding in the West dates only from the 9th century and appears to be identical to the old nuptial service of Ancient Rome. However, early witnesses to the practice of intervention by the clergy in the marriage of early Christians include Tertullian, who speaks of Christians "requesting marriage" from them, and Ignatius of Antioch, who said Christians should form their union with the approval of the bishop – although the absence of clergy placed no bar, and there is no suggestion that the recommendation was widely adopted.
In the 4th century in the Eastern Church it was the custom in some areas for marriages to receive a blessing by a priest to ensure fertility. There are also a few accounts of religious nuptial services from the 7th century onward. However, while in the East the priest was seen as ministering the sacrament, in the West it was the two parties to the marriage (if baptized) who effectively ministered, and their concordant word was sufficient proof of the existence of a sacramental marriage, whose validity required neither the presence of witnesses nor observance of the law of the 1215 Fourth Lateran Council that demanded publication of the banns of marriage.
Thus, with few local exceptions, until in some cases long after the Council of Trent, marriages in Europe were by mutual consent, declaration of intention to marry and upon the subsequent physical union of the parties. The couple would promise verbally to each other that they would be married to each other; the presence of a priest or witnesses was not required. This promise was known as the "verbum". If freely given and made in the present tense (e.g., "I marry you"), it was unquestionably binding; if made in the future tense ("I will marry you"), it would constitute a betrothal. One of the functions of churches from the Middle Ages was to register marriages, which was not obligatory. There was no state involvement in marriage and personal status, with these issues being adjudicated in ecclesiastical courts. During the Middle Ages marriages were arranged, sometimes as early as birth, and these early pledges to marry were often used to ensure treaties between different royal families, nobles, and heirs of fiefdoms. The church resisted these imposed unions, and increased the number of causes for the nullification of these arrangements. As Christianity spread during the Roman period and the Middle Ages, the idea of free choice in selecting marriage partners increased and spread with it.
The validity of such marriages even if celebrated under a tree or in a tavern or in a bed was upheld even against that of a later marriage in a church. Even after the Council of Trent made the presence of the parish priest or his delegate and of at least two more witnesses a condition for validity, the previous situation continued in many countries where its decree was not promulgated. It ended only in 1908, with the coming into force of the Ne Temere decree.
In the 12th century, Pope Alexander III decreed that what made a marriage was the free mutual consent by the spouses themselves, not a decision by their parents or guardians. After that, clandestine marriages or youthful elopements began to proliferate, with the result that ecclesiastical courts had to decide which of a series of marriages that a man was accused of celebrating was the first and therefore the valid one. Though "detested and forbidden" by the Church, they were acknowledged to be valid. Similarly today, Catholics are forbidden to enter mixed marriages without permission from an authority of the Church, but if someone does enter such a marriage without permission, the marriage is reckoned to be valid, provided the other conditions are fulfilled, although illicit.
Counter-Reformation
In the 16th century, various groups adhering to the Protestant Reformation rejected to different degrees the sacramental nature of most Catholic sacraments. In reaction, the Council of Trent on 3 March 1547 carefully named and defined the Catholic Church's sacraments, reaffirming the teaching that marriage is a sacrament − from 1184, 1208, 1274 and 1439. Recalling scripture, the apostolic traditions and the declarations of previous councils and of the Church Fathers, the bishops declared that there were precisely seven sacraments, with marriage one of them, and that all seven are truly and properly sacraments.
Desiderius Erasmus influenced the debate in the first part of the 16th century by publishing 1518 an essay in praise of marriage (Encomium matrimonii), which argued that the single state was "a barren way of life hardly becoming to a man". The theologian Josse Clichtove working at the University of Paris interpreted this as an attack on chastity, but Erasmus had found favor with Protestant reformers who acknowledged the argument as a useful tool to undermine compulsory clerical celibacy and monasticism.
Diarmaid MacCulloch argued that the action taken at Trent was therefore partly a response by Roman Catholicism to demonstrate that it was as serious about marriage and the family as the Protestants,.
On 11 November 1563, the Council of Trent condemned the view that "the marriage state is to be placed above the state of virginity, or of celibacy, and that it is not better and more blessed to remain in virginity, or in celibacy, than to be united in matrimony". And while Catholics upheld the supernatural character of marriage, it was Protestants who viewed it as not a sacrament and who admitted divorce.
The decree Tametsi of 1563 was one of the last decisions made at Trent. The decree effectively sought to impose the Church's control over the process of marriage by laying down as strict conditions as possible for what constituted a marriage.
In 692, the Council in Trullo declared such marriages invalid, a decision accepted in the East, but not in the West.
With the Reformation in the 16th century, more legislation regarding mixed marriages was passed. In those countries where the Council of Trent's Tametsi decree was promulgated, mixed marriages began to be viewed as invalid in the West, not directly because of being mixed, but because a condition for validity imposed by the decree was not observed, namely, that marriages be contracted before the parish priest or a priest delegated by him and at least two witnesses. This decree required the contract to be entered into before the parish priest or some other priest delegated by him, and in the presence of two or three witnesses under penalty of invalidity. Even where the Tametsi decree had been promulgated, the Church did not find it possible to insist on the rigour of this legislation in all countries, owing to strong Protestant opposition. However, the legislation was frequently enforced by Catholic parents stipulating in their wills that their children be disinherited if they renounced Catholicism.
Pope Benedict XIV issued a declaration (the "Benedictine dispensation") concerning marriages in the Netherlands and Belgium (1741), in which he declared mixed unions to be valid, provided they were according to the civil laws. A similar declaration was made concerning mixed marriages in Ireland by Pope Pius, in 1785, and gradually the "Benedictine dispensation" was extended to various localities. Pius VI allowed mixed marriages in Austria to take place in the presence of a priest, provided no religious solemnity was employed, and with the omission of public banns, as evidence of the unwillingness of the Church to sanction such unions. In 1869, the Congregation of the Propaganda further permitted such marriages but only under the condition of grave necessity, fearing the faithful "expose themselves to the grave dangers inherent in these unions". Bishops were to warn Catholics against such marriages and not to grant dispensations for them except for weighty reasons and not at the mere will of the petitioner. In countries where the decree was not promulgated, marriages otherwise contracted, called clandestine marriages, continued to be considered valid until the decree was replaced in 1908 by the decree Ne Temere of Pope Pius X, which revoked the "Benedictine dispensation".
Catholic Christians are permitted to marry validly baptized non-Catholic Christians if they receive permission to do so from a "competent authority" who is usually the Catholic Christian party's local ordinary; if the proper conditions are fulfilled, such a marriage entered into is seen as valid and also, since it is a marriage between baptized persons, it is a sacrament.
Weddings in which both parties are Catholic Christians are ordinarily held in a Catholic church, while weddings in which one party is a Catholic Christian and the other party is a non-Catholic Christian can be held in a Catholic church or a non-Catholic Christian church.
A condition for granting permission to marry a non-Catholic is that the Catholic Christian party undertake to remove dangers of defecting from the faith and to do all in his or her power so that all the children are baptized and brought up in the Catholic Church; the other party is to be made aware of this undertaking and obligation of the Catholic Christian party.
Marriage with a non-Christian
The early Church did not consider invalid a Catholic's marriage with a non-Christian (someone not baptized), especially when the marriage had taken place before the Catholic's conversion to the faith. It was nevertheless hoped that the converted wife or husband would be the means of bringing the other party into the Church, or at least safeguarding the Catholic upbringing of the children of the union. With the growth of the Church, the need for such unions diminished and the objection to them grew stronger. More by custom than by church legislation, such marriages gradually came to be considered invalid and disparitas cultus came to be seen as an impediment to marriage by a Catholic. There were also enactments on a local level against marriages with pagans (Council of Carthage (397), and under Stephen I of Hungary in the early 11th century) and with Jews (Third Council of Toledo in 589).
When the Decretum of Gratian was published in the 12th century, this impediment became part of canon law. From that time forward, all marriages contracted between Catholics and non-Christians were held to be invalid unless a dispensation had been obtained from the ecclesiastical authority.
A marriage between a Catholic and a non-Christian (someone not baptized) is seen by the Church as invalid unless a dispensation (called a dispensation from "disparity of cult", meaning a difference of worship) is granted from the law declaring such marriages invalid. This dispensation can only be granted under certain conditions. If the dispensation is granted, the Church recognizes the marriage as valid, but natural rather than sacramental, since the sacraments can be validly received only by the baptized, and the non-Christian person is not baptized.
Matrimonial Consent
According to Canon 1057 of the Code of Canon Law (1983), marriage is established through the consent of the parties legitimately manifested between persons who are capable, according to the law, of giving consent.
Consent, which no human power can replace, is the efficient cause of marriage. It is defined by Canon 1057.1 as an act of the will by which a man and a woman through an irrevocable personal covenant mutually give and accept each other for the purpose of establishing marriage.
Such consent, however, must be manifested in a legitimate manner, that is, in a manner that has been determined by the Church in the formal solemnities prescribed for the validity of marriage (the canonical form).
The persons manifesting their consent must be capable of doing that according to the law.
Remarriage of widows or widowers
The teaching of the Catholic Church is that a married couple commits themselves totally to one another until death. The vows they make to each other in the wedding rite are a commitment "til death do us part". After the death of one, the other is free to marry again or to remain single. Some choose to become priests or religious. This path was chosen by some even in the early Christian centuries by people such as Saint Marcella, Saint Paula, Saint Galla of Rome and Saint Olympias the Deaconess.
Ministers of matrimony
Western Church
The husband and wife must validly execute the marriage contract. In the Latin Catholic tradition, it is the spouses who are understood to confer marriage on each other. The spouses, as ministers of grace, naturally confer upon each other the sacrament of matrimony, expressing their consent before the church.
This does not eliminate the need for church involvement in the marriage; under normal circumstances, canon law requires for validity the attendance of the local bishop or parish priest (or a priest or deacon delegated by either of them) and at least two witnesses. The priest has merely the role to "assist" the spouses in order to ensure that the marriage is contracted in accord with canon law, and is supposed to attend whenever it is possible. A competent layperson may be delegated by the Church, or may just attend in place of the priest, if it is impractical to have a priest attending. In the event that no competent layperson is found, the marriage is valid even if done in the presence of two witnesses alone. For example, in May 2017, the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments granted a bishop's request that a nun be granted permission to officiate at a marriage ceremony in Quebec because of a shortage of priests.
Eastern Churches
Eastern Catholic churches share the tradition common throughout Eastern Christianity, according to which the minister of the sacrament is the bishop or priest who "crowns the bridegroom and the bride as a sign of the marriage covenant", a ceremony that has led to the rite being called the Mystery of Crowning.
Indissolubility
Catholic theology teaches that a validly contracted sacramental marriage is accompanied by divine ratification, creating a virtually indissoluble union until the couple consummate, after which the sacramental marriage is dissoluble only by the death of a spouse. An unconsummated marriage can be dissolved by the Pope, as Vicar of Christ.
In the eyes of the Church, even validly contracted natural marriages (marriages in which at least one of the parties is not baptized) cannot be dissolved by the will of the couple or by any action of the state. Accordingly, "the Catholic Church does not recognize or endorse civil divorce of a natural marriage, as of a sacramental marriage". However, a natural marriage, even if consummated, can be dissolved by the Church when to do so favours the maintenance of the faith on the part of a Christian, cases of what has been called Pauline privilege and Petrine privilege. In these cases, which require intervention by the Holy See, the Church admits real divorce, the actual dissolution of a valid marriage, as distinct from the granting by merely human power of a divorce that, according to Catholic theology, does not really dissolve the marriage bond.
While the violation of some regulations may make a marriage illicit, but not invalid, some conditions are essential and their absence means that there is in fact no valid marriage, and the participants are considered not to be actually married. However, Canon 1137 states that children born to a "putative" marriage (defined in Canon 1061, sec. 3 as one that is not valid but was entered into in good faith by at least one spouse) are legitimate; therefore, the declaration that a marriage is null does not render the children of that marriage illegitimate.
Annulments
The Catholic Church has consistently taken the position that, while the dissolution of a valid natural marriage, even if consummated, may be granted for the sake of someone's Christian faith ("in favorem fidei"), though not for other reasons, and that a valid sacramental marriage, if not consummated, may be dissolved, a valid sacramental consummated marriage is indissoluble. There is no divorce from such a marriage. However, what is referred to as a marriage annulment occurs when two competent ecclesiastical tribunals hand down concordant judgments that a particular marriage was not in fact a valid one.
Requirements for the validity of marriage are listed in the Code of Canon Law under the headings "Diriment Impediments" (such as being too young, being impotent, being already married, being ordained), "Matrimonial Consent" (which requires, for instance, sufficient use of reason, psychic ability to assume the essential obligations of marriage, and freedom from force and fear), and "The Form of the Celebration of Marriage" (normally requiring that it be contracted in the presence of the parish priest or his delegate and at least two other witnesses).
An annulment is a declaration that the marriage was invalid (or null) at the time the vows were exchanged. Thus, an annulment is declared only when an ecclesial tribunal finds a lack of validity in the marriage at the time of the marital contract. Behaviour subsequent to the contract is not directly relevant, except as post factum evidence of the validity or invalidity of the contract. That is, behaviour subsequent to the contract cannot actually change the validity of the contract. For example, a marriage would be invalid if one of the parties, at the time of marriage, did not intend to honour the vow of fidelity. If the spouse did intend to be faithful at the time of the marriage but later committed adultery this does not invalidate the marriage.
The teaching of the Catholic church is that annulment and divorce therefore differ, both in rationale and effect; an annulment is a finding that a true marriage never existed, whereas a divorce is a dissolution of marriage.
In canon law there are numerous reasons for granting annulments of marriages that were entered into invalidly. MacCulloch has noted the "ingenuity" of Roman Catholic lawyers in deploying these in the historical context.
Annulments are not restricted to marriages. A similar process can lead to the annulment of an ordination.
Sins against marriage and conjugal chastity
The teaching of the Catholic Church is that marriage may only be between one man and one woman with each partner's free and willing consent for the good of each other and for the transmission of human life. The church believes adultery, divorce, remarriage after divorce, marriage without the intent to transmit life, polygamy, incest, child abuse, free union, and trial marriage are sins against the dignity of marriage. The church also believes that chastity must be practiced by spouses, and that sins against chastity include lust, masturbation, fornication, pornography, prostitution, rape, incest, child abuse, and homosexuality in any shape or form.
The Catholic Church opposes the introduction of both civil and religious same-sex marriage. The Church also holds that same-sex unions are an unfavourable environment for children and that the legalization of such unions damages society.
Leading figures in the Catholic hierarchy, including cardinals and bishops, have publicly voiced or actively opposed legislation of civil same-sex marriage and encouraged others to do the same, and have done likewise with regard to same-sex civil unions and adoption by same-sex couples.
There are a growing number of Catholics globally who dissent from the official position of the Roman Catholic hierarchy and express support for civil unions or same-sex marriage. In some locations, for example North America, Northern and Western Europe, there is stronger support for LGBT rights (such as civil unions, civil same-sex marriage and protection against discrimination) among Catholics than the general population at large.
In 2021, the Catholic Church reaffirmed its position: That "the Church does not have the power to give the blessing to unions of persons the same sex".
See also
Banns of marriage
Nuptial Mass
Christian views of marriage
Christian views on divorce
Declaration of nullity
Defender of the Bond
Impediment of crime
Matrimonial dispensation
Natural marriage
Pauline privilege
Vetitum
Parish register
References
External links
Catechism of the Catholic Church: The Sacrament of Matrimony An authoritative summary of Church teaching on marriage, including the main requirements for the celebration of the sacrament of Marriage.
Order of the Rite for Celebrating Marriage During Mass Order of a Catholic wedding during Mass, with links to official texts from the Rite of Marriage
Liberté plus haute… The canon law for dummies.
Arcanum Encyclical of Pope Leo XIII on Christian Marriage
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob%20Kerrey
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Bob Kerrey
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Joseph Robert Kerrey (born August 27, 1943) is an American politician who served as the 35th governor of Nebraska from 1983 to 1987 and as a United States Senator from Nebraska from 1989 to 2001. Before entering politics, he served in the Vietnam War as a United States Navy SEAL officer and was awarded the Medal of Honor for heroism in combat. During the action for which he was awarded the Medal of Honor, he was severely wounded, precluding further naval service.
Kerrey was a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1992. He retired from the Senate in 2000 and was replaced by former governor and fellow Democrat Ben Nelson. From 2001 to 2010, he served as president of The New School, a university in New York City. In May 2010, he was selected to become the head of the Motion Picture Association of America. The MPAA, however, could not reach an agreement with him and chose former Connecticut Senator Chris Dodd instead.
In 2012, Kerrey sought election to his old Senate seat to succeed his successor, the retiring Democratic incumbent Ben Nelson. He lost to Republican nominee Deb Fischer.
In 2013, Kerrey joined the Carmen Group lobbying firm.
Kerrey is a co-chair for the advisory board of Issue One, an organization that describes its mission as "fighting for real solutions to the problem of money in politics". In 1987, Kerrey was elected to the Common Cause National Governing Board.
Early life and education
Kerrey was born in Lincoln, Nebraska on August 27, 1943, the son of Elinor Fern (née Gonder), a University of Nebraska instructor, and James Henry Kerrey, a builder and businessman. He attended the public schools of Lincoln and graduated from Lincoln Northeast High School in 1961. He went on to earn a Bachelor of Science degree in pharmacy from the University of Nebraska–Lincoln in 1966. Kerrey pledged Phi Gamma Delta fraternity, and during his senior year he was admitted into the Society of Innocents, the chancellor's senior honorary society of spirit boosters.
Military service
Kerrey served in the United States Navy as a SEAL officer during the Vietnam War. He completed Officer Candidate School in Newport, Rhode Island, in 1967. He then received assignment to Naval Amphibious Base Coronado and subsequently completed Basic Underwater Demolition/SEAL (BUD/S) training with class 42 in December 1967. He received direct assignment to SEAL Team ONE, a separate organization from the Underwater Demolition Teams to which new personnel were normally assigned. After extensive pre-deployment training, Kerrey deployed to the Republic of Vietnam as assistant platoon commander with Delta Platoon, SEAL Team ONE in January 1969. He was seriously wounded and lost the lower part of his right leg in combat on Hon Tre island near Nha Trang Bay on March 14, 1969. While suffering shrapnel wounds and blood loss, Kerrey organized his squad in a counterattack that killed or captured enemy Viet Cong. He was later medically discharged from the US Navy due to his wounds. On May 14, 1970, President Richard Nixon awarded Kerrey the Medal of Honor for his heroic actions.
Medal of Honor citation
His Medal of Honor citation reads:
Thanh Phong raid
In 2001, The New York Times Magazine and 60 Minutes II carried reports on an incident that occurred during Kerrey's Vietnam War service. On February 25, 1969, he led a Swift Boat raid on the isolated peasant village of Thanh Phong, Vietnam, targeting a Viet Cong leader who intelligence suggested would be present. The village was considered part of a free-fire zone by the U.S. military.
Kerrey's SEAL team first encountered a villager's house. Later, according to Kerrey, the team was shot at from the village and returned fire, only to find after the battle that some of the killed appeared to be under 18, clustered together in the center of the village. "The thing that I will remember until the day I die is walking in and finding, I don't know, 14 or so, I don't even know what the number was, women and children who were dead", Kerrey said in 1998. "I was expecting to find Viet Cong soldiers with weapons, dead. Instead I found women and children." Kerry denied personally participating in the operation, but admitted to his own complicity. In contrast, Gerhard Klann, a member of Kerrey's SEAL team, gave a different version independently supported by a separate interview with Vietnamese woman Pham Tri Lanh. According to Klann, the team rounded up the women and children from hooches (shelters) and decided to "kill them and get out of there", for fear that they would alert enemy soldiers. Kerrey responded to Klann's account by stating "it's not my memory of it", and accused Klann of being jealous that Kerrey had not assisted him in obtaining a Medal of Honor for a later mission.
Kerrey expressed anguish and guilt over the incident, saying: "You can never, can never get away from it. It darkens your day. I thought dying for your country was the worst thing that could happen to you, and I don't think it is. I think killing for your country can be a lot worse. Because that's the memory that haunts." He was awarded a Bronze Star for the raid on Thanh Phong. The citation for the medal reads, "The net result of his patrol was 21 Viet Cong killed, two hooches destroyed and two enemy weapons captured." A display at the War Remnants Museum in Ho Chi Minh City is based on the incident. It includes several photos and a drain pipe, which it describes as the place where three children hid before they were found and killed.
Business career
After his military service, Kerrey pursued a business career. From 1972 to 1982, he owned and operated Grandmother's Inc. a chain of restaurants known as Grandmother's Skillet. Another company, Kerrey Holdings, included several fitness centers and a bowling alley. After he ceded active management to his brother in law in 1983, the businesses grew to include 10 restaurants, three fitness centers, a bowling alley, and other enterprises. Kerrey's other ventures included trading in cattle futures and a partnership that invested in commercial real estate including shopping centers.
While engaged in his business career, Kerrey gained his initial political experience. These activities included working on a 1971 voter registration drive with anti-war activist Allard K. Lowenstein. Kerrey also managed a friend's successful campaign for a seat in the state legislature. In addition, he served as a member of the city of Lincoln's Human Rights Commission.
Governor of Nebraska
In 1982, Kerrey ran for Governor of Nebraska; he easily won the Democratic nomination 71 percent to 29 over state senator George "Bill" Burrows, then achieved a narrow victory over incumbent Republican Charles Thone, 51 percent to 49. He served as one term, 1983 to 1987, and did not run for reelection in 1986. During his governorship, Kerrey pursued policies including welfare reform, education reform, job training, and environmental conservation. Several of these programs became models for other states and the federal government.
In 1986, Kerrey served as chair of the Midwestern Governors Association. As governor, he was known for his transparency and criticism of "politics as usual" obfuscating and clichés. He was the subject of nationwide news coverage in July 1986, when he ordered the Nebraska State Patrol to halt a train after the federal government failed to notify him of a rail shipment of nuclear waste that would pass through Nebraska, and directed the Nebraska Army National Guard to park a tank on the tracks at the Kansas-Nebraska border to ensure that the train did not proceed. After Kerrey's chief of staff and the head of the state patrol met with federal authorities in Kansas, the train was allowed to proceed, with representatives of the federal government agreeing to notify state officials of the dates, times and routes for similar trains in the future.
U.S. Senate
Elections
1988
In 1988, Kerrey ran for the U.S. Senate seat held by recently appointed incumbent Republican David Karnes. He won the Democratic primary with 92% of the vote. In the general election, he defeated Karnes 57%–42%.
1994
Kerrey won re-election to a second term defeating businesswoman Jan Stoney 55%–45%
2012
Kerrey ran again for his old Senate seat after the retirement of Incumbent Democratic Senator Ben Nelson in 2012, but was defeated by Republican candidate State Senator Deb Fischer.
Tenure
Senator Kerrey was a member of the Agriculture Committee and the Finance Committee, and was a member of the Appropriations Committee from 1989 to 1996. He also served as vice chairman of the Intelligence Committee from 1995 to 1999. He was the chairman of the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee for the 104th Congress before retiring in 2001.
Kerrey voted for the Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act which repealed the Glass–Steagall Act in 1999, defending his position against opposition by stating, "The concerns that we will have a meltdown like 1929 are dramatically overblown". Most famously, Kerrey cast the deciding vote in favor of President Bill Clinton's 1993 budget plan.
9/11 Commission
After his retirement from the Senate, Kerrey served on the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, commonly known as the 9/11 Commission. The commission was created by Congressional legislation to investigate the circumstances of the attacks on September 11, 2001, and to provide recommendations of actions that could help prevent future similar attacks. It was a bipartisan commission of five Democrats and five Republicans. The commission issued its final report, the 9/11 Commission Report on July 22, 2004.
Kerrey criticized the 2014 Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture as "unfair" and "partisan".
1992 presidential election
In September 1991, Kerrey announced his candidacy for the 1992 Democratic nomination for president. In a small field of five second-tier candidates devoid of an early frontrunner, Kerrey was seen as the early favorite. However, his performance on the campaign trail sometimes seemed lackluster, especially in comparison to that of Arkansas governor Bill Clinton.
Kerrey finished third in the New Hampshire primary in February 1992, despite spending heavily on television advertising. He briefly rebounded after winning the South Dakota primary but soon dropped out of the race after finishing fourth in the Colorado primary. Kerrey was on Clinton's "short list" of vice presidential candidates, but Tennessee Senator Al Gore received the nod instead.
The New School
Kerrey served as President of the New School from 2001 to 2010. During this time he more than doubled the endowment, taking it from $94 million in 2001 to $206 million. He also secured substantial federal funding for the school. Both of these factors helped the New School accomplish major academic growth and expansion in the decade that Kerrey was president.
Kerrey presided over an ambitious program of academic development at the university. Under his leadership, the university launched numerous new academic programs, including several joint degree programs. Enrollment increased by 44% to over 10,200, and online course enrollment doubled. He also oversaw an increase in the size of the faculty. The number of full-time faculty members grew from 156 in 2001 to more than 372 in 2009. He also helped to establish the Faculty Senate, which allowed the school to set university-wide standards for promotion, hiring, and faculty evaluation. Additionally, tenure was instituted for all academic departments.
On April 14, 2005, Kerrey announced that the university was changing its name from "New School University" to "The New School", and rebranding its eight divisions as specialized, separate entities serving different constituencies.
On April 17, 2005, a week after accepting a position as head of Democrats for Bloomberg in support of Michael Bloomberg's re-election as Mayor of New York City, Kerrey publicly stated that he was considering running against Bloomberg in the 2005 New York City mayoral election. Three days after announcing his interest, Kerrey announced that he would not run for Mayor, focusing instead on his position as President of the New School.
On December 10, 2008, it was announced that Kerrey had received a vote of no confidence from the university's senior faculty. This was perceived to have come as a response to his management style. The no-confidence vote was largely a symbolic gesture. The Board of Trustees offered their unanimous support for Kerrey at a meeting following the faculty vote.
On December 16, 2008, dozens of students took over the cafeteria in the 65 5th Avenue building; as the occupation continued, the group grew into hundreds of students from the New School, other New York City based universities, labor union members, and other supporters. Initially, the students stated that they would not leave the building unless several school officials resigned. Kerrey attempted to have a discussion with the students at the beginning of the occupation, but the students voted down that option. The occupation ended after 30 hours when the two parties accepted a treaty; Kerrey agreed to amnesty for the students involved in the occupation, more student space, and more student input in school investments and decision making.
Early in the morning of April 10, 2009, 19 students took over the 65 5th Avenue building, erecting an anarchist flag and demanding once again that Kerrey resign. A few hours later, about 20 police officers entered the building, arresting 22 students and ending the occupation after five hours.
In December 2012, the Chronicle of Higher Education reported that in 2010, the year of his anticipated departure, his salary was more than $600,000, and his total take-home pay, including bonuses, deferred compensation and nontaxable benefits, was $3,047,703, making Kerrey the highest-paid private college president in the United States.
Kerrey's time as president concluded on January 1, 2011. He was succeeded by David E. Van Zandt. Kerrey was then appointed President Emeritus.
Fulbright University Vietnam
While visiting Vietnam in May 2016, then Secretary of State John Kerry announced that the United States had appointed Kerrey to be chairman of the Board of Trustees of Fulbright University Vietnam. This announcement unleashed a heated controversy, in view of Kerrey's role in the Thạnh Phong massacre of 1969.
Outspoken Vietnamese critics of the appointment of Kerrey included Tôn Nữ Thị Ninh, a former ambassador to the European Union, and the award-winning Vietnamese-American author Viet Thanh Nguyen. On the other hand, Kerrey's appointment was endorsed by Đinh La Thăng, who at that time was Communist Party Secretary of Ho Chi Minh City and a member of the Politburo, but in January 2018 was tried, convicted, and sentenced to 13 years in prison on corruption charges.
In May 2018, H. Kim Bottomly, former president of Wellesley College, was appointed to succeed Kerrey.
Return to politics
2012 U.S. Senate election
On December 27, 2011, Political Wire reported that Ben Nelson, who had succeeded Kerrey in the Senate, would not seek re-election, and asserted that Kerrey was in talks with senior Democrats about the possibility of replacing him. The Washington Post reported that Kerrey would neither confirm nor deny the rumor. American Crossroads had been running advertisements critical of Kerrey's potential Nebraska Senate run, focusing on the fact that Kerrey had been living in New York for the last ten years. Kerrey responded to the ads with an invitation for Karl Rove to eat at one of Kerrey's restaurants in Nebraska, or to work out at one of his gyms that he owns in that state. On February 27, 2012, The Washington Post reported that Kerrey had earlier decided against a run, but that an aide had confirmed that he was now filing to seek election to his old Senate seat. He won the May 15 Democratic primary against four minor candidates. However, he was defeated on November 6 by Republican state senator Deb Fischer. Kerrey narrowly won the state's two largest counties, Douglas and Lancaster—home to Omaha and Lincoln, respectively—but only won three other counties. His margin in Omaha and Lincoln was not nearly enough to overcome Fischer's margin in the more rural parts of the state.
Circinus
Kerrey works closely as an advisor to Elliott Broidy's firm Circinus, a paramilitary firm Broidy purchased in 2014 which has large contracts with the United Arab Emirates.
Personal life
While he was Governor of Nebraska, Kerrey dated actress Debra Winger while the latter was in Lincoln filming Terms of Endearment (part of which is set in Nebraska), which won the 1983 Oscar for Best Picture. When confronted with intense questioning by the press over the nature of the relationship, Kerrey famously replied; "What can I sayshe swept me off my foot", alluding to the fact that the lower part of one of his legs was amputated because of injuries sustained in his Medal of Honor action in Vietnam.
Kerrey is friends with fellow Vietnam veteran Jim Webb. In 2006 he became involved in convincing Webb to run for the US Senate. Webb entered the Virginia Democratic Primary, and Kerrey volunteered to serve as Webb's National Finance Chair. Webb went on to win the extremely close election in Virginia, defeating George Allen. Kerrey has also endorsed and appeared at campaign events for, Al Franken in his bid for the U.S. Senate in Minnesota.
Kerrey married Sarah Paley in 2001. They have a son, Henry. He has two children from his previous marriage: Ben and Lindsey. He has multiple grandchildren, including Will, Evelyn, and Thomas Kerrey.
A 2012 The New York Times op-ed by columnist Frank Bruni states that Kerrey describes himself as an agnostic.
On September 9, 2008, a pedestrian bridge connecting Omaha, Nebraska with Council Bluffs, Iowa was named in Kerrey's honor by the Omaha City Council.
In 2011, Kerrey was awarded an Honorary Doctorate from The New School.
In 2016, Kerrey received an honorary doctorate and delivered the postgraduate commencement address for Southern New Hampshire University.
Awards and decorations
Medals and ribbons
See also
List of Medal of Honor recipients for the Vietnam War
Bob Kerrey Pedestrian Bridge
Notes
References
by Gregory L. Vistica, New York Times Magazine, April 25, 2001
Clinton, Bill (2005). My Life. Vintage. .
Further reading
Kerrey, Robert. When I Was a Young Man: A Memoir. New York: Harcourt, Inc., 2002.
Vistica, Gregory L. The Education of Lieutenant Kerrey. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2003.
External links
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Candidates in the 1992 United States presidential election
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Iommi
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Tony Iommi
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Anthony Frank Iommi Jr. (, ; born 19 February 1948) is an English-Italian musician. He co-founded the pioneering heavy metal band Black Sabbath, and was the band's guitarist, leader and primary composer and sole continuous member for nearly five decades. Iommi was ranked number 13 in Rolling Stone magazine's 2023 list of greatest guitarists of all time.
On his last day of work in a sheet metal factory, as a teenager, Iommi lost the tips of the middle and ring fingers of his right hand in an accident, an event which crucially impacted his playing style. He briefly left Black Sabbath (then known as Earth) in 1968 to join Jethro Tull, but did not record any material with the band, and subsequently returned to Black Sabbath in 1969. In 2000, he released his first solo album Iommi, followed by 2005's Fused, which featured his former bandmate Glenn Hughes. After releasing Fused, he formed Heaven & Hell, which disbanded shortly after the death of Ronnie James Dio in 2010 (they toured on Black Sabbath songs when Dio was in the band but changed the name for legal reasons).
In 2011, Iommi published his autobiography, entitled Iron Man: My Journey Through Heaven and Hell with Black Sabbath.
Early life
Iommi was born at Heathfield Road Maternity Hospital in Birmingham, the only child of Italian immigrants Sylvia Maria (née Valenti) from Palermo, Sicily, and Anthony Frank Iommi Sr from Marche. Sylvia's family were vineyard owners in Italy. The family was Catholic, though they rarely attended Mass. Their family home in the Park Lane area of Aston also housed a shop which was a popular meeting place in the neighbourhood, with the living room doubling as the shop's stockroom. His mother ran the shop while his father was a carpenter by trade.
Born and raised in Handsworth, Birmingham, Iommi attended Birchfield Road School, where future bandmate Ozzy Osbourne was also a pupil one year behind him. At age 8 or 9, while being chased by another boy, Iommi fell and cut his upper lip. As a result, he gained the nickname "Scarface", which made him self-conscious, so he eventually grew his trademark moustache as a means of covering the scar.
At about age 10, Iommi began working out and learned judo, karate, and later boxing as a means of protecting himself from the local gangs which congregated in his neighbourhood. He envisioned a future as a bouncer in a nightclub. Iommi initially wanted to play the drums, but due to the excessive noise he chose the guitar instead as a teenager, after being inspired by the likes of Hank Marvin and the Shadows. He has always played guitar left-handed. After completing school, Iommi worked briefly as a plumber and later in a factory manufacturing rings. He stated that at one point he worked in a music store, but quit after being falsely accused of stealing.
Factory accident
At the age of 17, Iommi lost the tips of the middle and ring fingers of his right hand (his fret-board hand, since he is left-handed) in an industrial accident on his last day of work in a sheet metal factory. Iommi described how he "was told 'you'll never play again'. It was just unbelievable. I sat in the hospital with my hand in this bag and I thought, that's it – I'm finished. But eventually I thought 'I'm not going to accept that. There must be a way I can play'." After the injury, Iommi's factory foreman played him a recording of famous jazz guitarist Django Reinhardt, which encouraged him to continue as a musician. As Iommi later wrote:
Inspired by Reinhardt's two-fingered guitar playing, Iommi decided to try playing guitar again, though the injury made it quite painful to do so. Although it was an option, Iommi never seriously considered switching hands and learning to play right-handed. In an interview with Guitar World magazine, he was asked if he was "ever tempted to switch to right-handed playing." Iommi responded:
He ultimately decided to continue playing left-handed. To do so, he fitted homemade thimbles to his injured fingers to extend and protect them; the thimbles were made from an old Fairy Liquid bottle – "melted it down, got a hot soldering iron and shaped it like a finger" – and cut sections from a leather jacket to cover his new homemade prosthetic, which created two technical problems. First, the thimbles prevented him from feeling the strings, causing a tendency to press down very hard on them. Second, he had difficulty bending strings, leading him to seek light-gauge guitar strings to make it easier to do so. However, Iommi recalls that such strings were not manufactured at the time, so he used banjo strings instead, until around 1970–71 when Picato Strings began making light-gauge guitar strings. Furthermore, he used the injured fingers predominantly for fretting chords rather than single-note solos. In 1974, Iommi told Guitar Player magazine that the thimbles "helped with his technique" because he had to use his little finger more than he had before the accident. Later, he also began tuning his guitar to lower pitches, sometimes as far as three semitones below standard guitar tuning (e.g., on "Children of the Grave", "Lord of this World", and "Into the Void", all on the album Master of Reality). Although Iommi states that the main purpose of doing so was to create a "bigger, heavier sound", slackening the strings makes it easier to bend them.
Iommi reflected in 2016 saying that his greatest regret is losing his fingertips.
Career
Pre-Black Sabbath
Iommi had played in several blues/rock bands, one of the earliest of which was the Rockin' Chevrolets from 1964 to 1965. The band had regular bookings. Iommi later joined The Birds And Bees, and when they were offered work in Germany, Iommi decided to leave his factory job to take up the opportunity. From 1966 to 1967, Iommi played in a band named the Rest. It was in the Rest that Iommi first met future-Black Sabbath drummer Bill Ward, who played drums and sang in the band.
From January until July 1968 Iommi was guitarist in Mythology, with Ward joining a month later in mid-February. In May 1968 police raided the group's practice flat and found cannabis resin, which resulted in fines for the band members. Most significantly, the incident made it quite difficult for the band to secure future bookings as most club owners avoided bands they viewed as drug users. Mythology subsequently split up after a gig in Silloth on 13 July 1968.
In August 1968 at the same time as the break-up of Mythology, another Birmingham band called Rare Breed also broke up. Vocalist Ozzy Osbourne joined with Iommi and Ward after the duo responded to an advert in a local music shop proclaiming "Ozzy Zig Requires Gig – has own PA". Requiring a bassist, Osbourne mentioned his former Rare Breed bandmate Geezer Butler, who was subsequently hired along with slide guitarist Jimmy Phillips and saxophonist Alan "Aker" Clarke. The six-piece band were named the Polka Tulk Blues Band. After just two gigs (the last of which was at the Banklands Youth Club in Workington), Phillips and Clarke were dismissed from the band, which soon after shortened its name to Polka Tulk.
Earth and Jethro Tull
Iommi, Butler, Ward, and Osbourne renamed the band Earth in September 1968. The same month Iommi briefly departed to join Jethro Tull. However, after only two performances (an appearance on "The Rolling Stones Rock & Roll Circus" in which the band mimed "A Song for Jeffrey" while Ian Anderson sang live, and a live appearance at BBC), Iommi was back with Earth in November 1968.
Concerning his brief working relationship with Jethro Tull vocalist Ian Anderson, Iommi said:
Black Sabbath
In August 1969, after being confused with another group named Earth (who had minor success in England), the group renamed themselves Black Sabbath. His factory accident affected the Black Sabbath sound; Iommi had detuned his guitar by 1971's Master of Reality album, lowering string tension and easing the pain to his fingertips. Black Sabbath bassist Geezer Butler did the same to match Iommi. Sabbath was among the first bands to detune, and the technique became a mainstay of heavy metal music. Iommi combined blues-like guitar solos and dark, minor-key riffing with a revolutionary high-gain, heavily distorted tone with his use of power chords, a modified treble-boosting effect-pedal and a Gibson SG.
By the late 1970s, Black Sabbath were experiencing problematic substance use, managerial problems, and touring exhaustion. In addition, the band's slow, blues-driven riffs were seen by some as outmoded against the rising generation of metal bands such as Judas Priest and Motörhead. After the albums Technical Ecstasy and Never Say Die! were not universally critically well received, Iommi and Butler decided that Sabbath needed a fresh start so, in the summer of 1979, they replaced Osbourne with Ronnie James Dio, the former vocalist for Rainbow. With Dio, Black Sabbath produced Heaven and Hell, an album that attempted to update Black Sabbath's sound for the 1980s and include the soaring vocals that characterised the NWOBHM (New wave of British heavy metal) scene. Halfway through the 1980 tour, Bill Ward dropped out due to alcohol problems and displeasure with the direction that Dio was taking the band. He was replaced by Vinny Appice. With Iommi and Geezer Butler the only original members, this line-up produced Mob Rules. Dio quit the following year to begin a solo career, so Sabbath went through a revolving door line-up for the next decade with a succession of frontmen: Ian Gillan, Glenn Hughes, Ray Gillen, and Tony Martin. After Ian Gillan (formerly of Deep Purple) departed the band in 1984, Geezer Butler left as well. With Sabbath in effective hiatus, Iommi recorded his first solo album, entitled Seventh Star. The album featured Glenn Hughes (also formerly of Deep Purple) on vocals, but due to label pressures, it was billed as a release by "Black Sabbath featuring Tony Iommi".
In 1992, Iommi appeared at the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert, playing four songs with the remaining members of Queen and other guest artists. Geezer Butler also returned to Sabbath that year. In the following year Iommi teamed up with fellow Black Country band Diamond Head and co-wrote the song "Starcrossed (Lovers in the Night)" for their 1993 Death and Progress album. At Osbourne's "farewell" concert at Costa Mesa in 1992, Dio refused to perform and abruptly left the band. As a result, Rob Halford was recruited to perform as the vocalist for two gigs (Halford also sang at one of the dates on the 2004 Ozzfest tour, when Osbourne couldn't perform due to bronchitis). Following Osbourne's solo set, the show concluded with the other members of the original Black Sabbath line-up joining for a 4-song reunion.
Black Sabbath went on to record two further albums with Tony Martin before the original line-up reunited as a touring band in 1997. While Bill Ward played at the two initial reunion shows at Birmingham NEC in December 1997, he was not present for the following two reunion tours, his second absence due to a heart attack. Ward was replaced by Mike Bordin and then Vinny Appice.
On 11 November 2011, Black Sabbath announced that they would be reuniting with the original line-up and would be recording a new album. Bill Ward did not participate and was eventually replaced by Rage Against the Machine drummer Brad Wilk for drum sessions. The new album, 13, was released in June 2013. They disbanded at the conclusion of The End Tour in early 2017.
On 9 September 2022, Iommi was featured as a guitarist for two tracks on Ozzy Osbourne's album Patient Number 9. On 8 August 2022, Iommi reunited with Osbourne to play at the closing ceremony of the 2022 Commonwealth Games in their home city of Birmingham. They were joined by 2017 Black Sabbath touring musicians Tommy Clufetos and Adam Wakeman for a medley of "Iron Man" and "Paranoid". Iommi was also involved in the opening ceremony on 28 July 2022, where he played guitar on a song called "Hear My Voice" performed by British saxophonist and rapper Soweto Kinch.
Solo career
In 2000, Iommi released his first proper solo album, titled Iommi. The album featured several guest vocalists including Ian Astbury, Skin, Henry Rollins, Serj Tankian, Dave Grohl, Billy Corgan, Phil Anselmo, Peter Steele, and Osbourne. In late 2004 Iommi's second solo album was released, entitled The 1996 DEP Sessions. This album was originally recorded in 1996 but was never officially released. However, a copy with a drum track by Dave Holland was available as a bootleg called Eighth Star. Glenn Hughes performed vocals on the album and he furthered his collaboration with Hughes with the release of his third solo album, Fused. Released on 12 July 2005, John Mellencamp drummer Kenny Aronoff completed the trio on the album.
Iommi has signed with Mike Fleiss's movie production company Next Films to score a series of horror films entitled Black Sabbath.
Since 1989 Tony Iommi was involved in the Rock Aid Armenia project. In October 2009 Iommi and his colleague Ian Gillan were awarded the Orders of Honor – Armenia's highest order, which were delivered to them by the Prime Minister of Armenia for their help after the Spitak earthquake. They formed the supergroup WhoCares and recorded a single called "Out of my Mind", which was released 6 May 2011 for the benefit of the music school to be built in Gyumri, Armenia. In January 2012, when Iommi was announced to have stage 3 lymphoma, the Armenian Prime Minister sent a letter of support: "We know your spirit is strong as ever, and we do believe the genius of your inspiration that guides you through the work on the new Black Sabbath album will transform into a boost of strength and energy that you need now, when things look tough".
Heaven & Hell
In October 2006 it was reported that Iommi would tour with Ronnie James Dio, Geezer Butler and Bill Ward again, but under the name Heaven & Hell. Later it was announced that Ward had decided not to participate and Vinny Appice was hired as his replacement. Rhino Records released The Dio Years (under the 'Black Sabbath' moniker) album on 3 April 2007. The album showcased older tracks with Dio and also included three brand new songs recorded with Dio and Appice.
The band started an American tour in April 2007 with Megadeth and Down as opening acts. The tour finished in November in England with the prospect of an album to follow in 2008. During this period the band's show at the New York Radio City Music Hall was released as both a live DVD and CD with a vinyl release in the UK in 2008. During the summer of 2008 the band embarked on the Metal Masters Tour along with Judas Priest, Motörhead and Testament. The band's first and only studio album, The Devil You Know, was released on 28 April 2009.
In November 2008 Iommi had a star revealed on the Birmingham Walk of Stars. Dio died of stomach cancer in May 2010, and on 14 June 2010, Iommi announced that Heaven & Hell would perform a one-off tribute to Ronnie James Dio at the High Voltage Festival, London on 24 July 2010. This was the band's last performance under the name.
Eurovision Song Contest
Iommi wrote the song "Lonely Planet" which was sung by Dorians for Armenia in the 2013 Eurovision Song Contest.
Personal life
Iommi purchased his first house in Stafford, England, in 1972. He also purchased an adjacent property for his parents. Iommi has been married four times:
In late 1973, Iommi married Susan Snowdon, to whom he had been introduced by Black Sabbath's then-manager Patrick Meehan. The song "Fluff", one of Iommi's instrumental compositions later released on the Sabbath Bloody Sabbath album, was played as Snowdon walked down the aisle. Led Zeppelin drummer John Bonham was Iommi's best man for the ceremony. The marriage lasted for three years. Iommi said in a 1991 Guitar World interview that the troubled recording and mixing of Black Sabbath's 1976 album Technical Ecstasy contributed to the end of his marriage.
Iommi married American model Melinda Diaz in 1980. They had a daughter, Toni-Marie Iommi, in 1983, who was the vocalist for the now-defunct band LunarMile. Iommi divorced Melinda in the mid-1980s. When Toni-Marie was 12 years old, Iommi won custody of her after she was placed in foster care. Toni-Marie has described her early childhood with a mentally unbalanced mother as difficult but says that her father finally "saved her". She has stated that with her father she was able to regain her trust in other people. Mikko "Linde" Lindström, guitarist with Finnish band HIM, became engaged to Toni-Marie in August 2010. In 2013, the couple were reported to have broken-up.
In 1986–1987, Iommi met an English woman named Valery, and after a six-year relationship they married. She had a son from a previous relationship named Jay. They divorced in the late 90s. Iommi confirmed in the same Guitar World interview referenced above (a co-interview with Metallica's James Hetfield) that he has a son. He told Hetfield regarding the band's so-called "Black Album", that "my son gave me a copy of your latest album...".
In 2005, Iommi married Maria Sjöholm, formerly vocalist for Swedish alternative metal band Drain STH. They met around 1998, when Tony was working on music for Drain STH. After a year of talking on the phone, in 1999, Maria relocated to England and moved into Tony's home. On 19 August 2005, without telling anyone, Maria and Tony married at the Sunset Marquis hotel. On page 312 of his book, Tony calls the low-key wedding the "Best thing I ever did!"
During the mid-1980s Iommi was briefly engaged to rock musician Lita Ford, formerly of The Runaways. Iommi co-produced her solo album The Bride Wore Black, which to date remains unreleased. Ford herself has said that her involvement with him during that period was strictly personal and that he had no involvement in the half-finished album. She said in a 1989 Kerrang! interview that "there's a certain amount of bad blood between Tony and I."
On 19 November 2013, Iommi received an Honorary Doctorate of Arts degree from Coventry University. The honorary degree came "in recognition of his contribution to the world of popular music", and recognised "his role as one of the founding fathers of heavy metal music and his status as one of the industry's most influential figures", the university said. Iommi is also a visiting professor of music at Coventry University.
Iommi holds dual British and Italian citizenship, acquiring the latter due to his parents.
Health
In early 2012, Iommi was diagnosed with the early stages of lymphoma, for which he underwent successful treatment. Black Sabbath's 2013 tour dates were arranged so that Iommi was free to return to the UK once every six weeks to have an antibody administered. On 3 January 2014, in a New Year message, Iommi announced that he would be finishing his regular treatment some time that year. A few months later, Black Sabbath announced that due to Iommi's health issues, they were undertaking their final tour. Tony Iommi announced that his cancer was in remission.
According to a report in Rolling Stone magazine from 9 December 2016, Iommi revealed that he was due to have an operation to remove a lump from his throat. In an early 2017 interview with the UK radio show Planet Rock, Iommi explained that the lump was not cancerous.
Religion
Iommi said in 2016 that he believed in God and was a Catholic, but that he had not attended church services since childhood. In January 2017, a choral work by Iommi entitled "How Good It Is" – with lyrics inspired by Psalm 133 – received its debut performance at Birmingham Cathedral. Catherine Ogle, the Dean of Birmingham, said, "This is a most wonderful gift Tony offered to the cathedral." Despite this, Iommi clarified to NBC News that "How Good It Is" wasn't anything to do with religion: "I don't follow any religious path... religiously", he stated.
In his autobiography, Tony writes that his parents were Catholics but weren't regular churchgoers. He continues, 'I hardly go to church either. I wouldn't know what to do there. I actually do believe in a God, but I don't feel that I have to press the point.'
Legacy and influence
Tony Iommi is widely considered to be one of the greatest rock guitarists of all time. In 2005, Metal Hammer magazine ranked him number 1 on the poll of the "Riff Lords", praising his "highly distinctive style of fretsmanship that's economical yet crushingly effective". In 2007, Classic Rock magazine ranked him number 6 on their list of the "100 Wildest Guitar Heroes". In 2011, Rolling Stone magazine ranked him number 25 in their list of the "100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time". Joel McIver ranked him the 6th greatest metal guitarist of all time. In 2012, readers of Guitar World ranked Iommi the seventh-greatest rock guitarist of all time. Editors of the same magazine ranked him the greatest heavy metal guitarist of all time.
Iommi has won a number of awards. These include Q Awards (Gibson Les Paul Award, 2015), Kerrang! Awards (Icon, 2018), as well as three Grammy Awards won as a member of Black Sabbath.
Ian Anderson of Jethro Tull has said: "Tony managed to turn his physical impairment around into something that makes him one of the guitar legends – if not for his dexterity of playing but at least for the fact that his contribution to rock music is a unique one". Gene Simmons of Kiss regards him as "the man who came up with the riffs that launched an army of guitar players"; Ozzy Osbourne calls him "the master of the metal riff" and Ronnie James Dio called him "the ultimate riff master".
Furthermore, Iommi is recognised by many as the main creator of heavy metal music. Brian May of Queen considers him "the true father of heavy metal", Eddie Van Halen stated that "without Tony, heavy metal wouldn't exist. He is the creator of heavy!" and James Hetfield of Metallica, who was profoundly influenced by Iommi, defines him "The king of the heavy riff". Rob Halford, vocalist for Judas Priest, when filling in for Ozzy Osbourne during an August 2004 concert in Philadelphia, introduced Iommi to the audience as "The man who invented the heavy metal riff". Michael Amott of Carcass and Arch Enemy considers Iommi his "guitar hero" and the world's greatest guitarist "because he invented the heavy tone and evil riff". According to Lamb of God singer Randy Blythe, "Iommi is the reason heavy metal exists". HP Newquist of the National Guitar Museum stated that "His guitar playing has defined the sound of heavy metal for more than four decades, and he has influenced countless thousands—if not millions—of players."
He has been credited as the forerunner of other styles: Martin Popoff defines him "the godfather of stoner rock"; Jeff Kitts and Brad Tolinski of Guitar World assert that "grunge, goth, thrash, industrial, death, doom... whatever. None of it would exist without Tony Iommi". According to Hawaii Public Radio: "it is hard to imagine Nirvana, Soundgarden, Pearl Jam or Alice in Chains without Black Sabbath, and without Tony Iommi. Judas Priest, Iron Maiden, Scorpions, Metallica, Slayer, Pantera and essentially every metal band can be traced to the musical framework found in Iommi compositions".
Many notable musicians count Iommi as a major influence on their own playing; some of them include Jeff Hanneman (Slayer), Dimebag Darrell (Pantera), Slash (Guns N' Roses, Velvet Revolver), Scott Ian (Anthrax), Zakk Wylde (Ozzy Osbourne, Black Label Society), Tom Morello (Rage Against the Machine), Billy Corgan (The Smashing Pumpkins), Kim Thayil (Soundgarden), and Nick Oliveri (Kyuss, Queens of the Stone Age). Jerry Cantrell of Alice in Chains was strongly influenced by Iommi's dark bendings, which he uses often. Andy LaRocque of King Diamond said that the clean guitar part of "Sleepless Nights" from the Conspiracy album is inspired by Iommi's playing on Never Say Die!.
Equipment
Iommi's deep and heavy sound was partly born out of necessity—his "revolutionary signature sound" being the result of the accident and the subsequent downtuning by three semitones. He said that his "extreme volume" was likewise necessary, "because we were fed up with people talking over us while we were playing."
Guitars
Jaydee Custom SGs
Built in Birmingham by luthier John Diggins sometime between 1975 and 1978, the guitar was first used for overdubs on the 'Heaven and Hell' album and later became one of Iommi's main guitars. The guitar is equipped with a 24 fret neck with custom cross inlays, four control knobs (three of which are functional), a disconnected second output jack, a hole for a master volume knob on the pick guard covered up with a black stopper and a highly distressed finish. He had two more built for him. One was made to the same specifications of his first Jaydee SG with a red finish. Another one was made and used during the Born Again era, which can be seen on the music videos for "Trashed" and "Zero the Hero". The differences are the finish, headstock, use of a stoptail bridge, and use of rail humbuckers, as opposed to the 18-pole humbuckers on his two other versions.
Gibson SG, aka "Monkey"
A 1965 Gibson SG Special in red finish fitted with a Gibson P-90 pick-up in the bridge position and a custom-wound John Birch Simplux, a P-90 style single coil in the neck position. The guitar became Iommi's main instrument after his white Stratocaster's neck pick-up failed during the recording of Black Sabbath's self-titled album. It is currently on permanent display at the New York City Hard Rock Café.
Gibson Custom Shop SG
The guitar was built by the Gibson Custom Shop in Nashville after Iommi's specifications and finished in 1997. The guitar is one of two made as prototypes for the Gibson Custom Shop Limited Edition Iommi Special SG. The guitar features a neck with 24 frets and four control knobs, of which only two are active (much like his old Jaydee Custom guitar).
On 11 August 2010, Iommi announced on his website that this guitar was stolen from the RJD tribute show that Heaven & Hell performed at High Voltage on 24 July 2010. He is asking that anyone with information or leads let them know. He is offering a reward for its safe return.
Epiphone P94 Iommi SG
A stock Epiphone SG signature model in black finish fitted with P-94 pick-ups which is a version of the Gibson P-90 pick-up designed to fit into existing humbucker housings.
Gibson SG Standard
A regular left-handed version of the SG fitted with two extra frets to give Iommi the full two octaves which he prefers. The guitar is equipped with his signature pick-up. Iommi was the first guitarist to have a signature pick-up designed and built by Gibson. He also has another model fitted with a Floyd Rose floating tremolo.
Fender Stratocaster
Iommi played a Fender Stratocaster that was spraypainted white by Iommi and his father during the early days with Black Sabbath. However, the neck pick-up malfunctioned during the recording of their first album, so Iommi quickly turned to his backup Gibson SG to finish the record. Currently Iommi owns two Stratocasters, one of which has been modified with his signature pick-up in the bridge position.
St. Moritz Tony Iommi Custom SG
Custom built for Iommi by St. Moritz guitars, this is a replica of Iommi's Gibson SG "Monkey". It was used on the 13 album and for the tour.
BC Rich Ironbird
Custom built for Iommi by BC Rich. Features include Dimarzio pick-ups, two built-in preamps, scalloped fretboard and Iommi's trademark cross inlays. This guitar can be seen in Tony's Star Licks Video, for Star Licks Productions along with a left handed BC Rich mockingbird.
Gibson Barney Kessel
A rare left-handed version of the jazz guitarist Barney Kessel artist model, built sometime in the first half of the 1960s.
Epiphone Riviera 12 string
Originally a regular right-handed version in red finish that was converted by Epiphone to a left-handed version to fit Iommi.
LaBella custom gauge strings
Shure Wireless systems
A Gibson Tony Iommi Signature Pick Up has been available for the past two decades. The pick-up got its first 'blooding' on the Black Sabbath reunion/Ozzfest tour in the summer,of 1997, loaded into an SG that J.T. Riboloff of Gibson built. They also feature in the two SGs (one black and one red) that the Gibson Custom Shop built for Iommi in late 1997, as prototypes for the Tony Iommi special Custom Shop model. The pick-up is still in production, and available in silver, gold or black covers. It has been used in the Custom Shop models, the factory Iommi SG and most recently in the Epiphone Iommi SG.
Effects
Boss chorus pedal
Boss octave pedal
Dallas Rangemaster Treble Booster
Drawmer LX22 compressor
Korg DL8000R multi-tap delay
Korg SDD1000 rackmount delay
Peavey Addverb III
Tycobrahe wah pedal
Amplifiers
Laney TI100 Tony Iommi Signature: Current main amp. Two channel version of the GH100TI.
Laney GH 100 TI Tony Iommi Signature amplifiers: Iommi's main up from 1993 – early 2012.
ENGL Powerball Amplifiers: only used in 2009
Laney 4×12 cabinets
Various Marshall amplifiers: from early to mid-1980s to 1993, including 9005 Power Amplifiers and 9001 Preamps, 4×12" speaker cabinets, 2554 Silver Jubilee Combo, 2558 Silver Jubilee Combo, Paul Reed Smith modded JCM800 head. Marshall 1959 Super Lead modified by John "Dawk" Stillwell for Heaven and Hell and Mob Rules.
Laney Supergroup Heads: his main amplifier from 1968 to 1979. For Black Sabbath's 'The End' tour, Laney re-engineered the original Iommi amp, LA 100BL (Supergroup) and these amps were used throughout the tour.
Orange 1972 w/ 4x12 cab Only used for the filming of the music videos for Iron Man and Paranoid.
Laney Klipp: used on Master of Reality (Requires source verification?)
Mesa Boogie Mark series heads: from the mid-1980s to the early 1990s
Discography
Studio albums
Iommi (2000)
The 1996 DEP Sessions (2004)
Fused (2005)
Black Sabbath
Studio albums
Black Sabbath (1970)
Paranoid (1970)
Master of Reality (1971)
Vol. 4 (1972)
Sabbath Bloody Sabbath (1973)
Sabotage (1975)
Technical Ecstasy (1976)
Never Say Die! (1978)
Heaven and Hell (1980)
Mob Rules (1981)
Born Again (1983)
Seventh Star (1986)
The Eternal Idol (1987)
Headless Cross (1989)
Tyr (1990)
Dehumanizer (1992)
Cross Purposes (1994)
Forbidden (1995)
13 (2013)
Live albums
Live At Last (1980)
Live Evil (1982)
Cross Purposes Live (1995)
Reunion (1998)
Past Lives (2002)
Live at Hammersmith Odeon (2007)
Live... Gathered in Their Masses (2013)
The End: Live in Birmingham (2017)
with Heaven & Hell
Studio album
The Devil You Know (2009)
Live albums
Live from Radio City Music Hall (2007)
Neon Nights: 30 Years of Heaven & Hell (2010)
WhoCares
Studio album
Ian Gillan & Tony Iommi: WhoCares (2012)
References
Books
External links
Official Website
1948 births
Living people
British people of Italian descent
20th-century British guitarists
20th-century Roman Catholics
21st-century British guitarists
21st-century Roman Catholics
Black Sabbath members
English Roman Catholics
English autobiographers
English heavy metal guitarists
English people of Italian descent
English people of Sicilian descent
English rock guitarists
English male songwriters
Grammy Award winners
Heaven & Hell (band) members
Italian British musicians
Jethro Tull (band) members
Lead guitarists
Musicians from Birmingham, West Midlands
Musicians with disabilities
People from Handsworth, West Midlands
Blues rock musicians
English people with disabilities
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boy%20%28album%29
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Boy (album)
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Boy is the debut studio album by Irish rock band U2. It was produced by Steve Lillywhite and was released on 20 October 1980 by Island Records. Boy contains songs from the band's 40-song repertoire at the time, including two tracks that were re-recorded from their original versions on the group's debut release, the EP Three.
Boy was recorded from July to September 1980 at Dublin's Windmill Lane Studios, which became U2's chosen recording location during the 1980s. It was their first time working with Lillywhite, who employed non-standard production techniques, such as recording drummer Larry Mullen Jr. playing in a stairwell, and recording smashed bottles and cutlery skimmed against a spinning bicycle wheel. The band found Lillywhite to be very encouraging and creative, and he subsequently became a frequent producer of their recorded work. Thematically, the album's lyrics reflect on adolescence, innocence, and the passage into adulthood, themes represented on its cover artwork through the photo of a young boy's face.
Boy received generally positive reviews and included one of U2's first singles to receive airplay on US radio, "I Will Follow". The release was followed by the band's first tour of continental Europe and the US, the Boy Tour. The album peaked on the UK chart at number 52 in August 1981 and in the US at number 63. In 2003, Boy was ranked 417th on Rolling Stones list of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time". In 2008, a remastered edition of the record was released.
Background
Originally, Boy was slated to be produced by Martin Hannett, an in-demand producer at that time for his critically acclaimed work with Joy Division. Hannett had produced U2's first single with Island Records, "11 O'Clock Tick Tock", but the band did not enjoy working with him, and the prospect of him producing the album was abandoned by Island due to the band's objections. Hannett was also severely affected by the May 1980 suicide of Joy Division frontman Ian Curtis, the distress of which temporarily impaired his ability to work. Island A&R representative Nick Stewart said: "Martin by that stage was unwell; he seemed to be suffering from a little overdose of one thing or another."
Looking for a replacement producer, Island sent a copy of U2's first release, the EP Three (1979), to Steve Lillywhite to gauge his interest in working with them. Listening to the record, he "liked the voice" but thought "it didn't sound very good". Before deciding whether to work with the group, he wanted to see them perform live to figure out a potential creative approach he could take in studio. After visiting Ireland to attend a concert of theirs at a small school hall, Lillywhite was convinced to come on board, thinking, "Oh my God, there's something about this". He subsequently agreed to produce a single for them, "A Day Without Me". Although the song failed to chart, U2 found they could work amicably with Lillywhite and agreed to have him produce their debut studio album.
Recording
Boy was recorded at Windmill Lane Studios in Dublin from July to September 1980. Lillywhite was displeased with how the "A Day Without Me" single had sounded, particularly the drums, and decided to change how he recorded the band for the rest of the album. He found Windmill Lane Studios to be "very, very dead sounding" and thought it was more conducive to capturing quiet recordings of folk music than the energy of rock music; engineer Kevin Moloney concurred, calling the studio a "late '70s design, a very wooden dead kind of room". At that stage in his career, Lillywhite was interested in capturing "3D sound" that conveyed a perspective to the recording. While walking through the stone-walled reception area of the studio, he was impressed with how the space sounded and decided to record drummer Larry Mullen Jr.'s drum kit in the area's stairwell. Using microphones hung from the ceiling at the top of the stairwell, Lillywhite recorded what he described as "this wonderful clattery sound". They had to wait until the studio's receptionist went home in the evenings to record the drums, as the phone rang during the day. Even in the evenings, they were not allowed to disable the phone's ringer, resulting in it occasionally interrupting recording in the middle of a take. Mullen found the arrangement strange at first, as he was still acclimating to working with his bandmates together in a studio when Lillywhite set him up separate from the others.
Lillywhite employed a creative, experimental approach as the producer, recording smashed bottles and silverware skimmed against a spinning bicycle wheel for sound effects. The band found him to be very encouraging; lead vocalist Bono called him "such a breath of fresh air", while guitarist the Edge said he "had a great way of pulling the best out of everybody". The group's rhythm section struggled to keep time at that stage in their career, forcing Lillywhite and Moloney to spend extensive amounts of time at night splicing tape of the multi-track recordings to create drum loops that would be in time. Lillywhite recorded several bass parts played by Adam Clayton in order to teach Clayton the bassline that he ultimately wanted to be played. The approach necessitated Clayton recording many overdubs. With the band members still inexperienced at that point and manager Paul McGuinness giving them autonomy in their music-making process, Lillywhite speculated that he had more influence over the sound of Boy than any other producer of any other U2 album.
Some of the songs, including "An Cat Dubh" and "The Ocean", were written and recorded at the studio. Many of the songs were taken from the band's 40-song repertoire at the time, including "Stories for Boys", "Out of Control" and "Twilight". Without much studio time, the band quickly recorded each song, before spending a few hours on overdubs and moving onto the next song. Bono had not finalized his lyrics prior to the recording sessions; during the group's earlier live performances, he often changed lyrics from concert to concert, owing to his lack of interest in lyric writing. The procrastination forced him to finish missing couplets in the studio while his bandmates were busy recording guitars and percussion. Bono was displeased with the vocal performances that he gave in the studio when wearing headphones, and as a result, he changed his approach to sing into a handheld microphone in the control room while listening to playback of the music at high volume. After about six takes of each song, Lillywhite would edit together a composite vocal track of the best parts, after which Bono would listen back and replicate the results by singing another six takes.
Composition and songwriting
The Edge recorded all the songs using his Gibson Explorer guitar, and he drew inspiration from music he was listening to at the time, including Television and early Siouxsie and the Banshees. When asked by Elvis Costello about the band's musical influences at the time, the Edge explained: "I think we were influenced a lot by music that was rooted in Europe, the German sort of sensibility, the music of Neu! and Kraftwerk, which was about a different sort of way of using chord changes and a sort of nihilistic approach to the backbeat", "and the UK bands", "like [Siouxsie and] the Banshees, probably Echo & the Bunnymen" "and Magazine".
The album's theme is the psychological nature of the transition of adolescence from childhood to manhood, with lyrics and atmospheric music examining a dawn of sexuality ("An Cat Dubh"), the entry into adolescence ("Twilight"), mortality ("Out of Control"), the exile from one's past enforced by the passage of time ("Into the Heart"), mental disturbance ("The Electric Co.") and youthful ambition ("The Ocean"). "I Will Follow" focused on the trauma of the early death of Bono's mother when he was 14 years old.
The album's lyrics contain several literary references. For example, "Shadows and Tall Trees" takes its name from a chapter title in the dystopian William Golding novel Lord of the Flies, and "The Ocean" mentions Oscar Wilde's novel The Picture of Dorian Gray.
Artwork
The model boy on the cover is Peter Rowen, the younger brother of Guggi, Bono's friend and a former member of the Virgin Prunes. Peter also appeared on the covers of Three, War, The Best of 1980–1990, the unreleased Even Better than the Early Stuff, Early Demos and many singles. The photographer, Hugo McGuiness, and the sleeve designer, Steve Averill (a friend of Clayton), went on to work on several more U2 album covers.
For the American release and other international distributors, the album's cover image was changed, due to Island Records' fears that it could be perceived as pedophilic. The label's in-house designer Bruno Tilley commissioned artist and photographer Sandy Porter to design the new cover. The two were given a very limited budget, precluding them from traveling to U2 and taking photos of them, leaving them with little choice but to use press release photos of the four band members. Tilley visited Porter in London to collaborate on the cover. Porter's initial idea was to distort the press release images and create a "more graphic, stylised piece of artwork", leading to several experiments. These included: photocopying the images and pulling them during the scanning; using a photographic enlarger while moving the baseboard; and photographing the image prints using long exposure while moving them. The result of these processes gave Porter the "raw material" to continue, though some areas of the images did not distort well and were subsequently marked up with a black pen. Taking inspiration from the Lord of the Flies reference in the song "Shadows and Tall Trees", Porter selected four "rough and distorted images that had a feel how the sea washes and distorts marks in the sand". He then cut the images with a scalpel, spray mounted them, and further "copied, printed, touched up, recopied and printed" them onto high-contrast photographic paper.
Release
Boy was released on 20 October 1980 in the UK, and 3 March 1981 in the US. The album reached number 52 in the UK. In the US, it peaked at number 63 on the Billboard 200, but after the success of U2's later material, it re-entered the American charts for a lengthier spell. In the band's native Ireland, the album reached number 13, and it placed highest in Canada at number 12. The original releases of Boy sold nearly 200,000 copies.
"A Day Without Me" and "I Will Follow" were released as singles on 18 August and 24 October 1980, respectively. "I Will Follow" peaked at number 20 on the Billboard Top Tracks rock chart in the US, becoming a hit on college radio and establishing a buzz surrounding the group's debut.
The album's sexual overtones led to its enthusiastic acceptance in American gay clubs shortly after its release. Bono commented on this phenomenon, saying: "import copies got in and, as you know, in America a lot of music is broken in gay clubs and so we had a gay audience, a lot of people who were convinced the music was specifically for them. So there was a misconception if you like."
In 2008, a remastered edition of Boy was released, featuring remastered tracks, along with B-sides and rarities. Three different formats of the remaster were made available. The artwork for the remastered editions of the album was standardised worldwide to that of the 1980 UK release. For Record Store Day 2020, in commemoration of its 40th anniversary, the album was reissued on white vinyl in a limited edition of 10,000 copies.
Critical reception
Boy received generally favourable reviews. Paul Morley of NME called it "honest, direct and distinctive", adding that he found it "touching, precocious, full of archaic and modernist conviction". Betty Page of Sounds said that they "achieved a rare mixture of innocence and aggression", and described the album as "an overall feeling of loving care and energy intertwined with simplistic and direct hooks and chords". Lyndyn Barber from Melody Maker hailed it as a "rich" record, writing that "Boy is more than just a collection of good tracks assembled in an arbitrary order", and that it had "youthful innocence and confusion". Robin Denselow of The Guardian wrote that it was a "strong debut album", praising Lillywhite for helping U2 improve since a live show that the reviewer attended. Denselow said the group succeeded at their goal of achieving a balance of "power and sensitivity" and said the record "only needs slightly stronger melodies to be very impressive indeed". Time Outs critic Ian Birch hailed Boy as a "timely" album and said, "Firing off a tradition laid down by the likes of Magazine, [Siouxsie and] the Banshees and Joy Division, U2 have injected their own brand of grace and sinewy spaciousness to create a romanticism exactly right for those who sport chunky riffs and mackintoshes". Declan Lynch of Irish magazine Hot Press remarked that he found Boy "almost impossible to react negatively to". K.R. Walston of the Albuquerque Journal said that U2 "knows how to nurse a listener along, toying with tempo and chord structures just enough to sound original but not overly avant garde". The review concluded, "the future shines brightly for bands like this".
Terry Atkinson of the Los Angeles Times called Boy a "subtly ravishing first album, by turns pretty, propulsive, playful and irresistably catchy", while further describing it as "supple and melodic, but tough and vital as well". Atkinson believed that the lyrics had "occasionally trite or vague passages" but were transcended by Bono's "heartfelt, soaring vocals". Sean McAdam of The Boston Globe described it as "a hypnotic album with nuance" that he "recommended without a bit of reservation". He praised Lillywhite's production for creating an "eerie ambience" and said of the band, "U2 have the musical chops, a compelling vocalist... and most importantly 4-minute pop songs that sound at once concise and infectious". Scot Anderson of the Iowa City Press-Citizen called Boy "an album that, while flawed, shows the potential of the band". Anderson thought certain songs were too long or too short, but believed U2 distinguished themselves from their peers with their spirit and humanity, making "a most refreshing splash in the New Wave". Dave Marsh of Rolling Stone said the record's music was "unpretentious and riveting" and called U2 "easily the best Irish rock band since Van Morrison's original Them troupe". He also lauded Lillywhite for his "always spearheaded production". In a separate review for Rolling Stone, Debra Rae Cohen found the band skilled and likeable while crediting Lillywhite for helping them "blend echoes of several of Britain's more adventurous bands into a sound that's rich, lively and comparatively commercial." Overall, she believed the album did not live up to the high standard set by the opening track "I Will Follow", finding most of it "diffuse and uneven". More critical was Robert Christgau, who dismissed the album in his "Consumer Guide" column for The Village Voice: "Their youth, their serious air, and their guitar sound are setting a small world on fire, and I fear the worst." The album finished in 18th place on the "Best Albums" list from The Village Voices 1981 Pazz & Jop critics' poll.
Boy Tour
Following the album's release, U2 embarked on the Boy Tour, their first concert tour of continental Europe and the US. Despite being unpolished, these early live performances demonstrated the band's potential, as critics complimented their ambition and Bono's exuberance. On an otherwise successful American leg of the tour, Bono's briefcase containing in-progress lyrics and musical ideas (which were intended for the group's second album, October) was lost backstage during a March 1981 performance at a nightclub in Portland, Oregon.
Legacy
In 2003, Boy was included at number 417 on Rolling Stones list of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time". The magazine wrote, "Too ingenuous for punk, too unironic for new wave, U2 arrived on Boy as big-time dreamers with the ambition to back it up." In 2006, Uncut ranked the album at number 59 on its list of the "100 Greatest Debut Albums". It was ranked as the seventh-best U2 album in a 2017 list by Newsweeks Zach Schonfeld, who also called it "a U2 album without the ego" and the "preaching or presumptions of saving the world" that plagued them in the future. In 2020, Rolling Stone included Boy in their "80 Greatest albums of 1980" list, praising the band for creating "an incredible collection of songs steeped in lost innocence and apprehensions about entering the adult world."
In The Austin Chronicle, Margaret Moser recalled the popularity of Boy in Austin amidst the closures and decline of local music clubs: "The newer, hipper Club Foot was a beacon, and we danced away the summer on its cement floor to U2. Boy was a glimmer of hope in the approaching darkness of the Reagan years". In her opinion, the record was "a shout disguised as a whisper, the calm before a storm", its musical formula foreshadowing the band's subsequent success.
Reviewing the 2008 reissue, Q appraised Boy as a remarkably ambitious debut, noting a distinct "adolescent energy" and "gauche charm" to the album, while Mojo said it retained its "palpable ardency" years after its release. According to Steven Hyden of The A.V. Club, "Boy showed U2 had a strong enough musical identity to command the world's attention from the very beginning".
Some critics have been less impressed by the album in retrospect. Writing for Entertainment Weekly, Bill Wyman found it "heady" but "erratic", while Chicago Tribune critic Greg Kot described the album as "callow post-punk that owes a lot to Joy Division and early Public Image Ltd." According to Ann Powers in the Spin Alternative Record Guide (1995), the album "established what might be called [U2's] revelationary reputation, hints at the impulse toward faith (after all, its hit was 'I Will Follow'), but mostly communicates confusion of the adolescent variety." Uncut critic David Quantick was more negative in his reappraisal, recalling his enjoyment of the album in 1980 as a "rockier" contemporary of Joy Division and Echo & the Bunnymen, in spite of Bono's "preening" vocal performance, but upon listening to the reissue, felt "shock at how bad it is". He wrote: "Lilywhite's production is stunningly thin, Bono's voice is awful, the lyrics are dismal, and only the singles—the Ian Curtis-obsessed 'I Will Follow' and the great 'Out of Control'—stand up. The rest is awful prog noodling".
Boy is one of only three U2 albums from which every song has been performed live at least once. Boy held this distinction individually until 2017 when all songs from The Joshua Tree were performed live on the album's 30th anniversary tour.
Track listing
Early vinyl and some cassette copies have an unlisted and untitled 30-second instrumental sample at the end of the album (following "Shadows and Tall Trees") of "Saturday Night", a song that would later become "Fire" on the 1981 record October. It was dropped from most vinyl and all early CD versions, but was reinstated as an unlisted 12th track on the 2008 remastered edition of Boy and appeared in full for the first time as "Saturday Night" on the Deluxe Edition B-sides CD. The 30-second sample is now known as "Saturday Matinee" since the release of the album on online streaming services. Until the remastered release of Boy, it was referred to as an early sample of the song "Fire."
Some pressings of the album, (mostly in North America) indexed the track length of "An Cat Dubh" and "Into the Heart" at 6:21 and 1:53, respectively. The 2008 remastered edition of the album reinstated the original European track lengths of 4:47 and 3:28. Early compact disc releases (West German-pressed and in a digipak) combined the two songs into a single track at 8:15, as did some US jewel-case versions (on the disc itself, but not on the packaging).
2008 remastered edition
On 9 April 2008 U2.com confirmed that the band's first three albums (Boy, October and War) would be re-released as newly remastered versions. The remastered Boy was released on 21 July 2008 in the UK, with the US version following it the next day. As with The Joshua Tree, the cover artwork has been standardised to the original UK release. The remaster of Boy was released in three different formats:
Standard format: A single CD with re-mastered audio and restored packaging. Includes a 16-page booklet featuring previously unseen photos, full lyrics and new liner notes by Paul Morley. The 11 tracks match the previous release of the album.
Deluxe format: A standard CD (as above) and a bonus CD including b-sides, live tracks and rarities. Also includes a 32-page booklet with previously unseen photos, full lyrics, new liner notes by Paul Morley, and explanatory notes on the bonus material by the Edge.
Vinyl format: A single album re-mastered version on 180 gram vinyl with restored packaging.
Bonus CD
Personnel
U2
Bono – lead vocals, glockenspiel
The Edge – guitar, backing vocals, glockenspiel
Adam Clayton – bass guitar
Larry Mullen Jr. – drums
Technical
Steve Lillywhite – producer
Paul Thomas – engineer
Kevin Moloney – assistant engineer
John Dent – mastering
Charts
Weekly charts
Singles
Certifications
See also
U2 discography
References
Notes
Footnotes
Bibliography
External links
Boy on U2.com
U2 albums
1980 debut albums
Island Records albums
Albums produced by Steve Lillywhite
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Statesman
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New Statesman
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The New Statesman is a British political and cultural newsmagazine published in London. Founded as a weekly review of politics and literature on 12 April 1913, it was at first connected with Sidney and Beatrice Webb and other leading members of the socialist Fabian Society, such as George Bernard Shaw, who was a founding director.
Today, the magazine is a print–digital hybrid. According to its present self-description, it has a liberal and progressive political position. Jason Cowley, the magazine's editor, has described the New Statesman as a publication "of the left, for the left" but also as "a political and literary magazine" with "sceptical" politics.
The magazine was founded by members of the Fabian Society as a weekly review of politics and literature. The longest-serving editor was Kingsley Martin (1930–1960), and the current editor is Jason Cowley, who assumed the post in 2008.
The magazine has recognised and published new writers and critics, as well as encouraged major careers. Its contributors have included John Maynard Keynes, Bertrand Russell, Virginia Woolf, Christopher Hitchens, and Paul Johnson. Historically, the magazine was affectionately referred to as "The Staggers" because of its crises of funding, ownership, and circulation. The nickname is now used as the title of its politics blog.
Circulation was at its highest in the mid-1960s at 93,000. The magazine encountered substantial difficulties in the following decades as readership fell, but it was growing again by the mid-2010s. In 2020, the certified average circulation was 36,591. Traffic to the magazine's website that year reached a new high with 27 million page views and four million distinct users. Associated websites are CityMetric, Spotlight and NewStatesman Tech. In 2018, New Statesman America was launched.
History
Early years
The New Statesman was founded in 1913 by Sidney and Beatrice Webb with the support of George Bernard Shaw and other prominent members of the Fabian Society. The Fabians previously had supported The New Age but that journal by 1912 had moved away from supporting Fabian politics and issues such as women's suffrage. The first editor of the New Statesman was Clifford Sharp, who remained editor until 1928. Desmond MacCarthy joined the paper in 1913 and became literary editor, recruiting Cyril Connolly to the staff in 1928. J. C. Squire edited the magazine when Sharp was on wartime duties during the First World War.
In November 1914, three months after the beginning of the war, the New Statesmen published a lengthy anti-war supplement by Shaw, "Common Sense About The War", a scathing dissection of its causes, which castigated all nations involved but particularly savaged the British. It sold a phenomenal 75,000 copies by the end of the year and created an international sensation. The New York Times reprinted it as America began its lengthy debate on entering what was then called "the European War".
During Sharp's last two years in the post, from around 1926, he was debilitated by chronic alcoholism and the paper was actually edited by his deputy Charles Mostyn Lloyd. Although the Webbs and most Fabians were closely associated with the Labour Party, Sharp was drawn increasingly to the Asquith Liberals.
Lloyd stood in after Sharp's departure until the appointment of Kingsley Martin as editor in 1930 – a position that Martin was to hold for 30 years.
1931–1960: Kingsley Martin
In 1931 the New Statesman merged with the Liberal weekly The Nation and Athenaeum and changed its name to the New Statesman and Nation, which it kept until 1964. The chairman of The Nation and Athenaeums board was the economist John Maynard Keynes, who came to be an important influence on the newly merged paper, which started with a circulation of just under 13,000. It also absorbed The Week-end Review in 1934 (one element of which survives in the shape of the New Statesmans Weekly Competition, and the other the "This England" feature). The Competition feature, in which readers submitted jokes and often parodies and pastiches of the work of famous authors, became one of the most famous parts of the magazine. Most famously, Graham Greene won second prize in a challenge to parody his own work.
During the 1930s, Martin's New Statesman moved markedly to the left politically. It became strongly anti-fascist and pacifist, opposing British rearmament. After the 1938 Anschluss, Martin wrote: "Today if Mr. Chamberlain would come forward and tell us that his policy was really one not only of isolation but also of Little Englandism in which the Empire was to be given up because it could not be defended and in which military defence was to be abandoned because war would totally end civilization, we for our part would wholeheartedly support him."
The magazine provoked further controversy with its coverage of Joseph Stalin's Soviet Union. In 1932, Keynes reviewed Martin's book on the Soviet Union, Low's Russian Sketchbook. Keynes argued that Martin was "a little too full perhaps of good will" towards Stalin, and that any doubts about Stalin's rule had "been swallowed down if possible". Martin was irritated by Keynes's article but still allowed it to be printed. In a 17 September 1932 editorial, the magazine accused the British Conservative press of misrepresenting the Soviet Union's agricultural policy but added that "the serious nature of the food situation is no secret and no invention". The magazine defended the Soviet collectivisation policy, but also said the policy had "proceeded far too quickly and lost the cooperation of farmers". In 1934 it ran an interview with Stalin by H. G. Wells. Although sympathetic to aspects of the Soviet Union, he disagreed with Stalin on several issues. The debate resulted in several more articles in the magazine; in one of them, George Bernard Shaw accused Wells of being disrespectful to Stalin during the interview.
In 1938 came Martin's refusal to publish George Orwell's celebrated dispatches from Barcelona during the Spanish Civil War because they criticised the communists for suppressing the anarchists and the left-wing Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM). "It is an unfortunate fact", Martin wrote to Orwell, "that any hostile criticism of the present Russian regime is liable to be taken as propaganda against socialism". Martin also refused to allow any of the magazine's writers to review Leon Trotsky's anti-Stalinist book The Revolution Betrayed.
Martin became more critical of Stalin after the Hitler-Stalin pact, claiming Stalin was "adopting the familiar technique of the Fuhrer", and adding: "Like Hitler, he [Stalin] has a contempt for all arguments except that of superior force." The magazine also condemned the Soviet Invasion of Finland.
Circulation grew enormously under Martin's editorship, reaching 70,000 by the end of the Second World War. This number helped the magazine become a key player in Labour politics. The paper welcomed Labour's 1945 general election victory but took a critical line on the new government's foreign policy. The young Labour MP Richard Crossman, who had become an assistant editor of the magazine before the war, was Martin's chief lieutenant in this period, and the Statesman published Keep Left, the pamphlet written by Crossman, Michael Foot and Ian Mikardo, that most succinctly laid out the Labour left's proposals for a "third force" foreign policy rather than alliance with the United States.
During the 1950s, the New Statesman remained a left critic of British foreign and defence policy and of the Labour leadership of Hugh Gaitskell, although Martin never got on personally with Aneurin Bevan, the leader of the anti-Gaitskellite Labour faction. The magazine opposed the Korean War, and an article by J. B. Priestley directly led to the founding of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament.
There was much less focus on a single political line in the back part of the paper, which was devoted to book reviews and articles on cultural topics. Indeed, with these pages managed by Janet Adam Smith, who was literary editor from 1952 to 1960, the paper was sometimes described as a pantomime horse: its back half was required reading even for many who disagreed with the paper's politics. This tradition would continue into the 1960s with Karl Miller as Smith's replacement.
1960–1996: After Kingsley Martin
Martin retired in 1960 and was replaced as editor by John Freeman, a politician and journalist who had resigned from the Labour government in 1951 along with Bevan and Harold Wilson. Freeman left in 1965 and was followed in the chair by Paul Johnson, then on the left, under whose editorship the Statesman reached its highest ever circulation. For some, even enemies of Johnson such as Richard Ingrams, this was a strong period for the magazine editorially. From 1964 to 1981, the Statesman was chaired by Jock Campbell, who endowed the "Jock Campbell-New Statesman Award", a prize of £1,000 that was given every three years for 12 years, with writers born in Africa or the Caribbean being eligible (and winners including Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka, Shiva Naipaul, Derek Walcott and Buchi Emecheta).
After Johnson's departure in 1970, the Statesman went into a long period of declining circulation under successive editors: Richard Crossman (1970–72), who tried to edit it at the same time as playing a major role in Labour politics; Anthony Howard (1972–78), whose recruits to the paper included Christopher Hitchens, Martin Amis and James Fenton (surprisingly, the arch anti-Socialist Auberon Waugh was writing for the Statesman at this time before returning to The Spectator); Bruce Page (1978–82), who moved the paper towards specialising in investigative journalism, sacking Arthur Marshall, who had been writing for the Statesman on and off since 1935, as a columnist, allegedly because of the latter's support for Margaret Thatcher; Hugh Stephenson (1982–86), under whom it took a strong position again for unilateral nuclear disarmament; John Lloyd (1986–87), who swung the paper's politics back to the centre; Stuart Weir (1987–90), under whose editorship the Statesman founded the Charter 88 constitutional reform pressure group; and Steve Platt (1990–96).
The Statesman acquired the weekly New Society in 1988 and merged with it, becoming New Statesman and Society for the next eight years, then reverting to the old title, having meanwhile absorbed Marxism Today in 1991. In 1993, the Statesman was sued by Prime Minister John Major after it published an article discussing rumours that Major was having an extramarital affair with a Downing Street caterer. Although the action was settled out of court for a minimal sum, the magazine's legal costs almost led to its closure.
In 1994, KGB defector Yuri Shvets said that the KGB utilised the New Statesman to spread disinformation. Shvets said that the KGB had provided disinformation, including forged documents, to the New Statesman journalist Claudia Wright which she used for anti-American and anti-Israel stories in line with the KGB's campaigns.
Since 1996
The New Statesman was rescued from near-bankruptcy by a takeover by businessman Philip Jeffrey but in 1996, after prolonged boardroom wrangling over Jeffrey's plans, it was sold to Geoffrey Robinson, the Labour MP and businessman. Following Steve Platt's resignation, Robinson appointed a former editor of The Independent, Ian Hargreaves, on what was at the time an unprecedentedly high salary. Hargreaves fired most of the left-wingers on the staff and turned the Statesman into a strong supporter of Tony Blair's leadership of the Labour Party.
Hargreaves was succeeded by Peter Wilby, also from the Independent stable, who had previously been the Statesmans books editor, in 1998. Wilby attempted to reposition the paper back "on the left". His stewardship was not without controversy. In 2002, for example, the periodical was accused of antisemitism when it published an investigative cover story on the power of the "Zionist lobby" in Britain, under the title "A Kosher Conspiracy?" The cover was illustrated with a gold Star of David resting on a Union Jack. Wilby responded to the criticisms in a subsequent issue. During Wilby's seven-year tenure, the New Statesman moved from making a financial loss to having a good operating profit, though circulation only remained steady at around 23,000.
John Kampfner, Wilby's political editor, succeeded him as editor in May 2005 following considerable internal lobbying. Under Kampfner's editorship, a relaunch in 2006 initially saw headline circulation climb to over 30,000. However, over 5,000 of these were apparently monitored free copies, and Kampfner failed to maintain the 30,000 circulation he had pledged. In February 2008, Audit Bureau Circulation figures showed that circulation had plunged nearly 13% in 2007. Kampfner resigned on 13 February 2008, the day before the ABC figures were made public, reportedly due to conflicts with Robinson over the magazine's marketing budget (which Robinson had apparently slashed in reaction to the fall in circulation).
In April 2008, Geoffrey Robinson sold a 50% interest in the magazine to businessman Mike Danson, and the remainder a year later. The appointment of the new editor Jason Cowley was announced on 16 May 2008, but he did not take up the job until the end of September 2008.
In January 2009, the magazine refused to recognise the National Union of Journalists, the trade union to which almost all of its journalists belonged, though further discussions were promised but never materialised.
Cowley was named current affairs editor of the year at the British Society of Magazine Editors awards in 2009, and in 2011 he was named editor of the year in the Newspaper & Current Affairs Magazine Category at the British Society of Magazine Editors awards, while Jon Bernstein, the deputy editor, gained the award for Consumer Website Editor of the Year. Cowley had been shortlisted as Editor of the Year (consumer magazines) in the 2012 PPA (Professional Publishers Association) Awards. He was also shortlisted for the European Press Prize editing award in January 2013, when the awards committee said: "Cowley has succeeded in revitalising the New Statesman and re-establishing its position as an influential political and cultural weekly. He has given the New Statesman an edge and a relevance to current affairs it hasn’t had for years."
The magazine published a 186-page centenary special in April 2013, the largest single issue in its history. It also published two special editions (250 and 150 pages), showcasing 100 years of the best and boldest journalism from its archives. In the following year it expanded its web presence by establishing two new websites: May2015.com, a polling data site focused on the 2015 general election, and CityMetric, a cities magazine site under the tagline, "Urbanism for the social media age" and edited by Jonn Elledge.
It was announced in December 2016 that the Weekend Competition, a feature inherited from The Week-end Review, would be discontinued, for reasons of space.
The New Statesman took a neutral position in the 2019 general election. It was the first time in the magazine's history it had explicitly chosen not to endorse Labour.
As of 2020, the New Statesman considers itself a "print-digital hybrid" with peak online traffic of over 4 million unique visitors per month, almost a four-fold increase since 2011. This compares to the magazine's overall circulation of 36,591, and paid-for circulation of 34,451 as of January 2021, the highest level for 40 years.
At the 2020 British Society of Magazine Editors (BSME) awards, editor Jason Cowley was named Current Affairs and Politics editor of the year for the fourth time, defeating rivals from The Spectator, The Big Issue and Prospect. "In increasingly tribal times, Jason Cowley continues to champion independence of thought and diversity of opinion, challenging his audience and producing a magazine that's imaginative, unpredictable and interesting", the BSME judges said on presenting the award.
The magazine's Spotlight series (which publishes specialist business content) also won the Launch of the Year award, with judges describing the supplements as a "great example of monetising a brand without losing its integrity". Following Andrew Marr's leaving the BBC in 2021, he joined the magazine as chief political commentator.
Guest editors
In March 2009, the magazine had its first guest editor, Alastair Campbell, the former head of communications for Tony Blair. Campbell chose to feature his partner Fiona Millar, Tony Blair (in an article "Why we must all do God"), football manager Alex Ferguson, and Sarah Brown, the wife of Prime Minister Gordon Brown. This editorship was condemned by Suzanne Moore, a contributor to the magazine for twenty years. She wrote in a Mail on Sunday article: "New Statesman fiercely opposed the Iraq war and yet now hands over the reins to someone key in orchestrating that conflict". Campbell responded: "I had no idea she worked for the New Statesman. I don't read the Mail on Sunday. But professing commitment to leftwing values in that rightwing rag lends a somewhat weakened credibility to anything she says."
In September 2009, the magazine was guest-edited by Labour politician Ken Livingstone, the former mayor of London.
In October 2010, the magazine was guest-edited by British author and broadcaster Melvyn Bragg. The issue included a previously unpublished poem by Ted Hughes, "Last letter", describing what happened during the three days leading up to the suicide of his first wife, the poet Sylvia Plath. Its first line is: "What happened that night? Your final night."—and the poem ends with the moment Hughes is informed of his wife's death.
In April 2011, the magazine was guest-edited by human rights activist Jemima Khan. The issue featured a series of exclusives including the actor Hugh Grant's secret recording of former News of the World journalist Paul McMullan, and a much-commented-on interview with Liberal Democrat leader and Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg, in which Clegg admitted that he "cries regularly to music" and that his nine-year-old son asked him, "'Why are the students angry with you, Papa?'"
In June 2011, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams, created a furore as guest editor by claiming that the Coalition government had introduced "radical, long term policies for which no one had voted" and in doing so had created "anxiety and anger" among many in the country. He was accused of being highly partisan, notwithstanding his having invited Iain Duncan Smith, the Work and Pensions Secretary to write an article and having interviewed the Foreign Secretary William Hague in the same edition. He also noted that the Labour Party had failed to offer an alternative to what he called "associational socialism". The Statesman promoted the edition on the basis of Williams' alleged attack on the government, whereas Williams himself had ended his article by asking for "a democracy capable of real argument about shared needs and hopes and real generosity".
In December 2011 the magazine was guest-edited by Richard Dawkins. The issue included the writer Christopher Hitchens's final interview, conducted by Dawkins in Texas, and pieces by Bill Gates, Sam Harris, Daniel Dennett and Philip Pullman.
In October 2012 the magazine was guest-edited by Chinese dissident artist Ai Weiwei and, for the first time, published simultaneously in Mandarin (in digital form) and English. To evade China's internet censors, the New Statesman uploaded the issue to file-sharing sites such as BitTorrent. As well as writing that week's editorial, Ai Weiwei interviewed the Chinese civil rights activist Chen Guangcheng, who fled to the United States after exposing the use of compulsory abortions and sterilisations. The issue was launched on 19 October 2012 at the Lisson Gallery in London, where speakers including artist Anish Kapoor and lawyer Mark Stephens paid tribute to Ai Weiwei.
In October 2013 the magazine was guest-edited by Russell Brand, with contributions from David Lynch, Noel Gallagher, Naomi Klein, Rupert Everett, Amanda Palmer, and Alec Baldwin, as well as an essay by Brand.
In October 2014, the magazine was guest-edited by the artist Grayson Perry, whose essay titled "Default Man" was widely discussed.
The former British prime minister Gordon Brown guest-edited the magazine in 2016, a special edition exploring Britain's relationship with Europe ahead of the EU referendum. Contributors to the issue included the Nobel laureate Amartya Sen and Michael Sandel.
List of editors
See also
Denis Pitts
G. W. Stonier
The Spectator
References
Further reading
Howe, Stephen (ed.) Lines of Dissent: Writing from the New Statesman, 1913 to 1988, Verso, 1988,
Hyams, Edward. The New Statesman: The History of the First Fifty Years, 1913–63, Longman, 1963.
Rolph, C. H. (ed.). Kingsley: The Life, Letters and Diaries of Kingsley Martin, Victor Gollancz, 1973,
Smith, Adrian. The New Statesman: Portrait of a Political Weekly, 1913–1931, Frank Cass, 1996,
External links
The Spirit of Che Guevara by I. F. Stone, New Statesman, 20 October 1967
[https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/search/archives/dece914d-d6bc-37cb-94d7-fde994c8b244 New Statesman Archive, 1944–1988]
New Statesman, associated correspondence and literary papers 1914-1919 and 1960-1983 at
1913 establishments in the United Kingdom
News magazines published in the United Kingdom
British news websites
Political magazines published in the United Kingdom
Weekly magazines published in the United Kingdom
Cultural magazines published in the United Kingdom
Magazines published in London
Magazines established in 1913
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Knight%20in%20the%20Panther%27s%20Skin
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The Knight in the Panther's Skin
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The Knight in the Panther's Skin ( literally "the one with the skin of a tiger") is a Georgian medieval epic poem, written in the 12th or 13th century by Georgia's national poet Shota Rustaveli. A definitive work of the Georgian Golden Age, the poem consists of over 1600 Rustavelian Quatrains and is considered to be a "masterpiece of the Georgian literature". Until the early 20th century, a copy of this poem was part of the dowry of every bride.
Although the poem takes place in the fictional settings of "India" and "Arabia", events in these distant lands are but a colorful allegory of the rule of Queen Tamar of Georgia, and the size and glory of the Kingdom of Georgia in its Golden Age. It tells the friendship of two heroes, Avtandil and Tariel, and their quest to find the object of love, Nestan-Darejan, an allegorical embodiment of Queen Tamar. These idealized heroes and devoted friends are united by courtly love, generosity, sincerity, and dedication. The poem is regarded as the "coronation of thought, poetic and philosophical art of medieval Georgia", a complex work with rich and transcending genres. It has been described as "epic", "chivalric romance", "epic romance" and "epic poem of lyric poetry." Despite its formal complexity, it bears to this day "the Georgian vision of the world."
History of the work
Context and time
The poem was written during the Golden Age of the Kingdom of Georgia and the reign of Queen Tamar, who was enthroned by her father King George III of Georgia. Tamar was celebrated by poets for her beauty, intelligence, and diplomatic skills. She expanded the Georgian kingdom to its historical maximum, repulsed invasions, and established protectorates over many area Muslim and Christian lands. Under her reign, the economy prospered. Georgian trading caravans reached Ayyubid Egypt, the Kievan Rus, and the Byzantine Empire. Medieval science developed, and the largest monasteries and churches in Georgia were built. Secular literature developed to the point of equaling the greatest religious texts.
Against the backdrop of this "remarkable growth", Shota Rustaveli composed his poem. Rustaveli, born in Rustavi, a Meskhetian village, was close to Queen Tamar and possibly served as her treasurer. He likely participated in many military campaigns. The stories in his poem are set in faraway lands, but his allegorical representations of contemporaneous Georgia are recognizable. For instance, he refers to wine culture and a female king who became an heir of her father.
In the prologue, Rustaveli says that he wrote this poem to praise the "King" Tamar.
And in the epilogue (given here with a formal paraphrase), he praises the queen's king consort David Soslan.
Genre and style
Though written in Georgian at the height of the pan-Caucasian empire of the Georgian Bagratids, according to the modern historian Stephen H. Rapp, The Knight in the Panther's Skin "was an expression of the Iranian/Iranic epic and not some genre of Byzantine literature". Rustaveli used a Persian model for writing The Knight in the Panther's Skin. In the work's prologue, the modern historian Nile Green explains, Rustaveli publicly declares his 1,600-quatrain epic, written in the shairi verse form, as a "Persian tale, translated into Georgian / Like an orphaned pearl, like a toy passed from hand to hand".
Content and form
Title
Georgian title () literally means "one with a skin of ". The identity of the animal that it refers to is not certain and it can be a tiger, panther or leopard. In modern Georgian, it refers to the tiger. However, according to more modern research it would rather mean a panther. Similarly, the qualification of "knight" is not derived from the original title and its alternative translations exist, such as the "valiant" or simply a "man." The alternative English titles of the poem also are "Lord of the Panther Skin" and "The Man in the Panther's Skin".
Story
The story can be divided into two parts: the first part is Avtandil's quest for Tariel, the titular "knight in the panther's skin", and the second part is Avtandil's quest for Nestan-Darejan, Tariel's love.
Search for Tariel
The King of Arabia, Rostevan, has no sons and confers the kingship on his only daughter, the beautiful and wise Tinatin. She has a tender affection for Avtandil, the knight and commander-in-chief of Rostevan's armies. One day, Avtandil challenges King Rostevan to a hunting competition. After three days of shooting game, they encounter a knight crying by a river. He is dressed in a panther's skin, and kills the slaves sent by the king to contact him, then disappears. Rostevan sends parties across the world to search for the mysterious knight, but becomes disheartened when he fails.
Tinatin asks Avtandil to find the strange knight in three years, promising him her hand in marriage in return. After two years and nine months of searching, Avtandil finds the knight in the panther's skin hiding in a cave, with only a maiden for company. His name is Tariel, son of King Saridan, who has the seventh kingdom of India. He had served as heir to King Pharsadan, king of the other six kingdoms, for many years before falling in love with Pharsadan's daughter, Nestan-Darejan. Tariel wages war with the Khatavians to earn the favor of Nestan, but is dismayed to learn that she has already been promised to the Khwarezmian prince.
Tariel could not bear the idea of her marriage, and at Nestan's request, he killed the suitor. The princess was placed on a boat and set adrift on the seas. Despite Tariel's lengthy search for his love, he could not find her. Later he met Nuradin-Phridon, ruler of Mulgazanzar, who told him that Nestan was alive but trapped on a distant boat. Tariel retired to a cave to live in the wilderness with Asmat, the former servant and messenger of Nestan. Moved by this story, Avtandil promises his friendship and brotherhood to Tariel, and agrees to help him find his love, Nestan-Darejan. Avtandil returns home to Arabia, and tells Tinatin the story of Tariel. Against King Rostevan's wishes, he returns to his new friend.
Search for Nestan-Darejan
Avtandil then leaves Tariel to go to the kingdom of Phridon, where he does not hear anything new about Nestan. Continuing his quest, he arrives in the city of Gulansharo. He meets Patman, the wife of the chief Usen, who falls in love with him. Avtandil, sensing she knows the fate of Nestan, succumbs to Patman's seduction. She tells him she has been keeping Nestan at her place and, as Nestan was promised to the king's son, she helped her escape, but in her flight Nestan was abducted by Kaji the demon king. Avtandil then returns home to Phridon and to the cave of Tariel and later all three friends decide to go to the country of Kaji with an army of three hundred men to find and deliver Nestan. When she is released, all return to Arabia, where King Rostevan forgives Avtandil his flight and breaking the king's order. They all celebrate the marriage of the latter with the king's only daughter, Tinatin. They then leave for India where Tariel marries his love Nestan. Phridon also returns to his homeland and the three friends reign happily with prosperity and generosity in their own respective realms.
Places and characters
Places
The poem is placed far away from Georgia in countries that the poet has certainly never visited: Arabia, India and "Khataeti" that is to say, China. The indications are vague and not designate any particular site. It is the Georgian kingdom that has existed through these distant lands. It seems that the choice of places refers primarily to the national character of these peoples: the Arabs are portrayed as more rational, as the king Rostevan and his knight Avtandil with their communication skills and action help to break deadlocks. Conversely, the Indians appear to be more emotional and impulsive and cause unintended disasters, as of the image of Tariel and Nestan. Other locations mentioned as the Kajeti or country of Kaj demons are imaginary. Gulansharo, capital of the "Kingdom of the Seas", has been compared to Venice.
Characters
The brave and loyal knights — Avtandil and Tariel
These two characters represent the most devoted friends, and tender lovers; both heroes capable of courtly love and men endowed with free will. They initially were actively involved and served the kingdoms held position of modern "steward" or "Mayor of the Palace". Besides their position they only obey their beloveds, therefore their love and dedication is unwavering. The mutual commitment and friendship they swear, also extends to a third person, Nuradin-Pridon, who is also endowed with the same heroic qualities. Tariel is, however, distinguished by his wild character as symbolized by his wearing the panther's skin. The qualities associated with the cat, his dedication and courage, his hatred and violence could be extreme and uncontrollable. It is also close to Saint George slaying the dragon whose cult was particularly strong in the 12th century especially in the episode where Tariel kills a lion and a panther.
The faithful and patient lovers — Tinatin and Nestan-Darejan
Although they take little action, the female characters, Tinatin and Nestan-Darejan are constantly present in thoughts of the knights and serve to give the narrative tension as a whole. Princesses, higher in social rank than their servant knights, are inspired by the Queen Tamar or reflect the fact that each of them is the sovereign in their own realm. Tinatin chooses her own husband which references Queen Tamar (who also chose her second husband) as her role as the sovereign. and her father Rostevan, ceding his throne to his daughter references King George III of Georgia who was succeeded by her daughter in 1178, after his death.
Tinatin is a static character who leaves no time to the court of her father in Arabia. Nestan, a prisoner in distant regions, is also passive. But their confidence, righteousness, shows these two women being faithful and respective lovers. As for Patman, she is an altered representation of their type but an adulteress during the absence of her husband. Patman takes little account of family honor as she humiliates her husband on account of his bodily defects. Her character is true to life from the artistic point of view. Despite everything, she is capable of displaying both affection and sincere warmth peculiar to a woman. She spares no effort to save Nestan. It is very characteristic that when Patman learns of the purpose of Avtandil's journey, she makes no attempt to keep the man she loves at her side even for a short time.
Human relationships
Rustaveli is a great humanist. The poet focuses his attention on a man as a complex of sincere feelings, emotions, passions and aspirations. To counterbalance the mentality of the Middle Ages and the ecclesiastic morality of asceticism, Rustaveli proclaims the freedom of man as a personality, free of thought and feeling.
Love
In the prologue, Rustaveli describes three types of love: inaccessible, heavenly love; physical love; and finally, a higher earthly love, or passionate love. Rustaveli thinks that pure and constant love does not expect love in return. Such love can not be felt without a strong spirit; he suggests that the only possibility of enjoying love of this order is to have the natural qualities of a true human being. The valiant must win his beauty by impeccable behavior, including a constant devotion, the rejection of social duties, and selfless loyalty. And as the author says, "love is a severe trial for man as for woman".
Nestan's loyalty is expressed in the dramatic tension well before the appearance of her character; he is a model of righteousness. When it was announced that Nestan would be married against her will, she protests with force, and supports the consequences by her heroic courage and stoicism. For the three heroes who go to her aid, fearless and selfless, their fight is intended as a quest for justice. Amorous conquest is noticeably absent from the poem. Both romantic relationships are paralleled and never mixed, as the true brotherhood between the two heroes prevent such incidents. Love, like friendship, often gives rise to hyperbolic descriptions in the poem.
Friendship
The friendship between the three heroes sworn, Avtandil, Tariel and Pridon, a clear narrative of the entire epic, binds them together and at the same time it binds their peoples. These three men belong to different nations, they find themselves with the same aspirations and the same goal and that is their union of forces that can and will destroy a tyranny and evil what is represented by the Kajs. This friendship, full of honesty and courage, free of cowardice and sycophancy, must go to the death if necessary. Such friendship is also possible between persons of different sexes in this case of Tariel and Asmat who share the same cave in brotherhood. However, love and friendship are intertwined as love of a knight with his heroism is fully realized with the help of a disinterested friendship and absolute loyalty. Both feelings are also expressed in the terms when Avtandil even against the will and order of his king departs to help his friend in need. Moreover, the happiness of each is conditioned by the happiness of others. Tinatin allows Avtandil to leave for Tariel, because it is the duty of her suitor to rescue his friend to whom he has promised to help.
Morals, religion and philosophy
Values
With the glorification of courtly love, Rustaveli leads to strongly condemn forced marriages. The poem also shows an admiration for the woman and demands for gender equality. Even though Queen Tamar is the first female monarch and the sovereign of the kingdom, women's political function, position and leading role in Georgia was very high be it the patronage of Georgia by the Virgin Mary or conversion of Georgians to Christianity by a woman, Saint Nino in the 4th century. This "cult of woman" celebrates her honor and freedom to choose her own husband and Nestan is the model of a noble woman who puts reason above passion. In equal rights, women can develop a sincere friendship with the opposite sex without love and desire and Asmat is dedicated to Tariel. Slavery is also condemned in the poem.
Politically, the poem does not lack and is not without patriotism. The state must be led by a strong and autocratic central government, however, sovereigns must rule with justice and prudence.
In general, the poem is a "manifest of living with joy". The success of the three heroes in the liberation of Nestan shows that justice can exist on earth, as with enough courage and perseverance, one can find the happiness here.
Religious and philosophical views
The poem sometimes gives the impression of being a pagan work. In fact, there are no prayers in the poem, and no references to Christ, the Virgin Mary, or the Trinity. However, Paul the Apostle is mentioned, and there are a number of references to the Gospels and the Old Testament, including ten occurrences of the Garden of Eden, as well as references to the Euphrates, Gibeon and Levi).
Nevertheless, the moral framework of the work is Christian, with a clear dichotomy between a good god and a hard and disappointing world. This Christianity is not, however, fanatical. Rustaveli refers to the Quran multiple times to indicate that most of the characters are Muslim. He never offends Islam in his work and uses it as an allegory for Christianity, since most of the values that the poem promotes are of Christian origin. He also mentions the twelve apostles (verse 799) and how they spread the philosophy of benevolence and love.
There are philosophical references in the poem to the work of Pseudo-Dionysius (verse 1478) which may be attributed to the influence of the Georgian monk Peter the Iberian, an idealist, who believed in the oneness of God but sees the impossibility of knowing God's real existence. Rustaveli's presentation of God as a universal force rather than only a Christian one once led to the suppression of the poem. Believing Rustaveli was a Muslim (an opinion also proffered by Nicholas Marr in 1917), the Georgian Orthodox Church in the past systematically destroyed copies of the poem.
Translations
Within Georgia, the poem has been translated into other Kartvelian languages like Laz, Svan and Mingrelian.
Outside of Georgia, interest in the poem first appeared in 1802, when Eugene Bolkhovitinov published a verbatim translation of the first stanza of the poem into Russian. In France in 1828, Marie-Félicité Brosset made his first partial French translation. In the 19th century the poem saw full translations into Polish, German and Russian. In 1845, extracts were published in Russian, French and Armenian. Vahan Terian, a prominent Georgian-born Armenian poet, translated the prelude, which was first published posthumously in 1922. It was praised by Nicholas Marr. In 1912, Marjory Wardrop published the first English translation available. In 1968, a verse translation by Venera Urushadze was published in Georgia. It was also translated into modern Azerbaijani in 1978 by Dilara Aliyeva. In 2015, an English poetic translation by Lyn Coffin was published, combining literary achievement with academic precision.
Today, unabridged editions are available in many languages: Abkhaz, Armenian, Azerbaijani, Bashkir, Belarusian, Bulgarian, Chechen, Chinese, Chuvash, Czech, Esperanto, Greek, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Kazakh, Korean, Kurdish, Kyrgyz, Moldovan, Mongolian, Ossetian, Persian, Romanian, Serbian, Slovak, Spanish, Tatar, Turkmen, Ukrainian, Hindi, and Uzbek.
Among the translations, the 1989 Esperanto version by Zurab Makaŝvili and the 2015 English version by Lyn Coffin are notable not only for faithfully reproducing the content of the poem, but also for preserving the poetic structure of the epic in shairi (rhymed stanzas of four sixteen-syllable lines).
See also
Rostam
Babr-e Bayan
References
Sources
Nodar Asatiani & Alexandre Bendianashvili, Histoire de la Géorgie, Paris, l'Harmattan, 1997
A. G. Baramidze & D. M. Gamezardashvili, Georgian Literature, Honolulu, University Press of the Pacific, 2001 (1st ed. 1968)
Gijs Koolemans Beynen, "Adultery and Death in Shota Rustaveli's The Man in the Panther Skin", Courtly Arts and the Arts of Courtliness, 2004
Farshid Delshad, Studien zu den iranischen und semitischen Lehnwörtern im georgischen Nationalepos "Der Recke im Pantherfell", Iéna, 2002
A. Khakhanoff, Abrégé de l'histoire et de la littérature géorgienne, dans Raphaël Isarloff, Histoire de Géorgie, Paris - Tbilissi, Charles Noblet - Librairie de la société géorgienne de lettres, 1900
M. Kveselava, Anthology of Georgian Poetry, Honolulu, University Press of the Pacific, 2001 (1st ed. 1948)
Jean-Claude Polet, Patrimoine littéraire européen, vol. 4a, Le Moyen Âge, de l'Oural à l'Atlantique. Littératures d'Europe orientale, De Boeck, 1993
Donald Rayfield, The Literature of Georgia, Richmond, Curzon Press, 2000 (1st ed. 1994)
Shota Rustaveli The Knight in the Panther Skin, new translation by Lyn Coffin. Poezia Press, 2015 Tbilisi, Georgia
Kakha Shengelia, History of Georgia, Tbilisi, Caucasus University Publishing House, 2001
Marjory Scott Wardrop, The Man in the Panther's Skin: A Romantic Epic by Shota Rustaveli, Royal Asiatic Society, 1912
Beynen, G. Koolemans. "Murder, Foul and Fair, in Shota Rustaveli's The Man in the Panther Skin", in Medieval and Early Modern Murder, Larissa Tracy, ed. (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2018), pp. 350-70.
Middle Georgian literature
Epic poems in Georgian
Medieval poetry
12th-century poems
Memory of the World Register in Georgia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newberry%20Volcano
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Newberry Volcano
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Newberry Volcano is a large active shield-shaped stratovolcano located about south of Bend, Oregon, United States, east of the major crest of the Cascade Range, within the Newberry National Volcanic Monument. Its highest point is Paulina Peak. The largest volcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc, Newberry has an area of when its lava flows are taken into account. From north to south, the volcano has a length of , with a width of and a total volume of approximately . It was named for the geologist and surgeon John Strong Newberry, who explored central Oregon for the Pacific Railroad Surveys in 1855.
The volcano contains a large caldera, in diameter, known as the Newberry Caldera. Within the caldera are two lakes: Paulina Lake and East Lake. The volcano and its vicinity include many pyroclastic cones, lava flows and lava domes; Newberry has more than 400 vents, the most of any volcano in the contiguous United States. Glaciers may have once been present at the volcano, though this remains contested. The area has a dry climate with low precipitation levels and little surface runoff.
The origin of the volcano remains somewhat unclear; while some scientists believe it originated from an independent hotspot, most evidence indicates that it formed from the subduction of the oceanic Juan de Fuca and Gorda tectonic plates under the continental North American Plate. Eruptive activity at Newberry Volcano began about 600,000 years ago and has continued into the Holocene, the last eruption taking place 1,300 years ago. Unlike other shield-shaped volcanoes, which often erupt basaltic lavas only, Newberry Volcano has also erupted andesitic and rhyolitic lavas. A popular destination for hiking, fishing, boating, and other recreational activities, the volcano lies within of 16,400 people and within of nearly 200,000 people, and it continues to pose a threat to life. Still considered an active volcano, it could erupt and produce lava flows, pyroclastic flows, lahars (volcanically induced mudslides, landslides, and debris flows), ashfall, earthquakes, avalanches, and floods. To track this threat, the volcano and its surroundings are closely monitored with sensors by the United States Geological Survey.
Geography
The center of Newberry Volcano lies to the south of the city of Bend, at the intersection of Deschutes, Klamath and Lake counties in Oregon, where it is one of the most accessible volcanoes in the state. It is the largest volcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc at , and has roughly the same area as the state of Rhode Island at if its lava flows are included. Newberry lies east of the major crest of the Cascade Range in the High Lava Plains region, rising above its surroundings. From north to south, the volcano runs for a length of , with a width of and a total volume of about . Because of its enormous size and topographic prominence, it is often confused for an entire mountain range.
Newberry Volcano has a somewhat dry climate due to its location in the rain shadow of the Cascade Range. Climate data for the Newberry National Volcanic Monument are collected at the Lava Butte cinder cone, which had an average annual precipitation of from 2002 to 2012. Summer temperatures average from , dipping to average minimum and maximum temperatures of during the winter season. Spring has average temperatures of , while fall temperatures average . Each year, total precipitation consisting of winter snow and summer rain varies from in the highest parts of the region, and surface runoff rarely occurs even during heavy rain showers. Only one stream appears on Newberry's entire surface, and it remains unclear whether the volcano has ever been able to support glaciers on its slopes, since the mountain lacks cirques (amphitheater-like valleys formed by glacial erosion) or evidence of contact between lava and ice. However, displaced glacial erratics have been found far from their native areas, moraine sediment has been deposited on the eastern and northeastern slopes of the volcano, and the mountain's various cone features have "boat" shapes that indicate glacial alteration. The precise history of glaciers on the volcano is debated, but dry channels and dry waterfalls on the eastern and western slopes are evidence that the volcano once held water.
The volcano has two crater lakes, Paulina Lake and East Lake, which are filled by precipitation and percolation of ground water. Paulina Lake occupies an area of and reaches a maximum depth of , and it is separated from East Lake by a narrow isthmus, which is composed of rhyolite lava. East Lake has a smaller area of with a maximum depth of . The lakes have historically flooded channels surrounding the volcano. A large flood between 4,000 and 2,300 years ago released up to 12,000 acre feet (0.0148 km3) in volume from Paulina Lake, filling the valley floor above the Paulina Prairie, which surrounds the lake. It was possibly caused by the failure of a rock ledge in height, rather than eruptive activity. Another flood took place in 1909 on the Deschutes River downstream from where it meets its tributary the Little Deschutes River.
Ecology
The Newberry National Volcanic Monument forms part of the northern section of the Mazama Ecological Province, which has soil comprised by aeolian pumice and volcanic products over basalt bedrock. Flora within the Newberry Volcano area includes forests of juniper, whitebark pine, ponderosa pine (including Oregon's largest ponderosa pine tree), lodgepole pine, jack pine, and white fir, in addition to other plants like Indian paintbrush, purple penstemon, bitterbrush, manzanita, and snowbrush. Infestations by mountain pine beetles have killed many lodgepole pines in the area. Animals near Newberry Volcano include burrowing owls, kangaroo rats, lizards, bats, rattlesnakes, eagles, porcupines, otters, bobcats, mule deer, Roosevelt elk, ducks, and American pika.
Lava flows from Newberry display varied vegetation cover, and there are variable levels of flora between flows, though the level of vegetation and species diversity generally increase with elevation. Dominant plant species on lava flows include oceanspray and wax currant, with rabbitbrush also common. Though forbs are not widespread on the lava flows, where they do occur Davidson's penstemon and hotrock penstemon dominate. Above elevations of , roundleaf alumroot is common, particularly near the edges of lava flows. All lava flows support patches of grasses such as Idaho fescue, especially on north-facing slopes. One lava flow at Lava Butte is barren except for scattered, dense patches of greenleaf manzanita.
The Lava Cast Forest is a group of trees molded by lava from an eruption 6,000 years ago. Today, the surrounding site lies within the Newberry National Volcanic Monument and includes 11 kīpukas, plots of land surrounded by one or more younger lava flows. These habitat islands range from in area and sustain forests that have not been significantly altered by humans other than nearby fire suppression and land management efforts. Consisting of pure and mixed forest stands, these forests include ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, and grand fir/white fir hybrid trees, which are supported by young soils derived from Mazama pumice.
Geology
Overlapping with the northwestern corner of the Basin and Range Province, also known as the High Lava Plains, Newberry Volcano lies within a Cenozoic highland marked by normal faults known as the Brothers Fault Zone. It is situated at the intersection of the Brothers Fault Zone with the north–northwest-trending Sisters and northeast-trending Walker Rim fault zones. In the mantle under Newberry Volcano, P and S seismic waves exhibit an unusually low wave velocity. The Earth's crust thins from at the nearby Three Sisters volcano complex to near Newberry, where it has a high Poisson's ratio.
The oldest rocks in this region include silicic (rich in silica) lava domes from the late Miocene or early Pliocene, which lie near the province's eastern and southern borders, respectively. Volcanism in this area suggests a progression of silicic eruptions, known as the Newberry Trend, that moves in a northwest-trending direction from the Harney Basin to Newberry Volcano and the rest of the Cascade Range. Newberry Volcano's origins are somewhat controversial; some scientists think it originated from an independent hotspot, but overwhelming evidence suggests that it is part of the Cascades Arc and was produced by the subduction of the oceanic Juan de Fuca and Gorda tectonic plates under the continental North American Plate. However, Newberry Volcano has been transformed by tectonic processes, possibly related to subductive mechanisms that enhance melting of the Juan de Fuca tectonic plate. The High Lava Plains Trend, or the Newberry Trend, moves at an oblique angle to the underlying North American tectonic plate, for which subduction counterflow, gravitational flow along the lithosphere's base, faulting, and extension of the Basin and Range Province have all been proposed as possible mechanisms. At Newberry, the subducting plate has a depth that is shallower than elsewhere in the major crest of the Cascades, accounting for its unique magmas. Newberry Volcano is likely fed by a magma chamber under the large, cauldron-like caldera at its summit. This caldera has dimensions of and formed about 75,000 years ago.
Newberry Volcano first formed about 600,000 years ago and has since been built up by several thousand eruptions. About 500,000 years ago, Mount Newberry attained an elevation of . The caldera-forming event occurred about 75,000 years ago from a major explosive eruption. It formed the crater lakes and Paulina Peak—which is the highest point on the volcano, at .
As a result of its caldera-forming eruption, Newberry has a horizontal profile, which is typical of a shield volcano. However, it is also considered a composite volcano, made up of a matrix of lava flows and pyroclastic deposits. Unlike more typical composite volcanoes in the Cascades, it formed from several eruption types including more traditional explosive eruptions and more fluid effusive events; thus it is usually classified as a "shield-shaped composite volcano", or shield-shaped stratovolcano. The volcano has a caldera at its summit, which has a diameter of and features two crater lakes: Paulina Lake and East Lake. This caldera, known as the Newberry Crater, is forested, with small parts of its surface covered with lava flows and pumice deposits. Before the caldera's creation, the mountain's summit was greater in height than its current elevation. The caldera has reformed several times throughout the volcano's history, burying the caldera floor to a depth of and creating concentric calderas, each smaller than its predecessor. The first caldera—the volcano's largest caldera, forming approximately 300,000 years ago—was produced by the eruption of of pyroclastic ejecta, which created the Tepee Draw tuff and ash deposits that cover the volcano's eastern flank. The last crater formed after an explosive eruption about 80,000 years ago, which ejected up to of pyroclastic materials. Throughout this progression, the volcano shifted from rhyodacitic pumice to basaltic ash flows, the latter producing the Black Lapilli tuff that covers the western side of the volcano. Since the last caldera-forming eruption 80,000 years ago, the volcano has undergone silicic eruptions at the caldera and produced basaltic and basaltic andesite lava flows that extended down its outer flanks. The tephra and ash from the Black Lapilli tuff by the caldera formed agglutinates around its rim. Newberry Volcano is cut by several fault scarps, small step offsets on the ground surface where one side of a fault has moved vertically with respect to the other.
At the center of the isthmus that separates Newberry Volcano's two crater lakes is the central volcanic cone, named Central Pumice cone, which reaches above East Lake. With a broad, flat top, it formed during an explosive eruption about 7,000 years ago, and sits in the center of the caldera.
Compositionally, lava from the Newberry Volcano has varied from primitive basalts with high magnesium levels to more evolved tholeiitic and calc-alkaline deposits (based on the major element characteristics of the lavas). Primitive lavas exhibit high abundances of chromium and nickel as well as variable concentrations of fluid-mobile elements like barium and strontium. Tholeiitic and calc-alkaline lavas display overlap in magnesium, calcium oxide, and aluminum oxide levels but differ in that the tholeiites have lower contents of silica and potassium oxide and higher iron(II) oxide, titanium dioxide, and sodium oxide. There is also much overlap in isotopic composition, though the tholeiitic lavas mark the low point for 87Sr/86Sr and the high point for 143Nd/144Nd and 176Hf/177Hf. Examination of Newberry lavas with olivine-plagioclase hygrometry shows that tholeiites are anhydrous (less than ) and thus distinct from calc-alkaline deposits (); both have different fractional crystallization sequences that derive from primitive magmas, which had their compositions influenced by equilibrium with peridotite in the mantle. By volume, basaltic andesite is the principal lava type at Newberry Volcano, with large volumes of silicic lava among older ash flow tuff deposits.
Subfeatures
Vents at the volcano follow north-east and north-west trends influenced by extension of the Basin and Range Province. With more than 400 vents, Newberry has more individual subfeatures than any other volcano in the contiguous United States. These include cinder cones, lava domes, and various other lava edifices, with at least 25 vents on the volcano's flanks and summits becoming active within the past 10,000 years. Most of the cinder cones on the volcano's edifice vary from in elevation, though a number of them reach heights above with diameters greater than . Most of these exhibit saucer-like summit depression landforms, with notable exceptions at Lava Top and North Kawak Buttes, which have craters that are in depth. Basaltic and basaltic andesite lava flows have penetrated the bases of many of these cinder cones, forming a matrix of connected flows, and a veneer of pāhoehoe and ʻaʻā lavas can be found on Newberry volcano's northern and southern sides. The northern flank holds three distinct lava tube systems that formed out of pāhoehoe lava: the Horse Lava Tube System (also known as the Horse System), Arnold Lava Tube System, and the Lava Top Butte basalt.
About 7,000 years ago, at Newberry's Northwest Rift Zone, lava fountains erupted from a fissure with a length of , yielding basaltic and andesitic lava flows. Strombolian eruptions (which eject incandescent cinder, lapilli, and lava bombs) produced tephra that formed Lava Butte, a cinder cone near Newberry with a height of , a base diameter of , and a crater depth of . With a lopsided shape where the northeastern rim is taller than the southwestern counterpart, this cinder cone sits south of Bend.
The nearby Badlands shield volcano, which formed out of a rootless vent to produce a large basaltic lava flow at Newberry, has a diameter of . It has pāhoehoe lava throughout its surface, with tumuli (mounds of earth and stones) and a pit crater.
Dacite and rhyodacite domes can be found on the middle and upper flanks, and Newberry also features twenty rhyolitic lava domes and lava flows among its western, eastern, and southern flanks. These include East Butte and China Hat at the eastern base of the volcano, which date to 850,000 and 780,000 years ago, and therefore predate Newberry. The McKay Butte, found on the volcano's western side, formed 580,000 years ago. Other Holocene eruptions have produced rhyolite lava that remained close to the summit, including Paulina Peak, which has a width of one mile and reaches within of the wall of the caldera.
Hot springs can be found at Paulina Lake and East Lake, along with one fumarole gas vent at Lost Lake, located near the Big Obsidian lava flow. These discharge gases like water vapor and carbon dioxide and give off a rotten smell, though the composition has few noxious components.
Eruptive history
During the late Pleistocene, Newberry Volcano produced a number of voluminous lava flows, made of basalt, which originated from several vents on its northern flank and reached the modern areas of Bend and Redmond. They filled canyons that served as precursors for the Deschutes and Crooked rivers–since eroded–and extended tens of miles from the volcano. Lava from the last of these eruptions about 78,000 years ago covered the Bend area, surrounded the Pilot Butte cinder cone, and filled the Deschutes River bed.
In addition to its production of large lava flows, Newberry Volcano has also produced a number of Plinian eruptions similar to the eruption of Vesuvius that destroyed Pompeii and Peléan eruptions like the 1902 explosion of Mount Pelée. These include a number of caldera-forming eruptions, producing ash flow deposits including the Tepee Draw tuff and Black Lapilli tuff, and rising or more into the stratosphere. The last of these eruptions covered tens of thousands of square miles with ash, extending to the San Francisco Bay Area in California nearly to the southwest. Here, it reaches a thickness of one centimeter. Additionally, Newberry has produced multiple, voluminous explosive eruptions, with certain studies estimating up to 60 eruptive events of rhyolite and dacite tephra that reach Idaho, Utah, and northern California. These include the eruption that produced the Paulina Creek tephra between 55,000 and 50,000 years ago, and the eruption from 20,000 years ago responsible for the Wono tephra, which extends into western Nevada and east-central California. As a result of compositional zoning within the magma chamber that feeds the volcano, its ash deposits may show different chemical and mineralogical makeups. The last of these tephra eruptions yielded the Newberry pumice just before 1,300 years ago, reaching several hundred miles to the east.
Between the last Ice Age about 12,000 years ago and 7,700 years ago, the volcano erupted at least 12 times. Mount Mazama erupted 7,700 years ago, producing volcanic ash and pumice that accumulated to a thickness of up to on the Newberry Volcano, covering many of the lava flows on its slopes. During three eruptive periods at Newberry over the past 7,500 years, the caldera has seen rhyolitic eruptions from seven individual vents. About 7,000 years ago, eruptions occurred along the rift zone northwest of Newberry Volcano's caldera, yielding 12 lava flows that encompassed an area of . At about the same time, the Central Pumice cone was produced by eruptions that also formed the Interlake and Game Hut obsidian flows from a vent on the cone's southern flank. An eruption from a fissure zone at East Lake, 3,500 years ago, yielded tephra and formed the East Lake obsidian lava flows.
The volcano underwent its most recent eruptions 1,300 years ago, producing the Big Obsidian flow. A silicic deposit, it is made up of rhyolite and features a number of lava blocks. Although it is frequently cited as the largest Holocene obsidian formation in the United States, its area of and volume of actually place it fifth in the nation. The eruptions, which were both explosive and effusive, began with a Plinian explosion of pumice and tephra that covered the caldera's eastern half and reached several hundred miles to the east. This deposit, called the Newberry pumice, reaches a thickness of up to from the vent that produced it, which is located at the southern flank of the caldera, and a thickness of up to from the volcano. Because of strong westerly winds, tephra reached as far east as Idaho. This eruption also produced pyroclastic flows that left volcanic bombs in Paulina Lake.
Recent activity and current threats
Though Newberry Volcano is currently quiet, the United States Geological Survey considers it an active volcano with a "very high" threat level. Hot springs within the caldera remain active, and small earthquakes have occurred within recent local history. Any future eruptions would likely show similar characteristics to eruptions from the past 15,000 years, ranging from effusive production of lava flows to explosive eruptions ejecting pumice and ash. If future lava flows from Newberry Volcano are of comparable size to its late Pleistocene eruptions, they would bury settlements throughout the Central Oregon region. They would also likely destroy segments of U.S. Route 97, disabling transportation in the area, in addition to likely ruining gas pipelines and power lines that extend electricity to California, both of which would be accompanied by serious economic consequences.
Flank lava flows, which would likely be basaltic in origin, might form lava fountains that could scatter cinders and lava for several thousand meters, building cinder cones or initiating forest fires. While the flows themselves move at rates of per minute, and thus could be escaped by animals and humans, they would destroy stationary structures in their paths. Pyroclastic flows, on the other hand, travel at speeds of , and their violent force could incinerate or pulverize objects in their path, or asphyxiate living things.
If another caldera-forming eruption of similar magnitude to previous ones at the volcano occurred, pyroclastic flows could devastate the area surrounding the volcano for up to . However, pyroclastic flows have been rare at Newberry. Tephra from explosive eruptions would short-circuit electric transformers and power lines, clog engine filters, produce clouds that might yield lightning, and pose a hazard to aircraft overhead. It would also pose health hazards because ash particles can irritate eyes, and when ingested, lungs, among other health issues. Because of water from the two crater lakes, eruptions at Newberry Volcano may become more explosive and more likely to produce pyroclastic flows. Moreover, if pyroclastic flows mix with snow or water overflowing from the crater lakes, they could spawn lahars, volcanically induced mudslides, landslides, and debris flows that could devastate the Paulina Creek valley and reach the La Pine valley within 30 minutes. Threats from the volcano pose hazards to about 16,400 people who live within and more than 180,000 people living within .
In addition to threats from volcanic activity, at least one flood has taken place at Newberry Volcano in the past, though it may not have been a result of eruptive activity. If lava flows from an eruption blocked the Deschutes River, they might generate floods upstream by increasing water level and downstream once the blockage clears. Earthquakes unrelated to volcanic activity also take place in Oregon, though they are usually less than 2.5 on the Richter magnitude scale. Volcanoes can also cause earthquakes reaching magnitudes up to 5 on the Richter scale, which sometimes occur as swarms. These clusters of tremors cause shaking of houses, walls, and windows and can crack plaster or walls in older buildings but rarely cause major damage. Powerful earthquakes close to magnitude 7 would cause damage independently, but they would not cause Newberry Volcano to erupt unless it were already on the verge of activity. Additional threats exist for rockfalls and avalanches.
If Newberry Volcano were to erupt, it should be possible to detect increased seismic activity, while increased production of volcanic gas would likely kill trees near the volcano, which scientists would quickly recognize before notifying emergency management agencies. Before 2011, Newberry was monitored by just one seismic station that had been installed in 1987 and had only detected seven earthquakes within of the volcano. In 2011, scientists from the Cascades Volcano Observatory installed eight more seismic and deformation monitors in the volcano's vicinity, which has seen the number of detectable earthquakes rise to 10–15 per year. The volcano continues to be closely monitored by the United States Geological Survey, which monitors a seismometer network with the geophysics program at the University of Washington and regularly conducts leveling surveys to check for deformation that could suggest impending activity, in addition to sampling geothermal areas. There are GPS instruments installed within the volcano's vicinity to monitor any swelling that occurs as a result of underground movement of magma. Despite historical uplift at the volcano, deformation has remained continuously low in recent years.
Human history
The area around Newberry Volcano has been inhabited by Native American peoples for more than 10,000 years, though only intermittently as a result of eruptive activity at the volcano and in the surrounding area. During an archaeological excavation near Paulina Lake in 1992, researchers discovered remnants of a central hearth and a housing structure with support posts and linear rock arrangements with dimensions of . Radiocarbon dating of charcoal samples from the site were dated to 11,000 years ago. The mountain's caldera was used to harvest obsidian, which they used to sharpen arrowheads and tools and traded throughout the Pacific Coast region for several thousand years.
The first recorded European to visit the volcano was Peter Skene Ogden, a trapper who reached the crater in 1826. In 1855, the volcano's namesake, John Strong Newberry, a surgeon and geologist for the Williamson and Abbot survey party, visited central Oregon while mapping the local area for the Pacific Railroad, but never visited the volcano. Paulina Lake, Paulina Creek, and Paulina Peak are named after Paulina, a Snake Indian chief who headed raiding parties against whites during the 1850s and 1860s before he was pursued and shot by settler Howard Maupin. Near the end of the 19th century, the Lava River Cave was used by the hunter Leander Dillman to store perishable foods. The name Mount Newberry was proposed by Israel Russell, who visited the area in 1903, though the name did not come into use. Instead, it was known as Newberry Crater until it was renamed to the Newberry Volcano in the 1930s by geologist Howel Williams, a name which was formally accepted in 2003 when geologist Larry Chitwood supported it through the official geographic naming process.
Because of the efforts of Hollis Dole, head of the Oregon Department of Geology, to promote the area, in 1963 NASA scientists became interested in using lava fields at Newberry to prepare for the United States' first Moon landing. NASA used the area in October 1964 and July 1966 to geologically train the Apollo Astronauts in recognizing volcanic features, such as cinder and pumice cones, lava flows, ash and obsidian flows, and a lava tube. Astronauts who would use this training on the Moon included Apollo 11's Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, Apollo 12's Alan Bean, Apollo 14's Edgar Mitchell, Apollo 15's James Irwin, and Apollo 16's Charlie Duke. Notable geologist instructors included Aaron Waters.
The Newberry National Volcanic Monument was established in November 1990 by the United States Congress. With an area of more than , it forms a near-circular shape around the summit caldera and then a long corridor from the mountain's northwestern side to the Deschutes River that includes a rift zone. The Monument lies within the Deschutes National Forest, which is managed by the United States Forest Service. As of 1997, the caldera area of Newberry holds seven campgrounds, two resort areas, and six summer houses.
Mining and geothermal energy
Because Newberry has had recent eruptive activity, has remained active for a long time, and has a shallow heat source feeding hot springs, it represents a source of geothermal energy. An investigation conducted by the United States Geological Survey in 1981 drilled a well in depth at a location to the east of the Big Obsidian flow, finding temperatures of under the surface there. An energy company drilled two holes with a depth of in 1995 and 1996, but they were unable to find fluids, so they lacked a mechanism to drive turbines and opted to end the project at Newberry. According to many scientists, Newberry Volcano represents the best geothermal energy candidate in the Pacific Northwest; in 2012, a deep well was built to determine whether water directed into the hole might be heated and returned to the surface in order to yield energy.
Recreation
Newberry Volcano is visited by 250,000 people each year, who come to go fishing for trout in East Lake, to camp on Paulina Lake, or go mountain biking around the loop that surrounds the crater. The lakes are also popular for boating. At the Newberry National Volcanic Monument, camping, fishing, and hiking are popular, including on the Trail of the Molten Land, which follows a 7,000-year-old lava flow from Lava Butte, and the Trail of the Whispering Pines, which traverses a ponderosa pine forest. Horse riding is also possible in a section of the Peter Skene Ogden Trail, long, which runs through the monument area; snowmobiling and cross-country skiing are also popular.
The Lava Lands Visitor Center within the Monument has an exhibit on the area's geology and culture and offers a paved path that runs for . A shuttle leaves from the center every 20 minutes during the peak season from Memorial Day through Labor Day, costing $2 per traveler. The area can also be accessed by personal motorized vehicles during off season with a permit from the visitor center, and the center's parking area remains open year-round. The area offers eight campgrounds operated by the United States Forest Service.
The last lava flow from Newberry during the Pleistocene formed the Lava River Cave, to the south of Bend. This feature is the state's longest continuous lava tube, which can be hiked for more than one mile to the north and west and has an arching ceiling with a thickness of . This trail represents the monument's most popular attraction and can be hiked between May and mid-September with a recreation day pass that costs $5. Jackets are recommended, as the temperature within the cave is usually . The Lava Cast Forest, a group of trees molded by lava from an eruption 6,000 years ago, covers an area of and can be observed from a paved, narrow, and steep one-mile trail. The area was designated as the Lava Cast Forest Geological Area in April 1942 by the United States Forest Service, which included of land in the region. Known to the American public since 1928, by the mid-1940s the Lava Cast Forest was visited by thousands of tourists each year. In the mid-1970s, the region had 150,000 tourist visitors annually, with the Lava Lands Visitors Center built by the Forest Service in September 1975.
The trail to the volcano's summit at Paulina Peak lasts from Highway 97, with an easy paved road to the caldera and four rest stops, though it grows steep and twisty near the end. The winding trail near the end is made of gravel and lasts for three miles, offering views of Mount Hood, Mount McLoughlin, and the Three Sisters volcanoes.
Notes
[a] Other sources list the elevation of Paulina Peak as or .
[b] At a depth of under Newberry, p- and s-wave velocities increase, which has been interpreted via tomography as the top of the subducting Juan de Fuca tectonic plate. This differs from earthquake data suggesting the surface of the plate lies at a depth of .
References
Sources
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External links
Database for the Geologic Map of Newberry Volcano, Deschutes, Klamath, and Lake Counties, Oregon – United States Geological Survey
Calderas of Oregon
Cascade Volcanoes
Volcanic crater lakes
Fissure vents
Geology of Oregon
Hotspot volcanoes
Lava domes
Lava tubes
Mountains of Deschutes County, Oregon
Mountains of Klamath County, Oregon
Mountains of Lake County, Oregon
Mountains of Oregon
National Natural Landmarks in Oregon
Newberry National Volcanic Monument
Polygenetic shield volcanoes
Pyroclastic cones
Dormant volcanoes
Shield volcanoes of the United States
Subduction volcanoes
Volcanoes of Deschutes County, Oregon
Volcanoes of Klamath County, Oregon
Stratovolcanoes of Oregon
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount%20Jefferson%20%28Oregon%29
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Mount Jefferson (Oregon)
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Mount Jefferson is a stratovolcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc, part of the Cascade Range in the U.S. state of Oregon. The second highest mountain in Oregon, it is situated within Linn County, Jefferson County, and Marion County and forms part of the Mount Jefferson Wilderness. Due to the ruggedness of its surroundings, the mountain is one of the hardest volcanoes to reach in the Cascades. It is also a popular tourist destination despite its remoteness, with recreational activities including hiking, backpacking, mountaineering, and photography. Vegetation at Mount Jefferson is dominated by Douglas fir, silver fir, mountain hemlock, ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, and several cedar species. Carnivores, insectivores, bats, rodents, deer, birds, and various other species inhabit the area.
Also known as Seekseekqua by Native American populations, the volcano was named after United States President Thomas Jefferson, and was first ascended by E. C. Cross and R. L. Farmer in 1888. It sits atop an area of crustal melting, and was produced by the subduction of the oceanic Juan de Fuca tectonic plate under the continental North American tectonic plate, forming about 730,000 years ago. Consisting of basaltic andesite, andesite, and dacite, the mountain has been extensively altered by glacial erosion. The surrounding area contains a number of other volcanic features like cinder cones, shield volcanoes, and tuyas (flat-topped, steep-sided volcanoes formed when lava erupts through a thick glacier or ice sheet). It is considered a low threat by the United States Geological Survey. Despite the low chance of future eruptions, many scientists still consider mudflows a major threat at Mount Jefferson.
Geography
The second tallest mountain in the U.S. state of Oregon after Mount Hood, Mount Jefferson lies within Jefferson, Linn, and Marion counties, in the central part of the state. Reaching an elevation of , the volcano has a proximal relief of . It is not usually visible from the city of Portland, though it is visible on clear days from Salem and can be noticed from highways to both the east and the west of the Cascade Range. The average elevation of the terrain around Jefferson is , meaning that Jefferson's cone rises nearly above its surroundings.
Wilderness
Mount Jefferson's eastern segment lies within the Warm Springs Indian Reservation, and its western portion within the Mount Jefferson Wilderness, of the Willamette National Forest and Deschutes National Forests. The wilderness area covers , with more than 150 lakes. It also has of trails, including of the Pacific Crest National Scenic Trail. Mount Jefferson is the major feature of the wilderness, along with the nearby Three Fingered Jack volcano.
Physical geography
Mount Jefferson lies in the temperate maritime climate of Western Oregon. The Cascades absorb east-moving moisture, causing warm and dry summers. Winters show higher precipitation levels, especially at higher elevations, averaging at peak altitudes and consisting mostly of snow. Moving east, annual precipitation levels decrease from to lower than .
When Little Ice Age glaciers retreated during the 20th century, water filled in the spaces left behind, forming moraine-dammed lakes, which are more common in the Mount Jefferson Wilderness and the nearby Three Sisters Wilderness than anywhere else in the contiguous United States. A number of these lakes breached during the 20th century and inundated Jefferson Park and the Jefferson Creek drainage under Waldo Glacier. These breach events yielded floods and small lahars (volcanically induced mudslides, landslides, and debris flows). The flood on August 21, 1934, at a lake formed near Whitewater Glacier, created a debris flow that reached the Whitewater River drainage and buried parts of Jefferson Park in of debris; another event took place in 1957, but was poorly documented.
Mount Jefferson has 35 snow and ice features, including four named glaciers: Whitewater, Jefferson Park, Russell, and Waldo. These features, for the most part on the northern, eastern, and southeastern parts of Mount Jefferson, span elevations from and cover an area of . The volcano, like much of the Oregon Cascades, was likely covered by an ice cap during the Pleistocene, with the glaciers at their peak size between 25,000 and 20,000 years ago. In recent years, the glaciers have retreated to form lateral moraines; Whitewater Glacier, for example, shrunk from in width and in length to in width and a length of . During the 20th century, scientists thought they had identified a new glacier, which they named Milk Creek Glacier, but later studies established that it was an artifact of stagnant ice that had been hidden by debris, and it is no longer considered its own distinct feature.
Other geographic features at Jefferson include rock outcrops, steep talus slopes, conifer forests, and alpine meadows. Additionally, a number of rivers drain Mount Jefferson. The northern and northwestern slopes feed the South Fork Breitenbush River, which flows into Detroit Lake, and the eastern side of Detroit Lake also receives water from Whitewater Creek, Russell Creek, and Milk Creek, which flow from the western flank of Mount Jefferson. The Whitewater Glacier and the northeastern side of the volcano drain into the Whitewater River, and Shitike Creek flows between Mount Jefferson and Olallie Butte before reaching the Deschutes River. Both Jefferson and Parker Creeks receive water from Jefferson's southeastern slopes, then join the Metolius River.
Wildfires occur within the wilderness area at Mount Jefferson. In the late summer to early fall of 2017, the Whitewater and Little Devil fires occurred. While the Little Devil fire covered , the Whitewater fire reached more than in area, provoking the use of amphibious aircraft and causing trail closures. As a result of the Whitewater fire, officials closed the Mount Jefferson Wilderness during the solar eclipse of August 21, 2017.
Climate
Ecology
Vegetation at Mount Jefferson is dominated by Douglas fir, silver fir, mountain hemlock, ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, and several species of cedar. Vine maple, rhododendron, purple lupine, yellow lupine, Indian paintbrush, wild strawberries, and red huckleberries are also common around Mount Jefferson. Above the timber line at above sea level, mountain hemlock and whitebark pine predominate, though mountain hemlock has also invaded into subalpine meadows at Mount Jefferson, possibly as a result of fire control programs, grazing, the influence of adjacent forest areas, and climate change.
Carnivorous animals at Mount Jefferson and its surroundings include American black bears, coyotes, cougars, red foxes, raccoons, American martens, stoats (also known as ermines), long-tailed weasels, American minks, North American river otters, and bobcats. Deer species include Roosevelt elk, black-tailed deer, and mule deer; insectivores include vagrant shrews, American water shrews, and coast moles. Bats at Jefferson include little brown bats and silver-haired bats, and American pikas and snowshoe hares are also present. Rodents such as yellow-bellied marmots, mountain beavers, yellow-pine chipmunks, Townsend's chipmunks, golden-mantled ground squirrels, western gray squirrels, Douglas squirrels, mountain pocket gophers, North American beavers, deer mice, bushy-tailed woodrats, water voles, Pacific jumping mice, and North American porcupines are present.
Birds at Jefferson include mallards, northern goshawks, sharp-shinned hawks, red-tailed hawks, dusky grouses, grey partridges, killdeers, spotted sandpipers, California gulls, band-tailed pigeons, great horned owls, mountain pygmy owls, common nighthawks, rufous hummingbirds, Northern flickers, pileated woodpeckers, yellow-bellied sapsuckers, hairy woodpeckers, and white-headed woodpeckers. Other bird species found in the area consist of Eurasian three-toed woodpeckers, willow flycatchers, olive-sided flycatchers, tree swallows, Canada jays, Steller's jays, common ravens, Clark's nutcrackers, black-capped chickadees, mountain chickadees, chestnut-backed chickadees, red-breasted nuthatches, pygmy nuthatches, Eurasian treecreepers, American dippers, wrens, American robins, varied thrushes, hermit thrushes, Townsend's solitaires, golden-crowned kinglets, ruby-crowned kinglets, water pipits, blue-headed vireos, western tanagers, Cassin's finches, gray-crowned rosy finches, pine siskins, red crossbills, green-tailed towhees, dark-eyed juncos, white-crowned sparrows, golden-crowned sparrows, fox sparrows, and Lincoln's sparrows. Long-toed salamanders, California giant salamanders, rough-skinned newts, tailed frogs, western toads, Pacific tree frogs, northern red-legged frogs, Oregon spotted frogs, pygmy short-horned lizards, common garter snakes, and northwestern garter snakes make up some of the amphibious and reptilian animals in the vicinity. Roughly half the lakes in the Jefferson area contain rainbow trout.
Geology
Mount Jefferson shows normal magnetic polarity, suggesting that it formed less than 730,000 years ago. Created by the subduction of the oceanic Juan de Fuca tectonic plate under the continental North American tectonic plate in an area where the Earth's crust is thick, it is part of the Oregon High Cascades, which are influenced by the movement of the North American Plate and the extension of its continental crust. These extensional processes formed grabens, or valley-like depressions between parallel fault lines, at the eastern boundary of the central Cascades, including a deep formation. Jefferson does not lie in one of these grabens, but these tectonic processes continue, albeit at a less dramatic rate. At their peak rates, the crustal extension and depression of the Cascades area caused eruption of the Minto Lavas, made of basalt, followed by the Santiam basalts, named for their movement into the North Santiam River valley, which they filled to depths of . Though the Jefferson vicinity has produced andesitic and dacitic lavas for the past 5 to 6 million years, major volcanoes more than south of the area have erupted basaltic andesite.
The central Oregon Cascades are made up of Eocene to Quaternary volcanic, volcaniclastic, igneous, and sedimentary rock. Miocene and Pliocene volcanic and sedimentary rocks have been exposed in the Jefferson area, which also sits above lava flows, cinder material, and breccia from the High Cascades that formed during and after the Pliocene. Jefferson is the largest volcano in the Jefferson Reach, which forms the strip that makes up the northern part of the Oregon Cascade Range. Stretching from Frog Lake Buttes to South Cinder Peak, this segment consists of at least 175 Quaternary volcanoes. With a width of , it differs from the adjacent northern segment of the Cascades, where volcanoes show a scattered distribution. Other unusual features of the Jefferson Reach include that the northernmost of the strip does not contain many volcanoes formed since the early Pleistocene and that it features a number of andesitic and dacitic volcanoes, which are unlike the many mafic (rich in magnesium and iron) shield volcanoes within the stretch. North of Pinhead Buttes, the volcanoes in this region are older and less tall, usually between in elevation. South of Pinhead Buttes, the Cascades becomes younger Pleistocene volcanoes, which often have glaciers.
Mount Jefferson may form part of a long-lasting intracrustal melting and magma storage area that encompasses an area of , where relatively little mafic eruptive activity has occurred. The melting of the metamorphic rocks amphibolite and at deeper strata, granulite, have both produced intermediate and silicic lavas at Jefferson. The strip may still be active, as monogenetic vents near Jefferson have produced basaltic andesite since the last glacial period. Jefferson — with Mount Hood, the Three Sisters-Broken Top area, and Crater Lake — represents one of four volcanic centers responsible for much of the Oregon Cascades' Quaternary andesite, dacite, and rhyolite deposits. Some of this andesite and dacite occurs in vents that underlie the Jefferson vicinity, which also erupted during the Quaternary. Quaternary volcanic production rates in the Cascade Range from Jefferson to Crater Lake have averaged per mile of arc length per million years.
In the area surrounding Mount Jefferson, monogenetic volcanoes constructed an upland area composed of basaltic lava flows and small volcanic vents. Within this region, basaltic vents occur at Olallie Butte, Potato Butte, Sisi Butte, North Cinder Peak, and South Cinder Peak, with basaltic lava flows at Cabot Creek, Jefferson Creek, and upper Puzzle Creek. There are several hundred other basaltic volcanoes within the central Oregon High Cascades, extending up to away. Mount Jefferson overlies an silicic volcanic field from the early Pleistocene.
Between five and six million years old, the field reaches north from Jefferson to Olallie Butte, and it covers an area of . Scientists think that the setup of this field, where various vents have erupted lava, explains why the otherwise similar Cascades volcano at Mount Hood is three times as voluminous as Jefferson, because Hood has concentrated most of the eruptions from its magma chambers. The field is also likely underlain by a batholith, a large mass of intrusive igneous rock (also called a pluton) that forms from cooled magma deep in the Earth's crust.
Mount Jefferson is a stratovolcano, made up of basaltic andesite, andesite, and dacite overlying basaltic shield volcanoes, with andesite and more silicic (rich in silica) rock forming the majority of the mountain. Rhyolite from the Quaternary can also be found at Jefferson, though it is not commonly found within the major volcanic centers of the Oregon Cascades. The volcano constitutes a small stratovolcano within the Cascades, with a current volume of , though prior to erosion and other alterations over time, it may have been as large as in volume at one time. Mount Jefferson has been significantly altered by erosion, and represents one of the most eroded stratovolcanoes in the state of Oregon. Glacial motion during the Pleistocene decreased the summit's elevation by a few hundred feet and formed a cirque (an amphitheatre-like valley carved by glacial erosion) on the western side of the volcano. This feature, known as the West Milk Creek cirque, includes the two Milk Creek glaciers and extends into the interior of Mount Jefferson, exposing tephra and pyroclastic rock in the main volcanic cone. The final two advances of glaciers during the Pleistocene removed about a third of the volcano's original volume, decreasing the overall elevation by . Currently, the Whitewater Glacier and the Milk Creek glaciers erode the mountain's eastern and western flanks, respectively, and are likely to gradually form a cleft between the northern and southern horns of the summit.
Within Jefferson's main volcanic cone, more than 200 andesitic lava flows are now exposed, with mean thicknesses from , as well as an immense, pink dacitic lava flow with a thickness of . The volcano also possess a small volcanic plug (created when magma hardens within a vent on an active volcano), situated under the summit. Jefferson's main cone ranges from 58 to 64 percent silicon dioxide, and is mostly made up of andesite and dacite. The upper of Jefferson's cone formed within the past 100,000 years, and consists mostly of dacite lava flows and lava domes. While it is possible that glaciers shed material from the burgeoning lava domes, any evidence of these domes generating pyroclastic flows or lahars has not been preserved in the geological record.
Basalt at Mount Jefferson contains olivine, clinopyroxene, and plagioclase phenocryst crystals, while basaltic andesite phenocrysts include plagioclase (variable among samples), clinopyroxene, olivine, orthopyroxene, and occasionally, magnetite. Dacite and rhyodacite samples show amphibole, plagioclase, orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, magnetite, apatite, and every so often ilmenite. Andesite shows similar composition to dacite samples, though sodic plagioclases and amphiboles are not as common.
Subfeatures
Volcanic activity in the vicinity of Mount Jefferson tends to originate from either stratovolcanoes that erupt for thousands of years or monogenetic volcanoes, which only erupt for a brief period of time before going extinct. At least 35 volcanic vents can be detected within of the main volcanic cone at Mount Jefferson. These have produced andesitic and dacitic lava flows, lava domes, small shield volcanoes, and lava aprons. Basalt lava flows, at least two of which are younger than 7,700 years old, have been produced from four monogenetic volcanoes to the south of Jefferson, and they are not directly related to activity at the Mount Jefferson volcano. Rhyodacitic lava flows and pyroclastic material, which have since been significantly altered and stripped by glaciation, originated from eight vents in the area. The Mount Jefferson vicinity contains at least 40 of the 190 documented lava domes in the Oregon Cascades, including the tall Goat's Peak dome; it also contains monogenetic tuyas (flat-topped, steep-sided volcanoes formed when lava erupts through a thick glacier or ice sheet) and emplacements of hyaloclastite among mafic lava flows.
The area is full of cinder cone volcanoes and intrusive lava plugs, which occur in irregular patterns. Made up of red to gray cinders, some are loose and agglutinated, and some contain intrusive rock plugs, while others do not. Cinder cones south of Mount Jefferson erupted lava flows, such as Forked Butte and North Cinder Peak. About 1,000 years ago, the South Cinder Peak cinder cone erupted, generating a lava flow that reached Marion Lake. Other volcanic cones associated with Mount Jefferson include Forked Butte and Horseshoe Cone.
Eruptive history
Scientists lack a comprehensive record of activity at Mount Jefferson, as important details have been obscured by the erosion of deposits by large glaciers. A few eruptions have been documented from the deposits that have been preserved, but the broad outline of Jefferson's eruptive history is understood, including that its activity has changed over time, producing both powerful explosive eruptions and lava flows. Historically, eruptive activity has alternated between andesitic and dacitic lavas.
The volcano formed over the course of several eruptive episodes, beginning about 300,000 years ago with the formation of rocks on the western and southwestern flanks of the volcano, and lasting until roughly 15,000 years ago. The two major eruptive episodes were separated by glacial erosion of the volcano. At least during the past 700,000 years, eruptions at the volcano have produced andesitic and dacitic lava. Most of the volcano formed within the past 100,000 years, with the latest activity building the central volcanic cone taking place between 30,000 and 20,000 years ago. These eruptions took place amidst the last glacial period and indicate interaction of lava with ice. They erupted dacite lava flows and silicic lava domes from vents east of the former central cone, and were influenced by ice on Mount Jefferson, which prevented them from diffusing across the volcano's flanks. Instead, they formed lava tongues near the crater and coursed down spaces in between glaciers, creating volcanic glass and columnar joints, or arrays of prismatic shapes. Silicic lava domes from this eruptive episode collapsed over and over again, producing block-and-ash flows, or pyroclastic flows with many volcanic blocks among ash with a similar composition.
About 150,000 years ago, an eruption produced the volcanic rock in the Park Butte area. A huge explosive eruption took place between 100,000 and 35,000 years ago (scientists have been unable to create a more specific time frame for the event), producing ash layers that covered the Metolius and Deschutes River valleys and eventually extended to the city of Arco, in the southeastern part of the state of Idaho. This eruption may have excavated the existing crater, but if that were the case, eruptions have since refilled the area and obscured evidence of a crater-forming event. Eruptions around the same time period yielded pyroclastic flows that coursed down the Whitewater River drainage of the eastern side of Mount Jefferson, and the Whitewater Creek on the volcano's western flank.
Basaltic lava flows at Forked Butte and to the south of Bear Butte mark the newest lava flows in the Jefferson area, as both were produced after Mount Mazama erupted roughly 7,600 years ago.
The last eruption occurred about a thousand years ago at a cinder cone on the flank of the South Cinder Peak cone.
Recent activity and potential hazards
The basaltic lava flows produced from four monogenetic vents near Mount Jefferson indicate that the local region could produce future eruptions and could be considered active. Mount Jefferson itself is listed with a "Low/Very Low" threat potential by the United States Geological Survey, but the agency has noted that "it may be too soon to regard Mount Jefferson as extinct." In a 1987 report, Richard P. Hoblitt and other USGS scientists estimated that the yearly likelihood for a major explosive eruption at Jefferson does not exceed 1 in 100,000. However, given the incomplete geologic record, imprecise dating of its known deposits, and its lack of relatively recent activity, scientists from the United States Geological Survey have commented that "It is almost impossible to estimate the probability of future eruptions at Mount Jefferson." They have designated proximal and distal hazard zones for the volcano, which extend and several tens of miles, respectively.
An eruption from the volcano would threaten the immediate surrounding area, in addition to places downstream near river valleys or downwind that could be affected by ashfall. Lahars (volcanically induced mudslides, landslides, and debris flows) and tephra could extend far from the volcano, and Mount Jefferson may also produce pyroclastic flows, lava domes, and lava flows. Though the population within is only about 800 people, there are more than 550,000 people living with of the volcano.
Lava flows from Mount Jefferson or another volcano nearby might form lava domes that could collapse, also yielding pyroclastic flows. Moreover, while basaltic lava flows from surrounding monogenetic vents tend to travel slowly and typically only reach from their source, and therefore would not pose serious hazards to much wildlife or humans, they would still burn and bury anything they encountered. Mazama Ash in the region reached in thickness, and at least one explosive eruption from Jefferson deposited of ash onto its surroundings within . Finer ash particles from the volcano could threaten air traffic, as a large gas plume may form; clouds from such a plume might also spawn pyroclastic flows on the flanks of the Jefferson volcano. Moreover, ash can cause irritation of the eyes or respiratory system among the ill, the elderly, and infants, potentially leading to chronic lung disease. Tephra can also lead to the short-circuiting of electric transformers and power lines, collapse roofs, clog engine filters, damage car engines, and create clouds capable of producing lightning that can start fires. Even monogenetic volcanoes in the area could yield hazardous ashfall, reaching in thickness in areas within ; it is unlikely they would threaten areas outside the local Jefferson vicinity.
An eruption at Jefferson could create lahars that would reach Detroit Lake on the western side of the volcano or Lake Billy Chinook on the eastern side, leading to increased lake water levels (or lake dam failure) and endangering life downstream. In addition to the hazards from eruptions at Mount Jefferson, other safety threats include debris avalanches and lahars, which could be caused without an eruption as a result of the failure of glacial moraine dams; this has happened in the past at Jefferson. Even a small or mid-sized landslide could create lahars that travel far from the volcano. Flooding at one of the many lakes on the flanks of Jefferson could spawn lahars in the future. Many scientists think mudflows represent the largest threat at Jefferson.
Seismic activity at Mount Jefferson is monitored by a regional network of seismic meters operated by the United States Geological Survey at the University of Washington's Geophysics Department. No frequent signs of detectable earthquake have been seen within the past two decades, but if earthquakes increased, scientists are prepared to deploy additional seismometers and other tools to monitor volcanic gas emissions and ground deformation indicating movement of magma into the volcano.
Human history
A Native American name for the mountain is Seekseekqua; its English name, Mount Jefferson (originally called Mount Vancouver by the British) was decided in honor of U.S. President Thomas Jefferson by the Lewis and Clark Expedition. The expedition, which was sponsored by President Jefferson, first saw the peak from the mouth of the Willamette River on March 30, 1806. Walter Eaton later described Mount Jefferson as "the most remote, the most inaccessible and alluring" mountain in Oregon, writing that Jefferson and Mount Hood "seem to hold mystic converse with one another over the canyons between."
Mount Jefferson's glaciers were named by Oregon Bureau of Mines scientist Ira A. Williams in 1915, with former professor of geology at the University of Oregon, Edwin T. Hodge, publishing a report on the volcano's glaciers and geology in 1925. His report focused on the sequence of volcanic rocks at Jefferson, in addition to its physiography and glaciology. Aerial photographic surveys of the glaciers at Jefferson were conducted by the Mazamas, a hiking club from Portland, during the 20th century. In 1937, Thayer analyzed Mount Jefferson's petrography and petrology from segments of the Western Cascades and High Cascades, which he separated into local units. He expanded on this research in a 1939 publication looking at Jefferson vicinity lava flows. Field work followed in summer during 1965, led by G. W. Walker, and a 1974 study of the volcano's glacial and volcanic history was carried out by Kenneth G. Sutton and other geologists.
The first ascent of Mount Jefferson was probably accomplished by E. C Cross and Ray L. Farmer on 12 August 1888 by way of the south ridge. George J. Pearce, who accompanied Cross and Farmer on the expedition, wrote an account of the climb for the Oregonian newspaper on 22 August 1900. The first climber to reach the summit via the north face was S. S. Mohler in 1903.
Recreation
Mount Jefferson is remote, and can usually only be reached on foot or by horse. There are no paved roads within of the mountain, and it is relatively little-known compared to other features near the Willamette Valley. Still, the mountain and its surrounding wilderness are visited by so many hikers, backpackers, and climbers each year, especially during the summer, that they face threats to their ecological well-being. The Warm Springs Tribal Council does not permit access to the volcano's eastern side, so only the western flanks can be used by the public. The western side can be reached from the Oregon Route 22 highway.
Jefferson Park, on the northern slope of the mountain, can be reached on foot by taking the Whitewater Trail and following the Pacific Crest Trail for . Located within the Mount Jefferson Wilderness, it represents a popular tourist destination for its views, lakes, and meadows, with activities including backpacking, climbing, and hiking during the summer, as well as nature photography. The area contains 26 campsites, which enforce a maximum group size of 12 people, and do not allow campfires. As a result of increased traffic to the area between 2012 and 2014, the Willamette National Forest administration enforced a campsite reservation system as of 2016, but stopped the practice in 2017 due to its failure to reduce human impact within the region.
The Jefferson Lake Trail runs for round trip, with an elevation gain of . Parts of the Trail were destroyed by a fire in the wilderness area in 2003, but the surviving remnants of the trail reopened after maintenance work was completed. At Marion Lake, there are several trails, including a long route and a hike to Marion Mountain that lasts round-trip. These and other trails through the region offer views of the devastation of fires in the wilderness area in 2003 and 2006. The Whitewater Trail runs north through the wilderness area for before reaching a junction, with the right path moving to the Pacific Crest Trail. In the Maxwell trail area, hikes of all difficulty levels can be found, including the challenging Maxwell Butte Trail 3391, the round trip at Santiam Lake Trail 3491, and the slightly less demanding Duffy Lake Trail 3427. At the Pamelia Lake trail area, there are streams, lakes, and springs, as well as bathrooms, parking areas, and picnic tables. The Pamelia Limited Entry Area only allows 20 groups per day and limits their size to mitigate human impacts on the wilderness. Trails at Pamelia Lake include the Hunts Creek Trail 3440 and a segment of the Pacific Crest Trail, in addition to the Pamelia Lake Trail 3439, which rises before meeting the Hunts Creek Trail. The area is popular for backpacking, mountaineering, horseback riding, and day hiking. Other popular trails include the Firecamp Lakes Trail and Canyon Creek Meadows trails. In addition to the trails, some of the most popular areas around Mount Jefferson Wilderness include Eight Lakes Basin, Pamelia Lake, Jack Lake, Duffy Lake, Russell Lake, Santiam Lake and Wasco Lake.
Mount Jefferson can be climbed, but the route is challenging, especially the pinnacle of the summit. Nearly annually, at least one climber attempting Jefferson perishes. Because of the hazards and difficulty of climbing Mount Jefferson, the U.S. National Geodetic Survey recommends that only experienced climbers try to climb it.
See also
Cascade Volcanoes
Geology of the Pacific Northwest
References
Sources
External links
Cascade Range
Cascade Volcanoes
Landforms of Jefferson County, Oregon
Landforms of Marion County, Oregon
Mountains of Linn County, Oregon
Mountains of Oregon
North American 3000 m summits
Subduction volcanoes
Volcanoes of Linn County, Oregon
Pleistocene stratovolcanoes
Stratovolcanoes of Oregon
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme%20Court%20of%20India
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Supreme Court of India
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The Supreme Court of India (Hindi: , IAST: Bhārat Kā Uccatam Nyāyālaya) is the supreme judicial authority and the highest court of the Republic of India. It is the final court of appeal for all civil and criminal cases in India. It also has the power of judicial review. The Supreme Court, which consists of the Chief Justice of India and a maximum of fellow 33 judges, has extensive powers in the form of original, appellate and advisory jurisdictions.
As the apex constitutional court, it takes up appeals primarily against verdicts of the High Courts of various states and tribunals. As an advisory court, it hears matters which are referred by the President of India. Under judicial review, the court invalidates both normal laws as well as constitutional amendments that violate the Basic structure doctrine. It is required to safeguard the fundamental rights of citizens and settles legal disputes among the central government and various state governments.
Its decisions are binding on other Indian courts as well as the union and state governments. As per the Article 142 of the Constitution, the court is conferred with the inherent jurisdiction to pass any order deemed necessary in the interest of complete justice which becomes binding on the President to enforce. The Supreme Court replaced the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as the highest court of appeal since 28 January 1950, two days after India was declared a republic.
With the Indian Constitution granting it far-reaching authority to initiate actions, exercise appellate authority over all other courts in the country with the power to review constitutional amendments, India's Supreme Court is regarded as one of the most powerful supreme courts in the world.
History
In 1861, the Indian High Courts Act 1861 was enacted to create high courts for various provinces and abolish Supreme Courts at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay and also the sadar adalats in presidency towns in their respective regions. These new high courts had the distinction of being the highest courts for all cases till the creation of the Federal Court of India under the Government of India Act 1935. The Federal Court had the jurisdiction to solve disputes between provinces and federal states and hear appeals against judgement of the high courts. The first CJI of India was H. J. Kania.
The Supreme Court of India came into existence on 28 January 1950. It replaced both the Federal Court of India and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, which were then at the apex of the Indian court system. The first proceedings and inauguration, however, took place on 28 January 1950 at 9:45 am, when the judges took their seats; which is thus regarded as the official date of establishment.
The Supreme Court initially had its seat at the Chamber of Princes in the parliament building where the previous Federal Court of India sat from 1937 to 1950. The first Chief Justice of India was H. J. Kania. In 1958, the Supreme Court moved to its present premises. Originally, the Constitution of India envisaged a supreme court with a chief justice and seven judges; leaving it to Parliament to increase this number. In its formative years, the Supreme Court met from 10 to 12 in the morning and then from 2 to 4 in the afternoon for 28 days per month.
The emblem of the Supreme Court represents the Lion capital of Ashoka at Sarnath, with a topmost wheel featuring 32 spokes.
Jurisdiction and Powers of the Supreme Court
The Supreme Court of India was constituted as per Chapter IV of Part V of the Constitution of India. The fourth Chapter of the Indian Constitution is " The Union Judiciary". Under this Chapter, the Supreme Court of India is vested with all Jurisdiction.
As per Article 124, The Supreme Court of India had been Constituted and Established.
As per Article 129, the Supreme Court is to be the Court of Record.
As per Article 131, the Original Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is authorized.
As per Articles 132, 133 and 134, Appellate Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is authorized.
Under Article 135, the Federal Court's Power is given to the Supreme Court.
Article 136 deals with the Special leave to Appeal to the Supreme Court.
Article 137 explains the Review Power of the Supreme Court.
Article 138 deals with the Enlargement of the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
Article 139 deals with the Conferment on the Supreme Court of powers to issue certain writs.
Article 140 gives Ancillary powers to the Supreme Court.
Article 141 of the Constitution gives the Law making power of the Supreme Court .
The law declared by the Supreme Court is binding on all courts in the country.
Members of Collegium
Presently, the Members of Collegium are:
Chief Justice Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud
Justice Sanjay Kishan Kaul
Justice Sanjiv Khanna
Justice Bhushan Ramkrishna Gavai
Justice Surya Kant
Court building architecture
The building is shaped to symbolize scales of justice with its centre-beam being the Central Wing of the building, consisting of the Chief Justice's court, the largest of the courtrooms, with two court halls on either side. The Right Wing of the structure has the Bar, consisting of rooms, the offices of the Attorney General of India and other law officers and the library of the court. The Left Wing has the offices of the court. In all, there are 15 courtrooms in the various wings of the building.
The foundation stone of the Supreme Court's building was laid on 29 October 1954 by Rajendra Prasad, the first President of India. The main block of the building has been built on a triangular plot of 17 acres and has been designed in an Indo-British style by the chief architect Ganesh Bhikaji Deolalikar, the first Indian to head the Central Public Works Department. It has a high dome and a spacious colonnaded verandah. The court moved into the building in 1958. In 1979, two new wingsthe East Wing and the West Wingwere added to the complex. 1994 saw the last extension.
Mother and Child Sculpture
On 20 February 1980, a black bronze sculpture of height was installed in the lawn of the Supreme Court. It portrays Mother India in the form of the figure of a lady, sheltering the young Republic of India represented by the symbol of a child, who is upholding the laws of land symbolically shown in the form of an open book. On the book, a balance beam is shown, which represents dispensation of equal justice to all. The sculpture was made by the renowned artist Chintamoni Kar. The sculpture is just behind the statue of Mahatma Gandhi.
Seal
The design of the Court's seal is reproduced from the wheel that appears on the Sarnath Lion capital of Ashoka with 24 spokes. The inscription in Sanskrit, "यतो धर्मस्ततो जयः" (IAST: ,) means "whence justice (dharma), thence victory". It is also referred as the wheel of righteousness, encompassing truth, goodness and equity.
Constitution of the Court
Registry
The registry of the Supreme Court is headed by the Secretary-General, who is currently assisted by 10 registrars, several additional and deputy registrars, etc. Article 146 of the Constitution deals with the appointments of officers and servants of the Supreme Court registry.
Supreme Court advocates
Supreme Court Rules, 2013 entitle only those advocates who are registered with the Supreme Court, called advocates-on-record to appear, act and plead for a party in the court. Those advocates who are designated as 'senior advocates' by the Supreme Court or any of the high courts can appear for clients along with an advocate-on-record. Any other advocate can appear for a party along with or under instructions from an advocate-on-record.
Composition
Size of the court
Initially, the Constitution of India provided for a Supreme Court with a chief justice and 7 judges. In the early years, a full bench of the Supreme Court sat together to hear the cases presented before them. As the work of the Court increased and cases began to accumulate, Parliament increased the number of judges (including the Chief Justice) from the original 8 in 1950 to 11 in 1956, 14 in 1960, 18 in 1978, 26 in 1986, 31 in 2009, to 34 in 2019. As the number of the judges has increased, they sit in smaller benches of two or three (referred to as a division bench)—coming together in larger benches of five or more (referred to as a constitution bench) when required to settle fundamental questions of law. A bench may refer a case before it to a larger bench, should the need arise.
The largest-ever bench at the Supreme Court of India has been constituted in 1973 in Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala. A bench of 13 judges was set up to decide whether Parliament had the unfettered right to amend the Constitution, which eventually gave rise to the Basic Structure doctrine.
Eligibility of a judge of the Supreme Court
A citizen of India not exceeding 65 years age per Article 124 of the Constitution who has been:
a judge of one high court or more (continuously), for at least five years,
an advocate there, for at least ten years,
a distinguished jurist, in the opinion of the president, power conferred by clause 2 of article 124 of the Constitution of India
is eligible to be recommended for appointment, a judge of the Supreme Court.
Court demographics
In practice, judges of the Supreme Court have been selected so far, mostly from amongst judges of the high courts. Barely nine justices—S. M. Sikri, S. Chandra Roy, Kuldip Singh, Santosh Hegde, R. F. Nariman, U. U. Lalit, L. Nageswara Rao, Indu Malhotra and P. S. Narasimha—have been appointed to the Supreme Court directly from the bar (i.e., who were practising advocates).
The Supreme Court saw its first woman judge when Justice M. Fathima Beevi was sworn into office in 1989.
In 1968, Justice Mohammad Hidayatullah became the first Muslim Chief Justice of India. In 2007, Justice K. G. Balakrishnan became the first judge as well as the Chief Justice of India from the dalit community. In 2010, Justice S. H. Kapadia coming from a Parsi minority community became the Chief Justice of India. In 2017, Justice Jagdish Singh Khehar became the first Sikh Chief Justice of India. Justice Indu Malhotra is the first and only woman judge to be selected directly from the bar.
Judicial independence
The Constitution seeks to ensure the independence of Supreme Court judges in various ways. Per Article 50 of directive principles of state policy, the state shall take steps to separate the judiciary from the executive. Independence of the judiciary, the supremacy of the constitution and rule of law are the features of the basic structure of the Constitution.
The Supreme Court and high courts are empowered to frame suo moto cases without receiving formal petitions/complaints on any suspected injustice, including actions/acts indulging in contempt of court and contempt of the Constitution by the executive, legislators, citizens, etc. It is considered one of the most independent courts in the whole South East Asia.
The main purpose of the Supreme Court is to decide constitutional issues. It is the duty of the judiciary to frame suo moto cases or to probe cases/petitions at the earliest against the executive or legislature when laws are implemented which violate the basic foundation and structure of the Constitution as stated in Article 38 (1) of the Directive Principles. It ensures that-"the state/judiciary shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by securing a social order in which social, economic and political justice is animated/informed in all institutions of life."
B. R. Ambedkar clarified as given below in the Constituent Assembly debates on Article 38 (1) highlighting its inevitable implementation.
Appointments and the collegium
As per the constitution, as held by the court in the Three Judges Cases – (1982, 1993, 1998), a judge is appointed to the Supreme Court by the president on the recommendation of the collegium — a closed group of the Chief Justice of India, the four most senior judges of the court and the senior-most judge hailing from the high court of a prospective appointee. This has resulted in a Memorandum of Procedure being followed, for the appointments.
Judges used to be appointed by the president on the advice of the union cabinet. After 1993 (the Second Judges' Case), no minister, or even the executive collectively, can suggest any names to the president, who ultimately decides on appointing them from a list of names recommended only by the collegium of the judiciary. Simultaneously, as held in that judgment, the executive was given the power to reject a recommended name.
The collegium system has come under a fair amount of criticism. In 2015, Parliament passed a law to replace the collegium with a National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC). This was struck down as unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, in the Fourth Judges' Case, as the new system would undermine the independence of the judiciary. Putting the old system of the collegium back, the court invited suggestions, even from the general public, on how to improve the collegium system, broadly along the lines ofsetting up an eligibility criteria for appointments, a permanent secretariat to help the collegium sift through material on potential candidates, infusing more transparency into the selection process, grievance redressal and any other suggestion not in these four categories, like transfer of judges. This resulted in the court asking the government and the collegium to finalize the memorandum of procedure incorporating the above.
In 2009 the recommendation for the appointment of a judge of a high court made by the collegium of that court, had come to be challenged in the Supreme Court. The court held that who could become a judge was a matter of fact, and any person had a right to question it. But who should become a judge was a matter of opinion and could not be questioned. As long as an effective consultation took place within a collegium in arriving at that opinion, the content or material placed before it to form the opinion could not be called for scrutiny in court.
Tenure
Supreme Court judges retire at the age of 65. However, there have been suggestions from the judges of the Supreme Court of India to provide for a fixed term for the judges including the Chief Justice of India.
Salary
Article 125 of the Indian constitution leaves it to the Indian parliament to determine the salary, other allowances, leave of absence, pension, etc. of the Supreme Court judges. However, the parliament cannot alter any of these privileges rights to the judge's disadvantage after his/her appointment. A judge of the Supreme Court draws a salary of per month—equivalent to the most-senior civil servant of the Indian government, Cabinet Secretary of India—while the chief justice earns per month.
Oath or affirmation
Per Article 124 and third Schedule of the constitution, the chief justice (or a judge) of the Supreme Court of India is required to make and subscribe in the presence of the president an oath or affirmation that they
Removal
Article 124(4) of the constitution, President can remove a judge on proved misbehaviour or incapacity when parliament approves with a majority of the total membership of each house in favour of impeachment and not less than two thirds of the members of each house present. For initiating impeachment proceedings against a judge, at least 50 members of Rajya Sabha or 100 members of Lok Sabha shall issue the notice per Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968. Then a judicial committee would be formed to frame charges against the judge, to conduct the fair trial and to submit its report to parliament. When the judicial committee report finds the judge guilty of misbehaviour or incapacity, further removal proceedings would be taken up by Parliament if the judge is not resigning himself.
The judge upon proven guilty is also liable for punishment per applicable laws or for contempt of the constitution by breaching the oath under disrespecting constitution
Post-retirement
A person who has retired as a judge of the Supreme Court is debarred from practicing in any court of law or before any other authority in India. However, Supreme Court and high court judges are appointed to various posts in tribunals and commissions, after their retirement. Lawyer Ashish Goel in a recent article criticized this stating that post-retirement benefits for judges hampers judicial independence. Former Law Minister and Senior Advocate of the Supreme Court, Arun Jaitley, also criticized the appointment of judges in government posts after their retirement. Jaitley famously said:"There are two kinds of judges - those who know the law and those who know the Law Minister. We are the only country in the world where judges appoint judges. Even though there is a retirement age, judges are not willing to retire. Pre-retirement judgements are influenced by post-retirement jobs."
Review petition
Article 137 of the Constitution of India lays down provision for the power of the Supreme Court to review its own judgements. Per this Article, subject to the provisions of any law made by parliament or any rules made under Article 145, the Supreme Court shall have power to review any judgment pronounced or order made by it. The Supreme Court can nullify any decision of parliament and government on the basis of violation of basic features. It can overrule the impeachment process of the President and Judges which is passed by the parliament on the basis of constitutional validity or basic features.
Under Order XL of the Supreme Court Rules, that have been framed under its powers under Article 145 of the constitution, the Supreme Court may review its judgment or order but no application for review is to be entertained in a civil proceeding except on the grounds mentioned in Order XLVII, Rule 1 of the Code of Civil Procedure.
Powers to punish for contempt
Under Articles 129 and 142 of the Constitution, the Supreme Court has been vested with power to punish anyone for contempt of any court in India including itself. The Supreme Court performed an unprecedented action when it directed a sitting Minister of State in Maharashtra government, Swaroop Singh Naik, to be jailed for 1-month on a charge of contempt of court on 12 May 2006.
Rules
Article 145 of the Constitution of India empowers the Supreme Court to frame its own rules (with Presidential approval) for regulating court practice and procedures. Three versions of the rules have been published: the first in 1950, then in 1966 and 2013.
Roster system
The Supreme Court decided to follow a new roster system from 5 February 2018 for allocation of matters to judges. Under the new roster system, the CJI will hear all special leave petitions (SLPs), and matters related to public interest, social justice, elections, arbitration, and criminal matters, among others. The other collegium/senior judges to hear matters related to labour disputes, taxation matters, compensation matters, consumer protection matters, maritime law matters, mortgage matters, personal law matters, family law matters, land acquisition matters, service matters, company matters etc.
Reporting and citation
Supreme Court Reports is the official journal of reportable Supreme Court decisions. It is published under the authority of the Supreme Court of India by the Controller of Publications, Government of India, Delhi. In addition, there are many other reputed private journals that report Supreme Court decisions. Some of these other important journals are: SCR (The Supreme Court Reports), SCC (Supreme Court Cases), AIR (All India Reporter), SCALE, etc.
Facilities in the campus
Legal-aid, court-fee vendors, first-aid post, dental clinic, physiotherapy unit and pathology lab; rail-reservation counter, canteen, post office and a branch and 3 ATMs of UCO Bank, Supreme Court Museum can be availed by litigants and visitors.
Landmark judgments
Land reform
After some of the courts overturned state laws for redistributing land from zamindar (landlord) estates on the ground that the laws violated the zamindars' fundamental rights, Parliament passed the 1st amendment to the constitution in 1951, followed by the 4th amendment in 1955, to uphold its authority to redistribute land. The Supreme Court countered these amendments in 1967 when it ruled in Golaknath v. State of Punjab that Parliament did not have the power to abrogate fundamental rights, including the provisions on private property. The 25th amendment to the constitution in 1971 curtailed the right of a citizen to property as a fundamental right and gave authority to the government to infringe private property, which led to a furor amongst the zamindars.
During the Emergency (1975–1977)
The independence of the judiciary was severely curtailed during the Indian Emergency (1975–1977) of Indira Gandhi. The constitutional rights of imprisoned persons were restricted under preventive detention laws passed by Parliament. In the case of Shiva Kant Shukla (Additional District Magistrate of Jabalpur v. Shiv Kant Shukla), popularly known as the Habeas Corpus case, a bench of five senior-most judges of the Supreme Court ruled in favour of the state's right to unrestricted powers of detention during the emergency. Justices A.N. Ray, P. N. Bhagwati, Y. V. Chandrachud, and M.H. Beg, stated in the majority decision:
(under the declaration of emergency) no person has any locus to move any writ petition under Art. 226 before a High Court for habeas corpus or any other writ or order or direction to challenge the legality of an order of detention.
The only dissenting opinion was from Justice H. R. Khanna, who stated:
detention without trial is an anathema to all those who love personal liberty... A dissent is an appeal to the brooding spirit of the law, to the intelligence of a future day, when a later decision may possibly correct the error into which the dissenting judge believes the court to have been betrayed.
It is believed that before delivering his dissenting opinion, Justice Khanna had mentioned to his sister: "I have prepared my judgment, which is going to cost me the Chief Justice-ship of India." In January 1977, Justice Khanna was superseded despite being the most senior judge at the time and thereby the government broke the convention of appointing only the seniormost judge to the position of Chief Justice of India. Justice Khanna remains a legendary figure among the legal fraternity in India for this decision.
The New York Times wrote of this opinion: "The submission of an independent judiciary to absolutist government is virtually the last step in the destruction of a democratic society; and the Indian supreme court's decision appears close to utter surrender."
During the emergency period, the government also passed the 39th amendment, which sought to limit judicial review for the election of the prime minister; only a body constituted by parliament could review this election. Subsequently, Parliament, with most opposition members in jail during the emergency, passed the 42nd Amendment which prevented any court from reviewing any amendment to the constitution with the exception of procedural issues concerning ratification. A few years after the emergency, however, the Supreme Court rejected the absoluteness of the 42nd amendment and reaffirmed its power of judicial review in Minerva Mills v. Union of India (1980).
Post-1980: an assertive court
After Indira Gandhi lost elections in 1977, the new government of Morarji Desai, and especially law minister Shanti Bhushan (who had earlier argued for the detenues in the Habeas Corpus case), introduced a number of amendments making it more difficult to declare and sustain an emergency, and reinstated much of the power to the Supreme Court. It is said that the basic structure doctrine, created in Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala, was strengthened in Indira Gandhi's case and set in stone in Minerva Mills v. Union of India.
The Supreme Court's creative and expansive interpretations of Article 21 (Life and Personal Liberty), primarily after the Emergency period, have given rise to a new jurisprudence of public interest litigation that has vigorously promoted many important economic and social rights (constitutionally protected but not enforceable) including, but not restricted to, the rights to free education, livelihood, a clean environment, food and many others. Civil and political rights (traditionally protected in the Fundamental Rights chapter of the Indian constitution) have also been expanded and more fiercely protected. These new interpretations have opened the avenue for litigation on a number of important issues.
Since 2000
Among the important pronouncements of the Supreme Court post 2000 is the Coelho case I.R. Coelho v. State of Tamil Nadu (Judgment of 11 January 2007). A unanimous bench of 9 judges reaffirmed the basic structure doctrine. It held that a constitutional amendment which entails violation of any fundamental rights which the court regards as forming part of the basic structure of the constitution can be struck down depending upon its impact and consequences. The judgment clearly imposes further limitations on the constituent power of Parliament with respect to the principles underlying certain fundamental rights. The judgment in Coelho has in effect restored the decision in Golaknath case regarding non-amendability of the constitution on account of infraction of fundamental rights, contrary to the judgment in the Kesavananda Bharati case.
Another important decision was of the five-judge bench in Ashoka Kumar Thakur v. Union of India; where the constitutional validity of Central Educational Institutions (Reservations in Admissions) Act, 2006 was upheld, subject to the "creamy layer" criteria. Importantly, the court refused to follow the 'strict scrutiny' standards of review followed by the United States Supreme Court. At the same time, the court has applied the strict scrutiny standards in Anuj Garg v. Hotel Association of India (2007) (Beyond Reasonableness - A Rigorous Standard of Review for Article 15 Infringement)a
2G spectrum case
The Supreme Court declared allotment of spectrum as "unconstitutional and arbitrary" and quashed all the 122 licenses issued in 2008 during tenure of A. Raja (then Minister for communications & IT), the main official accused in the 2G case.
Right to Information
In the year 2010, the Supreme Court filed an appeal before itself challenging the judgement of the Delhi high court holding that the office of the chief justice of India came under the ambit of the RTI Act and was liable to reveal information under it. Though the Supreme Court is in favour of bringing CJI office under RTI act, in 13 November 2019 the chief Justice of India office was brought under RTI Act by a majority judgement.
Black money
The government refused to disclose details of about 18 Indians holding accounts in LGT Bank, Liechtenstein, evoking a sharp response from a bench comprising justices B Sudershan Reddy and S S Nijjar. The court ordered the Special investigation team (SIT) to probe the matter. Lack of enthusiasm made the court create a special investigative team (SIT).
Minority reservations
The Supreme Court upheld the Andhra Pradesh High Court judgement quashing 4.5% sub-quota for minorities under OBC reservation quota of 27%.
Online/postal ballot for Indian citizen living abroad (NRIs)
Three judge bench presided by the then Chief Justice of India Altamas Kabir issued notice to the Union government and the Election Commission of India (EC) on the PIL filed by a group of NRIs for online/postal ballot for the Indian citizens living abroad.
T. S. R. Subramanian vs. Union of India
While hearing T.S.R. Subramanian vs Union of India, a division bench of the Supreme Court ruled that
Officers of the Indian Administrative Service (IAS), officers other All India Services, and other civil servants were not required to follow oral instructions, as they 'undermine credibility'.
A Civil Services Board (CSB), headed by the Cabinet Secretary at national level, and Chief Secretary at state level, be set up to recommend transfer/postings of the officers of the All India Services (IAS, IFoS and IPS).
Transfers of Group 'B' officers were to be done by the Heads of Departments (HoDs).
There was to be no interference of Ministers in state, other than the Chief Minister, in transfers/postings of civil servants.
These rulings were received mostly positively, and were termed as 'major reform(s)'.
Recognition of transgender as 'third gender' in law
In April 2014, Justice K. S. Radhakrishnan declared transgender to be the 'third gender' in Indian law, in the case, National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India. The ruling said:
Seldom, our society realises or cares to realise the trauma, agony and pain which the members of Transgender community undergo, nor appreciates the innate feelings of the members of the Transgender community, especially of those whose mind and body disown their biological sex. Our society often ridicules and abuses the Transgender community and in public places like railway stations, bus stands, schools, workplaces, malls, theatres [and] hospitals; they are sidelined and treated as untouchables, forgetting the fact that the moral failure lies in the society's unwillingness to contain or embrace different gender identities and expressions, a mindset which we have to change.
Justice Radhakrishnan said that transgender people should be treated consistently with other minorities under the law, enabling them to access jobs, healthcare and education. He framed the issue as one of human rights, saying that, "These TGs, even though insignificant in numbers, are still human beings, and therefore, they have every right to enjoy their human rights," concluding by declaring that:
(1) Hijras, eunuchs, apart from binary gender, were to be treated as "third gender" for the purpose of safeguarding their rights under Part III of the Indian Constitution and the laws made by Parliament and the State Legislatures.
(2) Transgender persons' right to decide their self-identified gender was to be upheld and that the Union and State Governments were to grant legal recognition of their gender identity such as male, female or as third gender.
Relief to over 35,000 public servants
In B.Prabhakara Rao vs. State of A.P. involved sudden reduction in age of superannuation from 58 years to 55 years of over 35,000 public servants of State Government, public sector undertakings, statutory bodies, educational institutions and Tirupathi-Tirumalai Devasthanams (TTD). They lost first round of litigation in the Supreme Court. Realizing the mistake, fresh legislation was brought restoring the original age of superannuation of 58 years but providing that the benefit of new legislation would not extend to those whose reduction of age of superannuation had been upheld. In challenge to this law, Subodh Markandeya argued that all that was required was to strike down naughty "not" – which found favour with the Supreme Court bringing relief to over 35,000 public servants.
Decriminalisation of homosexuality
On 6 September 2018, a five-member constitutional bench decriminalised homosexuality by partially striking down Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code in the case Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India. The bench led by Dipak Misra unanimously declared that criminalisation of private consensual sex between adult persons of the same sex under Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code was clearly unconstitutional. The court, however, held that the section would apply to bestiality, sex with minors and non consensual sexual acts.
Ayodhya dispute
A political, historical, and socio-religious debate, the Ayodhya dispute has been going on since 1961 when the first case was filed in court. The Supreme Court, after a marathon 40 day hearing which concluded on 16 October, reserved the decision and revealed it on 9 November 2019 stating that the disputed land will be given to Hindus and also ruled that the Muslim community will be given an alternative piece of 5 acre land for the construction of a mosque. This was one of the biggest decisions before the retirement of then Chief Justice of India, Ranjan Gogoi on 17 November 2019.
Critical assessment
Corruption
The year 2008 saw the Supreme Court embroiled in several controversies, from serious allegations of corruption at the highest level of the judiciary, expensive private holidays at the tax payers expense, refusal to divulge details of judges' assets to the public, secrecy in the appointments of judges', to refusal to make information public under the Right to Information Act. The chief justice K. G. Balakrishnan invited a lot of criticism for his comments on his post not being that of a public servant, but that of a constitutional authority. He later went back on this stand. The judiciary has come in for serious criticisms from former presidents Pratibha Patil and A. P. J. Abdul Kalam for failure in handling its duties. Former prime minister Manmohan Singh, has stated that corruption is one of the major challenges facing the judiciary, and suggested that there is an urgent need to eradicate this menace.
The Cabinet Secretary of India introduced the judges Inquiry (Amendment) Bill 2008 in parliament for setting up of a panel called the National Judicial Council, headed by the Chief Justice of India, that will probe into allegations of corruption and misconduct by High Court and Supreme Court judges.
Pending cases
Related Article: Pendency of court cases in India
According to Supreme Court newsletter, there are 58,519 cases pending in the Supreme Court, out of which 37,385 are pending for more than a year, at the end of 2011. Excluding connected cases, there are still 33,892 pending cases. Per the latest pendency data made available by the Supreme Court, the total number of pending cases in the Supreme Court as on 1 November 2017 is 55,259 which includes 32,160 admission matters (miscellaneous) and 23,099 regular hearing matters. In May 2014, former Chief Justice of India, Justice R.M. Lodha, proposed to make Indian judiciary work throughout the year (instead of the present system of having long vacations, specially in the higher courts) in order to reduce pendency of cases in Indian courts; however, per this proposal there is not going to be any increase in the number of working days or working hours of any of the judges and it only meant that different judges would be going on vacation during different periods of the year per their choice; but, the Bar Council of India rejected this proposal mainly because it would have inconvenienced the advocates who would have to work throughout the year. More over, various time frames specified in 'code of civil procedure' are also diluted by Supreme Court judgements to give the courts right to endlessly adjourn the cases.
Rule of law
The Supreme Court has not taken up the trial of many pending cases, since April 2014 (more than 6 years), challenging the validity of the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014, which was enacted by the Parliament without following the stipulated procedure in the Constitution, and is claimed detrimental to the basic foundation of the constitution on which the basic structure of the constitution is resting. The basic foundation of the constitution is the dignity and the freedom of its citizens, which is of supreme importance and cannot be destroyed or infringed by any legislation of the parliament. Whereas the fair trial to examine the validity of the ninety-ninth constitutional amendment, dated 31 December 2014, to form National Judicial Appointments Commission for the purpose of appointing the judges of the Supreme Court and high courts, was conducted on utmost priority and the Supreme Court delivered its judgement on 16 October 2015 (within a year), quashing the constitutional amendment as unconstitutional and ultra vires, stating that the said amendment interferes with the independence of the judiciary. Disposal of the various petitions filed against the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 is also equally important as it has alienated the basic rights of a vast section of Indian citizens and also against the federal character of the constitution, which is part of the basic structure of the constitution. The Supreme Court is also wasting its valuable time by not taking up the case in toto but conducting a piecemeal trial by delivering its judgement to dispose of petitions related to the apportionment of assets between the newly formed states Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. The Supreme Court is also conducting a piecemeal trial of the petitions filed by the states regarding water sharing of rivers and bifurcation of the common high court without considering the earlier pending petitions challenging the validity of the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 which is the basic cause of all these disputes. Under checks and balances as provided in the Constitution, it is the duty of the judiciary/Supreme Court to establish the rule of law at the earliest by rectifying any misuse of the Constitution by Parliament and the executive without colluding with them and to remove perceptions of people that rule of law is sidelined and a section of its citizens are subjected to discrimination.
Four judges vs chief justice
On 12 January 2018, four senior judges of the Supreme Court; Jasti Chelameswar, Ranjan Gogoi, Madan Lokur and Kurian Joseph addressed a press conference criticizing Chief Justice Dipak Misra's style of administration and the manner in which he allocated cases among judges of the Supreme Court. However, people close to Misra denied the allegations that the allocation of cases was unfair. On 20 April 2018, seven opposition parties submitted a petition seeking the impeachment of Dipak Misra to Vice President Venkaiah Naidu, with signatures from seventy-one parliamentarians. On 23 April 2018, the petition was rejected by Vice President Venkaiah Naidu, primarily on the basis that the complaints were about administration and not misbehaviour, and that thus impeachment would seriously interfere with the constitutionally protected independence of the judiciary.
Holidays and working hours
The Supreme Court works from 10:30am to 4pm, but is closed during winter and summer for two weeks each. Some critics feel that this delays pending cases. However, in an interview in June 2018 with NDTV, Justice Chelameswar revealed that most Supreme Court judges including him work around 14 hours per day, and continue to work for an average of 7 hours per day even during vacations. He further compared the court to the Supreme Court of the United States, which delivers judgement on around 120 cases in a year, while each judge in the Supreme Court of India delivers judgements on 1,0001,500 cases.
Appointment
It has been pointed out that consensus within the Collegium is occasionally resolved through trade-offs, resulting in unreliable appointments with consequences for litigants. There has also been growing sycophancy and "lobbying" within the system. Justice Chelameswar gave evidence from existing records to argue this point. In one case, "a judge was blocked from elevation to the Madras High Court in 2009, in what "appeared to have been a joint venture in the subversion of the law governing the collegium system by both the executive and the judiciary."
Controversies
On 18 April 2019 an unnamed woman employee of the Supreme Court filed an affidavit stating that Chief Justice Ranjan Gogoi had sexually harassed her on 10–11 October 2018 by pressing his body against hers against her will. An in-house committee of the Court quickly cleared Gogoi of the sexual harassment charges, although the report of the committee was not provided to the complainant. However, there were widespread protests against the manner in which the woman's complaint was dealt with by Supreme Court. A petition was filed before the National Human Rights Commission to obtain the report of the in-house committee. National Law University Delhi topper Survi Karwa skipped her convocation to avoid receiving her degree from Ranjan Gogoi in protest. The in house committee which cleared Gogoi of sexual harassment was chaired by Justice S A Bobde, who himself succeeded Gogoi as chief justice. The woman complainant stated that she was terrified by the systematic victimisation of her family members who were all dismissed from service following her protest against Gogoi's sexual advances.
Dissent
On 2 January 2023, justice BV Nagarathna said in her dissent that the government notification on demonetisation was "unlawful" and the process of banning all currency notes of ₹ 1,000 and ₹ 500 could not have been initiated by the Indian government. Justice Nagarathna expressed her dissenting views after a Supreme Court Constitution bench, with a 4:1 majority, upholding the demonetisation decision by the Narendra Modi government.
See also
Attorney General of India
List of chief justices of India
List of former justices of the Supreme Court of India
List of sitting judges of the Supreme Court of India
Solicitor General of India
Constitutional body (India)
Pendency of court cases in India
References
External links
Supreme Court reports
Text of all Indian Supreme Court judgments
Chief Justice & Judges
India
India
India
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histamine
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Histamine
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Histamine is an organic nitrogenous compound involved in local immune responses communication, as well as regulating physiological functions in the gut and acting as a neurotransmitter for the brain, spinal cord, and uterus. Since histamine was discovered in 1910, it has been considered a local hormone (autocoid) because it lacks the classic endocrine glands to secrete it; however, in recent years, histamine has been recognized as a central neurotransmitter. Histamine is involved in the inflammatory response and has a central role as a mediator of itching. As part of an immune response to foreign pathogens, histamine is produced by basophils and by mast cells found in nearby connective tissues. Histamine increases the permeability of the capillaries to white blood cells and some proteins, to allow them to engage pathogens in the infected tissues. It consists of an imidazole ring attached to an ethylamine chain; under physiological conditions, the amino group of the side-chain is protonated.
Properties
Histamine base, obtained as a mineral oil mull, melts at 83–84 °C. Hydrochloride and phosphorus salts form white hygroscopic crystals and are easily dissolved in water or ethanol, but not in ether. In aqueous solution, the imidazole ring of histamine exists in two tautomeric forms, identified by which of the two nitrogen atoms is protonated. The nitrogen farther away from the side chain is the 'tele' nitrogen and is denoted by a lowercase tau sign and the nitrogen closer to the side chain is the 'pros' nitrogen and is denoted by the pi sign. The tele tautomer, Nτ-H-histamine, is preferred in solution as compared to the pros tautomer, Nπ-H-histamine.
Histamine has two basic centres, namely the aliphatic amino group and whichever nitrogen atom of the imidazole ring does not already have a proton. Under physiological conditions, the aliphatic amino group (having a pKa around 9.4) will be protonated, whereas the second nitrogen of the imidazole ring (pKa ≈ 5.8) will not be protonated.
Thus, histamine is normally protonated to a singly charged cation. Since human blood is slightly basic (with a normal pH range of 7.35 to 7.45) therefore the predominant form of histamine present in human blood is monoprotic at the aliphatic nitrogen. Histamine is a monoamine neurotransmitter.
Synthesis and metabolism
Histamine is derived from the decarboxylation of the amino acid histidine, a reaction catalyzed by the enzyme -histidine decarboxylase. It is a hydrophilic vasoactive amine.
Once formed, histamine is either stored or rapidly inactivated by its primary degradative enzymes, histamine-N-methyltransferase or diamine oxidase. In the central nervous system, histamine released into the synapses is primarily broken down by histamine-N-methyltransferase, while in other tissues both enzymes may play a role. Several other enzymes, including MAO-B and ALDH2, further process the immediate metabolites of histamine for excretion or recycling.
Bacteria also are capable of producing histamine using histidine decarboxylase enzymes unrelated to those found in animals. A non-infectious form of foodborne disease, scombroid poisoning, is due to histamine production by bacteria in spoiled food, particularly fish. Fermented foods and beverages naturally contain small quantities of histamine due to a similar conversion performed by fermenting bacteria or yeasts. Sake contains histamine in the 20–40 mg/L range; wines contain it in the 2–10 mg/L range.
Storage and release
Most histamine in the body is generated in granules in mast cells and in white blood cells (leukocytes) called basophils. Mast cells are especially numerous at sites of potential injury – the nose, mouth, and feet, internal body surfaces, and blood vessels. Non-mast cell histamine is found in several tissues, including the hypothalamus region of the brain, where it functions as a neurotransmitter. Another important site of histamine storage and release is the enterochromaffin-like (ECL) cell of the stomach.
The most important pathophysiologic mechanism of mast cell and basophil histamine release is immunologic. These cells, if sensitized by IgE antibodies attached to their membranes, degranulate when exposed to the appropriate antigen. Certain amines and alkaloids, including such drugs as morphine, and curare alkaloids, can displace histamine in granules and cause its release. Antibiotics like polymyxin are also found to stimulate histamine release.
Histamine release occurs when allergens bind to mast-cell-bound IgE antibodies. Reduction of IgE overproduction may lower the likelihood of allergens finding sufficient free IgE to trigger a mast-cell-release of histamine.
Degradation
Histamine is released by mast cells as an immune response and is later degraded primarily by two enzymes: diamine oxidase (DAO), coded by AOC1 genes, and histamine-N-methyltransferase (HNMT), coded by the HNMT gene. The presence of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) at these genes are associated with a wide variety of disorders caused by an overactive immune system, from ulcerative colitis to autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Histamine degradation is crucial to the prevention of allergic reactions to otherwise harmless substances.
DAO is typically expressed in epithelial cells at the tip of the villus of the small intestine mucosa. Reduced DAO activity is associated with gastrointestinal disorders and widespread food intolerances. This is due to an increase in histamine absorption through enterocytes, which increases histamine concentration in the bloodstream. One study found that migraine patients with gluten sensitivity were positively correlated with having lower DAO serum levels. Low DAO activity can have more severe consequences as mutations in the ABP1 alleles of the AOC1 gene have been associated with ulcerative colitis. Heterozygous or homozygous recessive genotypes at the rs2052129, rs2268999, rs10156191 and rs1049742 alleles increased the risk for reduced DAO activity. People with genotypes for reduced DAO activity can avoid foods high in histamine, such as alcohol, fermented foods, and aged foods, to attenuate any allergic reactions. Additionally, they should be aware whether any probiotics they are taking contain any histamine-producing strains and consult with their doctor to receive proper support .
HNMT is expressed in the central nervous system, where deficiencies have been shown to lead to aggressive behavior and abnormal sleep-wake cycles in mice. Since brain histamine as a neurotransmitter regulates a number of neurophysiological functions, emphasis has been placed on the development of drugs to target histamine regulation. Yoshikawa et al. explores how the C314T, A939G, G179A, and T632C polymorphisms all impact HNMT enzymatic activity and the pathogenesis of various neurological disorders. These mutations can have either a positive or negative impact. Some patients with ADHD have been shown to exhibit exacerbated symptoms in response to food additives and preservatives, due in part to histamine release. In a double-blind placebo-controlled crossover trial, children with ADHD who responded with aggravated symptoms after consuming a challenge beverage were more likely to have HNMT polymorphisms at T939C and Thr105Ile. Histamine's role in neuroinflammation and cognition has made it a target of study for many neurological disorders, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD). De novo deletions in the HNMT gene have also been associated with ASD.
Mast cells serve an important immunological role by defending the body from antigens and maintaining homeostasis in the gut microbiome. They act as an alarm to trigger inflammatory responses by the immune system. Their presence in the digestive system enables them to serve as an early barrier to pathogens entering the body. People who suffer from widespread sensitivities and allergic reactions may have mast cell activation syndrome (MCAS), in which excessive amounts of histamine are released from mast cells, and cannot be properly degraded. The abnormal release of histamine can be caused by either dysfunctional internal signals from defective mast cells or by the development of clonal mast cell populations through mutations occurring in the tyrosine kinase Kit. In such cases, the body may not be able to produce sufficient degradative enzymes to properly eliminate the excess histamine. Since MCAS is symptomatically characterized as such a broad disorder, it is difficult to diagnose and can be mislabeled as a variety of diseases, including irritable bowel syndrome and fibromyalgia.
Histamine is often explored as a potential cause for diseases related to hyper-responsiveness of the immune system. In patients with asthma, abnormal histamine receptor activation in the lungs is associated with bronchospasm, airway obstruction, and production of excess mucus. Mutations in histamine degradation are more common in patients with a combination of asthma and allergen hypersensitivity than in those with just asthma. The HNMT-464 TT and HNMT-1639 TT polymorphisms are significantly more common among children with allergic asthma, the latter of which is overrepresented in African-American children.
Mechanism of action
In humans, histamine exerts its effects primarily by binding to G protein-coupled histamine receptors, designated H1 through H4. As of 2015, histamine is believed to activate ligand-gated chloride channels in the brain and intestinal epithelium.
Roles in the body
Although histamine is small compared to other biological molecules (containing only 17 atoms), it plays an important role in the body. It is known to be involved in 23 different physiological functions. Histamine is known to be involved in many physiological functions because of its chemical properties that allow it to be versatile in binding. It is Coulombic (able to carry a charge), conformational, and flexible. This allows it to interact and bind more easily.
Vasodilation and fall in blood pressure
It has been known for more than one hundred years that an intravenous injection of histamine causes a fall in the blood pressure. The underlying mechanism concerns both vascular hyperpermeability and vasodilation. Histamine binding to endothelial cells causes them to contract, thus increasing vascular leak. It also stimulates synthesis and release of various vascular smooth muscle cell relaxants, such as nitric oxide, endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factors and other compounds, resulting in blood vessel dilation. These two mechanisms play a key role in the pathophysiology of anaphylaxis.
Effects on nasal mucous membrane
Increased vascular permeability causes fluid to escape from capillaries into the tissues, which leads to the classic symptoms of an allergic reaction: a runny nose and watery eyes. Allergens can bind to IgE-loaded mast cells in the nasal cavity's mucous membranes. This can lead to three clinical responses:
sneezing due to histamine-associated sensory neural stimulation
hyper-secretion from glandular tissue
nasal congestion due to vascular engorgement associated with vasodilation and increased capillary permeability
Sleep-wake regulation
Histamine is a neurotransmitter that is released from histaminergic neurons which project out of the mammalian hypothalamus. The cell bodies of these neurons are located in a portion of the posterior hypothalamus known as the tuberomammillary nucleus (TMN). The histamine neurons in this region comprise the brain's histamine system, which projects widely throughout the brain and includes axonal projections to the cortex, medial forebrain bundle, other hypothalamic nuclei, medial septum, the nucleus of the diagonal band, ventral tegmental area, amygdala, striatum, substantia nigra, hippocampus, thalamus and elsewhere. The histamine neurons in the TMN are involved in regulating the sleep-wake cycle and promote arousal when activated. The neural firing rate of histamine neurons in the TMN is strongly positively correlated with an individual's state of arousal. These neurons fire rapidly during periods of wakefulness, fire more slowly during periods of relaxation/tiredness, and stop firing altogether during REM and NREM (non-REM) sleep.
First-generation H1 antihistamines (i.e., antagonists of histamine receptor H1) are capable of crossing the blood–brain barrier and produce drowsiness by antagonizing histamine H1 receptors in the tuberomammillary nucleus. The newer class of second-generation H1 antihistamines do not readily permeate the blood–brain barrier and thus are less likely to cause sedation, although individual reactions, concomitant medications and dosage may increase the likelihood of a sedating effect. In contrast, histamine H3 receptor antagonists increase wakefulness. Similar to the sedative effect of first-generation H1 antihistamines, an inability to maintain vigilance can occur from the inhibition of histamine biosynthesis or the loss (i.e., degeneration or destruction) of histamine-releasing neurons in the TMN.
Gastric acid release
Enterochromaffin-like cells, located within the gastric glands of the stomach, release histamine that stimulates nearby parietal cells by binding to the apical H2 receptor. Stimulation of the parietal cell induces the uptake of carbon dioxide and water from the blood, which is then converted to carbonic acid by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase. Inside the cytoplasm of the parietal cell, the carbonic acid readily dissociates into hydrogen and bicarbonate ions. The bicarbonate ions diffuse back through the basilar membrane and into the bloodstream, while the hydrogen ions are pumped into the lumen of the stomach via a K+/H+ ATPase pump. Histamine release is halted when the pH of the stomach starts to decrease. Antagonist molecules, like ranitidine, block the H2 receptor and prevent histamine from binding, causing decreased hydrogen ion secretion.
Protective effects
While histamine has stimulatory effects upon neurons, it also has suppressive ones that protect against the susceptibility to convulsion, drug sensitization, denervation supersensitivity, ischemic lesions and stress. It has also been suggested that histamine controls the mechanisms by which memories and learning are forgotten.
Erection and sexual function
Loss of libido and erectile dysfunction can occur during treatment with histamine H2 receptor antagonists such as cimetidine, ranitidine, and risperidone. The injection of histamine into the corpus cavernosum in males with psychogenic impotence produces full or partial erections in 74% of them. It has been suggested that H2 antagonists may cause sexual dysfunction by reducing the functional binding of testosterone to its androgen receptors.
Schizophrenia
Metabolites of histamine are increased in the cerebrospinal fluid of people with schizophrenia, while the efficiency of H1 receptor binding sites is decreased. Many atypical antipsychotic medications have the effect of increasing histamine production, because histamine levels seem to be imbalanced in people with that disorder.
Multiple sclerosis
Histamine therapy for treatment of multiple sclerosis is currently being studied. The different H receptors have been known to have different effects on the treatment of this disease. The H1 and H4 receptors, in one study, have been shown to be counterproductive in the treatment of MS. The H1 and H4 receptors are thought to increase permeability in the blood-brain barrier, thus increasing infiltration of unwanted cells in the central nervous system. This can cause inflammation, and MS symptom worsening. The H2 and H3 receptors are thought to be helpful when treating MS patients. Histamine has been shown to help with T-cell differentiation. This is important because in MS, the body's immune system attacks its own myelin sheaths on nerve cells (which causes loss of signaling function and eventual nerve degeneration). By helping T cells to differentiate, the T cells will be less likely to attack the body's own cells, and instead, attack invaders.
Disorders
As an integral part of the immune system, histamine may be involved in immune system disorders and allergies. Mastocytosis is a rare disease in which there is a proliferation of mast cells that produce excess histamine.
Some people may accumulate excessive dietary histamine in their bodies as a result of histamine intolerance. This may lead to symptoms such as hives, itchy or flushed skin, red eyes, facial swelling, runny nose and congestion, headaches, or asthma attacks.
History
The properties of histamine, then called β-imidazolylethylamine, were first described in 1910 by the British scientists Henry H. Dale and P.P. Laidlaw. By 1913 the name histamine was in use, using combining forms of histo- + amine, yielding "tissue amine".
"H substance" or "substance H" are occasionally used in medical literature for histamine or a hypothetical histamine-like diffusible substance released in allergic reactions of skin and in the responses of tissue to inflammation.
See also
Anaphylaxis
Diamine oxidase
Hay fever (allergic rhinitis)
Histamine intolerance
Histamine receptor antagonist
Scombroid food poisoning
Photic sneeze reflex
References
External links
Histamine MS Spectrum
Histamine bound to proteins in the PDB
Biogenic amines
Amines
Imidazoles
Immune system
Vasodilators
Immunostimulants
Neurotransmitters
TAAR1 agonists
Carbonic anhydrase activators
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear%20algebraic%20group
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Linear algebraic group
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In mathematics, a linear algebraic group is a subgroup of the group of invertible matrices (under matrix multiplication) that is defined by polynomial equations. An example is the orthogonal group, defined by the relation where is the transpose of .
Many Lie groups can be viewed as linear algebraic groups over the field of real or complex numbers. (For example, every compact Lie group can be regarded as a linear algebraic group over R (necessarily R-anisotropic and reductive), as can many noncompact groups such as the simple Lie group SL(n,R).) The simple Lie groups were classified by Wilhelm Killing and Élie Cartan in the 1880s and 1890s. At that time, no special use was made of the fact that the group structure can be defined by polynomials, that is, that these are algebraic groups. The founders of the theory of algebraic groups include Maurer, Chevalley, and . In the 1950s, Armand Borel constructed much of the theory of algebraic groups as it exists today.
One of the first uses for the theory was to define the Chevalley groups.
Examples
For a positive integer , the general linear group over a field , consisting of all invertible matrices, is a linear algebraic group over . It contains the subgroups
consisting of matrices of the form, resp.,
and .
The group is an example of a unipotent linear algebraic group, the group is an example of a solvable algebraic group called the Borel subgroup of . It is a consequence of the Lie-Kolchin theorem that any connected solvable subgroup of is conjugated into . Any unipotent subgroup can be conjugated into .
Another algebraic subgroup of is the special linear group of matrices with determinant 1.
The group is called the multiplicative group, usually denoted by . The group of -points is the multiplicative group of nonzero elements of the field . The additive group , whose -points are isomorphic to the additive group of , can also be expressed as a matrix group, for example as the subgroup in :
These two basic examples of commutative linear algebraic groups, the multiplicative and additive groups, behave very differently in terms of their linear representations (as algebraic groups). Every representation of the multiplicative group is a direct sum of irreducible representations. (Its irreducible representations all have dimension 1, of the form for an integer .) By contrast, the only irreducible representation of the additive group is the trivial representation. So every representation of (such as the 2-dimensional representation above) is an iterated extension of trivial representations, not a direct sum (unless the representation is trivial). The structure theory of linear algebraic groups analyzes any linear algebraic group in terms of these two basic groups and their generalizations, tori and unipotent groups, as discussed below.
Definitions
For an algebraically closed field k, much of the structure of an algebraic variety X over k is encoded in its set X(k) of k-rational points, which allows an elementary definition of a linear algebraic group. First, define a function from the abstract group GL(n,k) to k to be regular if it can be written as a polynomial in the entries of an n×n matrix A and in 1/det(A), where det is the determinant. Then a linear algebraic group G over an algebraically closed field k is a subgroup G(k) of the abstract group GL(n,k) for some natural number n such that G(k) is defined by the vanishing of some set of regular functions.
For an arbitrary field k, algebraic varieties over k are defined as a special case of schemes over k. In that language, a linear algebraic group G over a field k is a smooth closed subgroup scheme of GL(n) over k for some natural number n. In particular, G is defined by the vanishing of some set of regular functions on GL(n) over k, and these functions must have the property that for every commutative k-algebra R, G(R) is a subgroup of the abstract group GL(n,R). (Thus an algebraic group G over k is not just the abstract group G(k), but rather the whole family of groups G(R) for commutative k-algebras R; this is the philosophy of describing a scheme by its functor of points.)
In either language, one has the notion of a homomorphism of linear algebraic groups. For example, when k is algebraically closed, a homomorphism from G ⊂ GL(m) to H ⊂ GL(n) is a homomorphism of abstract groups G(k) → H(k) which is defined by regular functions on G. This makes the linear algebraic groups over k into a category. In particular, this defines what it means for two linear algebraic groups to be isomorphic.
In the language of schemes, a linear algebraic group G over a field k is in particular a group scheme over k, meaning a scheme over k together with a k-point 1 ∈ G(k) and morphisms
over k which satisfy the usual axioms for the multiplication and inverse maps in a group (associativity, identity, inverses). A linear algebraic group is also smooth and of finite type over k, and it is affine (as a scheme). Conversely, every affine group scheme G of finite type over a field k has a faithful representation into GL(n) over k for some n. An example is the embedding of the additive group Ga into GL(2), as mentioned above. As a result, one can think of linear algebraic groups either as matrix groups or, more abstractly, as smooth affine group schemes over a field. (Some authors use "linear algebraic group" to mean any affine group scheme of finite type over a field.)
For a full understanding of linear algebraic groups, one has to consider more general (non-smooth) group schemes. For example, let k be an algebraically closed field of characteristic p > 0. Then the homomorphism f: Gm → Gm defined by x ↦ xp induces an isomorphism of abstract groups k* → k*, but f is not an isomorphism of algebraic groups (because x1/p is not a regular function). In the language of group schemes, there is a clearer reason why f is not an isomorphism: f is surjective, but it has nontrivial kernel, namely the group scheme μp of pth roots of unity. This issue does not arise in characteristic zero. Indeed, every group scheme of finite type over a field k of characteristic zero is smooth over k. A group scheme of finite type over any field k is smooth over k if and only if it is geometrically reduced, meaning that the base change is reduced, where is an algebraic closure of k.
Since an affine scheme X is determined by its ring O(X) of regular functions, an affine group scheme G over a field k is determined by the ring O(G) with its structure of a Hopf algebra (coming from the multiplication and inverse maps on G). This gives an equivalence of categories (reversing arrows) between affine group schemes over k and commutative Hopf algebras over k. For example, the Hopf algebra corresponding to the multiplicative group Gm = GL(1) is the Laurent polynomial ring k[x, x−1], with comultiplication given by
Basic notions
For a linear algebraic group G over a field k, the identity component Go (the connected component containing the point 1) is a normal subgroup of finite index. So there is a group extension
where F is a finite algebraic group. (For k algebraically closed, F can be identified with an abstract finite group.) Because of this, the study of algebraic groups mostly focuses on connected groups.
Various notions from abstract group theory can be extended to linear algebraic groups. It is straightforward to define what it means for a linear algebraic group to be commutative, nilpotent, or solvable, by analogy with the definitions in abstract group theory. For example, a linear algebraic group is solvable if it has a composition series of linear algebraic subgroups such that the quotient groups are commutative. Also, the normalizer, the center, and the centralizer of a closed subgroup H of a linear algebraic group G are naturally viewed as closed subgroup schemes of G. If they are smooth over k, then they are linear algebraic groups as defined above.
One may ask to what extent the properties of a connected linear algebraic group G over a field k are determined by the abstract group G(k). A useful result in this direction is that if the field k is perfect (for example, of characteristic zero), or if G is reductive (as defined below), then G is unirational over k. Therefore, if in addition k is infinite, the group G(k) is Zariski dense in G. For example, under the assumptions mentioned, G is commutative, nilpotent, or solvable if and only if G(k) has the corresponding property.
The assumption of connectedness cannot be omitted in these results. For example, let G be the group μ3 ⊂ GL(1) of cube roots of unity over the rational numbers Q. Then G is a linear algebraic group over Q for which G(Q) = 1 is not Zariski dense in G, because is a group of order 3.
Over an algebraically closed field, there is a stronger result about algebraic groups as algebraic varieties: every connected linear algebraic group over an algebraically closed field is a rational variety.
The Lie algebra of an algebraic group
The Lie algebra of an algebraic group G can be defined in several equivalent ways: as the tangent space T1(G) at the identity element 1 ∈ G(k), or as the space of left-invariant derivations. If k is algebraically closed, a derivation D: O(G) → O(G) over k of the coordinate ring of G is left-invariant if
for every x in G(k), where λx: O(G) → O(G) is induced by left multiplication by x. For an arbitrary field k, left invariance of a derivation is defined as an analogous equality of two linear maps O(G) → O(G) ⊗O(G). The Lie bracket of two derivations is defined by [D1, D2] =D1D2 − D2D1.
The passage from G to is thus a process of differentiation. For an element x ∈ G(k), the derivative at 1 ∈ G(k) of the conjugation map G → G, g ↦ xgx−1, is an automorphism of , giving the adjoint representation:
Over a field of characteristic zero, a connected subgroup H of a linear algebraic group G is uniquely determined by its Lie algebra . But not every Lie subalgebra of corresponds to an algebraic subgroup of G, as one sees in the example of the torus G = (Gm)2 over C. In positive characteristic, there can be many different connected subgroups of a group G with the same Lie algebra (again, the torus G = (Gm)2 provides examples). For these reasons, although the Lie algebra of an algebraic group is important, the structure theory of algebraic groups requires more global tools.
Semisimple and unipotent elements
For an algebraically closed field k, a matrix g in GL(n,k) is called semisimple if it is diagonalizable, and unipotent if the matrix g − 1 is nilpotent. Equivalently, g is unipotent if all eigenvalues of g are equal to 1. The Jordan canonical form for matrices implies that every element g of GL(n,k) can be written uniquely as a product g = gssgu such that gss is semisimple, gu is unipotent, and gss and gu commute with each other.
For any field k, an element g of GL(n,k) is said to be semisimple if it becomes diagonalizable over the algebraic closure of k. If the field k is perfect, then the semisimple and unipotent parts of g also lie in GL(n,k). Finally, for any linear algebraic group G ⊂ GL(n) over a field k, define a k-point of G to be semisimple or unipotent if it is semisimple or unipotent in GL(n,k). (These properties are in fact independent of the choice of a faithful representation of G.) If the field k is perfect, then the semisimple and unipotent parts of a k-point of G are automatically in G. That is (the Jordan decomposition): every element g of G(k) can be written uniquely as a product g = gssgu in G(k) such that gss is semisimple, gu is unipotent, and gss and gu commute with each other. This reduces the problem of describing the conjugacy classes in G(k) to the semisimple and unipotent cases.
Tori
A torus over an algebraically closed field k means a group isomorphic to (Gm)n, the product of n copies of the multiplicative group over k, for some natural number n. For a linear algebraic group G, a maximal torus in G means a torus in G that is not contained in any bigger torus. For example, the group of diagonal matrices in GL(n) over k is a maximal torus in GL(n), isomorphic to (Gm)n. A basic result of the theory is that any two maximal tori in a group G over an algebraically closed field k are conjugate by some element of G(k). The rank of G means the dimension of any maximal torus.
For an arbitrary field k, a torus T over k means a linear algebraic group over k whose base change to the algebraic closure of k is isomorphic to (Gm)n over , for some natural number n. A split torus over k means a group isomorphic to (Gm)n over k for some n. An example of a non-split torus over the real numbers R is
with group structure given by the formula for multiplying complex numbers x+iy. Here T is a torus of dimension 1 over R. It is not split, because its group of real points T(R) is the circle group, which is not isomorphic even as an abstract group to Gm(R) = R*.
Every point of a torus over a field k is semisimple. Conversely, if G is a connected linear algebraic group such that every element of is semisimple, then G is a torus.
For a linear algebraic group G over a general field k, one cannot expect all maximal tori in G over k to be conjugate by elements of G(k). For example, both the multiplicative group Gm and the circle group T above occur as maximal tori in SL(2) over R. However, it is always true that any two maximal split tori in G over k (meaning split tori in G that are not contained in a bigger split torus) are conjugate by some element of G(k). As a result, it makes sense to define the k-rank or split rank of a group G over k as the dimension of any maximal split torus in G over k.
For any maximal torus T in a linear algebraic group G over a field k, Grothendieck showed that is a maximal torus in . It follows that any two maximal tori in G over a field k have the same dimension, although they need not be isomorphic.
Unipotent groups
Let Un be the group of upper-triangular matrices in GL(n) with diagonal entries equal to 1, over a field k. A group scheme over a field k (for example, a linear algebraic group) is called unipotent if it is isomorphic to a closed subgroup scheme of Un for some n. It is straightforward to check that the group Un is nilpotent. As a result, every unipotent group scheme is nilpotent.
A linear algebraic group G over a field k is unipotent if and only if every element of is unipotent.
The group Bn of upper-triangular matrices in GL(n) is a semidirect product
where Tn is the diagonal torus (Gm)n. More generally, every connected solvable linear algebraic group is a semidirect product of a torus with a unipotent group, T ⋉ U.
A smooth connected unipotent group over a perfect field k (for example, an algebraically closed field) has a composition series with all quotient groups isomorphic to the additive group Ga.
Borel subgroups
The Borel subgroups are important for the structure theory of linear algebraic groups. For a linear algebraic group G over an algebraically closed field k, a Borel subgroup of G means a maximal smooth connected solvable subgroup. For example, one Borel subgroup of GL(n) is the subgroup B of upper-triangular matrices (all entries below the diagonal are zero).
A basic result of the theory is that any two Borel subgroups of a connected group G over an algebraically closed field k are conjugate by some element of G(k). (A standard proof uses the Borel fixed-point theorem: for a connected solvable group G acting on a proper variety X over an algebraically closed field k, there is a k-point in X which is fixed by the action of G.) The conjugacy of Borel subgroups in GL(n) amounts to the Lie–Kolchin theorem: every smooth connected solvable subgroup of GL(n) is conjugate to a subgroup of the upper-triangular subgroup in GL(n).
For an arbitrary field k, a Borel subgroup B of G is defined to be a subgroup over k such that, over an algebraic closure of k, is a Borel subgroup of . Thus G may or may not have a Borel subgroup over k.
For a closed subgroup scheme H of G, the quotient space G/H is a smooth quasi-projective scheme over k. A smooth subgroup P of a connected group G is called parabolic if G/P is projective over k (or equivalently, proper over k). An important property of Borel subgroups B is that G/B is a projective variety, called the flag variety of G. That is, Borel subgroups are parabolic subgroups. More precisely, for k algebraically closed, the Borel subgroups are exactly the minimal parabolic subgroups of G; conversely, every subgroup containing a Borel subgroup is parabolic. So one can list all parabolic subgroups of G (up to conjugation by G(k)) by listing all the linear algebraic subgroups of G that contain a fixed Borel subgroup. For example, the subgroups P ⊂ GL(3) over k that contain the Borel subgroup B of upper-triangular matrices are B itself, the whole group GL(3), and the intermediate subgroups
and
The corresponding projective homogeneous varieties GL(3)/P are (respectively): the flag manifold of all chains of linear subspaces
with Vi of dimension i; a point; the projective space P2 of lines (1-dimensional linear subspaces) in A3; and the dual projective space P2 of planes in A3.
Semisimple and reductive groups
A connected linear algebraic group G over an algebraically closed field is called semisimple if every smooth connected solvable normal subgroup of G is trivial. More generally, a connected linear algebraic group G over an algebraically closed field is called reductive if every smooth connected unipotent normal subgroup of G is trivial. (Some authors do not require reductive groups to be connected.) A semisimple group is reductive. A group G over an arbitrary field k is called semisimple or reductive if is semisimple or reductive. For example, the group SL(n) of n × n matrices with determinant 1 over any field k is semisimple, whereas a nontrivial torus is reductive but not semisimple. Likewise, GL(n) is reductive but not semisimple (because its center Gm is a nontrivial smooth connected solvable normal subgroup).
Every compact connected Lie group has a complexification, which is a complex reductive algebraic group. In fact, this construction gives a one-to-one correspondence between compact connected Lie groups and complex reductive groups, up to isomorphism.
A linear algebraic group G over a field k is called simple (or k-simple) if it is semisimple, nontrivial, and every smooth connected normal subgroup of G over k is trivial or equal to G. (Some authors call this property "almost simple".) This differs slightly from the terminology for abstract groups, in that a simple algebraic group may have nontrivial center (although the center must be finite). For example, for any integer n at least 2 and any field k, the group SL(n) over k is simple, and its center is the group scheme μn of nth roots of unity.
Every connected linear algebraic group G over a perfect field k is (in a unique way) an extension of a reductive group R by a smooth connected unipotent group U, called the unipotent radical of G:
If k has characteristic zero, then one has the more precise Levi decomposition: every connected linear algebraic group G over k is a semidirect product of a reductive group by a unipotent group.
Classification of reductive groups
Reductive groups include the most important linear algebraic groups in practice, such as the classical groups: GL(n), SL(n), the orthogonal groups SO(n) and the symplectic groups Sp(2n). On the other hand, the definition of reductive groups is quite "negative", and it is not clear that one can expect to say much about them. Remarkably, Claude Chevalley gave a complete classification of the reductive groups over an algebraically closed field: they are determined by root data. In particular, simple groups over an algebraically closed field k are classified (up to quotients by finite central subgroup schemes) by their Dynkin diagrams. It is striking that this classification is independent of the characteristic of k. For example, the exceptional Lie groups G2, F4, E6, E7, and E8 can be defined in any characteristic (and even as group schemes over Z). The classification of finite simple groups says that most finite simple groups arise as the group of k-points of a simple algebraic group over a finite field k, or as minor variants of that construction.
Every reductive group over a field is the quotient by a finite central subgroup scheme of the product of a torus and some simple groups. For example,
For an arbitrary field k, a reductive group G is called split if it contains a split maximal torus over k (that is, a split torus in G which remains maximal over an algebraic closure of k). For example, GL(n) is a split reductive group over any field k. Chevalley showed that the classification of split reductive groups is the same over any field. By contrast, the classification of arbitrary reductive groups can be hard, depending on the base field. For example, every nondegenerate quadratic form q over a field k determines a reductive group SO(q), and every central simple algebra A over k determines a reductive group SL1(A). As a result, the problem of classifying reductive groups over k essentially includes the problem of classifying all quadratic forms over k or all central simple algebras over k. These problems are easy for k algebraically closed, and they are understood for some other fields such as number fields, but for arbitrary fields there are many open questions.
Applications
Representation theory
One reason for the importance of reductive groups comes from representation theory. Every irreducible representation of a unipotent group is trivial. More generally, for any linear algebraic group G written as an extension
with U unipotent and R reductive, every irreducible representation of G factors through R. This focuses attention on the representation theory of reductive groups. (To be clear, the representations considered here are representations of G as an algebraic group. Thus, for a group G over a field k, the representations are on k-vector spaces, and the action of G is given by regular functions. It is an important but different problem to classify continuous representations of the group G(R) for a real reductive group G, or similar problems over other fields.)
Chevalley showed that the irreducible representations of a split reductive group over a field k are finite-dimensional, and they are indexed by dominant weights. This is the same as what happens in the representation theory of compact connected Lie groups, or the finite-dimensional representation theory of complex semisimple Lie algebras. For k of characteristic zero, all these theories are essentially equivalent. In particular, every representation of a reductive group G over a field of characteristic zero is a direct sum of irreducible representations, and if G is split, the characters of the irreducible representations are given by the Weyl character formula. The Borel–Weil theorem gives a geometric construction of the irreducible representations of a reductive group G in characteristic zero, as spaces of sections of line bundles over the flag manifold G/B.
The representation theory of reductive groups (other than tori) over a field of positive characteristic p is less well understood. In this situation, a representation need not be a direct sum of irreducible representations. And although irreducible representations are indexed by dominant weights, the dimensions and characters of the irreducible representations are known only in some cases. determined these characters (proving Lusztig's conjecture) when the characteristic p is sufficiently large compared to the Coxeter number of the group. For small primes p, there is not even a precise conjecture.
Group actions and geometric invariant theory
An action of a linear algebraic group G on a variety (or scheme) X over a field k is a morphism
that satisfies the axioms of a group action. As in other types of group theory, it is important to study group actions, since groups arise naturally as symmetries of geometric objects.
Part of the theory of group actions is geometric invariant theory, which aims to construct a quotient variety X/G, describing the set of orbits of a linear algebraic group G on X as an algebraic variety. Various complications arise. For example, if X is an affine variety, then one can try to construct X/G as Spec of the ring of invariants O(X)G. However, Masayoshi Nagata showed that the ring of invariants need not be finitely generated as a k-algebra (and so Spec of the ring is a scheme but not a variety), a negative answer to Hilbert's 14th problem. In the positive direction, the ring of invariants is finitely generated if G is reductive, by Haboush's theorem, proved in characteristic zero by Hilbert and Nagata.
Geometric invariant theory involves further subtleties when a reductive group G acts on a projective variety X. In particular, the theory defines open subsets of "stable" and "semistable" points in X, with the quotient morphism only defined on the set of semistable points.
Related notions
Linear algebraic groups admit variants in several directions. Dropping the existence of the inverse map , one obtains the notion of a linear algebraic monoid.
Lie groups
For a linear algebraic group G over the real numbers R, the group of real points G(R) is a Lie group, essentially because real polynomials, which describe the multiplication on G, are smooth functions. Likewise, for a linear algebraic group G over C, G(C) is a complex Lie group. Much of the theory of algebraic groups was developed by analogy with Lie groups.
There are several reasons why a Lie group may not have the structure of a linear algebraic group over R.
A Lie group with an infinite group of components G/Go cannot be realized as a linear algebraic group.
An algebraic group G over R may be connected as an algebraic group while the Lie group G(R) is not connected, and likewise for simply connected groups. For example, the algebraic group SL(2) is simply connected over any field, whereas the Lie group SL(2,R) has fundamental group isomorphic to the integers Z. The double cover H of SL(2,R), known as the metaplectic group, is a Lie group that cannot be viewed as a linear algebraic group over R. More strongly, H has no faithful finite-dimensional representation.
Anatoly Maltsev showed that every simply connected nilpotent Lie group can be viewed as a unipotent algebraic group G over R in a unique way. (As a variety, G is isomorphic to affine space of some dimension over R.) By contrast, there are simply connected solvable Lie groups that cannot be viewed as real algebraic groups. For example, the universal cover H of the semidirect product S1 ⋉ R2 has center isomorphic to Z, which is not a linear algebraic group, and so H cannot be viewed as a linear algebraic group over R.
Abelian varieties
Algebraic groups which are not affine behave very differently. In particular, a smooth connected group scheme which is a projective variety over a field is called an abelian variety. In contrast to linear algebraic groups, every abelian variety is commutative. Nonetheless, abelian varieties have a rich theory. Even the case of elliptic curves (abelian varieties of dimension 1) is central to number theory, with applications including the proof of Fermat's Last Theorem.
Tannakian categories
The finite-dimensional representations of an algebraic group G, together with the tensor product of representations, form a tannakian category RepG. In fact, tannakian categories with a "fiber functor" over a field are equivalent to affine group schemes. (Every affine group scheme over a field k is pro-algebraic in the sense that it is an inverse limit of affine group schemes of finite type over k.) For example, the Mumford–Tate group and the motivic Galois group are constructed using this formalism. Certain properties of a (pro-)algebraic group G can be read from its category of representations. For example, over a field of characteristic zero, RepG is a semisimple category if and only if the identity component of G is pro-reductive.
See also
The groups of Lie type are the finite simple groups constructed from simple algebraic groups over finite fields.
Lang's theorem
Generalized flag variety, Bruhat decomposition, BN pair, Weyl group, Cartan subgroup, group of adjoint type, parabolic induction
Real form (Lie theory), Satake diagram
Adelic algebraic group, Weil's conjecture on Tamagawa numbers
Langlands classification, Langlands program, geometric Langlands program
Torsor, nonabelian cohomology, special group, cohomological invariant, essential dimension, Kneser–Tits conjecture, Serre's conjecture II
Pseudo-reductive group
Differential Galois theory
Distribution on a linear algebraic group
Notes
References
External links
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bretton%20Woods%20system
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Bretton Woods system
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The Bretton Woods system of monetary management established the rules for commercial relations among the United States, Canada, Western European countries, and Australia among 44 other countries after the 1944 Bretton Woods Agreement. The Bretton Woods system was the first example of a fully negotiated monetary order intended to govern monetary relations among independent states. The Bretton Woods system required countries to guarantee convertibility of their currencies into U.S. dollars to within 1% of fixed parity rates, with the dollar convertible to gold bullion for foreign governments and central banks at US$35 per troy ounce of fine gold (or 0.88867 gram fine gold per dollar). It also envisioned greater cooperation among countries in order to prevent future competitive devaluations, and thus established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to monitor exchange rates and lend reserve currencies to nations with balance of payments deficits.
Preparing to rebuild the international economic system while World War II was still being fought, 730 delegates from all 44 Allied nations gathered at the Mount Washington Hotel in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, United States, for the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference, also known as the Bretton Woods Conference. The delegates deliberated from 1 to 22 July 1944, and signed the Bretton Woods agreement on its final day. Setting up a system of rules, institutions, and procedures to regulate the international monetary system, these accords established the IMF and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which today is part of the World Bank Group. The United States, which controlled two-thirds of the world's gold, insisted that the Bretton Woods system rest on both gold and the US dollar. Soviet representatives attended the conference but later declined to ratify the final agreements, charging that the institutions they had created were "branches of Wall Street". These organizations became operational in 1945 after a sufficient number of countries had ratified the agreement. According to Barry Eichengreen, the Bretton Woods system operated successfully due to three factors: "low international capital mobility, tight financial regulation, and the dominant economic and financial position of the United States and the dollar."
On 15 August 1971, the United States terminated convertibility of the US dollar to gold, effectively bringing the Bretton Woods system to an end and rendering the dollar a fiat currency. Shortly thereafter, many fixed currencies (such as the pound sterling) also became free-floating, and the subsequent era has been characterized by floating exchange rates. The end of Bretton Woods was formally ratified by the Jamaica Accords in 1976.
Origins
Interwar period
There was a high level of agreement among the powerful nations that failure to coordinate exchange rates during the interwar period had exacerbated political tensions. This facilitated the decisions reached by the Bretton Woods Conference. Furthermore, all the participating governments at Bretton Woods agreed that the monetary chaos of the interwar period had yielded several valuable lessons.
The experience of World War I was fresh in the minds of public officials. The planners at Bretton Woods hoped to avoid a repetition of the Treaty of Versailles after World War I, which had created enough economic and political tension to lead to WWII. After World War I, Britain owed the U.S. substantial sums, which Britain could not repay because it had used the funds to support allies such as France during the War; the Allies could not pay back Britain, so Britain could not pay back the U.S. The solution at Versailles for the French, British, and Americans seemed to entail ultimately charging Germany for the debts. If the demands on Germany were unrealistic, then it was unrealistic for France to pay back Britain, and for Britain to pay back the US. Thus, many "assets" on bank balance sheets internationally were actually unrecoverable loans, which culminated in the 1931 banking crisis. Intransigent insistence by creditor nations for the repayment of Allied war debts and reparations, combined with an inclination to isolationism, led to a breakdown of the international financial system and a worldwide economic depression.
The so-called "beggar thy neighbor" policies that emerged as the crisis continued saw some trading nations using currency devaluations in an attempt to increase their competitiveness (i.e. raise exports and lower imports), though recent research suggests this de facto inflationary policy probably offset some of the contractionary forces in world price levels (see Eichengreen "How to Prevent a Currency War").
In the 1920s, international flows of speculative financial capital increased, leading to extremes in balance of payments situations in various European countries and the US. In the 1930s, world markets never broke through the barriers and restrictions on international trade and investment volume – barriers haphazardly constructed, nationally motivated and imposed. The various anarchic and often autarkic protectionist and neo-mercantilist national policies – often mutually inconsistent – that emerged over the first half of the decade worked inconsistently and self-defeatingly to promote national import substitution, increase national exports, divert foreign investment and trade flows, and even prevent certain categories of cross-border trade and investment outright. Global central bankers attempted to manage the situation by meeting with each other, but their understanding of the situation as well as difficulties in communicating internationally, hindered their abilities. The lesson was that simply having responsible, hard-working central bankers was not enough.
Britain in the 1930s had an exclusionary trade bloc with nations of the British Empire known as the "Sterling Area". If Britain imported more than it exported to such nations, recipients of pounds sterling within these nations tended to put them into London banks. This meant that though Britain was running a trade deficit, it had a financial account surplus, and payments balanced. Increasingly, Britain's positive balance of payments required keeping the wealth of Empire nations in British banks. One incentive for, say, South African holders of rand to park their wealth in London and to keep the money in Sterling, was a strongly valued pound sterling. In the 1920s, imports from the US threatened certain parts of the British domestic market for manufactured goods and the way out of the trade deficit was to devalue the currency. But Britain could not devalue, or the Empire surplus would leave its banking system.
Nazi Germany also worked with a bloc of controlled nations by 1940. Germany forced trading partners with a surplus to spend that surplus importing products from Germany. Thus, Britain survived by keeping Sterling nation surpluses in its banking system, and Germany survived by forcing trading partners to purchase its own products. The U.S. was concerned that a sudden drop-off in war spending might return the nation to unemployment levels of the 1930s, and so wanted Sterling nations and everyone in Europe to be able to import from the US, hence the U.S. supported free trade and international convertibility of currencies into gold or dollars.
Post-war negotiations
When many of the same experts who observed the 1930s became the architects of a new, unified, post-war system at Bretton Woods, their guiding principles became "no more beggar thy neighbor" and "control flows of speculative financial capital". Preventing a repetition of this process of competitive devaluations was desired, but in a way that would not force debtor nations to contract their industrial bases by keeping interest rates at a level high enough to attract foreign bank deposits. John Maynard Keynes, wary of repeating the Great Depression, was behind Britain's proposal that surplus nations be forced by a "use-it-or-lose-it" mechanism, to either import from debtor nations, build factories in debtor nations or donate to debtor nations. The U.S. opposed Keynes' plan, and a senior official at the U.S. Treasury, Harry Dexter White, rejected Keynes' proposals, in favor of an International Monetary Fund with enough resources to counteract destabilizing flows of speculative finance. However, unlike the modern IMF, White's proposed fund would have counteracted dangerous speculative flows automatically, with no political strings attached—i.e., no IMF conditionality. Economic historian Brad Delong writes that on almost every point where he was overruled by the Americans, Keynes was later proved correct by events.
Today these key 1930s events look different to scholars of the era (see the work of Barry Eichengreen Golden Fetters: The Gold Standard and the Great Depression, 1919–1939 and How to Prevent a Currency War); in particular, devaluations today are viewed with more nuance. Ben Bernanke's opinion on the subject follows:
... [T]he proximate cause of the world depression was a structurally flawed and poorly managed international gold standard. ... For a variety of reasons, including a desire of the Federal Reserve to curb the U.S. stock market boom, monetary policy in several major countries turned contractionary in the late 1920s—a contraction that was transmitted worldwide by the gold standard. What was initially a mild deflationary process began to snowball when the banking and currency crises of 1931 instigated an international "scramble for gold". Sterilization of gold inflows by surplus countries [the U.S. and France], substitution of gold for foreign exchange reserves, and runs on commercial banks all led to increases in the gold backing of money, and consequently to sharp unintended declines in national money supplies. Monetary contractions in turn were strongly associated with falling prices, output and employment. Effective international cooperation could in principle have permitted a worldwide monetary expansion despite gold standard constraints, but disputes over World War I reparations and war debts, and the insularity and inexperience of the Federal Reserve, among other factors, prevented this outcome. As a result, individual countries were able to escape the deflationary vortex only by unilaterally abandoning the gold standard and re-establishing domestic monetary stability, a process that dragged on in a halting and uncoordinated manner until France and the other Gold Bloc countries finally left gold in 1936. —Great Depression, B. Bernanke
In 1944 at Bretton Woods, as a result of the collective conventional wisdom of the time, representatives from all the leading allied nations collectively favored a regulated system of fixed exchange rates, indirectly disciplined by a US dollar tied to gold—a system that relied on a regulated market economy with tight controls on the values of currencies. Flows of speculative international finance were curtailed by shunting them through and limiting them via central banks. This meant that international flows of investment went into foreign direct investment (FDI)—i.e., construction of factories overseas, rather than international currency manipulation or bond markets. Although the national experts disagreed to some degree on the specific implementation of this system, all agreed on the need for tight controls.
Economic security
Also based on experience of the inter-war years, U.S. planners developed a concept of economic security—that a liberal international economic system would enhance the possibilities of postwar peace. One of those who saw such a security link was Cordell Hull, the United States Secretary of State from 1933 to 1944. Hull believed that the fundamental causes of the two world wars lay in economic discrimination and trade warfare. Hull argued
Rise of governmental intervention
The developed countries also agreed that the liberal international economic system required governmental intervention. In the aftermath of the Great Depression, public management of the economy had emerged as a primary activity of governments in the developed states. Employment, stability, and growth were now important subjects of public policy.
In turn, the role of government in the national economy had become associated with the assumption by the state of the responsibility for assuring its citizens of a degree of economic well-being. The system of economic protection for at-risk citizens sometimes called the welfare state grew out of the Great Depression, which created a popular demand for governmental intervention in the economy, and out of the theoretical contributions of the Keynesian school of economics, which asserted the need for governmental intervention to counter market imperfections.
However, increased government intervention in domestic economy brought with it isolationist sentiment that had a profoundly negative effect on international economics. The priority of national goals, independent national action in the interwar period, and the failure to perceive that those national goals could not be realized without some form of international collaboration—all resulted in "beggar-thy-neighbor" policies such as high tariffs, competitive devaluations that contributed to the breakdown of the gold-based international monetary system, domestic political instability, and international war. The lesson learned was, as the principal architect of the Bretton Woods system New Dealer Harry Dexter White put it:
To ensure economic stability and political peace, states agreed to cooperate to closely regulate the production of their currencies to maintain fixed exchange rates between countries with the aim of more easily facilitating international trade. This was the foundation of the U.S. vision of postwar world free trade, which also involved lowering tariffs and, among other things, maintaining a balance of trade via fixed exchange rates that would be favorable to the capitalist system.
Thus, the more developed market economies agreed with the U.S. vision of post-war international economic management, which intended to create and maintain an effective international monetary system and foster the reduction of barriers to trade and capital flows. In a sense, the new international monetary system was a return to a system similar to the pre-war gold standard, only using U.S. dollars as the world's new reserve currency until international trade reallocated the world's gold supply.
Thus, the new system would be devoid (initially) of governments meddling with their currency supply as they had during the years of economic turmoil preceding WWII. Instead, governments would closely police the production of their currencies and ensure that they would not artificially manipulate their price levels. If anything, Bretton Woods was a return to a time devoid of increased governmental intervention in economies and currency systems.
Atlantic Charter
The Atlantic Charter, drafted during U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt's August 1941 meeting with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill on a ship in the North Atlantic, was the most notable precursor to the Bretton Woods Conference. Like Woodrow Wilson before him, whose "Fourteen Points" had outlined U.S. aims in the aftermath of the First World War, Roosevelt set forth a range of ambitious goals for the postwar world even before the U.S. had entered the Second World War.
The Atlantic Charter affirmed the right of all nations to equal access to trade and raw materials. Moreover, the charter called for freedom of the seas (a principal U.S. foreign policy aim since France and Britain had first threatened U.S. shipping in the 1790s), the disarmament of aggressors, and the "establishment of a wider and more permanent system of general security".
As the war drew to a close, the Bretton Woods conference was the culmination of some two and a half years of planning for postwar reconstruction by the Treasuries of the U.S. and the UK. U.S. representatives studied with their British counterparts the reconstitution of what had been lacking between the two world wars: a system of international payments that would let nations trade without fear of sudden currency depreciation or wild exchange rate fluctuations—ailments that had nearly paralyzed world capitalism during the Great Depression.
Without a strong European market for U.S. goods and services, most policymakers believed, the U.S. economy would be unable to sustain the prosperity it had achieved during the war. In addition, U.S. unions had only grudgingly accepted government-imposed restraints on their demands during the war, but they were willing to wait no longer, particularly as inflation cut into the existing wage scales with painful force. (By the end of 1945, there had already been major strikes in the automobile, electrical, and steel industries.)
In early 1945, Bernard Baruch described the spirit of Bretton Woods as: if we can "stop subsidization of labor and sweated competition in the export markets", as well as prevent rebuilding of war machines, "oh boy, oh boy, what long term prosperity we will have." The United States could therefore use its position of influence to reopen and control the rules of the world economy, so as to give unhindered access to all nations' markets and materials.
Wartime devastation of Europe and East Asia
United States allies—economically exhausted by the war—needed U.S. assistance to rebuild their domestic production and to finance their international trade; indeed, they needed it to survive.
Before the war, the French and the British realized that they could no longer compete with U.S. industries in an open marketplace. During the 1930s, the British created their own economic bloc to shut out U.S. goods. Churchill did not believe that he could surrender that protection after the war, so he watered down the Atlantic Charter's "free access" clause before agreeing to it.
Yet U.S. officials were determined to open their access to the British empire. The combined value of British and U.S. trade was well over half of all the world's trade in goods. For the U.S. to open global markets, it first had to split the British (trade) empire. While Britain had economically dominated the 19th century, U.S. officials intended the second half of the 20th to be under U.S. hegemony.
A senior official of the Bank of England commented:
A devastated Britain had little choice. Two world wars had destroyed the country's principal industries that paid for the importation of half of the nation's food and nearly all its raw materials except coal. The British had no choice but to ask for aid. Not until the United States signed an agreement on 6 December 1945 to grant Britain aid of $4.4 billion did the British Parliament ratify the Bretton Woods Agreements (which occurred later in December 1945).
Design of the financial system
Free trade relied on the free convertibility of currencies. Negotiators at the Bretton Woods conference, fresh from what they perceived as a disastrous experience with floating rates in the 1930s, concluded that major monetary fluctuations could stall the free flow of trade.
The new economic system required an accepted vehicle for investment, trade, and payments. Unlike national economies, however, the international economy lacks a central government that can issue currency and manage its use. In the past this problem had been solved through the gold standard, but the architects of Bretton Woods did not consider this option feasible for the postwar political economy. Instead, they set up a system of fixed exchange rates managed by a series of newly created international institutions using the U.S. dollar (which was a gold standard currency for central banks) as a reserve currency.
Informal regimes
Previous regimes
In the 19th and early 20th centuries gold played a key role in international monetary transactions. The gold standard was used to back currencies; the international value of currency was determined by its fixed relationship to gold; gold was used to settle international accounts. The gold standard maintained fixed exchange rates that were seen as desirable because they reduced the risk when trading with other countries.
Imbalances in international trade were theoretically rectified automatically by the gold standard. A country with a deficit would have depleted gold reserves and would thus have to reduce its money supply. The resulting fall in demand would reduce imports and the lowering of prices would boost exports; thus, the deficit would be rectified. Any country experiencing inflation would lose gold and therefore would have a decrease in the amount of money available to spend.
This decrease in the amount of money would act to reduce the inflationary pressure. Supplementing the use of gold in this period was the British pound. Based on the dominant British economy, the pound became a reserve, transaction, and intervention currency. But the pound was not up to the challenge of serving as the primary world currency, given the weakness of the British economy after the Second World War.
The architects of Bretton Woods had conceived of a system wherein exchange rate stability was a prime goal. Yet, in an era of more activist economic policy, governments did not seriously consider permanently fixed rates on the model of the classical gold standard of the 19th century. Gold production was not even sufficient to meet the demands of growing international trade and investment. Further, a sizable share of the world's known gold reserves was located in the Soviet Union, which would later emerge as a Cold War rival to the United States and Western Europe.
The only currency strong enough to meet the rising demands for international currency transactions was the U.S. dollar. The strength of the U.S. economy, the fixed relationship of the dollar to gold ($35 an ounce), and the commitment of the U.S. government to convert dollars into gold at that price made the dollar as good as gold. In fact, the dollar was even better than gold: it earned interest and it was more flexible than gold.
Fixed exchange rates
The rules of Bretton Woods, set forth in the articles of agreement of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), provided for a system of fixed exchange rates. The rules further sought to encourage an open system by committing members to the convertibility of their respective currencies into other currencies and to free trade.
What emerged was the "pegged rate" currency regime. Members were required to establish a parity of their national currencies in terms of the reserve currency (a "peg") and to maintain exchange rates within plus or minus 1% of parity (a "band") by intervening in their foreign exchange markets (that is, buying or selling foreign money).
In theory, the reserve currency would be the bancor (a World Currency Unit that was never implemented), proposed by John Maynard Keynes; however, the United States objected, and their request was granted, making the "reserve currency" the U.S. dollar. This meant that other countries would peg their currencies to the U.S. dollar, and—once convertibility was restored—would buy and sell U.S. dollars to keep market exchange rates within plus or minus 1% of parity. Thus, the U.S. dollar took over the role that gold had played under the gold standard in the international financial system.
Meanwhile, to bolster confidence in the dollar, the U.S. agreed separately to link the dollar to gold at the rate of $35 per ounce. At this rate, foreign governments and central banks could exchange dollars for gold. Bretton Woods established a system of payments based on the dollar, which defined all currencies in relation to the dollar, itself convertible into gold, and above all, "as good as gold" for trade. U.S. currency was now effectively the world currency, the standard to which every other currency was pegged.
The U.S. dollar was the currency with the most purchasing power and it was the only currency that was backed by gold. Additionally, all European nations that had been involved in World War II were highly in debt and transferred large amounts of gold into the United States, a fact that contributed to the supremacy of the United States. Thus, the U.S. dollar was strongly appreciated in the rest of the world and therefore became the key currency of the Bretton Woods system.
Member countries could only change their par value by more than 10% with IMF approval, which was contingent on IMF determination that its balance of payments was in a "fundamental disequilibrium". The formal definition of fundamental disequilibrium was never determined, leading to uncertainty of approvals and attempts to repeatedly devalue by less than 10% instead. Any country that changed without approval or after being denied approval was denied access to the IMF.
Formal regimes
The Bretton Woods Conference led to the establishment of the IMF and the IBRD (now the World Bank), which remain powerful forces in the world economy as of the 2020s.
A major point of common ground at the Conference was the goal to avoid a recurrence of the closed markets and economic warfare that had characterized the 1930s. Thus, negotiators at Bretton Woods also agreed that there was a need for an institutional forum for international cooperation on monetary matters. Already in 1944, the British economist John Maynard Keynes emphasized "the importance of rule-based regimes to stabilize business expectations"—something he accepted in the Bretton Woods system of fixed exchange rates. Currency troubles in the interwar years, it was felt, had been greatly exacerbated by the absence of any established procedure or machinery for intergovernmental consultation.
As a result of the establishment of agreed upon structures and rules of international economic interaction, conflict over economic issues was minimized, and the significance of the economic aspect of international relations seemed to recede.
International Monetary Fund
Officially established on 27 December 1945, when the 29 participating countries at the conference of Bretton Woods signed its Articles of Agreement, the IMF was to be the keeper of the rules and the main instrument of public international management. The Fund commenced its financial operations on 1 March 1947. IMF approval was necessary for any change in exchange rates in excess of 10%. It advised countries on policies affecting the monetary system and lent reserve currencies to nations that had incurred balance of payment debts.
Design
The big question at the Bretton Woods conference with respect to the institution that would emerge as the IMF was the issue of future access to international liquidity and whether that source should be akin to a world central bank able to create new reserves at will or a more limited borrowing mechanism.
Although attended by 44 nations, discussions at the conference were dominated by two rival plans developed by the United States and Britain. Writing to the British Treasury, Keynes, who took the lead at the Conference, did not want many countries. He believed that those from the colonies and semi-colonies had "nothing to contribute and will merely encumber the ground."
As the chief international economist at the U.S. Treasury in 1942–44, Harry Dexter White drafted the U.S. blueprint for international access to liquidity, which competed with the plan drafted for the British Treasury by Keynes. Overall, White's scheme tended to favor incentives designed to create price stability within the world's economies, while Keynes wanted a system that encouraged economic growth. The "collective agreement was an enormous international undertaking" that took two years prior to the conference to prepare for. It consisted of numerous bilateral and multilateral meetings to reach common ground on what policies would make up the Bretton Woods system.
At the time, gaps between the White and Keynes plans seemed enormous. White basically wanted a fund to reverse destabilizing flows of financial capital automatically. White proposed a new monetary institution called the Stabilization Fund that "would be funded with a finite pool of national currencies and gold… that would effectively limit the supply of reserve credit". Keynes wanted incentives for the U.S. to help Britain and the rest of Europe rebuild after WWII. Outlining the difficulty of creating a system that every nation could accept in his speech at the closing plenary session of the Bretton Woods conference on 22 July 1944, Keynes stated:
Keynes' proposals would have established a world reserve currency (which he thought might be called "bancor") administered by a central bank vested with the power to create money and with the authority to take actions on a much larger scale.
In the case of balance of payments imbalances, Keynes recommended that both debtors and creditors should change their policies. As outlined by Keynes, countries with payment surpluses should increase their imports from the deficit countries, build factories in debtor nations, or donate to them—and thereby create a foreign trade equilibrium. Thus, Keynes was sensitive to the problem that placing too much of the burden on the deficit country would be deflationary.
But the United States, as a likely creditor nation, and eager to take on the role of the world's economic powerhouse, used White's plan but targeted many of Keynes's concerns. White saw a role for global intervention in an imbalance only when it was caused by currency speculation.
Although a compromise was reached on some points, because of the overwhelming economic and military power of the United States the participants at Bretton Woods largely agreed on White's plan. White’s plan was designed not merely to secure the rise and world economic domination of the United States, but to ensure that as the outgoing superpower Britain would be shuffled even further from centre stage.
Subscriptions and quotas
What emerged largely reflected U.S. preferences: a system of subscriptions and quotas embedded in the IMF, which itself was to be no more than a fixed pool of national currencies and gold subscribed by each country, as opposed to a world central bank capable of creating money. The Fund was charged with managing various nations' trade deficits so that they would not produce currency devaluations that would trigger a decline in imports.
The IMF is provided with a fund composed of contributions from member countries in gold and their own currencies. The original quotas were to total $8.8 billion. When joining the IMF, members are assigned "quotas" that reflect their relative economic power—and, as a sort of credit deposit, are obliged to pay a "subscription" of an amount commensurate with the quota. They pay the subscription as 25% in gold or currency convertible into gold (effectively the dollar, which at the founding, was the only currency then still directly gold convertible for central banks) and 75% in their own currency.
Quota subscriptions form the largest source of money at the IMF's disposal. The IMF set out to use this money to grant loans to member countries with financial difficulties. Each member is then entitled to withdraw 25% of its quota immediately in case of payment problems. If this sum should be insufficient, each nation in the system is also able to request loans for foreign currency.
Trade deficits
In the event of a deficit in the current account, Fund members, when short of reserves, would be able to borrow foreign currency in amounts determined by the size of its quota. In other words, the higher the country's contribution was, the higher the sum of money it could borrow from the IMF.
Members were required to pay back debts within a period of 18 months to five years. In turn, the IMF embarked on setting up rules and procedures to keep a country from going too deeply into debt year after year. The Fund would exercise "surveillance" over other economies for the U.S. Treasury in return for its loans to prop up national currencies.
IMF loans were not comparable to loans issued by a conventional credit institution. Instead, they were effectively a chance to purchase a foreign currency with gold or the member's national currency.
The U.S.-backed IMF plan sought to end restrictions on the transfer of goods and services from one country to another, eliminate currency blocs, and lift currency exchange controls.
The IMF was designed to advance credits to countries with balance of payments deficits. Short-run balance of payment difficulties would be overcome by IMF loans, which would facilitate stable currency exchange rates. This flexibility meant a member state would not have to induce a depression to cut its national income down to such a low level that its imports would finally fall within its means. Thus, countries were to be spared the need to resort to the classical medicine of deflating themselves into drastic unemployment when faced with chronic balance of payments deficits. Before the Second World War, European nations—particularly Britain—often resorted to this.
Par value
The IMF sought to provide for occasional discontinuous exchange-rate adjustments (changing a member's par value) by international agreement. Member nations were permitted to adjust their currency exchange rate by 1%. This tended to restore equilibrium in their trade by expanding their exports and contracting imports. This would be allowed only if there was a fundamental disequilibrium. A decrease in the value of a country's money was called a devaluation, while an increase in the value of the country's money was called a revaluation.
It was envisioned that these changes in exchange rates would be quite rare. However, the concept of fundamental disequilibrium, though key to the operation of the par value system, was never defined in detail.
Operations
Never before had international monetary cooperation been attempted on a permanent institutional basis. Even more groundbreaking was the decision to allocate voting rights among governments, not on a one-state one-vote basis, but rather in proportion to quotas. Since the United States was contributing the most, U.S. leadership was the key. Under the system of weighted voting, the United States exerted a preponderant influence on the IMF. The United States held one-third of all IMF quotas at the outset, enough on its own to veto all changes to the IMF Charter.
In addition, the IMF was based in Washington, D.C., and staffed mainly by U.S. economists. It regularly exchanged personnel with the U.S. Treasury. When the IMF began operations in 1946, President Harry S. Truman named White as its first U.S. Executive Director. Since no Deputy Managing Director post had yet been created, White served occasionally as Acting Managing Director and generally played a highly influential role during the IMF's first year. Truman had to abandon his original plan of naming White as IMF Executive Director when FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover submitted a report to the president, asserting that White was "a valuable adjunct to an underground Soviet espionage organization", who was placing individuals of high regard to Soviet intelligence inside the government.
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
The agreement made no provisions to create international reserves. It assumed new gold production would be sufficient. In the event of structural disequilibria, it expected that there would be national solutions, for example, an adjustment in the value of the currency or an improvement by other means of a country's competitive position. The IMF was left with few means, however, to encourage such national solutions.
Economists and other planners recognized in 1944 that the new system could only commence after a return to normality following the disruption of World War II. It was expected that after a brief transition period of no more than five years, the international economy would recover, and the system would enter into operation.
To promote growth of world trade and finance postwar reconstruction of Europe, the planners at Bretton Woods created another institution, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which is one of five agencies that make up the World Bank Group and is perhaps now the most important agency of the Group. The IBRD had an authorized capitalization of $10 billion and was expected to make loans of its own funds to underwrite private loans and to issue securities to raise new funds to make possible a speedy postwar recovery. The IBRD was to be a specialized agency of the United Nations, charged with making loans for economic development purposes.
Readjustment
Dollar shortages and the Marshall Plan
The Bretton Woods arrangements were largely adhered to and ratified by the participating governments. It was expected that national monetary reserves, supplemented with necessary IMF credits, would finance any temporary balance of payments disequilibria. But this did not prove sufficient to get Europe out of its conundrum.
Postwar world capitalism suffered from a dollar shortage. The United States was running large balance of trade surpluses, and U.S. reserves were immense and growing. It was necessary to reverse this flow. Even though all nations wanted to buy U.S. exports, dollars had to leave the United States and become available for international use so they could do so. In other words, the United States would have to reverse the imbalances in global wealth by running a balance of trade deficit, financed by an outflow of U.S. reserves to other nations (a U.S. financial account deficit). The U.S. could run a financial deficit by either importing from, building plants in, or donating to foreign nations. Speculative investment was discouraged by the Bretton Woods agreement, and importing from other nations was not appealing in the 1950s, because U.S. technology was cutting edge at the time. So, multinational corporations and global aid that originated from the U.S. burgeoned.
The modest credit facilities of the IMF were clearly insufficient to deal with Western Europe's huge balance of payments deficits. The problem was further aggravated by the reaffirmation by the IMF Board of Governors of the provision in the Bretton Woods Articles of Agreement that the IMF could make loans only for current account deficits and not for capital and reconstruction purposes. Only the United States contribution of $570 million was actually available for IBRD lending. In addition, because the only available market for IBRD bonds was the conservative Wall Street banking market, the IBRD was forced to adopt a conservative lending policy, granting loans only when repayment was assured. Given these problems, by 1947 the IMF and the IBRD themselves were admitting that they could not deal with the international monetary system's economic problems.
The United States set up the European Recovery Program (Marshall Plan) to provide large-scale financial and economic aid for rebuilding Europe largely through grants rather than loans. Countries belonging to the Soviet bloc, e.g., Poland were invited to receive the grants, but were given a favorable agreement with the Soviet Union's COMECON. In a speech at Harvard University on 5 June 1947, U.S. Secretary of State George Marshall stated:
From 1947 until 1958, the U.S. deliberately encouraged an outflow of dollars, and, from 1950 on, the United States ran a balance of payments deficit with the intent of providing liquidity for the international economy. Dollars flowed out through various U.S. aid programs: the Truman Doctrine entailing aid to the pro-U.S. Greek and Turkish regimes, which were struggling to suppress communist revolution, aid to various pro-U.S. regimes in the Third World, and most importantly, the Marshall Plan. From 1948 to 1954 the United States provided 16 Western European countries with $17 billion in grants.
To encourage long-term adjustment, the United States promoted European and Japanese trade competitiveness. Policies for economic controls on the defeated former Axis countries were scrapped. Aid to Europe and Japan was designed to rebuild productivity and export capacity. In the long run it was expected that such European and Japanese recovery would benefit the United States by widening markets for U.S. exports and providing locations for U.S. capital expansion.
Cold War
In 1945, Roosevelt and Churchill prepared the postwar era by negotiating with Joseph Stalin at Yalta about respective zones of influence; this same year Germany was divided into four occupation zones (Soviet, American, British, and French).
Roosevelt and Henry Morgenthau insisted that the Big Four (United States, United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and China) participate in the Bretton Woods conference in 1944, but their plans were frustrated when the Soviet Union would not join the IMF. The reasons why the Soviet Union chose not to subscribe to the articles by December 1945 have been the subject of speculation.
Facing the Soviet Union, whose power had also strengthened and whose territorial influence had expanded, the U.S. assumed the role of leader of the capitalist camp. The rise of the postwar U.S. as the world's leading industrial, monetary, and military power was rooted in the fact that the mainland U.S. was untouched by the war, in the instability of the nation states of postwar Europe, and the wartime devastation of the Soviet and European economies.
Despite the economic cost implied by such a policy, being at the center of the international market gave the U.S. unprecedented freedom of action in pursuing its foreign affairs goals. A trade surplus made it easier to keep armies abroad and to invest outside the U.S., and because other nations could not sustain foreign deployments, the U.S. had the power to decide why, when and how to intervene in global crises. The dollar continued to function as a compass to guide the health of the world economy and exporting to the U.S. became the primary economic goal of developing or redeveloping economies. This arrangement came to be referred to as the Pax Americana, in analogy to the Pax Britannica of the late 19th century and the Pax Romana of the first. (See Globalism)
Late application
U.S. balance of payments crisis
After the end of World War II, the U.S. held $26 billion in gold reserves, of an estimated total of $40 billion (approx 65%). As world trade increased rapidly through the 1950s, the size of the gold base increased by only a few percentage points. In 1950, the U.S. balance of payments swung negative. The first U.S. response to the crisis was in the late 1950s when the Eisenhower administration placed import quotas on oil and other restrictions on trade outflows. More drastic measures were proposed, but not acted upon. However, with a mounting recession that began in 1958, this response alone was not sustainable. In 1960, with Kennedy's election, a decade-long effort to maintain the Bretton Woods System at the $35/ounce price began.
The design of the Bretton Woods System was such that nations could only enforce convertibility to gold for the anchor currency—the United States dollar. Conversion of dollars to gold was allowed but was not required. Nations could forgo converting dollars to gold, and instead hold dollars. Rather than full convertibility, the system provided a fixed price for sales between central banks. However, there was still an open gold market. For the Bretton Woods system to remain workable, it would either have to alter the peg of the dollar to gold, or it would have to maintain the free market price for gold near the $35 per ounce official price. The greater the gap between free market gold prices and central bank gold prices, the greater the temptation to deal with internal economic issues by buying gold at the Bretton Woods price and selling it on the open market.
In 1960 Robert Triffin, a Belgian-American economist, noticed that holding dollars was more valuable than gold because constant U.S. balance of payments deficits helped to keep the system liquid and fuel economic growth. What would later come to be known as Triffin's Dilemma was predicted when Triffin noted that if the U.S. failed to keep running deficits the system would lose its liquidity, not be able to keep up with the world's economic growth, and, thus, bring the system to a halt. But incurring such payment deficits also meant that, over time, the deficits would erode confidence in the dollar as the reserve currency created instability.
The first effort was the creation of the London Gold Pool on 1 November 1961 between eight nations. The theory behind the pool was that spikes in the free market price of gold, set by the morning gold fix in London, could be controlled by having a pool of gold to sell on the open market, that would then be recovered when the price of gold dropped. Gold's price spiked in response to events such as the Cuban Missile Crisis, and other less significant events, to as high as $40/ounce. The Kennedy administration drafted a radical change of the tax system to spur more production capacity and thus encourage exports. This culminated with the 1963 tax cut program, designed to maintain the $35 peg.
In 1967, there was an attack on the pound and a run on gold in the sterling area, and on 18 November 1967, the British government was forced to devalue the pound. U.S. President Lyndon Baines Johnson was faced with a difficult choice, either institute protectionist measures, including travel taxes, export subsidies and slashing the budget—or accept the risk of a "run on gold" and the dollar. From Johnson's perspective: "The world supply of gold is insufficient to make the present system workable—particularly as the use of the dollar as a reserve currency is essential to create the required international liquidity to sustain world trade and growth."
While West Germany agreed not to purchase gold from the U.S., and agreed to hold dollars instead, the pressure on both the dollar and the pound sterling continued. In January 1968 Johnson imposed a series of measures designed to end gold outflow, and to increase U.S. exports. This was unsuccessful, however, as in mid-March 1968 a dollar run on gold ensued through the free market in London, the London Gold Pool was dissolved, initially by the institution of ad hoc UK bank holidays at the request of the U.S. government. This was followed by a full closure of the London gold market, also at the request of the U.S. government, until a series of meetings were held that attempted to rescue or reform the existing system.
All attempts to maintain the peg collapsed in November 1968, and a new policy program attempted to convert the Bretton Woods system into an enforcement mechanism of floating the gold peg, which would be set by either fiat policy or by a restriction to honor foreign accounts. The collapse of the gold pool and the refusal of the pool members to trade gold with private entities—on 18 March 1968 the Congress of the United States repealed the 25% requirement of gold backing of the dollar—as well as the U.S. pledge to suspend gold sales to governments that trade in the private markets, led to the expansion of the private markets for international gold trade, in which the price of gold rose much higher than the official dollar price.
U.S. gold reserves remained depleted due to the actions of some nations, notably France, which continued to build up their own gold reserves.
Structural changes
Return to convertibility
In the 1960s and 1970s, important structural changes eventually led to the breakdown of international monetary management. One change was the development of a high level of monetary interdependence. The stage was set for monetary interdependence by the return to convertibility of the Western European currencies at the end of 1958 and of the Japanese yen in 1964. Convertibility facilitated the vast expansion of international financial transactions, which deepened monetary interdependence.
Growth of international currency markets
Another aspect of the internationalization of banking has been the emergence of international banking consortia. Since 1964 various banks had formed international syndicates, and by 1971 over three-quarters of the world's largest banks had become shareholders in such syndicates. Multinational banks can and do make large international transfers of capital not only for investment purposes but also for hedging and speculating against exchange rate fluctuations.
These new forms of monetary interdependence made large capital flows possible. During the Bretton Woods era, countries were reluctant to alter exchange rates formally even in cases of structural disequilibria. Because such changes had a direct impact on certain domestic economic groups, they came to be seen as political risks for leaders. As a result, official exchange rates often became unrealistic in market terms, providing a virtually risk-free temptation for speculators. They could move from a weak to a strong currency hoping to reap profits when a revaluation occurred. If, however, monetary authorities managed to avoid revaluation, they could return to other currencies with no loss. The combination of risk-free speculation with the availability of large sums was highly destabilizing.
Decline
U.S. monetary influence
A second structural change that undermined monetary management was the decline of U.S. hegemony. The U.S. was no longer the dominant economic power it had been for more than two decades. By the mid-1960s, the E.E.C. and Japan had become international economic powers in their own right. With total reserves exceeding those of the U.S., higher levels of growth and trade, and per capita income approaching that of the U.S., Europe and Japan were narrowing the gap between themselves and the United States.
The shift toward a more pluralistic distribution of economic power led to increasing dissatisfaction with the privileged role of the U.S. dollar as the international currency. Acting effectively as the world's central banker, the U.S., through its deficit, determined the level of international liquidity. In an increasingly interdependent world, U.S. policy significantly influenced economic conditions in Europe and Japan. In addition, as long as other countries were willing to hold dollars, the U.S. could carry out massive foreign expenditures for political purposes—military activities and foreign aid—without the threat of balance-of-payments constraints.
Dissatisfaction with the political implications of the dollar system was increased by détente between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. The Soviet military threat had been an important force in cementing the U.S.-led monetary system. The U.S. political and security umbrella helped make American economic domination palatable for Europe and Japan, which had been economically exhausted by the war. As gross domestic production grew in European countries, trade grew. When common security tensions lessened, this loosened the transatlantic dependence on defence concerns, and allowed latent economic tensions to surface.
Dollar
Reinforcing the relative decline in U.S. power and the dissatisfaction of Europe and Japan with the system was the continuing decline of the dollar—the foundation that had underpinned the post-1945 global trading system. The Vietnam War and the refusal of the administration of U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson to pay for it and its Great Society programs through taxation resulted in an increased dollar outflow to pay for the military expenditures and rampant inflation, which led to the deterioration of the U.S. balance of trade position. In the late 1960s, the dollar was overvalued with its current trading position, while the German Mark and the yen were undervalued; and, naturally, the Germans and the Japanese had no desire to revalue and thereby make their exports more expensive, whereas the U.S. sought to maintain its international credibility by avoiding devaluation. Meanwhile, the pressure on government reserves was intensified by the new international currency markets, with their vast pools of speculative capital moving around in search of quick profits.
In contrast, upon the creation of Bretton Woods, with the U.S. producing half of the world's manufactured goods and holding half its reserves, the twin burdens of international management and the Cold War were possible to meet at first. Throughout the 1950s Washington sustained a balance of payments deficit to finance loans, aid, and troops for allied regimes. But during the 1960s the costs of doing so became less tolerable. By 1970 the U.S. held under 16% of international reserves. Adjustment to these changed realities was impeded by the U.S. commitment to fixed exchange rates and by the U.S. obligation to convert dollars into gold on demand.
Paralysis of international monetary management
Floating-rate system during 1968–1972
By 1968, the attempt to defend the dollar at a fixed peg of $35/ounce, the policy of the Eisenhower, Kennedy and Johnson administrations, had become increasingly untenable. Gold outflows from the U.S. accelerated, and despite gaining assurances from Germany and other nations to hold gold, the unbalanced spending of the Johnson administration had transformed the dollar shortage of the 1940s and 1950s into a dollar glut by the 1960s. In 1967, the IMF agreed in Rio de Janeiro to replace the tranche division set up in 1946. Special drawing rights (SDRs) were set as equal to one U.S. dollar but were not usable for transactions other than between banks and the IMF. Nations were required to accept holding SDRs equal to three times their allotment, and interest would be charged, or credited, to each nation based on their SDR holding. The original interest rate was 1.5%.
The intent of the SDR system was to prevent nations from buying pegged gold and selling it at the higher free market price and give nations a reason to hold dollars by crediting interest, at the same time setting a clear limit to the amount of dollars that could be held.
Nixon Shock
A negative balance of payments, growing public debt incurred by the Vietnam War and Great Society programs, and monetary inflation by the Federal Reserve caused the dollar to become increasingly overvalued. The drain on U.S. gold reserves culminated with the London Gold Pool collapse in March 1968. By 1970, the U.S. had seen its gold coverage deteriorate from 55% to 22%. This, in the view of neoclassical economists, represented the point where holders of the dollar had lost faith in the ability of the U.S. to cut budget and trade deficits.
In 1971 more and more dollars were being printed in Washington, then being pumped overseas, to pay for government expenditure on the military and social programs. In the first six months of 1971, assets for $22 billion fled the U.S. In response, on 15 August 1971, Nixon issued pursuant to the Economic Stabilization Act of 1970, unilaterally imposing 90-day wage and price controls, a 10% import surcharge, and most importantly "closed the gold window", making the dollar inconvertible to gold directly, except on the open market. Unusually, this decision was made without consulting members of the international monetary system or even his own State Department and was soon dubbed the Nixon Shock.
Smithsonian Agreement
The August shock was followed by efforts under U.S. leadership to reform the international monetary system. Throughout the fall (autumn) of 1971, a series of multilateral and bilateral negotiations between the Group of Ten countries took place, seeking to redesign the exchange rate regime.
Meeting in December 1971 at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., the Group of Ten signed the Smithsonian Agreement. The U.S. pledged to peg the dollar at $38/ounce with 2.25% trading bands, and other countries agreed to appreciate their currencies versus the dollar. The group also planned to balance the world financial system using special drawing rights alone.
The agreement failed to encourage discipline by the Federal Reserve or the United States government. The Federal Reserve was concerned about an increase in the domestic unemployment rate due to the devaluation of the dollar. In an attempt to undermine the efforts of the Smithsonian Agreement, the Federal Reserve lowered interest rates in pursuit of a previously established domestic policy objective of full national employment. With the Smithsonian Agreement, member countries anticipated a return flow of dollars to the U.S, but the reduced interest rates within the United States caused dollars to continue to flow out of the U.S. and into foreign central banks. The inflow of dollars into foreign banks continued the monetization of the dollar overseas, defeating the aims of the Smithsonian Agreement. As a result, the dollar price in the gold free market continued to cause pressure on its official rate; soon after a 10% devaluation was announced in February 1973, Japan and the EEC countries decided to let their currencies float. This proved to be the beginning of the collapse of the Bretton Woods System. The end of Bretton Woods was formally ratified by the Jamaica Accords in 1976. By the early 1980s, all industrialised nations were using floating currencies.
The Bretton Woods system in the 21st century
2008 crisis
In the wake of the Global financial crisis of 2008, some policymakers, such as Chace and others have called for a new international monetary system that some of them also dub Bretton Woods II. On the other side, this crisis has revived the debate about Bretton Woods II.
On 26 September 2008, French President Nicolas Sarkozy said, "we must rethink the financial system from scratch, as at Bretton Woods."
In March 2010, Prime Minister Papandreou of Greece wrote an op-ed in the International Herald Tribune, in which he said, "Democratic governments worldwide must establish a new global financial architecture, as bold in its own way as Bretton Woods, as bold as the creation of the European Community and European Monetary Union. And we need it fast." In interviews coinciding with his meeting with President Obama, he indicated that Obama would raise the issue of new regulations for the international financial markets at the next G20 meetings in June and November 2010.
Over the course of the crisis, the IMF progressively relaxed its stance on "free-market" principles such as its guidance against using capital controls. In 2011, the IMF's managing director Dominique Strauss-Kahn stated that boosting employment and equity "must be placed at the heart" of the IMF's policy agenda. The World Bank indicated a switch towards greater emphases on job creation.
2020 crisis
Following the 2020 Economic Recession, the managing director of the IMF announced the emergence of "A New Bretton Woods Moment" which outlines the need for coordinated fiscal response on the part of central banks around the world to address the ongoing economic crisis.
Pegged rates
Dates are those when the rate was introduced; "*" indicates floating rate mostly taken prior to the introduction of the euro on 1 January 1999.
Japanese yen
Deutschmark
Note: Converted to euro on 1 January 1999 at €1 = DM 1.95583.
Pound sterling
French franc
Note: Converted to euro on 1 January 1999 at €1 = FRF 6.55957. Values prior to the currency reform of 1 January 1960 are shown in new francs or FRF worth 100 old francs.
Italian lira
Note: Converted to euro on 1 January 1999 at €1 = 1,936.27 lire.
Spanish peseta
Note: Converted to euro on 1 January 1999 at €1 = 166.386 pesetas.
Dutch guilder
Note: Converted to euro on 1 January 1999 at €1 = 2.20371 gulden.
Belgian franc
Note: Converted to euro on 1 January 1999 at €1 = 40.3399 Belgian francs.
Swiss franc
Greek drachma
Note: Converted to euro on 1 January 2001 at €1 = 340.75 drachmae.
Danish krone
Finnish markka
Note: Converted to euro on 1 January 2000 at €1 = FIM 5.94573. Prior to currency reform of 1 January 1963 values shown in new markkaa or FIM worth 100 old markkaa.
Norwegian krone
See also
Bretton Woods Committee
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
Monetary hegemony and Dedollarisation
Neoliberalism
Post-war economic boom
Washington Consensus
General:
List of international trade topics
Foreign exchange reserves
Notes
References
Further reading
* Fink, Leon. Undoing the Liberal World Order: Progressive Ideals and Political Realities Since World War II (Columbia UP, 2022) online pp 17-45.
Van Dormael, A. Bretton Woods : birth of a monetary system (London MacMillan 1978)
Michael D. Bordo and Barry Eichengreen; A Retrospective on the Bretton Woods System: Lessons for International Monetary Reform; 1993
Harold James; International Monetary Cooperation Since Bretton Woods; Oxford University Press, USA 1996
Benn Steil: The Battle of Bretton Woods: John Maynard Keynes, Harry Dexter White, and the Making of a New World Order; Princeton University Press, 2013
External links
Donald Markwell, John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace, Oxford University Press, 2006
International Financial Stability (PDF) by Michael Dooley, PhD, David Folkerts-Landau and Peter Garber, Deutsche Bank (October 2005)
"Bretton Woods System", prepared for the Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy by B. Cohen
Dollar Hegemony by Henry C.K. Liu
Proceedings and Documents of the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference, Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, 1–22 July 1944
Documents relating to the Bretton Woods Conference and Bretton Woods Agreement Act, on FRASER
1944 in economics
1944 in international relations
Economic history of World War II
Foreign exchange market
Gold standard
History of international trade
Monetary hegemony
World Bank
20th-century economic history
1944 in New Hampshire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orphan%20drug
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Orphan drug
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An orphan drug is a pharmaceutical agent that is developed to treat certain rare medical conditions. An orphan drug would not be profitable to produce without government assistance, due to the small population of patients affected by the conditions. The conditions that orphan drugs are used to treat are referred to as orphan diseases. The assignment of orphan status to a disease and to drugs developed to treat it is a matter of public policy that depends on the legislation (if there is any) of the country.
Designation of a drug as an orphan drug has yielded medical breakthroughs that might not otherwise have been achieved, due to the economics of drug research and development. Examples of this can be that in the U.S. and the EU, it is easier to gain marketing approval for an orphan drug. There may be other financial incentives, such as an extended period of exclusivity, during which the producer has sole rights to market the drug. All are intended to encourage development of drugs which would otherwise lack sufficient profit motive to attract corporate research budgets and personnel.
Definition
United States
According to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), an orphan drug is defined as one "intended for the treatment, prevention or diagnosis of a rare disease or condition, which is one that affects less than 200,000 persons in the US" (which equates to approximately 6 cases per 10,000 population) "or meets cost recovery provisions of the act".
Europe
In the European Union (EU), the European Medicines Agency (EMA) defines a drug as "orphan" if it is intended for the diagnosis, prevention or treatment of a life-threatening or chronically and seriously debilitating condition affecting not more than 5 in 10,000 EU people. EMA also qualifies a drug as orphan if – without incentives – it would be unlikely that marketing the drug in the EU would generate sufficient benefit for the affected people and for the drug manufacturer to justify the investment.
Japan
In Japan, drugs and medical devices are given the designation as an orphan drug or device based on the Act of Securing Quality, Efficacy, Safety of Pharmaceuticals, Medical Devices, Regenerative or Cellular Therapy Products, Gene Therapy Products, and Cosmetics if they are intended for use in less than 50,000 patients in Japan for which there is a high medical need.
Global statistics
, there were 281 marketed orphan drugs and more than 400 orphan-designated drugs in clinical trials. More than 60% of orphan drugs were biologics. The U.S. dominated development of orphan drugs, with more than 300 trials, followed by Europe. Cancer treatment was the indication in more than 30% of orphan drug trials.
Number of orphan drugs in clinical trials: 40
Number of orphan drugs in phase 2 trial: 231
Number of orphan drugs in U.S. clinical trials: 350 in the pipeline from research until registration
Effect on investment, sales and profit
According to Thomson Reuters in their 2012 publication "The Economic Power of Orphan Drugs", there has been increased investment in orphan drug research and development, partly due to the U.S. Orphan Drug Act of 1983 (ODA) and similar acts in other regions of the world driven by "high-profile philanthropic funding".
According to Drug Discovery Today, the years 2001 to 2011 were the "most productive period in the history of orphan drug development, in terms of average annual orphan drug designations and orphan drug approvals". For the same decade the compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of the orphan drugs was an "impressive 25.8%, compared to only 20.1% for a matched control group of non-orphan drugs". By 2012, the market for orphan drugs was worth US$637 million, compared with US$638 million for a control group of non-orphan drugs.
By 2012,
According to a 2014 report, the orphan drug market has become increasingly lucrative for a number of reasons. The cost of clinical trials for orphan drugs is substantially lower than for other diseases because trial sizes are naturally much smaller than for more diseases with larger numbers of patients. Small clinical trials and minimal competition place orphan agents at an advantage in regulatory review.
Tax incentives reduce the cost of development. On average the cost per patient for orphan drugs is "six times that of non-orphan drugs, a clear indication of their pricing power". The cost of per-person outlays are large and are expected to increase with wider use of public subsidies.
The 2014 Orphan Drug report stated that the percentage of orphan drug sales as part of all prescription drug sales had been increasing at a rapid rate. The report projected a total of US$176 billion by 2020. Although orphan disease populations are the smallest, the cost of per-patient outlays among them are the largest and are expected to increase as more people with rare diseases become eligible for subsidies – in the U.S., for example, through the Affordable Care Act.
Legislation
Orphan drugs generally follow the same regulatory development path as any other pharmaceutical product, in which testing focuses on pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, dosing, stability, safety and efficacy. However, some statistical burdens are lessened to maintain development momentum. For example, orphan drug regulations generally acknowledge the fact that it may not be possible to test 1,000 patients in a phase III clinical trial if fewer than that number are affected by the disease.
Government intervention on behalf of orphan drug development takes several forms:
Tax incentives
Exclusivity (enhanced patent protection and marketing rights)
Research subsidies
Creating a government-run enterprise to engage in research and development as in a Crown corporation
A 2015 study of "34 key Canadian stakeholders, including drug regulators, funders, scientists, policy experts, pharmaceutical industry representatives, and patient advocates" investigated factors behind the pharmaceutical industry growing interest in "niche markets" such as orphan drugs.
United States
The Orphan Drug Act (ODA) of January 1983, passed in the United States, with lobbying from the National Organization for Rare Disorders and many other organizations, is meant to encourage pharmaceutical companies to develop drugs for diseases that have a small market. Under the ODA drugs, vaccines, and diagnostic agents would qualify for orphan status if they were intended to treat a disease affecting fewer than 200,000 American citizens. Under the ODA orphan drug sponsors qualify for seven-year FDA-administered market Orphan Drug Exclusivity (ODE), "tax credits of up to 50% of R&D costs, R&D grants, waived FDA fees, protocol assistance and may get clinical trial tax incentives.
In the U.S., orphan drug designation means that the sponsor qualifies for certain benefits, but it does not mean the drug is safe, effective or legal.
In 2002, the Rare Diseases Act was signed into law. It amended the Public Health Service Act to establish the Office of Rare Diseases. It also increased funding for the development of treatments for people with rare diseases.
European Union
In 2000, the European Union (EU) enacted similar legislation, Regulation(EC) No 141/2000, which refers to drugs developed to treat rare diseases to as "orphan medicinal products". The EU's definition of an orphan condition is broader than that of the US, in that it also covers some tropical diseases that are primarily found in developing nations. Orphan drug status granted by the European Commission gives marketing exclusivity in the EU for 10 years after approval. The EU's legislation is administered by the Committee on Orphan Medicinal Products of the European Medicines Agency (EMA).
In late 2007 the FDA and EMA agreed to use a common application process for both agencies to make it easier for manufacturers to apply for orphan drug status but, while continuing two separate approval processes.
Other countries
Legislation has been implemented by Japan, Singapore, and Australia that offers subsidies and other incentives to encourage the development of drugs that treat orphan diseases.
Numbers of new drugs
Under the ODA and EU legislation, many orphan drugs have been developed, including drugs to treat glioma, multiple myeloma, cystic fibrosis, phenylketonuria, snake venom poisoning, and idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura.
The Pharmaceutical Executive opines, that the "ODA is nearly universally acknowledged to be a success".
Before the US Congress enacted the ODA in 1983, only 38 drugs were approved in the US specifically to treat orphan diseases. In the US, from January 1983 to June 2004, 249 orphan drugs received marketing authorization and 1,129 received different orphan drug designations, compared to fewer than ten such products in the decade prior to 1983. From 1983 until May 2010, the FDA approved 353 orphan drugs and granted orphan designations to 2,116 compounds. As of 2010, 200 of the roughly 7,000 officially designated orphan diseases have become treatable.
Critics have questioned whether orphan drug legislation was the real cause of this increase, claiming that many of the new drugs were for disorders which were already being researched anyway, and would have had drugs developed regardless of the legislation, and whether the ODA has truly stimulated the production of non-profitable drugs; the act also has been criticised for allowing some pharmaceutical companies to make a large profit off drugs which have a small market but sell for a high price.
While the European Medicines Agency grants orphan drugs market access in all member states, in practice, they only reach the market when a member state decides that its national health system will reimburse for the drug. For example, in 2008, 44 orphan drugs reached the market in the Netherlands, 35 in Belgium, and 28 in Sweden, while in 2007, 35 such drugs reached the market in France and 23 in Italy.
Though not technically an orphan disease, research and development into the treatment for AIDS has been heavily linked to the Orphan Drug Act. In the beginning of the AIDS epidemic the lack of treatment for the disease was often accredited to a believed lack of commercial base for a medication linked to HIV infection. This encouraged the FDA to use the Orphan Drug Act to help bolster research in this field, and by 1995 13 of the 19 drugs approved by the FDA to treat AIDS had received orphan drug designation, with 10 receiving marketing rights. These are in addition to the 70 designated orphan drugs designed to treat other HIV related illnesses.
Examples for selected diseases
Cystic fibrosis
In the 1980s, people with cystic fibrosis rarely lived beyond their early teens. Drugs like Pulmozyme and tobramycin, both developed with aid from the ODA, revolutionized treatment for cystic fibrosis patients by significantly improving their quality of life and extending their life expectancies. Now, cystic fibrosis patients often survive into their thirties and some into their fifties.
Familial hypercholesterolemia
The 1985 Nobel Prize for medicine went to two researchers for their work related to familial hypercholesterolemia, which causes large and rapid increases in cholesterol levels. Their research led to the development of statin drugs which are now commonly used to treat high cholesterol.
Wilson's disease
Penicillamine was developed to treat Wilson's disease, a rare hereditary disease that can lead to a fatal accumulation of copper in the body. This drug was later found to be effective in treating arthritis. Bis-choline tetrathiomolybdate is currently under investigation as a therapy against Wilson's disease.
Phospholipase 2G6-associated neurodegeneration
In 2017, FDA granted RT001 orphan drug designation in the treatment of phospholipase 2G6-associated neurodegeneration (PLAN).
Transthyretin-related hereditary amyloidosis
The FDA granted Patisiran (Onpattro) orphan drug status and breakthrough therapy designation due to its novel mechanism involving RNA therapy to block the production of an abnormal form of transthyretin. Patisiran received full FDA approval in 2018 and its RNA lipid nanoparticle drug delivery system was later used in the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine and Moderna RNA vaccines.
Activism, research centers
The Center for Orphan Drug Research at the University of Minnesota College of Pharmacy helps small companies with insufficient in-house expertise and resources in drug synthesis, formulation, pharmacometrics, and bio-analysis.
The Keck Graduate Institute Center for Rare Disease Therapies (CRDT) in Claremont, California, supports projects to revive potential orphan drugs whose development has stalled by identifying barriers to commercialization, such as problems with formulation and bio-processing.
Numerous advocacy groups such as the National Organization for Rare Disorders, Global Genes Project, Children's Rare Disease Network, Abetalipoproteinemia Collaboration Foundation, Zellweger Baby Support Network, and the Friedreich's Ataxia Research Alliance have been founded in order to advocate on behalf of patients with rare diseases with a particular emphasis on diseases that affect children.
Cost
According to a 2015 report published by EvaluatePharma, the economics of orphan drugs mirrors the economics of the pharmaceutical market as a whole but has a few very large differences. The market for orphan drugs is by definition very small, but while the customer base is drastically smaller the cost of research and development is very much the same as for non orphan drugs. This, the producers have claimed, causes them to charge extremely high amounts for treatment, sometimes as high as $700,000 a year, as in the case of Spinraza (Biogen), FDA approved in December 2016 for spinal muscular atrophy, placing a large amount of stress on insurance companies and patients. An analysis of 12 orphan drugs that were approved in the US between 1990 and 2000 estimated a price reduction of on average 50% upon loss of marketing exclusivity, with a range of price reductions from 14% to 95%.
Governments have implemented steps to reduce high research and development cost with subsidies and other forms of financial assistance. The largest assistance are tax breaks which can be as high as 50% of research and development costs. Orphan drug manufacturers are also able to take advantage of the small customer base to cut cost on clinical trials due to the small number of cases to have smaller trials which reduces cost. These smaller clinical trials also allow orphan drugs to move to market faster as the average time to receive FDA approval for an orphan drug is 10 months compared to 13 months for non-orphan drugs. This is especially true in the market for cancer drugs, as a 2011 study found that between 2004 and 2010 orphan drug trials were more likely to be smaller and less randomized than their non-orphan counterparts, but still had a higher FDA approval rate, with 15 orphan cancer drugs being approved, while only 12 non-orphan drugs were approved. This allows manufactures to get cost to the point that it is economically feasible to produce these treatments. The subsidies can total up to $30 million per fiscal year in the United States alone.
By 2015, industry analysts and academic researchers agreed, that the sky-high price of orphan drugs, such as eculizumab, was not related to research, development and manufacturing costs. Their price is arbitrary and they have become more profitable than traditional medicines.
Public funding
Evaluation criteria
By 2007 the use of economic evaluation methods regarding public-funding of orphan drugs, using estimates of the incremental cost-effectiveness, for example, became more established internationally. The QALY has often been used in cost-utility analysis to calculate the ratio of cost to QALYs saved for a particular health care intervention. By 2008 the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) in England and Wales, for example, operated with a threshold range of £20,000–30,000 per quality-adjusted life year (QALY). By 2005 doubts were raised about the use of economic evaluations in orphan drugs. By 2008 most of the orphan drugs appraised had cost-effectiveness thresholds "well in excess of the 'accepted' level and would not be reimbursed according to conventional criteria". As early as 2005 McCabe et al. argued that rarity should not have a premium and orphan drugs should be treated like other pharmaceuticals in general. Drummond et al. argued that the social value of health technologies should also be included in the assessment along with the estimation of the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio.
Abuse potential
The very large incentives given to pharmaceutical companies to produce orphan drugs have led to the impression that the financial support afforded to make these drugs possible is akin to abuse. Because drugs can be used to treat multiple conditions, companies can take drugs that were filed with their government agency as orphan drugs to receive financial assistance, and then market it to a wide population to increase their profit margin. For example AstraZeneca's cholesterol drug Crestor was filed as a treatment for the rare disease pediatric familial hypercholesterolemia. After the drug was approved for orphan drug designation, and AstraZeneca had received tax breaks and other advantages, AstraZeneca later applied and received FDA approval for the drug to be used to treat cholesterol in all diabetics.
NICE
The UK's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) can pay from £100,000 to £300,000 per QALY (Quality Adjusted Life Year) for treatments of "very rare conditions". This is compared to under £20,000 for non-orphan drugs.
In 2015, NICE held consultations with "patient groups, the Department of Health, companies, learned societies, charities and researchers" regarding the appraisal of medicines and other technologies. There was a call for more research into new processes, including:
See also
Rare disease
Drug development
European Organization for Rare Diseases
Supplementary protection certificate
References
External links
Drug Information Association (DIA)
EVENT: DIA/FDA Orphan Drug Designation Workshop November 2010
European Commission - The Orphan drugs strategy
List of European Orphan Drugs
USA Food and Drug Administration: The Orphan Drug Act (as amended)
US FDA List of Orphan Designations and Approvals
Biotechnology law
Drug discovery
Pharmaceuticals policy
Health economics
Life sciences industry
Rare diseases
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS%20Californian
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SS Californian
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SS Californian was a British Leyland Line steamship. She is thought to have been the only ship to see the Titanic, or at least her rockets, during the sinking, but despite being the closest ship in the area, the crew took no action to assist. The United States Senate inquiry and British Wreck Commissioner's inquiry into the sinking both concluded that the Californian could have saved many or all of the lives that were lost, had a prompt response been mounted to the Titanic distress rockets. The U.S. Senate inquiry was particularly critical of the vessel's captain, Stanley Lord, calling his inaction during the disaster "reprehensible".
Despite this criticism, no formal charges were ever brought against Lord and his crew for their inaction. Lord disputed the findings and would spend the rest of his life trying to clear his name. In 1992, the UK Government's Marine Accident Investigation Branch re-examined the case and while condemning the inaction of the Californian and Captain Lord, also concluded that due to the limited time available, "the effect of Californian taking proper action would have been no more than to place on her the task actually carried out by RMS Carpathia, that is the rescue of those who escaped... [no] reasonably probable action by Captain Lord could have led to a different outcome of the tragedy".
Californian was later sunk on 9 November 1915, by the German submarines and , in the Eastern Mediterranean during World War I.
History
Californian was a steamship owned by the Leyland Line, part of J.P. Morgan's International Mercantile Marine Co. She was constructed by the Caledon Shipbuilding & Engineering Company in Dundee, Scotland, and was the largest ship built in Dundee up to that time. The ship was built to the maximum dimensions that were allowed to moor and outfit her in the Dundee Docks. The ship's size and importance to the local shipbuilding industry meant that there was a lot of local interest in her construction as it progressed. There were also some problems – when both of the ship's boilers were being transported through the streets from a foundry to the shipyard the weight of them (carried on a wheeled bogie) caused considerable damage to the city's roads, as well as breaking a number of underground water pipes. Later when a crane was being used to rig a spar on one of the Californian four masts, the spar became tangled in nearby telephone wires and severed them.
She was designed primarily to transport cotton, but also had the capacity to carry 47 passengers and 55 crew members. The primary clientele was those passengers with too limited the means to travel on board large liners. By offering them comfortable cabins at an affordable prices (£10 per crossing in the direction Liverpool — Boston, £50 in the opposite direction), Leyland Line was able to secure some profits this way. Nonetheless, the ship was still primarily a freighter, as evidenced by her massive bunkers. She was named Californian according to a tradition specific to the company which gave its ships the name of one of the 46 states of the United States at the time. She measured 6,223 tons, was long, at her beam, and had a triple expansion steam engine powered by two double-ended boilers. Her average full speed was .
The accommodation of most of the fifty or so crew members was located below the foredeck. They stayed there in cabins designed for four to eight people that were quite uncomfortable, poorly ventilated and lighted. In all, the crew included the captain, four officers, a radio operator, and 49 crew members (sailors, drivers, trimmers, etc.). The cabins were located in the superstructure. The officers of the crew resided on the starboard side and the passengers on the port side. The facilities for passengers corresponded to the second class of most ships of the time. Although the cabins were not of high quality, they remained comfortable and had electric lighting, which was not the case on all contemporary ships. The passengers of the Californian also had at their disposal a smoking room on the upper starboard deck, decorated with oak panels and linoleum, a novelty at the turn of the century. The dining room was also decorated and comfortable.
Californian was launched on 26 November 1901 and completed her sea trials on 23 January 1902. From 31 January 1902 to 3 March 1902, she made her maiden voyage from Dundee to New Orleans, Louisiana, United States. Subsequently, she made transatlantic crossings, generally carrying around thirty passengers in addition to her cargo. In 1902, she was chartered by the Dominion Line for five crossings to Portland, Maine. She then returned to the Leyland Line service to serve the southern United States. From 1901 to 1911, she was commanded successively by four captains before being finally put under the command of Stanley Lord. By his young age (he obtained his captain's certificate at 24, a very early age compared to many of his colleagues) and by his spirit of initiative and his skills, Lord indeed promised to become a major captain in the British merchant fleet.
Between late 1911 and early 1912, Californian had a Marconi wireless apparatus installed in a refitted cabin. Her first radio operator was Cyril Furmstone Evans.
Sinking of Titanic
On March 30, 1912, the Californian made a stopover in London on a trip to New Orleans during which she had to face a storm which damaged part of her cotton cargo. Stanley Lord, who had commanded Californian since 27 March 1911, was her captain when she left the Royal Albert Dock, Liverpool, England on 5 April 1912 on her way to Boston, Massachusetts. She was not carrying any passengers on this voyage. On the navigation bridge, Lord was accompanied by three officers and an apprentice: George Stewart (second in command or chief officer), Herbert Stone (second officer), Charles Groves (third officer) and apprentice James Gibson.
The first week of the crossing was uneventful. On Sunday 14 April at 18:30 ship's time, Californian only wireless operator, Cyril Furmstone Evans (born 1892 in Croydon, Surrey, United Kingdom), signalled to the Antillian that three large icebergs were five miles to the south. Titanic wireless operator Harold Bride also received the warning and delivered it to the ship's bridge a few minutes later.
Californian encountered a large ice field at 22:20 ship's time, and Captain Lord decided to stop the ship and wait until morning before proceeding further. Before leaving the bridge, he thought he saw a ship's light away to the eastward but could not be sure it was not just a rising star. Lord continued to the engineers' cabins and met with the chief, whom he told about his plans for stopping. As they were talking, they saw a ship's lights approaching. Lord asked Evans if he knew of any ships in the area, and Evans responded: "only the Titanic." Lord asked Evans to inform her that Californian was stopped and surrounded by ice. Lord ordered Evans to warn all other ships in the area, which he did.
Titanic on-duty wireless operator, Jack Phillips, was busy clearing a backlog of passengers' messages with the wireless station at Cape Race, Newfoundland, away, at the time. Evans's message that SS Californian was stopped and surrounded by ice was heard very strongly on Titanic due to the relative proximity of the two ships and drowned out a separate message Phillips had been in the process of receiving from Cape Race, bringing Phillips to rebuke Evans: "Shut up, shut up! I am busy; I am working Cape Race!". Philips never passed this message to the bridge, but in his defence, Evans had not prefixed the message with the letters, "MSG", which stood for Master Service Gram, as was customary for all messages intended for the bridge. A little bit later Evans, feeling that he had done his duty despite Philips's rude rejection of the message, switched off his wireless equipment and went to bed. One hour and 10 minutes later, at 23:40, Titanic hit an iceberg. Shortly after midnight, she transmitted her first distress call.
Third Officer Charles Groves of the Californian testified to the British inquiry that at 23:10 ship's time, he had seen the lights of another ship come into view 10 or 12 miles away, 3.5 points above Californian starboard beam. At about 23:30, Groves went below to inform Lord. The latter suggested that the ship be contacted by Morse lamp, which was tried, but no reply was seen. To Groves, she was clearly a large liner, as she had multiple decks brightly lit. The ship finally seemed to stop and extinguish her deck lights at 23:40, the same time Titanic stopped her engines. At the British inquiry, Groves agreed that if the ship he saw had turned two points to port, it would have concealed her deck lights.
Slightly after midnight, Second Officer Herbert Stone took watch from Groves. He testified that he, too, observed the ship, judging it to be about five miles away. He tried signalling her with the Morse lamp, also without success. Apprentice officer James Gibson, who had been doing the Morse signalling, testified that at 00:55, Stone told him he had observed five rockets in the sky above the nearby ship. Stone testified that he had informed Captain Lord, although the British inquiry did not ask whether or not he communicated the number. Lord asked if the rockets had been a company signal, but Stone did not know. Lord and Stone both testified that Stone reported they were not distress signals. Lord ordered Stone to tell him if anything about the ship changed, to keep signalling it with the Morse lamp, but did not order that it be contacted by wireless.
Gibson testified that Stone had expressed unease to him about the situation: "A ship is not going to fire rockets at sea for nothing", Stone said. "She looks very queer out of the water—her lights look queer." Gibson observed, "She looks rather to have a big side out of the water", and he agreed that "everything was not all right with her"; that it was "a case of some kind of distress". Stone, however, under questioning by the British inquiry which became more and more incredulous, testified repeatedly that he did not think at the time that the rockets could have been distress signals, and that the possibility did not occur to him until he learned the Titanic had sunk.
By 02:00, the ship appeared to be leaving the area. A few minutes later, Gibson informed Captain Lord as such and that eight white rockets had been seen. Lord asked whether he was sure of the colour. Gibson said yes and left.
At 02:20, Titanic sank. At 03:40, Stone and Gibson, still sharing the middle watch, spotted rockets to the south. They did not see the ship that was firing them, but at about this same time RMS Carpathia was coming quickly from the southeast, firing rockets to let Titanic know that help was on the way. At 04:16, Chief Officer George F. Stewart relieved Stone, and almost immediately noticed, coming into view from the south, a brilliantly-lit, four-masted steamship with one funnel; Carpathia arrived on the scene shortly after 04:00.
Captain Lord woke up at 04:30 and went out on deck to decide how to proceed past the ice to the west. He sent Stewart to wake Evans and find out what happened to the ship they had seen to the south. They subsequently learned from the Frankfurt that the Titanic had sunk overnight. Lord ordered the ship underway. Californian course took her west, slowly passing through the ice field, after which she turned south. Californian was sighted at 06:00 by steaming from the north. Californian actually passed the Carpathia to the east, then turned, and headed northeast back towards the rescue ship, arriving at 08:30.
Carpathia was just finishing picking up the last of Titanic survivors. After communicating with Californian, Carpathia left the area, leaving Californian to search for any other survivors. However, Californian only found scattered wreckage, empty lifeboats, and corpses, and continued on its route to America. Upon arrival, several key crew members, including Lord and Evans, were summoned to give evidence at the American inquiry. Evans also gave evidence at the British inquiry into the tragedy. Like others involved in the disaster, he was offered large sums of money from newspapers for his story, but he refused it.
Aftermath
As public knowledge grew of the Titanic disaster, questions soon arose about how the disaster occurred, as well as if and how it could have been prevented.
A United States Senate inquiry into the sinking of the RMS Titanic started on 19 April 1912, the day Californian arrived unnoticed in Boston. Initially, the world was unaware of her and her part in the Titanic disaster. On 22 April, the inquiry discovered that a ship near Titanic had failed to respond to the distress signals. The identity of the ship was unknown.
The next day, a small newspaper in New England, The Clinton Daily Item, printed a shocking story claiming that Californian had refused aid to Titanic. The source for the story was Californian carpenter, James McGregor, who stated that he had been close enough to see Titanic lights and distress rockets. On the same day, the Boston American printed a story sourced by Californians assistant engineer, Ernest Gill, which essentially told the same story as the Daily Item.
Captain Lord also spoke with several Boston area newspapers but gave conflicting accounts. In a Boston Traveller article dated 19 April, Lord claimed that his ship was 30 miles from Titanic, but in a Boston Post article dated 24 April, he claimed 20 miles. Lord told the Boston Globe that his ship had spent three hours steaming around the wreck site trying to render assistance, but Third Officer Grove later stated that the search ended after two hours, at 10:40. When reporters asked Lord about his exact position the night of the disaster, he refused to respond, calling such information "state secrets".
After the newspaper revelations on 23 April, the U.S. Senate inquiry issued subpoenas for multiple members of the crew, including Gill and Lord. During his testimony, Gill repeated his claims. Lord's testimony was conflicting and changing. For example, he detailed three totally different ice conditions. He admitted knowing about the rockets (after telling Boston newspapers that his ship had not seen any rockets) but insisted that they were not distress rockets, and they were not fired from Titanic but a small steamship, the so-called "third ship" of the night. Yet the testimony of Captain J. Knapp, U.S. Navy, and a part of the Navy Hydrographer's Office, made clear that Titanic and Californian were in sight of each other, and no third vessel had been in the area.
The so-called "scrap log" of Californian also came under question. This is a log wherein all daily pertinent information is entered before being approved by the captain and entered into the official log. Company policy of International Mercantile Marine Co., the parent of both Leyland Line and the White Star Line, required scrap logs to be destroyed daily. The official log mentioned neither a nearby ship nor rockets. At the British inquiry, Stone was not asked to recall the notations he had actually written in the scrap log, during his bridge-watch between midnight and 4:00 on 15 April.
On 2 May, the British Court of Formal Investigation began. Again, Lord gave conflicting, changing, and evasive testimony. By contrast, Captain Arthur Rostron of Carpathia, at each inquiry, gave consistent and forthright testimony. During the British Inquiry, Rostron was asked to confirm an affidavit he had made to the United States Inquiry. Among the other things in his affidavit, he confirmed that "It was daylight at about 4.20 a.m. At 5 o'clock it was light enough to see all around the horizon. We then saw two steamships to the northwards, perhaps 7 or 8 miles distant. Neither of them was Californian."
During the inquiry, the crew of Californian, like Captain Lord, gave conflicting testimonies. Most notably, Lord said he was not told that the nearby ship had disappeared, contradicting testimony from James Gibson who said he reported it, and Lord had acknowledged him.
Also during the inquiries, Titanic survivors recalled seeing the lights of another ship after Titanic had hit the iceberg. To Titanics Fourth Officer Boxhall, the other ship appeared to be off Titanics bow, five miles (8 km) away and heading in her direction. Just like Californian officers, Boxhall attempted signaling the ship with a Morse lamp, but received no response. However, Titanic lookout Frederick Fleet, who was in the crow's nest when the iceberg was sighted and remained there for another forty minutes, testified at the US inquiry that he did not see the lights of another ship while in the crow's nest. He only saw a light later after leaving the ship on a lifeboat.
Titanics Captain Edward Smith had felt the ship was close enough that he ordered the first lifeboats launched on the port side to row over to the ship, drop off the passengers, and come back to Titanic for more. Moreover, lifeboat occupants reported the other ship's lights were seen from the lifeboats throughout the night; one lifeboat rowed towards them but never seemed to get any closer.
Both the American and British inquires found that Californian must have been closer than the claimed by Captain Lord, and that each ship was visible from the other. Indeed, when Carpathia arrived at the wreck site, a vessel was clearly seen to the north; this was later identified as Californian. Both inquiries concluded that Captain Lord had failed to provide proper assistance to Titanic, the British Inquiry concluding further Californians responding to Titanics rockets and going to assist "… might have saved many if not all of the lives that were lost".
In the months and years following the disaster, numerous preventive safety measures were enacted. The United States passed the Radio Act of 1912, which required 24-hour radio watch on all ships in case of an emergency. The first International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea formed a treaty that also required 24-hour radio monitoring and standardized the use of distress rockets.
Despite the criticisms of Lord's conduct, no formal charges were ever brought against him. As a result, he had no right of appeal against the inquiry's findings. The issue was not considered again until the publication of Walter Lord's (unrelated to Captain Lord) book A Night to Remember in 1955 and the release of the 1958 film of the same name prompted Lord to seek a re-hearing of the inquiry relating to his ship, to counter the allegations made in the book and his portrayal in the film. Petitions presented to the UK Government in 1965 and 1968 by the Mercantile Marine Service Association (MMSA), a union to which Captain Lord belonged, failed to get the matter re-examined. However, when the wreck of the Titanic was discovered by Ballard's expedition in 1985, it was found to be 13 miles from its reported position (the location accepted by both inquiries), so the Board of Trade ordered a re-examination.
The British Government's Marine Accident Investigation Branch (MAIB) concluded its reappraisal of evidence in 1992. The conclusions were those of Deputy Chief Inspector, James de Coverly, stating: "What is significant, however, is that no ship was seen by the Titanic until well after the collision… watch was maintained with officers on the bridge and seamen in the crow's nest, and with their ship in grave danger the lookout for another vessel which could come to their help must have been most anxious and keen. It is in my view inconceivable that the Californian or any other ship was within the visible horizon of the Titanic during that period; it equally follows that the Titanic can't have been within the Californian's horizon." The report went on: "More probably, in my view, the ship seen by Californian was another, unidentified, vessel."
The original investigator of the 1992 reappraisal was a Captain Barnett, who unlike de Coverly, concluded "that the Titanic was seen by the Californian and indeed kept under observation from 23:00 or soon after on 14 April until she sank... [based on] the evidence from Captain Lord and the two watch officers, Mr. Grove and Mr. Stone". It was after Barnett's original report was submitted that Captain de Coverly was given the task of further examination. Both Barnett and de Coverly had concluded that Titanic rockets had been seen and that Stone and Lord had not responded appropriately to signals of distress.
The 1992 MAIB report concluded that Captain Lord and his crew's actions "fell far short of what was needed". The report did concede that even if "proper action had been taken", Californian could not have arrived on the scene until "well after the sinking". It also noted that when he did know of Titanic distress, Lord twice took his ship across an ice field to help search for survivors. Captain Lord's chief defender, union attorney, Leslie Harrison, who had led the fight to have the Californian incident re-examined by the British government, called the dual conclusions of the report "an admission of failure to achieve the purpose of the reappraisal".
The 1992 report by the MAIB was published just months after their publication of another controversial report, on the subject of the Marchioness disaster of 1989. This report had led to questions over the evidence-gathering, conduct and judgements of the MAIB.
Author Paul Lee accused Captain Lord of an "inability or unwillingness to adjust to an entirely new situation". Although Lord had stopped his ship upon encountering ice, the British inquiry concluded that if Californian had acted upon the rockets and pushed through the ice, the Californian "might have saved many, if not all, of the lives that were lost". The U.S Senate inquiry was also critical of Lord's inaction, the final report stating that "such conduct, whether arising from indifference or gross carelessness, is most reprehensible, and places upon the commander the Californian a grave responsibility".
Senator William Alden Smith, in a speech to the U.S. Senate inquiry, said: "the failure of Capt. Lord to arouse the wireless operator on his ship, who could have easily ascertained the name of the vessel in distress and reached her in time to avert loss of life, places a tremendous responsibility upon this officer from which it will be very difficult for him to escape". Author Daniel Allen Butler wrote: "The crime of Stanley Lord was not that he may have ignored the Titanic's rockets, but that he unquestionably ignored someone's cry for help."
Others have suggested that, considering all the circumstances, there was actually little if anything the Californian could have done to prevent or reduce the loss of life. Allegations have been made that trade unions defending Captain Lord succeeded in influencing the reports from the official investigations before they were available to the public. Williams and Kamps wrote in Titanic and the Californian: "Bearing [the] distance in mind, and recalling that a mere fifty-five minutes had elapsed from the time Captain Lord was first informed about the rockets to the moment the Titanic slipped beneath the waves, it would have been nothing short of a miracle for Lord to bring his ship to the Titanic and effect a rescue in such a short space of time."
Titanic historian Tim Maltin theorized that the Californian's inaction was the result of a cold water mirage, or superior mirage, arising from differences in air temperature over the warmer waters of the Atlantic Ocean and the colder waters of the Labrador Current. Maltin suggested that this would cause a superior refraction, superimposing and stretching and distorting the edge of the sea and lifting images of objects, distorting their appearance. This would explain why the Titanic Morse lamp was believed to be a flickering oil lamp on the mast of a much smaller ship, and why Capt. Lord thought the Titanic was a different vessel. If correct, Maltin's theory may further explain why the Titanic lookouts did not spot the iceberg earlier.
Cyril Evans continued his service with the Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company and its successor companies (Eastern Telegraph Company and Cable & Wireless: the later part of his career was spent as manager for Cable and Wireless on the West Indian island of St Lucia) for the rest of his life. He also served at sea in World War I and World War II, running mobile telecommunications for the British Army in North Africa and then Italy. He married and raised a family. In the film A Night to Remember, Evans was portrayed by Geoffrey Bayldon.
Later career and sinking
On 2 July 1913, Californian was docked in Veracruz when a fire erupted in her 3 and 4 holds, sustaining serious damage to herself and her cargo.
Californian continued in normal commercial service until World War I, when the British government took control of her. She was responsible for transporting equipments and troops for the Allies mired in the Battle of Gallipoli.
At 07:45 on 9 November 1915, while en route from Salonica to Marseilles at a speed of 12 knots, with a French torpedo boat escort, she was torpedoed by the German U-boat . The escort tried to take her under tow, but the tow rope broke at 13:20. During a second attempt at 14:15, she was torpedoed again by sister and began to sink quickly. The crew evacuated onto the patrol boat, and finally Californian sank in 10–13,000 feet of water, approximately south-southwest of Cape Matapan, Greece. Fireman Richard John Harding was killed during the first torpedo attack, and two other firemen were scalded. To date, Californians wreck remains undiscovered. Californian went down less than from where , Titanics sister ship, would be sunk by a mine just over a year later.
In popular culture
The involvement of the Californian in the sinking of the Titanic is examined in the 2012 BBC TV drama SOSThe Titanic Inquiry. The drama tells the story of the original British Inquiry into the sinking of Titanic, which decided, using the facts that were available at the time, whether the Californian was in near enough proximity to the vessel to rescue some, if not all, of the 1,500 lives lost.
The 2016 novel The Midnight Watch by David Dyer explores the Titanic tragedy from the perspective of the crew of the Californian. The narrative centres around a fictional American reporter who tries to uncover what really happened on board the Californian that fateful night.
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Butler, Daniel Allen. The Other Side of the Night. Casemate, 2009.
Lee, Paul. The Indifferent Stranger, electronic book, 2008.
Eaton, John P. and Haas, Charles A. Titanic: Triumph and Tragedy (2nd ed.). New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1995.
Halpern, Samuel. Strangers on the Horizon: Titanic and Californian – A Forensic Approach, 2019.
Lord, Walter. The Night Lives On. Morrow and Company, 1986.
Lynch, Donald and Marschall, Ken. Titanic: An Illustrated History. Hyperion, 1995.
Molony, Senan. Titanic and the Mystery Ship. Tempus Publishing, 2006.
Padfield, Peter. The Titanic and the Californian. The John Day Company, 1965.
Reade, Leslie. The Ship That Stood Still: The Californian and Her Mysterious Role in the Titanic Disaster. W. W. Norton & Co Inc, 1993.
Dyer, David (2016), The Midnight Watch, Atlantic Books, 2016
External links
Californian Crew List with Biographies
Captain Stanley Lord
SS Californian
A PV Solves a Puzzle by Senan Molony
The Californian Incident, A Reality Check
The Titanic and the Californian
Steamships of the United Kingdom
Merchant ships of the United Kingdom
RMS Titanic
Ships built in Dundee
Ships sunk by German submarines in World War I
1901 ships
Maritime incidents in 1912
Maritime incidents in 1915
World War I shipwrecks in the Mediterranean Sea
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Geographical%20Society
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Royal Geographical Society
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The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers), often shortened to RGS, is a learned society and professional body for geography based in the United Kingdom. Founded in 1830 for the advancement of geographical sciences, the society has 16,000 members, with its work reaching the public through publications, research groups and lectures.
The RGS was founded in 1830 under the name Geographical Society of London as an institution to promote the 'advancement of geographical science'. It later absorbed the older African Association, which had been founded by Sir Joseph Banks in 1788, as well as the Raleigh Club and the Palestine Association. In 1995 it merged with the Institute of British Geographers, a body for academic geographers, to become officially the Royal Geographical Society with IBG.
The society is governed by its council, which is chaired by the society's president, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of council and the president are elected from and by its fellows, who are allowed to use the postnominal title FRGS. As a chartered body, the RGS holds the Register of Chartered Geographers in the public interest, a source of qualified, practising and experienced professional geographers. Fellows may apply for chartership if they fulfil the required criteria.
History
The RGS was founded in 1830 under the name Geographical Society of London as an institution to promote the 'advancement of geographical science'. It later absorbed the older African Association, which had been founded by Sir Joseph Banks in 1788, as well as the Raleigh Club and the Palestine Association.
Like many learned societies, it had started as a dining club in London, where select members held informal dinner debates on current scientific issues and ideas.
Founding members of the society include Sir John Barrow, Sir John Franklin and Sir Francis Beaufort. Under the patronage of King William IV it later became known as the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) and was granted its royal charter under Queen Victoria in 1859.
From 1830 to 1840 the RGS met in the rooms of the Horticultural Society in Regent Street, London and from 1854 -1870 at 15 Whitehall Place, London. In 1870, the society finally found a home when it moved to 1 Savile Row, London.
The society also used a lecture theatre in Burlington Gardens, London which was lent to it by the Civil Service Commission.
A new impetus was given to the society's affairs in 1911, with the election of Earl Curzon, the former Viceroy of India, as the society's President (1911–1914). The premises in Savile Row (once described by Curzon as "cramped and rather squalid") were sold and the present site, Lowther Lodge in Kensington Gore, was purchased for £100,000 and opened for use in April 1913. In the same year the society's ban on women fellows was lifted.
Lowther Lodge was built in 1874 for the William Lowther by Norman Shaw, one of the most outstanding domestic architects of his day. Extensions to the east wing were added in 1929, and included the New Map Room and the 750 seat Lecture Theatre. The extension was formally opened by the Duke of York (later King George VI) at the RGS centenary celebrations on 21 October 1930.
The history of the society was closely allied for many of its earlier years with 'colonial' exploration in Africa, the Indian subcontinent, the polar regions, and central Asia especially.
It has been a key associate and supporter of many notable explorers and expeditions, including those of Darwin, Livingstone, Stanley, Scott, Shackleton, Hunt and Hillary.
The early history of the society is inter-linked with the history of British geography, exploration and
discovery. Information, maps, charts and knowledge gathered on expeditions was sent to the RGS, making up its now unique geographical collections. The society published its first journal in 1831 and from 1855, accounts of meetings and other matters were published in the society proceedings. In 1893, this was replaced by The Geographical Journal which is still published today.
The society was also pivotal in establishing geography as a teaching and research discipline in British universities, and funded the first geography positions in the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge.
With the advent of a more systematic study of geography, the Institute of British Geographers (IBG) was formed in 1933, by thirteen geographers including Hilda Ormsby, Andrew Charles O'Dell, as the RGS was seen as too focused on exploration. IBG activities included organising conferences, field trips, seminars, and specialist research groups and publishing a journal, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers. The RGS and IBG co-existed for 60 years until 1992 when a merger was discussed. In 1994, members were balloted and the merger agreed. In January 1995, the new Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers) was formed.
The society also works together with other existing bodies serving the geographical community, in particular the Geographical Association and the Royal Scottish Geographical Society.
In 2004, the RGS's historical collections relating to scientific exploration and research, which are of national and international importance, were opened to the public for the first time. In the same year, a new category of membership was introduced to widen access for people with a general interest in geography. The new Foyle Reading Room and glass Pavilion exhibition space were also opened to the public in 2004. For example, in 2012 the RGS held an exhibition, in the glass Pavilion, of photographs taken by Herbert Ponting on Captain Robert Falcon Scott's expedition to the South Pole in 1912.
Governance
Council
The society is governed by its board of trustees called the council, which is chaired by its president. The members of council and the president are elected from its fellowship. The council consists of 36 members, 22 of which are elected by fellows and serve for a three-year term. In addition to the elected trustees, there are honorary members—who include the Duke of Kent as honorary president—who sit on the council.
The society has five specialist committees that it derives advice from: the Education Committee, Research Committee, Expedition and Fieldwork Committee, Information Resources Committee, and the Finance Committee.
Presidents
Membership
There are four categories of individual membership:
Membership
Anyone with an interest in geography is eligible to apply to become a member of the RGS-IBG.
Student Membership
Students who are studying geography (or an allied subject) at GCSE, A Level or as an undergraduate (or at equivalent levels).
Associate Fellowship
This status is available by application from postgraduate students or those within five years of graduating from their first degree.
Fellowship
Fellows of the RGS come from a wide range of professional backgrounds. They must either be proposed by an existing fellow or an individual may submit evidence of his or her own work and academic publications in the field of geography and closely related subjects such as international development, climate change and expedition medicine. Applicants must be of at least 21 years of age and provide evidence of a body of relevant work; alternatively, a previous five-year commitment at the regular member level (less, at the council's discretion) is also considered for eligibility. Fellows may use the post-nominal designation FRGS after their names.
Chartered geographer
Since 2002 the society has been granted the power to award the status of chartered geographer. The status can be obtained only by those who have a degree in geography or related subject and at least 6 years' geographical experience, or 15 years' geographical work experience for those without a degree. Being awarded the status allows the use of the post-nominal letters "CGeog".
Chartered geographer (teacher) is a professional accreditation available to teachers who can demonstrate competence, experience and professionalism in the use of geographical knowledge or skills in and out of the classroom, and who are committed to maintaining their professional standards through ongoing continuing professional development (CPD).
Research groups
The society's research and study groups bring together active researchers and professional geographers in particular areas of geography. There are 27 active research groups, with each group organising their own seminars, conferences, workshops and other activities.
Medals and awards
The society also presents awards to geographers that have contributed to the advancement of geography.
The most prestigious of these awards are the Founder's Medal and the Patron's Medal. The award is given for "the encouragement and promotion of geographical science and discovery", and are approved by King Charles III. The awards originated as an annual gift of fifty guineas from King William IV, first made in 1831, "to constitute a premium for the encouragement and promotion of geographical science and discovery". The society decided in 1839 to change this monetary award into two gold medals: Founder's Medal and the Patron's. The award has been given to notable geographers including David Livingstone (1855), Nain Singh Rawat (1876), Baron Ferdinand von Richthofen (1878), Alfred Russel Wallace (1892), and Frederick Courtney Selous (1893) to more recent winners including Percy Harrison Fawcett (1916), Professor William Morris Davis (1919), Sir Halford John Mackinder (1945), Professor L. Dudley Stamp (1949), Professor Richard Chorley (1987) and Professor David Harvey (1995). In 2004 Harish Kapadia was awarded the Patron's Medal for contributions to geographical discovery and mountaineering in the Himalayas, making him the second Indian to receive the award in its history. In 2005 the Founder's Medal was awarded to Professor Sir Nicholas Shackleton for his research in the field of Quaternary Palaeoclimatology and the Patron's Medal was awarded to Professor Jean Malaurie for a lifelong study of the Arctic and its people. In 1902 they awarded khan Bahadur Sher Jang a Sword of Honour (the Black Memorial) in recognition of his valuable services to geography
In total the society awards 17 medals and awards including honorary membership and fellowship. Some of the other awards given by the RGS include:
The Victoria Medal (1902) for "conspicuous merit in research in Geography"
The Murchison Award (1882) for the "publication judged to contribute most to geographical science in preceding recent years"
The Back Award (1882) for "applied or scientific geographical studies which make an outstanding contribution to the development of national or international public policy"
The Busk Medal (1975) for "conservation research or for fieldwork abroad in Geography or in a geographical aspect of an allied science"
The Cuthbert Peek Award (1883) for "those advancing geographical knowledge of human impact on the environment through the application of contemporary methods, including those of earth observation and mapping"
The Edward Heath Award (1984) for "geographical research in either Europe or the developing world"
The Cherry Kearton Medal and Award for "a traveller concerned with the study or practice of natural history, with a preference for those with an interest in nature photography, art or cinematography".
The Ness Award for "travellers, particularly those who have successfully popularised Geography and the wider understanding of our world and its environments"
Collections
The society's collections consist of over two million documents, maps, photographs, paintings, periodicals, artefacts and books, and span 500 years of geography, travel and exploration. The society preserves the collections for the benefit of future generations, while providing public access and promoting collections-related educational programmes for schools and lifelong learners. The Foyle Reading Room acts as a consultation space for using the society's collections, and hosts showcases and workshops as well as the Be Inspired series of talks.
Artefacts
The artefacts collection includes over a thousand items brought to the Society, consisting mainly of cultural objects from around the world, ranging from Inuit boots (from Canadian Arctic) to ceremonial leopard's claws (from the then Belgian Congo), paraphernalia of exploration, for example oxygen sets used in the various attempts on Everest, and personal items belonging to explorers, such as Shackleton's Burberry helmet. Artefacts from the collection have been loaned to exhibitions around the world and are in continual demand.
Books and journals
The library collection holds more than 150,000 bound volumes that focus on the history and geography of places worldwide. Example volumes include information on European migration, a 19th-century guidebook to Berlin, and David Livingstone's account of his search for the source of the Nile. It currently receives around 800 journal titles, as well as many more journal titles that are either not currently subscribed to, or have ceased publication, allowing society members access to the latest geographical academic literature in addition to the journals published by the RGS-IBG itself.
Expedition report
The RGS-IBG houses a collection of 4,500 expedition reports. These documents contain details of the achievements and research results of expeditions to almost every country of the world. The catalogue of these reports, and over 8,500 planned and past expeditions, is held on a database which provides contact with a wide variety of sporting, scientific and youth expeditions from 1965 to the present day.
Maps and atlases
The society holds one of the largest private map collections in the world which is continuously increasing. It includes one million sheets of maps and charts, 3000 atlases, 40 globes and 1000 gazetteers. The earliest printed item in the Collection dates back to 1482. The RGS-IBG also holds manuscript materials from the mid sixteenth century onwards, aerial photography from 1919 and contemporary satellite images.
Manuscript archive
The manuscript archive collection consists of material arising out of the conduct of society business and manuscripts relating to persons or subjects of special interest. The document collection includes a few papers from before the society's founding in 1830, and is particularly useful to biographers of nineteenth and early twentieth century travellers and geographers, as well as research into the development of geographical knowledge and the historical development of geography.
Events recordings
Since 1994, the society has recorded the majority of its Monday night lectures. Society members and fellows can watch selected lectures from 2006 onward online.
Photographs and artworks
The society's picture library holds over half a million photographs, artworks, negatives, lantern slides and albums dating from around 1830. Historic images range from the Antarctic adventures of Scott and Shackleton to the pioneering journeys of Livingstone, Baker, Speke and Burton.
Grants
The RGS-IBG provides funding for geographical research and scientific expeditions. The society offers a number of grants to researchers, students, teachers and independent travellers. More than 70 projects are supported each year and in excess of £180,000 is awarded annually. Research has been conducted in more than 120 countries, from Namibia to Brazil to Greenland.
Expeditions, fieldwork and independent travel grants
Every year the RGS-IBG helps teams of students and researchers to get into the field with Geographical Fieldwork Grants, the society's longest running grant scheme. The newest initiative is the RGS-IBG International Field Centre Grants, for work in international field centres in developing nations. Independent travel grants support geographical expeditions.
Student grants
Each year, the society supports more than 50 student fieldwork projects, from PhD students collecting data for their dissertation to groups of undergraduates looking to get out into the field for the first time. Grants are available for both human and physical geography projects, in any area of the world.
Research grants
The society supports a range of field and desk-based research by academic geographers, from established researchers undertaking fieldwork to early career academics working on smaller projects. The RGS-IBG also supports academics attending geographical conferences around the world. Some awards focus on particular geographical regions or topics, with others open to any aspect of the discipline.
Teaching grants
The society supports innovation in teaching geography at secondary and higher education level, offering several awards for school teachers to work alongside researchers in geographical research, so to develop educational resources for the classroom, and to create teaching materials.
Public engagement
21st Century Challenges
21st Century Challenges is the society's discussion series that aims to improve public understanding of, and engagement with, some of the big issues likely to affect our lives and society in the coming years. The talks are held at the society's headquarters with all talks available to watch online along with additional information.
Discovering Britain
Discovering Britain is a website featuring a series of self-led geographical walks that help explain the stories behind the UK's built and natural landscapes. Each walk explores a particular landscape, finding out about the way in which the forces of nature, people, events and the economy have created and shaped the area. There are now more than 120 walks on the Discovering Britain website, covering all regions of the United Kingdom. Walks are themed according to the landscape in which they are located, including built, prehistoric, historic, working, hidden and changing landscapes. Walks also look at people in the landscape, and shaping, preserving and exploiting the landscape.
Hidden Journeys
Hidden Journeys is a public engagement project of the Royal Geographical Society (with IBG) that started in 2010. The Hidden Journeys website combines images, stories and maps (many from the Society's geographical collections) into a series of interactive guides of popular flight paths, enabling people to explore the incredible places they fly over and might see from the air. Since launching, online guides have been published for more than 25 flight paths, including London to Johannesburg, New York City to Los Angeles, Sydney to Singapore, Madrid to Rio de Janeiro.
The Hidden Journeys project is also integrating its content with the moving maps aboard airliners, as a new form of in-flight entertainment (IFE) that has been termed geo-entertainment or geotainment.
In December 2013, Singapore Airlines began a trial of an enhanced moving map that featured Hidden Journeys content. Developed in partnership between Hidden Journeys and the IFE software company Airborne Interactive, the enhanced map is available for the Singapore-London route on the airline's brand new Boeing 777-300ER (flight number SQ308 and SQ319), and features a range of geographical facts and highlights, photography and maps, all curated by the Royal Geographical Society (with IBG). Information is delivered in real time, with content changing as the flight progresses, so for example, while a passenger is passing over the United Kingdom, they'll be met with a pop-up that explains the origins and importance of the English Channel.
Schools
The RGS-IBG education department offers courses, resources, accreditation, grants, awards, competitions and school membership, all for the benefit of teachers, students and parents. It also runs the Geography Ambassador scheme.
Educational resources
The society produces cases studies, lesson plans and activity ideas for an all levels of learning, from KS1 up to post-GCSE. The Geography in the News website is available for student members and young geographers. It has more than 300 topical case studies. Many of the society's other resources are free to use.
Geography Ambassadors
The Geography Ambassadors scheme recruits, trains and supports volunteer undergraduate, postgraduate and graduate geographers from universities and business. Geography Ambassadors deliver lively, activity-based sessions at schools and they engage with more than 30,000 pupils each year. The scheme is aimed at introducing students to the benefits of studying geography beyond a compulsory level in schools, but also into higher education and employment.
Competitions
The society also has competitions for students studying geography. The Young Geographer of the Year has four categories for students in KS2 through to A-Level. All students have to produce posters on a given topic, except the A-Level students who are expected to write an essay. For A-Level students there is also the David W. Smith Memorial Award, an annual essay competition, and the Ron Cooke Award for the best A-Level coursework.
Publications
Journals
The Royal Geographical Society (with IBG)'s scholarly publications provide an outlet and support for the dissemination of research across the breadth of the discipline. In 2012, three main journals alone were accessed online internationally over 1.3 million times.
Area: has an annual prize for new researchers.
GEO: Geography and Environment: an open access journal launched in 2014.
The Geographical Journal (GJ): focusing on public debates, policy-oriented agendas and notions of 'relevance' the long-running GJ has international reach.
Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers: one of the international journals of geographical research.
WIREs: Climate Change: developed in association with the Royal Meteorological Society and Wiley-Blackwell, this review journal provides an important new encyclopaedic reference for climate change scholarship and research.
Magazine
Geographical is the official monthly magazine of the RGS, and has been published continuously since 1935. The magazine contains illustrated articles on people, places, adventure, travel, and environmental issues, as well as summarising the latest academic research and discoveries in geography. Geographical also reports news of the society's latest work and activities to members and the public.
See also
Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography
Gamma Theta Upsilon
Hakluyt Society
History of science
List of British professional bodies
List of Royal Societies
Royal Institution
Royal Scottish Geographical Society
References
Further reading
Mill, H. R. (1930) The record of the Royal Geographical Society, 1830–1930, London : Royal Geographical Society, p. 288.
Royal Geographical Society (2005) To the ends of the Earth : visions of a changing world : 175 years of exploration and photography, London : Bloomsbury, .
Winser, S. (Ed.) (2004) Royal Geographical Society with the Institute of British Geographers expedition handbook, New ed., London : Profile, .
External links
Royal Geographical Society (with IBG) : the heart of geography
Royal Geographical Society Picture Library – Images of travel & exploration
Fellows of the Royal Geographical Society
1830 establishments in the United Kingdom
Geography of the United Kingdom
Geographic societies
Learned societies of the United Kingdom
Organizations established in 1830
Organisations based in the United Kingdom with royal patronage
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French%20Academy%20of%20Sciences
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French Academy of Sciences
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The French Academy of Sciences (French: Académie des sciences) is a learned society, founded in 1666 by Louis XIV at the suggestion of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, to encourage and protect the spirit of French scientific research. It was at the forefront of scientific developments in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, and is one of the earliest Academies of Sciences.
Currently headed by Patrick Flandrin (President of the academy), it is one of the five Academies of the Institut de France.
History
The Academy of Sciences traces its origin to Colbert's plan to create a general academy. He chose a small group of scholars who met on 22 December 1666 in the King's library, near the present-day Bibliothèque Nationals, and thereafter held twice-weekly working meetings there in the two rooms assigned to the group. The first 30 years of the academy's existence were relatively informal, since no statutes had as yet been laid down for the institution.
In contrast to its British counterpart, the academy was founded as an organ of government. In Paris, there were not many membership openings, to fill positions there were tenacious elections. The election process was at least a 6-stage process with rules and regulations that allowed for chosen candidates to canvas other members and for current members to consider postponing certain stages of the process if the need would arise. Elections in the early days of the academy were important activities, and as such made up a large part of the proceedings at the academy, with many meetings being held regarding the election to fill a single vacancy within the academy. That is not to say that discussion of candidates and the election process as a whole was relegated to the meetings. Members that belonged to the vacancy's respective field would continue discussion of potential candidates for the vacancy in private. Being elected into the academy did not necessarily guarantee being a full member, in some cases, one would enter the academy as an associate or correspondent before being appointed as a full member of the academy.
The election process was originally only to replace members from a specific section. For example, if someone whose study was mathematics was either removed or resigned from his position, the following election process nominated only those whose focus was also mathematics in order to fill that discipline's vacancy. That led to some periods of time in which no specialists for specific fields of study could be found, which left positions in those fields vacant since they could not be filled with people in other disciplines.
The needed reform came late in the 20th century, in 1987, when the academy decided against the practice and to begin filling vacancies with people with new disciplines. This reform was not only aimed at further diversifying the disciplines under the academy, but also to help combat the internal aging of the academy itself. The academy was expected to remain apolitical, and to avoid discussion of religious and social issues.
On 20 January 1699, Louis XIV gave the Company its first rules. The academy received the name of Royal Academy of Sciences and was installed in the Louvre in Paris. Following this reform, the academy began publishing a volume each year with information on all the work done by its members and obituaries for members who had died. This reform also codified the method by which members of the academy could receive pensions for their work.
The academy was originally organized by the royal reform hierarchically into the following groups: Pensionaires, Pupils, Honoraires, and Associés.
The reform also added new groups not previously recognized, such as Vétéran. Some of these role's member limits were expanded and some roles even removed or combined throughout the course of academy's history. The Honoraires group establish by this reform in 1699 whose members were directly appointed by the King was recognized until its abolishment in 1793.
Membership in the academy the exceeded 100 officially-recognised full members only in 1976, 310 years after the academy's inception in 1666. The membership increase came with a large-scale reorganization in 1976. Under this reorganization, 130 resident members, 160 correspondents, and 80 foreign associates could be elected.
A vacancy opens only upon the death of members, as they serve for life. During elections, half of the vacancies are reserved for people less than 55 years old. This was created as an attempt to encourage younger members to join the academy.
The reorganization also divided the academy into 2 divisions:
One division, Division 1, covers the applications of mathematics and physical sciences,
the other, Division 2, covers the applications of chemical, natural, biological, and medical sciences.
On 8 August 1793, the National Convention abolished all the academies. On 22 August 1795, a National Institute of Sciences and Arts was put in place, bringing together the old academies of the sciences, literature and arts, among them the Académie française and the Académie des sciences.
Also in 1795, The academy determined these 10 titles (first 4 in Division 1 and the others in Division 2) e to be their newly accepted branches of scientific study:
Mathematics
Mechanics
Astronomy
Physics
Chemistry
Mineralogy
Botany
Agriculture
Anatomy and Zoology
Medicine and Surgery
The last two sections are bundled since there were many good candidates fit to be elected for those practices, and the competition was stiff. Some individuals like Francois Magendie had made stellar advancements in their selected fields of study, that warranted a possible addition of new fields. However, even someone like Magendie that had made breakthroughs in Physiology and impressed the academy with his hands-on vivisection experiments, could not get his study into its own category. Despite Magendie being one of the leading innovators of his time, it was still a battle for him to become an official member of the academy, a feat he would later accomplish in 1821. He further improved the reverence of the academy when he and anatomist Charles Bell produced the widely known "Bell-Magendie Law".
From 1795 until 1914, the first world war, the French Academy of Science was the most prevalent organization of French science. Almost all the old members of the previously abolished Académie were formally re-elected and retook their ancient seats. Among the exceptions was Dominique, comte de Cassini, who refused to take his seat. Membership in the academy was not restricted to scientists: in 1798 Napoleon Bonaparte was elected a member of the academy and three years later a president in connection with his Egyptian expedition, which had a scientific component. In 1816, the again renamed "Royal Academy of Sciences" became autonomous, while forming part of the Institute of France; the head of State became its patron. In the Second Republic, the name returned to Académie des sciences. During this period, the academy was funded by and accountable to the Ministry of Public Instruction.
The academy came to control French patent laws in the course of the eighteenth century, acting as the liaison of artisans' knowledge to the public domain. As a result, academicians dominated technological activities in France.
The academy proceedings were published under the name Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences (1835–1965). The Comptes rendus is now a journal series with seven titles. The publications can be found on site of the French National Library.
In 1818 the French Academy of Sciences launched a competition to explain the properties of light. The civil engineer Augustin-Jean Fresnel entered the competition by submitting a new wave theory of light. Siméon Denis Poisson, one of the members of the judging committee, studied Fresnel's theory in detail. Being a supporter of the particle-theory of light, he looked for a way to disprove it. Poisson thought that he had found a flaw when he demonstrate that Fresnel's theory predicts that an on-axis bright spot would exist in the shadow of a circular obstacle, where there should be complete darkness according to the particle-theory of light. The Poisson spot is not easily observed in every-day situations and so it was only natural for Poisson to interpret it as an absurd result and that it should disprove Fresnel's theory. However, the head of the committee, Dominique-François-Jean Arago, and who incidentally later became Prime Minister of France, decided to perform the experiment in more detail. He molded a 2-mm metallic disk to a glass plate with wax. To everyone's surprise he succeeded in observing the predicted spot, which convinced most scientists of the wave-nature of light.
For three centuries women were not allowed as members of the academy. This meant that many women scientists were excluded, including two-time Nobel Prize winner Marie Curie, Nobel winner Irène Joliot-Curie, mathematician Sophie Germain, and many other deserving women scientists. The first woman admitted as a correspondent member was a student of Curie's, Marguerite Perey, in 1962. The first female full member was Yvonne Choquet-Bruhat in 1979.
Membership in the academy is highly geared towards representing common French populace demographics. French population increases and changes in the early 21st century led to the academy expanding reference population sizes by reform in the early 2002.
The overwhelming majority of members leave the academy posthumously, with a few exceptions of removals, transfers, and resignations. The last member to be removed from the academy was in 1944. Removal from the academy was often for not performing to standards, not performing at all, leaving the country, or political reasons. In some rare occasions, a member has been elected twice and subsequently removed twice. This is the case for Marie-Adolphe Carnot.
Government interference
The most direct involvement of the government in the affairs of the institute came in the initial nomination of members in 1795, but as its members nominated constituted only one third of the membership and most of these had previously been elected as members of the respective academies under the old regime, few objections were raised. Moreover, these nominated members were then completely free to nominate the remaining members of the institute. Members expected to remain such for life, but interference occurred in a few cases where the government suddenly terminated membership for political reasons. The other main interference came when the government refused to accept the result of academy elections. The academies control by the government was apparent in 1803, when Bonaparte decided on a general reorganization. His principal concern was not the First class but the Second, which included political scientists who were potential critics of his government. Bonaparte abolished the second class completely and, after a few expulsions, redistributed its remaining members, together with those of the Third class, into a new Second class concerned with literature and a new Third class devoted to the fine arts. Still this relationship between the academy and the government was not a one-way affair, as members expected to receive their payment of an honorarium.
Decline
Although the academy still exists today, after World War I, the reputation and status of the academy was largely questioned. One factor behind its decline was the development from a meritocracy to gerontocracy: a shift from those with demonstrated scientific ability leading the academy to instead favoring those with seniority. It became known as a sort of "hall of fame" that lost control, real and symbolic, of the professional scientific diversity in France at the time. Another factor was that in the span of five years, 1909 to 1914, funding to science faculties considerably dropped, eventually leading to a financial crisis in France.
Present use
Today the academy is one of five academies comprising the Institut de France. Its members are elected for life. Currently, there are 150 full members, 300 corresponding members, and 120 foreign associates. They are divided into two scientific groups: the Mathematical and Physical sciences and their applications and the Chemical, Biological, Geological and Medical sciences and their applications. The academy currently has five missions that it pursues. These being the encouraging of the scientific life, promoting the teaching of science, transmitting knowledge between scientific communities, fostering international collaborations, and ensuring a dual role of expertise and advise. The French Academy of Science originally focused its development efforts into creating a true co-development Euro-African program beginning in 1997. Since then they have broadened their scope of action to other regions of the world. The standing committee COPED is in charge of the international development projects undertaken by the French Academy of Science and their associates. The current president of COPED is Pierre Auger, the vice president is Michel Delseny, and the honorary president is Francois Gros. All of which are current members of the French Academy of Science. COPED has hosted several workshops or colloquia in Paris, involving representatives from African academies, universities or research centers, addressing a variety of themes and challenges dealing with African development and covering a large field spectrum. Specifically higher education in sciences, and research practices in basic and applied sciences that deal with various aspects relevant to development (renewable energy, infectious diseases, animal pathologies, food resources, access to safe water, agriculture, urban health, etc.).
Current committees and working parties
The Academic Standing Committees and Working Parties prepare the advice notes, policy statements and the Academic Reports. Some have a statutory remit, such as the Select Committee, the Committee for International Affairs and the Committee for Scientists' Rights, some are created ad hoc by the academy and approved formally by vote in a members-only session.
Today the academies standing committees and working parties include:
The Academic Standing Committee in charge of the Biennial Report on Science and Technology
The Academic Standing Committee for Science, Ethics and Society
The Academic Standing Committee for the Environment
The Academic Standing Committee for Space Research
The Academic Standing Committee for Science and Metrology
The Academic Standing Committee for the Science History and Epistemology
The Academic Standing Committee for Science and Safety Issues
The Academic Standing Committee for Science Education and Training
The Academic Standing La main à la pâte Committee
The Academic Standing Committee for the Defense of Scientists' Rights (CODHOS)
The Academic Standing Committee for International Affairs (CORI)
The French Committee for International Scientific Unions (COFUSI)
The Academic Standing Committee for Scientific and Technological International Relations (CARIST)
The Academic Standing Committee for Developing Countries (COPED)
The Inter-academic Group for Development (GID) – Cf. for further reading
The Academic Standing Commission for Sealed Deposits
The Academic Standing Committee for Terminology and Neologisms
The Antoine Lavoisier Standing Committee
The Academic Standing Committee for Prospects in Energy Procurement
The Special Academic Working Party on Scientific Computing
The Special Academic Working Party on Material Sciences and Engineering
Medals, awards and prizes
Each year, the Academy of Sciences distributes about 80 prizes. These include:
Marie Skłodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie Polish-French Science Award, created in 2022.
the Grande Médaille, awarded annually, in rotation, in the relevant disciplines of each division of the academy, to a French or foreign scholar who has contributed to the development of science in a decisive way.
the Lalande Prize, awarded from 1802 through 1970, for outstanding achievement in astronomy
the Valz Prize, awarded from 1877 through 1970, to honor advances in astronomy
the Richard Lounsbery Award, jointly with the National Academy of Sciences
the Prix Jacques Herbrand, for mathematics and physics
the Prix Paul Pascal, for chemistry
the Louis Bachelier Prize for major contributions to mathematical modeling in finance
the Prix Michel Monpetit for computer science and applied mathematics, awarded since 1977
the Leconte Prize, awarded annually since 1886, to recognize important discoveries in mathematics, physics, chemistry, natural history or medicine
the Prix Tchihatcheff (Tchihatchef; Chikhachev)
People
The following are incomplete lists of the officers of the academy. See also :Category:Officers of the French Academy of Sciences.
For a list of the academy's members past and present, see :Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Presidents
Source: French Academy of Sciences
Treasurers
?–1788 Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
1788–1791 Mathieu Tillet
Permanent secretaries
General
Mathematical Sciences
Physical Sciences
Chemistry and Biology
Publications
Publications of the French Academy of Sciences "Histoire de l'Académie royale des sciences" (1700–1790)
See also
French art salons and academies
French Geodesic Mission
History of the metre
Seconds pendulum
Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism
Notes
References
Stéphane Schmitt, "Studies on animals and the rise of comparative anatomy at and around the Parisian Royal Academy of Sciences in the eighteenth century," Science in Context 29 (1), 2016, pp. 11–54.
External links
– English-language version
Complete listing of current members
Notes on the Académie des Sciences from the Scholarly Societies project (includes information on the society journals)
Search the Proceedings of the Académie des sciences in the French National Library (search item: Comptes Rendus)
Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences. Série 1, Mathématique in Gallica, the digital library of the BnF.
France
Sciences
1666 establishments in France
Educational institutions established in the 1660s
Scientific organizations established in 1666
Members of the International Council for Science
Members of the International Science Council
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395943
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne%20Waldman
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Anne Waldman
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Anne Waldman (born April 2, 1945) is an American poet.
Since the 1960s, Waldman has been an active member of the Outriders Poetry Project experimental poetry community as a writer, performer, collaborator, professor, editor, scholar, and cultural/political activist. She has also been connected to the Beat Generation poets.
Life and work
Born in Millville, New Jersey, Waldman was raised on MacDougal Street in New York City's Greenwich Village, and received her B.A. degree from Bennington College in 1966. During the 1960s, Waldman became part of the East Coast poetry scene, in part through her engagement with the poets and artists loosely termed the Second Generation of the New York School. During this time, Waldman also made many connections with earlier generations of poets, including figures such as Allen Ginsberg, who once called Waldman his "spiritual wife." From 1966 to 1968, she served as assistant director of the Poetry Project at St. Mark's; and, from 1968 to 1978, she served as the Project's Director.
In the early 1960s, Waldman became a student of Buddhism. In the 1970s, along with Allen Ginsberg, she began to study with the Tibetan Chogyam Trungpa Rinpoche. While attending the Berkeley Poetry Conference in 1965, Waldman, with poet Lewis Warsh, was inspired to found Angel Hair, a small press that produced a magazine of the same name and a number of smaller books. It was while she was attending this conference that she first committed to poetry after hearing the Outrider poets.
In 1974, with Trungpa, Ginsberg, and others, Waldman founded the Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics at the Naropa Institute in Boulder, Colorado (now Naropa University), where she remains a Distinguished Professor of Poetics and the Director of Naropa's celebrated Summer Writing Program.
In 1976, Waldman and Ginsberg were featured in Bob Dylan's film, Renaldo and Clara. They worked on the film while traveling through New England and Canada with the Rolling Thunder Revue, a concert tour that made impromptu stops, entertaining enthusiastic crowds with poetry and music. Waldman, Ginsberg, and Dylan were joined on these caravans by musicians such as Joan Baez, Joni Mitchell, Eric Anderson, and Joe Cocker. Waldman reveled in the experience, and she often thought of recreating the poetry caravan.
Waldman married Reed Bye in 1980, and their son, Edwin Ambrose Bye, was born on October 21, 1980. The birth of her son proved to be an "inspiring turning point" for Waldman, and she became interested in and committed to the survival of the planet. Her child, she said, became her teacher. Waldman and Ambrose Bye perform frequently, and the two have created Fast Speaking Music and have produced multiple albums together.
Waldman has been a fervent activist for social change. In the 1970s, she was involved with the Rocky Flats Truth Force, an organization opposed to the Rocky Flats nuclear weapons facility ten miles to the south of Boulder, Colorado. With Daniel Ellsberg and Allen Ginsberg, she was arrested for protesting outside of the site. She has been a vocal proponent for feminist, environmental, and human rights causes; an active participant in Poets Against the War; and she has helped organize protests in New York and Washington, D. C. Waldman says that her life's work is to "keep the world safe for poetry".
Although her work is sometimes connected to the Beat Generation, Waldman has never been, strictly speaking, a "Beat" poet. Her work, like the work of her contemporaries in the 1970s New York milieu of which she was a vital part—writers such as Alice Notley and Bernadette Mayer, to name only two—is more diverse in its influences and ambitions. Waldman is particularly interested in the performance of her poetry: she considers performance a "ritualized event in time," and she expresses the energy of her poetry through exuberant breathing, chanting, singing, and movement. Waldman credits her poem "Fast Speaking Woman" as the seminal work that galvanized her idea of poetry as performance. Ginsberg, Kenneth Koch, and Lawrence Ferlinghetti all encouraged her to continue to perform her poetry.
Waldman has been quoted, describing growing up in Greenwich Village in the early 1960s: "we benefited from the trials of young women who had struggled to be creative and assertive before us, and we were certainly aware of the exciting artistic and liberal heritage of our New York environs and yet many of us fell into the same retrograde traps. Being dominated by relationships with men— letting our own talents lag, following their lead — which could really result in drug dependencies, painful abortions, alienation from family and friends… I knew interesting and creative women who became junkies for their boyfriends, who stole for their boyfriends, who concealed their poetry and artistic aspirations, who slept around to be popular, who had serious eating disorders, who concealed their unwanted pregnancies raising money for abortions on their own, who put the child up for adoption, who never felt like they owned and appreciated their bodies. I knew women who lived secret or double lives because love and sexual attraction to another woman was an anathema. I knew women in daily therapy because their fathers had abused them, or women who got sent away to mental hospitals or special schools because they'd taken a black lover. Some ran away from home. Some committed suicide."
Waldman has published more than forty books of poetry. Her work has been widely anthologized, featuring work in Breaking the Cool (University of Mississippi Press, 2004), All Poets Welcome (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2003), Women of the Beat Generation (Berkeley, CA: Conari Press, 1996), Postmodern American Poetry (New York: W.W. Norton, 1994) and Up Late (Four Walls Eight Windows, New York, 1988) among other publications. Her poems have been translated into French, Italian, German, Turkish, Spanish, and Chinese. Waldman is also the editor of several volumes relating to modern, postmodern, and contemporary poetry. Over the course of her career, Waldman has also been a tireless collaborator, producing works with artists Elizabeth Murray, Richard Tuttle, Meredith Monk, George Schneeman, Donna Dennis, Pat Steir; musicians Don Cherry, Laurie Anderson, and Steve Lacy; dancer Douglas Dunn; filmmaker and husband Ed Bowes; and her son, musician/composer Ambrose Bye.
Waldman has been a Fellow at the Emily Harvey Foundation (Winter 2008) and the Bellagio Center in Italy (Spring 2006). She has also held residencies at the Christian Woman's University of Tokyo (Fall 2004); the Schule für Dichtung in Vienna (where she has also served as Curriculum Director in 1989); the Institute of American Indian Arts in Santa Fe, New Mexico; and the Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken, New Jersey (1984). She has served as an advisor to the Prazska Skola Projekt in Prague, the Study Abroad on the Bowery (since 2004), and has been a faculty member in the New England College Low Residency MFA Program (since 2003). She is the recipient of grants from the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) and the Contemporary Artists Foundation, and the Poetry Foundation. With writer and scholar Ammiel Alcalay, she founded the Poetry Is News Coalition in 2002. Waldman also won the International Poetry Championship Bout in Taos, New Mexico twice. In 2011, Waldman was elected a Chancellor of the Academy of American Poets.
Her archive of historical, literary, art, tape, and extensive correspondence materials (including many prominent literary correspondents, such as: William S. Burroughs, Robert Creeley, Diane Di Prima, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Allen Ginsberg, and Ken Kesey) resides at the University of Michigan's Special Collections Library in Ann Arbor, Michigan. A 55-minute film titled Anne Waldman: Makeup on Empty Space, a film by poet Jim Cohn, documents the opening of the Anne Waldman Collection at the University of Michigan.
In an interview with The Wire from the Jaipur Literature Festival in 2017, Waldman was asked about the way her poetry crosses forms and incorporates songs and chants, and how she develops this type of poem. She said, "I've always been interested in a bigger form, one that doesn't just rest quietly on the page. The performative quality is there because there needs to be an extra emphasis. Rather than reading quietly, I feel the physical need to do something bigger. I don't walk around as an angry person all the time, but there are different states of minds. Like in Hinduism, the gods and goddesses embody different states of being and experience. That's the idea. Then, some things are written for protest. They have the need to arise."
Written works
Books and pamphlets
Bard, Kinetic, Coffee House Press, 2023
para ser estrella a medianoche, Arrebato Libros, 2022
The Basketball Article Comic Book, with Bernadette Mayer, illustrated by Jason Novak, Franchise, 2021
Trickster Feminism, Penguin Books, 2018
Extinction Aria, Pied Oxen, 2017
Voice's Daughter of a Heart Yet to be Born, Coffee House Press, 2016
Dream Book of Fez, The Lune, 2016
Empty Set, Overpass Books, 2016
The Iovis Trilogy, Coffee House Press, 2011
Manatee/Humanity, Penguin Poets, 2009
Red Noir (performance pieces) Farfalla, McMillen, Parrish, 2007
Outrider, La Alameda Press, 2006
Structure of the World Compared to a Bubble, Penguin Poets, 2004.
In the Room of Never Grieve: New & Selected Poems 1985–2003, Coffee House Press, 2003.
Dark Arcana / Afterimage or Glow, Heaven Bone Press, 2003.
[Things] Seen Unseen, 2002.
War Crime, Elik Press, 2002.
Vow to Poetry: Essays, Interviews, & Manifestos, Coffee House Press, 2001.
Marriage: A Sentence, Penguin Poets, 2000.
Iovis II, Coffee House Press, 1997.
Fast Speaking Woman, 20th Anniversary Edition, City Lights Books, 1996.
Kill or Cure, Penguin Poets, 1996.
lovis: All Is Full of Jove, Coffee House Press, 1993.
Troubairitz, Fifth Planet Press, 1993.
Fait Accompli, Last Generation Press, 1992.
Lokapala, Rocky Ledge, 1991.
Not a Male Pseudonym, Tender Buttons Books, 1990.
Helping the Dreamer: New and Selected Poems: 1966–1988, Coffee House Press, 1989.
Tell Me About It, Bloody Twin Press, 1989.
The Romance Thing, Bamberger Books, 1987.
Blue Mosque, United Artists, 1987.
Skin Meat Bones, Coffee House Press, 1985.
Makeup on Empty Space, Toothpaste Press, 1984.
First Baby Poems, Rocky Ledge, 1982, augmented edition, Hyacinth Girls, 1983, republished, BlazeVOX Books, 2008.
Cabin, Z Press, 1981.
Countries, Toothpaste Press, 1980.
To a Young Poet, White Raven, 1979.
Shaman / Shamane, White Raven, 1977.
Hotel Room, Songbird, 1976.
Journals and Dreams, Stonehill, 1976.
Fast Speaking Woman and Other Chants, City Lights, 1975 (revised edition, 1978).
Sun the Blonde Out, Arif, 1975.
Dance Song, No Mountains Poetry Project Broadside Series, 1975
Fast Speaking Woman, Red Hanrahan Press, 1974.
The Contemplative Life, Alternative Press, c. 1974.
Life Notes: Selected Poems, Bobbs-Merrill, 1973.
The West Indies Poems, Adventures in Poetry, 1972.
Spin Off, Big Sky, 1972.
Light and Shadow, Privately printed, 1972.
Holy City, privately printed, 1971.
No Hassles, Kulchur Foundation, 1971.
Icy Rose, Angel Hair, 1971.
Baby Breakdown, Bobbs-Merrill, 1970.
Giant Night: Selected Poems, Corinth Books, 1970.
Up Through the Years, Angel Hair, 1970.
O My Life!, Angel Hair, 1969.
On the Wing, Boke, 1968.
Poetry collaborations
Shortest Century (with Zoe Brezsny), Erudite Fangs/Ode, 2023.
A Punch in the Gut of a Star (with Emma Gomis), , 2022.
Goslings to Prophecy (with Emma Gomis), The Lune, 2021.
all rainbows in a brainstem that we be so contained, Hasla Books (out of print), Nathlie Provosty and Anne Waldman, December, 2020.
Empty Set: a Universe of Discourse (with Alexis Myre), Overpass Books, 2016.
Fukushima Mon Amour (with Daniel de Roulet, Sylvia Federici, George Caffentzis, & Sabu Kohso), Autonomedia, 2011.
The Belladonna Elders Series (with Cara Benson & Jayne Cortez), Belladonna*, 2009.
Fleuve Flâneur (with Mary Kite), Erudite Fangs, 2004.
Zombie Dawn (with Tom Clark), Skanky Possum Press, 2003.
Ai Lit / Holy (with Eleni Sikelianos & Laird Hunt), 2001.
Young Manhattan (with Bill Berkson), Smoke Proof Press, 1999.
Polemics (with Anselm Hollo & Jack Collom), Autonomedia, 1998.
Polar Ode (With Eileen Myles), Dead Duke, 1979.
Four Travels (With Reed Bye), Sayonara, 1979.
Sphinxeries (With Denyse du Roi), 1979.
Self Portrait (With Joe Brainard), Siamese Banana Press, 1973.
Memorial Day (With Ted Berrigan), Poetry Project, 1971.
As editor
New Weathers: Poetics from the Naropa Archive (with Emma Gomis), Nightboat Books, 2022.
Resist Much Obey Little: Inaugural Poems to the Resistance, Spuyten Duyvil Press, 2017.
Cross Worlds (with Laura Wright), Coffee House Press, 2014.
Beats at Naropa (with Laura Wright), Coffee House Press, 2010.
Civil Disobediences: Poetics and Politics in Action (with Lisa Birman), Coffee House Press, 2004.
The Angel Hair Anthology: Angel Hair Sleeps With A Boy In My Head (with Lewis Warsh), Granary Books, 2001.
The Beat Book, Shambhala Publications, Boston, 1996.
Disembodied Poetics: Annals of the Jack Kerouac School, University of New Mexico Press, 1993.
Out of This World: An Anthology from The Poetry Project at the St. Mark's Church In-the-Bowery 1966–1991, Crown Publishing Group, 1991.
Nice to See You: Homage to Ted Berrigan, Coffee House Press, 1991.
Talking Poetics: Annals of the Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics (with Marilyn Salzman Webb), Shambhala, vols. 1 and 2, 1978.
Another World, Bobbs-Merrill, 1971.
The World Anthology: Poems from the St. Mark's Poetry Project, Bobbs-Merrill, 1969.
Audio recordings
Harry's House, Volume 3 (compilation), Fast Speaking Music, 2015.
Ghost Dance (Anne Waldman, Thurston Moore, Ambrose Bye - Patti Smith cover), Fast Speaking Music, 2014.
Harry's House Archive (compilation), Fast Speaking Music, 2014.
Harry's House, Volume 2 (compilation), Fast Speaking Music, 2014.
Jaguar Harmonics (music by Devin Brahja Waldman, Ha-Yang Kim, Daniel Carter), Fast Speaking Music, 2014.
Comes Through in the Call Hold (Clark Coolidge, Thurston Moore, Anne Waldman), Fast Speaking Music, 2013.
Harry's House, Volume 1 (compilation), Fast Speaking Music, 2011.
Akilah (compilation), Fast Speaking Music, 2011.
The Milk of Universal Kindness (music by Ambrose Bye) 2011
Matching Half (music by Ambrose Bye) with Akilah Oliver, 2007.
The Eye of The Falcon (music by Ambrose Bye) 2006.
In the Room of Never Grieve (music by Ambrose Bye), 2003.
By the Side of the Road (with Ishtar Kramer), 2003.
Battery: Live from Naropa, 2003.
Alchemical Elegy: Selected Songs and Writings, Fast Speaking Music, 2001.
Beat Poetry, ABM, London, 1999.
Jazz Poetry, ABM, London, 1999.
Women of The Beat Generation, Audio-Literature, 1996.
Live in Amsterdam, Soyo Productions, 1992.
Assorted Singles, Phoebus Productions, 1990.
Made Up in Texas, Paris Records (Dallas), 1986.
Crack in the World, Sounds True (Boulder), 1986.
Uh-Oh Plutonium!, Hyacinth Girls Music (NYC), 1982.
Fast Speaking Woman, "S" Press Tapes (Munich), n.d.
John Giorno and Anne Waldman, Giorno Poetry Systems Records, 1977.
Beauty and the Beast (With Allen Ginsberg), Naropa Institute, 1976.
Other recordings on Giorno Poetry Systems compilations: the Nova Convention (1979), Big Ego (1978), Disconnected (1974), The Dial-a-Poem Poets (1972).
Rattle Up the Deer (with Bernadette Mayer) Farfalla Press, beat book shop, "So, You're a Poet" 2004, recorded Penny Lane 1989
Filmography and videography
Soldateque/Soldiering with Dreams of Wartime, Fast Speaking Music, 2012.
Colors In the Mechanism of Concealment, with Ed Bowes, 2004.
The Menage (for Carl Rakosi), with Ed Bowes, 2003.
Live at Naropa, Phoebus Productions, 1990.
Battle of the Bards (Lannan Foundation), Metropolitan Pictures, Los Angeles, 1990.
Eyes in All Heads, Phoebus Productions, 1989.
"Uh-Oh Plutonium!" (1982), first prize at the American Film Festival, Manhattan Video Project,
Out There Productions (NYC).
Cooked Diamonds, Fried Shoes, with Allen Ginsberg, William Burroughs, and Meredith Monk
Poetry in Motion, directed by Ron Mann, Sphinx Productions (Toronto).
Also performed in Bob Dylan's film Renaldo and Clara (1978), with a recording of the poem "Fast Speaking Woman" included on the sound track.
Awards and grants
American Book Award, Lifetime Achievement Award, 2015.
Guggenheim Fellowship Award in Poetry, 2013.
PEN Center Literary Award in Poetry, 2012.
Fellow, The Emily Harvey Foundation, Venice, winter 2007.
Atlantic Center for the Arts Residency, 2002.
Civitella Ranieri Center Fellow, 2001.
Foundation for Contemporary Arts Grant Recipient, 2001.
Vermont Studio School Residency, 2001.
The Poetry Society of America's Shelley Memorial Award, 1996.
National Endowment for the Arts Grant, 1979–80.
The National Literary Anthology Award, 1970.
The Poets Foundation Award, 1969.
The Dylan Thomas Memorial Award, 1967.
Two-time winner of the International Poetry Championship Bout in Taos, New Mexico
References
Further reading
Contemporary Authors : Biography - Waldman, Anne (Lesley) (1945-) Thomson Gale; ISBN B0007SFYJW
Charters, Ann (ed.). The Portable Beat Reader. Penguin Books. New York. 1992. (hc); (pbk)
Anne Waldman: Keeping the World Safe for Poetry; Napalm Health Spa; Report 2015; Special Edition; Museum of American Poetics Publications
External links
Naropa profile
Waldman at PennSound
Anne Waldman at the Museum of American Poetics
Anne Waldman interview at The Argotist Online
Jacket issue 27 - largely devoted to essays about Waldman
Kerouac Alley - Anne Waldman Directory
Anne Waldman Gallery - Photographs
RJ Eskow/Nightlight interview - Q&A with Anne Waldman on Buddhism and politics
"Add-Verse" a poetry-photo-video project Waldman participated in
1945 births
Living people
People from Millville, New Jersey
Modernist women writers
Poets from New Jersey
Beat Generation writers
Writers from Boulder, Colorado
Bennington College alumni
New England College faculty
American women poets
American Book Award winners
Writers from Greenwich Village
20th-century American poets
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American poets
21st-century American women writers
American women academics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iligan
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Iligan
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Iligan, officially the City of Iligan (; Maranao: Bandar a Iligan; ), is a 1st class highly urbanized city in the region of Northern Mindanao, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 363,115 people.
It is geographically within the province of Lanao del Norte but administered independently from the province. It was once part of Central Mindanao (Region 12) until the province was moved under Northern Mindanao (Region 10) in 2001. Iligan is approximately 90 kilometers away from the capital of the province, Tubod, and approximately 800 kilometers from the capital of the Philippines, Manila.
Iligan has a total land area of , making it one of the 10 largest cities in the Philippines in terms of land area. Among the 33 highly urbanized cities of the Philippines, Iligan is the third-least dense, with a population density of 421 inhabitants per square kilometer, just behind Butuan and Puerto Princesa.
Etymology
The name Iligan is from the Higaunon (Lumad/Native of Iligan) word "Ilig" which means "to go downstream". However, some also claim that the name of Iligan was taken and inspired by the Higaunon term "iligan" or "ilijan", which means "fortress of defense", an appropriate term due to frequent attacks incurred by pirates as well as other Mindanao tribes.
History
Pre-Spanish colonial area
Iligan had its beginnings in the village of Bayug, four kilometers north of the present Poblacion. It was the earliest pre-Spanish settlement of native sea dwellers. In the later part of the 16th century, the inhabitants were subdued by the Visayan migrants from the island-nation called the Kedatuan of Dapitan, on Panglao island.
In the accounts of Jesuit historian Francisco Combes, the Moluccan Sultan of Ternate invaded Panglao. This caused the Dapitans to flee in large numbers to a re-established Dapitan, Zamboanga del Norte.
Spanish colonial era
In Dapitan, the surviving Datu of Panglao Pagbuaya, received Legazpi's expedition in 1565. Later, Pagbuaya's son Manook was baptized Pedro Manuel Manook. Sometime afterward in by the end of the 16th century after 1565 Manook subdued the higaunon (animist) village of Bayug and turned it into one of the earliest Christian settlements in the country. Although the settlement survived other raids from other enemies, especially Muslims from Lanao, the early settlers and converts moved their settlement from Bayug to Iligan, which the Augustinian Recollects founded in 1609, thus establishing the oldest town in northern Mindanao. During its Christianization, Iligan received a hundred Spanish soldiers to found and fortify the colony.
The Jesuits replaced the Recollects in 1639. Iligan was the Spaniards' base of operations in attempting to conquer and Christianize the Lake Lanao area throughout its history. A stone fort called Fort St. Francis Xavier was built in 1642 where Iliganons sought refuge during raids by bandits. But the fort sank due to floods. Another fort was built and this was named Fort Victoria or Cota de Iligan.
In 1850, because of floods, Don Remigio Cabili, then Iligan's gobernadorcillo, built another fort and moved the poblacion of the old Iligan located at the mouth of Tubod River west of the old market to its present site.
Being the oldest town in Northern Mindanao, Iligan was already a part of the once undivided Misamis Province by the year 1832. However, it did not have an independent religious administration because its diocese by then was based at Misamis, the provincial capital. It was one of the biggest municipalities of Misamis Province.
The Spaniards abandoned Iligan in 1899, paving the way for the landing of the American forces in 1900.
American era
In 1903, the Moro Province was created. Iligan, because of its Moro residents, was taken away from the Misamis Province. Then, Iligan became the capital of the Lanao District and the seat of the government where the American officials lived and held office. Later in 1907, the capital of the Lanao District has transferred to Dansalan.
In 1914, under the restructuring of Moroland after the end of the Moro Province (1903–1913), Iligan became a municipality composed of eight barrios together with the municipal district of Mandulog. After enjoying peace and prosperity for about 40 years, Iligan was invaded by Japanese forces in 1942.
The liberation of Iligan by the Philippine Commonwealth forces attacked by the Japanese held sway in the city until 1944 to 1945 when the war ended. On November 15, 1944, the city held a Commonwealth Day parade to celebrate the end of Japanese atrocities and occupation.
Cityhood
Using the same territorial definition as a municipality, Iligan became a chartered city of Lanao del Norte on June 16, 1950. It was declared a first-class city in 1969 and was reclassified as First Class City "A" on July 1, 1977, by virtue of Presidential Decree No. 465. In 1983, Iligan was again reclassified as a highly urbanized city.
Lone district
Republic Act No. 9724, an Act separating the City of Iligan from the First Legislative District of the Province of Lanao del Norte was approved by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo on October 20, 2009.
Geography
Iligan is bounded on the north by three municipalities of Misamis Oriental (namely Lugait, Manticao and Opol), to the south by three municipalities of Lanao del Norte (Baloi, Linamon and Tagoloan) and two municipalities of Lanao del Sur (Kapai and Tagoloan II), to the north-east by the city of Cagayan de Oro, to the east by the municipality of Talakag, Bukidnon; and to the west by Iligan Bay.
To the west, Iligan Bay provides ferry and container ship transportation. East of the city, flat cultivated coastal land gives way to steep volcanic hills and mountains providing the waterfalls and cold springs for which the area is well known.
Climate
Iligan falls within the third type of climate wherein the seasons are not very pronounced. Rain is more or less evenly distributed throughout the year. Because of its tropical location, the city does not experience cold weather. Neither does it experience strong weather disturbances due to its geographical location (being outside the typhoon belt) And also because of the mountains that are surrounding the city.
Barangays
Iligan is politically subdivided into 44 barangays. Each barangay consists of puroks while some have sitios.
Abuno
Acmac-Mariano Badelles Sr.
Bagong Silang
Bonbonon
Bunawan
Buru-un
Dalipuga
Del Carmen
Digkilaan
Ditucalan
Dulag
Hinaplanon
Hindang
Kabacsanan
Kalilangan
Kiwalan
Lanipao
Luinab
Mahayahay
Mainit
Mandulog
Maria Cristina
Pala-o
Panoroganan
Poblacion
Puga-an
Rogongon
San Miguel
San Roque
Santa Elena
Santa Filomena
Santiago
Santo Rosario
Saray
Suarez
Tambacan
Tibanga
Tipanoy
Tomas L. Cabili (Tominobo Proper)
Tominobo Upper
Tubod
Ubaldo Laya
Upper Hinaplanon
Villa Verde
Demographics
Iliganons are composed of a Cebuano-speaking majority and local minorities, mainly Maranaos, and other cultural minorities and immigrants. It is not only rich in natural resources and industries but it is also the home of a mix of cultures: the Maranaos of Lanao, the Higaonon of Bukidnon, and many settlers and migrants from other parts of the country. It is known for its diverse culture.
Language
Cebuano is the most spoken language in the city, with 92.27% reporting it as their first language. Minor languages include Maranao, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Chavacano, and Waray. The majority of the population can speak and understand Tagalog (Filipino) and English, the official languages of the country. Tagalog (Filipino) and English are taught in the city's schools.
Religion
The majority of Iligan citizens are Christians (mainly Roman Catholics). The city is also the center of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Iligan which has 25 parishes in Iligan City and twelve municipalities of Lanao del Norte (Linamon, Kauswagan, Bacolod, Maigo, Kolambugan, Tubod, Baroy, Lala, Kapatagan, Sapad, Salvador, and Magsaysay). It covers an area of 3,092 square kilometers with a population of 1,551,000, which 65.5% of the population are Roman Catholics.
Muslims are the largest minority, comprising 11.48% of the population. They are mainly Sunnites.
Economy
Industrial
Iligan is known as the Industrial Center of the South as its economy is largely based on heavy industries. It produces hydroelectric power for the Mindanao region through the National Power Corporation (NAPOCOR), the site of the Mindanao Regional Center (MRC) housing Agus V, VI, and VII hydroelectric plants. Moreover, Holcim Philippines' largest Mindanao cement plant is located in the city. It also houses industries like steel, tinplate, cement, and flour mills.
After the construction of Maria Cristina (Agus VI) Hydroelectric Plant by National Power Corporation (NPC, NAPOCOR) in 1950, the city experienced rapid industrialization and continued until the late 1980s. The largest steel plant in the country, National Steel Corporation (NSC), was also established in 1962.
During the 1997 Asian financial crisis, the city experienced a severe economic slowdown. A number of industrial plants were closed, notably the National Steel Corporation.
The city saw its economic revival with the reopening of the National Steel Corporation, renamed Global Steelworks Infrastructures, Inc. (GSII) in 2004. In October 2005, GSII officially took a new corporate name: Global Steel Philippines (SPV-AMC), Inc.
Agro-Industry
Aside from heavy industries, Iligan is also a major exporter and producer of various plants and crops.
Crops:
Banana Plantations: 12,780.40 hectares
Coconut Plantations: 11,036.95 hectares
Corn Plantations: 4,193.86 hectares
Coffee Production: 969.43 hectares
Livestock: 28,992 heads
Poultry: 17,728 heads
Finance
As of the fiscal year 2018, Iligan has a current operating income of ₱2,052.89 million. The income grew by 8% compared to the fiscal year of 2017 in which Iligan's operating income was ₱1,900 million. According to the 2017 Financial Report by the Commission on Audit, Iligan's total assets amounted to ₱10.27 billion.
Tourism
Iligan is commonly known as the "City of Majestic Waterfalls" because of the numerous waterfalls located within its area. The many waterfalls in the area attract tourists from all over the world with their beauty and power. There are about 24 waterfalls in the city. The most well-known is the Maria Cristina Falls. It is also the primary source of electric power of the city, harnessed by the Agus VI Hydroelectric Plant.
Other waterfalls in the city are Tinago Falls, accessible through a 300-step staircase in Barangay Ditucalan. Mimbalut Falls in Barangay Buru-un, Abaga Falls in Barangay Suarez, and Dodiongan Falls in Barangay Bonbonon.
Limunsudan Falls in Barangay Rogongon about 50 kilometers from the city proper of Iligan. These are the highest waterfalls in the Philippines, at 265 m (870 feet).
Iligan is home to the famous San Miguel of Iligan. It is an image of Saint Micheal the archangel that dons a Native American Headdress especially when he goes to battle against Satan. The animist Lumad, the Muslim Moro and the Christian Visayans, Chavacanos, and Latinos who live together peacefully in Iligan all celebrate this festival dedicated to San Miguel and they have Eskrima dances dedicated to him. The Eskrima martial art called San Miguel Eskrima is related to this Saint.
Government
Iligan is a highly urbanized city and is politically independent of the province of Lanao del Norte. Registered voters of the city no longer vote for provincial candidates such as the Governor and Vice Governor, unlike its nearby towns that make up the provinces as a result of its charter as a city in the 1950s.
Iligan's seat of government, the city hall, is located at Buhanginan Hills in Barangay Pala-o. The local government structure is composed of one mayor, one vice mayor, and twelve councilors. Each official is elected publicly to a 3-year term and can be re-elected up to 3 terms in succession. The day-to-day administration of the city is handled by the city administrator.
Mayors after People Power Revolution 1986
Vice Mayors after People Power Revolution 1986
Transportation
Seaport
The Port of Iligan is located along the northern central coastal area of Mindanao facing Iligan Bay with geographical coordinates of approximately .
It serves the port users and passengers coming from the hinterlands of the provinces of Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, parts of Misamis Oriental, and the Cities of Iligan and Marawi.
Passenger and cargo shipping lines operating in the Port of Iligan serve the cities of Manila, Cebu City, and Ozamiz.
There are around seven private seaports in Iligan operated by their respective heavy industry companies. These private seaports can be found in Barangays Maria Cristina, Suarez, Tomas L. Cabili, Santa Filomena, and Kiwalan.
Airports
The main airport is Laguindingan Airport, located in the municipality of Laguindingan, Misamis Oriental, which opened on June 15, 2013. The airport replaced Lumbia Airport as the main airport of Misamis Oriental and Northern Mindanao. It has daily commercial flights to and from Manila, Cebu, Davao, Iloilo, and Clark via Philippine Airlines and Cebu Pacific.
Maria Cristina Airport is located in Balo-i, Lanao del Norte and was the main airport of Iligan in the late 1980s. Aerolift Philippines, a now-defunct regional airline, ceased its services when its passenger plane crashed into some structures at the end of the runway of the Manila Domestic Airport in 1990 which resulted to its bankruptcy. Thus, it ended its service to Iligan's airport at Balo-i which also resulted in the closure of the airport. Philippine Airlines served the city for many years before ending flights in 1998 due to the Asian financial crisis.
Bus terminals
There are two main bus terminals in Iligan.
The Integrated Bus and Jeepney Terminal (IBJT) caters westbound trips to and from Cagayan de Oro, Davao, and various parts of Misamis Oriental.
The Southbound Bus and Jeepney Terminal caters eastbound trips to and from Dipolog, Pagadian, Cotabato City, Ozamiz City, Zamboanga City, and various parts of Lanao del Norte and Marawi.
Rural Transit (RTMI) and Super 5 Land Transport and Services Inc. are the dominant public bus companies with daily trips from and to Iligan. Passenger vans and jeeps also service various municipalities in Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, and Misamis Oriental.
City transportation
The public modes of transportation within the city are Jeepneys, Taxis, and Pedicabs. "Tartanillas" service main roads in Barangay Pala-o and Barangay Tambacan.
Education
The City of Iligan has one state university and seven private colleges specialized in Engineering and Information Technology, Health Services, Maritime Science, Business and Administration, Primary and Secondary Education, and Arts and Social Sciences.
With a total of 181 schools (106 public; 75 private; 17 madaris) including vocational and technical schools, Iligan has an average literacy rate of 94.71, one of the highest in the whole Philippines.
Mindanao State University – Iligan Institute of Technology
The Mindanao State University – Iligan Institute of Technology (Iligan Tech) is one of the few autonomous external campuses of the Mindanao State University (MSU) and "the light-bearer of the several campuses of the MSU System." It is considered one of the best universities in the Philippines with a standing of being within the top ten best universities in the country with excellence in Science and Technology, Engineering, Mathematics, Information Technology, and Natural Sciences. The institution has also produced many top-notchers and rankers in multiple board exams.
Colleges
St. Michael's College, Iligan City, is known as the oldest school in the Lanao area, founded as a catechetical center way back in 1914 by Fr. Felix Cordova, S.J. It was formally established in 1915 as Escuela de San Miguel in honor of the patron saint, St. Michael the Archangel. Now on its active bid to become the city's first private Catholic university, Saint Michael's College of Iligan currently offers 8 disciplines: Business Administration, Accountancy, Hotel, and Restaurant Management, Engineering and Computer Studies, Nursing, Criminology, Education, Arts and Sciences and the Basic Education. It also offers the TESDA Ladderized Courses and the education-related Graduate Studies Program.
St. Peter's College, Iligan City, is an engineering, accounting, and business administration school founded in 1952.
Capitol College of Iligan Inc., more popularly known as Iligan Capitol College (ICC), is a private, non-sectarian, coeducational institution of learning which was established in 1963 by the late Engr. Sesenio S. Rosales and Madame Laureana San Pedro Rosales. It was registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) on February 12, 1964. In 1997, Iligan Capitol College established Lyceum Foundation of Iligan which is to become its sister college beside Corpus Christi Parish in Tubod, Iligan City.
Iligan Medical Center College, is a private and non-sectarian Medicine and Health Services school founded in 1975.
Adventist Medical Center College – Iligan, formerly Mindanao Sanitarium and Hospital College, is one of the colleges of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. It is a medical school that focuses on healthcare courses like Nursing, Nutrition and Dietetics, Medical Technology, Physical Therapy, Pharmacy, and Radiology.
The Lyceum of Iligan Foundation, focuses on maritime and engineering courses. It also offers courses on Hotel and Restaurant Management, Nursing, Business Administration, and other allied Health Services.
Other notable colleges and technical schools are Iligan Computer Institute (ICI), Santa Monica Institute of Technology (SMIT), STI College, Picardal Institute of Technology (PISTEch), Saint Lawrence Institute of Technology, Masters Technological Institute of Mindanao, and ICTI Polytechnic College Inc. (formerly Iligan City Technical Institute (ICTI)).
Basic education
Iligan City National High School, the largest high school campus in Iligan.
Lanao Chung Hua School, the first and only Chinese school in Iligan which was founded on November 12, 1938.
La Salle Academy is a Lasallian school. It is the first of the third generation of La Salle schools founded by the De La Salle Brothers in the country.
Corpus Christi Parochial School of Iligan
Iligan City East National High School, formerly known as Regional Science High School for Region XII but was then transferred to Cagayan de Oro and was changed into Iligan City East National High School. The School was founded in February 1986. Specializes in research, sciences, mathematics, technology education, and others.
Integrated Developmental School, founded as Iligan High School, was established in 1946. On July 12, 1968, the school was annexed to Mindanao State University – Iligan Institute of Technology under R.A. No. 5363.
Del Carmen Integrated School
Notable personalities
Tomas Cabili – Former Senator (1946-1957), former Secretary of National Defense (1945) and World War II veteran; died in a plane crash with President Ramon Magsaysay at Mount Manunggal in Balamban, Cebu
Gloria Macapagal Arroyo – 14th President of the Philippines, 10th Vice President of the Philippines, 25th Speaker of the House of Representatives of the Philippines (the first woman to hold the position), deputy speaker of the 17th Congress and a member of the House of Representatives representing the 2nd District of Pampanga.
Cyrus Baguio – professional basketball player in the Philippine Basketball Association (2003–present)
Riego Gamalinda – professional basketball player in the Philippine Basketball Association (2010–present)
Nikki Bacolod – 1st runner-up of ABS-CBN's Search for a Star in a Million Season 1, Recording Artist of Viva Records, QTV 11's Posh main cast member
Shamcey Supsup – Miss Universe Philippines 2011, 3rd runner-up Miss Universe 2011 and current national director of Miss Universe Philippines
Kath Arado – player for the UE Lady Warriors Volleyball Team in the UAAP
Junix Inocian – international theatre, TV, and film actor and comedian, best known as "Kuya Mario" of Batibot
Jeson Patrombon – international tennis player
Sheila Surban – international singer-songwriter
Pia Wurtzbach – Miss Universe 2015; briefly resided in Iligan as a child with her maternal grandparents before moving to Cagayan de Oro
Sister cities
Local
Cagayan de Oro, Misamis Oriental
General Santos, South Cotabato
Makati, Metro Manila
Dipolog, Zamboanga del Norte
Ozamiz, Misamis Occidental
Butuan, Agusan del Norte
Tagbilaran, Bohol
See also
List of cities in the Philippines
Roman Catholic Diocese of Iligan
Iligan Crusaders
Iligan Steel Mill
Mount Agad-Agad
Timoga Spring
References
External links
Iligan Profile at the DTI Cities and Municipalities Competitive Index
[ Philippine Standard Geographic Code]
Philippine Census Information
Local Governance Performance Management System
Cities in Northern Mindanao
Populated places in Lanao del Norte
Highly urbanized cities in the Philippines
Port cities and towns in the Philippines
Populated places established in 1832
1832 establishments in the Philippines
Former provincial capitals of the Philippines
Spa towns in the Philippines
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symon%20Petliura
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Symon Petliura
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Symon Vasylyovych Petliura (; ; – 25 May 1926) was a Ukrainian politician and journalist. He was the Supreme Commander of the Ukrainian People's Army (UNA) and led the Ukrainian People's Republic during the Ukrainian War of Independence, a part of the wider Russian Civil War.
Petliura was born to a family of Cossack heritage in Poltava. From an early age he embraced socialism and Ukrainian nationalism, which he advocated through his highly prolific career as a journalist. After the 1917 February Revolution overthrew the Tsarist monarchy, the Ukrainian People's Republic was proclaimed and Petliura was elected head of its military. The Republic was briefly interrupted by the pro-German Ukrainian State, but in late 1918 Petliura, along with other members of the socialist Directorate of Ukraine, organised a revolt and overthrew the regime, restoring the Republic. He became the leader of the Directorate in early 1919, after the Bolsheviks invaded Ukraine and drove the UNA to Galicia. Facing imminent defeat, Petliura entered an alliance with Józef Piłsudski's Poland. The Polish–Soviet War concluded with Polish victory but Ukraine remained under Soviet control, forcing Petliura into exile. He initially directed the government-in-exile from Poland, but eventually settled in Paris.
During the Civil War, the UNA were responsible for the deaths of tens of thousands of Jewish civilians, and Petliura's role in the pogroms has been a topic of dispute. In 1926, Petliura was assassinated in Paris by Jewish anarchist Sholem Schwarzbard, who had lost relatives in the pogroms.
Career to 1917
Born on in a suburb of Poltava (then part of the Russian Empire), Symon Petliura was the son of Vasyl Pavlovych Petliura and Olha Oleksiyivna (née Marchenko), of Cossack background. His father, a Poltava city resident, had owned a transportation business; his mother was a daughter of an Orthodox hieromonk (priest-monk). Petliura obtained his initial education in parochial schools, and planned to become an Orthodox priest.
Petliura studied in the Russian Orthodox Seminary in Poltava from 1895 to 1901. While there he joined the Hromada society in 1898. When his membership in Hromada was discovered in 1901, he was expelled from the seminary. In 1900 Petliura joined the Revolutionary Ukrainian Party (RUP). In 1902, under threat of arrest, he moved to Yekaterinodar in the Kuban, where he worked for two years – initially as a schoolteacher and later as an archivist for the Kuban Cossack Host helping to organize over 200,000 documents. In December 1903 he was arrested for organizing a RUP branch in Yekaterinodar and for publishing inflammatory anti-tsarist articles in the Ukrainian press outside of Imperial Russia (in Austrian-controlled Lemberg in Galicia). Released on bail in March 1904, he moved briefly to Kyiv and then to Lemberg.
In Lviv, Petliura lived under the name of Sviatoslav Tagon, working alongside Ivan Franko and Volodymyr Hnatiuk as an editor for the journal ("Literary Scientific Herald"), the Shevchenko Scientific Society and as a co-editor of newspaper. He also contributed numerous articles to the Ukrainian-language press in Galicia.
At the end of 1905, after an nationwide amnesty was declared by the authorities, Petliura returned briefly to Kyiv, but soon moved to the Russian capital of Petersburg in order to publish the socialist-democratic monthly magazine Vil’na Ukrayina ("Free Ukraine") along with and Mykola Porsh. After Russian censors closed this magazine in July 1905, he moved back to Kyiv where he worked for the newspaper ("The Council"). In 1907–09 he became the editor of the literary magazine Slovo (, "The Word") and co-editor of Ukrayina (, "Ukraine").
Because of the closure of these publications by the Russian Imperial authorities, Petliura had once again to move from Kyiv. He went to Moscow in 1909, where he worked briefly as an accountant. There in 1910 he married Olha Bilska (1885–1959), with whom he had a daughter, Lesia (1911–1942). From 1912 until May 1917 he served as a co-editor of the influential Russian-language journal (Ukrainian Life).
Journalism and publications
As the editor of numerous journals and newspapers, Petliura published over 15,000 critical articles, reviews, stories and poems under an estimated 120 noms-de-plume. His prolific work in both the Russian and Ukrainian languages helped shape the mindset of the Ukrainian population in the years leading up to the Revolution in both Eastern and Western Ukraine. His prolific correspondence was of great benefit when the Revolution broke out in 1917, as he had contacts throughout Ukraine.
Publications before 1914
As the Ukrainian language had been outlawed in the Russian Empire by the Ems Ukaz of 1876, Petliura found more freedom to publish Ukraine oriented articles in Saint Petersburg than in Ukraine. There, he published the magazine Vilna Ukrayina (, "Independent Ukraine") until July 1905. Tsarist censors, however, closed this magazine, and Petliura moved back to Kyiv.
In Kyiv, Petliura first worked for Rada. In 1907 he became editor of the literary magazine Slovo. Also, he co-edited the magazine Ukrayina.
In 1909, these publications were closed by Russian imperial police, and Petliura moved back to Moscow to publish. There, he was co-editor of the Russian-language journal Ukrayinskaya Zhizn to familiarize the local population with news and culture of what was known as Malorossia. He was the chief editor of this publication from 1912 to 1914. In Moscow, he married his wife Olha Bilska in 1915 (later she was also known as her husband under the surname of Marchenko). There, in Moscow was born the daughter of Petliura, Lesia (Olesia).
Publications after emigration
In Paris, Petliura continued the struggle for Ukrainian independence as a publicist. In 1924, Petliura became the editor and publisher of the weekly journal ("Trident"). He contributed to this journal using various pen names, including V. Marchenko, and V. Salevsky.
Revolution in Ukraine
Rise to power
In May 1917 Petliura attended the First All-Ukrainian Congress of Soldier Deputies held in Kyiv as a delegate. On 18 May he was elected head of the Ukrainian General Military Committee, today seen as the ultimate progenitor of the modern Ukrainian Ministry of Defense. With the proclamation of the Central Council of Ukraine on 28 June 1917, Petliura became the first Secretary (Minister) for Military Affairs.
Disagreeing with the politics of the then chairman of the General Secretariat Volodymyr Vynnychenko, Petliura left the government and became the head of the Haidamaka Kish, a military formation of Sloboda Ukraine (in Kharkiv). In January–February 1918 the Haidamaka Kish was forced back to protect Kyiv during the Uprising at the Kyiv Arsenal Plant and to prevent the capture of the capital by the Bolshevik Red Guard.
After the April 1918 Ukrainian coup d'état, Pavlo Skoropadskyi's government arrested Petliura and incarcerated him for four months in Bila Tserkva.
Petliura participated in the Anti-Hetman Uprising of November 1918 and became a member of the Directorate of Ukraine as the Chief of Military Forces. Following the fall of Kyiv (February 1919) and the emigration of Vynnychenko from Ukraine, Petliura became the leader of the Directorate on 11 February 1919. In his capacity as head of the Army and State, he continued to fight both Bolshevik and White forces in Ukraine for the next ten months.
1919
With the outbreak of hostilities between Ukraine and Soviet Russia in January 1919, and with Vynnychenko's emigration, Petliura ultimately became the leading figure in the Directorate. During the winter of 1919 the Petliura army lost most of Ukraine (including Kyiv) to Bolsheviks and by March 6 relocated to Podolia. In the spring of 1919 he managed to extinguish a coup-d'etat led by Volodymyr Oskilko who saw Petliura cooperating with socialists such as Borys Martos. During the course of the year, Petliura continued to defend the fledgling republic against incursions by the Bolsheviks, Anton Denikin's White Russians, and the Romanian-Polish troops. By autumn of 1919, most of Denikin's White Russian forces were defeated — in the meantime, however, the Bolsheviks had grown to become the dominant force in Ukraine.
1920
On 5 December 1919, Petliura withdrew to Poland, which had previously recognized him as the head of the legal government of Ukraine. In April 1920, as head of the Ukrainian People's Republic, he signed an alliance in Warsaw with the Polish government, agreeing to a border on the River Zbruch and recognizing Poland's right to Galicia in exchange for military aid in overthrowing the Bolshevik régime. Polish forces, reinforced by Petliura's remaining troops (some two divisions), attacked Kyiv on 7 May 1920, in what proved a turning point of the 1919–21 Polish-Bolshevik war. Following initial successes, Piłsudski's and Petliura's forces had to retreat to the Vistula River and to the Polish capital, Warsaw. The Polish Army defeated the Bolshevik Russians in the end, but the Red Army remained in parts of Ukraine and therefore Ukrainians were unable to secure their independence. Petliura directed the affairs of the Ukrainian government-in-exile from Tarnów in Lesser Poland, and when the Soviet government in Moscow requested Petliura's extradition from Poland, the Poles engineered his "disappearance", secretly moving him from Tarnów to Warsaw.
After the revolution
Bolshevik Russia persistently demanded that Petliura be handed over. Protected by several Polish friends and colleagues, such as Henryk Józewski, with the establishment of the Soviet Union on 30 December 1922, Petliura, in late 1923 left Poland for Budapest, then Vienna, Geneva and finally settled in Paris in early 1924. Here he established and edited the Ukrainian-language newspaper Tryzub.
Promoting a Ukrainian cultural identity
During his time as leader of the Directorate, Petliura was active in supporting Ukrainian culture both in Ukraine and in the Ukrainian diaspora.
Supporting culture in Ukraine
Petliura introduced the awarding of the title "People's Artist of Ukraine" to artists who had made significant contributions to Ukrainian culture. A similar titled award was continued after a significant break under the Soviet regime. Among those who had received this award was blind kobza player Ivan Kuchuhura-Kucherenko.
Promoting Ukrainian culture abroad
He also saw the value in gaining international support and recognition of Ukrainian arts through cultural exchanges. Most notably, Petliura actively supported the work of cultural leaders such as the choreographer Vasyl Avramenko, conductor Oleksander Koshetz and bandurist Vasyl Yemetz, to allow them to travel internationally and promote an awareness of Ukrainian culture. Koshetz created the Ukrainian Republic Capella and took it on tour internationally, giving concerts in Europe and the Americas. One of the concerts by the Capella inspired George Gershwin to write "Summertime", based on the lullaby "Oi Khodyt Son Kolo Vikon" All three musicians later emigrated to the United States.
Life in exile
In Paris, Petliura directed the activities of the government of the Ukrainian National Republic in exile. He launched the weekly Tryzub, and continued to edit and write numerous articles under various pen names with an emphasis on questions dealing with national oppression in Ukraine. These articles were written with a literary flair. The question of national awareness was often of significance in his literary work.
Petliura's articles had a significant impact on the shaping of Ukrainian national awareness in the early 20th century. He published articles and brochures under a variety of noms de plume, including V. Marchenko, V. Salevsky, I. Rokytsky, and O. Riastr.
Role in pogroms
Petliura is considered a controversial figure connected with the pogroms of Jews during his rule of the Ukrainian National Republic. According to Peter Kenez, "before the advent of Hitler, the greatest mass murder of Jews occurs in Ukraine in the course of the Civil War. All participants in the conflict were guilty of murdering Jews, even the Bolsheviks; however the Volunteer Army had the largest number of victims." The number of Jews killed during the period is estimated to be between 50,000 and 200,000. A total of 1,236 violent attacks on Jews had been recorded between 1918 and 1921 in Ukraine. Among them, 493 were carried out by Ukrainian People's Republic soldiers under the command of Symon Petliura, 307 by independent Ukrainian warlords, 213 by Denikin's army, 106 by the Red Army, and 32 by the Polish Army.
The newly formed Ukrainian state (Ukrainian People's Republic) promised Jews full equality and autonomy. Arnold Margolin, a Jewish assistant minister in Petliura's UPR government, declared in May 1919 that the Ukrainian government had given Jews more rights than they enjoyed in any other European government. However, after 1918, military units became involved in pogroms against Jews. During Petliura's term as Head of State (1919–20), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory.
Petliura's role in the pogroms has been a topic of dispute since his assassination in 1926 and the succeeding Schwartzbard's trial. In 1969, the journal Jewish Social Studies published two opposing views regarding Petliura's responsibility in pogroms against Jews during his reign over Ukraine, by scholars Taras Hunczak and Zosa Szajkowski. Later the Journal published letters from the two authors.
According to Hunczak, Petliura actively sought to halt anti-Jewish violence on numerous occasions, introducing capital punishment for carrying out pogroms. Conversely, he is also accused of not having done enough to stop the pogroms and being afraid to punish officers and soldiers engaged in crimes against Jews for fear of losing their support.
Assassination
On 25 May 1926, at 14:12, by the Gibert bookstore, Petliura was walking on Rue Racine near Boulevard Saint-Michel of the Latin Quarter in Paris and was approached by Sholom Schwartzbard. Schwartzbard asked him in Ukrainian, "Are you Mr. Petliura?" Petliura did not answer but raised his walking cane. Schwartzbard pulled out a gun, proclaimed "dirty dog, killer of my people, defend yourself!" and shot him five times. Evading a lynch-mob attempting to avenge Petliura, Schwartzbard gave himself into the police with a note reading: "I have killed Petliura to avenge the death of the thousands of pogrom victims in Ukraine who were massacred by Petliura's forces without his taking any steps to prevent these massacres." The Jewish Telegraphic Agency reported on 27 May 1926 that Petliura's "pogrom bands" were responsible for killing tens of thousands of Jews.
Schwartzbard was an anarchist of Jewish descent, born in Ukraine. He participated in the Jewish self-defense of Balta in 1905. The Russian Tsarist government sentenced him to 3 months in prison for "provoking" the Balta pogrom. He was twice convicted of taking part in anarchist "expropriation" (burglary) and bank robbery in Austria-Hungary. He later joined the French Foreign Legion (1914–1917) and was wounded in the Battle of the Somme. It is reported that Schwartzbard told famous fellow anarchist leader Nestor Makhno in Paris that he was terminally ill and expected to die and that he would take Petliura with him; Makhno forbade Schwartzbard to do so.
Schwartzbard's parents were among fifteen members of his family murdered in the pogroms in Odesa. The core defense at the Schwartzbard trial was — as presented by the noted jurist Henri Torres — that he was avenging the deaths of more than 50,000 Jewish victims of the pogroms, whereas the prosecution (both criminal and civil) tried to show that Petliura was not responsible for the pogroms and that Schwartzbard was a Soviet agent. After a trial lasting eight days the jury acquitted Schwartzbard.
According to a defected KGB operative Peter Deriabin, Schwartzbard was a Soviet (NKVD) agent and acted on the order from a former chairman of the Soviet Ukrainian government and current Soviet Ambassador to France, Christian Rakovsky. The special operation of the GPU was consolidated by GPU agent Mikhail Volodin, who arrived in France 8 August 1925, and who had been in close contact with Schwartzbard.
It is claimed that in March 1926, Vlas Chubar (Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of Ukraine), in a speech given in Kharkiv and repeated in Moscow, warned of the danger Petliura represented to Soviet power. It was after this speech that the command had allegedly been given to assassinate Petliura.
Petliura was buried alongside his wife and daughter in the Cimetière du Montparnasse in Paris.
Petliura's two sisters, Orthodox nuns who had remained in Poltava, were arrested and shot in 1928 by the NKVD (the Soviet secret police).
Legacy
Ukraine
With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, previously restricted Soviet archives have allowed numerous politicians and historians to review Petliura's role in Ukrainian history. Some consider him a national hero who strove for the independence of Ukraine. Several cities, including Kyiv, the Ukrainian capital and Poltava, the city of his birth, have erected monuments to Petliura, with a museum complex also being planned in Poltava. Petliura's statue, unveiled in Vinnytsia in October 2017, was denounced as disgraceful and deplorable by the World Jewish Congress. To mark the 80th anniversary of his assassination, a twelve-volume edition of his writings, including articles, letters and historic documents, has been published in Kyiv by Taras Shevchenko University and the State Archive of Ukraine. In 1992 in Poltava, a series of readings known as "Petlurivski chytannia" have become an annual event, and since 1993, they take place annually at Kyiv University.
In June 2009, the Kyiv City Council renamed Comintern Street (located in the Shevchenkivskyi District) into to commemorate the occasion of his 130th birthday anniversary.
In current Ukraine Petliura has not been as lionized as Mykhailo Hrushevsky (who played a much smaller role in the Ukrainian People's Republic) since Petliura was too closely associated with violence to make a good symbolic figure. In a 2008 poll of "Famous Ukrainians of all times" (in which respondents did not receive any lists or tips) Petliura was not mentioned (Hrushevsky came in sixth place in this poll). In the 2008 TV project Velyki Ukraïntsi ("Greatest Ukrainians") he placed 26th.
A nephew of Symon Petliura, Stepan Skrypnyk became the Patriarch Mstyslav of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church on 6 June 1990.
In December 2022 recently liberated (from Russian forces) Izium decided to rename Maxim Gorky Street to Symon Petliura Street.
Ukrainian diaspora
For part of the Western Ukrainian diaspora, Petliura is remembered as a national hero, a fighter for Ukrainian independence, a martyr, who inspired hundreds of thousands to fight for an independent Ukrainian state. He has inspired original music, and youth organizations.
Petliura in Ukrainian folk songs
During the revolution Petliura became the subject of numerous folk songs, primarily as a hero calling for his people to unite against foreign oppression. His name became synonymous with the call for freedom. 15 songs were recorded by the ethnographer rev. prof. K. Danylevsky. In the songs Petliura is depicted as a soldier, in a manner similar to Robin Hood, mocking Skoropadsky and the Bolshevik Red Guard.
News of Petliura's assassination in the summer of 1926 was marked by numerous revolts in eastern Ukraine particularly in Boromlia, Zhehailivtsi, (Sumy province), Velyka Rublivka, Myloradov (Poltava province), Hnylsk, Bilsk, Kuzemyn and all along the Vorskla River from Okhtyrka to Poltava, Burynia, Nizhyn (Chernihiv province) and other cities. These revolts were brutally pacified by the Soviet administration. The blind kobzars Pavlo Hashchenko and Ivan Kuchuhura Kucherenko composed a duma (epic poem) in memory of Symon Petliura. To date Petliura is the only modern Ukrainian politician to have a duma created and sung in his memory. This duma became popular among the kobzars of left-bank Ukraine and was sung also by Stepan Pasiuha, Petro Drevchenko, Bohushchenko, and Chumak.
The Soviets also tried their hand at portraying Petliura through the arts in order to discredit the Ukrainian national leader. A number of humorous songs appeared in which Petliura is portrayed as a traveling beggar whose only territory is that which is under his train carriage. A number of plays such as The Republic on Wheels by Yakov Mamontov and the opera Shchors by Boris Liatoshinsky and Arsenal by Georgy Maiboroda portray Petliura in a negative light, as a lackey who sold out Western Ukraine to Poland, often using the very same melodies which had become popular during the fight for Ukrainian Independence in 1918.
Petliura continues to be portrayed by the Ukrainian people in its folk songs in a manner similar to Taras Shevchenko and Bohdan Khmelnytsky. He is likened to the sun which suddenly stopped shining.
See also
List of national leaders of Ukraine
Ukrainian Civil War
Anton Denikin
Notes
References
Bibliography
Danylevskyi/Danylevsky, Rev. Prof. K. (1947). Petliura v sertsiakh i pisniakh svoho narodu. Regensburg: Nakladom filii Tovarystva ukrayinskykh politychnykh v’iazniv v Regensburzi. P. 11.
Danylevskyi/Danylevsky, Rev. Prof. K. O. (1951). Petliura v sertsiakh i pisniakh svoho narodu. Pittsburgh, USA: Vidbytka z Narodnoho Slova. P. 24.
Encyclopedia of Ukraine – Paris-New York 1970, Volume 6, pp. 2029–30.
Schwartzbard, Sholom: Over The Years (Inem Loif Fun Yoren). Excerpt from a book by Petliura's assassin explaining his actions.
External links
English
Symon Petliura, Yevhen Konovalets, Stepan Bandera - Three Leaders of Ukrainian Liberation Movement murdered by the Order of Moscow (audiobook).
Biography of Petliura on website of the Ukrainian government
Petliura site in Poltava (Documents, articles and photographs)
(Time magazine on the Petlura trial)
Turning the pages back...May 25, 1926 (Ukrainian Weekly account of shooting of Petliura)
Review of books on Petliura
Review of Henry Abramson's A Prayer for the Government: Ukrainians and Jews in Revolutionary Times
The Odyssey of the Petliura Library and the Records of the Ukrainian National Republic during World War II
Non-English
"Symon Petliura. Facts against myths" by Alik Gomelsky.
"Unknown Symon Petliura: history of an interview," Zerkalo Nedeli (Mirror Weekly), July 7–13, 2001. Available online in Russian and in Ukrainian.
"A Belated Idealist," Zerkalo Nedeli (Mirror Weekly), May 22–28, 2004. Available online in Russian and in Ukrainian.
"Symon Petliura as opponent of Jewish pogroms," Zerkalo Nedeli (Mirror Weekly), 25–31 July 1996. Available online in Russian.
Article published in the "Archives of the Ukrainian Security Service" on Petlura and the GPU re his assassination based on recently discovered materials from the vaults of the Ukrainian Security Service in Ukrainian.
Symon Petliura in opposition to Jewish Pogroms (in Russian)
Petliura web site in Poltava Web site of documents pertaining to Symon Petliura in Ukrainian, Russian and English.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shandong%20University
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Shandong University
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Shandong University (; SDU) is a public university located in Jinan, Shandong, China. It is affiliated with the Ministry of Education of China. The university is part of Project 985, Project 211, and the Double First Class University Plan.
The oldest of Shandong University's precursor institutions, Cheeloo University, was founded by American and English mission agencies in the late 19th century (as Tengchow College of Liberal Arts in Penglai). Tengchow College was the first modern institution of higher learning in China. Shandong University derives its official founding date from the Imperial Shandong University established in Jinan in November 1901 as the second modern national university in the country.
Shandong University has eight campuses, all but two of which are located in the provincial capital city of Jinan. The newest of these campuses is located to the northeast of the port city of Qingdao.
History
Traditional learning in Shandong (1733–1900)
The Luoyuan Academy () was established in
Jinan in 1733 by an imperial edict from the Yongzheng Emperor of the Qing Dynasty. The governor of Shandong, Yue Jun (), received 1,000 taels of silver (approximately 37 kg) to fund the establishment of the academy. The name "Luoyuan" (literally "source of the Luo [River]") refers to the original location of the academy near the Baotu Spring. The academy was dedicated to teaching the Chinese classics to the sons of the gentry. Scholars affiliated with the academy include: Bi Yuan (畢沅, 1730–1797), Sang Tiaoyuan (桑调元, 1695–1771), Shen Qiyuan (沈起元, 1685–1763), He Shaoji (何紹基, 1799–1873), Kuang Yuan (匡源, 1815–1881), Wang Zhihan (王之翰, 1821–1850), Liu Yaochun (), Zhu Xuedu (朱学笃, 1826–1892), and Miao Quansun (缪荃孙, 1844–1919). In 1881, the American Presbyterian missionaries John Murray () and Stephen A. Hunter () attempted to purchase a property adjacent to the Luoyuan Academy for use as a chapel. This led to a violent reaction when on July 13, 1881, literati from the academy incited an attack on the property. The incident, known as the "Jinan Jiaoan" (), had considerable diplomatic repercussions for the relationship between the Qing Dynasty and the United States. The Luoyuan Academy was rebuilt in 1896 to become the largest institution of its kind in Shandong. Five years later (in 1901) it was replaced by the newly founded Imperial Shandong College which took over its campus (today the site of the Provincial Bureau of Statistics on Spring City Road, ).
19th-Century precursor institutions
The earliest precursor institutions that would later be fused into Shandong University were founded by American and English mission agencies: In early January 1864, Calvin W. Mateer, an American Presbyterian missionary, and his wife Julia Brown Mateer, arrived in the recently opened treaty port of Dengzhou () in the area of the present-day city of Penglai on the north-eastern coast of Shandong Peninsula. Their journey had begun in New York on July 3, 1863, had taken them around the Cape of Good Hope to Shanghai, and had ended with a shipwreck off the coast of Yantai. In the autumn of 1864, the Mateers opened an elementary school for boys (Mengyang Educational Society, ) in a Guanyin temple that had been sold to them since there were insufficient funds for its upkeep as a temple. The school's first class consisted of six boarders and two day pupils. The school was enlarged to accommodate 30 boarders and divided into primary and high school sections in 1869. The high school became known as the Wenhui Guan (). The Tengchow College of Liberal Arts was formally established in 1882, i.e., at a time when the school had been operated as a primary and high school for 18 years already. By 1889, enrollment in the college had grown to 100 students. The six-year curriculum included algebra, geometry and conic sections, trigonometry and measurement, surveying and navigation, analytical geometry and mathematical physics, calculus, as well as astronomy. Religion also featured prominently in the curriculum as well as in daily life at Tengchow College. The college soon enjoyed a reputation for its high standards of academic excellence. When W.A.P Martin hired young professors of Western learning for the Imperial Capital University (the precursor of present-day Peking University), 12 out of 13 young professors hired were graduates of Tengchow College of Liberal Arts. In 1884, shortly after the formal establishment of Tengchow College of Liberal Arts, British Baptists established Tsingchow Boy's Boarding School in Qingzhou, also located in northern Shandong, but not directly on the coast.
In 1902, the American and British missionaries agreed to combine their education ventures in Shandong, and established an arts college () in Weifang, a theological college () in Qingzhou, and a medical college () in Jinan. In 1909, all three colleges were consolidated into Shantung Protestant University () which was later renamed Shantung Christian University (). "Cheeloo University", the school's informal name that had been officially approved by the school council in 1915, was derived from "Qilu", a nickname of Shandong Province coined after the ancient states of Qi (1046 BC-221 BC) and Lu (10th century BC-256 BC) that once existed in the area. Jinan was chosen as the new location for the consolidated university.
A prominent member of Cheeloo University's faculty was Henry Winters Luce (1868–1941), the father of the publisher Henry R. Luce (founder of TIME, Fortune, and Life). Henry W. Luce initially led the fundraising efforts for the new campus in Jinan (today the Baotuquan Campus of Shandong University). In this capacity, he raised 300,000 dollars between 1912 and 1915 from donors in the United States. The buildings on the new Cheeloo campus were designed by the architectural firm of Perkins, Fellows, & Hamilton from Chicago. Henry W. Luce was elected vice-president of Cheeloo University in 1916, but resigned in the following year already, because he felt that he had insufficient support for his vision of a university of major national influence from the then Cheeloo president J. Percy Bruce.
Cheeloo University particularly made its mark in the field of medicine: From 1914 to 1936, the university built and subsequently expanded Cheeloo Hospital as a major facility for medical education in China. Between 1916 and 1923, the former Peking Union Medical College, the Medical Department of Nanking University, the Hankow Medical College, and the North China Union Medical College for Women were all moved to Jinan and merged into the Cheeloo University School of Medicine under Dean and acting university president Samuel Cochran.
Cheeloo University attracted Chinese intellectuals and scholars. The writer Lao She, author of the novel "Rickshaw Boy" and the play "Teahouse", taught at Cheeloo University (1930–1934) as well as at National Shandong University in Qingdao and other universities between 1934 and 1937.
In 1937, when the Japanese forces occupied northern China during the Second Sino-Japanese War, Cheeloo University evacuated to Sichuan and operated on the campus of West China Union University in Chengdu. In Jinan, the university's hospital remained open with a largely Western staff. During the war, the Japanese military used the entire campus for housing about 1,200 patients along with 600 officers.
During the Korean War (1950–1953), the Chinese government came to regard Christian schools as tools of "American imperialism" and hence embarked on closing them down. Cheeloo University was dissolved in 1952. Its Medical School was fused with Shandong Provincial Medical College and the East China Norman Bethune Medical College to form Shandong Medical College (renamed into "Shandong Medical University" in 1985).
Imperial Shandong University (1901)
The initiative for the founding of Shandong University (as Imperial Shandong University, ) in 1901 as a national, modern university came from Yuan Shikai, then the governor of Shandong province. Yuan Shikai was the chief military modernizer of the late Qing Dynasty whose control over a powerful army combined with his personal ambition played a key role in the birth of the Republic of China as well as its descent into warlordism in the early 20th century.
Yuan Shikai had been governor of Shandong Province since December 1899. He had been appointed to this post to quell the Boxer Uprising in the province and to reassure the foreign diplomats in the country who were looking for quick decisive actions against the boxers. In 1901, the same year that marked the end of the Boxer Uprising, Yuan sent a draft for the university charter () to the Guangxu Emperor and instructed Li Yukai, the magistrate of Penglai, to start preparations for the university. The draft of the university charter was approved by the emperor in November 1901, shortly after the Boxer Uprising had officially ended with the signing of the Boxer Protocol on September 7, 1901. Shandong Imperial University became hence the second modern national university established in the country after Imperial Capital University () that had been founded in 1898 and later became Peking University. The charter of Shandong Imperial University served as a model for subsequent foundations of imperial university. The original charter document for Shandong University is now kept in the National Palace Museum in Taipei, Taiwan where it had been taken during the retreat of the Kuomintang at the end of the Chinese Civil War.
Governor Yuan Shikai wanted a prominent position for Western learning in the curriculum of the new college. Hence, he invited the American Presbyterian missionary Dr. Watson McMillan Hayes (, 1857–1944) who was then serving as president of Tengchow College in Penglai to help with setting up the new Imperial Shandong University and serve as its president. The appointment of the Presbyterian missionary W. A. P. Martin as inaugural president of the Imperial Capital University three years earlier had set a precedent for this arrangement. Hayes arrived in Jinan in July 1901 and started the preparations for the new college. Hayes also published Shandong's first successful daily newspaper and petitioned the Qing court to grant a holiday on Sundays; As a consequence, Shandong University was closed on Sundays right from the start. However, by the end of the year, Hayes and six Chinese Christian teachers he had brought with him had resigned already over disagreements regarding the policy of mandatory Confucius worship for students of the imperial university. Hayes went on to teach the Presbyterian Mission Theological Class in Chefoo (present-day Yantai) and continued to work as a missionary and educator in Shandong until his death in a Japanese internment camp in Wei County (present-day Weifang) in 1944.
Imperial Shandong University occupied the premises of the Luoyuan Academy which had been renovated and extended significantly five years earlier. It was opened on November 13, 1901, in a ceremony attended by Governor Yuan Shikai. 299 student were enrolled in the first term, of which 120 passed the first examination and 100 were finally admitted. The first faculty had 50 members that also included teachers from overseas, it was later increased to 110. The curriculum contained Chinese classics, Chinese history, social sciences, natural sciences, and foreign language with more than 20 subjects being taught. At the beginning, the curriculum covered 3 years, but it was later expanded to 4 years.
The first president of the new university was Zhou Xuexi.
In 1904, Imperial Shandong University moved to new premises in the Ganshi Qiao () area of Jinan (located to the south-west of the historical city center) and changed its name to "Shandong Institution of Higher Learning" (). In 1911, it changed its name once again, this time to the "School of Higher Learning" ().
National Shandong University in Qingdao (1909–1936)
The first modern academic institution in the port city of Qingdao, then part of the German Kiautschou Bay colonial concession, was the German-Chinese "Advanced School of Special Sciences of a Special Type" ("Hochschule für Spezialwissenschaften mit besonderem Charakter", ). It was founded on October 25, 1909, about 11 years after the German lease on the territory went into effect. In establishing the university, the German authorities took a much more accommodating approach towards the Chinese government than they had taken in the de facto annexation of the territory. The negotiations over the establishment of the school were led by sinologist Otto Franke. Although the German governor Oskar von Truppel vigorously objected to Chinese influence over the school, Franke's collaboration plan received firm backing from Admiral von Tirpitz as well as the German envoy in Beijing. The university operated under the supervision of the German naval administration, but was recognized and supported financially by the Chinese government. The cumbersome name of the school ("spezial" or "tebie", i.e., "special") was chosen at the insistence of the Chinese government to reflect its special status, below the Imperial College in Beijing but above the other provincial Chinese universities. The local informal name for the university was "Hainan School" in reference to an old name for Qingdao. Studies were organized in a "preparatory level" with a six-year (since 1911, five-year) curriculum for students aged 13 to 15 years and an "upper school". Subjects covered included German, history, geography, mathematics, natural history, zoology, botany, health, physics, chemistry, drawing, music, sports, as well as Chinese language and sciences. Whereas engineering and natural sciences were taught in an entirely "Western mode", the Chinese and European approaches were combined in the teaching of the humanities. Religious subjects had been excluded from the curriculum at the request of the Chinese government. The number of students at the school rose to about 400 in 1914, the school assembled a German and a Chinese library with about 5000 and 8000 volumes respectively. School operations ceased with the beginning of the First World War in 1914 and never resumed.
Qingdao reverted from Japanese to Chinese control in 1922 and Qingdao University was founded as a new private university in August 1924; its first president was Gao Enhong, the governor of the Jiaozhou territory. The former German-Chinese university was not mentioned during the opening ceremony and it was decided not to hire foreign teachers for the time being.
Qingdao University was housed in the former Bismarck barracks that had been constructed for the German troops in 1903, i.e., during the time when Qingdao was part of the German concession in Shandong. The curriculum of Qingdao University was mainly focused on engineering and business administration and a bachelor's degree was to be awarded after four years of study. Luo Ronghuan, later a marshal of the People's Liberation Army, was among Qingdao University's students. Qingdao University fell on hard times after the Zhili clique of warlords that had ruled Shandong since the takeover from the Japanese unexpectedly lost to its rival Fengtian clique in the Second Zhili–Fengtian War of 1924. Gao Enhong was forced to resign as president of the university and funding dried up.
The Fengtian clique installed the warlord Zhang Zongchang as ruler of Shandong. Zhang, an illiterate former bandit who had built a reputation mainly for ruthlessness, brutality, and colorful antics, ordered the fusion of six schools into a provincial Shandong University () in Jinan in 1926.
In 1928, the Kuomintang Government in Nanjing regained control of northern China and Shandong through the Northern Expedition. Soon afterwards, preparations commenced for a National University in the province. In August 1928, the government ordered the replacement of the provincial Shandong University with a National University in Shandong. The National University of Qingdao was formally established with an opening ceremony on September 21, 1930. In 1932, it was renamed "National Shandong University". Like Qingdao University, Shandong National University was housed in the buildings of the former Bismarck barracks. The university's chancellor, Yang Zhensheng (), followed the model set by Peking University in establishing an "inclusive" (), "scientific and democratic" () academic environment. During this period, Shandong National University hired distinguished scientists, scholars and literary figures such as Lao She, Wen Yiduo, Shen Congwen, Liang Shiqiu, the nuclear physicist Wang Ganchang (faculty member from 1934 to 1936), and the embryologist Tong Dizhou. Poet Zang Kejia, who later co-edited the "Selected Poems of Chairman Mao" (, 1957), was a student of Wen Yiduo from 1930 to 1934 in Qingdao.
Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)
In November 1937, a few months after Marco Polo Bridge Incident that had marked the outbreak of a fully-fledged war in July of the same year, National Shandong University was evacuated from Qingdao. The university first moved to Anqing in Anhui Province and soon afterwards to Wanxian in Sichuan Province (today Wanzhou District in Chongqing). Books, equipment, and administrative files were shipped in separate installments and suffered severe loss. Classes resumed in Wanxian in Spring 1938, but were stopped soon after that on orders of the Ministry of Education. Teachers and students were then transferred to the National Central University that had been moved from Nanjing to Chongqing in the previous year. The books and equipment of Shandong University were placed into storage in the National Central Library, the National Central University, and the National Central Vocational School. After the war, in the spring of 1946, the university moved back to Qingdao.
Post-war period (1945–1965)
From 1945 until May 1949, part of the Shandong University campus in Qingdao served as the headquarters for the U.S. Sixth Marine Division until it was disbanded on 31 March 1946 and later on for the U.S. Fleet Marine Force, Western Pacific. In 1947, the Su Mingcheng Incident, in which an American seaman had killed a rickshaw puller after an argument, caused protests of the university students.
In 1951, East China University () was merged into Shandong University. In the same year, the university published the "Journal of Shandong University". Cheeloo University was dissolved in 1952 and its Medical School became part of Shandong Medical College. Prior to the Sino-Soviet split, Soviet faculty members worked at Shandong University. In October 1958, the university moved back to Jinan from Qingdao. The marine sciences remained in Qingdao, where they later formed Shandong Ocean University. In Jinan, Shandong University first occupied the Hongjialou Campus. Construction of the new Central Campus commenced in 1959, during the Great Leap Forward and in the year of a great Yellow River flood. Shandong University was added to the list of National Key University on 10 October 1960.
Cultural Revolution (1966–1976)
Starting from early June 1966, schools in Jinan were closed down by strikes as teachers were "struggled against" in the Cultural Revolution. Shandong University was also completely paralyzed by the events. A complete restructuring was imposed on Shandong's university system: according to a resolution passed by the Revolutionary Committee of Shandong Province on July 29, 1970, the liberal arts of Shandong University were moved to Qufu and combined with Qufu Normal College to form a new Shandong University. The biology department was moved to Tai'an and merged into the Shandong Agricultural College. The rest of the sciences was to form the Shandong Science and Technology University. In 1971, the university's admission policy was also changed: in order to open the university to workers and peasants, new students were now nominated "by the masses" and then approved by the political leadership and the university. Until 1976, a total of 3267 students who were admitted under this scheme graduated after completing a 2- or 3-year curriculum. Premier Zhou Enlai learned of Shandong University's reorganization in 1973. Although he was already terminally ill with bladder cancer at the time, he intervened and ordered a return to previous structure of the university. As a consequence, all organizational changes imposed by the Revolutionary Committee of Shandong Province were undone in early 1974 already.
Recent history (1980–present)
Shandong University at Weihai was established in 1984. In 1985, Shandong Medical College was renamed Shandong Medical University. From 1986 to 1996, Shandong University underwent a period of rapid academic expansion. By 1997, is contained 14 colleges, 45 schools and offered 56 undergraduate program, 57 master's degree programs as well as 17 doctoral degree programs. Shandong University merged with Shandong Medical University and the Shandong University of Technology in 2000. With Shandong Medical University the former campus of Cheeloo University became part of Shandong University (as the West Campus, renamed Baotuquan Campus in 2009). The campus of Shandong University of Technology became the South Campus of Shandong University (renamed Qianfoshan Campus in 2009). Construction of the Xinglongshan Campus (then under the name "New South Campus"), a large new campus located in a mountain valley to the south of Jinan dedicated to education of first- and second-year undergraduate students, began in 2003.
In July 2019, the university attracted controversy when it was reported that male foreign students were assigned three female Chinese "buddies", with Chinese students complaining of what they perceived as the university elevating foreigners above domestic students.
Reputation and ranking
Shandong University was one of the Project 985 universities in China to appear in the world's top 500 universities in the first global university ranking in 2003, according to the Academic Ranking of World Universities. The joint THE-QS World University Rankings 2005 ranked Shandong University =282nd in the world. In the general university ranking performed by the Chinese University Alumni Association (CUAA), Shandong University ranked number 14 among Top 100 Chinese universities in 2010. It reached the 11th highest score in the "teaching" category of this ranking. Shandong University's engineering programs have also been ranked number 15 nationwide by the Research Center of Management and Science in China (2008). For the last 10 years, Shandong University has been continuously ranked among the top 10 universities nationwide in terms of the number of publications included in the Science Citation Index. Research at Shandong University is deemed particular strong in the areas of physics, mathematics, and medicine. A ranking by Mines ParisTech based on the number of alumni holding CEO position in Fortune Global 500 companies placed Shandong University first within China.
The 2023 CWTS Leiden Ranking ranked Shandong University at 19th in the world based on their publications for the time period 2018–2021. In 2021, it ranked 75th among the universities around the world by SCImago Institutions Rankings. Shandong University ranked 34th among the leading universities globally in the Nature Index 2023 Annual Tables by Nature Research, that measure the high-quality research published in 82 high-quality science journals. The Academic Ranking of World Universities, also known as the "Shanghai Ranking", placed the university 101th-150th in the world. Shandong University ranked 191st worldwide and 18th nationwide in the CWUR World University Ranking 2023.
Administration
At the top level, Shandong University is governed by a president () and a cabinet of vice presidents (), each with a specific portfolio of responsibilities (e.g., research, international exchange). Central administrative departments (e.g., for finance, human resources, research, or international affairs) are led by a director (). Below the central administration, the university is organized by subject area into 31 faculties that are referred to as "Schools" () as well as a graduate school. Each school is headed by a dean () and may be divided further into departments headed by a chairperson. Academic programs are offered in 11 main disciplines: philosophy, economics, law, literature, history, natural sciences, engineering, management, medicine, education, and military science. There are 104 undergraduate degree programs, 209 master's degree programs, and 127 doctoral degree programs. In addition, there are seven professional master's degree programs in law, business management, engineering, clinical medicine, public health, dentistry, and public administration.
The student population is around 57,500 full-time students, of which 14,500 are postgraduate students, and over 1,000 are foreign students (data from 2009).
The major research efforts at Shandong University are organized in 34 national, provincial, and ministerial key academic disciplines, two national key research labs, 21 provincial and ministerial key research labs, a national engineering and technology promotion center, 10 provincial technology research centers, three national basic scientific research and personnel development bases; three social science key research bases approved by Ministry of Education; and three national fundamental science personnel development bases. Among its faculty are 23 members (including adjuncts) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Chinese Academy of Engineering. Three general hospitals, including Qilu Hospital, and 12 teaching hospitals are affiliated with the university. The university library houses a collection of over 3,550,000 items.
Schools and departments
School of Business Administration
School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
School of Civil Engineering
School of Computer Science and Technology
School of Control Science and Engineering
School of Dentistry
School of Economics
School of Electrical Engineering
School of Energy and Power Engineering
School of Environmental Science and Engineering
School of Fine Arts
School of Foreign Languages and Literature
School of History and Culture
School of Information Science and Engineering
School of International Education
School of Journalism
School of Law
School of Life Science
School of Literature and Journalism
School of Macroelectronics
School of Marxist Theory Education
School of Materials Science and Engineering
School of Mathematics and System Sciences
School of Mechanical Engineering
School of Medicine
School of Nursing
School of Pharmacy
School of Philosophy and Social Development
School of Physical Education
School of Physics
School of Political Science and Public Administration
School of Public Health
Taishan College (honor school)
Nishan College (honor school)
General Study Program
Campuses
Shandong University has a total of seven campuses. All but two of them are located in Jinan, the capital city of Shandong Province. Together they cover an area of 3.8 km2. There are two campuses outside Jinan, one is located in Qingdao, and another is in Weihai.
Central Campus
Construction of the Central Campus commenced in 1959, about a year after the university had moved back from Qingdao to Jinan and during a time that coincided with the Great Leap Forward, the Great Chinese Famine, as well as a devastating flood of the Yellow River (in July 1959). The Central Campus houses the central administration (in the Mingde Building, ), the main university library, a large dining hall, as well as student dormitories. The central campus is home to the schools of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Environmental Engineering, Economics, History and Culture, Marxism–Leninism, Life Sciences, Mathematics and System Science, Literature and Journalism and Communication, as well as Information Science and Engineering. One of Shandong University's hotels (, or for short: "Xueren Dasha", ) is also located on the central campus. The roads within the Central Campus are named after concepts from Confucianism.
Hongjialou Campus
The Hongjialou Campus derives its name from the Hongjialou Square and is located immediately to the north and east of the Square and the Sacred Heart Cathedral (). The first construction on the campus dates back to 1936 when it was used for the Jinan Yifan Girls' Middle School () that was operated by Franciscan sisters () of the Archdiocese of Jinan. In 1948, the Yifan Girls' Middle School was combined with Liming Middle School () and its former campus became part of the Shandong Agricultural Institute that used it until 1958, when the Institute moved to Tai'an. In October 1958, the Hongjialou Campus became Shandong University's first Campus after the university moved back to Jinan from Qingdao. The Hongjialou Campus houses the Schools of Law, Foreign Languages and Literature as well as Fine Arts.
Baotuquan Campus
The Baotuquan Campus is the former campus of Cheeloo University and was established in 1909. The design for the campus was made by Perkins, Fellows and Hamilton, an architectural firm from Chicago renowned for its school buildings in the "Prairie School" style. The American architects attempted to include Chinese architectural features into the design of the buildings on the new Cheeloo University campus in Jinan. They did, however, mistakenly assume that the roof shape was the only distinguishing feature of Chinese architecture. As a result, the buildings feature Chinese-style roofs on buildings that lack the matching support elements such as wooden Dougong brackets that characterize Chinese architecture. Historical buildings on the Baotuquan Campus include the Bergen Science Hall (, formerly for Chemistry and Biology), the Mateer Science Hall (formerly for Physics and Physiology), the McCormick Hall, and the Alumni Gate (the former main entrance, construction completed on June 17, 1924). Baotuquan Campus houses the schools of public health, nursing, dentistry, pharmacy, and medicine.
Qianfoshan Campus
The Qianfoshan Campus was established in 1949 and served as the campus of Shandong University of Technology. It became a part of Shandong University when Shandong University of Technology was merged into Shandong University in July 2000. The campus has a total area of about 420,000 square meters and remains exclusively dedicated to engineering. It is home to the schools of Materials Science and Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Computer Science and Technology, Control Science and Engineering, Energy and Power Engineering, Physical Education, as well as Civil Engineering. The roads on the Qianfoshan Campus are named after famous engineers and inventors from China as well as abroad.
Xinglongshan Campus
The Xinglongshan Campus is the newest campus of Shandong University and also its largest campus in Jinan with an area of about 769,000 square meters. Construction of the campus started in March 2003 and its first facilities were ready for use in August 2004. The campus is used to house first- and second-year students of nine different departments. The Xinglongshan Campus also houses a Student Associations Activity Center with a total floor space of about 2000 square meters.
Qilu Software College Campus
The Qilu Software College Campus is home to the School of Computer Science and Technology as well as to
the university's Software College. Campus construction started in July 2001 and the campus now has a total area of about 267,000 square meters. More than 3,000 students live on the Qilu Software College Campus. The campus is located next to a cluster of commercial software ventures, such as the China International ICT Innovation Cluster (CIIIC) and shares educational resources with these businesses.
Weihai Campus
Weihai Campus was established in 1984, its campus covers a total area of about 1 million square meters, making it the largest campus of Shandong University. Shandong University Weihai Campus is organized in 13 departments that include the College of Korean Studies, the Business School, the Law School, the School of Journalism and Communication, the Art Institute, the College of Ocean Science, the School of Information Engineering, the School of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering, the Institute of Space Science and Physics, the Mathematics and Statistics Institute, the School of International Education, and the College of Vocational and Technical Training. To the west of the Weihai campus lies the Shandong University Academic Center, a beach-front hotel and conference center.
Qingdao Campus
Construction of the Qingdao Campus started in March 2011 and the first development phase was inaugurated in September 2016. The campus is located north of Xingshi Zhuang Village () in Aoshanwei Town () that is part of Jimo City and located to the northeast of Qingdao. The campus site is immediately adjacent to the seashore of Aoshan Bay and the coastal highway (). The total planning area covers about two million square meters, 43 percent of which are included in the first construction phase. When completed, the Qingdao Campus will have a capacity of 30,000 students; recruitment of the first class of 5,000 freshman students is planned for the fall of 2013. The construction cost is estimated at 800 million Chinese Yuan (about 124 million US Dollars). The architecture of the new campus is intended to blend Chinese and western elements. Many buildings will incorporate the red roofs and other building style elements of the German colonial architecture in Qingdao. The master plan for the campus was developed by Perkins Eastman (New York). One of the founders of Perkins Eastman, Bradford Perkins is the grandson of Dwight H. Perkins, whose firm (Perkins, Fellows, & Hamilton) designed the Cheeloo University campus in Jinan. The campus will be dedicated to advanced science and engineering research, with a special emphasis on interfacing with high-tech industry and international academic collaboration. It is part of a plan to give Shandong University a presence that is distributed throughout the province in a manner that is comparable to the University of California system, but retains a greater level of central control.
International cooperation and exchange
Shandong University has established an international network for educational cooperation and has signed exchange agreements with over 70 universities from over 50 countries. Shandong also is associated in a sister school for American Middle Schools and Junior Highs, including Scofield Magnet Middle School. Among its faculty are international researchers and scholars, who either visit for a short term (less than 1 month, 160 visitors in 2009), a medium term (less than half a year, 70 visitors in 2009), or for the long term (more than half a year, 80 visitors in 2009). Of the 80 long-term international faculty members, 30 language scholars teach languages such as English, Japanese, Korean, French, German, Spanish, and Russian. The others are active in disciplines such as philosophy, biology, chemistry, physics, law, international politics and economics, as well as Chinese classics and traditional philosophy.
About 1500 international students from about 40 countries come to study at Shandong University each year. An international student population numbering more than 1000 can be found on campus at any given time during the semester. Most of these international students come from Asian and African countries, but there are also students from Europe, the United States, Canada, and Australia. Since 1980, Shandong University has received more than 10,000 students from over 60 countries. Popular study subjects are Chinese language and culture, but also economics and medicine. Furthermore, Shandong University participates in international short term exchange programs and receives approximately 2500 international student visitors for such programs per year.
In 2006, Shandong University created a joint urban research center with the University of Cincinnati in the United States, and a presence on each other's campus. An International Laboratory operated in the a partnership with Virginia Tech was inaugurated in the Integrated Research Building on the Central Campus in August 2010. The laboratory focuses on a biophysics and engineering analysis of biological model systems drawn from China's biodiversity. Shandong University is a partner university of the Study China Programme, which is coordinated by the University of Manchester and funded by the UK Department for Business, Innovation and Skills.
Research Centers
State Key Laboratories
State Key Laboratory for Crystal Materials
State Laboratory for Microbial Technology
National Engineering Laboratory
National Engineering Laboratory for the Reduction of Coal-fired Pollutants Emission
National Research Center
National Glycoengineering Research Center
Ministry of Education Key Laboratories
Key Laboratory for Colloid and Interface Chemistry
Key Laboratory for Liquid Structure and Heredity of Materials
Key Laboratory for Experimental Teratology
Key Laboratory for Cardiovascular Remodelling and Function Research
Key Laboratory for Cryptologic Technology and Information Security
Key Laboratory of Power System Intelligent Dispatch and Control
Ministry of Health Key Laboratories
Key Laboratory for Otolaryngology
Key Research Base of the Ministry of Education in Humanities and Social Sciences
Center for Zhouyi and Ancient Chinese Philosophy
Center for Judaic and Inter-Religious Studies
Institute for Literary Theory and Aesthetics
Institute for Contemporary Socialism
National Research Institutes
Institute for Crystal Materials
Institute for Microbiology
Institute for Infrared and Remote Sensing Technology
Research Centers of Shandong Province
Geotechnical and Structural Engineering Research Center
Laboratory for Risk Analysis and Random Calculus
Institute for Religion, Science, and Social Studies
Number Theory at Shandong University
High Energy Physics Group
Oriental Archaeology Research Center
Center for Economic Research
Center for Health Management & Policy
Center for European Studies
Center for Space Thermal Science
Center for Japanese Studies
Key Laboratory for Otolaryngology
Modern Logistics Research Center
Institute of ECIWO Biology
University hospitals
Shandong University Qilu Hospital
Qilu Hospital was established as the hospital of Cheeloo University. Construction started in 1914 and was supervised by Harold Balme (1878–1953), a British physician from King's College Hospital in London, who would later serve as the third president of Cheeloo University (from 1921 until 1927). The first building of the new hospital (today known as the "Republican Building") was inaugurated on September 27, 1915, by the military governor of Shandong, Jin Yunpeng. About 20 years later, the hospital moved to a new building (completed in 1936) and the old building was used by Cheeloo University's School of Medicine. Today, the Shandong University Qilu Hospital as a total capacity of 1,800 beds and treats more than 1.9 million outpatient treatments per year. It has departments include cardiology, internal medicine, hematology, gynecology and obstetrics, otolaryngology, general surgery, neurosurgery, and pediatrics. The hospital is located at Wenhua West Road 107 in Jinan.
Second Hospital of Shandong University
The Second Hospital of Shandong University has a capacity of about 1200 beds and has departments for neurosurgery, orthopedic surgery, and internal medicine. The hospital is managed by the National Medical Department and affiliated with Shandong University, it is located at Beiyuan Street 247 in Jinan.
Stomatology Hospital of Shandong University
The Stomatology Hospital of Shandong University was founded in 1977. It has 105 employees and is organized into four research centers and two laboratories. It is located at Wenhua West Road 44 in Jinan.
Identity
The official university motto is "Noble in Spirit, Boundless in Knowledge" (); it was adopted in The university also uses the branding slogan "Soul of the mountains, spirit of the sea" () in reference to Shandong's geographical nature as a mountainous peninsula. At the main entrance gate (south gate) to the university's Central Campus, an inscription defines the mission of the university as "Preparing talents for the world; Striving for the prosperity and strength of the country" (). The official lettering is a reproduction of calligraphy written by Mao Zedong. In March 1964, during the period between the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, Mao wrote the characters in the address of a thank-you note to Gao Heng, a professor at Shandong University who had sent him literature.
The official anthem of Shandong University () was written by lyricist Cheng Fangwu (), modified by a group of people, and composer Zheng Lvcheng (). The lyrics of the official anthem are:
The song of Shandong University () was written by lyricist Qiao Yu (), who also wrote the lyrics for My Motherland, and composer Gu Jianfen (), both natives of Shandong Province. The lyrics of the anthem are:
List of university presidents
Tang Shaoyi, 1901
Zhou Xuexi, 1901, later became 2-term Finance Minister of the Republic of China
Wang Shoupeng, (acting) president of Shandong University in Jinan, 1926–1927
Yang Zhensheng, president of National Shandong University in Qingdao, 1930–1932
Zhao Taimou, president of National Shandong University in Qingdao, 1932–1936 and 1946–1949
Lin Jiqing, (acting) president of National Shandong University in Qingdao, 1936–1946
Hua Gang, president of Shandong University (Qingdao), 1951–1955
Chao Zhefu, president of Shandong University (Qingdao), 1956–1958
Cheng Fangwu, president of Shandong University (Jinan), 1958–1974
Wu Fuheng, 1979–1984
Deng Conghao, 1984–1986
Pan Chengdong, 1986–1997
Zeng Fanren, 1998–2000
Zhan Tao, 2000–2008
Xu Xianming, 2008–2013
Zhang Rong, 2013–2017
Fan Liming, 2017–2022
Li Shucai, 2022-present
Notable faculty and alumni
Lao She (1899–1966), writer, author of the novel "Rickshaw Boy" and the play "Teahouse"
Feng Yuanjun (1900–1974), writer and scholar of Chinese classical literature and literary history
Gao Heng (1900–1986), pioneer in the modern interpretation of the I Ching, corresponded with Mao Zedong
Ji Xianlin (1911–2009), linguist, paleographer, historian, writer
Jīn Xuěfēi (1956-, pen name Ha Jin), writer, publishes in English, winner of the American National Book Award (1999)
James Veneris (1922-2004), American soldier in the Korean War who defected, English professor
Li Congjun (1949-), president of Xinhua News Agency (since 2008)
Liang Shiqiu (1903–1987), writer and translator, translated the complete works of Shakespeare and George Orwell's Animal Farm into Chinese
Lydia H. Liu, comparative literature scholar, Columbia University, 1997 Guggenheim Fellow
Lu Kanru (1903-1978), scholar of classical Chinese literature
Luo Ronghuan (1902–1963), Marshall of the People's Liberation Army, served as security chief during the Long March
Ma Ruifang (1942-), author and scholar, studied works of Pu Songling
Mo Yan (1955- ), novelist and author of short stories, winner of Nobel Prize in Literature 2012
Peng Shige (1947-), mathematician contributed to stochastic analysis and mathematical finance
Shen Congwen (1902–1988), writer combining vernacular and classical Chinese writing techniques
Tong Dizhou (1902–1979), embryologist and vice president of the Chinese Academy of Science
Wang Ganchang (1907–1998), nuclear physicist (student of Lise Meitner) and one of the principal contributors to the Chinese nuclear deterrent
Wang Pu (1902–1969), nuclear physicist (also a student of Lise Meitner) and founder of Shandong University's School of Physics
Wang Tongzhao (王统照, 1897–1957), novelist and poet, author of the novel "Mountain Rain" and head of Shandong University's Chinese Department
Wang Xiaoyun (1966-), mathematician, demonstrated collision attacks against commonly used hash functions
Wen Yiduo (1899–1946), poet and scholar, author of poetry influenced by Western models, wrote poetry collections Hongzhu (紅燭, "Red Candle") and Sishui (死水, "Dead Water")
Wu Aiying (1951-), Minister of Justice of China (since 2005)
Xiang Huaicheng (1939-), economist and former Minister of Finance of China
Zang Kejia (1905–2004), poet, chief editor of Poetry magazine, co-edited the "Selected Poems of Chairman Mao"
Zhang Dongju
Zhao Xiao (1967-), economist, argued that China's economy would benefit from the spread of Christianity
Zhou Ming-Zhen (1918–1996), paleontologist, worked on early tertiary mammals
See also
Other academic institutions in Jinan (not part of Shandong University):
University of Jinan ()
Shandong Normal University ()
Shandong Jianzhu University ()
Shandong Jiaotong University ()
Shandong University of Finance and Economics ()
Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine ()
Shandong University of Arts ()
References
External links
Shandong University website
Shandong University website
Universities and colleges in Jinan
Universities in China with English-medium medical schools
Vice-ministerial universities in China
Universities and colleges in Qingdao
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%20equations%20%28fluid%20dynamics%29
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Euler equations (fluid dynamics)
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In fluid dynamics, the Euler equations are a set of quasilinear partial differential equations governing adiabatic and inviscid flow. They are named after Leonhard Euler. In particular, they correspond to the Navier–Stokes equations with zero viscosity and zero thermal conductivity.
The Euler equations can be applied to incompressible or compressible flow. The incompressible Euler equations consist of Cauchy equations for conservation of mass and balance of momentum, together with the incompressibility condition that the flow velocity is a solenoidal field. The compressible Euler equations consist of equations for conservation of mass, balance of momentum, and balance of energy, together with a suitable constitutive equation for the specific energy density of the fluid. Historically, only the equations of conservation of mass and balance of momentum were derived by Euler. However, fluid dynamics literature often refers to the full set of the compressible Euler equations – including the energy equation – as "the compressible Euler equations".
The mathematical characters of the incompressible and compressible Euler equations are rather different. For constant fluid density, the incompressible equations can be written as a quasilinear advection equation for the fluid velocity together with an elliptic Poisson's equation for the pressure. On the other hand, the compressible Euler equations form a quasilinear hyperbolic system of conservation equations.
The Euler equations can be formulated in a "convective form" (also called the "Lagrangian form") or a "conservation form" (also called the "Eulerian form"). The convective form emphasizes changes to the state in a frame of reference moving with the fluid. The conservation form emphasizes the mathematical interpretation of the equations as conservation equations for a control volume fixed in space (which is useful
from a numerical point of view).
History
The Euler equations first appeared in published form in Euler's article "Principes généraux du mouvement des fluides", published in Mémoires de l'Académie des Sciences de Berlin in 1757 (although Euler had previously presented his work to the Berlin Academy in 1752).
The Euler equations were among the first partial differential equations to be written down, after the wave equation. In Euler's original work, the system of equations consisted of the momentum and continuity equations, and thus was underdetermined except in the case of an incompressible flow. An additional equation, which was called the adiabatic condition, was supplied by Pierre-Simon Laplace in 1816.
During the second half of the 19th century, it was found that the equation related to the balance of energy must at all times be kept for compressible flows, and the adiabatic condition is a consequence of the fundamental laws in the case of smooth solutions. With the discovery of the special theory of relativity, the concepts of energy density, momentum density, and stress were unified into the concept of the stress–energy tensor, and energy and momentum were likewise unified into a single concept, the energy–momentum vector.
Incompressible Euler equations with constant and uniform density
In convective form (i.e., the form with the convective operator made explicit in the momentum equation), the incompressible Euler equations in case of density constant in time and uniform in space are:
where:
is the flow velocity vector, with components in an N-dimensional space ,
, for a generic function (or field) denotes its material derivative in time with respect to the advective field and
is the gradient of the specific (with the sense of per unit mass) thermodynamic work, the internal source term, and
is the flow velocity divergence.
represents body accelerations (per unit mass) acting on the continuum, for example gravity, inertial accelerations, electric field acceleration, and so on.
The first equation is the Euler momentum equation with uniform density (for this equation it could also not be constant in time). By expanding the material derivative, the equations become:
In fact for a flow with uniform density the following identity holds:
where is the mechanic pressure. The second equation is the incompressible constraint, stating the flow velocity is a solenoidal field (the order of the equations is not causal, but underlines the fact that the incompressible constraint is not a degenerate form of the continuity equation, but rather of the energy equation, as it will become clear in the following). Notably, the continuity equation would be required also in this incompressible case as an additional third equation in case of density varying in time or varying in space. For example, with density uniform but varying in time, the continuity equation to be added to the above set would correspond to:
So the case of constant and uniform density is the only one not requiring the continuity equation as additional equation regardless of the presence or absence of the incompressible constraint. In fact, the case of incompressible Euler equations with constant and uniform density discussed here is a toy model featuring only two simplified equations, so it is ideal for didactical purposes even if with limited physical relevance.
The equations above thus represent respectively conservation of mass (1 scalar equation) and momentum (1 vector equation containing scalar components, where is the physical dimension of the space of interest). Flow velocity and pressure are the so-called physical variables.
In a coordinate system given by the velocity and external force vectors and have components and , respectively. Then the equations may be expressed in subscript notation as:
Singularities
where the and subscripts label the N-dimensional space components, and is the Kroenecker delta. The use of Einstein notation (where the sum is implied by repeated indices instead of sigma notation) is also frequent.
Properties
Although Euler first presented these equations in 1755, many fundamental questions or concepts about them remain unanswered.
In three space dimensions, in certain simplified scenarios, the Euler equations produce singularities.
Smooth solutions of the free (in the sense of without source term: g=0) equations satisfy the conservation of specific kinetic energy:
In the one-dimensional case without the source term (both pressure gradient and external force), the momentum equation becomes the inviscid Burgers equation:
This model equation gives many insights into Euler equations.
Nondimensionalisation
In order to make the equations dimensionless, a characteristic length , and a characteristic velocity , need to be defined. These should be chosen such that the dimensionless variables are all of order one. The following dimensionless variables are thus obtained:
and of the field unit vector:
Substitution of these inversed relations in Euler equations, defining the Froude number, yields (omitting the * at apix):
Euler equations in the Froude limit (no external field) are named free equations and are conservative. The limit of high Froude numbers (low external field) is thus notable and can be studied with perturbation theory.
Conservation form
The conservation form emphasizes the mathematical properties of Euler equations, and especially the contracted form is often the most convenient one for computational fluid dynamics simulations. Computationally, there are some advantages in using the conserved variables. This gives rise to a large class of numerical methods
called conservative methods.
The free Euler equations are conservative, in the sense they are equivalent to a conservation equation:
or simply in Einstein notation:
where the conservation quantity in this case is a vector, and is a flux matrix. This can be simply proved.
At last Euler equations can be recast into the particular equation:
Spatial dimensions
For certain problems, especially when used to analyze compressible flow in a duct or in case the flow is cylindrically or spherically symmetric, the one-dimensional Euler equations are a useful first approximation. Generally, the Euler equations are solved by Riemann's method of characteristics. This involves finding curves in plane of independent variables (i.e., and ) along which partial differential equations (PDEs) degenerate into ordinary differential equations (ODEs). Numerical solutions of the Euler equations rely heavily on the method of characteristics.
Incompressible Euler equations
In convective form the incompressible Euler equations in case of density variable in space are:
where the additional variables are:
is the fluid mass density,
is the pressure, .
The first equation, which is the new one, is the incompressible continuity equation. In fact the general continuity equation would be:
but here the last term is identically zero for the incompressibility constraint.
Conservation form
The incompressible Euler equations in the Froude limit are equivalent to a single conservation equation with conserved quantity and associated flux respectively:
Here has length and has size .
In general (not only in the Froude limit) Euler equations are expressible as:
Conservation variables
The variables for the equations in conservation form are not yet optimised. In fact we could define:
where is the momentum density, a conservation variable.
where is the force density, a conservation variable.
Euler equations
In differential convective form, the compressible (and most general) Euler equations can be written shortly with the material derivative notation:
where the additional variables here is:
is the specific internal energy (internal energy per unit mass).
The equations above thus represent conservation of mass, momentum, and energy: the energy equation expressed in the variable internal energy allows to understand the link with the incompressible case, but it is not in the simplest form.
Mass density, flow velocity and pressure are the so-called convective variables (or physical variables, or lagrangian variables), while mass density, momentum density and total energy density are the so-called conserved variables (also called eulerian, or mathematical variables).
If one expands the material derivative the equations above are:
Incompressible constraint (revisited)
Coming back to the incompressible case, it now becomes apparent that the incompressible constraint typical of the former cases actually is a particular form valid for incompressible flows of the energy equation, and not of the mass equation. In particular, the incompressible constraint corresponds to the following very simple energy equation:
Thus for an incompressible inviscid fluid the specific internal energy is constant along the flow lines, also in a time-dependent flow. The pressure in an incompressible flow acts like a Lagrange multiplier, being the multiplier of the incompressible constraint in the energy equation, and consequently in incompressible flows it has no thermodynamic meaning. In fact, thermodynamics is typical of compressible flows and degenerates in incompressible flows.
Basing on the mass conservation equation, one can put this equation in the conservation form:
meaning that for an incompressible inviscid nonconductive flow a continuity equation holds for the internal energy.
Enthalpy conservation
Since by definition the specific enthalpy is:
The material derivative of the specific internal energy can be expressed as:
Then by substituting the momentum equation in this expression, one obtains:
And by substituting the latter in the energy equation, one obtains that the enthalpy expression for the Euler energy equation:
In a reference frame moving with an inviscid and nonconductive flow, the variation of enthalpy directly corresponds to a variation of pressure.
Thermodynamics of ideal fluids
In thermodynamics the independent variables are the specific volume, and the specific entropy, while the specific energy is a function of state of these two variables.
For a thermodynamic fluid, the compressible Euler equations are consequently best written as:
where:
is the specific volume
is the flow velocity vector
is the specific entropy
In the general case and not only in the incompressible case, the energy equation means that for an inviscid thermodynamic fluid the specific entropy is constant along the flow lines, also in a time-dependent flow. Basing on the mass conservation equation, one can put this equation in the conservation form:
meaning that for an inviscid nonconductive flow a continuity equation holds for the entropy.
On the other hand, the two second-order partial derivatives of the specific internal energy in the momentum equation require the specification of the fundamental equation of state of the material considered, i.e. of the specific internal energy as function of the two variables specific volume and specific entropy:
The fundamental equation of state contains all the thermodynamic information about the system (Callen, 1985), exactly like the couple of a thermal equation of state together with a caloric equation of state.
Conservation form
The Euler equations in the Froude limit are equivalent to a single conservation equation with conserved quantity and associated flux respectively:
where:
is the momentum density, a conservation variable.
is the total energy density (total energy per unit volume).
Here has length N + 2 and has size N(N + 2). In general (not only in the Froude limit) Euler equations are expressible as:
where is the force density, a conservation variable.
We remark that also the Euler equation even when conservative (no external field, Froude limit) have no Riemann invariants in general. Some further assumptions are required
However, we already mentioned that for a thermodynamic fluid the equation for the total energy density is equivalent to the conservation equation:
Then the conservation equations in the case of a thermodynamic fluid are more simply expressed as:
where is the entropy density, a thermodynamic conservation variable.
Another possible form for the energy equation, being particularly useful for isobarics, is:
where is the total enthalpy density.
Quasilinear form and characteristic equations
Expanding the fluxes can be an important part of constructing numerical solvers, for example by exploiting (approximate) solutions to the Riemann problem. In regions where the state vector y varies smoothly, the equations in conservative form can be put in quasilinear form:
where are called the flux Jacobians defined as the matrices:
Obviously this Jacobian does not exist in discontinuity regions (e.g. contact discontinuities, shock waves in inviscid nonconductive flows). If the flux Jacobians are not functions of the state vector , the equations reveals linear.
Characteristic equations
The compressible Euler equations can be decoupled into a set of N+2 wave equations that describes sound in Eulerian continuum if they are expressed in characteristic variables instead of conserved variables.
In fact the tensor A is always diagonalizable. If the eigenvalues (the case of Euler equations) are all real the system is defined hyperbolic, and physically eigenvalues represent the speeds of propagation of information. If they are all distinguished, the system is defined strictly hyperbolic (it will be proved to be the case of one-dimensional Euler equations). Furthermore, diagonalisation of compressible Euler equation is easier when the energy equation is expressed in the variable entropy (i.e. with equations for thermodynamic fluids) than in other energy variables. This will become clear by considering the 1D case.
If is the right eigenvector of the matrix corresponding to the eigenvalue , by building the projection matrix:
One can finally find the characteristic variables as:
Since A is constant, multiplying the original 1-D equation in flux-Jacobian form with P−1 yields the characteristic equations:
The original equations have been decoupled into N+2 characteristic equations each describing a simple wave, with the eigenvalues being the wave speeds. The variables wi are called the characteristic variables and are a subset of the conservative variables. The solution of the initial value problem in terms of characteristic variables is finally very simple. In one spatial dimension it is:
Then the solution in terms of the original conservative variables is obtained by transforming back:
this computation can be explicited as the linear combination of the eigenvectors:
Now it becomes apparent that the characteristic variables act as weights in the linear combination of the jacobian eigenvectors. The solution can be seen as superposition of waves, each of which is advected independently without change in shape. Each i-th wave has shape wipi and speed of propagation λi. In the following we show a very simple example of this solution procedure.
Waves in 1D inviscid, nonconductive thermodynamic fluid
If one considers Euler equations for a thermodynamic fluid with the two further assumptions of one spatial dimension and free (no external field: g = 0):
If one defines the vector of variables:
recalling that is the specific volume, the flow speed, the specific entropy, the corresponding jacobian matrix is:
At first one must find the eigenvalues of this matrix by solving the characteristic equation:
that is explicitly:
This determinant is very simple: the fastest computation starts on the last row, since it has the highest number of zero elements.
Now by computing the determinant 2×2:
by defining the parameter:
or equivalently in mechanical variables, as:
This parameter is always real according to the second law of thermodynamics. In fact the second law of thermodynamics can be expressed by several postulates. The most elementary of them in mathematical terms is the statement of convexity of the fundamental equation of state, i.e. the hessian matrix of the specific energy expressed as function of specific volume and specific entropy:
is defined positive. This statement corresponds to the two conditions:
The first condition is the one ensuring the parameter a is defined real.
The characteristic equation finally results:
That has three real solutions:
Then the matrix has three real eigenvalues all distinguished: the 1D Euler equations are a strictly hyperbolic system.
At this point one should determine the three eigenvectors: each one is obtained by substituting one eigenvalue in the eigenvalue equation and then solving it. By substituting the first eigenvalue λ1 one obtains:
Basing on the third equation that simply has solution s1=0, the system reduces to:
The two equations are redundant as usual, then the eigenvector is defined with a multiplying constant. We choose as right eigenvector:
The other two eigenvectors can be found with analogous procedure as:
Then the projection matrix can be built:
Finally it becomes apparent that the real parameter a previously defined is the speed of propagation of the information characteristic of the hyperbolic system made of Euler equations, i.e. it is the wave speed. It remains to be shown that the sound speed corresponds to the particular case of an isentropic transformation:
Compressibility and sound speed
Sound speed is defined as the wavespeed of an isentropic transformation:
by the definition of the isoentropic compressibility:
the soundspeed results always the square root of ratio between the isentropic compressibility and the density:
Ideal gas
The sound speed in an ideal gas depends only on its temperature:
Since the specific enthalpy in an ideal gas is proportional to its temperature:
the sound speed in an ideal gas can also be made dependent only on its specific enthalpy:
Bernoulli's theorem for steady inviscid flow
Bernoulli's theorem is a direct consequence of the Euler equations.
Incompressible case and Lamb's form
The vector calculus identity of the cross product of a curl holds:
where the Feynman subscript notation is used, which means the subscripted gradient operates only on the factor .
Lamb in his famous classical book Hydrodynamics (1895), still in print, used this identity to change the convective term of the flow velocity in rotational form:
the Euler momentum equation in Lamb's form becomes:
Now, basing on the other identity:
the Euler momentum equation assumes a form that is optimal to demonstrate Bernoulli's theorem for steady flows:
In fact, in case of an external conservative field, by defining its potential φ:
In case of a steady flow the time derivative of the flow velocity disappears, so the momentum equation becomes:
And by projecting the momentum equation on the flow direction, i.e. along a streamline, the cross product disappears because its result is always perpendicular to the velocity:
In the steady incompressible case the mass equation is simply:
that is the mass conservation for a steady incompressible flow states that the density along a streamline is constant. Then the Euler momentum equation in the steady incompressible case becomes:
The convenience of defining the total head for an inviscid liquid flow is now apparent:
which may be simply written as:
That is, the momentum balance for a steady inviscid and incompressible flow in an external conservative field states that the total head along a streamline is constant.
Compressible case
In the most general steady (compressibile) case the mass equation in conservation form is:
Therefore, the previous expression is rather
The right-hand side appears on the energy equation in convective form, which on the steady state reads:
The energy equation therefore becomes:
so that the internal specific energy now features in the head.
Since the external field potential is usually small compared to the other terms, it is convenient to group the latter ones in the total enthalpy:
and the Bernoulli invariant for an inviscid gas flow is:
which can be written as:
That is, the energy balance for a steady inviscid flow in an external conservative field states that the sum of the total enthalpy and the external potential is constant along a streamline.
In the usual case of small potential field, simply:
Friedmann form and Crocco form
By substituting the pressure gradient with the entropy and enthalpy gradient, according to the first law of thermodynamics in the enthalpy form:
in the convective form of Euler momentum equation, one arrives to:
Friedmann deduced this equation for the particular case of a perfect gas and published it in 1922. However, this equation is general for an inviscid nonconductive fluid and no equation of state is implicit in it.
On the other hand, by substituting the enthalpy form of the first law of thermodynamics in the rotational form of Euler momentum equation, one obtains:
and by defining the specific total enthalpy:
one arrives to the Crocco–Vazsonyi form (Crocco, 1937) of the Euler momentum equation:
In the steady case the two variables entropy and total enthalpy are particularly useful since Euler equations can be recast into the Crocco's form:
Finally if the flow is also isothermal:
by defining the specific total Gibbs free energy:
the Crocco's form can be reduced to:
From these relationships one deduces that the specific total free energy is uniform in a steady, irrotational, isothermal, isoentropic, inviscid flow.
Discontinuities
The Euler equations are quasilinear hyperbolic equations and their general solutions are waves. Under certain assumptions they can be simplified leading to Burgers equation. Much like the familiar oceanic waves, waves described by the Euler Equations 'break' and so-called shock waves are formed; this is a nonlinear effect and represents the solution becoming multi-valued. Physically this represents a breakdown of the assumptions that led to the formulation of the differential equations, and to extract further information from the equations we must go back to the more fundamental integral form. Then, weak solutions are formulated by working in 'jumps' (discontinuities) into the flow quantities – density, velocity, pressure, entropy – using the Rankine–Hugoniot equations. Physical quantities are rarely discontinuous; in real flows, these discontinuities are smoothed out by viscosity and by heat transfer. (See Navier–Stokes equations)
Shock propagation is studied – among many other fields – in aerodynamics and rocket propulsion, where sufficiently fast flows occur.
To properly compute the continuum quantities in discontinuous zones (for example shock waves or boundary layers) from the local forms (all the above forms are local forms, since the variables being described are typical of one point in the space considered, i.e. they are local variables) of Euler equations through finite difference methods generally too many space points and time steps would be necessary for the memory of computers now and in the near future. In these cases it is mandatory to avoid the local forms of the conservation equations, passing some weak forms, like the finite volume one.
Rankine–Hugoniot equations
Starting from the simplest case, one consider a steady free conservation equation in conservation form in the space domain:
where in general F is the flux matrix. By integrating this local equation over a fixed volume Vm, it becomes:
Then, basing on the divergence theorem, we can transform this integral in a boundary integral of the flux:
This global form simply states that there is no net flux of a conserved quantity passing through a region in the case steady and without source. In 1D the volume reduces to an interval, its boundary being its extrema, then the divergence theorem reduces to the fundamental theorem of calculus:
that is the simple finite difference equation, known as the jump relation:
That can be made explicit as:
where the notation employed is:
Or, if one performs an indefinite integral:
On the other hand, a transient conservation equation:
brings to a jump relation:
For one-dimensional Euler equations the conservation variables and the flux are the vectors:
where:
is the specific volume,
is the mass flux.
In the one dimensional case the correspondent jump relations, called the Rankine–Hugoniot equations, are:<
In the steady one dimensional case the become simply:
Thanks to the mass difference equation, the energy difference equation can be simplified without any restriction:
where is the specific total enthalpy.
These are the usually expressed in the convective variables:
where:
is the flow speed
is the specific internal energy.
The energy equation is an integral form of the Bernoulli equation in the compressible case.
The former mass and momentum equations by substitution lead to the Rayleigh equation:
Since the second term is a constant, the Rayleigh equation always describes a simple line in the pressure volume plane not dependent of any equation of state, i.e. the Rayleigh line. By substitution in the Rankine–Hugoniot equations, that can be also made explicit as:
One can also obtain the kinetic equation and to the Hugoniot equation. The analytical passages are not shown here for brevity.
These are respectively:
The Hugoniot equation, coupled with the fundamental equation of state of the material:
describes in general in the pressure volume plane a curve passing by the conditions (v0, p0), i.e. the Hugoniot curve, whose shape strongly depends on the type of material considered.
It is also customary to define a Hugoniot function:
allowing to quantify deviations from the Hugoniot equation, similarly to the previous definition of the hydraulic head, useful for the deviations from the Bernoulli equation.
Finite volume form
On the other hand, by integrating a generic conservation equation:
on a fixed volume Vm, and then basing on the divergence theorem, it becomes:
By integrating this equation also over a time interval:
Now by defining the node conserved quantity:
we deduce the finite volume form:
In particular, for Euler equations, once the conserved quantities have been determined, the convective variables are deduced by back substitution:
Then the explicit finite volume expressions of the original convective variables are:<
Constraints
It has been shown that Euler equations are not a complete set of equations, but they require some additional constraints to admit a unique solution: these are the equation of state of the material considered. To be consistent with thermodynamics these equations of state should satisfy the two laws of thermodynamics. On the other hand, by definition non-equilibrium system are described by laws lying outside these laws. In the following we list some very simple equations of state and the corresponding influence on Euler equations.
Ideal polytropic gas
For an ideal polytropic gas the fundamental equation of state is:
where is the specific energy, is the specific volume, is the specific entropy, is the molecular mass, here is considered a constant (polytropic process), and can be shown to correspond to the heat capacity ratio. This equation can be shown to be consistent with the usual equations of state employed by thermodynamics.
From this equation one can derive the equation for pressure by its thermodynamic definition:
By inverting it one arrives to the mechanical equation of state:
Then for an ideal gas the compressible Euler equations can be simply expressed in the mechanical or primitive variables specific volume, flow velocity and pressure, by taking the set of the equations for a thermodynamic system and modifying the energy equation into a pressure equation through this mechanical equation of state. At last, in convective form they result:
and in one-dimensional quasilinear form they results:
where the conservative vector variable is:
and the corresponding jacobian matrix is:
Steady flow in material coordinates
In the case of steady flow, it is convenient to choose the Frenet–Serret frame along a streamline as the coordinate system for describing the steady momentum Euler equation:
where , and denote the flow velocity, the pressure and the density, respectively.
Let be a Frenet–Serret orthonormal basis which consists of a tangential unit vector, a normal unit vector, and a binormal unit vector to the streamline, respectively. Since a streamline is a curve that is tangent to the velocity vector of the flow, the left-hand side of the above equation, the convective derivative of velocity, can be described as follows:
where is the radius of curvature of the streamline.
Therefore, the momentum part of the Euler equations for a steady flow is found to have a simple form:
For barotropic flow , Bernoulli's equation is derived from the first equation:
The second equation expresses that, in the case the streamline is curved, there should exist a pressure gradient normal to the streamline because the centripetal acceleration of the fluid parcel is only generated by the normal pressure gradient.
The third equation expresses that pressure is constant along the binormal axis.
Streamline curvature theorem
Let be the distance from the center of curvature of the streamline, then the second equation is written as follows:
where
This equation states:In a steady flow of an inviscid fluid without external forces, the center of curvature of the streamline lies in the direction of decreasing radial pressure.
Although this relationship between the pressure field and flow curvature is very useful, it doesn't have a name in the English-language scientific literature. Japanese fluid-dynamicists call the relationship the "Streamline curvature theorem".
This "theorem" explains clearly why there are such low pressures in the centre of vortices, which consist of concentric circles of streamlines.
This also is a way to intuitively explain why airfoils generate lift forces.
Exact solutions
All potential flow solutions are also solutions of the Euler equations, and in particular the incompressible Euler equations when the potential is harmonic.
Solutions to the Euler equations with vorticity are:
parallel shear flows – where the flow is unidirectional, and the flow velocity only varies in the cross-flow directions, e.g. in a Cartesian coordinate system the flow is for instance in the -direction – with the only non-zero velocity component being only dependent on and and not on
Arnold–Beltrami–Childress flow – an exact solution of the incompressible Euler equations.
Two solutions of the three-dimensional Euler equations with cylindrical symmetry have been presented by Gibbon, Moore and Stuart in 2003. These two solutions have infinite energy; they blow up everywhere in space in finite time.
See also
Bernoulli's theorem
Kelvin's circulation theorem
Cauchy equations
Froude number
Madelung equations
Navier–Stokes equations
Burgers equation
Jeans equations
Perfect fluid
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Eponymous equations of physics
Equations of fluid dynamics
Leonhard Euler
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dev%20Anand
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Dev Anand
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Dev Anand (born Dharamdev Pishorimal Anand; 26 September 1923 – 3 December 2011) was an Indian actor, writer, director and producer known for his work in Hindi cinema. Anand is considered as one of the greatest and most successful actors in the history of Indian cinema. Through a career that spanned over six decades, he worked in more than 100 films. Anand is a recipient of four Filmfare Awards, including two for Best Actor. The Government of India honored him with Padma Bhushan, Indian third highest civilian honour in 2001 and with Dadasaheb Phalke Award in 2002.
In 1946, Anand debuted with a lead role in Prabhat Films's Hum Ek Hain, a film about Hindu-Muslim unity. He had his first hit in Ziddi (1948) and gained widespread recognition with the superhit Baazi (1951), which is regarded as the forerunner of the spate of "Bombay Noir" films that followed in Bollywood in the 1950s. In later years, he starred in many successful films such as Jaal (1952), Taxi Driver (1954), Insaniyat (1955), Munimji (1955), C.I.D. (1956), Pocket Maar (1956), Funtoosh (1956), Paying Guest (1957), Kala Pani (1958) and Kala Bazar (1960). Anand acquired a romantic image with films such as Manzil (1960), Jab Pyar Kisi Se Hota Hai (1961), Hum Dono (1961), Asli-Naqli (1962) and Tere Ghar Ke Samne (1963).
The 1965 film Guide marked a major milestone in Anand's career. Based on the novel by R. K. Narayan, it became a highly successful movie; and was entered for Best Foreign Language Film at the 38th Academy Awards. He reunited with Vijay Anand for the movie Jewel Thief (1967), based on the thriller genre, it emerged a big hit at the box office. In the 70s, he forayed into direction with espionage drama Prem Pujari. Throughout the 70s and 80s, he starred in many box office hits such as (1970), which was highest grosser of the year, Hare Rama Hare Krishna (1971), Banarasi Babu (1973), Heera Panna (1973), Amir Garib (1974), Warrant (1975), Des Pardes (1978), Lootmaar (1980), Swami Dada (1982), Hum Naujawan (1985) and Lashkar (1989). The 2011 film Chargesheet was Anand's final film.
Anand's fast dialogue delivery and unique nodding style became the trademarks of his acting in movies. His style was often copied by other actors. Many of Dev Anand's films explored his cultural viewpoint of the world and often highlighted many socially relevant topics. Anand won the Filmfare Award for Best Actor for the films Kala Pani and Guide. Anand was married to actress Kalpana Kartik, with whom he had two children, including Suneil Anand.
Early life and family
Anand was born Dharamdev Pishorimal Anand on 26 September 1923 in the Shakargarh tehsil of the Gurdaspur district in Punjab. His father Pishori Lal Anand was a well-to-do advocate in Gurdaspur District Court. Dev was the third of four sons born to Anand. One of Dev's younger sisters Sheel Kanta Kapur, is the mother of film director Shekhar Kapur. His older brothers were Manmohan Anand (Advocate, Gurdaspur Dist. Court), Chetan Anand and Vijay Anand. He did his schooling till matriculation from Sacred Heart School, Dalhousie (then in Punjab), and went to Government College Dharamshala before going to Lahore to study. Later Dev completed a B.A. degree in English Literature from the Government College, Lahore in British India.
Part of the Anand family, he co-founded Navketan Films in 1949 with his elder brother Chetan Anand.
Career
After completing his BA degree in English literature from the Government College, Lahore (then in British India). Anand left his hometown for Bombay in the early 1940s. He began his career in the military censor's office at Churchgate, for a monthly salary of Rs. 65. Later, he worked as a clerk in an accounting firm for a salary of Rs. 85. He joined his older brother, Chetan, as a member of the Indian People's Theatre Association (IPTA). Anand aspired to become a performer after seeing Ashok Kumar's performance in films such as Achhut Kanya and Kismet. Anand quoted in an interview that "I remember when I gate-crashed into the office of the man who gave me the first break, he kept looking at me – Babu Rao Pai of Prabhat Film Studios. At that time he made up his mind that this boy deserves a break and later mentioned to his people that 'this boy struck me because of his smile and beautiful eyes and his tremendous confidence.'" Then he was soon offered the lead role in Prabhat Films' Hum Ek Hain (1946), a film about Hindu-Muslim unity, where Dev Anand played a Hindu boy and was paired opposite Kamala Kotnis. While shooting the film in Pune, Anand befriended the actor Guru Dutt. Between them, they agreed that if one of them were to become successful in the film industry, he would help the other also to be successful. They formed a mutual understanding that when Anand produced a film, Dutt would direct it and when Dutt directed a film, Anand would act in it.
Late 1940s and romance with Suraiya
In the late 1940s, Anand was offered a few roles starring as the male lead opposite singer-actress Suraiya in woman-oriented films. While shooting these films, they became romantically involved. The two of them were paired in many films: Vidya (1948), Jeet (1949), (1949), (1950), Nili (1950), Sanam and Do Sitare (1951). In these films, Suraiya was always the first biller in the credits, indicating that she was a bigger star than Anand. She fell in love with him during the shooting of the song Kinare Kinare Chale Jayen Ge from the film Vidya— while shooting the scene, the boat they were in capsized, and Anand saved Suraiya from drowning. Initially, Suraiya's family used to welcome Anand at home, but when her maternal grandmother found out that the two were in love, and even planned an actual marriage on the set of Jeet, she started monitoring them. The two shared love letters and messages through their co-actors, like Durga Khote and Kamini Kaushal, who went out of their way to engineer secret rendezvous. During the shooting of the film (1950), Anand finally proposed to Suraiya and gave her a diamond ring worth Rs 3,000. Her maternal grandmother opposed the relationship as they were Muslim and Anand was Hindu, so, Suraiya remained unmarried. They stopped acting together after her grandmother opposed their partnership, and Do Sitare was the last film in which they appeared together. Although the films he starred in with Suraiya had been successful, the producers and directors of those films attributed their success to the acting prowess and screen presence of Suraiya. Anand began looking for an opportunity to play the main male lead in a film where his acting skills could be demonstrated, so as to dispel scepticism about his acting abilities.
Dev Anand often spoke about Suraiya and his love affair with her, in various interviews, he gave to film magazines, such as Stardust (June 1972 issue), Star & Style (Feb 1987 issue) and TV to Karan Thapar for BBC (2002), while both were alive and after Suraiya's death in interviews given on TV to Simi Garewal (Rendezvous with Simi Garewal) and others on TV and for news magazines.
Break and the 1950s stardom
Anand was offered his first big break by Ashok Kumar. He spotted Anand hanging around in the studios and picked him as the hero for the Bombay Talkies production Ziddi (1948), co-starring Kamini Kaushal, which became an instant success. After Ziddis success, Anand decided that he would start producing films. It was in the film Ziddi, that the first ever Kishore-Lata duet, "Yeh Kaun Aaya Karke Yeh Sola Singhar", was recorded. This duet was an instant hit, and from here on both playback singers' associations with Dev Anand began. This continued for the next four decades. His association with Kishore Kumar started when the former sang the first solo of his playback singing career – "Marne Ki Duayen" – picturized on Dev Anand in the movie Ziddi. Dev had forged a very strong bond of friendship with Kishore Kumar during the making of the film. In 1949, he launched his own company Navketan Films (named after his elder brother Chetan's son Ketan and which means "New Banner"), which, as of 2011, has produced 35 films. Nirala (1950), a commercial success, saw him being paired opposite Madhubala for the first time, with whom he would later form a popular pair.
Dev chose Guru Dutt as director for the crime thriller, Baazi (1951). The film, starring Dev Anand, Geeta Bali, and Kalpana Kartik was a trendsetter, regarded as the forerunner of the spate of urban crime films that followed in Bollywood in the 1950s. The film Baazi saw the debut of Kalpana Kartik (aka Mona Singha) as the lead female actress and Guru Dutt as a director. The collaboration was a success at the box office and the duo of Dev Anand and Kalpana Kartik were offered many films to star in together. They signed all the film offers and subsequently the movies Aandhiyan (1952), Taxi Driver (1954), House No. 44 (1955) and Nau Do Gyarah (1957) went on to become big hits too. During the making of the film Taxi Driver, the couple fell in love and Dev proposed marriage to his heroine Kalpana. In 1954, Taxi Driver was declared a hit and the two decided to marry in a quiet ceremony. The couple had a son, Suneil Anand in 1956 and later a daughter, Devina, was born. After her marriage, Kalpana decided not to pursue her acting career further. Nau Do Gyarah was the couple's last movie together.
A rapid-fire style of dialogue delivery and a penchant for nodding while speaking became Dev's style in films such as Baazi (1951), Jaal (1952), House No. 44 (1955), Pocket Maar (1956), Munimji (1955), Funtoosh (1956), C.I.D. (1956) and Paying Guest (1957). In the 1950s his films were of the mystery genre or light comedy love stories or were films with social relevance such as Ek Ke Baad Ek (1959) and Funtoosh (1956). His style was lapped up by the audience and was widely imitated. He starred in a string of box office successes for the remainder of the 1950s opposite newcomer Waheeda Rehman in C.I.D. (1956), Solva Saal (1958), Kala Bazar (1960) and Baat Ek Raat Ki (1962). Waheeda first became a star when C.I.D became a hit. In 1955, he co-starred with Dilip Kumar in the blockbuster actioner Insaniyat. With his acting in the box office success Kala Pani (1958) opposite Madhubala and Nalini Jaywant, as the son who is willing to go to any lengths to clear his framed father's name, he won his first Filmfare award for Best Actor for the film. He attempted films of tragic genre occasionally, such as Pocket Maar (1956), Kala Pani (1958), Bombai Ka Baboo (1960) and Sharabi (1964) and tasted success with them. Dev also played a few characters with a negative shade, as in Jaal (1952) where he played a smuggler, then as an absconding gang member in Dushman (1957), and as a black marketer in Kala Bazar. Apart from his pairing with Suraiya and Kalpana Kartik, his pairing with Nutan, Waheeda Rehman and Geeta Bali was popular among the audiences in the late 50s and 60s. His films Rahi (1952) and Aandhiyan (1952), were screened along with Raj Kapoor's Awaara. From the early fifties till the mid-sixties, the trio of actors Dilip Kumar, Raj Kapoor, and Anand ruled the roost.
Romantic hero image in the 1960s
In the sixties, Dev Anand acquired a romantic image with films such as Manzil and Tere Ghar Ke Samne with Nutan, Kinare Kinare with Meena Kumari, Maya with Mala Sinha, Asli-Naqli with Sadhana Shivdasani, Jab Pyar Kisi Se Hota Hai, Mahal with Asha Parekh and Teen Deviyaan opposite three heroines Kalpana, Simi Garewal and Nanda. In the film Teen Deviyaan, Dev Anand played a playboy. One of his notable films of the early sixties was Hum Dono (1961) which he produced and acted in, as Anand, a young lover who joins the army in frustration over being shunned by the father of his love Meeta (played by Sadhana Shivdasani). Anand played a double role in the film, also acting as Major Varma, his look-alike who he runs into in the army and forms a deep friendship. Notable for its music by Jaidev, the film was a box office hit.
His first colour film, Guide with Waheeda Rehman was based on the novel of the same name by R. K. Narayan. Dev Anand himself was the impetus for making the film version of the book. He met and persuaded Narayan to give his assent to the project. Dev Anand tapped his friends in Hollywood to launch an Indo-US co-production that was shot in Hindi and English simultaneously and was released in 1965. Guide, directed by younger brother Vijay Anand, was an acclaimed movie. Dev played Raju, a voluble guide, who supports Rosy (Waheeda) in her bid for freedom. He is not above thoughtlessly exploiting her for personal gains. Combining style with substance, he gave an affecting performance as a man grappling with his emotions in his passage through love, shame, and salvation.
He reunited with Vijay Anand for the movie Jewel Thief (1967), based on the thriller genre which featured Vyjayanthimala, Tanuja, Anju Mahendru, Faryal and Helen and was very successful. Their next collaboration, (1970), again a thriller, in which Dev was paired opposite Hema Malini was a huge blockbuster. It was Johnny Mera Naam which made Hema Malini a big star.
In 1969, he was a member of the jury at the 6th Moscow International Film Festival.
Directorial debut and versatility in the 1970s
His directorial debut, the espionage drama Prem Pujari, was a flop but has developed a cult following over the years. The film introduced Zaheeda and had Waheeda Rehman as the female lead. He tasted success with his 1971 directorial effort, Hare Rama Hare Krishna, shot primarily in Nepal around Swyambhunath, and Bhaktapur, in which talks about the prevalent hippie culture. His find Zeenat Aman, who played the mini-skirt sporting, pot-smoking Janice, became an overnight sensation. Dev also became known as a filmmaker of trenchantly topical themes. The same year, he starred with Mumtaz in Tere Mere Sapne, an adaptation of A. J. Cronin's novel, The Citadel. The film was directed by Dev's brother, Vijay, and was also successful. In 1971 he paired again with Zaheeda in Gambler which went on to become a success.
In the 1970s, Raj Kapoor started playing roles of father in films such as Kal Aaj Aur Kal in 1971 and Dharam Karam in 1974 and had put on a lot of weight and films with Dilip Kumar as a lead hero like Dastaan and Bairaag were failures at the box office. Some of the hurriedly made films with Dev Anand as the leading man—two each opposite Hema Malini – Shareef Badmaash, Joshila and two with Zeenat Aman – Ishk Ishk Ishk, Prem Shastra and Saheb Bahadur with Priya Rajvansh — became flops and posed a threat to his career as a leading man. He bounced back with the double-role film Banarasi Babu in 1973. He delivered commercial hits again with young heroines like with Sharmila Tagore in Yeh Gulistan Hamara (1972), with Yogeeta Bali and Raakhee in Banarasi Babu (1973), with Hema Malini in Chhupa Rustam (1973) and Amir Garib (1974), with Zeenat Aman in Heera Panna (1973), Warrant (1975), Kalabaaz (1977) and Darling Darling (1977) and with Parveen Babi in Bullet (1976). The presence of his discoveries in the 1970s—Zeenat, and later Tina Munim, in films and his good on-screen chemistry with beautiful young stars such as Raakhee, Parveen Babi, Hema Malini and Zeenat Aman in various films boosted Dev's image as the evergreen star even though he was well into his fifties. He attempted different genres of films to acquire versatile hero images. He was already 55 when he was paired with Tina Munim in 1978 in Des Pardes, which became among the top five-grossing films of the year.
Political activism during the Emergency in the late 1970s
Dev Anand has also been politically active. He led a group of film personalities who stood up against the Internal Emergency imposed by the then Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi. He actively campaigned against her with his supporters in the Indian parliamentary elections in 1977. He also formed a party called the National Party of India, which he later disbanded.
Later career and an evergreen hero
The 1978 hit Des Pardes, directed by Dev Anand was the debut movie of actress Tina Munim and this film's success gave him the tag of the Evergreen Star. Dev Anand was offered the lead role in Man Pasand by director Basu Chatterjee. Dev Anand's successful run at the box office continued in the 1980s with Man Pasand, Lootmaar (both opposite Tina Munim), and Swami Dada (1982), all being critically acclaimed and box office hits.
Though Dev Anand's demand as the lead hero had not decreased even in the 1980s, he decided that it was the right time to introduce his son Suneil Anand in films as the hero. He launched his son in the Kramer vs. Kramer-inspired Anand Aur Anand (1984), which was produced and directed by Dev Anand himself and had music by R.D. Burman. He expected the film to do well, but the film was a box office disaster, and Suneil Anand decided not to act in films anymore.
But films with Dev Anand as the lead hero in Hum Naujawan (1985) and Lashkar (1989) continued to be box office successes and were appreciated by critics. He was already 60 years old in 1983 when he acted opposite Christine O'Neil and alongside Rati Agnihotri and Padmini Kolhapure in Swami Dada. In 1989, his directorial venture Sachche ka Bolbala was released. Though critically acclaimed, it was a commercial failure. His performance as Professor Anand in the 1989 film Lashkar was widely appreciated and was a major success at the box office. Lashkar was his last hit film in the lead role in 1989, with him neither producer nor director of the film.
He directed Pyar Ka Tarana in 1993, without casting himself in any role. His directorial movie Gangster (1995) had a controversial nude rape scene of an unknown actress, though the movie was released uncut. He received offers to star in the lead roles outside of his home banners in films like Return of Jewel Thief and Aman Ke Farishtey but the former was not successful at the box office and the latter wasn't released in 1993 though the film was fully ready to be released.
Since 1992, seven of his directorial ventures were box office failures. His films Sau Crore (1991) and Censor (2000) were critically acclaimed.
His last film Chargesheet (2011) was panned by critics across the board and was a box office flop.
He also starred in English films such as The Evil Within (1970), where he was paired opposite Vietnamese actress Kieu Chinh and Zeenat Aman and Guide (English Version). The English language film The Evil Within was a 20th-Century Fox production that couldn't get the nod from the concerned authorities due to its parallel track dealing with opium selling and thus the Indian viewers were deprived of this American venture. Of the 114 Hindi films, he appeared in, over 6 decades, Kahin Aur Chal (1968) had a delayed release in the early 1970s and the multi-starrer film Ek Do Teen Chaar (1980) remained unreleased and Shrimanji (1968) had him in a guest appearance. By 2011, he had the second most solo lead roles in Hindi films— 92, with Rajesh Khanna having the record for the most films as the solo lead hero in Hindi films – 106.
Production
Dev Anand has produced 35 films. Of the 35 films he produced, 18 were commercially successful at the box office. He wrote the stories for 13 of his films. Anand's films are well known for their hit songs. He is known to have been an active participant in the music sessions of a number of his films. His association with music composers Shankar-Jaikishen, O. P. Nayyar, Kalyanji-Anandji, Sachin Dev Burman and his son Rahul Dev Burman, lyricists Hasrat Jaipuri, Majrooh Sultanpuri, Gopaldas Neeraj, Shailendra, Anand Bakshi, and playback singers Kishore Kumar, Mohammed Rafi and Hemant Kumar produced some very popular songs. Guru Dutt, Kishore Kumar, Mohammed Rafi, Pran, Dilip Kumar, Raj Kapoor, Sunil Dutt, Nargis, Vyjayanthimala, S.D. Burman, Shammi Kapoor and R.D. Burman were his closest friends from the film industry.
Anand is credited with giving actors such as Zarina Wahab in Ishq Ishq Ishq, Jackie Shroff in Swami Dada (1982), Tabu in Hum Naujawan and Richa Sharma (Sanjay Dutt's first wife) a break in the film industry, discovering Zeenat Amaan, Tina Munim and encouraging music composer Rajesh Roshan. Amit Khanna started his career with Navketan as executive producer in 1971 and had been secretary to Dev Anand in the 1970s. He adds, "The uniqueness of Navketan today is that it's the only film company in the world still run by the one who started it." Shatrughan Sinha disclosed in an interview that it was Dev Anand who gave him a break in films by giving him a role in Prem Pujari and since Dev had given Sinha a very small role in that film, he compensated for it by giving Sinha another role in his next film Gambler. Sinha quoted: "Later on we worked together in Sharif Badmash and it was really a privilege to work with him". It was under Dev Anand's Navketan Banner where Guru Dutt, Raj Khosla, Waheeda Rehman, S.D. Burman, Jaidev, Sahir Ludhianvi, Majrooh Sultanpuri, Yash Johar, Shekhar Kapur and Kabir Bedi were given breaks into Hindi films and Dev launched actors Zaheera, Zaheeda Hussain, Zarina Wahab, Natasha Sinha, Ekta Sohini and Sabrina.
Personal life
Anand had a love affair with actress Suraiya from 1948 to 1951. Anand nicknamed Suraiya "Nosey", while to Suraiya, Dev Anand was "Steve", a name chosen from a book Dev Anand had given her. Suraiya also called Anand "Devina" and he called her "Suraiyana", while faking an Italian accent. During the shooting of Jeet (1949), both Anand and Suraiya, had made plans for marriage and elopement, but were unsuccessful due to the opposition from Suraiya's maternal grandmother and maternal uncle. In the 'Star and Style' interview, Suraiya said that she gave in only when both her grandmother and her maternal uncle threatened to get Dev Anand killed. Suraiya and Anand were stopped from acting together after their last film in 1951 by her grandmother. Suraiya remained unmarried throughout her life till she died on 31 January 2004.
Anand was broken after the relationship ended. In 1954, Dev married Kalpana Kartik, an actress from Shimla, in a private marriage during the shooting of the film Taxi Driver. They have two children, son Suneil Anand, born 1956 and daughter Devina Anand.
Reception and legacy
Anand is regarded as one of the greatest actors of Indian cinema. Anand is noted for his charm, diverse roles and handsome face. One of the highest paid actors from 1950s to early 1970s, Anand appeared in Box Office Indias "Top Actors" list sixteen times, (1948, 1951-1963, 1970-1971). In 2022, he was placed in Outlook Indias "75 Best Bollywood Actors" list. Anand was placed seventh among the "Greatest Bollywood Stars" in a UK poll celebrating 100 years of Indian cinema in 2013. He was a part of "Trinity – The Golden Trio" (along with Raj Kapoor and Dilip Kumar).
Anand was widely known as the "first fashion icon" of Bollywood. He made fashion statement with his scarves, mufflers and jackets and his singnature puff. Many film actors and fashion designers have taken inspiration from Anand. Filmfare place him third in its "Bollywood's most stylish men" list. After the film Kaala Paani, there was a period when Anand did not wear black in public. In September 2007, Dev Anand's autobiography Romancing with Life was released at a birthday party with the Indian Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh. In February 2011, his 1961 black-and-white film Hum Dono was digitised, colourised and re-released.
Devesh Sharma of Filmfare termed him a "debonair hero" and noted, "His true matinee idol good looks, suave demeanour and charismatic screen presence made his fans swoon every time he came on screen." Subhash K. Jha of Firstpost called him the "most easygoing superstar cinema has ever known" and said, "Dev Anand symbolized the most dazzling bastion of Hindi cinema. He was flamboyant, debonair, mischievous and romantic." Shekhar Gupta of The Print said, "Nobody could match Dev Anand for style." He added, "Many of his films were ahead of his time. But you always walked out of the sultry small-town hall copying Dev Anand’s leaning-tower gait, his mannerism, and always hummed his songs." Journalist Rauf Ahmed added Anand on his "Biggest stars in Hindi filmdom" list and noted, "For almost five decades Anand has continued to fascinate his fans with his never-say-die spirit and flamboyance. He is one actor for whom time has had the courtesy to stand still." Saibal Chatterjee of The Tribune noted, "There is nobody quite like Dev Anand. A timeless Bollywood icon, an eternal dreamer and a man of action, his creative life has never known anything akin to a full stop."
Comparison with Gregory Peck
Anand was often compared to the famous hollywood actor Gregory Peck the world over, Dev Anand said that he didn't feel ecstatic hearing the tag line bestowed on him in his heyday. "When you are at an impressionable age you make idols, but when you grow out of the phase, you develop your own persona. I don't want to be known as India's Gregory Peck, I am Dev Anand". Acquainted with the Bollywood actor, Peck's personal interactions with him spanned four to five long meetings in Europe and Mumbai.
Dev Anand and Suraiya met Peck for the first time at Bombay's Willingdon Club, after the Filmfare Awards in 1954. He knew of the "Indian Star" as an actor, more so probably because his romance with Suraiya was grabbing the headlines. The second time they met was in Rome when Dev Anand was on his way back from the Venice Film Festival, and they exchanged pleasantries. The third meeting was in London on the set of Moby Dick. However, Suraiya asked for an exclusive meeting with her idol at her house. Though Anand says jealousy was natural for anyone in love, he didn't mind that he was not invited. "I didn't quite feel anything. It wasn't as if they were going to fall in love or make love. Even if they would have, it wouldn't have mattered. I was mature enough. Moreover, he wasn't my rival. I too was a big star by then," says Anand.
Death
Dev Anand died in his room at The Washington Mayfair Hotel in London at the age of 88 on 3 December 2011 of a cardiac arrest. His death came just two months after the release of his last film Chargesheet, which he directed and produced. Anand was reportedly in London for a medical checkup at the time of his death. On 10 December, his funeral service was held at a small chapel in London after which his coffin was taken to the Putney Vale Crematorium in southwest London. His ashes were returned to India for immersion burial in the Godavari River.
Filmography
Honors and tributes
On the occasion of 100 years of Indian cinema, a postage stamp bearing his image and likeness was released by India Post to honor him on 3 May 2013. In Anand's honor, a brass statue was unveiled at Walk of the Stars at Bandra Bandstand, along with his autograph, in February 2013.
Several actors have been inspired by Anand's work and fondly remembers him. Actor Rajesh Khanna called him his "inspiration" and said, "I was an ardent admirer of Dev Anand from my teens. I was highly inspired by his acting style. Dev Anand was my inspiration, my idol." Actress Mala Sinha said, "Devsaab was the romantic idol of Indian youth. He paired successfully opposite every leading lady of his period." Talking about his stardom, actress Asha Parekh said, "The only stardom I’ve seen seem that is comparable with Rajesh Khanna is Dev Anand. Deewane the fans Dev Saab ke." ("Fans were crazy about Dev Anand")
Various film festivals have given tribute to Dev Anand. In 2011, Bengaluru International Film Festival and in 2023, Kolkata International Film Festival organised event and screened Anand's films. A three-day weekend retrospective of five of Anand's biggest 1960s hits, was organised by the Directorate of Film Festivals in 2005.
A garden named "Sadabhaar Dev Anand Udyan", after the actor was inaugurated by his son in Mahavir Jain Vidyalaya, Mumbai.
Accolades
Civilian Award
National Film Awards
Filmfare Awards
Other Awards
Other Recognitions
1997 – Mumbai Academy of Moving Images Award for his Outstanding Services to the Indian Film Industry.
1998 – Lifetime Achievement Award by the Ujala Anandlok Film Awards Committee in Calcutta.
1999 – Sansui Lifetime Achievement Award for his "Immense Contribution to Indian Cinema" in New Delhi.
2000 – Film Goers' Mega Movie Maestro of the Millennium Award in Mumbai.
2001 – Evergreen Star of the Millennium Award at the Zee Gold Bollywood Awards on 28 April 2001 at the Nassau Coliseum, New York.
2004 – Legend of Indian Cinema Award at Atlantic City (United States).
2004 – Living Legend Award by the Federation of Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) in recognition of his contribution to the Indian entertainment industry.
2005 – Sony Gold Award.
2006 – Glory of India Award by IIAF, London.
2007 – Punjab Ratan (Jewel of Punjab) Award by the World Punjabi Organisation (European Division) for his outstanding contribution to the field of art and entertainment.
2008 – Lifetime Achievement Award by Ramya Cultural Academy in association with Vinmusiclub.
2008 – Lifetime Achievement Award by Rotary Club of Bombay.
2008 – Awarded at the IIJS Solitaire Awards.
2009 – Legend Award given to Dev Anand by Rajinikanth.
2010 – Phalke Ratna Award by Dadasaheb Phalke Academy.
2010 – Rashtriya Gaurav Award.
2011 – Rashtriya Kishore Kumar Samman from the Government of Madhya Pradesh.
2013 – Lifetime Achievement Maestro Award by the Whistling Woods International Institute.
In July 2000, in New York City, he was honored by an Award from the hands of the then First Lady of the United States of America, Hillary Clinton, for his "Outstanding Contribution to Indian Cinema".
In 2000, he was awarded the Indo-American Association "Star of the Millennium" Award in Silicon Valley, California.
Donna Ferrar, Member of the New York State Assembly, honored him with a "New York State Assembly Citation" for his "Outstanding Contribution to the Cinematic Arts Worthy of the Esteem and Gratitude of the Great State of New York" on 1 May 2001.
In 2005, he was honored with a "Special National Film Award" by the Government of Nepal at Nepal's first National Indian film festival in Stockholm.
In 2008, he was guest of honor at a dinner hosted by the Provost of Highland Council in Inverness, Scotland to celebrate 10 years since he first worked in the Scottish Highlands. He spent several days in the area, en route to Cannes, as a guest of the Highlands and Islands Film Commission.
References
Further reading
Cinema Modern: Navketan Story, by Sidharth Bhatia. Harpercollins, 2011. .
Evergreen Dev Anand (An Anthology of Dev Anand's Contribution to Cinema), by Kamal Dhiman. Nikita Publications, 2014. .
External links
RIP Dev Anand – Bollywood Mourns Dev Anand's Death
The Telegraph – Dev Anand Bio and Obituary
Indian male film actors
1923 births
2011 deaths
Filmfare Lifetime Achievement Award winners
Dadasaheb Phalke Award recipients
Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in arts
Hindi-language film directors
Hindi film producers
Male actors in Hindi cinema
Film directors from Mumbai
Film producers from Mumbai
Male actors from Mumbai
Government College University, Lahore alumni
People from Gurdaspur
Punjabi people
20th-century Indian male actors
20th-century Indian film directors
21st-century Indian film directors
Filmfare Awards winners
People from Narowal District
People from Lahore
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tale%20cohomology
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Étale cohomology
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In mathematics, the étale cohomology groups of an algebraic variety or scheme are algebraic analogues of the usual cohomology groups with finite coefficients of a topological space, introduced by Grothendieck in order to prove the Weil conjectures. Étale cohomology theory can be used to construct ℓ-adic cohomology, which is an example of a Weil cohomology theory in algebraic geometry. This has many applications, such as the proof of the Weil conjectures and the construction of representations of finite groups of Lie type.
History
Étale cohomology was introduced by , using some suggestions by Jean-Pierre Serre, and was motivated by the attempt to construct a Weil cohomology theory in order to prove the Weil conjectures. The foundations were soon after worked out by Grothendieck together with Michael Artin, and published as and SGA 4. Grothendieck used étale cohomology to prove some of the Weil conjectures (Bernard Dwork had already managed to prove the rationality part of the conjectures in 1960 using p-adic methods), and the remaining conjecture, the analogue of the Riemann hypothesis was proved by Pierre Deligne (1974) using ℓ-adic cohomology.
Further contact with classical theory was found in the shape of the Grothendieck version of the Brauer group; this was applied in short order to diophantine geometry, by Yuri Manin. The burden and success of the general theory was certainly both to integrate all this information, and to prove general results such as Poincaré duality and the Lefschetz fixed-point theorem in this context.
Grothendieck originally developed étale cohomology in an extremely general setting, working with concepts such as Grothendieck toposes and Grothendieck universes. With hindsight, much of this machinery proved unnecessary for most practical applications of the étale theory, and gave a simplified exposition of étale cohomology theory. Grothendieck's use of these universes (whose existence cannot be proved in Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory) led to some speculation that étale cohomology and its applications (such as the proof of Fermat's Last Theorem) require axioms beyond ZFC. However, in practice étale cohomology is used mainly in the case of constructible sheaves over schemes of finite type over the integers, and this needs no deep axioms of set theory: with care the necessary objects can be constructed without using any uncountable sets, and this can be done in ZFC, and even in much weaker theories.
Étale cohomology quickly found other applications, for example Deligne and George Lusztig used it to construct representations of finite groups of Lie type; see Deligne–Lusztig theory.
Motivation
For complex algebraic varieties, invariants from algebraic topology such as the fundamental group and cohomology groups are very useful, and one would like to have analogues of these for varieties over other fields, such as finite fields. (One reason for this is that Weil suggested that the Weil conjectures could be proved using such a cohomology theory.) In the case of cohomology of coherent sheaves, Serre showed that one could get a satisfactory theory just by using the Zariski topology of the algebraic variety, and in the case of complex varieties this gives the same cohomology groups (for coherent sheaves) as the much finer complex topology. However, for constant sheaves such as the sheaf of integers this does not work: the cohomology groups defined using the Zariski topology are badly behaved. For example, Weil envisioned a cohomology theory for varieties over finite fields with similar power as the usual singular cohomology of topological spaces, but in fact, any constant sheaf on an irreducible variety has trivial cohomology (all higher cohomology groups vanish).
The reason that the Zariski topology does not work well is that it is too coarse: it has too few open sets. There seems to be no good way to fix this by using a finer topology on a general algebraic variety. Grothendieck's key insight was to realize that there is no reason why the more general open sets should be subsets of the algebraic variety: the definition of a sheaf works perfectly well for any category, not just the category of open subsets of a space. He defined étale cohomology by replacing the category of open subsets of a space by the category of étale mappings to a space: roughly speaking, these can be thought of as open subsets of finite unbranched covers of the space. These turn out (after a lot of work) to give just enough extra open sets that one can get reasonable cohomology groups for some constant coefficients, in particular for coefficients Z/nZ when n is coprime to the characteristic of the field one is working over.
Some basic intuitions of the theory are these:
The étale requirement is the condition that would allow one to apply the implicit function theorem if it were true in algebraic geometry (but it isn't — implicit algebraic functions are called algebroid in older literature).
There are certain basic cases, of dimension 0 and 1, and for an abelian variety, where the answers with constant sheaves of coefficients can be predicted (via Galois cohomology and Tate modules).
Definitions
For any scheme X the category Et(X) is the category of all étale morphisms from a scheme to X. It is an analogue of the category of open subsets of a topological space, and its objects can be thought of informally as "étale open subsets" of X. The intersection of two open sets of a topological space corresponds to the pullback of two étale maps to X. There is a rather minor set-theoretical problem here, since Et(X) is a "large" category: its objects do not form a set.
A presheaf on a topological space X is a contravariant functor from the category of open subsets to sets. By analogy we define an étale presheaf on a scheme X to be a contravariant functor from Et(X) to sets.
A presheaf F on a topological space is called a sheaf if it satisfies the sheaf condition: whenever an open subset is covered by open subsets Ui, and we are given elements of F(Ui) for all i whose restrictions to Ui ∩ Uj agree for all i, j, then they are images of a unique element of F(U). By analogy, an étale presheaf is called a sheaf if it satisfies the same condition (with intersections of open sets replaced by pullbacks of étale morphisms, and where a set of étale maps to U is said to cover U if the topological space underlying U is the union of their images). More generally, one can define a sheaf for any Grothendieck topology on a category in a similar way.
The category of sheaves of abelian groups over a scheme has enough injective objects, so one can define right derived functors of left exact functors. The étale cohomology groups Hi(F) of the sheaf F of abelian groups are defined as the right derived functors of the functor of sections,
(where the space of sections Γ(F) of F is F(X)). The sections of a sheaf can be thought of as Hom(Z, F) where Z is the sheaf that returns the integers as an abelian group. The idea of derived functor here is that the functor of sections doesn't respect exact sequences as it is not right exact; according to general principles of homological algebra there will be a sequence of functors H 0, H 1, ... that represent the 'compensations' that must be made in order to restore some measure of exactness (long exact sequences arising from short ones). The H 0 functor coincides with the section functor Γ.
More generally, a morphism of schemes f : X → Y induces a map f∗ from étale sheaves over X to étale sheaves over Y, and its right derived functors are denoted by Rqf∗, for q a non-negative integer. In the special case when Y is the spectrum of an algebraically closed field (a point), Rqf∗(F ) is the same as Hq(F ).
Suppose that X is a Noetherian scheme. An abelian étale sheaf F over X is called finite locally constant if it is represented by an étale cover of X. It is called constructible if X can be covered by a finite family of subschemes on each of which the restriction of F is finite locally constant. It is called torsion if F(U) is a torsion group for all étale covers U of X. Finite locally constant sheaves are constructible, and constructible sheaves are torsion. Every torsion sheaf is a filtered inductive limit of constructible sheaves.
ℓ-adic cohomology groups
In applications to algebraic geometry over a finite field Fq with characteristic p, the main objective was to find a replacement for the singular cohomology groups with integer (or rational) coefficients, which are not available in the same way as for geometry of an algebraic variety over the complex number field. Étale cohomology works fine for coefficients Z/nZ for n co-prime to p, but gives unsatisfactory results for non-torsion coefficients. To get cohomology groups without torsion from étale cohomology one has to take an inverse limit of étale cohomology groups with certain torsion coefficients; this is called ℓ-adic cohomology, where ℓ stands for any prime number different from p. One considers, for schemes V, the cohomology groups
and defines the ℓ-adic cohomology group
as their inverse limit. Here Zℓ denotes the ℓ-adic integers, but the definition is by means of the system of 'constant' sheaves with the finite coefficients Z/ℓkZ. (There is a notorious trap here: cohomology does not commute with taking inverse limits, and the ℓ-adic cohomology group, defined as an inverse limit, is not the cohomology with coefficients in the étale sheaf Zℓ; the latter cohomology group exists but gives the "wrong" cohomology groups.)
More generally, if F is an inverse system of étale sheaves Fi, then the cohomology of F is defined to be the inverse limit of the cohomology of the sheaves Fi
and though there is a natural map
this is not usually an isomorphism. An ℓ-adic sheaf is a special sort of inverse system of étale sheaves Fi, where i runs through positive integers, and Fi is a module over Z/ℓi Z and the map from Fi+1 to Fi is just reduction mod Z/ℓi Z.
When V is a non-singular algebraic curve of genus g, H1 is a free Zℓ-module of rank 2g, dual to the Tate module of the Jacobian variety of V. Since the first Betti number of a Riemann surface of genus g is 2g, this is isomorphic to the usual singular cohomology with Zℓ coefficients for complex algebraic curves. It also shows one reason why the condition ℓ ≠ p is required: when ℓ = p the rank of the Tate module is at most g.
Torsion subgroups can occur, and were applied by Michael Artin and David Mumford to geometric questions. To remove any torsion subgroup from the ℓ-adic cohomology groups and get cohomology groups that are vector spaces over fields of characteristic 0 one defines
This notation is misleading: the symbol Qℓ on the left represents neither an étale sheaf nor an ℓ-adic sheaf. The etale cohomology with coefficients in the constant etale sheaf Qℓ does also exist but is quite different from . Confusing these two groups is a common mistake.
Properties
In general the ℓ-adic cohomology groups of a variety tend to have similar properties to the singular cohomology groups of complex varieties, except that they are modules over the ℓ-adic integers (or numbers) rather than the integers (or rationals). They satisfy a form of Poincaré duality on non-singular projective varieties, and the ℓ-adic cohomology groups of a "reduction mod p" of a complex variety tend to have the same rank as the singular cohomology groups. A Künneth formula also holds.
For example, the first cohomology group of a complex elliptic curve is a free module of rank 2 over the integers, while the first ℓ-adic cohomology group of an elliptic curve over a finite field is a free module of rank 2 over the ℓ-adic integers, provided ℓ is not the characteristic of the field concerned, and is dual to its Tate module.
There is one way in which ℓ-adic cohomology groups are better than singular cohomology groups: they tend to be acted on by Galois groups. For example, if a complex variety is defined over the rational numbers, its ℓ-adic cohomology groups are acted on by the absolute Galois group of the rational numbers: they afford Galois representations.
Elements of the Galois group of the rationals, other than the identity and complex conjugation, do not usually act continuously on a complex variety defined over the rationals, so do not act on the singular cohomology groups. This phenomenon of Galois representations is related to the fact that the fundamental group of a topological space acts on the singular cohomology groups, because Grothendieck showed that the Galois group can be regarded as a sort of fundamental group. (See also Grothendieck's Galois theory.)
Calculation of étale cohomology groups for algebraic curves
The main initial step in calculating étale cohomology groups of a variety is to calculate them for complete connected smooth algebraic curves X over algebraically closed fields k. The étale cohomology groups of arbitrary varieties can then be controlled using analogues of the usual machinery of algebraic topology, such as the spectral sequence of a fibration. For curves the calculation takes several steps, as follows . Let Gm denote the sheaf of non-vanishing functions.
Calculation of H1(X, Gm)
The exact sequence of étale sheaves
gives a long exact sequence of cohomology groups
Here j is the injection of the generic point, ix is the injection of a closed point x, Gm,K is the sheaf Gm on (the generic point of X), and Zx is a copy of Z for each closed point of X. The groups H i(ix* Z) vanish if i > 0 (because ix* Z is a skyscraper sheaf) and for i = 0 they are Z so their sum is just the divisor group of X. Moreover, the first cohomology group H 1(X, j∗Gm,K) is isomorphic to the Galois cohomology group H 1(K, K*) which vanishes by Hilbert's theorem 90. Therefore, the long exact sequence of étale cohomology groups gives an exact sequence
where Div(X) is the group of divisors of X and K is its function field. In particular H 1(X, Gm) is the Picard group Pic(X) (and the first cohomology groups of Gm are the same for the étale and Zariski topologies). This step works for varieties X of any dimension (with points replaced by codimension 1 subvarieties), not just curves.
Calculation of Hi(X, Gm)
The same long exact sequence above shows that if i ≥ 2 then the cohomology group H i(X, Gm) is isomorphic to H i(X, j*Gm,K), which is isomorphic to the Galois cohomology group H i(K, K*). Tsen's theorem implies that the Brauer group of a function field K in one variable over an algebraically closed field vanishes. This in turn implies that all the Galois cohomology groups H i(K, K*) vanish for i ≥ 1, so all the cohomology groups H i(X, Gm) vanish if i ≥ 2.
Calculation of Hi(X, μn)
If μn is the sheaf of n-th roots of unity and n and the characteristic of the field k are coprime integers, then:
where Picn(X) is group of n-torsion points of Pic(X). This follows from the previous results using the long exact sequence
of the Kummer exact sequence of étale sheaves
and inserting the known values
In particular we get an exact sequence
If n is divisible by p this argument breaks down because p-th roots of unity behave strangely over fields of characteristic p. In the Zariski topology the Kummer sequence is not exact on the right, as a non-vanishing function does not usually have an n-th root locally for the Zariski topology, so this is one place where the use of the étale topology rather than the Zariski topology is essential.
Calculation of H i(X, Z/nZ)
By fixing a primitive n-th root of unity we can identify the group Z/nZ with the group μn of n-th roots of unity. The étale group H i(X, Z/nZ) is then a free module over the ring Z/nZ and its rank is given by:
where g is the genus of the curve X. This follows from the previous result, using the fact that the Picard group of a curve is the points of its Jacobian variety, an abelian variety of dimension g, and if n is coprime to the characteristic then the points of order dividing n in an abelian variety of dimension g over an algebraically closed field form a group isomorphic to (Z/nZ)2g. These values for the étale group H i(X, Z/nZ) are the same as the corresponding singular cohomology groups when X is a complex curve.
Calculation of H i(X, Z/pZ)
It is possible to calculate étale cohomology groups with constant coefficients of order divisible by the characteristic in a similar way, using the Artin–Schreier sequence
instead of the Kummer sequence. (For coefficients in Z/pnZ there is a similar sequence involving Witt vectors.) The resulting cohomology groups usually have ranks less than that of the corresponding groups in characteristic 0.
Examples of étale cohomology groups
If X is the spectrum of a field K with absolute Galois group G, then étale sheaves over X correspond to continuous sets (or abelian groups) acted on by the (profinite) group G, and étale cohomology of the sheaf is the same as the group cohomology of G, i.e. the Galois cohomology of K.
If X is a complex variety, then étale cohomology with finite coefficients is isomorphic to singular cohomology with finite coefficients. (This does not hold for integer coefficients.) More generally the cohomology with coefficients in any constructible sheaf is the same.
If F is a coherent sheaf (or Gm) then the étale cohomology of F is the same as Serre's coherent sheaf cohomology calculated with the Zariski topology (and if X is a complex variety this is the same as the sheaf cohomology calculated with the usual complex topology).
For abelian varieties and curves there is an elementary description of ℓ-adic cohomology. For abelian varieties the first ℓ-adic cohomology group is the dual of the Tate module, and the higher cohomology groups are given by its exterior powers. For curves the first cohomology group is the first cohomology group of its Jacobian. This explains why Weil was able to give a more elementary proof of the Weil conjectures in these two cases: in general one expects to find an elementary proof whenever there is an elementary description of the ℓ-adic cohomology.
Poincaré duality and cohomology with compact support
The étale cohomology groups with compact support of a variety X are defined to be
where j is an open immersion of X into a proper variety Y and j! is the extension by 0 of the étale sheaf F to Y. This is independent of the immersion j. If X has dimension at most n and F is a torsion sheaf then these cohomology groups with compact support vanish if q > 2n, and if in addition X is affine of finite type over a separably closed field the cohomology groups vanish for q > n (for the last statement, see SGA 4, XIV, Cor.3.2).
More generally if f is a separated morphism of finite type from X to S (with X and S Noetherian) then the higher direct images with compact support Rqf! are defined by
for any torsion sheaf F. Here j is any open immersion of X into a scheme Y with a proper morphism g to S (with f = gj), and as before the definition does not depend on the choice of j and Y. Cohomology with compact support is the special case of this with S a point. If f is a separated morphism of finite type then Rqf! takes constructible sheaves on X to constructible sheaves on S. If in addition the fibers of f have dimension at most n then Rqf! vanishes on torsion sheaves for q > 2n. If X is a complex variety then Rqf! is the same as the usual higher direct image with compact support (for the complex topology) for torsion sheaves.
If X is a smooth algebraic variety of dimension N and n is coprime to the characteristic then there is a trace map
and the bilinear form Tr(a ∪ b) with values in Z/nZ identifies each of the groups
and
with the dual of the other. This is the analogue of Poincaré duality for étale cohomology.
An application to curves
This is how the theory could be applied to the local zeta-function of an algebraic curve.
Theorem. Let be a curve of genus defined over , the finite field with elements. Then for
where are certain algebraic numbers satisfying .
This agrees with being a curve of genus with points. It also shows that the number of points on any curve is rather close (within ) to that of the projective line; in particular, it generalizes Hasse's theorem on elliptic curves.
Idea of proof
According to the Lefschetz fixed-point theorem, the number of fixed points of any morphism is equal to the sum
This formula is valid for ordinary topological varieties and ordinary topology, but it is wrong for most algebraic topologies. However, this formula does hold for étale cohomology (though this is not so simple to prove).
The points of that are defined over are those fixed by , where is the Frobenius automorphism in characteristic .
The étale cohomology Betti numbers of in dimensions 0, 1, 2 are 1, 2g, and 1 respectively.
According to all of these,
This gives the general form of the theorem.
The assertion on the absolute values of the is the 1-dimensional Riemann Hypothesis of the Weil Conjectures.
The whole idea fits into the framework of motives: formally [X] = [point] + [line] + [1-part], and [1-part] has something like points.
See also
Locally acyclic morphism
Theorem of absolute purity
References
Chapter1:
External links
Archibald and Savitt Étale cohomology
Goresky Langlands Program For Physicists
Cohomology theories
Homological algebra
Topological methods of algebraic geometry
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banksy
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Banksy
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Banksy is a pseudonymous England-based street artist, political activist and film director whose real name and identity remain unconfirmed and the subject of speculation. Active since the 1990s, his satirical street art and subversive epigrams combine dark humour with graffiti executed in a distinctive stenciling technique. His works of political and social commentary have appeared on streets, walls and bridges throughout the world. Banksy's work grew out of the Bristol underground scene, which involved collaborations between artists and musicians. Banksy says that he was inspired by 3D, a graffiti artist and founding member of the musical group Massive Attack.
Banksy displays his art on publicly visible surfaces such as walls and self-built physical prop pieces. Banksy no longer sells photographs or reproductions of his street graffiti, but his public "installations" are regularly resold, often even by removing the wall they were painted on. Much of his work can be classified as temporary art. A small number of Banksy's works are officially, non-publicly, sold through an agency created by Banksy named Pest Control. Banksy's documentary film Exit Through the Gift Shop (2010) made its debut at the 2010 Sundance Film Festival. In January 2011, he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature for the film. In 2014, he was awarded Person of the Year at the 2014 Webby Awards.
Identity
Banksy's name and identity remain unconfirmed and the subject of speculation. In a 2003 interview with Simon Hattenstone of The Guardian, Banksy is described as "white, 28, scruffy casual—jeans, T-shirt, a silver tooth, silver chain and silver earring. He looks like a cross between Jimmy Nail and Mike Skinner of The Streets." Banksy began as an artist at the age of 14, was expelled from school, and served time in prison for petty crime. According to Hattenstone, "anonymity is vital to him because graffiti is illegal". Banksy reportedly lived in Easton, Bristol, during the late 1990s, before moving to London around 2000.
The Mail on Sunday claimed that Banksy is Robin Gunningham in 2008, born on 28 July 1974 in Yate, from Bristol. Several of Gunningham's associates and former schoolmates at Bristol Cathedral School have corroborated this, and, in 2016, a study by researchers at the Queen Mary University of London using geographic profiling found that the incidence of Banksy's works correlated with the known movements of Gunningham. According to The Sunday Times, Gunningham began employing the name Robin Banks, which eventually became Banksy. Two cassette sleeves featuring his art work from 1993, for the Bristol band Mother Samosa, exist with his signature. In June 2017, DJ Goldie referred to Banksy as "Rob" in an interview for a podcast.
Other speculations on Banksy's identity include the following:
Robert Del Naja (also known as 3D), a member of the trip hop band Massive Attack, had been a graffiti artist during the 1980s prior to forming the band, and was previously identified as a personal friend of Banksy.
In 2020, users on Twitter began to speculate that former Art Attack presenter Neil Buchanan was Banksy. This was denied by Buchanan's publicist.
In 2022, Billy Gannon, a local councillor in Pembroke Dock was rumoured to be Banksy. He subsequently resigned because the speculation was affecting his ability to carry out the duties of a councillor. "I'm being asked to prove who I am not, and the person that I am not may not exist," he said. "I mean, how am I supposed to prove that I'm not somebody who doesn't exist? Just how do you do that?"
In October 2014, an internet hoax circulated that Banksy had been arrested and his identity revealed.
Career
Early career (1990–2001)
Banksy started as a freehand graffiti artist in 1990–1994 as one of Bristol's DryBreadZ Crew (DBZ), with two other artists known as Kato and Tes. He was inspired by local artists and his work was part of the larger Bristol underground scene with Nick Walker, Inkie and 3D. During this time he met Bristol photographer Steve Lazarides, who began selling Banksy's work, later becoming his agent. By 2000 he had turned to the art of stencilling after realising how much less time it took to complete a work. He claims he changed to stencilling while hiding from the police under a rubbish lorry, when he noticed the stencilled serial number and by employing this technique, he soon became more widely noticed for his art around Bristol and London. He was the goalkeeper for the Easton Cowboys and Cowgirls football team in the 1990s, and toured with the club to Mexico in 2001. Banksy's first known large wall mural was The Mild Mild West painted in 1997 to cover advertising of a former solicitors' office on Stokes Croft in Bristol. It depicts a teddy bear lobbing a Molotov cocktail at three riot police.
Banksy's stencils feature striking and humorous images occasionally combined with slogans. The message is usually anti-war, anti-capitalist, or anti-establishment. Subjects often include rats, apes, policemen, soldiers, children, and the elderly.
In July 2011 one of Banksy's early works, Gorilla in a Pink Mask, which had been a prominent landmark on the exterior wall of a former social club in Eastville for over ten years, was unwittingly painted over after the premises became a Muslim cultural centre.
Exhibitions (2002–2003)
On 19 July 2002, Banksy's first Los Angeles exhibition debuted at 33 Gallery, a tiny Silver Lake venue owned by Frank Sosa and was on view until 18 August. The exhibition, entitled Existencilism, "an Exhibition of Art, Lies and Deviousness" was curated by 33 Gallery, Malathion LA's Chris Vargas, Funk Lazy Promotions' Grace Jehan, and B+. The flyer of the exhibition indicates an opening reception was followed by a performance by Money Mark with DJ's Jun, AL Jackson, Rhettmatic, J.Rocc, and Coleman. Some of the paintings exhibited included Smiley Copper H (2002), Leopard and Barcode (2002), Bomb Hugger (2002), and Love Is in the Air (2002).
In 2003, at an exhibition called Turf War, held in a London warehouse, Banksy painted on animals. At the time he gave one of his very few interviews, to the BBC's Nigel Wrench. Although the RSPCA declared the conditions suitable, an animal rights activist chained herself to the railings in protest. An example of his subverted paintings is Monet's Water Lily Pond, adapted to include urban detritus such as litter and a shopping trolley floating in its reflective waters; another is Edward Hopper's Nighthawks, redrawn to show that the characters are looking at a British football hooligan, dressed only in his Union Flag underpants, who has just thrown an object through the glass window of the café. These oil paintings were shown at a twelve-day exhibition in Westbourne Grove, London in 2005.
Banksy, along with Shepard Fairey, Dmote, and others, created work at a warehouse exhibition in Alexandria, Sydney, for Semi-Permanent in 2003. Approximately 1,500 people attended.
£10 notes to Barely Legal (2004–2006)
In August 2004, Banksy produced a quantity of spoof British £10 notes replacing the picture of the Queen's head with Diana, Princess of Wales's head and changing the text "Bank of England" to "Banksy of England". Someone threw a large wad of these into a crowd at Notting Hill Carnival that year, which some recipients then tried to spend in local shops. These notes were also given with invitations to a Santa's Ghetto exhibition by Pictures on Walls. The individual notes have since been selling on eBay. A wad of the notes was also thrown over a fence and into the crowd near the NME signing tent at the Reading Festival. A limited run of 50 signed posters containing ten uncut notes was also produced and sold by Pictures on Walls for £100 each to commemorate the death of Princess Diana. One of these sold in October 2007 at Bonhams auction house in London for £24,000.
The reproduction of images of the banknotes classifies as a criminal offence (s.18 Forgery and Counterfeiting Act 1981). In 2016, the American Numismatic Society received an email from a Reproductions Officer at the Bank of England, which brought attention to the illegality of publishing photos of the banknotes on their website without prior permission. The Bank of England holds the copyright over all its banknotes.
Also in 2004, Banksy created a limited edition screenprint titled Napalm (Can't Beat That Feeling). In the print, Banksy appropriated the image of Phan Thi Kim Phuc, a Vietnamese girl who appeared in the iconic 1972 photograph "The Terror of War" by Nick Ut. Napalm shows the image of Kim Phuc as seen in the original photo, but no longer within the tragic war setting. Instead, he situates the young girl against an empty background, still screaming, but now accompanied by Ronald McDonald and Mickey Mouse. The two characters hold her hands as they cheerfully gesture to an invisible audience, seemingly oblivious to the terrified girl. The image of Kim Phuc is flat, grainy and monochromatic; in most of the prints, Ronald McDonald and Mickey Mouse are yellow. In a few limited prints, the corporate characters wear pink or orange. Banksy produced 150 signed and 500 unsigned copies of Napalm.
In August 2005, Banksy, on a trip to the Palestinian territories, created nine images on the Israeli West Bank wall.
Banksy held an exhibition called Barely Legal, billed as a "three-day vandalised warehouse extravaganza" in Los Angeles, on the weekend of 16 September 2006. The exhibition featured a live "elephant in a room", painted in a pink and gold floral wallpaper pattern, which, according to leaflets handed out at the exhibition, was intended to draw attention to the issue of world poverty. Although the Animal Services Department had issued a permit for the elephant, after complaints from animal rights activists, the elephant appeared unpainted on the final day. Its owners rejected claims of mistreatment and said that the elephant had done "many, many movies. She's used to makeup." Banksy also made artwork displaying Queen Victoria as a lesbian and satirical pieces that incorporated art made by Andy Warhol and Leonardo da Vinci.
Peter Gibson, a spokesman for Keep Britain Tidy, asserts that Banksy's work is simple vandalism. Another official for the same organisation stated: "We are concerned that Banksy's street art glorifies what is essentially vandalism."
Banksy effect (2006–2007)
After Christina Aguilera bought an original of Queen Victoria as a lesbian and two prints for £25,000, on 19 October 2006, a set of Kate Moss paintings sold in Sotheby's London for £50,400, setting an auction record for Banksy's work. The six silk-screen prints, featuring the model painted in the style of Andy Warhol's Marilyn Monroe pictures, sold for five times their estimated price. Their stencil of a green Mona Lisa with real paint dripping from her eyes sold for £57,600 at the same auction.
In December, journalist Max Foster coined the phrase, "the Banksy effect", to illustrate how interest in other street artists was growing on the back of Banksy's success.
On 21 February 2007, Sotheby's auction house in London auctioned three works, reaching the highest ever price for a Banksy work at auction: over £102,000 for Bombing Middle England. Two of his other graffiti works, Girl with Balloon and Bomb Hugger, sold for £37,200 and £31,200 respectively, which were well above their estimated prices. The following day's auction saw a further three Banksy works reach soaring prices: Ballerina with Action Man Parts reached £96,000; Glory sold for £72,000; Untitled (2004) sold for £33,600; all significantly above price estimates. To coincide with the second day of auctions, Banksy updated his website with a new image of an auction house scene showing people bidding on a picture that said, "I Can't Believe You Morons Actually Buy This Shit."
In February 2007, the owners of a house with a Banksy mural on the side in Bristol decided to sell the house through Red Propeller art gallery after offers fell through because the prospective buyers wanted to remove the mural. It is listed as a mural that comes with a house attached.
In April 2007, Transport for London painted over Banksy's image of a scene from Quentin Tarantino's film Pulp Fiction (1994), featuring Samuel L. Jackson and John Travolta clutching bananas instead of guns. Although the image was very popular, Transport for London claimed that the graffiti created "a general atmosphere of neglect and social decay which in turn encourages crime" and their staff are "professional cleaners not professional art critics". Banksy painted the same site again and, initially, the actors were portrayed as holding real guns instead of bananas, but they were adorned with banana costumes. Sometime later, Banksy made a tribute artwork over this second Pulp Fiction work. The tribute was for 19-year-old British graffiti artist Ozone who, along with fellow artist Wants, was hit by an underground train in Barking, east London on 12 January 2007. Banksy depicted an angel wearing a bullet-proof vest holding a skull. He also wrote a note on his website saying:
On 27 April 2007, a new record high for the sale of Banksy's work was set with the auction of the work Space Girl and Bird fetching £288,000 (US$576,000) around 20 times the estimate at Bonhams of London.
On 21 May 2007 Banksy gained the award for Art's Greatest living Briton. Banksy, as expected, did not turn up to collect his award and continued with his anonymous status.
On 4 June 2007, it was reported that Banksy's The Drinker had been stolen. In October 2007, most of his works offered for sale at Bonhams auction house in London sold for more than twice their reserve price.
Banksy has published a "manifesto" on his website. The text of the manifesto is credited as the diary entry of British Lieutenant Colonel Mervin Willett Gonin, DSO, which is exhibited in the Imperial War Museum. It describes how a shipment of lipstick to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp immediately after its liberation at the end of World War II helped the internees regain their humanity. However, as of 18 January 2008, Banksy's Manifesto has been replaced with Graffiti Heroes No. 03, which describes Peter Chappell's graffiti quest of the 1970s that worked to free George Davis from imprisonment. By 12 August 2009 he was relying on Emo Philips' "When I was a kid I used to pray every night for a new bicycle. Then I realised God doesn't work that way, so I stole one and prayed for forgiveness."
A small number of Banksy's works can be seen in the movie Children of Men, including a stenciled image of two policemen kissing and another stencil of a child looking down a shop.
Banksy, who "is not represented by any of the commercial galleries that sell his work second hand (including Lazarides Ltd, Andipa Gallery, Bank Robber, Dreweatts, etc.)", claims that the exhibition at Vanina Holasek Gallery in New York City (his first major exhibition in that city) is unauthorised. The exhibition featured 62 of their paintings and prints.
2008
In March, Nathan Wellard and Maev Neal, a couple from Norfolk, UK, made headlines in Britain when they decided to sell their mobile home that contains a 30-foot mural, entitled Fragile Silence, done by Banksy a decade prior to his rise to fame. According to Nathan Wellard, Banksy had asked the couple if he could use the side of their home as a "large canvas", to which they agreed. In return for the "canvas", the Bristol stencil artist gave them two free tickets to the Glastonbury Festival. The mobile home purchased by the couple 11 years earlier for £1,000, was priced at £500,000.
Also in March 2008, a stencilled graffiti work appeared on Thames Water tower in the middle of the Holland Park roundabout, and it was widely attributed to Banksy. It was of a child painting the tag "Take this—Society!" in bright orange. London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham spokesman, Councillor Greg Smith branded the art as vandalism, and ordered its immediate removal, which was carried out by H&F council workmen within three days.
In late August 2008, marking the third anniversary of Hurricane Katrina and the associated levee failure disaster, Banksy produced a series of works in New Orleans, Louisiana, mostly on buildings derelict since the disaster.
A stencil painting attributed to Banksy appeared at a vacant petrol station in the Ensley neighbourhood of Birmingham, Alabama on 29 August as Hurricane Gustav approached the New Orleans area. The painting, depicting a hooded member of the Ku Klux Klan hanging from a noose, was quickly covered with black spray paint and later removed altogether.
His first official exhibition in New York City, The Village Pet Store and Charcoal Grill, opened 5 October 2008. The animatronic pets in the store window include a mother hen watching over her baby Chicken McNuggets as they peck at a barbecue sauce packet, and a rabbit putting makeup on in a mirror.
The Westminster City Council stated in October 2008 that the work One Nation Under CCTV, painted in April 2008 would be painted over as it was graffiti. The council said it would remove any graffiti, regardless of the reputation of its creator, and specifically stated that Banksy "has no more right to paint graffiti than a child". Robert Davis, the chairman of the council planning committee told The Times newspaper: "If we condone this then we might as well say that any kid with a spray can is producing art." The work was painted over in April 2009.
In December 2008, The Little Diver, a Banksy image of a diver in a duffle coat in Melbourne, Australia, was destroyed. The image had been protected by a sheet of clear perspex; however, silver paint was poured behind the protective sheet and later tagged with the words "Banksy woz ere". The image was almost completely obliterated.
Banksy has also been long criticised for copying the work of Blek le Rat, who created the life-sized stencil technique in early 1980s Paris and used it to express a similar combination of political commentary and humorous imagery. Blek has praised Banksy for his contribution to urban art, but said in an interview for the documentary Graffiti Wars that some of Banksy's more derivative work makes him "angry", saying that "It's difficult to find a technique and style in art so when you have a style and you see someone else is taking it and reproducing it, you don't like that."
The Cans Festival (2008)
In London, over the weekend 3–5 May 2008, Banksy hosted an exhibition called The Cans Festival. It was situated on Leake Street, a road tunnel formerly used by Eurostar underneath London Waterloo station. Graffiti artists with stencils were invited to join in and paint their own artwork, as long as it did not cover anyone else's. Banksy invited artists from around the world to exhibit their works.
2009
In May 2009, Banksy parted company with agent Steve Lazarides and announced that Pest Control, the handling service who act on his behalf, would be the only point of sale for new works.
On 13 June 2009, the Banksy vs Bristol Museum show opened at Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery, featuring more than 100 works of art, including animatronics and installations; it is his largest exhibition yet, featuring 78 new works. Reaction to the show was positive, with over 8,500 visitors to the show on the first weekend. Over the course of the twelve weeks, the exhibition was visited over 300,000 times.
In September 2009, a Banksy work parodying the Royal Family was partially destroyed by Hackney Council after they served an enforcement notice for graffiti removal to the former address of the property owner. The mural had been commissioned for the 2003 Blur single "Crazy Beat" and the property owner, who had allowed it to be painted, was reported to have been in tears when she saw it was being painted over.
In December 2009, Banksy marked the end of the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference by painting four murals on global warming. One included the phrase, "I don't believe in global warming", with the words being submerged in water.
A feud and graffiti war between Banksy and King Robbo broke out when Banksy allegedly painted over one of Robbo's tags. The feud has led to many of Banksy's works being altered by graffiti writers.
Exit Through the Gift Shop and United States (2010)
The world premiere of the film Exit Through the Gift Shop occurred at the Sundance Film Festival in Park City, Utah, on 24 January. He created 10 street artworks around Park City and Salt Lake City to tie in with the screening. In February, The Whitehouse public house in Liverpool, England, was sold for £114,000 at auction. The side of the building has an image of a giant rat by Banksy.
In March 2010, a modified version of the work Forgive Us Our Trespassing–a kneeling boy with a spray-painted halo–was displayed at London Bridge Station on a poster. This version of the work did not possess the halo due to its stylistic nature and the prevalence of graffiti in the underground. After a few days the halo was repainted by a graffitist, so Transport for London disposed of the poster.
In April, to coincide with the premiere of Exit Through the Gift Shop in San Francisco, five of his works appeared in various parts of the city. Banksy reportedly paid a San Francisco Chinatown building owner $50 for the use of their wall for one of his stencils.
In May 2010, seven new Banksy works of art appeared in Toronto, Canada, though most have been subsequently painted over or removed.
In May, to coincide with the premiere of Exit Through the Gift Shop in Royal Oak, Banksy visited the Detroit area and left his mark in several places in Detroit and Warren. Shortly after, his work depicting a little boy holding a can of red paint next to the words "I remember when all this was trees" was excavated by the 555 Nonprofit Gallery and Studios. They claim that they do not intend to sell the work but plan to preserve it and display it at their Detroit gallery. There was also an attempted removal of one of the Warren works known as Diamond Girl. While in the United States, Banksy also completed a painting in Chinatown, Boston, known as Follow Your Dreams.
In late January 2011, Exit Through the Gift Shop was nominated for a 2010 Oscar for Best Documentary Feature. Banksy released a statement about the nomination, stating, "This is a big surprise... I don't agree with the concept of award ceremonies, but I'm prepared to make an exception for the ones I'm nominated for. The last time there was a naked man covered in gold paint in my house, it was me." Leading up to the Oscars, Banksy blanketed Los Angeles with street art. Many people speculated if Banksy would show up at the Oscars in disguise and make a surprise appearance if he won the Oscar. Exit Through the Gift Shop did not win the award, which went to Inside Job. In early March 2011, Banksy responded to the Oscars with an artwork in Weston-super-Mare, UK, of a little girl holding the Oscar and pouting. Many people think that it is about 15-month-old Lara, who dropped and damaged her father's (The King's Speech co-producer Simon Egan) Oscar statue. Exit Through the Gift Shop was broadcast on British public television station Channel 4 on 13 August 2011.
Banksy was credited with the opening couch gag for the 2010 The Simpsons episode "MoneyBart", depicting people working in deplorable conditions and using endangered or mythical animals to make both the episodes cel-by-cel and the merchandise connected with the program. His name appears several times throughout the episode's opening sequence, spray-painted on assorted walls and signs. Fox sanitised parts of the opening "for taste" and to make it less grim. In January 2011, Banksy published the original storyboard on its website. According to Banksy, the storyboard "led to delays, disputes over broadcast standards and a threatened walkout by the animation department." Executive director Al Jean jokingly said, "This is what you get when you outsource."
2011–2013
In May 2011 Banksy released a lithographic print which showed a smoking petrol bomb contained in a 'Tesco Value' bottle. This followed a long-running campaign by locals against the opening of a Tesco Express supermarket in Banksy's home city of Bristol. Violent clashes had taken place between police and demonstrators in the Stokes Croft area. Banksy produced the poster ostensibly to raise money for local groups in the Stokes Croft area and to raise money for the legal defence of those arrested during the riots. The posters were sold exclusively at the Bristol Anarchists Bookfair in Stokes Croft for £5 each. In December, he unveiled Cardinal Sin at the Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool. The bust, which replaces a priest's face with a pixelated effect, was a statement on the child abuse scandal in the Catholic Church.
In May 2012 his Parachuting Rat, painted in Melbourne in the late 1990s, was accidentally destroyed by plumbers installing new pipes. In July, prior to the 2012 Olympic Games Banksy posted photographs of paintings with an Olympic theme on his website but did not disclose their location.
On 18 February 2013, BBC News reported that a recent Banksy mural, known as the Slave Labour mural portraying a young child sewing Union Flag bunting (created around the time of the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II), had been removed from the side of a Poundland store in Wood Green, north London, and soon appeared for sale in Fine Art Auctions Miami's catalogue (a US auction site based in Florida). News of this caused "lots of anger" in the local community and is considered by some to be a theft. Fine Art Auctions Miami had rejected claims of theft, saying it had signed a contract with a "well-known collector" and that "everything was above board"; despite this, the local councillor for Wood Green campaigned for the work's return. On the scheduled day of the auction, Fine Art Auctions Miami withdrew the work of art from the sale.
On 11 May, BBC News reported that the same Banksy mural was up for auction again in Covent Garden by the Sincura Group. The auction was scheduled to take place in June, and was expected to fetch up to £450,000. On 24 September, after over a year since his previous piece, a new mural went up on his website along with the subtitle Better Out Than In.
Much criticism came forward during his series of works in New York in 2013. Many New York street artists, such as TrustoCorp, criticised Banksy, and much of his work was defaced. In his column for The Guardian, satirist Charlie Brooker wrote in 2006 that Banksy's "work looks dazzlingly clever to idiots".
Better Out Than In (2013)
On 1 October 2013, Banksy began a one-month "show on the streets of New York [City]", for which he opened a separate website and granted an interview to The Village Voice via his publicist.
A pop-up boutique of about 25 spray-art canvases appeared on Fifth Avenue near Central Park on 12 October. Tourists were able to buy Banksy art for just $60 each. In a note posted to his website, the artist wrote: "Please note this was a one-off. The stall will not be there again." The BBC estimated that the street-stall art pieces could be worth as much as $31,000. The booth was manned by an unknown elderly man who went about four hours before making a sale, yawning and eating lunch as people strolled by without a second glance at the work. Banksy chronicled the surprise sale in a video posted to his website noting, "Yesterday I set up a stall in the park selling 100% authentic original signed Banksy canvases. For $60 each." Two of the canvasses sold at a July 2014 auction for $214,000.
Asked about the artist's presence in New York, then-New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg, who had led a citywide graffiti cleanup operation in 2002, said he did not consider graffiti a form of art. One creation was a fiberglass sculpture of Ronald McDonald and a real person, barefoot and in ragged clothes, shining the oversized shoes of Ronald McDonald. The sculpture was unveiled in Queens but moved outside a different McDonald's around the city every day. Other works included a YouTube video showing what appears to be footage of jihadist militants shooting down an animated Dumbo; travelling installations that toured the city including a slaughterhouse delivery truck full of stuffed animals and a waterfall; and a modified painting donated to a charity shop which was later sold in an online auction for $615,000. Banksy also posted a mock-up of a New York Times op-ed attacking the design of the One World Trade Center after the Times rejected his submission. The residency in New York concluded on 31 October 2013; many of the pieces, though, were either vandalised, removed or stolen.
2015–2019
In February 2015 Banksy published a 2-minute video titled Make this the year YOU discover a new destination about his trip to the Gaza Strip. During the visit, he painted a few artworks including a kitten on the remains of a house destroyed by an Israeli air strike ("I wanted to highlight the destruction in Gaza by posting photos on my website—but on the internet people only look at pictures of kittens") and a swing hanging off a watchtower. In a statement to The New York Times his publicist said,
Banksy opened Dismaland, a large-scale group show modelled on Disneyland on 21 August 2015. It lampooned the many disappointing temporary themed attractions in the UK at the time. Dismaland permanently closed on 27 September 2015. The "theme park" was located in Weston-super-Mare, United Kingdom. According to the Dismaland website, artists represented on the show include Damien Hirst and Jenny Holzer. In December, Banksy created several murals in the vicinity of Calais, France, including the so-called "Jungle" where migrants then lived as they attempted to enter the United Kingdom. One of the pieces, The Son of a Migrant from Syria, depicts Steve Jobs as a migrant.
In 2017, marking the 100th anniversary of the British control of Palestine, Banksy financed the creation of the Walled Off Hotel in Bethlehem. This hotel is open to the public and contains rooms designed by Banksy, Sami Musa, and Dominique Petrin, and each of the bedrooms faces the wall. It also houses a contemporary art gallery. 2018 saw Banksy return to New York five years after his Better Out Than In residency. A trademark rat running around the circumference of a clock-face, dubbed Rat race, was torn down by developers within a week of it appearing on a former bank building at 101 West 14th Street, but other works, including a mural of imprisoned Kurdish artist Zehra Doğan on the famed Bowery Wall and a series of others across Brooklyn, remain on display.
In October 2018, one of Banksy's works, Balloon Girl, was sold in an auction at Sotheby's in London for £1.04m. However, shortly after the gavel dropped and it was sold, an alarm sounded inside of the picture frame and the canvas passed through a shredder hidden within the frame, partially shredding the picture. Banksy then posted an image of the shredding on Instagram captioned "Going, going, gone...". After the sale, the auction house acknowledged that the self-destruction of the work was a prank by the artist. The prank received wide news coverage around the world, with one newspaper stating that it was "quite possibly the biggest prank in art history". Joey Syer, co-founder of an online platform facilitating art dealer sales, told the Evening Standard: "The auction result will only propel this further and given the media attention this stunt has received, the lucky buyer would see a great return on the £1.02M they paid last night, this is now part of art history in its shredded state and we'd estimate Banksy has added at a minimum 50% to its value, possibly as high as being worth £2m+." A man seen filming the shredding of the picture during its auction has been suggested to be Banksy. Banksy has since released a video on how the shredder was installed into the frame and the shredding of the picture, explaining that he had surreptitiously fitted the painting with the shredder a few years previously, in case it ever went up for auction. To explain his rationale for destroying his own artwork, Banksy quoted Picasso: "The urge to destroy is also a creative urge". (Although Banksy cited Picasso, this quote is usually attributed to Mikhail Bakunin.) It is not known how the shredder was activated. Banksy has released another video indicating that the painting was intended to be shredded completely. The video shows a sample painting completely shredded by the frame and says: "In rehearsals it worked every time..."
The woman who won the bidding at the auction decided to go through with the purchase. The partially shredded work has been given a new title, Love is in the Bin, and it was authenticated by Banksy's authentication body Pest Control. Sotheby released a statement that said "Banksy didn't destroy an artwork in the auction, he created one", and called it "the first artwork in history to have been created live during an auction". On 14 October 2021, the half-shredded painting was reported to have been sold for $25.4 million.
A two-sided graffiti piece, one side depicting a child tasting the falling snow, the other revealing that the snow is in fact smoke and embers from a dumpster fire, appeared on two walls of a steelworker's garage in Port Talbot in December. Banksy then revealed that the painting was in fact his via an Instagram video soundtracked by the festive children's song "Little Snowflake". Many fans of the artist went to see the painting and Plaid Cymru councillor for Aberavon, Nigel Thomas Hunt, stated that the town was "buzzing" with speculation that the work was Banksy's. The owner of the garage, Ian Lewis, said that he had lost sleep over fears that the image would be vandalised. A plastic screen, partially funded by Michael Sheen, was installed to protect the mural, but was attacked by a "drunk halfwit". Extra security guards were subsequently drafted to protect the graffiti piece. In May 2019, the mural was moved to a gallery in the town's Ty'r Orsaf building.
In early October 2019, Banksy opened a "pop-up shop" named Gross Domestic Product in Croydon, South London to strengthen his position in a trademark dispute with a greetings cards company who had challenged his trademark on the grounds that he was not using it. In a statement, Banksy said "A greetings cards company is contesting the trademark I hold to my art, and attempting to take custody of my name so they can sell their fake Banksy merchandise legally." Mark Stephens, arts lawyer and founder of the Design and Artists Copyright Society, called the case a "ludicrous litigation" and is providing the artist legal advice. Stephens recommended opening the shop to Banksy on the grounds that it would show he is making use of his trademark, saying: "Because [Banksy] doesn't produce his own range of shoddy merchandise and the law is quite clear—if the trademark holder is not using the mark, then it can be transferred to someone who will." On 4 October, greetings cards distributor Full Colour Black publicly revealed itself as the company involved in the trademark dispute whilst rejecting Banksy's claims as "entirely untrue". The company claimed it had contacted Banksy's lawyers several times to offer to pay royalties.
On 14 September 2020, the European Union Intellectual Property Office ruled in favour of Full Colour Black in the trademark dispute over Banksy's infamous "Flower Thrower". The European panel judges in Full Colour Black Ltd v Pest Control Office Ltd [2020] E.T.M.R. 58) decided that Banksy's trademark was invalid as it had been filed in Bad Faith according to Regulation 2017/1001 art.59(1)(b). The judges were not convinced that the opening of the artist's "pop-up shop" demonstrated a real intention to legitimise the trademark, condemning it as "inconsistent with the honest practices of the trade" [at 1141]. The artist's choice to be represented anonymously was not received well by the court either, noting that even if they found in favour of Banksy, legal rights could not be attributed to an unidentifiable person [1151]. However, counsel for the defence strongly argued that to reveal his identity would diminish the persona of the artist [at 1135]. Although not binding, the judges also referenced Banksy's previously critical statements about copyright, which contributed to the lack of sympathy for the artist's case [at 1144].
In October 2019, a 2009 painting by Banksy entitled "Devolved Parliament", showing Members of Parliament depicted as chimpanzees in the House of Commons, sold at Sotheby's in London for just under £9.9 million. On Instagram, the artist said it was a "record price for a Banksy painting" and "shame I didn't still own it". At wide it is Banksy's biggest known work on canvas. The auction house stated: "Regardless of where you sit in the Brexit debate, there's no doubt that this work is more pertinent now than it has ever been."
2020s
On 13 February 2020, the Valentine's Banksy mural appeared on the side of a building in Bristol's Barton Hill neighbourhood, depicting a young girl firing a slingshot of real red flowers and leaves. In the early hours of Valentine's Day (14 February), Banksy confirmed this was his work on his Instagram account and website. The painting was defaced just days after appearing. Banksy dedicated a painting titled Painting for Saints or Game Changer to NHS staff, and donated it to the University Hospital of Southampton during the global coronavirus pandemic in May 2020. The painting was sold for £14.4m (£16.8m including buyer premium) on 23 March 2021, which is a record for an artwork by Banksy. The proceeds from the sale would benefit a number of NHS-related organisations and charities.
In March 2021, the image of an escaping prisoner appeared overnight on the side of Reading Prison. Two days later Banksy claimed the artwork. The former prison's next use had been disputed locally, some wanting it to be used as an arts hub, while developers proposed it could be sold to a housing developer. The escaping prisoner was said to resemble Oscar Wilde, who had been imprisoned in Reading Prison, with the "rope" as tied together bedsheets with a typewriter attached to the end.
In August 2021, several Banksy artworks, collectively titled A Great British Spraycation, appeared in several East Anglian towns. Banksy created an original artwork for the 2021 BBC One/Amazon Prime Video comedy The Outlaws. The image of a stencilled rat sitting on two spray cans signed by Banksy featured in the sixth episode of the first series, and was painted over by the character Frank, played by Christopher Walken, while he was cleaning a graffiti-covered wall as part of his Community Payback sentence.
In November 2022, Banksy posted on social media images of a mural on the side of a damaged building at the town of Borodianka, appearing to confirm a visit to Ukraine following the Russian invasion. He also created six murals in Kyiv, Irpin, Hostomel and Horenka. One of the images he produced in Borodianka was of Russian president Vladimir Putin in a judo throw. The image has since been turned into a stamp in Ukraine.
Banksy was accused of being "inconsistent with honest practices" when trying to trademark his image of a protester throwing a bouquet of flowers. The European Union trademark office threw out his trademark claim, "saying he had filed it in order to avoid using copyright laws, which are separate and would have required [him] to reveal his true identity. The ruling quoted from one of his books, in which he said 'copyright is for losers'."
Other artworks
Banksy has claimed responsibility for a number of high-profile artworks, including the following:
At London Zoo, he climbed into the penguin enclosure and painted "We're bored of fish" in letters.
At London Zoo, he left the message "I want out. This place is too cold. Keeper smells. Boring, boring, boring." in the elephant enclosure.
In 2004, he placed the piece Banksus Militus Ratus into London's Natural History Museum.
In March 2005, he placed subverted artworks in the Museum of Modern Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art, and American Museum of Natural History in Manhattan as well as the Brooklyn Museum in Brooklyn.
In May 2005 Banksy's version of a primitive cave painting depicting a human figure hunting wildlife while pushing a shopping trolley was hung in gallery 49 of the British Museum, London.
In August 2005, Banksy painted nine images on the Israeli West Bank barrier, including an image of a ladder going up and over the wall and an image of children digging a hole through the wall.
In October 2005, Banksy designed six station IDs for Nickelodeon.
In April 2006, Banksy created a sculpture based on a crumpled red phone box with a pickaxe in its side, apparently bleeding, and placed it in a side street in Soho, London. It was later removed by Westminster Council.
In June 2006, Banksy created Well Hung Lover, an image of a naked man hanging out of a bedroom window on a wall visible from Park Street in central Bristol. The image sparked "a heated debate", with the Bristol City Council leaving it up to the public to decide whether it should stay or go. After an internet discussion in which 97% of the 500 people surveyed supported the stencil, the city council decided it would be left on the building. The mural was later defaced with blue paint.
In August/September 2006, Banksy placed up to 500 copies of Paris Hilton's debut CD, Paris, in 48 different UK record stores with his own cover art and remixes by Danger Mouse. Music tracks were given titles such as "Why Am I Famous?", "What Have I Done?" and "What Am I For?". Several copies of the CD were purchased by the public before stores were able to remove them, some going on to be sold for as much as £750 on online auction websites such as eBay. The cover art depicted Hilton digitally altered to appear topless. Other pictures feature her with her chihuahua Tinkerbell's head replacing her own, and one of her stepping out of a luxury car, edited to include a group of homeless people, which included the caption "90% of success is just showing up."
In September 2006, Banksy dressed an inflatable doll in the manner of a Guantanamo Bay detainment camp prisoner (orange jumpsuit, black hood, and handcuffs) and then placed the figure within the Big Thunder Mountain Railroad ride at the Disneyland theme park in Anaheim, California.
He makes stickers (the Neighbourhood Watch subvert) and was responsible for the cover art of Blur's 2003 album Think Tank.
In September 2007, Banksy covered a wall in Portobello Road with a French artist painting graffiti of Banksy's name.
A guard/police officer with a balloon animal was painted in the Canadian city of Toronto in 2010, and has since been removed from its original location and preserved.
In July 2012, in the run up to the London 2012 Olympic games he created several pieces based upon this event. One included an image of an athlete throwing a missile instead of a javelin, evidently taking a poke at the surface to air missile sites positioned in the Stratford area to defend the games.
In April 2014, he created a piece in Cheltenham, near the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) headquarters, which depicts three men wearing sunglasses and using listening devices to "snoop" on a telephone box, evidently criticising the recent global surveillance disclosures of 2013. This was only confirmed by Banksy as his work later in June 2014. This piece 'disappeared' on 20 August 2016 during renovations to the building it was on, and may have been destroyed.
In June 2016, a 14 ft painting of a child with a stick chasing a burning tyre was found in the Bridge Farm Primary School in Bristol with a letter from Banksy thanking the school for naming one of its houses after him. BBC News reported that a spokesman for Banksy confirmed that the artwork was genuine. In the letter, Banksy wrote that if the members of the school did not like the painting, they should add their own elements.
In May 2017, Banksy claimed the authorship of a giant Brexit mural, painted on a house in Dover (Kent).
Banksy's Dream Boat, originally made for the Dismaland exhibition, was donated to the NGO Help Refugees (now called Choose Love) to help raise funds for the charity. The artwork was displayed in Help Refugees' London Choose Love pop-up shop in the run-up to Christmas 2018, and members of the public could pay £2.00 to enter a competition to guess the weight of the piece. The person with the closest guess would win Dream Boat. The 'guess-the-weight' competition was seen as 'deliberately school fair' in style.
Damaged artwork
Many artworks by Banksy have been vandalised, painted over or destroyed.
In 2008, in Melbourne, paint was poured over a stencil of an old-fashioned diver wearing a trench coat. In April 2010, the Melbourne City Council reported that they had inadvertently ordered private contractors to paint over a rat descending in a parachute adorning the wall of an old council building behind the Forum Theatre.
Many works that make up the Better Out Than In series in New York City have been defaced, some just hours after the piece was unveiled. At least one defacement was identified as done by a competing artist, OMAR NYC, who spray-painted over Banksy's red mylar balloon piece in Red Hook. OMAR NYC also defaced some of Banksy's work in May 2010.
Technique
Because of the secretive nature of Banksy's work and identity, it is uncertain what techniques he uses to generate the images in the stencils, though it is assumed he uses computers for some images due to the photographic quality of much of his work. He mentions in his book Wall and Piece that as he was starting to do graffiti, he was always either caught or could never finish the art in one sitting. He claims he changed to stencilling while hiding from the police under a rubbish lorry, when he noticed the stencilled serial number. He then devised a series of intricate stencils to minimise time and overlapping of the colour.
There exists a debate about the influence behind his work. Some critics claim Banksy was influenced by musician and graffiti artist 3D. Another source credits the artist's work to resemble that of French graffiti artist Blek le Rat. It is said that Banksy was inspired by their use of stencils, later taking this visual style and transforming it through modern political and social pieces.
Banksy's stencils feature striking and humorous images occasionally combined with slogans. The message is usually anti-war, anti-capitalist or anti-establishment. Subjects often include rats, apes, policemen, soldiers, children, and the elderly.
In the broader art world, stencils are traditionally hand drawn or printed onto sheets of acetate or card, before being cut out by hand. This technique allows artists to paint quickly to protect their anonymity. There is dispute in the street art world over the legitimacy of stencils, with many artists criticising their use as "cheating".
In 2018, Banksy created a piece live, as it was being auctioned. The piece, titled, Love is in the Bin, was originally the painting, Girl with Balloon, before it was shredded at Sotheby's. While the bidding was going on, a shredder was activated from within the frame, and the piece was partially shredded, thus creating a new piece.
Political and social themes
Banksy once characterised graffiti as a form of underclass "revenge", or guerrilla warfare that allows an individual to snatch away power, territory and glory from a bigger and better equipped enemy. Banksy sees a social class component to this struggle, remarking "If you don't own a train company then you go and paint on one instead." Banksy's work has also shown a desire to mock centralised power, hoping that their work will show the public that although power does exist and works against you, that power is not terribly efficient and it can and should be deceived.
Banksy's works have dealt with various political and social themes, including anti-war, anti-consumerism, anti-fascism, anti-imperialism, anti-authoritarianism, anarchism, nihilism, and existentialism. Additionally, the components of the human condition that his works commonly critique are greed, poverty, hypocrisy, boredom, despair, absurdity, and alienation. Although Banksy's works usually rely on visual imagery and iconography to put forth their message, Banksy has made several politically related comments in various books. In summarising his list of "people who should be shot", he listed "Fascist thugs, religious fundamentalists, (and) people who write lists telling you who should be shot." While facetiously describing his political nature, Banksy declared that "Sometimes I feel so sick at the state of the world, I can't even finish my second apple pie."
Banksy's work has also critiqued the environmental impacts of big businesses. When speaking about his 2005 work Show me the Monet, Banksy explained:
Show me the Monet repurposes Claude Monet's Bridge over a Pond of Water Lilies, with the inclusion of two shopping carts and an orange traffic cone. This painting was later sold for £7.5 million at Sotheby's Contemporary Evening Auction in 2020.
During the 2017 United Kingdom general election, Banksy offered voters a free print if they cast a ballot against the Conservative candidates standing in the Bristol North West, Bristol West, North Somerset, Thornbury, Kingswood and Filton constituencies. According to a note posted on Banksy's website, an emailed photo of a completed ballot paper showing it marked for a candidate other than the Conservative candidate would result in the voter being mailed a limited edition piece of Banksy art. On 5 June 2017 the Avon and Somerset Constabulary announced it had opened an investigation into Banksy for the suspected corrupt practice of bribery, and the following day Banksy withdrew the offer stating "I have been warned by the Electoral Commission that the free print offer will invalidate the election result. So I regret to announce that this ill-conceived and legally dubious promotion has now been cancelled."
During the COVID-19 pandemic, Banksy referenced medical advice to self-isolate by creating an artwork in his bathroom.
Philanthropy and activism
Banksy has donated a number of works to promote various causes, such as Civilian Drone Strike, which was sold in 2017 at £205,000 to raise funds for Campaign Against Arms Trade and Reprieve. It was part of the exhibition "Art the Arms Fair" set up in opposition to the DSEI arms fair. In 2018, a sculpture titled Dream Boat, which was exhibited in Dismaland in 2015, was raffled off in aid of the NGO Help Refugees (now called Choose Love) for a minimum donation of £2 for every guesses of its weight in a pop-up Choose Love shop in Carnaby Street. In 2002, he produced artwork for the Greenpeace campaign Save or Delete. He also provided works to support local causes; in 2013, a work titled The Banality of the Banality of Evil was sold for an undisclosed amount after a failed auction to support an anti-homelessness charity in New York, In 2014, an artwork on a doorway titled Mobile Lovers was sold £403,000 to keep a youth club in Bristol open, and he created merchandise for homeless charities in Bristol in 2019.
Banksy has been producing a number of works and projects in support of the Palestinians since the mid-2000s, including The Walled Off Hotel in Bethlehem.
In July 2020, Banksy sold three paintings forming a triptych titled Mediterranean Sea View 2017, which raised £2.2 million for a hospital in Bethlehem. The paintings were original created for The Walled Off Hotel, and are Romantic-era paintings of the seashore that have been modified with images of lifebuoys and orange life jackets washed up on the shore, a reference to the European migrant crisis.
Banksy gifted a painting titled Game Changer to a hospital in May 2020 as a tribute to National Health Service workers during the COVID-19 pandemic. It was later sold for £14.4m in March 2021 to benefit a number of NHS-related organisations and charities.
In August 2020, it was revealed that Banksy had privately funded a rescue boat to save refugees at risk in the Mediterranean Sea. The former French Navy boat, renamed after Louise Michel, has been painted pink with an image of a young girl holding a heart-shaped safety float.
Books
Banksy has published several books that contain photographs of his work accompanied by his own writings:
Banging Your Head Against a Brick Wall (2001). .
Existencilism (2002). .
Cut It Out (2004). .
Pictures of Walls (2005). .
Wall and Piece (2007). .
Banging Your Head Against a Brick Wall, Existencilism, and Cut It Out were a three-part self-published series of small booklets.
Pictures of Walls is a compilation book of pictures of the work of other graffiti artists, curated and self-published by Banksy. None of them are still in print, or were ever printed in any significant number.
Banksy's Wall and Piece compiled large parts of the images and writings in his original three-book series, with heavy editing and some new material. It was intended for mass print, and published by Random House.
The writings in his original three books had numerous grammatical errors, and his writings in them often took a dark, and angry, and a (self-described) paranoid tone. While the content in them was almost entirely kept in Wall and Piece, the stories were edited and generally took a less provocative tone, and the grammatical errors were resolved (presumably to make it suitable for mass market distribution).
See also
List of urban artists
Street installation
Brandalism
References
Further reading
Steve Wright, Banksy's Bristol: Home Sweet Home, Tangent Books (2007),
Martin Bull, Banksy Locations and Tours: A Collection of Graffiti Locations and Photographs in London (2006 – with new editions in 2007, 2008 and 2010), .
Ulrich Blanché, Something to s(pr)ay: Der Street Artivist Banksy. Eine kunstwissenschaftliche Untersuchung (2010),
Will Elsworth-Jones, Banksy, the Man behind the Wall (2012), .
Paul Gough, Banksy, the Bristol Legacy (2012), .
Gary Shove and Patrick Potter, You Are an Acceptable Level of Threat And If You Were Not You Would Know About It (2012, new edition in 2015)
External links
Official websites:
Pest Control – Official Banksy authentication service and only current official dealer of original Banksy works
Banksy Instagram – Official Banksy Instagram page
Banksy YouTube Channel – Official Banksy YouTube channel
Slideshows and galleries:
Banksy Street Art Photographs
Banksy Images – from Flickr
Banksy Gallery – by BBC News
Banksy v Bristol Museum – slideshow by BBC
Stencil Revolution About Banksy
News items
"Police thwart attempt to steal Bethlehem Banksy mural", Ma'an News Agency, April 21, 2015
Will-Ellsworth-Jones, "The Story Behind Banksy", The Smithsonian Magazine, February 2013
Living people
Anonymous artists
20th-century English painters
English male painters
21st-century English painters
Artists from Bristol
Culture jamming
English activists
English contemporary artists
English film directors
English satirists
Guerilla artists
Political artists
Pseudonymous artists
Anti-consumerists
Year of birth missing (living people)
Album-cover and concert-poster artists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20Plata
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La Plata
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La Plata () is the capital city of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. According to the 2022 census, the Partido has a population of 772,618 and its metropolitan area, the Greater La Plata, has 938,287 inhabitants. It is located 9 kilometers (6 miles) inland from the southern shore of the estuary.
La Plata was planned and developed to serve as the provincial capital after the city of Buenos Aires was federalized in 1880. It was officially founded by Governor Dardo Rocha on 19 November 1882. Its construction is fully documented in photographs by Tomás Bradley Sutton. La Plata was briefly known as Ciudad Eva Perón (Eva Perón City) between 1952 and 1955.
History and description
After La Plata was designated the provincial capital, Rocha was placed in charge of creating the city. He hired urban planner Pedro Benoit, who designed a city layout based on a rationalist conception of urban centers. The city has the shape of a square with a central park and two main diagonal avenues, north to south and east to west. In addition, there are numerous other shorter diagonal streets. This design is copied in a self-similar manner in small blocks of six by six blocks in length. For every six blocks, there is a small park or square. Other than the diagonal streets, all streets are on a rectangular grid and are numbered consecutively. Thus, La Plata is nicknamed "la ciudad de las diagonales" (city of diagonals). It is also called "la ciudad de los tilos" (city of linden trees), because of the large number of linden trees lining the many streets and squares. The linden tree is one of a number of deciduous Northern Hemisphere tree species which dominate La Plata's parks and streets; ash, horsechestnut, plane, sweetgum and tulip tree are among the other examples. Palms and subtropical broadleaf evergreen trees thrive but are comparatively infrequent.
The city design and its buildings are noted to possess strong Freemason symbolism as a consequence of both Rocha and Benoit being Freemasons.
The designs for the government buildings were chosen in an international architectural competition. Thus, the Governor Palace was designed by Italians, the City Hall by Germans, etc. Electric street lighting was installed in 1884 and was the first of its kind in Latin America.
Important landmarks
The neo-Gothic cathedral of La Plata is the largest church in Argentina. It is located on the central park, Plaza Moreno, and is the 58th tallest church in the world.
The Teatro Argentino de La Plata is one of the most important opera houses in Argentina, second to the Teatro Colón in Buenos Aires. The construction was funded by the first inhabitants of La Plata, but as maintenance was very expensive it was later donated to the Province of Buenos Aires. On 18 October 1977, the building was almost completely destroyed by a fire. This has been noted as one of the largest losses to La Plata's historical heritage. It was later replaced by a new building, which houses the theatre's orchestra, choir and ballet, boasting several halls.
The Curutchet House is one of the two buildings by Le Corbusier built in the Americas.
The University of La Plata was founded in 1897 and nationalized in 1905. It is well known for its observatory and natural history museum. Ernesto Sabato graduated in Physics at this university; he went on to teach at the Sorbonne and the MIT before becoming a famed novelist. Doctor René Favaloro was another famous alumnus. During its early years, the university attracted a number of renowned intellectuals from the Spanish-speaking world, such as Dominican Pedro Henríquez Ureña.
is on the corner of 48th and 5th Streets. It was the first chapel in La Plata and Pedro Benoit himself drew up the plans for the church. It was inaugurated on 19 November 1883, the first anniversary of the foundation of the city. Its neo-Gothic style has been well kept, and the inner paintings are now being restored. Then-governor Rocha was the one to name it "San Ponciano". This was both in memory of his son Ponciano and in honor of pope St. Ponciano. Inside the church is the "Virgen de Luján" niche, which was moved here in 1904.
La Plata in the 20th century
Under Alvear's administration (1922–1928), Enrique Mosconi, the president of the state oil company Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales, created the La Plata distillery, at the time the tenth largest in the world.
On 10 December 1945, in the Parish church of St. Francis of Assisi in this city, Juan Domingo Perón and Eva Duarte were married.
In 1952, the city was renamed Ciudad Eva Perón; its original name was restored in 1955.
In March 1976, the Argentine military seized power following a coup d'état, which involved the disappearance of a number of students from La Plata. The military junta had implemented what was called the National Reorganization Process which was a set of policies used by the regime to destroy left-wing guerrilla forces and oppress resistance to its rule. The process included kidnappings, torture and murder. Meanwhile, the Montoneros, a leftist guerilla group, responded violently to the junta and its actions as they enlisted other Argentines to join their campaign against the regime. Those enlisted included young, left-wing, politically active students from the organization named the Unión de Estudiantes Secundarios (Union of High School Students) of La Plata. The UES was committed to achieving school reforms and other political reforms through demonstrations and protests that irked the ruling regime. Many of these students were kidnapped and killed (many remain as 'desaparecidos') as part of the state's terrorism during the dictatorship.
In October 1998, UNESCO approved the city's bid to gain recognition as a World Heritage site. The approval is still pending due to various objections to the criterion of maintaining architectural and landscape features during recent decades, which in the opinion of other specialists, has caused severe damage to the original design and contextual aesthetics.
Sports and stadiums
The city is home to two important first division football teams: Estudiantes de La Plata and Gimnasia y Esgrima de La Plata.
Estudiantes de La Plata is the most successful club in the city, having won five national tournaments, four Copa Libertadores and the Intercontinental Cup against the Manchester United in 1968. It is the origin of several symbols of Argentine football such as Osvaldo Zubeldía, Carlos Bilardo, Alejandro Sabella, Juan Ramón and Juan Sebastián Verón. Estudiantes has had a great influence on the Argentine National Team, mainly through Bilardo in the 1986 World Cup. Its successes and its style of play, normally called bilardismo, have placed it in the position of exponent of a football style deeply rooted in the country.
For its part, Gimnasia de La Plata, founded in 1887, has not obtained titles in the professional era, but it is a traditional First Division club.
The Estadio Ciudad de La Plata, also known as the "Estadio Único", opened on 7 June 2003, as one of the most modern football stadiums in Latin America. Various other construction and renovation projects have continued, including the addition of a roof structure. Estudiantes played in the new stadium from 2006 to 2019 while their own stadium was being modernized; Estudiantes returned to its traditional home ground of Jorge Luis Hirschi Stadium in 2019. Gimnasia La Plata has only played occasional home games in the Estadio Único. In 2011, the Estadio Ciudad de La Plata was one of the host sites for the 2011 Copa America including an opening-round match between Argentina and Bolivia, a semifinal game, and the third-place final. Now, the stadium is additionally used for concerts and Puma matches.
Jorge Luis Hirschi Stadium, the home ground of Estudiantes, is located on 1st Avenue in La Plata. Estadio Juan Carmelo Zerillo, the home ground of Gimnasia La Plata, is located in a park known as El Bosque.
During 2009, following a series of agreements between the city municipality, the governor of the province and the nation's presidency, progress was made in the final transfer of the land of the Paseo del Bosque to Estudiantes and Gimnasia La Plata clubs. On 24 June 2009, the Deliberative Council adopted the convention and the ordinance for which Gimnasia and Estudiantes clubs received "grants" for the lands on which their home grounds are currently located within El Bosque (The Forest).
Elections and civic advances
On 28 October 2007, Pablo Bruera was elected mayor with 26% of the votes, replacing Julio Alak, who had been mayor since 1991.
On 25 February 2009, La Plata debuted a parking system that uses text messaging (SMS), thus becoming the first city in Argentina to control parking using technology applications.
The Pasaje Rodrigo, a traditional "galería" (the older version of shopping malls in Argentina), reopened its doors in April 2009 as Pasaje Rodrigo shopping mall, after having been closed to the public for 10 years. It had originally been opened in 1929 by Spanish immigrant Basilio Rodrigo.
On 25 October 2015, Julio Garro was elected mayor with 41,35% of the votes, replacing Pablo Bruera, who had been mayor since 2007. Garro was reelected for a second term in 2019.
Geography
Location
Located in the north-eastern area of the province of Buenos Aires, La Plata is surrounded by Ensenada and Berisso to the northeast, Berazategui and Florencio Varela to the northwest, San Vicente and Coronel Brandsen to the southwest and south, and Magdalena, to the southeast, occupying an area of 893 km2.
The metropolitan area of La Plata includes the neighborhoods of Tolosa, Ringuelet, Manuel B. Gonnet, City Bell, Villa Elisa, Melchor Romero, Abasto, Gorina, José Hernández, Ángel Etcheverry, Arturo Seguí, Los Hornos, Lisandro Olmos, Villa Elvira and Altos de San Lorenzo, all of which have community centers that operate as local delegations.
Climate
La Plata has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa under the Köppen climate classification). During winter, temperatures are cool during the day and cold during the night, even reaching below freezing. The average temperature in the coldest month, July, is . Winters tend to be cloudier than summer, averaging around 10 overcast days from June to August, compared to 6 overcast days from December to February. Summers are warm to hot with a January high of while nighttime temperatures are cooler, averaging . Spring and fall are transition seasons, featuring warm daytime temperatures and cool nighttime temperatures, highly variable with some days reaching above and below . The city is fairly humid, owing to its coastal location, having an average monthly humidity higher than 75%. La Plata receives of precipitation annually, with winters being the drier months and summer the wetter months. On average, La Plata receives 2,285 hours of sunshine a year, or 51% of possible sunshine, ranging from a low of 41% in June and July to 62% in February. The highest temperature recorded was on 14 January 2022 while the lowest temperature recorded was on 14 June 1967.
Snowfall is extremely rare in the city with only 5 major snowfall events: July 1912, 1928, 22 June 1981, 9 July 2007 during the July 2007 Argentine winter storm, and on 6 June 2012.
Earthquakes
The region lies on the Punta del Este fault, and its latest event occurred on 30 November 2018 at 10:27 UTC−3 with a magnitude of 3.8 on the Richter scale. This earthquake was extremely unusual in La Plata, a city where the last earthquake had been on 5 June 1888 (128 years before) with a magnitude of 5.5 on the Richter scale.
Government
Given the federal system of government in Argentina there are three orders or ranks: the National, Provincial and Municipal.
Power of the executive branch in La Plata is exercised by the municipal mayor, elected by popular vote every four years with the possibility of unlimited reelection. The town hall is known as the Palacio Municipal, and is located in the block surrounded by streets 51, 53, 11 and 12, in the city center. It is one of the important buildings that surround Plaza Moreno, and is opposite the cathedral.
The city government is divided into different areas. These are: Private Secretary, Secretary General, Ministry of Economy, Ministry of Public Management, Social Development Secretariat, Ministry of Culture, Ministry of Modernization and Economic Development, Ministry of Justice, Secretary of Health and Social Medicine, Chief of Staff, Regional Market La Plata, Management Consortium Puerto La Plata, Executive Unit Revenue Agency, Environment Agency Implementation Unit, Human Rights Department, Ministry of Government, Policy Planning Council, Regional Production and Employment, and the city council.
As it is the capital of the Province of Buenos Aires, La Plata is also home to the three provincial powers: the provincial executive (led at the moment by the Governor) along with its ministries, the judiciary, and the provincial Legislature.
Economy
According to the National Economic Survey 2004–2005, out of a total of 23,844 local listings 90% are dedicated to the production of goods and services, 4% belonged to the Civil Service, 2% are for semi sideshows or removable; 1% are for worship, political parties and unions, and the remaining 2% was in the process of classification.
Finance
La Plata has a stock market, the Bolsa de Comercio, which was founded in 1960 and is a member of the Argentine stock market system.
In the city there are branches of major banks operating in the country, including Banco Nación, Banco Provincia, Banco Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Banco Hipotecario, HSBC, Citigroup, Banco Itaú, Francés, Macro, Standard Bank, etc.
Transport
Trenes Argentinos operate a rail service (Roca Line) between La Plata and Constitución station in Buenos Aires via Berazategui. It runs every 24 to 30 minutes Mondays to Saturdays and every 40 minutes on Sundays. In addition, there is a shuttle service Tren Universitario between La Plata station and Policlínico operating five to eight times a day.
The city's general aviation needs are served by La Plata Airport, although it has no commercial service as of 2023. The nearest commercially served airport is Ministro Pistarini International Airport in Buenos Aires.
Population
The greater metropolitan area, according to the National Census of Population and Housing 2010, has a population of 787,294 inhabitants.
Furthermore, the La Plata urban area's population since 1960 was developed as follows:
1960 Census: 337,060 inhabitants.
1970 Census: 391,247 inhabitants.
1980 Census: 459,054 inhabitants.
1991 Census: 521,759 inhabitants.
2001 Census: 763,943 inhabitants.
2010 Census: 799,523 inhabitants.
International communities
The Spanish community's contributions include the renowned Spanish Hospital. Spain has also acknowledged the community by installing a consulate in the city of La Plata.
The Arab community also has several institutions, including the Syriac Orthodox Welfare Assoc, Assoc Islamic Argentino de La Plata, and the Lebanese Society of La Plata.
The Jewish community of La Plata has numerous institutions. These include AMIA La Plata (Asociación Mutual Israelita Argentina), which has under its orbit Hebrew School Chaim Nachman Bialik and the Jewish cemetery of the city, the Beit Chabad La Plata, part of Chabad Lubavitch Argentina.
Education
La Plata hosts one of the most renowned universities in Argentina, the National University of La Plata (Spanish: Universidad Nacional de La Plata, UNLP).
It has over 75,000 regular students, 8,000 teaching staff, 16 faculties and 106 available degrees.
UNLP students and professors include:
Raúl Alfonsín (Law degree in 1950) President of Argentina (1983–1989)
Néstor Kirchner (Law degree) President of Argentina (2003–2007)
Cristina Fernández de Kirchner (Law degree) President of Argentina (terms 2007–2011, 2011–2015)
René Favaloro (Medicine degree in 1949, creator of the technique for coronary bypass surgery)
Carlos Saavedra Lamas (Law teacher, rector and Nobel Peace Prize)
Ernesto Sabato (Physics PhD in 1937)
Mario Bunge (Physics-Mathematics PhD in 1952)
Florentino Ameghino (Professor of geology)
Juan José Arévalo (Philosophy PhD in 1934, 24th President of Guatemala)
Emilio Pettoruti (painter)
Pedro Henríquez Ureña (Dominican essayist, philosopher, humanist, philologist and literary critic)
Four high school institutes are under UNLP control and three of them are located in La Plata:
Rafael Hernández National High School (Spanish: Colegio Nacional Rafael Hernández)
Víctor Mercante Lyceum (Spanish: Liceo Víctor Mercante)
Fine Arts High School (Spanish: Bachillerato de Bellas Artes)
La Plata is also home of four other universities:
Universidad Católica de La Plata
Universidad Notarial Argentina
Facultad Regional de la Universidad Tecnológica Nacional.
Universidad del Este - La Plata
Students come to these four universities from every part of Argentina and other countries, giving the city a rich young multicultural lifestyle.
There is also an international school for translators, Traductorado.
City layout and architecture
La Plata is a planned city, characterized by a strict grid of square blocks, with diagonal avenues running across. The two major diagonals, 73 and 74, go across the city from east to west and from north to south, respectively, and converge right in the city's center at Plaza Moreno. This square houses the so-called "foundation stone" and is the main square of the city. To its sides are located the City Hall and the cathedral of La Plata. Highlights of the city are the Museum of Natural Sciences, the building of the Interior, the Provincial Legislature, the new theater and the hippodrome. Many of these buildings were built at the time of the founding of the city, following an international call for proposals.
Another work is the parent company of Banco de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, located between the streets 6, 7, 46 and 47. This building was designed by architects Juan A. Buschiazzo and Luis Viglione. It opened on 19 April 1886, being amended in 1913 and in the 1970s.
It is a very green city, with its largest park being the "Paseo del Bosque" (or simply 'the forest'). Twenty-two other parks and squares contain much of the city's trees and greenery. Other landmarks include the lake, the Martin Fierro amphitheater, the Parque Pereyra Iraola, the Zoo and Botanical Garden, the Victorian astronomical observatory, and the Natural History Museum. One notable attraction is the Children's Republic, which is said to have inspired Walt Disney to build Disneyland after he visited it during a trip to Argentina.
In 1977 the city lost one of its most valuable monuments to a fire: the Teatro Argentino de La Plata, predominantly built in a neoclassic style. After the fire, a new brutalist style theater was built in its place. The Estadio Ciudad de La Plata, a stadium influenced by modern high-tech architecture, is located in the city. It was planned and built after a national competition during the 1970s. The stadium received repairs and amendments in a subsequent project in order to expand its capacity, and also to rebuild the roof in sectors that had been destroyed by storms. The construction of a semitransparent deck of Kevlar and plastic resins was finished in January 2011.
La Plata has one commercial airport, Aeropuerto de La Plata, which is not served by any airlines.
Awards received by the city
The city was awarded at the Exposition Universelle in Paris in 1889, an event in which the new city was given the two gold medals awarded in the categories "City of the Future" and "Better performance built."
La Plata Cemetery
The municipal cemetery of La Plata was established in 1886 for the new capital of the province of Buenos Aires. It was designed by Pedro Benoit. It lies on the intersection of Avenue 31, 72 and diagonal 74 in the southern tip. It has some remarkable architectural features, both in its main entrance and in many of the family vaults, including neoclassical, Neo-Gothic, Art Nouveau (in its variant of Catalan Art Nouveau), Art Deco and Egyptian revival styles. The main entrance is an impressive neo-classical portico with Doric columns. The Catholic chapel, in Romanesque revival style, was finished in 1950. Diagonal 74 begins at the Río de la Plata and ends at the cemetery, causing some to remark that the layout may have been intentional symbolism of the cycle of life and death by Benoit.
Its annex, the Jewish Cemetery, belongs to the Asociación Mutual Israelita Argentina in La Plata and is located on Avenue 72.
Sports
The main football teams in the city are Estudiantes de La Plata (locally known as "pinchas"), winners of the Intercontinental Cup in 1968, and Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata, both of which currently play in the Argentina's first division. Estudiantes is the sole team within the city to win a national or international title. La Plata has Liga Amateur Platense de fútbol that encompasses various clubs in the region, such as Club Atlético Estrella de Berisso, La Plata FC, Asociación Nueva Alianza, and Club Everton.
Basketball has a place in the Torneo Nacional de Ascenso (National Ascent Tournament), through Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata. In addition, through the Asociación Platense de Basquetbol, La Plata has leagues and tournaments for all levels and categories, including Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata, Estudiantes, Centro Fomento de Los Hornos Club Atenas, Unión Vecinal, Centro de Fomento Meridiano V, and Club Cultural y Deportivo Juventud.
Auto racing also has its importance in the city in the form of the Turismo Carretera. There is also a race track named Autódromo Roberto José Mouras in honor of the historic Chevrolet driver died in Lobos in 1992. Gastón Mazzacane is from the city as well. After 21 races in Formula 1, he also competed in the Champ Car and Top Race V6 series.
The 1970 Artistic Billiards World Championship were held in La Plata.
Culture
Culture has a major role in the city of La Plata. This is reflected in the large amount of cultural centers, theaters, museums, cinemas and libraries that are in the city, as well as the Universidad Nacional de La Plata and the observatory.
Cultural centers: Centro Cultural Pasaje Dardo Rocha, Centro Cultural Islas Malvinas, Centro Cultural Estación Provincial, Centro Cultural Viejo Almacén El Obrero, Centro de Cultura & Comunicación, Centro Cultural El Núcleo, Centro Actividades Artísticas CRISOLES, Centro Cultural Los Hornos, Centro Cultural y Social El Galpón de Tolosa.
Theaters: Teatro Argentino de La Plata, Teatro Municipal Coliseo Podestá, Anfiteatro Martín Fierro, Teatro La Nonna, Teatro La Hermandad del Princesa, Sala 420, Taller de Teatro de la UNLP, Complejo El Teatro, Teatro La Lechuza.
Museums: Museo de Ciencias Naturales, , Museo Provincial de Bellas Artes, Museo Municipal de Bellas Artes, Museo de Arte Fra. Angélico, Museo de Instrumentos Musicales Colección Dr. Emilio Azzarini, Museo Histórico del Fuerte de la Ensenada de Barragán, Museo y Archivo Dardo Rocha, Museo Almafuerte, Museo del Teatro Argentino, Museo José Juan Podestá, Museo de la Catedral, Museo Indigenista Yana Kúntur, Museo Internacional de Muñecos, Museo del Automóvil Colección Rau, Museo del Tango Platense, Museo Policial Inspector Mayor Vesiroglos, Museo Histórico Contralmirante Chalier (Escuela Naval de Río Santiago), Museo Histórico Militar Tte. Julio A. Roca, Museo de Anatomía Veterinaria Dr. Víctor M. Arroyo, Museo de Artesanía Tradicional Juan Alfonso Carrizo, Museo de Astronomía y Geofísica, Museo de Botánica y Farmacognosia Dr. Carlos Spegazzini, Museo y Casa de Descanso Samay Huasi, Museo de Física, Museo de Historia de la Medicina Dr. Santiago Gorostiague, Museo Biblioteca de Química y Farmacia Prof. Dr. Carlos Sagastume, Museo de Odontología, Museo de Ciencias Agrarias y Forestales Prof. Julio Ocampo.
Libraries: Biblioteca Central General José de San Martín, Biblioteca Municipal Francisco López Merino, Biblioteca de la Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Biblioteca de la Legislatura de la Provincia.
Cinemas: Cinema San Martín, Cinema 8, Cinema City, Cinema Paradiso, Cinema Rocha, Cine Select, Espacio INCAA km. 60.
There were big personalities in the cultural sphere from the city: Paula Almerares (opera singer, soprano); Dante Anzolini (conductor); Efraín U. Bischoff (historian), José Walter Gavito (sculptor), Osvaldo Golijov (classical composer), Robert Noble (journalist and socialist politician, founder and first editor of the newspaper Clarín), Emilio Pettoruti (painter), Ernesto Tenenbaum (Reporter), María Dhialma Tiberti (writer), Iñaki Urlezaga (classical dancer), Álvaro Yunque (writer), Jorge and Federico D'Elia (actors); Adabel Guerrero (dancer, actress), Alejo García Pintos (film and television actor), Benjamín Rojas (actor and musician), Freddy Villarreal (comedian, actor), Héctor Bidonde (actor), Juan Palomino (actor), Oscar Alberto "Lito" Cruz (actor), Maxi Ghione (actor), Pablo Andrés Martínez (actor), Carlos Mancinelli (musician), among others.
It is worth mentioning other important personalities, not being natives of La Plata, influenced the city's cultural life as Raúl Amaral (writer, poet and journalist. It was part of Ediciones del Bosque), Joaquin V. Gonzalez (historian, educator, writer and politician) and Rafael Hernández (politician and journalist), both founders of the UNLP, Pedro Bonifacio Palacios "Almafuerte" (Poet); Josefina Passadori (writer) Ernesto Sabato (writer and artist), Carlos "Indio" Solari (musician and band member platense Redonditos Patricio Rey and Ricotta), among others.
The city has a great attraction to music, whereas all festival concerts are organized. In addition, this is formed big band music and folklore of Argentina such as Los Redondos, Virus, Guasones, Opus Cuatro, Infonoise, among others.
Festivals, celebrations and events scheduled
The city of La Plata has the particularity of being the only place (with Berisso and Ensenada) in the country where the burning of Momos (Dolls similar to those cremated at the Fallas festival in Valencia, Spain) is held every New Year's Eve. Hundreds of dolls are burnt to celebrate the end of the year and the beginning of a new year. Competitions for the best doll is awarded by the La Plata municipality and media.
Every 18 April is International Day For Monuments and Sites. That day, buses with tour guides leave from the Centro Cultural Pasaje Dardo Rocha to the various historical monuments of La Plata, Berisso and Ensenada, being the activity free.
In addition, every year on 19 November, the anniversary of the city is held with recitals and a fireworks show at the Plaza Moreno.
In La Plata, as well as in all of Argentina, the first day of spring is celebrated along with National Student's Day on 21 September. On this date, the municipality organizes concerts both in the Paseo del Bosque and Plaza Moreno.
Patron saint
The patron saint of the city and the party of La Plata is Saint Ponciano, the 18th pope of the Catholic Church, who died in Sardinia on 19 November 235. On 19 November is the feast of the Catholic parish of St. Pontian, pope and martyr.
Tourism
The most important tourist sites are located in the heart of the city's founding, between Streets 51 and 53, being the center of the city's Plaza Moreno. The square separates two great works of the city: the Metropolitan Cathedral of La Plata "Immaculate Conception" and the Palacio Municipal.
The city of La Plata has many monuments and historical sites. Among them are: the Banco Provincia de Buenos Aires headquarters, the Curutchet House, Casa de Gobierno Provincial, Casa Mariani – Teruggi, Centro Cultural Islas Malvinas, Centro Cultural Meridiano V, Centro Cultural Pasaje Dardo Rocha, Iglesia San Benjamín, la Legislatura Provincial, Museo de Ciencias Naturales, the Quinta Oreste Santospago, the Rectorado de la UNLP, Museo Ferroviario of Tolosa, the Teatro Municipal Coliseo Podestá, the Anfiteatro Martín Fierro, the Estadio Ciudad de La Plata, entre otros.
Moreover, staying at the city of La Plata the visitors can tour the monuments of the neighboring cities of Berisso and Ensenada (formerly part of La Plata), finding among these to the Street New York, the Swift Refrigerator, Ukrainian Catholic Parish Our Lady of the Assumption, Old Station Cultural Centre, Fort Barragán and Historical Museum, the Ensenada Rotary Bridge, among others.
Quema de muñecos is a traditional celebration held every New Year. People from different parts of the city build giant figures, usually modeled after famous fictional characters, using wood and papier mâché, and stuff them with fireworks. After midnight, all the figures are burnt, igniting the firework-filling in the process, resulting in a fiery spectacle. For safety reasons, most figures are built in the same spot where they are planned to be burnt, which usually involves a large clearing in a plaza, wide median strips, or abandoned lots. After the celebration, residents vote for the best figure in terms of design, size, etc., and the most voted gets a prize from a panel of established figure builders, as well as cash money reward.
Notable people
Mauro Colagreco, Argentine chef
Irene Bernasconi, Antarctic researcher
Facundo Cabral
Ángel Cabrera
Agustín Creevy
René Favaloro
Sergio Karakachoff
Cristina Fernández de Kirchner
Mercedes Lambre
Salvadora Medina Onrubia (1894-1972), writer, poet, anarchist, feminist
Martín Palermo
Emilio Pettoruti
Benjamín Rojas
Marcos Rojo (born 1990), footballer
Guillermo Barros Schelotto
Gustavo Barros Schelotto
Santiago Sosa (born 1999), footballer for Atlanta United
Roberto Themis Speroni (1922–1967), writer
Nicolás Tauber (born 1980), Argentine-Israeli footballer
Joaquín Tuculet
Iñaki Urlezaga
Francisco Varallo
Juan Sebastián Verón (born 1975), footballer
Sergio Parisse, rugby union player
Sister cities
, Porto Alegre, 1982
, Bologna, 1988
, Beersheba, 1989
, Zaragoza, 1990
, Asunción, 1993
, Concepción, 1993
, Barquisimeto, 2012
, Louisville, 1994
, Maldonado, 1994
, Montevideo, 1994
, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, 1994
, Sucre, 1994
, Anghiari, 1998
, Boulogne-sur-Mer, 2000
, Liverpool, 2005
, Santa Ana de Coro, 2007
, Jiujiang, 2008
Toluca, 2010
, Bivongi, 2012
, Mar del Plata, 2012
, Baw Baw
See also
List of twin towns and sister cities in Argentina
Footnotes
References
External links
Official government website
https://web.archive.org/web/20080704110338/http://www.mapa.laplata.gov.ar/ Interactive map of La Plata
La Plata's web guides
LaGuiaX
Cualbondi (Buses on/from/to La Plata)
Capitals of Argentine provinces
Planned communities in Argentina
Populated places in Buenos Aires Province
Populated places established in 1882
Cities in Argentina
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilderness
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Wilderness
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Wilderness or wildlands (usually in the plural) are natural environments on Earth that have not been significantly modified by human activity, or any nonurbanized land not under extensive agricultural cultivation. The term has traditionally referred to terrestrial environments, though growing attention is being placed on marine wilderness. Recent maps of wilderness suggest it covers roughly one-quarter of Earth's terrestrial surface, but is being rapidly degraded by human activity. Even less wilderness remains in the ocean, with only 13.2% free from intense human activity.
Some governments establish protection for wilderness areas by law to not only preserve what already exists, but also to promote and advance a natural expression and development. These can be set up in preserves, conservation preserves, national forests, national parks and even in urban areas along rivers, gulches or otherwise undeveloped areas. Often these areas are considered important for the survival of certain species, biodiversity, ecological studies, conservation, solitude and recreation. They may also preserve historic genetic traits and provide habitat for wild flora and fauna that may be difficult to recreate in zoos, arboretums or laboratories.
History
Ancient times and Middle Ages
From a visual arts perspective, nature and wildness have been important subjects in various epochs of world history. An early tradition of landscape art occurred in the Tang Dynasty (618–907). The tradition of representing nature as it is became one of the aims of Chinese painting and was a significant influence in Asian art. Artists in the tradition of Shan shui (lit. mountain-water-picture), learned to depict mountains and rivers "from the perspective of nature as a whole and on the basis of their understanding of the laws of nature… as if seen through the eyes of a bird". In the 13th century, Shih Erh Chi recommended avoiding painting "scenes lacking any places made inaccessible by nature".
For most of human history, the greater part of Earth's terrain was wilderness, and human attention was concentrated on settled areas. The first known laws to protect parts of nature date back to the Babylonian Empire and Chinese Empire. Ashoka, the Great Mauryan King, defined the first laws in the world to protect flora and fauna in Edicts of Ashoka around the 3rd century B.C. In the Middle Ages, the Kings of England initiated one of the world's first conscious efforts to protect natural areas. They were motivated by a desire to be able to hunt wild animals in private hunting preserves rather than a desire to protect wilderness. Nevertheless, in order to have animals to hunt they would have to protect wildlife from subsistence hunting and the land from villagers gathering firewood. Similar measures were introduced in other European countries.
However, in European cultures, throughout the Middle Ages, wilderness generally was not regarded worth protecting but rather judged strongly negative as a dangerous place and as a moral counter-world to the realm of culture and godly life. "While archaic nature religions oriented themselves towards nature, in medieval Christendom this orientation was replaced by one towards divine law. The divine was no longer to be found in nature; instead, uncultivated nature became a site of the sinister and the demonic. It was considered corrupted by the Fall (natura lapsa), becoming a vale of tears in which humans were doomed to live out their existence. Thus, for example, mountains were interpreted [e.g, by Thomas Burnet] as ruins of a once flat earth destroyed by the Flood, with the seas as the remains of that Flood." "If paradise was early man's greatest good, wilderness, as its antipode, was his greatest evil."
15th to 19th century
Wilderness was viewed by colonists as being evil in its resistance to their control. The puritanical view of wilderness meant that in order for colonists to be able to live in North America, they had to destroy the wilderness in order to make way for their 'civilized' society. Wilderness was considered to be the root of the colonists' problems, so to make the problems go away, wilderness needed to be destroyed. One of the first steps in doing this, is to get rid of trees in order to clear the land. Military metaphors describing the wilderness as the "enemy" were used, and settler expansion was phrased as "[conquering] the wilderness".
In relation to the wilderness, Native Americans were viewed as savages. The relationship between Native Americans and the land was something colonists did not understand and did not try to understand. This mutually beneficial relationship was different from how colonists viewed the land only in relation to how it could benefit themselves by waging a constant battle to beat the land and other living organisms into submission. The belief colonists had of the land being only something to be used was based in Christian ideas. If the earth and animals and plants were created by a Christian God for human use, then the cultivation by colonists was their God-given goal.
However, the idea that what European colonists saw upon arriving in North America was pristine and devoid of humans is untrue due to the existence of Native Americans. The land was shaped by Native Americans through practices such as fires. Burning happened frequently and in a controlled manner. The landscapes seen in the US today are very different from the way things looked before colonists came. Fire could be used to maintain food, cords, and baskets. One of the main roles of frequent fires was to prevent the out of control fires which are becoming more and more common.
The idea of wilderness having intrinsic value emerged in the Western world in the 19th century. British artists John Constable and J. M. W. Turner turned their attention to capturing the beauty of the natural world in their paintings. Prior to that, paintings had been primarily of religious scenes or of human beings. William Wordsworth's poetry described the wonder of the natural world, which had formerly been viewed as a threatening place. Increasingly the valuing of nature became an aspect of Western culture.
By the mid-19th century, in Germany, "Scientific Conservation", as it was called, advocated "the efficient utilization of natural resources through the application of science and technology". Concepts of forest management based on the German approach were applied in other parts of the world, but with varying degrees of success. Over the course of the 19th century wilderness became viewed not as a place to fear but a place to enjoy and protect; hence came the conservation movement in the latter half of the 19th century. Rivers were rafted and mountains were climbed solely for the sake of recreation, not to determine their geographical context.
In 1861, following an intense lobbying by artists (painters), the French Waters and Forests Military Agency set an "artistic reserve" in Fontainebleau State Forest. With a total of 1,097 hectares, it is known to be the first World nature reserve.
Modern conservation
Global conservation became an issue at the time of the dissolution of the British Empire in Africa in the late 1940s. The British established great wildlife preserves there. As before, this interest in conservation had an economic motive: in this case, big game hunting. Nevertheless, this led to growing recognition in the 1950s and the early 1960s of the need to protect large spaces for wildlife conservation worldwide. The World Wildlife Fund (WWF), founded in 1961, grew to be one of the largest conservation organizations in the world.
Early conservationists advocated the creation of a legal mechanism by which boundaries could be set on human activities in order to preserve natural and unique lands for the enjoyment and use of future generations. This profound shift in wilderness thought reached a pinnacle in the US with the passage of the Wilderness Act of 1964, which allowed for parts of U.S. National Forests to be designated as "wilderness preserves". Similar acts, such as the 1975 Eastern Wilderness Areas Act, followed.
Nevertheless, initiatives for wilderness conservation continue to increase. There are a growing number of projects to protect tropical rainforests through conservation initiatives. There are also large-scale projects to conserve wilderness regions, such as Canada's Boreal Forest Conservation Framework. The Framework calls for conservation of 50 percent of the 6,000,000 square kilometres of boreal forest in Canada's north. In addition to the World Wildlife Fund, organizations such as the Wildlife Conservation Society, the WILD Foundation, The Nature Conservancy, Conservation International, The Wilderness Society (United States) and many others are active in such conservation efforts.
The 21st century has seen another slight shift in wilderness thought and theory. It is now understood that simply drawing lines around a piece of land and declaring it a wilderness does not necessarily make it a wilderness. All landscapes are intricately connected and what happens outside a wilderness certainly affects what happens inside it. For example, air pollution from Los Angeles and the California Central Valley affects Kern Canyon and Sequoia National Park. The national park has miles of "wilderness" but the air is filled with pollution from the valley. This gives rise to the paradox of what a wilderness really is; a key issue in 21st century wilderness thought.
National parks
The creation of national parks, beginning in the 19th century, preserved some especially attractive and notable areas, but the pursuits of commerce, lifestyle, and recreation combined with increases in human population have continued to result in human modification of relatively untouched areas. Such human activity often negatively impacts native flora and fauna. As such, to better protect critical habitats and preserve low-impact recreational opportunities, legal concepts of "wilderness" were established in many countries, beginning with the United States (see below).
The first National Park was Yellowstone, which was signed into law by U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant on 1 March 1872. The Act of Dedication declared Yellowstone a land "hereby reserved and withdrawn from settlement, occupancy, or sale under the laws of the United States, and dedicated and set apart as a public park or pleasuring ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people."
When national parks were established in an area, the Native Americans that had been living there were forcibly removed so visitors to the park could see nature without humans present. National parks are seen as areas untouched by humans, when in reality, humans existed in these spaces, until settler colonists came in and forced them off their lands in order to create the national parks. The concept glorifies the idea that before settlers came, the US was an uninhabited landscape. This erases the reality of Native Americans, and their relationship with the land and the role they had in shaping the landscape. Such erasure suggests there were areas of the US which were historically unoccupied, once again erasing the existence of Native Americans and their relationship to the land. In the case of Yellowstone, the Grand Canyon, and Yosemite, the 'preservation' of these lands by the US government was what caused the Native Americans who lived in the areas to be systematically removed.
Historian Mark David Spence has shown that the case of Glacier National Park and the Blackfeet people who live there is a perfect example of such erasure. The Blackfeet people had specifically designated rights to the area, but the 1910 Glacier National Park act made void those rights. The act of 'preserving' the land was specifically linked to the exclusion of the Blackfeet people. The continued resistance of the Blackfeet people has provided documentation of the importance of the area to many different tribes.
The world's second national park, the Royal National Park, located just 32 km to the south of Sydney, Australia, was established in 1879.
The U.S. concept of national parks soon caught on in Canada, which created Banff National Park in 1885, at the same time as the transcontinental Canadian Pacific Railway was being built. The creation of this and other parks showed a growing appreciation of wild nature, but also an economic reality. The railways wanted to entice people to travel west. Parks such as Banff and Yellowstone gained favor as the railroads advertised travel to "the great wild spaces" of North America. When outdoorsman Teddy Roosevelt became president of the United States, he began to enlarge the U.S. National Parks system, and established the National Forest system.
By the 1920s, travel across North America by train to experience the "wilderness" (often viewing it only through windows) had become very popular. This led to the commercialization of some of Canada's National Parks with the building of great hotels such as the Banff Springs Hotel and Chateau Lake Louise.
Despite their similar name, national parks in England and Wales are quite different from national parks in many other countries. Unlike most other countries, in England and Wales, designation as a national park may include substantial settlements and human land uses which are often integral parts of the landscape, and land within a national park remains largely in private ownership. Each park is operated by its own national park authority.
The United States philosophy around wilderness preservation through National Parks has been attempted in other countries. However, people living in those countries have different ideas surrounding wilderness than people in the United States, thus, the US concept of wilderness can be damaging in other areas of the world. India is more densely populated and has been settled for a long time. There are complex relationships between agricultural communities and the wilderness. An example of this is the Project Tiger parks in India. By claiming areas as no longer used by humans, the land moves from the hands of poor people to rich people. Having designated tiger reserves is only possible by displacing poor people, who were not involved in the planning of the areas. This situation places the ideal of wilderness above the already existing relationships between people and the land they live on. By placing an imperialistic ideal of nature onto a different country, the desire to reestablish wilderness is being put above the lives of those who live by working the land.
Conservation and preservation in 20th century United States
By the late 19th century, it had become clear that in many countries wild areas had either disappeared or were in danger of disappearing. This realization gave rise to the conservation movement in the United States, partly through the efforts of writers and activists such as John Burroughs, Aldo Leopold, and John Muir, and politicians such as U.S. President Teddy Roosevelt.
The idea of protecting nature for nature's sake began to gain more recognition in the 1930s with American writers like Aldo Leopold, calling for a "land ethic" and urging wilderness protection. It had become increasingly clear that wild spaces were disappearing rapidly and that decisive action was needed to save them. Wilderness preservation is central to deep ecology; a philosophy that believes in an inherent worth of all living beings, regardless of their instrumental utility to human needs.
Two different groups had emerged within the US environmental movement by the early 20th century: the conservationists and the preservationists. The initial consensus among conservationists was split into "utilitarian conservationists" later to be referred to as conservationists, and "aesthetic conservationists" or preservationists. The main representative for the former was Gifford Pinchot, first Chief of the United States Forest Service, and they focused on the proper use of nature, whereas the preservationists sought the protection of nature from use. Put another way, conservation sought to regulate human use while preservation sought to eliminate human impact altogether. The management of US public lands during the years 1960s and 70s reflected these dual visions, with conservationists dominating the Forest Service, and preservationists the Park Service
Formal wilderness designations
International
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) classifies wilderness at two levels, 1a (strict nature reserves) and 1b (Wilderness areas).
There have been recent calls for the World Heritage Convention to better protect wilderness and to include the word wilderness in their selection criteria for Natural Heritage Sites
Forty-eight countries have wilderness areas established via legislative designation as IUCN protected area management Category 1b sites that do not overlap with any other IUCN designation. They are: Australia, Austria, Bahamas, Bangladesh, Bermuda, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Canada, Cayman Islands, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cuba, Czech Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Estonia, Finland, French Guiana, Greenland, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Japan, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Marshall Islands, Mexico, Mongolia, Nepal, New Zealand, Norway, Northern Mariana Islands, Portugal, Seychelles, Serbia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Tanzania, United States of America, and Zimbabwe. At publication, there are 2,992 marine and terrestrial wilderness areas registered with the IUCN as solely Category 1b sites.
Twenty-two other countries have wilderness areas. These wilderness areas are established via administrative designation or wilderness zones within protected areas. Whereas the above listing contains countries with wilderness exclusively designated as Category 1b sites, some of the below-listed countries contain protected areas with multiple management categories including Category 1b. They are: Argentina, Bhutan, Brazil, Chile, Honduras, Germany, Italy, Kenya, Malaysia, Namibia, Nepal, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, Philippines, the Russian Federation, South Africa, Switzerland, Uganda, Ukraine, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Venezuela, and Zambia.
Germany
The German National Strategy on Biological Diversity aims to establish wilderness areas on 2% of its terrestrial territory by 2020 (7,140 km2). However, protected wilderness areas in Germany currently only cover 0.6% of the total terrestrial area. In absence of pristine landscapes, Germany counts national parks (IUCN Category II) as wilderness areas. The government counts the whole area of the 16 national parks as wilderness. This means, also the managed parts are included in the "existing" 0,6%. There is no doubt, that Germany will miss its own time-dependent quantitative goals, but there are also some critics, that point a bad designation practice: Findings of disturbance ecology, according to which process-based nature conservation and the 2% target could be further qualified by more targeted area designation, pre-treatment and introduction of megaherbivores, are widely neglected. Since 2019 the government supports bargains of land that will then be designated as wilderness by 10 Mio. Euro annually. The German minimum size for wilderness candidate sites is normally 10 km2. In some cases (i.e. swamps) the minimum size is 5 km2.
Finland
There are twelve wilderness areas in the Sami native region in northern Finnish Lapland. They are intended both to preserve the wilderness character of the areas and further the traditional livelihood of the Sami people. This means e.g. that reindeer husbandry, hunting and taking wood for use in the household is permitted. As population is very sparse, this is generally no big threat to the nature. Large scale reindeer husbandry has influence on the ecosystem, but no change is introduced by the act on wilderness areas. The World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) classifies the areas as "VI Protected area with sustainable use of natural resources".
France
Since 1861, the French Waters and Forests Military Agency (Administration des Eaux et Forêts) put a strong protection on what was called the « artistic reserve » in Fontainebleau State Forest. With a total of 1,097 hectares, it is known to be the first World nature reserve.
Then in the 1950s, Integral Biological Reserves (Réserves Biologiques Intégrales, RBI) are dedicated to man free ecosystem evolution, on the contrary of Managed Biological reserves (Réserves Biologiques Dirigées, RBD) where a specific management is applied to conserve vulnerable species or threatened habitats.
Integral Biological Reserves occurs in French State Forests or City Forests and are therefore managed by the National Forests Office. In such reserves, all harvests coupe are forbidden excepted exotic species elimination or track safety works to avoid fallen tree risk to visitors (already existing tracks in or on the edge of the reserve).
At the end of 2014, there were 60 Integral Biological Reserves in French State Forests for a total area of 111,082 hectares and 10 in City Forests for a total of 2,835 hectares.
Greece
In Greece there are some parks called "ethniki drimoi" (εθνικοί δρυμοί, national forests) that are under protection of the Greek government. Such parks include Olympus, Parnassos and Parnitha National Parks.
New Zealand
There are seven Wilderness Areas in New Zealand as defined by the National Parks Act 1980 and the Conservation Act 1987 that fall well within the IUCN definition. Wilderness areas cannot have any human intervention and can only have indigenous species re-introduced into the area if it is compatible with conservation management strategies.
In New Zealand wilderness areas are remote blocks of land that have high natural character. The Conservation Act 1987 prevents any access by vehicles and livestock, the construction of tracks and buildings, and all indigenous natural resources are protected. They are generally over 400 km2 in size.
Three Wilderness Areas are currently recognised, all on the West Coast: Adams Wilderness Area, Hooker/Landsborough Wilderness Area and Paparoa Wilderness Area.
United States
In the United States, a Wilderness Area is an area of federal land set aside by an act of Congress. It is typically at least 5,000 acres (about 8 mi2 or 20 km2) in size. Human activities in wilderness areas are restricted to scientific study and non-mechanized recreation; horses are permitted but mechanized vehicles and equipment, such as cars and bicycles, are not.
The United States was one of the first countries to officially designate land as "wilderness" through the Wilderness Act of 1964. The Wilderness Act is an important part of wilderness designation because it created the legal definition of wilderness and established the National Wilderness Preservation System. The Wilderness Act defines wilderness as "an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammelled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain."
Wilderness designation helps preserve the natural state of the land and protects flora and fauna by prohibiting development and providing for non-mechanized recreation only.
The first administratively protected wilderness area in the United States was the Gila National Forest. In 1922, Aldo Leopold, then a ranking member of the U.S. Forest Service, proposed a new management strategy for the Gila National Forest. His proposal was adopted in 1924, and 750,000 acres of the Gila National Forest became the Gila Wilderness.
The Great Swamp in New Jersey was the first formally designated wilderness refuge in the United States. It was declared a wildlife refuge on 3 November 1960. In 1966 it was declared a National Natural Landmark and, in 1968, it was given wilderness status. Properties in the swamp had been acquired by a small group of residents of the area, who donated the assembled properties to the federal government as a park for perpetual protection. Today the refuge amounts to that are within thirty miles of Manhattan.
While wilderness designations were originally granted by an Act of Congress for Federal land that retained a "primeval character", meaning that it had not suffered from human habitation or development, the Eastern Wilderness Act of 1975 extended the protection of the NWPS to areas in the eastern states that were not initially considered for inclusion in the Wilderness Act. This act allowed lands that did not meet the constraints of size, roadlessness, or human impact to be designated as wilderness areas under the belief that they could be returned to a "primeval" state through preservation.
Approximately are designated as wilderness in the United States. This accounts for 4.82% of the country's total land area; however, 54% of that amount is found in Alaska (recreation and development in Alaskan wilderness is often less restrictive), while only 2.58% of the lower continental United States is designated as wilderness. As of 2023 there are 806 designated wilderness areas in the United States ranging in size from Florida's Pelican Island at to Alaska's Wrangell-Saint Elias at .
Western Australia
In Western Australia, a wilderness area is an area that has a wilderness quality rating of 12 or greater and meets a minimum size threshold of 80 km2 in temperate areas or 200 km2 in arid and tropical areas. A wilderness area is gazetted under section 62(1)(a) of the Conservation and Land Management Act 1984 by the Minister on any land that is vested in the Conservation Commission of Western Australia.
International movement
At the forefront of the international wilderness movement has been The WILD Foundation, its founder Ian Player and its network of sister and partner organizations around the globe. The pioneer World Wilderness Congress in 1977 introduced the wilderness concept as an issue of international importance, and began the process of defining the term in biological and social contexts. Today, this work is continued by many international groups who still look to the World Wilderness Congress as the international venue for wilderness and to The WILD Foundation network for wilderness tools and action. The WILD Foundation also publishes the standard references for wilderness professionals and others involved in the issues: Wilderness Management: Stewardship and Protection of Resources and Values, the International Journal of Wilderness, A Handbook on International Wilderness Law and Policy and Protecting Wild Nature on Native Lands are the backbone of information and management tools for international wilderness issues.
The Wilderness Specialist Group within the World Commission on Protected Areas (WTF/WCPA) of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) plays a critical role in defining legal and management guidelines for wilderness at the international level and is also a clearing-house for information on wilderness issues. The IUCN Protected Areas Classification System defines wilderness as "A large area of unmodified or slightly modified land, and/or sea retaining its natural character and influence, without permanent or significant habitation, which is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural condition (Category 1b)." The WILD Foundation founded the WTF/WCPA in 2002 and remains co-chair.
Extent
The most recent efforts to map wilderness show that less than one quarter (~23%) of the world's wilderness area now remains, and that there have been catastrophic declines in wilderness extent over the last two decades. Over 3 million square kilometers (10 percent) of wilderness was converted to human land-uses. The Amazon and Congo rain forests suffered the most loss. Human pressure is extending into almost every corner of the planet. The loss of wilderness could have serious implications for biodiversity conservation.
According to a previous study, Wilderness: Earth's Last Wild Places, carried out by Conservation International, 46% of the world's land mass is wilderness. For purposes of this report, "wilderness" was defined as an area that "has 70% or more of its original vegetation intact, covers at least and must have fewer than five people per square kilometer." However, an IUCN/UNEP report published in 2003, found that only 10.9% of the world's land mass is currently a Category 1 Protected Area, that is, either a strict nature reserve (5.5%) or protected wilderness (5.4%). Such areas remain relatively untouched by humans. Of course, there are large tracts of lands in national parks and other protected areas that would also qualify as wilderness. However, many protected areas have some degree of human modification or activity, so a definitive estimate of true wilderness is difficult.
The Wildlife Conservation Society generated a human footprint using a number of indicators, the absence of which indicate wildness: human population density, human access via roads and rivers, human infrastructure for agriculture and settlements and the presence of industrial power (lights visible from space). The society estimates that 26% of the Earth's land mass falls into the category of "Last of the wild." The wildest regions of the world include the Arctic Tundra, the Siberia Taiga, the Amazon rainforest, the Tibetan Plateau, the Australia Outback and deserts such as the Sahara, and the Gobi. However, from the 1970s, numerous geoglyphs have been discovered on deforested land in the Amazon rainforest, leading to claims about Pre-Columbian civilizations. The BBC's Unnatural Histories claimed that the Amazon rainforest, rather than being a pristine wilderness, has been shaped by man for at least 11,000 years through practices such as forest gardening and terra preta.
The percentage of land area designated wilderness does not necessarily reflect a measure of its biodiversity. Of the last natural wilderness areas, the taiga—which is mostly wilderness—represents 11% of the total land mass in the Northern Hemisphere. Tropical rainforest represent a further 7% of the world's land base. Estimates of the Earth's remaining wilderness underscore the rate at which these lands are being developed, with dramatic declines in biodiversity as a consequence.
Critique
The American concept of wilderness has been criticized by some nature writers. For example, William Cronon writes that what he calls a wilderness ethic or cult may "teach us to be dismissive or even contemptuous of such humble places and experiences", and that "wilderness tends to privilege some parts of nature at the expense of others", using as an example "the mighty canyon more inspiring than the humble marsh." This is most clearly visible with the fact that nearly all U.S. National Parks preserve spectacular canyons and mountains, and it was not until the 1940s that a swamp became a national park—the Everglades. In the mid-20th century national parks started to protect biodiversity, not simply attractive scenery.
Cronon also believes the passion to save wilderness "poses a serious threat to responsible environmentalism" and writes that it allows people to "give ourselves permission to evade responsibility for the lives we actually lead... to the extent that we live in an urban-industrial civilization but at the same time pretend to ourselves that our real home is in the wilderness".
Michael Pollan has argued that the wilderness ethic leads people to dismiss areas whose wildness is less than absolute. In his book Second Nature, Pollan writes that "once a landscape is no longer 'virgin' it is typically written off as fallen, lost to nature, irredeemable." Another challenge to the conventional notion of wilderness comes from Robert Winkler in his book, Going Wild: Adventures with Birds in the Suburban Wilderness. "On walks in the unpeopled parts of the suburbs," Winkler writes, "I’ve witnessed the same wild creatures, struggles for survival, and natural beauty that we associate with true wilderness." Attempts have been made, as in the Pennsylvania Scenic Rivers Act, to distinguish "wild" from various levels of human influence: in the Act, "wild rivers" are "not impounded", "usually not accessible except by trail", and their watersheds and shorelines are "essentially primitive".
Another source of criticism is that the criteria for wilderness designation is vague and open to interpretation. For example, the Wilderness Act states that wilderness must be roadless. The definition given for roadless is "the absences of roads which have been improved and maintained by mechanical means to insure relatively regular and continuous use". However, there have been added sub-definitions that have, in essence, made this standard unclear and open to interpretation, and some are drawn to narrowly exclude existing roads.
Coming from a different direction, some criticism from the Deep Ecology movement argues against conflating "wilderness" with "wilderness reservations", viewing the latter term as an oxymoron that, by allowing the law as a human construct to define nature, unavoidably voids the very freedom and independence of human control that defines wilderness. True wilderness requires the ability of life to undergo speciation with as little interference from humanity as possible. Anthropologist and scholar on wilderness Layla Abdel-Rahim argues that it is necessary to understand the principles that govern the economies of mutual aid and diversification in wilderness from a non-anthropocentric perspective.
Others have criticized the American concept of wilderness as rooted in white supremacy, ignoring Native American perspectives on the natural environment and excluding people of color from narratives about human interactions with the environment. Many early conservationists, such as Madison Grant, were also heavily involved in the eugenics movement. Grant, who worked alongside President Theodore Roosevelt to create the Bronx Zoo, also wrote The Passing of the Great Race, a book on eugenics that was later praised by Adolf Hitler. Grant is also known to have featured Ota Benga, a Mbuti man from Central Africa, in the Bronx Zoo monkey house exhibit. John Muir, another important figure in the early conservation movement, referred to African-Americans as "making a great deal of noise and doing little work", and compared Native Americans to unclean animals who did not belong in the wilderness. Environmental history professor Miles A. Powell of Nanyang Technological University has argued that much of the early conservation movement was deeply tied to and inspired by a desire to preserve the Nordic race. Prakash Kashwan, a political science professor at the University of Connecticut who specializes in environmental policies and environmental justice, argues that the racist ideas of many early conservationists created a narrative of wilderness that has led to "fortress conservation" policies that have driven Native Americans off of their land. Kashwan has proposed conservation practices that would allow Indigenous people to continue using the land as a more just and more effective alternative to fortress conservation. The idea that the natural world is primarily made up of remote wilderness areas has also been criticized as classist, with environmental sociologist Dorceta Taylor arguing that this leads to experiencing wilderness becoming a privilege, as working-class people are often unable to afford transportation to wilderness areas. She further argues that, due to poverty and lack of access to transportation caused by systemic racism, this perception is also rooted in racism.
Human–nature dichotomy
Another critique of wilderness is that it perpetuates the human-nature dichotomy. The idea that nature and humans are separate entities can be traced back to European colonial views. To European settlers, land was an inherited right and was to be used to profit. While native groups saw their relationship with the land in a more holistic view, they were eventually subjected to European property systems. Colonists from Europe saw the American landscape as wild, savage, dark, [etc.] and thus needed to be tamed in order for it to be safe and habitable. Once cleared and settled, these areas were depicted as "Eden itself". Yet the native peoples of those lands saw "wilderness" as that when the connection between humans and nature is broken. For native communities, human intervention was a part of their ecological practices.
There is a historical belief that wilderness must not only be tamed to be protected but that humans also need to be outside of it. In order to clear certain areas for conservation, such as national parks, involved the removal of native communities from their land. Some authors have come to describe this type of conservation as conservation-far, where humans and nature are kept separate. The other end of the conservation spectrum then, would be conservation-near, which would mimic native ecological practices of humans integrated into the care of nature.
Most scientists and conservationists agree that no place on earth is completely untouched by humanity, either due to past occupation by indigenous people, or through global processes such as climate change or pollution. Activities on the margins of specific wilderness areas, such as fire suppression and the interruption of animal migration, also affect the interior of wildernesses.
See also
Aldo Leopold
Adventure travel
Biomass
Biomass (ecology)
Bioproduct
Camping
Conservation movement
Deforestation
Ecological footprint
Environmental education
Forest
Geology
Global warming
Hiking
Intact forest landscape
John Muir Lifetime Achievement Award
Land use
Last of the Wild
Leave no trace
List of U.S. Wilderness Areas
List of conservationists
Bob Marshall
National Outdoor Leadership School
National Wilderness Preservation System
National Wildlife Magazine
Native American use of fire
Natural landscape
Old-growth forest
Outdoor education
Permaforestry
Planetary habitability
Protected area
Wild fisheries
Wildcrafting
Wilderness Act (1964)
Wilderness therapy
Wilderness Area (Protected Area Management Category)
References
Further reading
Bryson, B. (1998). A Walk in the Woods.
Casson, S. et al. (Ed.s). (2016). Wilderness Protected Areas: Management Guidelines for IUCN Category 1b (wilderness) Protected Areas
Gutkind, L (Ed). (2002). On Nature: Great Writers on the Great Outdoors.
Kirchhoff, Thomas/ Vicenzotti, Vera 2014: A historical and systematic survey of European perceptions of wilderness. Environmental Values 23 (4): 443–464.
Nash, Roderick Frazier [1967] 2014: Wilderness and the American Mind. Fifth Edition. New Haven & London, Yale University Press / Yale Nota Bene.
Oelschlaeger, Max 1991: The Idea of Wilderness. From Prehistory to the Age of Ecology. New Haven & London, Yale University Press.
Documentaries
2022: Wild Forests by David Cebulla
External links
IUCN Category 1a: Strict Nature Reserve
IUCN Category 1b: Wilderness Areas
The Wilderness Society
Wilderness Information Network
Wilderness Articles, Survival Techniques, Edible Plants
Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute
Wilderness Task Force/World Commission on Protect Areas
Campaign for America's Wilderness
The WILD Foundation
Definitions
Detailed maps of United States wilderness designations
What is Wilderness? – Definition and discussion of wilderness as a human construction
Wilderness and the American Mind – by Roderick Nash
The Trouble with Wilderness; or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature by William Cronon.
Global natural environment
Wilderness areas
Protected areas
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent%20Order%20of%20Odd%20Fellows
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Independent Order of Odd Fellows
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The Independent Order of Odd Fellows (IOOF) is a non-political, non-sectarian international fraternal order of Odd Fellowship. It was founded in 1819 by Thomas Wildey in Baltimore, Maryland, United States. Evolving from the Order of Odd Fellows founded in England during the 18th century, the IOOF was originally chartered by the Independent Order of Oddfellows Manchester Unity in England but has operated as an independent organization since 1842, although it maintains an inter-fraternal relationship with the English Order. The order is also known as the Triple Link Fraternity, referring to the order's "Triple Links" symbol, alluding to its motto "Friendship, Love and Truth".
While several unofficial Odd Fellows Lodges had existed in New York City circa 1806–1818, because of its charter relationship, the American Odd Fellows is regarded as being founded with Washington Lodge No 1 in Baltimore at the Seven Stars Tavern on April 26, 1819, by Thomas Wildey along with some associates who assembled in response to an advertisement in the New Republic. The following year, the lodge affiliated with the Independent Order of Oddfellows Manchester Unity and was granted the authority to institute new lodges. Previously, Wildey had joined the Grand United Order of Oddfellows (1798-) in 1804 but followed through with the split of Independent Order of Oddfellows Manchester Unity (1810–) before immigrating to the United States in 1817.
In 1842, after an elementary dispute on authority, the American Lodges formed a governing system separate from the English Order, and in 1843 assumed the name Independent Order of Odd Fellows.
Like other fraternities, the Independent Order of Odd Fellows began by limiting their membership to white men only. On September 20, 1851, the IOOF became the first fraternity in the United States to include white women when it adopted the "Beautiful Rebekah Degree" by initiative of Schuyler Colfax, later Vice-President of the United States.
Beyond fraternal and recreational activities, the Independent Order of Odd Fellows promotes the ethic of reciprocity and charity, by implied inspiration of Judeo-Christian ethics. The largest Sovereign Grand Lodge of all fraternal orders of Odd Fellows since the 19th century, it enrolls some 600,000 members divided in approximately 10,000 lodges into 26 countries, inter-fraternally recognized by the second largest, the British-seated Independent Order of Oddfellows Manchester Unity.
History
Precursor
Odd Fellows lodges were first documented in 1730 in England from which many organizations emerged.
While several unofficial Odd Fellows lodges had existed in New York City sometime in the period 1806 to 1818, the American Odd Fellows is regarded as being founded with Washington Lodge No 1 in Baltimore at the Seven Stars Tavern on April 26, 1819, by Thomas Wildey along with some associates who assembled in response to a newspaper advertisement. The following year, the lodge affiliated with the Independent Order of Oddfellows Manchester Unity was granted the authority to institute new lodges. Wildey had joined the Grand United Order of Oddfellows in 1804, then joined its splinter order, Independent Order of Oddfellows Manchester Unity, before immigrating to the United States in 1817.
Foundation
In 1842, after an elementary dispute on whether the American lodges were to be involved in decision-making procedures, in a split along racial lines, some American Lodges formed with exclusively whites-only membership and a separate governing system from the English Order. In 1843, they changed the name of their organization to the Independent Order of Odd Fellows.
19th century
In the following years, lodges were instituted all over the country, first in the east and later in the west. Also in 1842, the English Oddfellow Grand Lodges issued a warrant to an African American sailor named Peter Ogden from New York City; unlike Wildey and the IOOF, Ogden and the African American Odd Fellows lodges never separated from the English order, and they remain part of the Grand United Order of Odd Fellows (GUOOF), still headquartered in Philadelphia.
On September 20, 1851, IOOF became the first national fraternity to accept both men and women when it formed the Daughters of Rebekah. Schuyler Colfax (Vice President of the United States (1869–1873) under President Ulysses S. Grant) was the force behind the movement. Both the Odd Fellows and Rebekahs have appendant branches known as Encampments and Patriarchs Militant.
The American Civil War (1861–1865) shattered the IOOF in America; membership decreased and many lodges were unable to continue their work, especially in the southern states. After the Civil War, with the beginning of industrialization, the deteriorating social circumstances brought large numbers of people to the IOOF and the lodges rallied.
Over the next half-century, also known as the "Golden age of fraternalism" in America, the Odd Fellows became the largest among all fraternal organizations, (at the time, even larger than Freemasonry). By 1889, the IOOF had lodges in every American state. Compared to Masonic lodges, membership in the Odd Fellows lodges tended to be more common among the lower middle class and skilled workers and less common among the wealthy white collar workers and professionals.
In 1896, the World Almanac showed the Odd Fellows as the largest among all fraternal organizations.
By the late nineteenth century, the Order had spread to most of the rest of the world, establishing lodges in the Americas, Australasia, and Europe. According to the Journal of the Annual Communication of the Sovereign Grand Lodge 1922, page 426, there were a reported 2,676,582 members. While this data from 1921 may not be the exact zenith of its membership, the organization experienced a loss in membership of 23.5% between 1920 and 1930, explained in large part by the development of the commercial insurance industry, and has continually declined.
20th century
The Great Depression and the introduction of Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal brought a decline in membership. During the depression, people could not afford Odd Fellows membership fees, and when the New Deal's social reforms started to take effect, the need for the social work of the Odd Fellows declined.
In 1971 the IOOF changed its constitution, removing its whites only clause. In 1979 the Order had 243,000 members.
Some branches of the order (i.e., some countries) have allowed women to join the Odd Fellows itself, leading to the Rebekahs' decline in importance. Also, the appendant branches and their degrees are, in some countries, becoming regarded as less important or too time-consuming, and are gradually being abandoned.
21st century
Although there was a decline in membership in fraternal organizations in general during the 20th century, membership in the 21st century started to increase.
The Odd Fellows scholarship has extended financial assistance to the youth for their education from time to time.
Organization
Current status
The IOOF continues in the 21st century with lodges around the world, and is claimed to be the "largest united international fraternal order in the world under one head", with every lodge working with the Sovereign Grand Lodge located in the United States. Also, the Independent Order of Oddfellows Manchester Unity and the IOOF have recognized each other inter-fraternally; members of the Manchester Unity and the IOOF can visit each other's lodges, and are welcome as brothers and sisters. Currently, there are about 12,000 lodges with nearly 600,000 members.
Units of the order in the United States include:
Odd Fellows Lodge
Rebekahs Lodge
Encampment
Ladies Encampment Auxiliary (LEA)
Patriarchs Militant
Ladies Auxiliary Patriarchs Militant (LAPM)
Junior Odd Fellows Lodge
Theta Rho Girls Club
United Youth Groups
Zeta Lambda Tau
Objectives
As an organization, the Independent Order of Odd Fellows aims to provide a framework that promotes personal and social development. Lodge degrees and activities aim to improve and elevate every person to a higher, nobler plane; to extend sympathy and aid to those in need, making their burdens lighter, relieving the darkness of despair; to war against vice in every form, and to be a great moral power and influence for the good of humanity. Teachings in the Order are conducted through the exemplification of the Degrees of membership. The Degrees are conferred on the candidate by their Lodge, and are teachings of principles and truths by ceremonies and symbols. The Degrees are presented largely by means of allegory and drama. For Odd Fellows, the degrees in Odd Fellowship emphasize a leaving of the old life and the start of a better one, of welcoming travelers, and of helping those in need. Lodges also provide an international social network of members in 26 countries. The command of the IOOF is to "visit the sick, relieve the distressed, bury the dead and educate the orphan". Specifically, IOOF has stated the following purposes:
To improve and elevate the character of mankind by promoting the principles of friendship, love, truth, faith, hope, charity and universal justice.
To help make the world a better place to live by aiding each other in times of need and by organizing charitable projects and activities that would benefit the less fortunate, the youth, the elderly, the environment and the community in every way possible.
To promote good will and harmony amongst peoples and nations through the principle of universal fraternity, holding the belief that all men and women regardless of race, nationality, religion, social status, gender, rank and station are brothers and sisters.
To promote a wholesome fraternal experience without violence, vices and discrimination of every form.
International
Argentina
There was one Odd Fellows Lodge in the country, Buenos Ayres Lodge no.1 instituted on January 1, 1903, with 32 members. The most recent report from the lodge was received by the Sovereign Grand Lodge in 1912.
Australasia
A lodge of the Order of Loyal and Independent Odd Fellows was in existence in the state of New South Wales on February 24, 1836. The lodge was established in New Zealand in 1843. An Australian Supreme Grand Lodge was established in Victoria sometime in the year 1850 and this body made negotiations for affiliation with the Grand Lodge of the United States in 1861. It is also noted that an Ancient Independent Order of Odd Fellows was in existence from 1861 to 1954 in Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia.
Austria
The Independent Order of Odd Fellows in Austria was first formed as a club in 1911. After WWI, conditions changed and the club was instituted as Friedens Lodge no.1 on June 4, 1922, in Vienna followed by Ikarius Lodge no.2, Pestalozzi Lodge no.3 and Fridtjof Nansen Lodge no.4. Mozart Lager Encampment no.1 was also instituted on June 3, 1932.
Belgium
The first lodge under the Independent Order of Odd Fellows, Belgia Lodge no.1, was instituted on June 13, 1911, in Antwerp. On March 15, 1975, Aurora Rebekah Lodge no.1 was instituted in Antwerp. Two more Odd Fellows Lodges were opened in the country.
Brazil
The first I.O.O.F store in Brazil was established on February 16, 2020. It was a historic date for the country. A special delegation was sent to the country with 3 people, Edward Johnson, Michelle Heckart and Hank Dupray to assist in the foundation. Brazil Lodge N 01. was opened with 18 founding members and the first Noble Grand in Brazil was Gabriel Boni Sutil. Brazil Lodge N 01 remains open and members are working on the growth of the IOOF in the country.
Canada
Two lodges under the Manchester Unity of Independent Order of Odd Fellows known as Royal Wellington Lodge no.1 and Loyal Bon Accorde Lodge no.2 existed in Halifax, Nova Scotia, as early as 1815. The IOOF in Canada has 7 Grand Lodges, namely: Grand Lodge of Alberta, Grand Lodge of Atlantic Provinces, Grand Lodge of British Columbia, Grand Lodge of Manitoba, Grand Lodge of Ontario, Grand Lodge of Quebec and Grand Lodge of Saskatchewan.
Chile
The first Lodge under the Independent Order of Odd Fellows, known as Valparaiso Lodge No.1, was instituted by Dr. Cornelius Logan, Grand Sire, on April 15, 1874. Four additional lodges were instituted in the following years, and a Grand Lodge of Chile was instituted on November 18, 1875. However, due to the political situation in the country, the lodges in the country were reduced to 3 active lodges in 1888 and the charter of the Grand Lodge was surrendered. In September 2012, there were 3 Odd Fellows Lodges and 3 Rebekahs Lodges in the country.
Cuba
The Independent Order of Odd Fellows was established in Cuba when Porvenir Lodge no.1 was instituted in Havana on August 26, 1883. More lodges were then instituted the following years. In 2012 there were about 116 Odd Fellows Lodges, 50 Rebekahs Lodges, 33 Encampments, 12 cantons and 2 Junior Lodges, totaling to about 15,000 members in Cuba.
Czech Republic
The first attempt to establish the Independent Order of Odd Fellows in what later became the Czech Republic was in 1905 through the formation of Friendship Lodge No. 8 in Saxony. But the unstable political and social condition of the country hampered development. The actual development of the IOOF began after the creation of Czechoslovakia. However, Lodges were banned and cancelled during WWII. The IOOF began to re-activate lodges in 1989, building the first Odd Fellows Hall in the Czech Republic in 1996. In 2010, Martel Rebekah Lodge No.4 was founded as the lodge for women.
Denmark
The Independent Order of Odd Fellows was established in the Kingdom of Denmark in 1878 and the Rebekahs in 1881. In September 2012, IOOF had over 112 Odd Fellow Lodges and 94 Rebekah Lodges, with a total membership of 14,500 in Denmark. The IOOF Grand Lodge headquarters of the Kingdom of Denmark is located at the Odd Fellow Palace in Copenhagen.
Dominican Republic
The Independent Order of Odd Fellows was formally established in the Dominican Republic when Dr. Joaquin Balaguer Lodge no.1 was founded on February 24, 2007, in the City of San Cristobal.
Estonia
The Independent Order of Odd Fellows was founded in Estonia when 1 Odd Fellows Lodge was founded by the Grand Lodge of Finland in 1993 and a Rebekah lodge in 1995.
Finland
After the Independent Order of Odd Fellows Grand Lodge of Sweden was established in 1895, the interest in Odd Fellowship was awakened in Finland. After Finland had declared independence in 1917, the idea of an Odd Fellows Lodge in Finland was raised again. A few interested people from the town Vaasa in Ostrobothnia province were able to join the Swedish Odd Fellow lodges until the Sovereign Grand Lodge finally permitted the Grand Lodge of Sweden to officially establish the IOOF in Finland in 1925. The first lodge established was named Wasa Lodge no.1 in the coastal town of Vaasa. Additional lodges were then formed in Helsinki in 1927 and a third lodge in Turku in 1931. Odd Fellows in Finland encountered great difficulties in the 1930s and during the wartime. Especially the question of premises was quite difficult for many years. However, all three lodges which had been established before the war continued their activities almost without interruption. Only after the war, in the year 1951 was the next lodge established. Since then, the development has been steady and quite rapid. In the beginning of the 1980s, the number of brother lodges was 35 and the number of sister lodges 19 leading to the institution of the Grand Lodge of Finland on June 2, 1984. In the year 2008, there were 57 Odd Fellows lodges and 48 Rebekah lodges in Finland with about 8,200 members.
Germany
The first lodge under the Independent Order of Odd Fellows was established on December 1, 1870, in Württemberg, Germany, by Dr. John F. Morse, a Past Grand Master in California and a member of California Odd Fellows Lodge No. 1 of San Francisco, California, U.S.A. After the institution of Württemberg Lodge, other lodges were instituted including Germania Lodge No. 1 in Berlin on March 30, 1871; Helvetia Lodge No. 1 in Zurich, Switzerland on April 2, 1871; Saxonia Lodge No. 1 in Dresden on June 6, 1871; and Schiller Lodge No. 3 in Stuttgart on May 25, 1872. During the first decades, many lodges were instituted including 56 lodges in the 1870s, 20 lodges in the 1880s, 41 lodges in the 1890s, and the membership totaled almost 4,000 brothers. The formal establishment of the IOOF Grand Lodge of the German Empire was on December 28, 1872.
Iceland
The Independent Order of Odd Fellows in Iceland was founded in August 1897 under the Jurisdiction of the IOOF Grand Lodge of Kingdom of Denmark, until it established the Grand Lodge of Iceland on January 31, 1948. In December 2017, there were 28 Odd Fellows Lodges, 18 Rebekah Lodges, 6 Odd Fellow Encampments and 5 Rebekah Encampments – about 3,900 members.
Italy
The Independent Order of Odd Fellows was first introduced in the country when Colombo Lodge no.1 was instituted in Naples in 1895.
Mexico
The first lodge in Mexico under the Independent Order of Odd Fellows, known as Ridgely Lodge no.1, was instituted on August 5, 1882. Several Lodges were opened the following years reaching up to 5 Lodges in 1895. However, the political situation affected their progress. In 2012, there was one Odd Fellows Lodge and one Rebekah Lodge re-instituted in 1996.
Netherlands
Paradijs Loge nr. 1 (Paradise Lodge No. 1) was founded in Amsterdam on March 19, 1877, by L. Elkan and G.E. van Erpen, former members of an Odd Fellows lodge in the United States. This initiative commenced in 1876, but initially the Dutch Government was not pleased. It subsequently stopped its resistance later in the same year. The translation of the rituals was the next problem, combined with the recognition by the Soeverine Loge (Sovereign Grand Lodge). Eventually the founder of the German Order, Ostheim, was appointed Gedeputeerd Groot Sire voor Nederland and installed the first Dutch board. In 1899, lodges were established in The Hague and Groningen. Also in 1899, the first Nederlandse Grootorde (Grand Lodge of Netherlands) was founded. On September 2, 1911, the first Belgian Lodge, Belgia Loge nr. 201, was established in Antwerp, and the Order changed its name to Orde in Nederland en België.
Nigeria
Various orders of Odd Fellows have existed in Nigeria since the 1800s. The Independent Order of Odd Fellows re-established lodges in the country in 2008. In January 2012, there were four Odd Fellow lodges in the country.
Norway
The Independent Order of Odd Fellows was established in Norway in 1898 and is one of the strongest jurisdictions in terms of membership. In January 2010, there were 151 Odd Fellow Lodges and 125 Rebekah Lodges and about 23,414 members in the country.
Panama
The Independent Order of Odd Fellows, Isthmian Canal Lodge No. 1, was instituted at Gorgona, September 17, 1907, in Panama. The charter was secured upon the application of named petitioners. Officers were installed. A special meeting was announced to institute a class of 25 on October 5, 1907.
Poland
The Independent Order of Odd Fellows was established in Poland in Poznan in 1876 and in Wroclaw (then Breslau) in 1879. A Regional Grand Lodge of Silesia and Poznan was established in 1885, which opened lodges in Bydgoszcz in 1895, Gniezno in 1896, Torun in 1898, Gdansk in 1899, Pila 1899 and Grudziadz in 1901. After World War I, six Odd Fellows lodges worked in the Polish lands: in Poznań "Kosmos-Loge" in Inowroclaw "Astrea-Loge" in Bydgoszcz "Emanuel Schweizer Gedächnits Loge" in Gniezno "Friedens-Loge" in Torun "Coppernicus -Loge" and Grudziadz "Ostheim-Loge." Moreover, in Gdansk Gedania-Loge "and the camp" Vistula-Lager" existed. In addition to the above-mentioned, there were 18 IOOF lodges in the Lower Silesia, including as many as five in Wroclaw, "Morse", "Moltke," Phönix "Freundschaft" and "Caritas". In the years 1925 to 1926, they built a new, modern building for their headquarters. It was projected by A. Radig, and it stands in today's Hallera Street in Wroclaw.
Puerto Rico
The Independent Order of Odd Fellows was formally established in Puerto Rico when Boriken Lodge No. 1 was instituted on November 6, 1899, with the help of several members from Florida, New Jersey and New York Lodges of the IOOF. Naborias Rebekahs Lodge No. 1 was also formed in the country.
Philippines
Filipinos first embraced the fraternalism of the Odd Fellows during the revolutionary era as a reaction to the perceived abuses by their Spanish colonists, and by 1898, had formed several military lodges and Odd Fellows Association in Manila. According to their own records, the early membership consisted primarily of military officers and government officials. The organization failed during World War II, and was not reformed until November 21, 2009. In 2019 there were 25 active Odd Fellows lodges, 1 Rebekah Lodge, 3 Encampments and 2 Cantons of the Patriarchs Militant located in various towns and cities in the country.
Spain
Andalucia Rebekah Lodge no.1 was established in 1995, and Costa del Sol Lodge no.1 was founded in the country by members of the IOOF from Denmark and Norway in 2002.
Sweden
The Independent Order of Odd Fellows in Sweden was first established in Malmo, Sweden, in 1884, and a Grand Lodge of the Kingdom of Sweden was instituted in 1895. In 2012, Sweden held the strongest membership in IOOF with more than 174 Odd Fellow Lodges, 113 Rebekah Lodges, and over 40,000 members.
Switzerland
The Independent Order of Odd Fellows was first established in Switzerland on June 19, 1871, when Helvetia Lodge no.1 was instituted in Zurich by Dr. Morse of California and Mr. Schaettle and Bernheim, members of the fraternity in Germany. The IOOF Grand Lodge of Switzerland was established on April 22, 1874.
Uruguay
The first Lodge under the Independent Order of Odd Fellows was established in Uruguay on February 9, 1966, known as Artigas Lodge no.1. The Rebekahs was also established on November 19, 1966, known as Amanecer Rebekah Lodge no.1. Additional lodges, Uruguay Lodge no.2, Horizontes Rebekah Lodge no.2 and El Ceibo Lodge have been instituted and 5 lodges meet in the same hall in Montevideo.
Venezuela
The first lodge under the Independent Order of Odd Fellows was founded in the City of Caracas, Venezuela, on August 2, 1986, known as Pakritti Lodge no.1.
Regional grand lodges
There are IOOF lodges in at least 29 countries: Each Grand Lodge has a number of subordinate lodges that report to them.
Degrees and initiation
In the IOOF system, different degrees are conferred depending on whether one is initiated into the Daughters of Rebekah or the Oddfellows proper.
For Oddfellows, four lodge degrees; three higher, encampment degrees; and one Patriarchs Militant degree are conferred.
For Rebekahs, one lodge degree, one encampment degree, and one Ladies Auxiliary Patriarchs Militant (LAPM) degree are conferred.
The Ancient Mystic Order of Samaritans (AMOS), an IOOF appendant body, confers two degrees. The Ladies of the Orient (LOTO), an appendant body of the Daughters of Rebekahs, similarly confers two degrees.
Oddfellow degrees
Lodge degrees
Initiatory (White degree)
Friendship (First degree, Pink degree)
"Brotherly" Love (Second degree, Blue degree)
Truth (Third degree, Scarlet degree)
Encampment degrees
Patriarchal (Faith degree)
Golden Rule (Hope degree)
Royal Purple (Charity degree)
Patriarchs Militant degree
Chevalier (Patriarch Militant degree)
Rebekah degrees
Lodge degree
Rebekah degree
Ladies Encampment Auxiliary (LEA) degree
LEA degree
Ladies Auxiliary Patriarchs Militant (LAPM) degree
LAPM degree
AMOS degrees
Humility (Samaritan degree)
Perfection (Sheikh degree)
Ladies of the Orient (LOTO) degrees
Persecution
Purification
Symbols and regalia
To fully understand the purposes and principles of Odd Fellowship, instruction in ceremonial form is divided into degrees. These degrees are dramatic in form and aim to emulate and impart the principles of the fraternity: Friendship, Love, Truth, Faith, Hope, Charity and Universal Justice. Each degree consists of symbols that aim to teach a practical moral code and encourages members to live and act upon them to act positive change upon the world. In the past, when most Odd Fellows lodges offered financial benefits for the sick and distressed members, such symbols, passwords and hand signs were used as proof of membership and to protect the lodge funds from impostors. These symbols, signs and passwords have been carried forward to modern times as a tradition. The most widely encountered symbol of the IOOF – on signs, buildings and gravemarkers – is the three-link chain ("the Chain With Three Links", the "Triple Links") with initials 'F', 'L' and 'T' signifying Friendship, Love and Truth.
Female auxiliaries
The Rebekah Lodges were founded on September 20, 1851, when, after considerable debate, the Sovereign Grand Lodge of the Independent Order of Odd Fellows voted to adopt the Rebekah Degree, largely due to the efforts of Schuyler Colfax. The first Rebekah Degrees were honorary awards only, conferred on wives and daughters of Odd Fellows at special lodge meetings, and recipients were known as "Daughters of Rebekah", taken from the Biblical character of Rebekah.
International Association of Rebekah Assemblies
Theta Rho Girls
Ancient Mystic Order of Samaritans
The Ancient Mystic Order of Samaritans (AMOS) is an unofficial, oriental-styled auxiliary body of the Independent Order of Odd Fellows, formed in 1924 by amalgamation of several previous bodies dating back to the end of the 19th century. Only male Odd Fellows in good standing with their subordinate lodges are eligible to join. In 1950, the Sovereign Grand Lodge recognized AMOS as "The Playground of Odd Fellowship." AMOS is only presently active in the United States and Canada, though it once also existed in Cuba and the Panama Canal Zone.
Junior lodge
The Junior Lodge was established in 1921 initially under the name the Loyal Sons of the Junior Order of Odd fellows, for boys interested in odd fellowship. The ritual and ceremonies were supervised by a member of the senior order. There were 4,873 members in 1970. Membership is open to boys of age 8–21, its motto being "Honor and Fidelity", and its symbolic colours silver and dark blue.
Baltimore monument
In April 1865, a monument was erected to Wildey in Baltimore, consisting of a statue atop a Doric column that is 52 feet in height. The monument is located on 123 North Broadway at Lamley St. (between East Baltimore and East Fayette Streets).
Notable members
Some notable members are:
James Ashman, Los Angeles City Council
Warren Austin, mayor, Senator (Vermont 1931–1946), Ambassador to the UN
Hugo Black, politician and jurist
Owen Brewster, lawyer, politician, Governor, Senator
Wilber M. Brucker, Governor of Michigan (1931–1932)
Elwood Bruner, California state legislator in the 1890s
William Jennings Bryan, U.S. Secretary of State (1913–1915)
Robert C. Byrd, U.S. Senator (1959–2010)
Edwin Hubbell Chapin, Universalist minister, author, lecturer, and social reformer
Charlie Chaplin, comedic actor and film director
John Simpson Chisum, Cattle baron in Texas and New Mexico (1824–1884)
Parley P. Christensen, Utah and California politician, Esperantist
Ernest E. Cole, Commissioner of Education for New York State (1940–1942)
Schuyler Colfax, U.S. Vice President (1869–1873)
Edith Howard Cook, Mummified child found during archaeological investigations in San Francisco (1873–1876)
John J. Cornwell, Governor (WV) and Senator (MD)
Wyatt Earp, law officer in the American Old West
Ulysses S. Grant, 18th U.S. President (1869–1877)
Warren Harding, 29th U.S. President (1921–1923)
Rutherford Hayes, 19th U.S. President (1877–1881)
Thomas Hendricks, 21st Vice President of the United States
Orange Jacobs, Chief justice of the supreme court of The Territory of Washington (1871–1875), U.S. Congressman from the Washington Territory (1875–1879), Mayor of Seattle (1879–1880)
Anson Jones, Last President of the Republic of Texas
Nathan Kelley, architect of Ohio State House
Goodwin Knight, Governor of California
Charles Lindbergh, American aviator, author, inventor, explorer and early environmentalist
Albert Dutton MacDade, Pennsylvania State Senator (1921–1929), Judge Pennsylvania Court of Common Pleas, Delaware County (1942–1948)
William McKinley, 25th U.S. President (1897–1901)
David Myers, Justice of the Indiana Supreme Court (1917-1934)
Robert Pfeifle, 3rd mayor of Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
William Marsh Rice, Founder of Rice University
John Buchanan Robinson, U.S. Congressman from Pennsylvania's 6th congressional district (1891–1897)
Franklin D. Roosevelt, 32nd U.S. President (1933–1945)
George B. Sparkman, 19th & 22nd Mayor of Tampa (1881–1883, 1887–1888)
Levi and Matilda Stanley, considered as King and Queen of the Gypsies
Ele Stansbury, 23rd Indiana Attorney General (1917-1921)
David Ivar Swanson, member of the Illinois House of Representatives beginning in 1922
Lucy Hobbs Taylor, first U.S. female dentist
Earl Warren, U.S. Chief Justice (1953–1969)
Albert Winn, U.S. Army general (1810–1883)
George W. Wolff, Wisconsin politician
References
Further reading
Ross, Theodore (2003): History and Manual of Odd Fellowship. Whitefish: Kessinger Publishing.
Smith, Don and Roberts, Wayne (1993): The Three Link Fraternity – Odd Fellowship in California. Linden: Linden Publications.
Coursey, Oscar William. History and Geography of the Philippine Islands. 1903.
External links
Guide to the Independent Order of Odd Fellows (I.O.O.F.), Alturas Lodge No. 80, 1858–1986. California State Library, California History Room.
I.O.O.F. Alturas Lodge No. 80 collection of regalia [realia]. California State Library, California History Room.
I.O.O.F. Capitol Lodge No. 87, Sacramento, CA. California State Library, California History Room.
I.O.O.F. miscellany. California State Library, California History Room.
Organizations established in 1819
1819 establishments in Maryland
Men's organizations in the United States
Secret societies in the United States
Secret societies in Canada
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castletown%2C%20Isle%20of%20Man
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Castletown, Isle of Man
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Castletown (, pronounced ) is a town in the Isle of Man, geographically within the historical parish of Malew but administered separately. Lying at the south of the island, it was the Manx capital until 1869. The centre of town is dominated by Castle Rushen, a well-preserved medieval castle, originally built for a Viking king.
History
Castletown is the former capital of the Isle of Man and site of the Tynwald, and can trace its roots back to 1090. The town has narrow streets and small fishing cottages. Castle Rushen (at the centre of the town) was originally built in 1265 for a Norse king, then fortified and added to by successive rulers between the 13th and 16th centuries. The castle has been used as a fortress, a residence for the Kings and Lords of Mann, the site of a mint and even a prison (past prisoners include a bishop and two newspaper editors). The town and castle were the site of a number of sieges and battles, especially during the years when control of the island passed between the Norse, Scots and English. Robert the Bruce laid siege to and captured the castle three times.
The history of the town and island is illustrated in four Manx National Heritage sites in the centre of Castletown: Castle Rushen, the Nautical Museum (in the secret passage-filled home of inventor, politician, banker and probable smuggler George Quayle), the Old Grammar School (originally a church from 1200 AD) and the Old House of Keys.
Fishing boats still go out to fish from the harbour. Commercial traffic to the port ended in the 1970s, although there has been an ongoing expansion of financial and industrial businesses in the area. The first telephones on the Isle of Man appeared in Castletown in 1901.
Politics
Castletown is, along with Douglas, Peel and Ramsey, one of four town local authorities. They were all designated as towns by the Town Act 1852. Castletown became a local authority in 1883.
Until 2016 Castletown was also a House of Keys constituency, electing one Member of the House of Keys (MHK). The town's representative for 30 years until 2011 was Tony Brown, who was the Chief Minister of the Isle of Man after the 2006 Manx general election. He retired in 2011 and was replaced as MHK for Castletown by Richard Ronan. Since 2016 Castletown has been part of the Arbory, Castletown & Malew constituency.
In 1874, the House of Keys moved from Castletown to Douglas.
Demographics
The Isle of Man Census 2011 lists the town's population as 3,097 (2006: 3,109) It is the fourth largest town on the island, after Douglas, Ramsey and Peel, but is also smaller than Onchan and Port Erin, which have the status of villages.
Geography and geology
The town lies on the northwest side of Castletown Bay. The opposite shore of the bay is the west coast of the distinctively-shaped Langness Peninsula. To the north-east are Ronaldsway Airport and industrial zone, and the village of Ballasalla; to the north-west the villages of Ballabeg and Colby; and to the west Port St Mary and Port Erin.
The older parts of the town are largely built of local grey limestone. At , a short distance to the south of the town, there are the remains of an ancient volcano and various other features such as fossils and thick sheets of limestone.
Transport
Roads
The A3 road connects Castletown with Ramsey via St John's, while the A5 road (also known as New Castletown Road as opposed to the Old Castletown Road which takes a more rural route nearer the coast) connects the town with Douglas to the north-east and Port Erin to the west.
The A25 road was the historical route to Douglas and is now bypassed by the A5. There are free electric car charging stations available in a car park in the centre of the town. The town has several car parks including one above the harbour close to the old school house, to the rear of the Castle Arms and off Victoria Road as well as dedicated parking for the local bank, supermarkets and the railway station.
Buses
Bus services operate through the town to Douglas, Port St Mary and Port Erin using route numbers 1, 2, 11 and 12; these run about every twenty minutes on weekdays and Saturdays with a less frequent service at weekends and after 6.00 pm. Some of these services (1c and 11b) do not run through the town but use the bypass road. These routes are the island's busiest, in part because they also serve Ronaldsway Airport just outside the town. A late evening service also operates on Friday and Saturday evenings, called the Hullad Oie (Night Owl), which charges premium fare rates. There are also occasional buses to Peel (Service No. 8) via Foxdale; all these buses are within the island's transport network Bus Vannin, a government-run service which replaced the railway-operated Isle of Man Road Services in 1976.
Railway
The town is also served by Castletown railway station, on the sole remaining section of the Isle of Man Railway, a narrow gauge steam-operated railway which now runs 15 miles from Douglas to Port Erin. The railway station is on the northeasterly edge of the town next to Poulsom Park and playing fields, and was at one time used to transport beer from the Castletown Brewery as well as cattle and other livestock; remnants of the cattle dock are still visible at the railway station, which is open seasonally between March and November as well as at weekends around Christmas; there is a small volunteer group, the Friends of Castletown Railway Station, who tend to the area in association with the Isle of Man Steam Railway Supporters' Association, a local charity.
Air
The island's only commercial airport, Ronaldsway Airport, is 2 km (just over one mile) northeast of the town and is served by both Bus Vannin and Castletown railway station as well as local taxi services. There is a closer railway station at Ronaldsway. The airport runways and aprons spread over the area to the edge of the grounds of King William's College and close to the Janet's Corner local authority housing estate. The airport was first used as an airfield in 1928, with passenger services to the United Kingdom commencing in 1933.
Long-distance footpaths
The southern end of the Millennium Way long-distance footpath is at Castletown.
The Raad ny Foillan long distance coastal footpath, opened in 1986, runs along the coast in the town.
Education
Private college
King William's College is a private school. Founded in 1668 with funds from the Bishop Barrow Trust, it opened in 1833 with 46 boys. It is now co-educational, with about 500 pupils. The college has two sites in the town: the main estate is near the shore of Castletown Bay at the end of the main airport runway, and the Buchan School, the college's junior school, is in the Westhill area of Castletown, about from the main campus.
State schools
Other schools are: Castle Rushen High School, a co-educational secondary state school in the south-west of the town; and one primary school, Victoria Road School, originally opened as a boys' school in 1895, with a girls' school in Hope Street. The old grammar school in the town, which later became a chapel, is now an exhibit of a Victorian period schoolroom, part of the Story of Mann. This is open to the public between Easter and November and can be found close to the castle and the Old House of Keys.
Churches
Church of England
On the town square is Old St Mary's Church, the original parish and garrison church, which is now office accommodation. It once had a spire, but this was lost in the early 1900s.
The new St Mary's Church is located on the harbour. It was consecrated in 1985 when the congregation moved from the Garrison (Old St Mary's) Church in Castletown Square. The new church can be found in Hope Street, to the side of Thirtle Bridge. Known as St Mary's on the Harbour, it is the parish church of Castletown.
Malew Church is located about one mile north of the town on the A3 road towards St John's, a road which forms part of the Billown Circuit. The church's name is derived from its original dedication to the early Celtic saint, Saint Moluag, who is said to have converted the Picts to Christianity in the west of Scotland. Malew Church has its own graveyard, unlike the churches in the town; the minor bend around the church grounds has the title Church Bends on the racing circuit.
St Thomas' chapel is the school chapel at King William's College, and was built in 1878, and consecrated on 28 January 1879. Designed by local architect James Cowle, it features a scissor-braced roof, canopied stalls, wall paintings, and stained glass windows. Windows commemorate T. E. Brown, an old boy of the college. The chapel is staffed by a Church of England priest who is employed by the college and licensed by the Bishop of Sodor and Man.
Catholic
St Mary's Roman Catholic Church is on Bowling Green Road, near Janet's Corner. It was built in the 1820s; it was the first post-Reformation Catholic Church to be built on the island. It is the third church in the town to be dedicated to St Mary the Virgin ("Our Lady of Rushen"). It has two intricate and colourful Celtic Revival/Art Nouveau windows, which depict the Annunciation and the Resurrection. These were made by the Clarke Brothers of Dublin.
Methodist
Castletown Methodist Church on Arbory Street, founded in 1932, is part of the Methodist Church in the Isle of Man, which in turn is part of the British Methodist Connexion. It can trace its history back to the visits of the founder of Methodism John Wesley to the town in the 18th century. It is sometimes known locally as Arbory Street, formerly to distinguish it from the Malew Street chapel when the former was the Wesleyan Methodist and the latter the Primitive Methodist Chapel.
Sport
Football
Castletown Metropolitan F.C. play in the Isle of Man Football League and are based at the Castletown Football Stadium, Malew Road. Formed in 1904, the club is one of the most successful on the Isle of Man. They have been champions of the Isle of Man League eight times, including three consecutive seasons from 1922–23 to 1924-25 and won the Manx F.A. Cup seven times.
Rugby
There are two Rugby Union football clubs in the town; both play in the Manx Shield:
Castletown R.U.F.C. are based at Poulsom Park. The club now has permanent changing facilities. These were officially opened in October 2006 and built with the support of the Rugby Football Union (RFU), Manx Lottery Trust, Manx Sports Council, Castletown Commissioners and the members of the team. With the newly formed Castletown Rugby Union Football Club Limited, the club has secured the tenure on the pitch at Poulsom Park, having taken on a lease from the Castletown Commissioners.
Southern Nomads R.U.F.C. are based at King William's College.
Cricket
Castletown cricket club is based at King William's College and is a member of the Isle of Man Cricket Association.
Golf
Castletown Golf & Country Club is located on the Langness Peninsula. It is a tournament golf course, and is a Top 100 course designed by Old Tom Morris and redesigned by Mackenzie Ross. The 17th hole has the unusual feature of a drive over the Irish Sea. The links has hosted, among other events, the PGA Cup (1979), Europro Tour 2002, Manx Classic Pro Am and the Duke of York Young Champions Trophy in 2003 and again in 2005.
Racing
The Billown Circuit motor cycling course has its start line in the town. The course is home to the Southern 100, a motorcycle racing event held on the Isle of Man in July of each year. The event was first held in 1955, when there were three races for different classes of motorcycles; the current calendar includes twelve races for various classes. The paddock, clubhouse and race control are all located on the outskirts of the town.
Hockey
Castletown Hockey Club are the only hockey club in the south of the Isle of Man. They field 3 men's, 4 women's and 6 mixed teams plus 10 junior sides. They train at Castle Rushen High School, which is also their home pitch. Their website is https://castletownhockey.wordpress.com/.
Bowls
Castletown Bowling Club is located at the Crofts.
Tennis
Next to the bowling green is Castletown Lawn Tennis Club with teams in local leagues. The club won 6 leagues in the 2010–11 season.
Swimming
Southern Swimming Pool is a 25-metre, four lane short course pool.
World Championship Tin Bath Races
This annual event takes place in the middle harbour; it is organised by the Castletown Ale Drinkers' Society and sponsored by local breweries, with support from the Isle of Man Department of Community, Culture and Leisure and further sponsorship from local radio station Three FM. It raises money for local charities. Each year there are over 100 competitors and teams from the Isle of Man and elsewhere. In 2011 the event celebrated its 40th anniversary.
2011 Commonwealth Youth Games
The "culture day" prior to the closing ceremony of the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games was held in Castletown on 12 September 2011 with competitors all travelling by steam train to the town square, where a number of attractions were laid on.
Places of interest
Much of the attraction of Castletown is in the quality of its many 18th- and early 19th-century buildings, many constructed in the local silver-grey limestone. The town centre retains its early layout, echoing the cluster of houses around the Castle, the harbour and the military parade ground, is still used as a market place. The interested visitor can still identify the original building plots, and the crofts attached to them, which have given their name to a residential area close to the town centre.
Castle Rushen is a medieval castle which towers over the Market Square to the south-east and the harbour to the north-east. , a former of the Royal Navy, was named after the castle. It is the focal point of the town and is open to the public between Easter and October.
The Old House of Keys was the location of Tynwald, the Manx parliament, from 1821 until it moved in 1874 to Douglas. The house was renovated in 2000 and is run as a museum by Manx National Heritage. Tynwald used to meet in Castletown except on Tynwald Day, when it traditionally met (and still meets) on Tynwald Hill in St John's.
The Old Grammar School is next to the harbour to the rear of the town square at the side of a large car park. It was originally built as a chapel about 1190–1230. The building ceased to be a school in the 1930s and is now a museum exhibit opened seasonally in connection with the other Story of Mann sites in the town.
The Nautical Museum (also known as the Peggy Story in recent times) in Bridge Street opened in 1951; the main focus of the museum is an 18th-century yacht, the Peggy (Peggy of Castletown), housed in the boat cellar, where she has been since the 19th century. She had been bricked up and forgotten before being rediscovered by workmen. In early 2015, Peggy was moved to Douglas for conservation in a climate-controlled facility. The Nautical Museum is based in the house of local inventor (and politician, trader and possible smuggler) George Quayle, who had the house built with secret passages, doorways, and a replica of a captain's cabin. Quayle had a bank next door at Bridge House, known as George Quayle & Co. and also known as the Isle of Man Bank Company and Quayle's Bank. Opening the safe involved posting a series of cannonballs, which ran through a mechanism invented by Quayle.
Castletown Police Station (by the Castle entrance) was designed by the noted Arts & Crafts architect Baillie Scott.
The Museum of Witchcraft was in existence in the town for a short period at the Witches Mill which has since been redeveloped as flats. It was operated by the self-proclaimed witch Gerald Gardner who ran it under the title Folklore Centre of Superstition and Witchcraft, becoming a familiar figure in the town.
The railway station was constructed in 1902 from locally sourced limestone from Scarlett Point and has been extensively refurbished in recent times, notably being overhauled in 1994 to original form. It is open seasonally and many people's first encounter with the town is their arrival at the railway station, which is a short walk from the centre.
The Smelt Monument is an unusual monument in the Parade in the town centre.
Hango Hill, the execution site of Illiam Dhone, is on the outskirts of the town on the road to Derbyhaven.
Scarlett Point Visitor Centre is at the south-western tip of Castletown Bay.
An unusual feature of the town is a permanent trail of over 70 "fairy doors" for tourists to find.
Tunnels and legends
Castle Rushen and the town have long been said to have networks of tunnels. In 1938 tunnels under the town square were found (by Ramsey Quayle, the local baker, who was replacing an oven in his basement) leading to the Castle from nearby houses. Bagnio House also had a tunnel leading from it. The legend of Ivar and Matilda tells how in 1249 the knight Ivar saved his betrothed Matilda from the attentions of King Reginald (Rǫgnvaldr Óláfsson) and killed the king, after discovering a tunnel to the Castle, where Matilda was being kept prisoner. The killing continued an ongoing struggle between different factions of the royal family. There are also legends of giants in the tunnels under the Castle.
Notable people
Bishop Thomas Wilson (born 1663 in Cheshire – 1755 in Michael) imprisoned at Castle Rushen during his tenure as Bishop of Sodor and Man
Captain John Quilliam (born Marown, 1771 - died Michael 1829) a Royal Navy officer; he steered HMS Victory during the Battle of Trafalgar.
John Christian (1776 in Castletown – 1852 in Lezayre) a Justice of the Peace and First Deemster of the island.
Hugh Gill (Castletown 1830 - 1912) an Anglican priest, the Archdeacon of Man from 1895
John Kewish (died 1 August 1872) the last person to be hanged on the island, in Castle Rushen on 1 August 1872. He was convicted and executed for the crime of patricide.
James Stowell Gell QC (1855 in Castletown – 1919 in Castletown) a Manx advocate who became High Bailiff of both Castletown and Douglas.
John Quayle-Dickson, military officer and colonial officer.
Sir Frank Gill KCMG OBE (1866 in Castletown – 1950 in Geneva, Switzerland) was a British engineer and a pioneer of international telephony.
Robert Henry Cain VC (1909 Shanghai, China – 1974 Crowborough, Sussex) grew up in Castletown and attended King William's College; first Manxman to earn the Victoria Cross
Politics
Illiam Dhone (1608 – 1663) a local nationalist and politician, executed at Hango Hill outside the town.
Major John Taubman (1746 in Castletown – 1822 in Braddan) a Manx politician, he entered the House of Keys in 1799. He served as Speaker from 1799 until his death in 1822
John Ready (1777 in Castletown – 1845 in Castletown) a British army officer who served as Lieutenant Governor of the island (1832–1845)
John Moore Jeffcott QC (1817 in Castletown – 1892 in Castletown) a Manx advocate who became High Bailiff of Castletown and a Member of the House of Keys for the constituency of Castletown.
Sir Joseph Qualtrough (1885 in Castletown – 1960) Speaker of the House of Keys from 1937 to 1960.
Members of the House of Keys and elections
In 2016 the constituency was abolished.
References
External links
Castletown.org.im
Castletown - Isle of Man Guide
Constituency maps and general election results
Towns in the Isle of Man
Ports and harbours of the Isle of Man
Constituencies of the Isle of Man
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix%20mechanics
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Matrix mechanics
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Matrix mechanics is a formulation of quantum mechanics created by Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, and Pascual Jordan in 1925. It was the first conceptually autonomous and logically consistent formulation of quantum mechanics. Its account of quantum jumps supplanted the Bohr model's electron orbits. It did so by interpreting the physical properties of particles as matrices that evolve in time. It is equivalent to the Schrödinger wave formulation of quantum mechanics, as manifest in Dirac's bra–ket notation.
In some contrast to the wave formulation, it produces spectra of (mostly energy) operators by purely algebraic, ladder operator methods. Relying on these methods, Wolfgang Pauli derived the hydrogen atom spectrum in 1926, before the development of wave mechanics.
Development of matrix mechanics
In 1925, Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, and Pascual Jordan formulated the matrix mechanics representation of quantum mechanics.
Epiphany at Helgoland
In 1925 Werner Heisenberg was working in Göttingen on the problem of calculating the spectral lines of hydrogen. By May 1925 he began trying to describe atomic systems by observables only. On June 7, after weeks of failing to alleviate his hay fever with aspirin and cocaine, Heisenberg left for the pollen-free North Sea island of Helgoland. While there, in between climbing and memorizing poems from Goethe's West-östlicher Diwan, he continued to ponder the spectral issue and eventually realised that adopting non-commuting observables might solve the problem. He later wrote:
It was about three o' clock at night when the final result of the calculation lay before me. At first I was deeply shaken. I was so excited that I could not think of sleep. So I left the house and awaited the sunrise on the top of a rock.
The three fundamental papers
After Heisenberg returned to Göttingen, he showed Wolfgang Pauli his calculations, commenting at one point:
Everything is still vague and unclear to me, but it seems as if the electrons will no more move on orbits.
On July 9 Heisenberg gave the same paper of his calculations to Max Born, saying that "he had written a crazy paper and did not dare to send it in for publication, and that Born should read it and advise him" prior to publication. Heisenberg then departed for a while, leaving Born to analyse the paper.
In the paper, Heisenberg formulated quantum theory without sharp electron orbits. Hendrik Kramers had earlier calculated the relative intensities of spectral lines in the Sommerfeld model by interpreting the Fourier coefficients of the orbits as intensities. But his answer, like all other calculations in the old quantum theory, was only correct for large orbits.
Heisenberg, after a collaboration with Kramers, began to understand that the transition probabilities were not quite classical quantities, because the only frequencies that appear in the Fourier series should be the ones that are observed in quantum jumps, not the fictional ones that come from Fourier-analyzing sharp classical orbits. He replaced the classical Fourier series with a matrix of coefficients, a fuzzed-out quantum analog of the Fourier series. Classically, the Fourier coefficients give the intensity of the emitted radiation, so in quantum mechanics the magnitude of the matrix elements of the position operator were the intensity of radiation in the bright-line spectrum. The quantities in Heisenberg's formulation were the classical position and momentum, but now they were no longer sharply defined. Each quantity was represented by a collection of Fourier coefficients with two indices, corresponding to the initial and final states.
When Born read the paper, he recognized the formulation as one which could be transcribed and extended to the systematic language of matrices, which he had learned from his study under Jakob Rosanes at Breslau University. Born, with the help of his assistant and former student Pascual Jordan, began immediately to make the transcription and extension, and they submitted their results for publication; the paper was received for publication just 60 days after Heisenberg's paper.
A follow-on paper was submitted for publication before the end of the year by all three authors. (A brief review of Born's role in the development of the matrix mechanics formulation of quantum mechanics along with a discussion of the key formula involving the non-commutativity of the probability amplitudes can be found in an article by Jeremy Bernstein. A detailed historical and technical account can be found in Mehra and Rechenberg's book The Historical Development of Quantum Theory. Volume 3. The Formulation of Matrix Mechanics and Its Modifications 1925–1926.)
Up until this time, matrices were seldom used by physicists; they were considered to belong to the realm of pure mathematics. Gustav Mie had used them in a paper on electrodynamics in 1912 and Born had used them in his work on the lattices theory of crystals in 1921. While matrices were used in these cases, the algebra of matrices with their multiplication did not enter the picture as they did in the matrix formulation of quantum mechanics.
Born, however, had learned matrix algebra from Rosanes, as already noted, but Born had also learned Hilbert's theory of integral equations and quadratic forms for an infinite number of variables as was apparent from a citation by Born of Hilbert's work Grundzüge einer allgemeinen Theorie der Linearen Integralgleichungen published in 1912.
Jordan, too, was well equipped for the task. For a number of years, he had been an assistant to Richard Courant at Göttingen in the preparation of Courant and David Hilbert's book Methoden der mathematischen Physik I, which was published in 1924. This book, fortuitously, contained a great many of the mathematical tools necessary for the continued development of quantum mechanics.
In 1926, John von Neumann became assistant to David Hilbert, and he would coin the term Hilbert space to describe the algebra and analysis which were used in the development of quantum mechanics.
A linchpin contribution to this formulation was achieved in Dirac's reinterpretation/synthesis paper of 1925, which invented the language and framework usually employed today, in full display of the noncommutative structure of the entire construction.
Heisenberg's reasoning
Before matrix mechanics, the old quantum theory described the motion of a particle by a classical orbit, with well defined position and momentum X(t), P(t), with the restriction that the time integral over one period T of the momentum times the velocity must be a positive integer multiple of Planck's constant
While this restriction correctly selects orbits with more or less the
right energy values En, the old quantum mechanical formalism did not describe time dependent processes, such as the emission or absorption of radiation.
When a classical particle is weakly coupled to a radiation field, so that the radiative damping can be neglected, it will emit radiation in a pattern that repeats itself every orbital period. The frequencies that make up the outgoing wave are then integer multiples of the orbital frequency, and this is a reflection of the fact that X(t) is periodic, so that its Fourier representation has frequencies 2πn/T only.
The coefficients Xn are complex numbers. The ones with negative frequencies must be the complex conjugates of the ones with positive frequencies, so that X(t) will always be real,
A quantum mechanical particle, on the other hand, can not emit radiation continuously, it can only emit photons. Assuming that the quantum particle started in orbit number n, emitted a photon, then ended up in orbit number m, the energy of the photon is , which means that its frequency is .
For large n and m, but with n−m relatively small, these are the classical frequencies by Bohr's correspondence principle
In the formula above, T is the classical period of either orbit n or orbit m, since the difference between them is higher order in h. But for n and m small, or if n − m is large, the frequencies are not integer multiples of any single frequency.
Since the frequencies that the particle emits are the same as the frequencies in the Fourier description of its motion, this suggests that something in the time-dependent description of the particle is oscillating with frequency . Heisenberg called this quantity Xnm,
and demanded that it should reduce to the classical Fourier coefficients in the classical limit. For large values of n, m but with n − m relatively small,
Xnm is the th Fourier coefficient of the classical motion at orbit n. Since Xnm has opposite frequency to Xmn, the condition that X is real becomes
By definition, Xnm only has the frequency , so its time evolution is simple:
This is the original form of Heisenberg's equation of motion.
Given two arrays Xnm and Pnm describing two physical quantities, Heisenberg could form a new array of the same type by combining the terms XnkPkm, which also oscillate with the right frequency. Since the Fourier coefficients of the product of two quantities is the convolution of the Fourier coefficients of each one separately, the correspondence with Fourier series allowed Heisenberg to deduce the rule by which
the arrays should be multiplied,
Born pointed out that this is the law of matrix multiplication, so that the position, the momentum, the energy, all the observable quantities in the theory, are interpreted as matrices. Under this multiplication rule, the product depends on the order: XP is different from PX.
The X matrix is a complete description of the motion of a quantum mechanical particle. Because the frequencies in the quantum motion are not multiples of a common frequency, the matrix elements cannot be interpreted as the Fourier coefficients of a sharp classical trajectory. Nevertheless, as matrices, X(t) and P(t) satisfy the classical equations of motion; also see Ehrenfest's theorem, below.
Matrix basics
When it was introduced by Werner Heisenberg, Max Born and Pascual Jordan in 1925, matrix mechanics was not immediately accepted and was a source of controversy, at first. Schrödinger's later introduction of wave mechanics was greatly favored.
Part of the reason was that Heisenberg's formulation was in an odd mathematical language, for the time, while Schrödinger's formulation was based on familiar wave equations. But there was also a deeper sociological reason. Quantum mechanics had been developing by two paths, one led by Einstein, who emphasized the wave–particle duality he proposed for photons, and the other led by Bohr, that emphasized the discrete energy states and quantum jumps that Bohr discovered. De Broglie had reproduced the discrete energy states within Einstein's framework—the quantum condition is the standing wave condition, and this gave hope to those in the Einstein school that all the discrete aspects of quantum mechanics would be subsumed into a continuous wave mechanics.
Matrix mechanics, on the other hand, came from the Bohr school, which was concerned with discrete energy states and quantum jumps. Bohr's followers did not appreciate physical models that pictured electrons as waves, or as anything at all. They preferred to focus on the quantities that were directly connected to experiments.
In atomic physics, spectroscopy gave observational data on atomic transitions arising from the interactions of atoms with light quanta. The Bohr school required that only those quantities that were in principle measurable by spectroscopy should appear in the theory. These quantities include the energy levels and their intensities but they do not include the exact location of a particle in its Bohr orbit. It is very hard to imagine an experiment that could determine whether an electron in the ground state of a hydrogen atom is to the right or to the left of the nucleus. It was a deep conviction that such questions did not have an answer.
The matrix formulation was built on the premise that all physical observables are represented by matrices, whose elements are indexed by two different energy levels. The set of eigenvalues of the matrix were eventually understood to be the set of all possible values that the observable can have. Since Heisenberg's matrices are Hermitian, the eigenvalues are real.
If an observable is measured and the result is a certain eigenvalue, the corresponding eigenvector is the state of the system immediately after the measurement. The act of measurement in matrix mechanics 'collapses' the state of the system. If one measures two observables simultaneously, the state of the system collapses to a common eigenvector of the two observables. Since most matrices don't have any eigenvectors in common, most observables can never be measured precisely at the same time. This is the uncertainty principle.
If two matrices share their eigenvectors, they can be simultaneously diagonalized. In the basis where they are both diagonal, it is clear that their product does not depend on their order because multiplication of diagonal matrices is just multiplication of numbers. The uncertainty principle, by contrast, is an expression of the fact that often two matrices A and B do not always commute, i.e., that AB − BA does not necessarily equal 0. The fundamental commutation relation of matrix mechanics,
implies then that there are no states that simultaneously have a definite position and momentum.
This principle of uncertainty holds for many other pairs of observables as well. For example, the energy does not commute with the position either, so it is impossible to precisely determine the position and energy of an electron in an atom.
Nobel Prize
In 1928, Albert Einstein nominated Heisenberg, Born, and Jordan for the Nobel Prize in Physics. The announcement of the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1932 was delayed until November 1933. It was at that time that it was announced Heisenberg had won the Prize for 1932 "for the creation of quantum mechanics, the application of which has, inter alia, led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen" and Erwin Schrödinger and Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac shared the 1933 Prize "for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory".
It might well be asked why Born was not awarded the Prize in 1932, along with Heisenberg, and Bernstein proffers speculations on this matter. One of them relates to Jordan joining the Nazi Party on May 1, 1933, and becoming a stormtrooper. Jordan's Party affiliations and Jordan's links to Born may well have affected Born's chance at the Prize at that time. Bernstein further notes that when Born finally won the Prize in 1954, Jordan was still alive, while the Prize was awarded for the statistical interpretation of quantum mechanics, attributable to Born alone.
Heisenberg's reactions to Born for Heisenberg receiving the Prize for 1932 and for Born receiving the Prize in 1954 are also instructive in evaluating whether Born should have shared the Prize with Heisenberg. On November 25, 1933, Born received a letter from Heisenberg in which he said he had been delayed in writing due to a "bad conscience" that he alone had received the Prize "for work done in Göttingen in collaboration – you, Jordan and I." Heisenberg went on to say that Born and Jordan's contribution to quantum mechanics cannot be changed by "a wrong decision from the outside."
In 1954, Heisenberg wrote an article honoring Max Planck for his insight in 1900. In the article, Heisenberg credited Born and Jordan for the final mathematical formulation of matrix mechanics and Heisenberg went on to stress how great their contributions were to quantum mechanics, which were not "adequately acknowledged in the public eye."
Mathematical development
Once Heisenberg introduced the matrices for X and P, he could find their matrix elements in special cases by guesswork, guided by the correspondence principle. Since the matrix elements are the quantum mechanical analogs of Fourier coefficients of the classical orbits, the simplest case is the harmonic oscillator, where the classical position and momentum, X(t) and P(t), are sinusoidal.
Harmonic oscillator
In units where the mass and frequency of the oscillator are equal to one (see nondimensionalization), the energy of the oscillator is
The level sets of are the clockwise orbits, and they are nested circles in phase space. The classical orbit with energy is
The old quantum condition dictates that the integral of over an orbit, which is the area of the circle in phase space, must be an integer multiple of Planck's constant. The area of the circle of radius is . So
or, in natural units where , the energy is an integer.
The Fourier components of and are simple, and more so if they are combined into the quantities
Both and have only a single frequency, and X and P can be recovered from their sum and difference.
Since has a classical Fourier series with only the lowest frequency, and the matrix element is the -th Fourier coefficient of the classical orbit, the matrix for is nonzero only on the line just above the diagonal, where it is equal to . The matrix for is likewise only nonzero on the line below the diagonal, with the same elements. Thus, from and , reconstruction yields
and
which, up to the choice of units, are the Heisenberg matrices for the harmonic oscillator. Both matrices are hermitian, since they are constructed from the Fourier coefficients of real quantities.
Finding and is direct, since they are quantum Fourier coefficients so they evolve simply with time,
The matrix product of and is not hermitian, but has a real and imaginary part. The real part is one half the symmetric expression , while the imaginary part is proportional to the commutator It is simple to verify explicitly that in the case of the harmonic oscillator, is , multiplied by the identity.
It is likewise simple to verify that the matrix is a diagonal matrix, with eigenvalues .
Conservation of energy
The harmonic oscillator is an important case. Finding the matrices is easier than determining the general conditions from these special forms. For this reason, Heisenberg investigated the anharmonic oscillator, with Hamiltonian
In this case, the and matrices are no longer simple off diagonal matrices, since the corresponding classical orbits are slightly squashed and displaced, so that they have Fourier coefficients at every classical frequency. To determine the matrix elements, Heisenberg required that the classical equations of motion be obeyed as matrix equations,
He noticed that if this could be done, then , considered as a matrix function of and , will have zero time derivative.
where is the anticommutator,
Given that all the off diagonal elements have a nonzero frequency; being constant implies that is diagonal.
It was clear to Heisenberg that in this system, the energy could be exactly conserved in an arbitrary quantum system, a very encouraging sign.
The process of emission and absorption of photons seemed to demand that the conservation of energy will hold at best on average. If a wave containing exactly one photon passes over some atoms, and one of them absorbs it, that atom needs to tell the others that they can't absorb the photon anymore. But if the atoms are far apart, any signal cannot reach the other atoms in time, and they might end up absorbing the same photon anyway and dissipating the energy to the environment. When the signal reached them, the other atoms would have to somehow recall that energy. This paradox led Bohr, Kramers and Slater to abandon exact conservation of energy. Heisenberg's formalism, when extended to include the electromagnetic field, was obviously going to sidestep this problem, a hint that the interpretation of the theory will involve wavefunction collapse.
Differentiation trick — canonical commutation relations
Demanding that the classical equations of motion are preserved is not a strong enough condition to determine the matrix elements. Planck's constant does not appear in the classical equations, so that the matrices could be constructed for many different values of and still satisfy the equations of motion, but with different energy levels.
So, in order to implement his program, Heisenberg needed to use the old quantum condition to fix the energy levels, then fill in the matrices with Fourier coefficients of the classical equations, then alter the matrix coefficients and the energy levels slightly to make sure the classical equations are satisfied. This is clearly not satisfactory. The old quantum conditions refer to the area enclosed by the sharp classical orbits, which do not exist in the new formalism.
The most important thing that Heisenberg discovered is how to translate the old quantum condition into a simple statement in matrix mechanics.
To do this, he investigated the action integral as a matrix quantity,
There are several problems with this integral, all stemming from the incompatibility of the matrix formalism with the old picture of orbits. Which period T should be used? Semiclassically, it should be either m or n, but the difference is order , and an answer to order is sought. The quantum condition tells us that Jmn is 2πn on the diagonal, so the fact that J is classically constant tells us that the off-diagonal elements are zero.
His crucial insight was to differentiate the quantum condition with respect to n. This idea only makes complete sense in the classical limit, where n is not an integer but the continuous action variable J, but Heisenberg performed analogous manipulations with matrices, where the intermediate expressions are sometimes discrete differences and sometimes derivatives.
In the following discussion, for the sake of clarity, the differentiation will be performed on the classical variables, and the transition to matrix mechanics will be done afterwards, guided by the correspondence principle.
In the classical setting, the derivative is the derivative with respect to J of the integral which defines J, so it is tautologically equal to 1.
where the derivatives dP/dJ and dX/dJ should be interpreted as differences with respect to J at corresponding times on nearby orbits, exactly what would be obtained if the Fourier coefficients of the orbital motion were differentiated. (These derivatives are symplectically orthogonal in phase space to the time derivatives dP/dt and dX/dt).
The final expression is clarified by introducing the variable canonically conjugate to J, which is called the angle variable θ: The derivative with respect to time is a derivative with respect to θ, up to a factor of 2πT,
So the quantum condition integral is the average value over one cycle of the Poisson bracket of X and P.
An analogous differentiation of the Fourier series of P dX demonstrates that the off-diagonal elements of the Poisson bracket are all zero. The Poisson bracket of two canonically conjugate variables, such as X and P, is the constant value 1, so this integral really is the average value of 1; so it is 1, as we knew all along, because it is dJ/dJ after all. But Heisenberg, Born and Jordan, unlike Dirac, were not familiar with the theory of Poisson brackets, so, for them, the differentiation effectively evaluated {X, P} in J, θ coordinates.
The Poisson Bracket, unlike the action integral, does have a simple translation to matrix mechanics−−it normally corresponds to the imaginary part of the product of two variables, the commutator.
To see this, examine the (antisymmetrized) product of two matrices A and B in the correspondence limit, where the matrix elements are slowly varying functions of the index, keeping in mind that the answer is zero classically.
In the correspondence limit, when indices m, n are large and nearby, while k,r are small, the rate of change of the matrix elements in the diagonal direction is the matrix element of the J derivative of the corresponding classical quantity. So its possible to shift any matrix element diagonally through the correspondence,
where the right hand side is really only the (m − n)'th Fourier component of dA/dJ at the orbit near m to this semiclassical order, not a full well-defined matrix.
The semiclassical time derivative of a matrix element is obtained up to a factor of i by multiplying by the distance from the diagonal,
since the coefficient Am(m+k) is semiclassically the kth Fourier coefficient of the m-th classical orbit.
The imaginary part of the product of A and B can be evaluated by shifting the matrix elements around so as to reproduce the classical answer, which is zero.
The leading nonzero residual is then given entirely by the shifting. Since all the matrix elements are at indices which have a small distance from the large index position (m,m), it helps to introduce two temporary notations:
for the matrices, and for the r'th Fourier components of classical quantities,
Flipping the summation variable in the first sum from to r = k − r, the matrix element becomes,
and it is clear that the principal (classical) part cancels.
The leading quantum part, neglecting the higher order product of derivatives in the residual expression, is then equal to
so that, finally,
which can be identified with times the -th classical Fourier component of the Poisson bracket.
Heisenberg's original differentiation trick was eventually extended to a full semiclassical derivation of the quantum condition, in collaboration with Born and Jordan.
Once they were able to establish that
this condition replaced and extended the old quantization rule, allowing the matrix elements of P and X for an arbitrary system to be determined simply from the form of the Hamiltonian.
The new quantization rule was assumed to be universally true, even though the derivation from the old quantum theory required semiclassical reasoning.
(A full quantum treatment, however, for more elaborate arguments of the brackets, was appreciated in the 1940s to amount to extending Poisson brackets to Moyal brackets.)
State vectors and the Heisenberg equation
To make the transition to standard quantum mechanics, the most important further addition was the quantum state vector, now written |ψ⟩,
which is the vector that the matrices act on. Without the state vector, it is not clear which particular motion the Heisenberg matrices are describing, since they include all the motions somewhere.
The interpretation of the state vector, whose components are written , was furnished by Born. This interpretation is statistical: the result of a measurement of the physical quantity corresponding to the matrix is random, with an average value equal to
Alternatively, and equivalently, the state vector gives the probability amplitude for the quantum system to be in the energy state .
Once the state vector was introduced, matrix mechanics could be rotated to any basis, where the matrix need no longer be diagonal. The Heisenberg equation of motion in its original form states that evolves in time like a Fourier component,
which can be recast in differential form
and it can be restated so that it is true in an arbitrary basis, by noting that the matrix is diagonal with diagonal values ,
This is now a matrix equation, so it holds in any basis. This is the modern form of the Heisenberg equation of motion.
Its formal solution is:
All these forms of the equation of motion above say the same thing, that is equivalent to , through a basis rotation by the unitary matrix , a systematic picture elucidated by Dirac in his bra–ket notation.
Conversely, by rotating the basis for the state vector at each time by , the time dependence in the matrices can be undone. The matrices are now time independent, but the state vector rotates,
This is the Schrödinger equation for the state vector, and this time-dependent change of basis amounts to transformation to the Schrödinger picture, with ⟨x|ψ⟩ = ψ(x).
In quantum mechanics in the Heisenberg picture the state vector, |ψ⟩ does not change with time, while an observable A satisfies the Heisenberg equation of motion,
The extra term is for operators such as which have an explicit time dependence, in addition to the time dependence from the unitary evolution discussed.
The Heisenberg picture does not distinguish time from space, so it is better suited to relativistic theories than the Schrödinger equation. Moreover, the similarity to classical physics is more manifest: the Hamiltonian equations of motion for classical mechanics are recovered by replacing the commutator above by the Poisson bracket (see also below). By the Stone–von Neumann theorem, the Heisenberg picture and the Schrödinger picture must be unitarily equivalent, as detailed below.
Further results
Matrix mechanics rapidly developed into modern quantum mechanics, and gave interesting physical results on the spectra of atoms.
Wave mechanics
Jordan noted that the commutation relations ensure that P acts as a differential operator.
The operator identity
allows the evaluation of the commutator of P with any power of X, and it implies that
which, together with linearity, implies that a P-commutator effectively differentiates any analytic matrix function of X.
Assuming limits are defined sensibly, this extends to arbitrary functions−−but the extension need not be made explicit until a certain degree of mathematical rigor is required,
Since X is a Hermitian matrix, it should be diagonalizable, and it will be clear from the eventual form of P that every real number can be an eigenvalue. This makes some of the mathematics subtle, since there is a separate eigenvector for every point in space.
In the basis where X is diagonal, an arbitrary state can be written as a superposition of states with eigenvalues x,
so that ψ(x) = ⟨x|ψ⟩, and the operator X multiplies each eigenvector by x,
Define a linear operator D which differentiates ,
and note that
so that the operator −iD obeys the same commutation relation as P. Thus, the difference between P and −iD must commute with X,
so it may be simultaneously diagonalized with X: its value acting on any eigenstate of X is some function f of the eigenvalue x.
This function must be real, because both P and −iD are Hermitian,
rotating each state by a phase , that is, redefining the phase of the wavefunction:
The operator iD is redefined by an amount:
which means that, in the rotated basis, P is equal to −iD.
Hence, there is always a basis for the eigenvalues of X where the action of P on any wavefunction is known:
and the Hamiltonian in this basis is a linear differential operator on the state-vector components,
Thus, the equation of motion for the state vector is but a celebrated differential equation,
Since D is a differential operator, in order for it to be sensibly defined, there must be eigenvalues of X which neighbors every given value. This suggests that the only possibility is that the space of all eigenvalues of X is all real numbers, and that P is iD, up to a phase rotation.
To make this rigorous requires a sensible discussion of the limiting space of functions, and in this space this is the Stone–von Neumann theorem: any operators X and P which obey the commutation relations can be made to act on a space of wavefunctions, with P a derivative operator. This implies that a Schrödinger picture is always available.
Matrix mechanics easily extends to many degrees of freedom in a natural way. Each degree of freedom has a separate X operator and a separate effective differential operator P, and the wavefunction is a function of all the possible eigenvalues of the independent commuting X variables.
In particular, this means that a system of N interacting particles in 3 dimensions is described by one vector whose components in a basis where all the X are diagonal is a mathematical function of 3N-dimensional space describing all their possible positions, effectively a much bigger collection of values than the mere collection of N three-dimensional wavefunctions in one physical space. Schrödinger came to the same conclusion independently, and eventually proved the equivalence of his own formalism to Heisenberg's.
Since the wavefunction is a property of the whole system, not of any one part, the description in quantum mechanics is not entirely local. The description of several quantum particles has them correlated, or entangled. This entanglement leads to strange correlations between distant particles which violate the classical Bell's inequality.
Even if the particles can only be in just two positions, the wavefunction for N particles requires 2N complex numbers, one for each total configuration of positions. This is exponentially many numbers in N, so simulating quantum mechanics on a computer requires exponential resources. Conversely, this suggests that it might be possible to find quantum systems of size N which physically compute the answers to problems which classically require 2N bits to solve. This is the aspiration behind quantum computing.
Ehrenfest theorem
For the time-independent operators X and P, so the Heisenberg equation above reduces to:
where the square brackets denote the commutator. For a Hamiltonian which is , the X and P operators satisfy:
where the first is classically the velocity, and second is classically the force, or potential gradient. These reproduce Hamilton's form of Newton's laws of motion. In the Heisenberg picture, the X and P operators satisfy the classical equations of motion. You can take the expectation value of both sides of the equation to see that, in any state |ψ⟩:
So Newton's laws are exactly obeyed by the expected values of the operators in any given state. This is Ehrenfest's theorem, which is an obvious corollary of the Heisenberg equations of motion, but is less trivial in the Schrödinger picture, where Ehrenfest discovered it.
Transformation theory
In classical mechanics, a canonical transformation of phase space coordinates is one which preserves the structure of the Poisson brackets. The new variables have the same Poisson brackets with each other as the original variables . Time evolution is a canonical transformation, since the phase space at any time is just as good a choice of variables as the phase space at any other time.
The Hamiltonian flow is the canonical transformation:
Since the Hamiltonian can be an arbitrary function of x and p, there are such infinitesimal canonical transformations corresponding to every classical quantity , where serves as the Hamiltonian to generate a flow of points in phase space for an increment of time s,
For a general function on phase space, its infinitesimal change at every step ds under this map is
The quantity is called the infinitesimal generator of the canonical transformation.
In quantum mechanics, the quantum analog is now a Hermitian matrix, and the equations of motion are given by commutators,
The infinitesimal canonical motions can be formally integrated, just as the Heisenberg equation of motion were integrated, where {{math|1=U = eiGs}} and is an arbitrary parameter.
The definition of a quantum canonical transformation is thus an arbitrary unitary change of basis on the space of all state vectors. is an arbitrary unitary matrix, a complex rotation in phase space,
These transformations leave the sum of the absolute square of the wavefunction components invariant, while they take states which are multiples of each other (including states which are imaginary multiples of each other) to states which are the same multiple of each other.
The interpretation of the matrices is that they act as generators of motions on the space of states.
For example, the motion generated by P can be found by solving the Heisenberg equation of motion using P as a Hamiltonian,
These are translations of the matrix X by a multiple of the identity matrix,
This is the interpretation of the derivative operator D: , the exponential of a derivative operator is a translation (so Lagrange's shift operator).
The X operator likewise generates translations in P. The Hamiltonian generates translations in time, the angular momentum generates rotations in physical space, and the operator generates rotations in phase space.
When a transformation, like a rotation in physical space, commutes with the Hamiltonian, the transformation is called a symmetry (behind a degeneracy) of the Hamiltonian−−the Hamiltonian expressed in terms of rotated coordinates is the same as the original Hamiltonian. This means that the change in the Hamiltonian under the infinitesimal symmetry generator L vanishes,
It then follows that the change in the generator under time translation also vanishes,
so that the matrix L is constant in time: it is conserved.
The one-to-one association of infinitesimal symmetry generators and conservation laws was discovered by Emmy Noether for classical mechanics, where the commutators are Poisson brackets, but the quantum-mechanical reasoning is identical. In quantum mechanics, any unitary symmetry transformation yields a conservation law, since if the matrix U has the property that
so it follows that and that the time derivative of U is zero—it is conserved.
The eigenvalues of unitary matrices are pure phases, so that the value of a unitary conserved quantity is a complex number of unit magnitude, not a real number. Another way of saying this is that a unitary matrix is the exponential of i times a Hermitian matrix, so that the additive conserved real quantity, the phase, is only well-defined up to an integer multiple of 2π. Only when the unitary symmetry matrix is part of a family that comes arbitrarily close to the identity are the conserved real quantities single-valued, and then the demand that they are conserved become a much more exacting constraint.
Symmetries which can be continuously connected to the identity are called continuous, and translations, rotations, and boosts are examples. Symmetries which cannot be continuously connected to the identity are discrete, and the operation of space-inversion, or parity, and charge conjugation are examples.
The interpretation of the matrices as generators of canonical transformations is due to Paul Dirac. The correspondence between symmetries and matrices was shown by Eugene Wigner to be complete, if antiunitary matrices which describe symmetries which include time-reversal are included.
Selection rules
It was physically clear to Heisenberg that the absolute squares of the matrix elements of , which are the Fourier coefficients of the oscillation, would yield the rate of emission of electromagnetic radiation.
In the classical limit of large orbits, if a charge with position and charge is oscillating next to an equal and opposite charge at position 0, the instantaneous dipole moment is , and the time variation of this moment translates directly into the space-time variation of the vector potential, which yields nested outgoing spherical waves.
For atoms, the wavelength of the emitted light is about 10,000 times the atomic radius, and the dipole moment is the only contribution to the radiative field, while all other details of the atomic charge distribution can be ignored.
Ignoring back-reaction, the power radiated in each outgoing mode is a sum of separate contributions from the square of each independent time Fourier mode of ,
Now, in Heisenberg's representation, the Fourier coefficients of the dipole moment are the matrix elements of . This correspondence allowed Heisenberg to provide the rule for the transition intensities, the fraction of the time that, starting from an initial state , a photon is emitted and the atom jumps to a final state ,
This then allowed the magnitude of the matrix elements to be interpreted statistically: they give the intensity of the spectral lines, the probability for quantum jumps from the emission of dipole radiation.
Since the transition rates are given by the matrix elements of , wherever is zero, the corresponding transition should be absent. These were called the selection rules, which were a puzzle until the advent of matrix mechanics.
An arbitrary state of the Hydrogen atom, ignoring spin, is labelled by |n;ℓ,m ⟩, where the value of ℓ is a measure of the total orbital angular momentum and is its -component, which defines the orbit orientation. The components of the angular momentum pseudovector are
where the products in this expression are independent of order and real, because different components of X and P commute.
The commutation relations of L with all three coordinate matrices X, Y, Z (or with any vector) are easy to find,
which confirms that the operator L generates rotations between the three components of the vector of coordinate matrices X.
From this, the commutator of Lz and the coordinate matrices X, Y, Z can be read off,
This means that the quantities have a simple commutation rule,
Just like the matrix elements of X + iP and X − iP for the harmonic oscillator Hamiltonian, this commutation law implies that these operators only have certain off diagonal matrix elements in states of definite m,
meaning that the matrix takes an eigenvector of with eigenvalue to an eigenvector with eigenvalue + 1. Similarly, decrease by one unit, while does not change the value of .
So, in a basis of |ℓ,m⟩ states where and have definite values, the matrix elements of any of the three components of the position are zero, except when is the same or changes by one unit.
This places a constraint on the change in total angular momentum. Any state can be rotated so that its angular momentum is in the -direction as much as possible, where m = ℓ. The matrix element of the position acting on |ℓ,m⟩ can only produce values of m which are bigger by one unit, so that if the coordinates are rotated so that the final state is |ℓ',ℓ' ⟩, the value of ℓ’ can be at most one bigger than the biggest value of ℓ that occurs in the initial state. So ℓ’ is at most ℓ + 1.
The matrix elements vanish for ℓ’ > ℓ + 1, and the reverse matrix element is determined by Hermiticity, so these vanish also when ℓ’ < ℓ - 1: Dipole transitions are forbidden with a change in angular momentum of more than one unit.
Sum rules
The Heisenberg equation of motion determines the matrix elements of P in the Heisenberg basis from the matrix elements of X.
which turns the diagonal part of the commutation relation into a sum rule for the magnitude of the matrix elements:
This yields a relation for the sum of the spectroscopic intensities to and from any given state, although to be absolutely correct, contributions from the radiative capture probability for unbound scattering states must be included in the sum:
See also
Interaction picture
Bra–ket notation
Introduction to quantum mechanics
Heisenberg's entryway to matrix mechanics
References
Further reading
Max Born The statistical interpretation of quantum mechanics. Nobel Lecture – December 11, 1954.
Nancy Thorndike Greenspan, "The End of the Certain World: The Life and Science of Max Born" (Basic Books, 2005) . Also published in Germany: Max Born - Baumeister der Quantenwelt. Eine Biographie (Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, 2005), .
Max Jammer The Conceptual Development of Quantum Mechanics (McGraw-Hill, 1966)
Jagdish Mehra and Helmut Rechenberg The Historical Development of Quantum Theory. Volume 3. The Formulation of Matrix Mechanics and Its Modifications 1925–1926. (Springer, 2001)
B. L. van der Waerden, editor, Sources of Quantum Mechanics (Dover Publications, 1968)
Thomas F. Jordan, Quantum Mechanics in Simple Matrix Form'', (Dover publications, 2005)
External links
An Overview of Matrix Mechanics
Matrix Methods in Quantum Mechanics
Heisenberg Quantum Mechanics (The theory's origins and its historical developing 1925-27)
Werner Heisenberg 1970 CBC radio Interview
On Matrix Mechanics at MathPages
Quantum mechanics
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Radio in the Republic of Ireland
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Licensed radio broadcasting in Ireland is one element of the wider media of Ireland, with 85% of the population listening to a licensed radio broadcasting service on any given day.
History
Ireland As A Radio Pioneer
Guglielmo Marconi, the Italian inventor and the father of long-distance radio transmission, had a significant connection to Ireland as a descendent of the influential Jameson family, and the country played a crucial role in his early radio experiments.
The earliest known radio broadcast in Ireland took place on July 6 1898, when Marconi set up a wireless telegraphy link between Rathlin Island and Ballycastle. This communication system was established on behalf of the Corporation of Lloyds.
In 1907 Marconi International Marine Communication Company the world's first transatlantic wireless telegraphy service in the world in Clifden. The station conducted the first successful transmission of the first commercial wireless messages across the Atlantic Ocean between Clifden and Glace Bay, Nova Scotia, Canada, the station remained in operation until the late 1920s, when it was closed due to advancements more powerful transatlantic wireless stations.
Modern Radio
A Morse code transmission on 24 April 1916 from the General Post Office in Dublin by the rebels during the Easter Rising is considered the first broadcast in Ireland. Regular radio broadcasting in Ireland began with 2RN's test transmissions in 1925. 2RN has since become RTÉ Radio 1, which celebrated 80 years of uninterrupted broadcasting in January 2006, making it amongst the oldest continuously operating (if not the actual oldest), continuously public service radio station in Europe. RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta joined in 1972, and RTÉ Radio 2, now 2FM, launched in 1979.
Commercial radio was outlawed in Ireland until 1989, leading to the development of Irish pirate radio. Upon legalisation, licences were advertised and awarded on a franchise system explained in the article for a national service and a network of regional services covering the country. These all took to the air during 1989 and 1990, and although the national service (Century) eventually failed, all the local services lasted until their licence was revoked, or still exist. Additional licences have been added on an erratic basis since the late 1990s.
An 'international' service, Atlantic 252, also operated on long wave between 1989 and 2002, although it was aimed solely at the United Kingdom and Ireland. It was never subject to the authority of the Broadcasting Authority of Ireland (BAI), and was operated under RTÉ's remit as a joint venture between RTÉ and CLT-UFA. After a short period as a sports station (TeamTalk), the frequencies reverted to sole RTÉ control and were used as an additional frequency for RTÉ Radio 1 till 252kHz was closed in 2023, citing running costs, though it was about 1% of the total salaries of the top presenters.
In Ireland, Community Radio has been active since the late 1970s. However, it took until 1994 before the Independent Radio and Television Commission established an 18-month community radio pilot project to explore and evaluate the potential offered by community broadcasting in an Irish context. This project went operational in 1995, when licenses were issued to eleven community and community of interest groups across the country. 2004 saw the establishment of CRAOL the Community Radio Forum of Ireland.
Licensing
Aside from the stations operated by Raidió Teilifís Éireann (RTÉ), radio stations in Ireland operate under sound broadcasting contracts issued by the Broadcasting Authority of Ireland (BAI). This body supervises and regulates the commercial Independent National, Regional, and Local Radio stations, as well as the non-profit Community Radio stations, Institutional Services and Temporary Services. After the Broadcasting Act 2009, the BAI now is responsible for RTÉ also.
Transmission
All stations broadcast on FM and RTÉ Radio also broadcast on long wave till 2023 which was mainly intended for reception outside Ireland. RTÉ radio services are also available free-to-air on digital satellite, as is Newstalk, and a number of recently licensed services or applicants have used satellite transmission to homes as part of the licence applications.
Medium wave (AM) licences were issued for new commercial stations for Limerick and Galway in 2002, although these services never reached the air (with the licences being withdrawn); and a medium wave licence has been awarded for a quasi-national religious service Spirit Radio.
During 2006, a group, Choice FM, applied for and received permission to broadcasting on MW in the Dublin area over a period of thirty days. The 'easy listening' radio station relayed its FM programming on 1278 kHz MW, and operated opt-out programming at various times. The group is said to be interested in obtaining one of the four MW channels that are allocated to the Dublin area, however the BAI's future schedule for licensing does not indicate that any MW licences will be offered on a permanent basis.
During 2007, a radio station called 'The Rock' obtained a temporary 'classic rock' music service. The station broadcast on 94.9 FM and also on 1278 kHz MW. The Rock was operated by the same group that operated Choice FM during 2005 and 2006, although different MW facilities were used by the group during 2007.
Ownership
Raidió Teilifís Éireann and Bauer Media Audio Ireland dominate the national radio broadcasting sector. RTÉ operates Radio 1, Radio 2FM, the Irish Language station RnaG, and classical station Lyric FM. The two national commercial stations are both owned by Bauer Media Audio Ireland - Today FM and Newstalk.
Ownership rules were relaxed in the mid-2000s, which saw several companies buying up local and national commercial stations, including Scottish Radio Holdings, who sold their stations to Emap, who eventually sold on those stations to Denis O'Brien's Communicorp. The ownership of commercial radio in Ireland is largely by two companies; Bauer Media Audio Ireland which owns two national, one regional and two local stations, and Wireless Group, which owns six local stations.
The rest of the stations, mostly small services, are generally owned by local businesses, with notable proprietors of stakes including Thomas Crosbie Holdings, the Roman Catholic Church and the Mid Western Area Health Board.
Until 31 March 2021, RTÉ also broadcast six DAB stations. These stations are now available via other digital platforms.
Local Radio owners
Bauer Media Audio Ireland - 98FM and SPIN 1038
Wireless Group - FM104, Dublin's Q102, Cork's 96FM, C103, Limerick's Live 95 and LMFM
Raidió Phobail Chiarraí Teoranta - Radio Kerry, Shannonside FM, Tipp FM, Clare FM
Tindle Radio Group - Midlands 103
Connacht Tribune - Galway Bay FM
National stations
RTÉ (national public service broadcaster)
Independent national radio
Today FM (formerly Radio Ireland) - popular music with some speech programming
Newstalk - news and talk radio
Radio Maria Ireland - religious radio on the digital terrestrial platform
Multi-city and county radio
Broadcasting to Greater Dublin (Dublin city and county; limited parts of County Kildare, County Meath and County Wicklow), Cork city and county, Limerick city and county, Galway city and county and County Clare:
Classic Hits Radio - music service for over-45s
Spirit Radio - Christian and religious service aimed at over-15s; launched on 27 January 2011 with FM frequencies in the cities of Dublin, Cork, Limerick, Galway and Waterford. In July 2012 the station as required by its licence introduced its planned AM transmission on 549 kHz medium wave to increase coverage to nationwide.
Independent regional radio
Independent regional radio
Beat 102-103 - Counties Carlow, Kilkenny, Waterford, Wexford and South Tipperary.
Spin South West - Counties Kerry, Clare, Limerick, North Tipperary, and south west Laois.
iRadio (NW) - Counties Galway, Mayo, Longford, Roscommon, Sligo, Leitrim and Donegal.
iRadio (NE and Midlands) - Counties Kildare, Meath, North Laois, Carlow, Louth, Westmeath, Offaly, Cavan and Monaghan.
All services are licensed for 'youth' content, no franchises area geographically overlap, and the entire country is served apart from County Wicklow and the cities and counties of Cork and Dublin, both of which have 'youth' licensed services (Red FM and SPIN 1038 respectively). Beat 102-103 was the first to air, and was a pilot for the rest of the system.
In 2011, i102-104 and i105-107 merged to become one iRadio entity.
Independent local radio
There are 25 commercial stations (Independent Local Radio - ILR) licensed on a regional franchise basis. Often several counties of Ireland are covered by one station only, but Dublin and Cork have several. The majority of the ILR stations collectively own the sales house, Independent Radio Sales.
Dublin ILRs
Except for the two original ILR licenses - 98FM and FM104 - each additional ILR license in Dublin was awarded for a specific format, intending on meeting demands which it was felt that 98FM and FM104 were not catering to. The majority of stations heard in Dublin can also be heard in North East Kildare, South Meath and North Wicklow.
98FM - general service
Radio Nova 100FM (Ireland) - classic rock music service; the Original Radio Nova (Ireland) International, Ireland's first Superpirate station by the same name previously broadcast in Dublin from 1981 - 1988
Dublin's Q102 - service aimed at older listeners (35+); renamed in 2004, formerly 'Lite FM'. A pirate station by the same name previously broadcast in Dublin from 1985 - 1988
SPIN 1038 - service aimed at youth (initially licensed for dance music).
FM104 - general service; formerly 'Rock 104' and 'Capital Radio' 104.4FM
Sunshine 106.8 - easy listening service; renamed in 2010 - formerly 'Dublin's Country'/'Country Mix'. A Superpirate station called The Red Hot Sound Of Sunshine 101 previously broadcast in Dublin from 1980 - 1988.
Cork ILRs
96FM and C103 (dual franchise) - C103 is aimed at older listeners, also sports and rural interest programmes.
Red FM - Corks Number 1 Radio Station Hot A/C format.
Leinster (excluding Dublin) ILRs
East Coast FM - County Wicklow
KCLR 96FM - Counties Carlow and Kilkenny
Kfm - County Kildare
South East Radio - County Wexford
Midlands 103 and Midlands Gold - Counties Laois, Offaly, and Westmeath (split service)
LMFM - Counties Meath and Louth
Munster (excluding Cork) ILRs
WLR FM - Waterford City & County
Clare FM - County Clare
Live 95FM - Limerick City and County
Tipp FM - County Tipperary
Radio Kerry - County Kerry
Connacht/Ulster ILRs
Galway Bay FM - Galway City and County; commercial radio station
Ocean FM - County Sligo, North Leitrim, and South Donegal.
MidWest Radio - County Mayo
Shannonside FM - Counties Longford, Roscommon, East Galway and South Leitrim. Dual franchise with Northern Sound Radio, covering Counties Cavan and Monaghan.
Highland Radio - County Donegal.
Community radio
Community Radio covers specific local communities or communities of interest. These operate on a non-commercial basis. In Ireland, the BAI requires that community radio stations subscribe to the World Association of Community Radio Broadcasters (AMARC) Community Radio Charter for Europe. Community radio in Ireland is represented by CRAOL. Currently there are 20 fully licensed community radio stations on air in Ireland, with offers of contracts from the Broadcasting Authority of Ireland, while there are 42 stations in the process of obtaining a licence.
Belfield FM - University College Dublin
Cavan Community Radio - Cavan, County Cavan
Claremorris Community Radio - Claremorris, County Mayo
Connemara Community Radio - Letterfrack, County Galway
Cork Campus Radio 98.3 - studio located at University College Cork but is licensed for the general student population of Cork City
CRC FM (Community Radio Castlebar) - Castlebar, County Mayo
CRY 104.0FM (Community Radio Youghal) - Youghal, County Cork
Dublin South FM - County Dublin
Dundalk FM 97.7 - Dundalk, County Louth
Flirt FM - University of Galway
ICR FM (Inishowen Community Radio) - Carndonagh, County Donegal; now known as Inishowen Live.
LifeFM - County Cork
Liffey Sound FM - Lucan, County Dublin
Near FM (North East Access Radio) - County Dublin
Phoenix FM - Blanchardstown, County Dublin
Radio Corca Baiscinn - Kilkee, County Clare
Raidió Na Life - Dublin (Irish language station)
RosFm - County Roscommon
TCR FM ("Tramore Community Radio") - Tramore, County Waterford
Tipperary Mid-West Community Radio - County Tipperary
ULFM - University of Limerick
West Dublin Access Radio - County Dublin
West Limerick 102 - County Limerick
Wired FM - Limerick, County Limerick
Westport Radio WRFM 98.2 - Westport, County Mayo
BCRfm Ballina Community radio - Ballina, County Mayo
Eden 102.5 fm - Edenderry, County Offaly
Special interest services
Special interest services resemble ILRs in most ways, but must be of specialist interest — e.g. heavier local interest content, or specialist music. Only one such station is licensed, Dublin City FM, which brand themselves as 103.2 Dublin City FM on-air, and DUB CITY on RDS. Dublin City FM are essentially a community station with specialist traffic reports around rush-hour periods.
Institutional services
The BAI may also issue licenses to institutions, such as hospitals and colleges, for the provision of low-powered FM services. At present, there are five such stations in operation; all of them are hospital radio stations, with the existing student radio stations operating under community radio or temporary licenses.
CUH FM Hospital Radio - (102.0FM) - Cork University Hospital, Cork, County Cork.
Mater Hospital Radio - Mater Hospital, Dublin, County Dublin.
Dreamtime 92.6FM - S.O.S. Kilkenny Ltd, Callan Road, Kilkenny, Co. Kilkenny.
South Tipperary General Hospital Radio 93.7FM - South Tipperary General and Maternity Hospital, Clonmel, County Tipperary.
St. Ita's Hospital Radio - St. Ita's Hospital, Portrane, County Dublin.
Temporary services
Stations may also be licensed to operate for shorter periods, with temporary licenses allowing stations to operate for up to thirty days in a given twelve-month period. These licenses may be used by stations providing a service to coincide with local, cultural and sporting events or festivals. Another group of stations to avail of this type of license are those that are being run as pilot projects; successful stations may later be established as Community Radio stations, or run for a permanent license.
One such temporary licence station was Sunrise Radio, which broadcast poly-lingual programming in the Dublin area for several months from March 2006. While its licence was renewed for the following year, it was not made permanent, and the broadcast frequency later allocated to another station.
Defunct stations
RTÉ radio
Atlantic 252 - a joint venture with RTL, eventually failed financially.
RTÉ FM3 Classical music/arts service, had existed prior to the launch of Lyric FM. FM3 time-shared the same national FM network as RnaG, resulting in limited broadcasting hours.
RTÉ Radio Cork, (was originally 'RTÉ Cork Local Radio', changed name in 1989 to 'Cork 89FM', and relaunched again in 1994 as 'RTÉ Radio Cork') - an opt-out of Radio 1 for the Cork area on medium wave and secondary FM transmitters, closed in 1999 due to declining interest.
RTÉ mobile Community Radio station, existed during the late 1970s and 1980s, this mobile station provided temporary community radio services to towns and cities around the country.
Millennium 88FM temporary local radio service for Dublin during 1988 and part of 1989 to mark 1988 at the year of the Dublin Millennium.
RTÉ Digital Radio Sport, a rolling service in the early days of DAB.
RTÉ Choice, international and national speech service with drama, documentary, arts, world news. Merged in 2013 with RTÉ Radio 1 Extra.
Independent national radio
Century Radio - failed financially, closed in 1991.
Independent local radio
Limerick 95 FM (Radio Limerick One) (95 MHz FM); lost franchise mid-term for stated misbehaviour - subsequently operated on a pirate basis.
CKR FM and Radio Kilkenny - franchises redrawn at end of contract, Kildare area awarded to KFM, Carlow and Kilkenny to KCLR. Gentrification of Kildare by Dublin commuters led Carlow to be closer aligned with Kilkenny in the eyes of the BAI, hence the changing of the franchise areas
Tipperary Mid-West Radio - held a very small franchise for South West Tipperary. Its franchise was merged with the rest of Tipperary franchise (held by Tipp FM). The station continues, being re-licensed as a Community Radio station.
North West Radio - subsidiary of Mid West Radio; replaced by Ocean FM at end of contract.
Easy 103 - held a licence for part of Wicklow and Horizon Radio held a licence for north Wicklow. These two stations merged to become East Coast FM.
Fresh 95.5 - short lived North Dublin-targeted station from LMFM; was licensed to Meath only, relying on signal overspill.
TXFM (formerly Phantom 105.2); alternative rock music station for the Dublin area.
Community radio
Cashel Community Radio - Cashel, County Tipperary was a splinter group from Tipperary Mid-West Radio.
Tallaght FM - Tallaght, Dublin closed 2008.
9-7-11 FM - Dublin North West's community radio, (named after the area's postal districts) existed in the mid-1990s.
Dublin Weekend Radio - station that broadcast from Dublin City University in the 1990s, it time-shared transmission with Raidio na Life. Facilities are now used by DCU.
Inishowen Community Radio (ICR-FM) in north Co. Donegal, ceased broadcasts in October 2012.
Ballyhoura Community Radio (BCR) based in Charleville near the Cork/Limerick border. Went on air in May 2011, closed in March 2013. Frequency was 92.6 FM.
East Limerick Community Radio. FM Frequencies were 96.8 (main) and 97.3.
Institutional services
Beaumont Hospital Radio - Beaumont Hospital, Beamount, Dublin. Closed in 2007.
Vibe 107.4FM - was a student service in Waterford I.T.
Regional Hospital Radio 94.2 - Mid-Western Regional Hospital, Limerick, County Limerick. Closed in 2018
Radio Oglaigh na h-Éireann
Radio Oglaigh na h-Éireann () was established in 1962 to provide a short wave service to Irish Defence Forces serving in United Nations peacekeeping missions in Congo. Daily broadcasts were made on 17.544 MHz at 17:30 UTC, using a transmitter located at the Curragh Camp. Programmes, which were provided by Radio Éireann, included news, sports results, music and drama, including The Kennedys of Castleross. The service was discontinued after several years, when the Irish peacekeeping mission in Congo terminated.
See also
Digital Radio in the Republic of Ireland
List of Irish language radio stations
List of Irish newspapers
Television in Ireland
References
External links
The Broadcasting Authority of Ireland (BAI) The Authority licenses independent broadcasting services in Ireland
Radiowaves.FM a database resource listing every radio station ever to broadcast in Ireland
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20Russia
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United Russia
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The All-Russian Political Party "United Russia" () is a conservative political party in Russia. As the largest party in the Russian Federation, it holds 325 (or 72.22%) of the 450 seats in the State Duma , having constituted the majority in the chamber since 2007. The party was formed on 1 December 2001 through a merger of Unity, Fatherland – All Russia, and the Our Home – Russia.
Following the 2003 and 2011 election results, United Russia held a parliamentary majority in the State Duma and a constitutional majority in 2007, 2016, and 2021.
United Russia supports the policies of the incumbent President of Russia, Vladimir Putin, who previously served as party leader during the presidency of Dmitry Medvedev; despite not currently being the official leader or a member of the party, Putin operates as its de facto leader. The party peaked in the 2007 Russian legislative election with 64.3% of the vote, while in recent years, it has seen its popularity decline. The party's ideology has been inconsistent but embraces specific politicians and officials who hold various political views but support Putin. The party appeals mainly to pro-Putin and non-ideological voters and is often classified by political scientists as a "big-tent party" or as a "party of power", meaning that it is the most influential Russian political force that makes major political decisions. In 2009, it proclaimed Russian conservatism as its official ideology.
In the Duma elections of 2011, for the first time, the United Russia electoral list was formed based on the results of the preliminary (primary) elections held jointly with the All-Russia People's Front.
According to the decisions of the XII Congress of United Russia, adopted on 24 September 2011, in the Duma elections, the party's pre-election list was headed by the President of the Russian Federation at the time, Dmitry Medvedev, and in the 2012 elections, Vladimir Putin became the presidential candidate.
The structure of the party is made up of regional, local, and primary branches. Regional branches of United Russia have been created in all subjects of the Russian Federation. In Russia, there are 82,631 primary and 2,595 local branches of the party.
History
Origins
United Russia's predecessor was the Unity bloc, which was created three months before the December 1999 Duma elections to counter the advance of the Fatherland – All Russia (OVR) party led by Yuri Luzhkov. The creation of the party was heavily supported by Kremlin insiders, who were wary of what looked like a certain OVR victory. They did not expect Unity to have much chance of success since President Boris Yeltsin was very unpopular and Prime Minister Vladimir Putin's ratings were still minuscule. The new party attempted to mimic OVR's formula of success, placing an emphasis on competence and pragmatism. Charismatic Minister of Emergency Situations Sergei Shoigu was appointed as the party leader.
Tatyana Yumasheva, the daughter of Russia's first president, Boris Yeltsin, wrote on her LiveJournal blog that Boris Berezovsky was a founder of United Russia: "Now United Russia does not like to remember that Berezovsky had something to do with the idea of the emergence of Unity. But history is history. We must not forget those who stood at its origins. Otherwise, it resembles the history of the VKP(b), which was carefully rewritten every time when its next founder turned out to be an enemy of the people."
In 1999, Prime Minister Putin's support increased to double-digit figures after he sent troops into Chechnya in retaliation for bombings in Moscow and other cities attributed to Chechen terrorists and in response to the Chechen invasion of Dagestan. Putin's war effort was hugely popular and portrayed positively by the Boris Berezovsky-owned Public Russian Television (ORT) as well as by state-controlled RTR.
Contrary to its founders' expectations, Unity's election campaign in the 1999 election was a success with the party receiving 23.3% of the votes, considerably more than OVR's 13.3% and within one percentage point of the Communist Party's 24.3%. The popularity of the prime minister proved decisive for Unity's victory. The election results also made clear that Putin was going to win the 2000 presidential election, which resulted in competitors Luzhkov and Yevgeni Primakov dropping out. Yeltsin also gave Putin a boost by resigning as president on 31 December 1999.
Creation
While Unity initially possessed one narrow purpose, limited only to the 1999 Duma elections, state officials began transforming the party into a permanent one after the results. A large number of independent deputies who had been elected to the Duma were invited to join the party's delegation. Many OVR deputies joined, including its leader Luzhkov. In April 2001, OVR and Unity leaders declared they had started the unification process. In July 2001, the unified party, the Union of Unity and Fatherland, held its founding congress. In December 2001, it became the All-Russian Party of Unity and Fatherland—United Russia, a merger of Unity, the Fatherland movement, and the All Russia movement that joined them later, led by Mintimer Shaimiev.
Instead of the "communism versus capitalism" dichotomy that had dominated the political discourse in the 1990s, in the 1999–2000 electoral cycle Putin started to emphasize another reason to vote for his party: stability, which was yearned for by Russian citizens after a decade of chaotic change. With the exception of the continued fighting in the Northern Caucasus, Putin was perceived to have delivered it.
2001—2003
After the merger of the parties at the founding congress, the leaders of the merged parties (Sergei Shoigu, Yuri Luzhkov, and Mintimer Shaimiev) were elected co-chairs of the Supreme Council of the party. Alexander Bespalov became the chairman of the party's general council, which carried out practical leadership, and the party's central executive committee. The council included the secretary of the Fatherland—All Russia political council, Alexander Vladislavlev, Franz Klintsevich, and a member of the Federation Council, Sergey Popov.
On 20 November 2002, Interior Minister Boris Gryzlov became chairman of the Supreme Council. Bespalov's powers as chairman of the General Council were curtailed, and on February 27, 2003, he left his post. Valery Bogomolov became the chairman of the party's general council, and Yury Volkov became the head of the central executive committee.
On 13 January 2003, United Russia had 257,000 members, placing it behind only the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (600,000) and the Communists (500,000).
On 31 January 2003, the party was registered by the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation.
On 29 March 2003, the Second Party Congress took place. The Congress approved the report presented by Boris Gryzlov and approved the manifesto "The Path of National Success". At the congress, it was decided to develop an election program for the upcoming parliamentary elections. Sergei Shoigu stood down, and Boris Gryzlov was elected as the new party leader.
On 20 September 2003, the Third Party Congress adopted the election program and approved the list of candidates for the elections. The congress was welcomed by Vladimir Putin, who wished the party success in the elections. On 7 December, the party "Unity and Fatherland - United Russia" won the elections, receiving 37.57% of the vote, and with single-mandate members, a constitutional majority in the State Duma. Boris Gryzlov became speaker of the State Duma.
On 24 December 2003, the Fourth Congress took place, at which Boris Gryzlov made a report. The congress approved the main provisions and conclusions of the report, as well as the party's activities during the election campaign. The congress adopted a unanimous decision to support the candidacy of Vladimir Putin in the presidential elections. In addition, it was decided to rename the party from Unity and Fatherland - United Russia into United Russia.
2003 State Duma elections
Throughout Putin's first years as president, the country's economy improved considerably, growing more each year than in all of the previous decade and Putin's approval ratings hovered well above 70%. Russia's economic recovery was helped by high prices for its primary exports such as oil, gas and raw materials.
The passage rate of law proposals increased considerably after United Russia became the dominant party in the Duma. In 1996–1999, only 76% of the legislation that passed the third reading was signed by the President while in 1999–2003 the ratio was 93%. While Yeltsin had often relied on his decree powers to enact major decisions, Putin almost never had to. United Russia's dominance in the Duma enabled Putin to push through a wide range of fundamental reforms, including a flat income tax of 13%, a reduced profits tax, an overhaul of the labour market, breakups of national monopolies and new land and legal codes. United Russia characterised itself as wholly supportive of Putin's agenda, which proved a recipe for success and resulted in the party gaining a victory in the 2003 Duma elections, receiving more than a third of the popular vote.
Throughout its history, United Russia has been successful in using administrative resources to weaken its opponents. For example, state-controlled news media portrayed the Communist Party as hypocritical for accepting money from several "dollar millionaires" during the 2003 Duma election campaign.
Opposition parties also made several strategic mistakes. For example, Yabloko and the Union of Right Forces seemed to spend more effort attacking each other than Putin, which made it easier for United Russia to win over liberal voters on the strength of market reforms under Putin. The opposition parties faltered in the 2003 elections, with the Communists gaining just 52 seats, a drop from 113 in 1999. Liberal opponents fared even worse, with Yabloko and Union of the Right Forces failing to cross the 5 percent threshold.
2004–2007
On 27 November 2004, at the Fifth Congress, a management reform was carried out - the central political council was liquidated, and the post of party chairman was introduced. Boris Gryzlov was elected chairman of United Russia.
On 22 April 2005, Vyacheslav Volodin, Vice Speaker of the State Duma, was elected the new Secretary of the United Russia General Council, replacing Valery Bogomolov. On 23 April 2005, 35-year-old State Duma deputy Andrey Vorobyov, head of the United Russia Foundation, took over as head of the central executive committee.
The new leadership of "United Russia" has set the goal of "partization of power". In the spring of 2005, a law was adopted on elections to the State Duma exclusively on party lists. Then the State Duma adopted amendments to federal legislation allowing the party that won the elections to the regional parliament to propose to the President of Russia their candidacy for the governor's post. In the overwhelming majority of regions, this right belonged to United Russia. The vast majority of governors are members of United Russia. In April 2006, Boris Gryzlov announced that 66 out of 88 leaders of Russian regions were already members of the party. Since 2005, the leaders of the large industrial corporations Rot Front, Babaevsky, Mechel, and AvtoVAZ have joined the party.
On November 26, 2005, the 6th Party Congress was held in Krasnoyarsk, which approved a new charter version. According to one of the amendments, in case of failure to comply with the decisions of the central and regional party bodies, the activities of a regional political association that does not comply with these decisions may be terminated. No changes were made to the party program at the congress.
On the eve of the 7th Congress of the Party, the leadership of the political party "Russian United Industrial Party" (ROPP) applied for a merger with the political party "United Russia". The formal merger took place on December 1, 2006.
On December 2, 2006, the 7th Party Congress was held in Yekaterinburg. As a result of the congress, the program statement "The Russia We Choose" was approved, which outlined a development strategy based on the principles of sovereign democracy.
In 2006-2007, United Russia initiated the creation of some new organizations: the Young Guard of United Russia, the Union of Pensioners of Russia, the Pedagogical Society of Russia, and the All-Russian Council of Local Self-Government, aiming to create more favourable conditions for the public realization of the interests of their members.
2007 State Duma elections
As the economy continued to improve, Putin moved to rein in the unpopular oligarchs, Putin's approval ratings stayed high and he won the 2004 presidential election with over 71% of the votes. The 2007 Duma elections saw United Russia gain 64.3% of the votes. The Communist Party became a distant second with 11.57% of the votes. Putin was the only name on United Russia's national list. United Russia also introduced tougher party, candidate and voter registration requirements and increased the election threshold from 5% to 7% for the 2007 elections.
During the December 2007 election, the party was accused by voters and election monitoring group Golos of numerous election law violations banned in the Russian Constitution.
The legislative agenda shifted somewhat after the 2007 elections. Anti-terrorism legislation, large increases in social spending and the creation of new state corporations became the dominant issues while less energy was devoted to economic reform.
2008–2010
For the 2008 presidential election, United Russia nominated Dmitry Medvedev to succeed Putin. Medvedev received Putin's blessing and scored a clear victory, receiving 71% of the votes. As President, Medvedev nominated Putin as his Prime Minister. On 15 April of the same year, Putin accepted a nomination to become the party's leader, but declared that this did not mean he would become a member. Medvedev also refused to become a member.
On May 7, 2008, Boris Gryzlov was replaced as party leader by Vladimir Putin.
The Agrarian Party supported the candidacy of Dmitry Medvedev in the 2008 presidential election and it merged into United Russia.
During regional elections of 11 October 2009, United Russia won a majority of seats in almost every Russian municipality. Opposition candidates stated they were hindered from campaigning for the elections and some were denied places on the ballot. There were allegations of widespread ballot stuffing and voter intimidation as well as statistical analysis results supporting these accusations.
Support for United Russia was 53% in a poll held in October 2009.
On September 28, 2010, the dismissed mayor of Moscow, Yury Luzhkov, left the post of co-chairman of the Supreme Council of United Russia and left the party.
2011–2013
In 2010–2011 and following the economic crisis, support for United Russia was variable but declined overall. The share of the population voting for the party reached its lowest point in January 2011 (35%) before recovering to 41% in March 2011.
At the 12th Party Congress held on 24 September 2011, Medvedev supported Prime Minister Putin's Candice in the 2012 presidential election, which effectively assured Putin would return to the presidency, given the party's near-total dominance of Russian politics. Medvedev accepted Prime Minister Putin's offer to lead United Russia in the Duma elections and said that, in his opinion, Putin should run for president in 2012. The delegates gave this statement a standing ovation and unanimously supported his presidential candidacy. Medvedev reacted immediately, saying that applause was proof of Putin's popularity among the people. About ten thousand participants in the meeting listened to Medvedev's speech. In total, the congress was attended by about 12,000 participants, guests and journalists, which is unprecedented for such political meetings.
At the same congress, the pre-election list of candidates from the party for the December elections to the State Duma was approved. The list included 416 party members and 183 non-party members, 363 of whom are running for the first time. On 29 September 2011, the list was submitted to the Central Election Commission of the Russian Federation. President Medvedev headed the party's list. 582 congress delegates voted for the list, and one voted against.
The election program of United Russia was announced in speeches by Medvedev and Putin at the congress. Medvedev identified seven strategic government policy priorities, and Putin proposed writing off 30 billion rubles in erroneous tax debts of 36 million Russians and raising the salaries of public sector workers by 6.5% from October 10. Putin also noted that taxes for wealthy citizens should be higher than for the middle class and suggested raising housing and communal services tariffs only over the established norm. Among other priorities, Putin named the complete rearmament of the army and navy in 5–10 years, doubling the pace of road construction in 10 years, creating or updating 25 million jobs in 20 years, and Russia becoming one of the five largest economies in the world.
At the 13th Party Congress on 26 May 2012, Medvedev was elected chairman of United Russia.
United Russia decided not to use Medvedev and Putin's portraits during the autumn election campaign. On 26 September, the Vedomosti newspaper wrote about this, citing a high-ranking source within the party.
In March 2013, about 50 United Russia members from the Abansky District of Krasnoyarsk Krai announced their withdrawal from the party. They sent an open letter (stating that 60 people signed it) to party chairman Medvedev, in which they criticized the party's activities, which, according to them, has ceased to fulfil its political function.
On 5 October 2013, the 14th Party Congress took place in Moscow. According to the registration data, out of 726 delegates to the 14th Congress, 697 were present.
All-Russia People's Front (ONF)
On 6 May 2011, during the interregional conference in the Southern Federal District, the acting Prime Minister of Russia and the leader of United Russia, Vladimir Putin, took the initiative to create the All-Russia People's Front, a political union of public organizations. Representatives of the ONF, according to his idea, were included in United Russia list in the Duma elections in 2011 and took part in the party's primaries.
On 7 May of the same year, the first meeting of the coordinating council of the new organization was held, which was attended by representatives of 16 public organizations. On 13 June, a draft declaration on the formation of the front was published on the United Russia website. The ONF included more than 500 public organizations. The largest are Opora Rossii, the Russian Union of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs, the Federation of Independent Trade Unions of Russia, Delovaya Rossiya, the Union of Pensioners of Russia, the Young Guard of United Russia, the Union of Transport Workers of Russia, and the Union of Women of Russia. Also, on 7 June, after numerous appeals from citizens, it was decided to allow individuals to join the ONF. As of 14 June 2011, more than 6,000 people wished to join the movement.
The political and economic program of the ONF was developed by the Institute for Socio-Economic and Political Research under the leadership of the former president of Chuvashia, Nikolay Fyodorov, in the fall of 2011 and was adopted by the party congress. As Fyodorov noted, the People's Program became a guide for the legislative work of the State Duma of the new convocation, and all agreed decisions became mandatory for deputies from United Russia and the ONF.
According to a Gazeta.ru author, by creating the ONF, Vladimir Putin and United Russia, for the first time, openly violated the principle of departization of the economy and public life, which was introduced on 20 July 1991 by Boris Yeltsin's decree "On the termination of the activities of the organizational structures of political parties and mass social movements in state bodies, institutions and organizations of the RSFSR" and which became one of the foundations of the Russian political system.
2014-present
On 5–6 February 2016, the 15th Party Congress of United Russia took place in Moscow. The main topic was the approval of the procedure for holding a preliminary vote to select candidates for elections to the State Duma of the seventh convocation. On 22 May 2016, United Russia held party elections (primaries) on an all-Russian scale - formally for selecting candidates from the party in the elections to the State Duma. However, the victory of one or another person in these primaries did not mean at all that the winner would become a candidate from United Russia in the elections to the State Duma.
Some winners were excluded from the lists by the party leadership (often under strange pretexts), and their places on the party list were given to persons who showed very low results in the voting on 22 May 2016. For example, in the final regional party list for Sverdlovsk Oblast, the "passing" 2nd and 3rd places went to the participants who took 9th and 10th places in the primaries. By a similar principle, some of the winners of the primaries in single-member constituencies were replaced. For example, the party appointed a person as a candidate from the party in the Nizhny Tagil district, who, according to the results of the voting in the district, took only fourth place.
More than 20 people who did not participate in the primaries on May 22 were nominated by the party as candidates for the State Duma, moreover, in "passing places". In addition, in 18 single-member districts where the primaries were held, United Russia did not nominate anyone to the State Duma in 2016. The motives for this decision are unknown, especially since the results of the primaries for these districts were not canceled.
By the beginning of the active stage of the election campaign for the State Duma, reshuffles were made in the campaign headquarters headed by Sergei Neverov, which began work in two different formats: the operational headquarters (meets twice a week in a narrow format to solve operational problems) and the extended headquarters (meeting in full force once every two weeks).
On 22 January 2017, Medvedev was re-elected as party chairman.
On May 26, 2019, for the first time in the history of large-scale political elections held in Russia, the party applied the secret electronic preliminary voting procedure using blockchain technology. Secret electronic voting was used by voters in 47 regions of Russia in multi-level elections to determine candidates for subsequent nomination from United Russia to the State Duma, regional parliaments, and local governments.
In the 2021 Duma elections, the party retained its supermajority in the State Duma, despite polls before the election indicating historic low levels of support for the party at around 30%, leading to widespread allegations of electoral fraud in favour of United Russia.
In March 2022, during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the party opened an aid centre in Mariupol.
In November 2022, several United Russia sources reported that the party would not hold an annual congress because "the party is not ready to propose a strategic agenda." Refusal to hold an annual congress is a violation of the party charter.
In December 2022, the European Union sanctioned United Russia due to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.
Participation in elections
Elections to the State Duma
United Russia has participated in all elections to the State Duma of the Russian Federation since 2003 (since 1999 through its predecessors: Fatherland – All Russia and Unity). At the same time, the party actively used the "locomotive" political strategy: including in its party lists well-known persons who were not going to become deputies or refused mandates immediately after the election, while less well-known party members worked in the State Duma instead of them. In 2003, 37 elected candidates from United Russia refused deputy mandates; in 2007 - 116 candidates; in 2011 - 99 candidates. Among the participants of United Russia's "locomotive" were the President of the Russian Federation (2007, 2011), the heads of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, ministers of the Russian Government, and mayors of cities.
Elections to the State Duma of the IV convocation, 2003
Elections to the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of Russia of the fourth convocation were held on 7 December 2003 and became the first elections in which United Russia acted as a political party. As a result of voting, United Russia received 223 seats in parliament (120 on the list and 103 in single-member districts). Boris Gryzlov, Sergei Shoigu, and Yuri Luzhkov headed United Russia's list.
The voter turnout was 55.75%. United Russia gained 37.56% votes, giving it 120 mandates; the party received another 103 mandates in single-mandate districts, which, together with joining the self-nominated faction, allowed it to form a qualified majority in the State Duma.
Elections to the State Duma of the V convocation, 2007
Elections of deputies of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation of the fifth convocation were held on 2 December 2007. United Russia won 315 seats in the parliament following the elections. For the first time, the elections were held exclusively according to the proportional system, without the participation of single-mandate candidates.
Vladimir Putin single-handedly headed United Russia's federal list. On 1 October 2007, President Putin announced at the United Russia party congress that he would accept the party's invitation to head the list of candidates, although he refused to join the party. In his speech, Vladimir Putin said that a previous speaker's suggestion that he become prime minister after the end of his second presidential term "is completely realistic, but it's too early to talk about it now." United Russia refused participate in any broadcast political debates, but on 1 October, it approved a program in which it promised to continue Putin's political course. The electoral program was called "Putin's Plan: A Worthy Future for a Great Country." During the 2007 campaign, President Putin gave United Russia official permission to use his name and image in the party's election campaign to the State Duma of the V convocation.
The voter turnout was 63.78%, and United Russia received 64.20%, which allowed it to get 315 seats and secure a constitutional majority in the State Duma after uniting with single-mandate members and members of the faction of the People's Party of Russia.
Elections to the State Duma of the VI convocation, 2011
Elections of deputies of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation of the VI convocation were held on 4 December 2011. For the first time, the State Duma was elected for five years. As a result of the elections, United Russia received 238 seats. As in 2007, the elections were held only under the proportional system.
On 24 September 2011, at the 12th United Russia Party Congress, President Medvedev headed the United Russia electoral list. The voter turnout was 60.1% of voters. According to official data from the Central Election Commission of Russia, 49.31% of voters voted for United Russia.
In the 2011 Duma elections, United Russia formed an electoral list based on the All-Russian primaries together with the All-Russian Popular Front, at least 150 of whose representatives were included in the party's federal list. Boris Gryzlov also noted that federal politicians and ministers would be at the head of some regional groups of the party in the elections and did not rule out that after the elections, the composition of the Russian Government would change.
Also, in 2011, United Russia took part in a televised debate for the first time. It was announced that Speaker of the State Duma Boris Gryzlov, Secretary of the Presidium of the General Council Sergey Neverov, head of the CEC of the party Andrey Vorobyov, deputies Andrey Isayev, Svetlana Orlova, Andrey Makarov, Governor of the Krasnodar Krai Alexander Tkachev could take part in the debate. However, United Russia members participated in free debates within the framework of the air provided by law. They abstained from participating in some paid debates, particularly with the Communist Party of the Russian Federation, preferring to meet with the Communists at free debates. Putin, the leader of United Russia, and Medvedev, the leader of the federal list of United Russia in the elections, the chairman of the supreme council of the party Boris Gryzlov, as well as members of the government who headed the lists of the party in power in the regions, did not take part in the pre-election debates.
Elections to the State Duma of the VII convocation, 2016
Elections of deputies of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation of the VII convocation were held throughout Russia on 18 September 2016, on a single voting day. The elections were held in a mixed electoral system: out of 450 deputies, 225 were elected on party lists in a single federal district (proportional system), and another 225 were elected in single-member districts (majority system).
The party's federal list was again headed by Dmitry Medvedev, chairman of the United Russia party. As a result of the elections, United Russia received 343 mandates in the new convocation and formed a constitutional majority. The turnout in the elections was 47.88%; the party won 54.20% of the votes on the lists, which brought it 140 mandates. United Russia received another 203 mandates according to voting results in single-mandate constituencies. The final 343 seats in parliament are the highest indicator of the party in the elections to the State Duma.
Elections to the State Duma of the VIII convocation, 2021
Elections of deputies of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation of the VIII convocation were held on 17–19 September, ending on a single voting day on 19 September 2021. The elections were held according to a mixed electoral system: according to party lists (225 deputies) and single-mandate constituencies (225 deputies).
At the party congress on 19 June 2021, President Vladimir Putin proposed to include Defense Minister Sergei Shoigu, Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov, Chief Physician of the Moscow City Clinical Hospital No. 40 "Kommunarka" Denis Protsenko, head of the Sirius Educational Center and co-chairman of the central headquarters of the All-Russia People's Front Yelena Shmelyova, and the Commissioner for Children's Rights under the President of the Russian Federation Anna Kuznetsova.
To select the remaining candidates in all constituencies, the party was the only one of all the election participants to conduct a preliminary vote (primaries). From 15 March to 14 May, more than 7.5 thousand applications were accepted from applicants - members of United Russia and non-partisans. 30% of the participants in the preliminary voting were volunteers working during the pandemic and social activists. For the first time, advance voting became electronic throughout the country, but in 46 regions, the possibility of in-person voting remained. More than 12 million voters participated in the intra-party elections, of which about 6 million voted online.
United Russia went to the polls with the People's Programme, a policy document based on the President's April message and the wishes of the people who gathered traditionally - at meetings and through public reception parties - and on a specially created website, np.er.ru. More than 2 million people submitted their proposals for the country's development.
Another trend of the party in the elections was renewal. Already at the primaries stage, only half of the current State Duma deputies took part in them, but more than 30% of the participants were volunteers, social activists, and graduates of Russian and party personnel projects.
The voter turnout was 51.72%. United Russia won 49.82% of the votes on party lists, which allowed it to receive 126 seats. The party managed to get another 198 mandates in single-mandate constituencies, which made it possible to get 324 seats in parliament and maintain a constitutional majority.
Electoral results
Presidential
State Duma
Regional
The practice of nominating formally independent candidates
Since 2009, in many regions, the practice of United Russia supporting formally independent candidates has occurred in local elections.
Political scientist Sergei Dyachkov believes this is a well-thought-out tactic related to the fear of candidates losing votes due to dissatisfaction with the authorities' actions in the context of the financial-economic crisis. According to Roman Prytkov, a journalist for the Agency for Federal Investigation, the candidates who represent the authorities believe that it has become unprofitable to go to the polls under the banner of United Russia because it will deprive them of part of the vote. Kommersant believes that "large cities have become an electoral problem for United Russia - candidates prefer not to advertise their party affiliation." Candidates nominated by United Russia are reportedly often embarrassed about their party affiliation and try not to advertise it when meeting with voters and do not indicate it in their campaign materials.
In the mayoral elections in Khimki in 2012, the party supported a self-nominated member of United Russia, Oleg Shakhov, who acted as mayor.
In the municipal elections in 125 intra-city municipalities of the city of Moscow on 4 March 2012, candidates - members of the United Russia party and those previously elected from the United Russia party - were nominated independently. Not a single official candidate from the United Russia party was nominated.
In June 2013, Member of the Supreme Council of United Russia Sergey Sobyanin, proposed by United Russia in 2010 to President Medvedev as a candidate for the mayor of Moscow, went to early re-elections as an independent candidate. United Russia considered that "Sergei Sobyanin's decision not to run for mayor from the party was the right one, because in this way he would be able to gather representatives of the "most diverse" forces", and promised to provide support in any case.
On 8 September 2013, simultaneously with the election of the mayor of Moscow, elections of municipal deputies were also held in several districts - part of the territory of the Moscow Oblast that was recently annexed to the capital. As in 2012, United Russia will not directly participate in these elections. Candidates affiliated with this party or with district administrations will go to the polls as "self-nominated" because of, according to an unnamed Gazeta.Ru source, "the poor rating of United Russia both in Moscow and the Moscow Oblast."
According to Aleksey Melnikov, an author of Gazeta.ru, "the type of "self-nominated" that has appeared in the political life of Russia, diligently hiding the United Russia party card and the pocket of a government faithful, shows a crisis ... when the new mask of the All-Russia People's Front has not yet been put on, while it lies on the shelf, and the old one, the so-called "United Russia", has almost been taken off." In November 2019, the secretary of the general council of the party, Andrey Turchak, said that in the upcoming elections to the State Duma in 2021, United Russia would nominate its own candidates and stop providing support for self-nominated United Russia members since "United Russia should not be 'ashamed' of their party affiliation, but, on the contrary, be proud of it."
Preliminary voting
Preliminary voting of United Russia (colloquially known as "primaries") is a procedure for intra-party voting on candidates for subsequent nomination from United Russia, its regional branches as candidates for deputies of the legislative bodies of state power of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. Preliminary voting is organized and conducted to provide opportunities for citizens of the Russian Federation to participate in the political life of society.
According to the results of the preliminary voting in 2011, organized by United Russia and the ONF for the first time in Russian political history, more than 150 non-partisan candidates were included in the electoral lists of United Russia, and the successful holding of the primaries prompted Vladimir Putin to propose legislatively making this procedure mandatory for all political parties.
Russian Public Opinion Research Center (VTsIOM) Director General Valery Fyodorov notes that, according to an August 2011 VTsIOM poll, about a third of Russians were aware of the party and ONF primaries, and United Russia "tried to turn an intra-party <...> event into a topic of interest to those who are not only members of United Russia, but are often generally apolitical."
After the primaries were held, Vladimir Putin said in August 2011 that he considered it expedient to hold primaries for all parties and extend this practice to the regional and municipal levels. On 24 August, acting Vice Speaker of the State Duma Oleg Morozov announced that in September, United Russia intends to submit to the State Duma a bill introducing mandatory primaries.
Since 2016, preliminary voting in the party has been held annually. From 2016 to 2020, it lasted one day; in 2021, the practice of weekly voting was introduced, with voters making their choice electronically for six days.
United Russia remains the only political force using the preliminary voting mechanism.
Single Advance Voting Day 2021
The preliminary voting held by United Russia on 24–30 May 2021 throughout the country was the largest in the history of this procedure. It was attended by about 11 million people (more than 10 percent of the total number of voters in the country). The average age of the candidates was 41 years.
Electronic preliminary voting
Electronic preliminary voting is a form of remote voting. For this purpose, a special site for preliminary voting, , adapted for smartphone use, has been created. In addition to the convenience for voters, the site allows candidates to independently fill out their pages: post news, videos, and photos, and distribute their pages - the personal account is integrated with the leading social networks.
In 2018, as an experiment in several regions, United Russia held the first electronic voting. 140,000 people took part in the voting.
In 2021, United Russia's preliminary voting occurred online from 24 to 30 May nationwide. In total, 6,031,800 people took part in the preliminary electronic voting.
Access to voting on the site is provided after authorization through the State Services portal. To prevent fraud, United Russia independently developed and implemented special software to simplify the monitoring of electronic voting by all interested participants in the procedure.
Current status
Federal Assembly
United Russia currently holds 340 of the 450 seats in the State Duma. It heads all five of the Duma's commissions and holds 14 of the 26 committee chairmanships and 10 of the 16 seats in the Council of Duma, the Duma's steering committee. The speaker of the Duma is United Russia's Vyacheslav Volodin.
The party has only informal influence in the upper house, the Federation Council, as the Council has rejected the use of political factions in decision making.
Party membership
In 2013, United Russia claimed a membership of 2 million. According to a study conducted by Timothy J. Colton, Henry E. Hale and Michael McFaul after the March 2008 presidential elections, 30% of the Russian population are loyalists of the party.
As of 2010, 26% of party members were pensioners, students and temporarily unemployed, 21.2% worked in education, 20.9% in industry, 13.2% were in the civil service and worked in government, 8% worked in healthcare, 4% were entrepreneurs, and about 4% worked in the art field.
Party platform
The party's official ideological platform, described by its leaders as centrism and conservatism (Russian conservatism), suggests a statist stance and declared pragmatism. Researchers also singled out Russian integralism, Eurasianism, statism, and Putinism in the party.
According to the party's 2003 political manifesto, The Path of National Success, the party's goal is to unite the responsible political forces of the country, aiming to minimize the differences between rich and poor, young and old, state, business and society. The economy should combine state regulation and market freedoms, with the benefits of further growth distributed mostly to the less fortunate. The party rejects left-wing and right-wing ideologies in favour of "political centrism" that could unite all sections of society. In addition, the official party platform emphasizes pragmatism and anti-radicalism. The party regards itself as one of the heirs to Russia's tradition of statehood, both tsarist and Soviet eras. United Russia's long-time moniker is "the party of real deeds".
In April 2005, State Duma Chairman Boris Gryzlov announced that United Russia was choosing a socially conservative policy. Gryzlov stressed that United Russia opposes "both various kinds of communist restorationism and ultra-liberalism." He criticized the supporters of the liberal theory, which, in his opinion, "reinforces the advantages of the strong and rich, gives them a head start, makes it difficult for new people and enterprises to enter."
Since 2006, when Vladislav Surkov introduced the term sovereign democracy, many party figureheads have used the term. Former President and Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev has criticised the term. United Russia voted against the Council of Europe resolution 1481 (Need for international condemnation of crimes of communist governments).
The party supports the policies of the current government and the president. United Russia went to the 2007 parliamentary elections with slogans supporting the course of President Vladimir Putin and Putin's plan.
In 2009, the party proclaimed Russian conservatism as its official ideology. This was stated with complete clarity and certainty at the 11th Party Congress in St. Petersburg. On November 21, the program document of the party was adopted, which stated: "The ideology of the Party is Russian conservatism."
The program document of the United Russia party notes: "Our absolute priority is people. This priority was gained by Russia - for centuries the price of human life was almost negligible. All human rights proclaimed by the Constitution and international law have the same, unconditional and supreme value for us: whether it be freedom of speech, freedom of movement, access to cultural values, the right to housing or social security."
The party has promoted explicitly conservative policies in social, cultural and political matters, at home and abroad. Putin has attacked globalism and economic liberalism as well as scientific and technological progress. Putin has promoted new think tanks that bring together like-minded intellectuals and writers. For example, the Izborsky Club, founded in 2012 by Aleksandr Prokhanov, stresses Russian nationalism, restoring Russia's historical greatness, and systematic opposition to liberal ideas and policies. Vladislav Surkov, a senior government official, has been one of the key ideologists during Putin's presidency.
In 2015, United Russia changed its ideology to liberal conservatism, which is right-wing centrism. The change in United Russia's positions was due to the economic crisis in Russia at the time.
The charter states the main values of the party:
well-being of a person: his health and longevity, social security, decent wages and opportunities for entrepreneurship, accessible infrastructure and a comfortable environment, freedom of creativity and spiritual search;
unity and sovereignty of the country: common history and common victories, centuries-old experience of interethnic and interfaith harmony, political, legal, cultural unity of the country, intolerance to attempts to revise and distort the history of Russia, to any manifestations that destroy our country, to attempts of external interference in the life of the state;
leadership and development of Russia: in improving the quality of life of people, in education and science, in modernizing the economy and infrastructure, in ensuring defense and security.
To comply with these values, per the charter, the party must:
to be a team of like-minded people united for the sake of improving the lives of people and the breakthrough development of the country;
to be the party of the popular majority - citizens of the country supporting the President of the Russian Federation and his strategic course;
openly, honestly and professionally represent the interests of citizens in government and local self-government bodies;
uncompromisingly and effectively control the fulfillment of the tasks set by the President of the Russian Federation, compliance with the legislation of the Russian Federation;
to be a political force that creates the basis for the future of Russia, supports and promotes the initiatives and projects of entrepreneurs, scientists, social activists, young leaders, advanced ideas, technologies and innovative solutions;
protect human dignity and justice in society.
The United Russia party is also ideologically heterogeneous. It has a left, socially conservative "wing" and a right, liberal-conservative "wing". There is also a national-conservative group in the party. They are officially recognized parts of the party as debating clubs. These are the "liberal" club "November 4", the "social" club "Center for Social Conservative Policy", as well as the State Patriotic Club.
In cultural and social affairs, United Russia has collaborated closely with the Russian Orthodox Church. Mark Woods provides specific examples of how the Church under Patriarch Kirill of Moscow has backed the expansion of Russian power into Crimea and eastern Ukraine. More broadly, The New York Times reported in September 2016 how that Church's policy prescriptions support the Kremlin's appeal to social conservatives:
A fervent foe of homosexuality and any attempt to put individual rights above those of family, community or nation, the Russian Orthodox Church helps project Russia as the natural ally of all those who pine for a more secure, illiberal world free from the tradition-crushing rush of globalization, multiculturalism and women's and gay rights.
On October 21, 2021, Vladimir Putin, speaking at the plenary session of the Valdai Discussion Club, announced the principles of the ideology of "healthy conservatism" at the heart of Russia's approaches. According to Putin, a conservative approach does not mean "thoughtless guarding", fear of change and playing for hold or "locking in one's own shell." According to the president, moderate conservatism is a reliance on traditions, the preservation and growth of the population, a real assessment of oneself and others, the precise alignment of a system of priorities, the correlation of what is necessary and what is possible, the prudent formulation of goals, and the principled rejection of extremism as a way of action.
"Putin's Plan"
Putin's Plan is an ideological cliché introduced to refer to the political and economic program of Russia's second president, Vladimir Putin, for later use in United Russia's election campaign in the 2007 Duma elections. It was used in the slogan "Putin's plan is Russia's victory" on the cover of a brochure and outdoor campaign advertising.
In the election program of the United Russia party for the 2007 parliamentary elections, the "Putin's Plan" was formulated as follows:
Later, an illustrated brochure "Putin's Plan" was published and distributed free of charge as an election advertisement for United Russia.
Sovereign democracy
In February 2006, the party's official website published a transcript of a speech by Vladislav Surkov, deputy head of the presidential administration of Russia, to the audience of the United Russia Center for Party Education and Personnel Training, in which he made an attempt "to describe recent history in assessments and from the point of view that generally corresponds to the course of the president, and through this to formulate our main approaches to what was before and what will happen to us in the future."
Surkov's party was tasked with "not just winning the parliamentary elections in 2007, but thinking about and doing everything to ensure the dominance of the party for at least 10-15 years to come." In order to maintain positions, Surkov advised members to "master the ideology" - and to do this, create "permanent groups for propaganda support in the fight against political opponents" in the regions.
The term "sovereign democracy" became the core concept of Surkov's ideological platform. Subsequently, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev noted that he supported "genuine democracy <...> or simply democracy in the presence of a comprehensive state sovereignty."
Federal party projects
Federal party projects were created on 13 November 2013.
A party project is understood as a set of measures at the federal level, united by common goals, executors, and implementation deadlines, ensuring the achievement of the goals and objectives set by the party.
The purpose of the federal project is to implement in more than one constituent entity of the Russian Federation initiative projects and programs relevant to all citizens of the Russian Federation aimed at modernizing primary health care, building new schools and kindergartens, developing road infrastructure, building sports and recreation centres and developing children's sports, development of patriotism and cultural values in society, development of an accessible barrier-free environment, assistance to the older generation, improvement of yards and public spaces, solving environmental problems, and development of the village and industry.
To date, there are 15 federal party projects:
Safe Roads
Urban Environment
Children's Sports
One Country - Accessible Environment
Healthy Future
Historical memory
A strong family
Culture of a Small Motherland
Locomotives of growth
People's Control
New school
Russian Village
Older generation
Clean Country
School of a competent consumer
Party position on major social issues
On June 19, 2018, deputies of the State Duma from United Russia almost unanimously (except for Natalia Poklonskaya) supported in the first reading the government bill on raising the retirement age, rejected by the majority of Russians and all opposition factions. According to earlier statements by its leaders, the party was categorically against raising the retirement age, and against lengthening the working week and increasing housing and communal services tariffs relative to inflation.
In the early 2010s, United Russia noted that the achievement of their team's work in power was the growth in the income level of Russian citizens by 2.4 times and the income level of pensioners by 3.3 times over ten years.
Socially significant initiatives and bills of 2021
At the initiative of United Russia, disability pensions and other social benefits are now assigned on an unclaimed basis.
In May 2021, a law was passed to combat "black collectors". Illegal debt recovery activities are punishable by imprisonment for up to 12 years.
From May 20, 2021, parents can refund 50% of the cost of their children's trips to health camps. The refund period is, at most, five days. One of the main conditions is that tickets must be paid for with a Mir card (the program was valid until the end of 2021).
In June 2021, a law amended by United Russia was adopted on free connection to gas (the amendments aim at solve the task set by President Vladimir Putin - to bring gas to each section free of charge).
In June 2021, the State Duma unanimously adopted a United Russia law on protecting the minimum income of citizens. The guaranteed minimum income will not be taken away from debtors.
Starting July 1, 2021, new payments have been started for women in difficult situations registered in the first 12 weeks of pregnancy and for single parents raising children aged 8 to 17 years.
In July 2021, the government agreed to United Russia's proposal to compensate the gasification costs to people who paid for gas supply to households before the start of the social gasification program.
In September 2021, a package of bills initiated by United Russia was adopted, including paid sick leave for caring for a child up to eight years old in the amount of 100% of average earnings, on a "garage amnesty", on the possibility of challenging fines through State Services, and on remote sale of medicines.
In September 2021, a group of senators and deputies from United Russia submitted to the State Duma a bill on the free hospitalization of disabled children with their parents. The government has approved the document.
In November 2021, the State Duma unanimously adopted in the first reading the draft law of United Russia on the abolition of mandatory technical inspection.
In November 2021, a law was adopted to abolish personal income tax on the sale of housing for families with children.
In 2021, at the initiative of United Russia, the government expanded the preferential mortgage program. Now it extends to private homes.
In December 2021, a law on the indexation of maternity capital was adopted: its size will be reviewed annually, considering inflation growth rates.
In December 2021, at the initiative of United Russia, the bill on the use of QR codes in transport was withdrawn from consideration.
On December 17, 2021, the State Duma adopted in the second reading a bill obliging owners of industrial enterprises to eliminate the consequences of a negative environmental impact. The norms of the bill are proposed to be extended to include coal mines.
Amendments to the 2022-24 budget
When considering the draft budget for 2022-24, the United Russia faction proposed the following amendments:
On the provision of housing for disabled people registered before January 1, 2005
On the system of long-term care for the elderly and disabled
On subsidies for state support of certain public and other non-profit organizations
On ensuring the availability of air transportation to the Far East for citizens
On providing persons infected with the human immunodeficiency virus, including in combination with hepatitis B and C viruses, with antiviral drugs for medical use
On the procurement, storage, transportation and safety of donated blood and its components
On the development of highways of regional importance
On the implementation of the program for the integrated development of rural areas
On financial support for the provision of universal communication services
On the overhaul of university dormitories
On equipping sports infrastructure facilities with sports and technological equipment for the creation of open-type sports and recreation complexes (FOKOT) in rural areas
On amendments to youth policy
In total, the deputies of the United Russia faction proposed to increase government spending in 2022-2024 by 107.6 billion rubles. The priorities were to support families with children and help the most vulnerable categories of citizens. The proposed amendments were taken into account when the budget was adopted.
Manifestos
Draft Manifesto 2002
On 23 December 2002, Nezavisimaya Gazeta published a draft manifesto for United Russia, which, in particular, contained the following promises:
United Russia did not accept this draft manifesto, but political opponents of United Russia repeatedly used it to illustrate the party's activities.
United Russia supporters claim that this manifesto is fake. According to Dmitry Rogozin, "this is the most real final document of the seminar of the leaders of the regional branches of United Russia, proposed for discussion by the general council of this party."
Political journalist Oleg Kashin pointed to a discussion in his blog dated 17 January 2003 of the draft manifesto, located on the official website of United Russia. Later, Kashin wrote that "Alexander Bespalov, who at that time headed the General Council of United Russia, soon lost his post and, as they said, the formal reason for this was precisely that slanderous manifesto, which since then United Russia has preferred not to remember, and its opponents, on the contrary, like to remember."
Also noteworthy is the version according to which the draft is both a fake in the sense that it was not officially adopted and genuine in the sense that it was prepared by a group of United Russia political technologists, and the publication of the "raw" draft manifesto was a reflection of the intra-party struggle.
Political technologist Vyacheslav Smirnov, who in 2002 was a member of the campaign headquarters of United Russia, notes that the text was authored by a group led by the St. Petersburg sociologist Yu. Krizhanskaya:
Political scientist Pavel Danilin noted:
Manifesto 2003
The manifesto, approved by the 2nd Congress of the All-Russian Political Party "Unity and Fatherland - United Russia" on 29 March 2003, did not contain specific dates, figures and promises, but in spirit and name "The Path of National Success" corresponded to the project.
This document ended with the program slogan "We believe in ourselves and in Russia!".
Electorate
According to studies, United Russia voters in 2006 were younger and more market-oriented than the average voter. The party's electorate includes a substantial share of state employees, pensioners and military personnel who are dependent on the state for their livelihood. Sixty-four percent of United Russia supporters are female. In the run-up to the 2011 Duma elections, it was reported that support for United Russia was growing among young people.
Foreign opinions
Foreign media and observers describe United Russia as a pure "presidential party", with the main goal of securing the power of the Russian President in the Russian parliament. The vast majority of officeholders in Russia are members of the party, hence it is sometimes described as a "public official party" or "administration party". Due to this, it is also often labelled the "Party of Power".
International activities and alliances
United Russia is active in international activities, develops and strengthens ties with political parties of other states, and establishes constructive interaction and cooperation with them. To date, the party has 58 agreements on interaction and cooperation.
In pursuance of the provisions of these agreements, constant bilateral inter-party consultations, exchange of delegations, participation in the work of congresses of partner parties, and holding forums and round tables are carried out. Joint consultations and exchange of information take place on the most pressing issues of our time, on the issues of bilateral relations, exchange of experience in the areas of party building, organizational work, youth policy, the use of new information and communication technologies in political activities, work in parliament and government, and other areas of mutual interest.
The most important vector of international work is interaction with the political parties of the CIS countries. Contacts are also effectively developing on the Eastern Track, where strategic partnership relations have been established with the ruling parties of China and Vietnam. One of the most important areas of interaction between Russia and China is the cooperation between United Russia and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). An important format of inter-party interaction, fixed in the text of the bilateral protocol, is the holding of dialogue meetings and the forum United Russia-CCP, regularly organized since 2007, alternately on the territory of Russia and China.
In 2007, United Russia signed a cooperation agreement with the Kazakh Nur Otan party and the Ukrainian Party of Regions; in 2008, with the South Ossetian Unity Party; in 2010, with the Mongolian People's Party, which in the Soviet years collaborated with the CPSU, as well as the Serbian Progressive Party, the Kyrgyz Ar-Namys Party, and the Georgian A Just Georgia Party.
In July 2008, the media, citing Konstantin Kosachev and Boris Gryzlov, reported United Russia's entry into the Asia-Pacific branch of the Centrist Democrat International. Representatives of United Russia also attended a congress of the center-right European People's Party, with which Mikheil Saakashvili, Yulia Tymoshenko, Nicolas Sarkozy, Angela Merkel, Silvio Berlusconi, José Manuel Barroso, and Herman Van Rompuy are associated, in December 2009, without formally applying for a membership. The further fate of these relationships is unknown. However, a few years later, the party and its leader Vladimir Putin, according to several news agencies, began to increasingly actively oppose their ideology to the Western one and, at the same time, position themselves as conservatives (in world politics, Ronald Reagan, Margaret Thatcher, and George W. Bush are considered well-known conservatives). In 2014, journalist Alexei Venediktov characterized party leader Vladimir Putin's views as right-wing: "If Putin lived in America, he would be a member of the right wing of the Republican Party. Vladimir Vladimirovich is becoming more conservative, he is moving towards the conservative, reactionary wing of the Republican Party, much more to the right than McCain. McCain is a liberal by his side." Russian political scientists and Western politicians have repeatedly noted the indistinctness and inconsistency of United Russia's positioning.
In 2016, United Russia signed the Lovcen Declaration with the leader of the Montenegrin Democratic People's Party, Milan Knezevic, later joined by the leader of the Socialist People's Party of Montenegro, Srdjan Milic.
United Russia has signed cooperation agreements with the right-wing populist Freedom Party of Austria, the Republican Party of Armenia, the Cambodian People's Party, the Japanese Liberal Democratic Party, and the italian League for Salvini Premier. Its youth wing, the Young Guard of United Russia, has an alliance with the youth wing of the right-wing populist Alternative for Germany, Young Alternative for Germany. The party has also signed cooperation agreements with the Serb nationalist Alliance of Independent Social Democrats of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Estonian Centre Party (though party leader Jüri Ratas recently claimed that the agreement has not been active for ten years and that there is no current cooperation between the parties). The party has proposed a cooperation agreement to the populist Five Star Movement (M5S). The Five Star Movement never gave a proper answer to the proposal and it is currently unknown whether it actually accepted the proposal or not.
United Russia has also signed cooperation agreements with a number of left-wing parties, including Kazakhstan's Nur Otan party, the Serbian Progressive Party, the Mongolian People's Party, the Uzbekistan Liberal Democratic Party, the People's Democratic Party of Tajikistan, the Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova, the Lao People's Revolutionary Party, the Communist Party of Vietnam, South Africa's African National Congress, the New Azerbaijan Party, the Prosperous Armenia party, the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region, the Workers' Party of Korea, the Communist Party of Cuba, the Philippines' PDP–Laban party, and the Latvian Harmony Centre Party. The party used to have an agreement with the Latvian Social Democratic Party "Harmony", but the agreement lapsed in 2016 and was not renewed.
Until 2014, United Russia was in the European Democrat Group in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe alongside the British Conservative Party, Polish Law and Justice and Turkish Justice and Development Party.
United Russia has cooperation agreements with:
USA
On 20 September 2012, US State Department spokeswoman Victoria Nuland announced that United Russia had for several years taken part in programs funded through the US Agency for International Development (USAID), which the United States is implementing through the National Democratic Institute (NDI) and International Republican Institute (IRI). Member of the Presidium of the General Council of United Russia and the Federation Council of Russia Andrey Klimov, who oversees the interaction of United Russia with international organizations, said that United Russia has never taken part in any programs of USAID or its partner organizations. Politician Boris Nemtsov responded that he had documented evidence of United Russia's cooperation with USAID. Political scientist Sergei Markov, who worked for NDI in the 1990s, elaborated on United Russia's ties to USAID.
According to Konstantin Kosachev, United Russia maintains international ties with the US Republican Party and the Democratic Party. In these parties, the maintenance of international contacts is entrusted to the IRI and NDI.
Inter-party cooperation in 2018–2021
The inter-party dialogue in the BRICS format has been actively developed recently.
The party attaches particular importance to such an authoritative association as the International Conference of Asian Political Parties (ICAPP). Today, this largest inter-party structure in the world has united over three hundred political parties of the Eurasian continent and has established strong ties with similar organizations in Africa and Latin America. United Russia not only actively participates in the work of the ICAPP but is also a member of its governing body - the Standing Committee.
The largest forum of the ICAPP - its 10th General Assembly - was held in October 2018 in Moscow with the participation of 400 representatives of 74 parties from 42 countries. The final Moscow declaration of the assembly contains an appeal to the world's parties to jointly fight against terrorism, extremism, and outside interference in the internal affairs of states and for equality, social justice, and mutually beneficial cooperation between countries and peoples.
In July 2020, under the leadership of party chairman Dmitry Medvedev, a round table of representatives of the leading parties in Europe, Asia, and Africa was held on the issues of consolidating efforts in the fight against COVID-19 and its socio-economic consequences. In the summer and autumn of 2020, Internet conferences were held between United Russia and the political parties of the countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States, with public associations of Russian compatriots living on all continents, a meeting of international secretaries of African countries and the international commission of United Russia was held.
At the party's initiative, on 24–25 March 2021, the first-ever international inter-party conference "Russia-Africa: Reviving Traditions" was held. Delegates from 50 leading African parliamentary parties, heads of state, and ministers participated in its work, and more than 12,500 people from 56 countries watched the discussions.
As part of the preparations for the Russia-Africa: Reviving Traditions conference, as well as following its results, several agreements on interaction and cooperation were signed with the leading political parties of the African continent.
United Russia is actively working to support compatriots living abroad. Thus, in the summer of 2021, several events took place in multilateral and bilateral formats, in which Russians living in all corners of the globe took part.
To strengthen this vector, as well as inter-party work in the international direction in general, on the initiative of President Vladimir Putin, a commission of the General Council of the party for international cooperation and support for compatriots abroad was created. The commission's main task was to implement the provisions of the Foreign and Defense Policy section of the People's Program adopted at the 20th Party Congress in August 2021. Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov became the chairman of this commission.
Interaction with other Russian political parties
Agrarian Party of Russia
On April 28, 2004, at the 12th Congress of the Agrarian Party of Russia, with the recommendations of the Chairman of the State Duma of Russia, Boris Gryzlov, a new chairman of the Agrarian Party, Vladimir Plotnikov, was elected. Since the election, the party began open cooperation with United Russia. In 2008, the Agrarian Party of Russia announced its dissolution and joined United Russia. In 2012, the Agrarian Party of Russia was re-established under the chairmanship of Olga Bashmachnikova, executive director of the Association of Peasants' (Farmers') Households and Agricultural Cooperatives of Russia (AKKOR), an association headed by Vladimir Plotnikov, a member of the Presidium of the General Council of United Russia.
A Just Russia
On 8 February 2010, A Just Russia, whose chairman in 2006–2011 and again since 2013 was the Chairman of the Federation Council of Russia (2001–2011) Sergey Mironov, concluded a political agreement with the United Russia party, in which both parties declared that they were committed to striving for coalition actions: A Just Russia supports the strategic course of acting President Medvedev and Prime Minister Putin on strategic issues, and United Russia supports Mironov as Speaker of the Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation. The parties to the agreement expressed their readiness to work together in resolving personnel issues, including those based on the election results, by concluding package agreements when forming governing bodies. However, this agreement was annulled a month after the signing since, according to Mironov, United Russia did not fulfil the terms. In March 2011, Mironov announced his refusal to support the candidate from the United Russia party in the upcoming 2012 presidential elections.
On 18 May 2011, at the suggestion of the United Russia faction in the Legislative Assembly of St. Petersburg, Sergei Mironov was recalled from the post of representative of the Legislative Assembly of the city in the Federation Council, thus losing the post of Chairman of the Federation Council and the mandate of a senator.
Antifascist Pact
On 20 February 2006 in Moscow, at the initiative of United Russia, 12 Russian political parties signed the so-called "antifascist pact". An agreement on combating nationalism, xenophobia, and religious hatred was signed by United Russia, the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia, Agrarian Party of Russia, the Union of Right Forces, Socialist United Party of Russia, the Russian Party of Pensioners for Social Justice, Patriots of Russia, the Russian United Industrial Party, the Russian Peace Party, Civilian Power, the Party of Social Justice, and the Democratic Party of Russia.
Acting United Russia General Council Secretary Vyacheslav Volodin called on all parties to unite around the pact, stressing that those who do not "should withdraw from political life and become pariahs." The Communist Party of the Russian Federation, Rodina, and Yabloko remained outside the pact, skeptically assessing the document, and the last two refused to participate in the pact due to the participation of the Liberal Democratic Party in it. The Communist Party refused to participate in the pact since, in their opinion, United Russia staged a PR on this topic to increase their party's popularity.
Structure
In April 2008, United Russia amended Section 7 of its charter, changing its heading from Party Chairman to Chairman of the Party and Chairman of the Party's Supreme Council. Under the amendments, United Russia may introduce a supreme elective post in the party, the post of the party's chairman, at the suggestion of Supreme Council and its chairman.
The Supreme Council, led by the Supreme Council chairman, defines the strategy for the development of the party.
The General Council has 152 members, is the foremost party platform in between party congresses and issues statements on important social or political questions. The Presidium of the General Council is led by a secretary, consists of 23 members and leads the political activity of the party, for instance election campaigns or other programmatic publications.
United Russia introduced a local chapter system that mimicked the Japanese Liberal Democratic Party's (LDP) organization as a strong foundation for the one-party dominant system in the early 2000s. United Russia eagerly interviewed the LDP mission and studied their party structure. The number of party members was steadily increased by the introduction of the system.
United Russia runs local and regional offices in all parts of the Russian Federation and also operates a foreign liaison office in Israel through a deal with the Kadima party.
As of 20 September 2005, the party has a total of 2,600 local and 29,856 primary offices.
Program and charter
The officially registered charter of the United Russia party was available on the website of the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation. In 2010, the Ministry of Justice website also contained the United Russia program dated 1 December 2001. There is currently no mention of the United Russia program on the website of the Ministry of Justice.
The current charter dates from 26 May 2012 and has undergone several changes compared to the 2001 charter.
On the official website of United Russia, as a program of the party until September 2011, the "Election Program of the All-Russian Political Party "United Russia" "Putin's Plan is a Worthy Future of a Great Country" was submitted, adopted by the 8th Party Congress on 1 October 2007.
The previous election program, approved on 20 September 2003 at the 3rd Congress of the All-Russian Political Party "Unity and Fatherland" - "United Russia", is not available on the official website, but copies are available on other sites. In particular, this program contained the following items:
Also on the official website is the policy statement of United Russia, adopted by the 7th Congress on 15 April 2008.
In addition, on the official website of the United Russia party, there is a "programme document" called "Russia: let's save and increase!", adopted on 21 November 2009 at the 11th Party Congress in St. Petersburg. The "programme document", in particular, states:
"Strategy 2020" is, in fact, another program of the party; however, unlike other programs and program documents, it is not framed as a separate completed document. Putin spoke about the "Strategy 2020" for the first time at the expanded meeting of the State Council of the Russian Federation "On the Development Strategy of Russia until 2020" on 8 February 2008 in Krasnoyarsk. The Strategy 2020 page has been removed from the United Russia official website but is still available on the Internet Archive. "The official website of the expert groups updating the Strategy 2020" is located on the RIA Novosti web portal.
In May 2011, at the suggestion of Putin, then Prime Minister of Russia and chairman of the United Russia party, a coalition of public organizations with the participation of United Russia was created - the All-Russia People's Front. The Front's and United Russia's election programs, the "People's Program", were approved at the 12th Party Congress of United Russia on 23 and 24 September 2011. At Putin's suggestion as party chairman, the Institute for Socio-Economic and Political Research was created to prepare the Front's program, headed by Senator Nikolay Fyodorov, but the final scenario has changed.
Programs and policy message 2011
On 24 September 2011, acting President of Russia Dmitry Medvedev and Prime Minister of Russia Vladimir Putin spoke at the 12th Congress of United Russia.
Medvedev identified seven strategic priorities for government policy: modernizing the economy; fulfilment of social obligations; rooting out corruption; strengthening the judiciary; maintaining interethnic and interfaith peace and combating illegal migration and ethnic crime; the formation of a modern political system; internal and external security, independent and reasonable foreign policy of Russia.
Putin, in turn, set a goal for Russia to become one of the world's five largest economies and proposed writing off the erroneous tax debt of 36 million Russians in the amount of 30 billion rubles and raising salaries for public sector workers by 6.5% from 10 October. Vladimir Putin also noted that taxes for wealthy citizens should be higher than for the middle class and suggested raising housing and communal services tariffs only above the established norm. Putin also set as priorities the complete rearmament of the army and navy in 5–10 years, the doubling of the pace of road construction in 10 years, and the creation or renewal of 25 million jobs in 20 years.
After Medvedev and Putin's speeches were met with stormy, prolonged applause, State Duma Vice Speaker Oleg Morozov suggested that these speeches be considered the party's program for the elections. The congress unanimously approved the party's pre-election program proposed in this form for the upcoming Duma elections.
According to the authors of Gazeta.Ru, this is how the so-called "People's Programme", an extensive document that the institute of Senator Nikolai Fyodorov prepared all summer long, publicly collecting "instructions" of voters and recommendations of experts throughout the country, lost its pre-election status. The document was supposed to be presented at the congress but was absent without explanation.
Later, the Secretary of the United Russia General Council, Sergey Neverov, noted that the People's Program, or the "Program of People's Initiatives", published on 23 October 2011, is considered by United Russia as a plan for the development of the country and should be considered as a whole with the program appeal of the party. Neverov said that United Russia's program address contains the strategic goals of the country's development set by Putin and Medvedev, and the "People's Initiatives Program" contains tactical steps to achieve these goals.
On 14 October 2011, United Russia published a "programme appeal" composed of replicas of speeches by acting President Dmitry Medvedev and Prime Minister Vladimir Putin at the party congress. According to Gazeta.ru experts, the document resembles a text from the Brezhnev era and is consistent with forebodings of the coming stagnation.
Later, the "programme appeal" was published with the addition "Approved by the 12th Congress of the All-Russian Political Party United Russia" on 24 September 2011" and the subtitle "Election Program of the All-Russian Political Party "United Russia" for the Election of Deputies of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation of the Sixth Convocation (Programme Appeal of the United Russia Party to the Citizens of Russia)".
The programme appeal, in addition to general words, contains the following specific points:
"To be strong and in the next five years to enter the top five largest economies in the world"
"The national goal for the next 20 years is to radically upgrade or create at least 25 million modern jobs in industry and in the public sector"
"In the next 5 years, we will ensure the almost complete independence of the country in all basic types of food"
"By the end of 2014, the average wage in the country should increase by 1.5 times"
"In two years, the wage fund in healthcare will grow by 30 percent. Already next year, the salaries of school teachers and teachers of all Russian universities will equal or exceed the average salary in the economy in all regions of Russia without exception."
"In 5 years we must build at least 1,000 new schools in Russia, and in the same 5 years we must not have a single school in disrepair"
"Affordable housing for every Russian family. By 2016, it is necessary to almost double the volume of housing construction"
"Already in the near future, following the decline in inflation, we intend to ensure a further reduction in annual rates on mortgage loans"
"As planned, we will provide housing for all participants in the Great Patriotic War."
In the same address, United Russia nominated Putin for the post of President of Russia and Medvedev for Prime Minister.
On 27 November 2011, after the closing of the second part of the 12th Congress of United Russia, at which Vladimir Putin was officially nominated as a candidate for the presidency of Russia, a document appeared on the official website of United Russia entitled "Election program of the United Russia party in the elections President of Russia".
Party report on the implementation of the 2016 program
Party chairman Dmitry Medvedev presented a report on the party's work over the last five years at a joint meeting of the Supreme and General Councils of United Russia, which was held on June 9, 2021 in Moscow. According to him, the vast majority of the provisions of the 2016 program have either been implemented or are under implementation. Among the achievements of the party, he noted amendments to the labor code, including those regulating the position of remote workers, supporting small businesses, regulating the status of the self-employed, the adoption of a law on free hot meals for schoolchildren, on the priority right of brothers and sisters to go to the same school or kindergarten, and extending the maternity capital program until 2026. At the same time, the process of reporting to voters the work of the past five years began at the federal and regional levels. Deputies from the party at all levels had to report to their voters about the changes that had taken place with the participation of United Russia.
Implementation of the 2016 program
In August 2021, Secretary of the General Council of the party Andrey Turchak announced the annual report of the deputies of United Russia to his voters. This will become a mandatory norm for United Russia.
Moral code
At the 18th Party Congress (December 2018), rules of conduct were adopted, binding on all party members. It highly recommends to:
be humble
be discreet in public
protect honor and dignity by legal means
leave the party in case of committing "illegal or immoral acts"
treat people and their problems with attention and respect, protect the rights of citizens
help Russians in overcoming difficult life situations
be intolerant of attempts to distort the history of Russia, trample on traditions, and show disrespect for culture
be responsible for your words
People's Program 2021
The people's program of the party was prepared during the 2021 election campaign. It was based on the April message of President Putin and the results of a survey of more than two million Russians. Its totality is positioned as a plan for the country's development over the next five years.
The collection of proposals started in June 2021, and the website np.er.ru was explicitly created to receive feedback from voters. President Vladimir Putin took part in preparing the proposals and proposed some measures of social support for citizens and projects for the country's development at the second stage of the United Russia congress on 24 August 2021.
All program points have passed preliminary discussions with experts, deputies, and officials of relevant departments. Among other things, some proposals were discussed in the created headquarters of public support with the participation of representatives of the federal five of the party list - Anna Kuznetsova, Sergey Lavrov, Sergei Shoigu, Yelena Shmelyova, and Denis Protsenko.
The people's program of "United Russia" consists of two main sections: "People's Wellbeing" and "Strong Russia". Each includes topics covering all spheres of life of every inhabitant of the country.
The "People's Wellbeing" section includes several blocks: "Good work - prosperity in the house", "Strong family", "Human health", "Care for all who need it", "Modern education and advanced science", "Convenient and comfortable life", "Ecology for life", "State for the human".
The second section - "Strong Russia" - includes such topics as "Economics of Development", "Rural Development", "Development of the Regions and Transport Infrastructure of the Country", "Culture, History, Traditions", "Civil Solidarity and Youth Policy", " Foreign and defense policy".
The program commission of the party, which includes party and external experts and representatives of relevant ministries and the public, will control the implementation of the People's Program.
Governing bodies
United Russia consists of regional branches, one per subject of the federation, regional branches from local branches, one per urban district or municipal district, local branches from primary branches, one per urban settlement or rural settlement.
The supreme body is the congress; between congresses, it is the General Council (until 2004, the Central Political Council). The executive bodies are the Presidium of the General Council and the Central Executive Committee. The highest official is the Chairman. The supreme audit body is the Central Control and Audit Commission.
The supreme body of a regional branch is the conference of the regional branch; between conferences of the regional branch, it is the regional political council. The executive bodies of the regional branch are the presidium of the regional political council and the regional executive committee. The auditing bodies of the regional branch is the regional control and audit commission. The highest official of the regional branch is the secretary regional branch.
The supreme body of the local branch is the conference of the local branch. Between the conference of the local branch, it is the local political council. The highest official of the local branch is the secretary of the local branch. The executive body of the local branch is the local executive committee. The auditing body of the local branch is the local control and audit commission.
The supreme body of the primary branch is the general meeting; between general meetings, it is the council of the primary branch. The highest official of the primary branch is the secretary of the primary branch.
Party congress
The highest body of the party is the party congress. The congress resolves the most important issues, including the creation or liquidation of structural divisions, central and governing bodies, determines the main directions of the activity of the political association, and approves the charter and program documents. The congress makes decisions on the participation of the party in elections at various levels, including nominating and recalling candidates for the post of President of Russia and deputies of the State Duma, electing the chairman of the party, the head and members of the Supreme Council, the composition of the General Council and the Central Control Commission, and also makes decisions on early termination of their powers.
As a rule, the Congress is convened by the General Council of the Party or its Presidium once a year. An extraordinary congress may be convened by the decision of the governing bodies of United Russia or at the suggestion of more than one-third of its regional branches. In the entire history of the party, 20 congresses have passed. In 2020, the congress was not held due to the unfavourable epidemiological situation.
Party Chairman
According to the charter of United Russia, the party congress has the right, at the suggestion of the chairman of the Supreme Council, to establish the highest elective position - the chairman of the party. The position was introduced at the 5th Party Congress on 27 November 2004. The chairman is elected by open vote at the party congress; a candidate must gain two-thirds of the delegates' votes for election. The party chairman represents it in relations with Russian, international, and foreign state and non-state bodies and organizations, public associations, individuals and legal entities, and the media. The Chairman opens the United Russia congress, chairs its governing bodies' meetings, and also proposes candidates for election or appointment to some positions. Boris Gryzlov was the first chairman of the party. On 7 May 2008, at the 9th Party Congress, non-partisan Vladimir Putin was elected chairman, for which the charter was previously changed.
On 26 May 2012, at the 13th Party Congress, Dmitry Medvedev was elected chairman of United Russia, having joined the party before the congress.
The position of party chairman should not be confused with that of the chairman of the party's Supreme Council, who, according to the charter, "is the highest elected official of the party." Since the introduction of this position in April 2008, Boris Gryzlov has been the Chairman of the Supreme Council of United Russia.
Initially, the party's governing bodies were the General Council (15 people), the Central Executive Committee, the Supreme Council, and the Central Political Council (liquidated in November 2004).
Supreme Council
Consisting of 100 members, the Supreme Council determines the development strategy of the party and provides support for the implementation of the program and charter. In addition, it contributes to strengthening the authority and growth of the influence of the party in Russian society. The Supreme Council is elected from among prominent public and political figures of the Russian Federation who have great authority in Russian society and in the international arena, including those who are not members of United Russia. The elections of the Supreme Council, as well as its chairman, are held by open voting at the party congress.
At the party congress on 4 December 2021, 98 members of the Supreme Council were elected and two seats remained vacant. Almost half of the staff has been updated: it includes such people as the presidential envoy to the Far Eastern Federal District Yuri Trutnev, State Duma Vice Speaker Sergei Neverov, chief doctor of the hospital in Kommunarka Denis Protsenko, People's Artist of Russia Vladimir Mashkov, Deputy Chairman of the Committee of the State Duma of the Russian Federation on Youth Policy Mikhail Kiselyov, First Deputy Minister of Labor and Social Protection and Chairman of the Public Council of the Strong Family party project Olga Batalina, President of the all-Russian public organization of small and medium-sized businesses "Support of Russia" Alexander Kalinin, and General Director of the ANO "Agency for Strategic Initiatives to Promote New Projects" Svetlana Chupsheva. The Supreme Council also includes a number of regional governors.
The Chairman of the Supreme Council is Boris Gryzlov.
General Council
The General Council directs the activities of United Russia between its congresses. It ensures the implementation of all party decisions, develops draft election programs and other documents, recommendations on the main directions of the political strategy, and directs the political activities of the party. To date, it includes 170 people (the number of members is determined by the congress), who are elected at the congress by secret ballot. At the same time, the composition of the council is subject to annual rotation of at least 15%, according to the charter.
Presidium of the General Council
The leadership of the General Council is entrusted to its secretary and presidium. The Presidium directs the party's political activities: from the development of draft election programs to organizational, party, and ideological documents. Its competence includes making decisions on convening an extraordinary congress and creating and liquidating regional branches. The presidium has the right to approve the budget of the party and also, on the proposal of the bureau of the Supreme Council, to submit to the congress a proposal to nominate a candidate for the post of President of Russia and nominate lists of candidates for deputies of the State Duma.
The secretary of the presidium of the General Council directs the activities of the presidium and is authorized to make political statements on behalf of the party, put the first signature on the financial documents of the party, sign documents related to the competence of the General Council and its presidium. Sergey Neverov was the Acting Secretary of the Presidium of the General Council of the Party from 21 October 2010. On 15 September 2011, Neverov, at the suggestion of Putin, was approved as secretary. On 12 October 2017, Andrey Turchak became secretary.
To date, the Presidium of the General Council includes 35 people. Their number and personal composition were approved on 4 December 2021 at the United Russia party congress. Andrey Turchak was re-elected Secretary of the General Council.
Party Central Executive Committee
The Party Central Executive Committee is the main executive body, supervising the work of regional branches. It also organizes the work of several party institutions and is responsible for interaction with the United Russia faction in the State Duma. The term of office of the CEC expires after the completion of the regular elections to the State Duma, after which a new structure is approved at the party congress.
Alexander Sidyakin became the head of the Central Executive Committee at the congress on 4 December 2021. From 2009 to 2011, Sidyakin was the secretary of the movement of the Federation of Independent Trade Unions of Russia, the head of the department for collective action and the development of the trade union movement of the FNPR. In 2011, Sidyakin became a State Duma deputy from United Russia, where he worked as deputy chairman of the State Duma committee on housing policy and housing and communal services. After the 2016 elections, he became the first deputy head of the same committee and, in 2017, a member of the Presidium of the United Russia General Council.
Many political scientists associated Alexander Sidyakin's appointment with his extensive experience in technological and legislative work and with the need to transform the central executive committee of United Russia into a permanent electoral headquarters.
CEC members
Orlova, Natalya Alekseyevna — First Deputy Head of the CEC, Head of the Financial and Economic Support Department
Zhavoronkov, Maxim Konstantinovich — First Deputy Head of the CEC (on a voluntary basis), head of the apparatus of the United Russia faction in the State Duma
Kostikova, Anastasia Alexandrovna — Deputy Head of the CEC, Head of the Information and Social Communications Department
Nekrasov, Dmitry Vladimirovich — Deputy Head of the CEC for project work
Osinnikov, Andrei Vladislavovich — Deputy Head of the CEC, Head of the Department of Regional and Technological Work
Romanov, Roman Nikolayevich — Deputy Head of the CEC, Head of the Political Work Department, Director of the Higher Party School
Tikhonov, Denis Vladimirovich — Deputy Head of the CEC, Head of the Department for Supporting the Activities of Commissions of the General Council of the Party
Muravskaya, Maria Valeriyevna — head of the organizational department of the CEC
Ryabtsev Alexander Alexandrovich — Head of the Department for Work with Citizens' Appeals to the CEC
Shkred, Konstantin Viktorovich — Head of Project Activities Department (on a voluntary basis)
Central Control Commission
The Central Control Commission (CCC) is the control and auditing central body of the party, which monitors compliance with the Charter (except for ethical standards of the party), the execution of decisions of the central bodies of the party, as well as the financial and economic activities of structural divisions.
It is elected by the congress from among the members of the party by secret ballot for a period of five years by a majority of votes from the number of registered delegates of the Congress if there is a quorum. The Party Congress determines the numerical composition of the Central Control Commission. The Chairman of the Central Control Commission is the Deputy Chairman of the State Duma, Irina Yarovaya.
Interregional coordinating councils of the party
Established in 2011 by the decision of the Presidium of the General Council of the party, the interregional coordinating councils' task includes coordination of activities, control and methodological support of the party's regional branches, and assistance in the implementation of electoral tasks.
In total, seven ICCs have been created per the number of federal districts:
Central Interregional Coordinating Council (Moscow).
North-Western Interregional Coordinating Council (St. Petersburg).
Volga Interregional Coordinating Council (Nizhny Novgorod).
Ural Interregional Coordinating Council (Yekaterinburg).
Siberian Interregional Coordinating Council (Novosibirsk).
Far Eastern Interregional Coordinating Council (Khabarovsk).
Regional branches
Regional branches were created in all subjects of the Russian Federation, including Crimea. Like the federal structure, the supreme political body of the region is the regional conference of the party, which approves the quantitative and personal composition of the regional political council and the presidium of the regional political council. The party's main executive body in the region is the regional executive committee. The chief political head of the regional branch of the party is the secretary of the regional political council. The head of the executive committee is responsible for the entire organizational component of the work of the regional branch.
Local party branches are created in the region's municipalities and are accountable for their work to the regional party branch. They also consist of local political councils headed by the secretary of the local branch and local executive committees headed by the head of the local executive committee.
Since 2019, United Russia has begun to apply the practice of appointing regional governors as secretaries of regional political councils. In 2019, thirteen governors were appointed: Marat Kumpilov in the Republic of Adygea, Gleb Nikitin in the Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Aisen Nikolayev in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Andrey Travnikov in the Novosibirsk Oblast, Radiy Khabirov in the Republic of Bashkortostan, Kazbek Kokov in the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, Oleg Kozhemyako in the Primorsky Krai, Vladimir Vladimirov in the Stavropol Krai, Igor Vasiliev in the Kirov Oblast, Dmitry Azarov in the Samara Oblast, Alexander Bogomaz in the Bryansk Oblast, Andrey Chibis in the Murmansk Oblast, and Mikhail Razvozhayev, Acting Head of Sevastopol.
Party institutions
Young Guard of United Russia
The Young Guard of United Russia (MGER) is a youth public association with a fixed membership, founded on 16 November 2005. The Young Guard supports the party's course and acts as its personnel reserve.
Interregional conferences
In March 2010, United Russia launched interregional conferences dedicated to the socio-economic development of federal districts. The conferences aim to define a clear and concrete development plan for each region for 2010-2012.
This involved the selection of extremely specific proposals and projects that could be implemented in the short term. At the conference's plenary sessions, the drafts were presented to Putin, who was then party leader.
The first interregional conference was held in the Siberian Federal District in Krasnoyarsk (29-30 March 2010) and Novosibirsk (9 April 2010). It was called "Development of Siberia 2010-2012".
The second conference was held in the North Caucasian Federal District, in Nalchik and Kislovodsk, from 5 to 6 July 2010 and was called "Development of the North Caucasus 2010-2012".
The third conference, "Development of the Volga Region 2010-2012", was held in Ulyanovsk (9 September 2010) and Nizhny Novgorod (14 September 2010).
The Interregional Party Conference of the Far Eastern Federal District "Strategy for the socio-economic development of the Far East until 2020" was held from 4 to 6 December 2010 in Khabarovsk. On it, the current leader of United Russia, Vladimir Putin, pointed out that one of the main problems for the Far East is the transport issue. He proposed significantly reducing flight prices within Russia and building new roads (in particular, by modernizing the Amur highway). He outlined the energy security of the Far East region as another significant problem. Vladimir Putin promised to subsidize the supply of gas along the route Sakhalin-Khabarovsk-Vladivostok, which will significantly reduce the price for the end consumer.
At a party conference in the Central Federal District in Bryansk (3-4 March 2011), Vladimir Putin invited party members to declare income and expenses. At the same time, specialists were asked to "think about the tools" of such control. Putin also demanded that the regional authorities restrain food prices, solve the problem of deceived equity holders by the end of 2012, and reduce the tax burden on small businesses.
On 6 May 2011, the United Russia Interregional Conference was held in the Southern Federal District. It was held on the eve of the celebration of the next anniversary of the victory in the Great Patriotic War in Volgograd. Putin again took part in the conference as party leader. To promote new business and social projects and support young professionals, Putin proposed the creation of the Agency for Strategic Initiatives; he also proposed the creation and formation of the All-Russia People's Front.
On 30 June 2011, the interregional conference in the Ural Federal District was held in Yekaterinburg. On 5 September 2011, the last Interregional Conference was held in the Northwestern Federal District. At the conference in Cherepovets, Vladimir Putin touched upon many socio-economic and political issues. The acting prime minister also announced the need to form a petrochemical cluster in the Northwestern Federal District and support several projects in other regions of the district. During the five-hour conference, among other things, Putin proposed to allocate a lifting allowance of 1 million rubles to each young doctor working in the countryside and to organize a mortgage program for young teachers.
Income and expenses
According to the charter, the party's funds are formed from membership fees, federal budget funds provided per the legislation of the Russian Federation, donations, proceeds from events held by the party and its regional branches, as well as income from entrepreneurial activities, proceeds from civil law transactions, and other receipts not prohibited by law. Membership fees are voluntary.
The Presidium of the General Council of the Party determines the procedure for making membership fees and accounting for their payment. Membership dues have never been the main source of income for the party. In 2002, the party collected 7.7 million rubles in membership fees; in 2008, it collected 157.8 million rubles (7.6% of the party's income). Donations from individuals did not play a significant role for the party - in 2009, 0.3% of the proceeds to the party were received under this item. The main funding source for the party in 2009 was donations from legal entities (63.8% of the party's income) and state funding (26.8% of the party's income).
Consolidated financial reports for 2005-2011 are located on the party's official website. Reports for 2005, 2006 and 2008 are not available, and the available ones are presented in non-textual form, which makes it impossible to search for information, including by search engines.
Donations made violating the Law on Political Parties include donations from persons who did not indicate all the necessary data in financial documents and donations from state or municipal enterprises or organizations that do not have the right to do so. For example, as a result of checking information on the receipt and expenditure of funds from the Moscow Regional Branch of United Russia for the 2nd quarter of 2012, it was found that a donation was received on 30 May 2012 of 30,000 rubles from OJSC Sergiyevo-Posadsky Electricity Network, the founder of which (share - 100%) is the administration of the Sergiyevo-Posadsky municipal district of the Moscow Oblast. The head of the district, V. S. Korotkov, is also the secretary of the local political council of United Russia.
Most of the donations come from regional public foundations to support United Russia. The funds do not disclose who exactly gives them money; however, according to the heads of regional funds, mostly representatives of medium-sized businesses make donations. According to them, there is no "coercion", as donors "contribute as much as they can and want" in response to a written or oral request.
The Tula United Russia Support Fund, headed by the Deputy Governor of the Tula Oblast, Vadim Zherzdev, in 2009 collected the maximum possible 43.3 million rubles under the law. The Moscow Regional Fund, headed by Igor Parkhomenko, First Deputy Chairman of the Government of the Moscow Oblast, raised the same amount. Chairman of the All-Russian Gas Society, State Duma deputy Valery Yazev, according to the Unified State Register of Legal Entities, was listed as the founder of five regional support funds: Yamalo-Nenets, Chelyabinsk, Tyumen, Khanty-Mansiysk, and Kurgan (and collected 83.7 million rubles in total in 2009).
In 2007, the largest donation came from Favor Capital LLC (19.9 million rubles), and three confectionery factories (Rot Front, Krasny Oktyabr, and Babaevsky) made the same contribution of 10 million rubles each. In 2009, the largest donation came from the OJSC "Moscow Television Plant Rubin" (43 million rubles); taking into account its subsidiaries, MTZ Rubin donated 47.8 million rubles. In 2011, the largest donation came from CJSC Mikhailovcement (43 million rubles).
According to the calculations of the Vedomosti newspaper, United Russia received 6 billion rubles in donations between 2005 and 2009, with Eurocement Group, Russia's largest cement producer, donating 253 million rubles, Mechel - 72 million, United Confectioners - 58.5 million rubles, and Motovilikha Plants - 48.7 million. With an annual profit of 2.1 million rubles, the Aksai Land enterprise managed to help United Russia with 30 million rubles over three years.
According to Vedomosti, the Peresvet Bank for Charity and Spiritual Development of Russia, whose founders include the Department for External Church Relations of the Moscow Patriarchate and the Moscow Patriarchate and the Kaluga Diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church, supported United Russia for 30 million rubles in 2005-2007; it provided support in 2002-2004, but the amounts remain unknown.
In 2007, a letter from the secretary of the Kemerovo branch of United Russia, Gennady Dyudyaev, to the managing director of the Siberian Coal Energy Company was published on the Internet, in which he called the company's refusal to help the party with money a refusal to support the creative course of the incumbent President Vladimir Putin and promised to "inform the Administration of the President and the Governor of the Kemerovo Region about this."
On March 5, 2013, TV Rain announced that the Mosenergosbyt company, under the guise of charitable activities, transferred 300 million rubles to the Sozidaniye fund, associated with the United Russia party fund, created in early February 2013 to conduct regional election campaigns.
At the end of March 2013, it became known that OJSC Yaroslavl Supply Company, which is a regional energy monopoly, transferred 55 million rubles to the United Russia Party Support Fund in just six months, which is approximately one-fifth of the company's net profit in the first nine months of 2012. The board of directors of the company, who unanimously voted for the allocation of funds, consists of the secretary of the political council of the Yaroslavl regional branch of United Russia, member of the Federation Council Viktor Rogotsky, and Dmitry Vakhrukov, the son of the former governor of the Yaroslavl Oblast Sergey Vakhrukov, who led the regional electoral list of United Russia in the 2011 State Duma elections. This transfer was contrary to Article 30 of the Federal Law "On Political Parties", which prohibits donations from Russian legal entities with foreign participation to a political party.
In 2014, funding for political parties from the federal budget sharply increased in Russia - now, for every vote received in the elections, the party began to receive 110 rubles (increased from 50 rubles before 2014). As a result, United Russia's revenues increased from 3.4 billion rubles in 2014 to 5.2 billion rubles in 2015.
In 2015, United Russia received 5,187,693,300 rubles (first place among political parties in Russia) and spent 4,292,304,600 rubles. The main share of United Russia's income in 2015 was state funding (for votes received in elections) - 68.6% of income, the lowest percentage among parties that received state funding.
The party's spending structure in 2015 was as follows:
Maintenance of the leading bodies of the party - 13.2%;
Maintenance of regional branches - 45.5%;
Transfers to election funds - 8.5%;
Campaign and propaganda activities (establishment and maintenance of own media, news agencies, printing houses, educational institutions, as well as the release of campaign and propaganda materials) - 14.3%;
Public events, conventions, meetings and the like - 17.2%;
Other expenses - 1.3%.
From these figures, in 2015, the main expenditure of United Russia was the maintenance of the central leadership and regional branches of the party.
According to the report of the Golos movement, a third of the companies that donated more than 1 million rubles to United Russia in 2015 began to receive government contracts regularly and an order of magnitude larger than the amount invested. A similar connection was also found among patrons of the parties Communists of Russia and Patriots of Russia (who began to serve orders from the Russian Ministry of Defense). As RBC noted, the 2016 party primaries were won by eight company executives and private donors, who are among the twenty largest sponsors of the party.
Financing of party projects
On 18 May 2013, at a joint expanded meeting of the supreme and general councils of United Russia, it was announced that party projects would become one of the main activities of the party in the coming period. Then it was first indicated that they would be financed from the federal budget with the participation of the Russian government, chaired by party leader Dmitry Medvedev.
Representatives of other political parties announced their readiness to apply to the Constitutional Court of Russia because they saw in these actions a violation of Article 13 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation ("public associations are equal before the law", "no ideology can be established as a state ideology").
Symbolism
The symbol of the party is a marching bear. The party congress on 26 November 2005 adopted decisions on changes in the party's symbolism: instead of a brown bear, a white bear, outlined in blue along the contour, became the party symbol. Above the image of the bear is a fluttering Russian flag, and below the image of the bear is the inscription "United Russia".
On 12 July 2001, at the Union of "Unity" and "Fatherland" founding congress, the symbol of the new party was presented - a bear in a cap. Subsequently, it was never used again.
The party uses the 1991-1993 Russian flag with an azure stripe in the middle instead of the current blue one.
Slogans
"We believe in ourselves and in Russia!» (2003)
"Russia, forward!", "Let's save and increase!" (2009)
"Unity, Spirituality, Patriotism" (2010)
"The future is ours!", "Together we will win!" (2011)
"To act in the interests of the people is our task", "To hear the voice of everyone is our duty", "To create and protect the future of Russia is our goal", "We made Russia United - Let's make Russia Strong!" (2016)
Internal groupings and debate clubs
At the beginning of 2005, several active members made a public presentation of so-called "socially oriented" and "right-liberal" or "liberal-conservative" approaches to the development of the Russian economy and society. Some media outlets hastened to announce the breakup of the party into several wings and possibly factions, but party chairman Boris Gryzlov rejected this assumption, stating that the party should not be divided into left and right, "there are interests of the country, its citizens, and we are united in defending them." As a result, the intra-party discussion in United Russia is focused on several ideological informal clubs.
The party has four internal groupings organized around common policy interests. In addition, the party uses four internal political clubs to debate policy: the liberal-conservative 4 November Club, social conservative Centre for Social Conservative Politics, conservative liberal State Patriotic Club, and liberal Liberal Club. Based on this division, the party considered entering the 2007 Duma elections as three separate "columns" (liberal, conservative and social), but the idea was subsequently abandoned.
4 November Club
The goals and objectives of the club include:
development of a liberal-conservative program for the development of the country and measures for its implementation;
formation in the country of broad public support for the liberal-conservative path of development;
organizing a broad discussion among the politically and economically active sections of Russian society;
involvement in this work of public organizations, intellectuals, journalists;
assistance in forming a configuration of socio-political forces adequate to the state of society on the eve of the 2007-2008 elections.
The club relies on the ideas formulated in the President's message to the Federal Assembly in 2005. The club's activities are concrete, pragmatic, and even "lobbyist" concerning those initiatives and actions that will be developed by the club or are consonant with its position. The club considers the party the most significant political partner but is a non-party platform. The club holds functions, including conferences, round tables, and seminars. A distinctive feature of the activity is the focus on the regions. One of the co-chairs of the club is the well-known journalist and editor-in-chief of the Expert magazine Valery Fadeyev.
Center for Social Conservative Policy
The non-profit partnership "Center for Social and Conservative Policy" is a private club for discussing social problems. It is a non-state and non-party organization, but each club member is somehow connected with the party and its faction in the State Duma of the Federal Assembly. At the same time, discussions within the club served as a medium for forming both currents in United Russia: liberal (Vladimir Pligin) and social (Andrey Isayev). The heads of relevant committees of the Duma, interested executive authorities, drafters of bills, and experts take part in the work of the "round tables" of the TsSKP, dedicated to certain areas of Russia's modernization.
The founders of the non-profit partnership "Center for Social Conservative Policy" are Leonid Goryainov, Igor Demin, Igor Igoshin, Andrey Isayev, Denis Kravchenko, and Konstantin Tarasov.
State Patriotic Club
The club's main areas of work are:
national unity and patriotism of action, effective public administration;
regional development as a condition for ensuring the quality of life of Russian citizens and innovative development of the country.
The ideological basis for the SPC is the Political Declaration of the Club. The authors of the Declaration note that "democracy and the development of public institutions, a competitive economy, and a stable geopolitical position of Russia are impossible without a strong and responsible state that is in organic unity with society on the basis of national history and culture, national traditions."
Among the experts who spoke at the meetings of the club at various times were: Minister of Education of the Russian Federation Andrei Fursenko, Minister of Culture of the Russian Federation Aleksandr Avdeyev, Minister of Emergency Situations of the Russian Federation Sergei Shoigu, Head of the Moscow Department of Education Isaac Kalina, Archpriest Vsevolod Chaplin, film director and actor Nikita Mikhalkov, theater director Aleksandr Galibin, People's Artist of Russia Yevgeny Steblov, and Deputy Minister of Industry and Trade of Russia Stanislav Naumov.
Regional branches of the State Patriotic Club operate in 42 regions of Russia. The coordinators of the club are State Duma deputies Irina Yarovaya and Grigory Ivliev.
Liberal club
On 18 March 2010, the first meeting of the United Russia liberal club was held, which included representatives of business and culture. The club, in particular, included businessman Vadim Dymov, musician Igor Butman, deputy head of the party's central executive committee Andrei Ilnitsky, State Duma deputy Vladimir Medinsky, State Duma deputy and lawyer Andrey Makarov, sociologist Olga Kryshtanovskaya, as well as some members of the 4 November club. The head of the public council under the presidium of the party's general council for interaction with the media and the expert community, Alexey Chesnakov, explained the formation of another liberal club in the party by the fact that the liberals "are not in the niche allocated to them by someone, even the best people." According to him, the difference between the new club and the already existing 4 November club is in organizational forms: a discussion platform without rigid membership.
On the air of Radio Svoboda, Olga Kryshtanovskaya, answering a question about the tasks of the new right-wing liberal club, stated the following: "I would not say that the party declares that it needs such a new club. These are some members of the party, specific people have united because they feel that they are like-minded people. We are like-minded people, no one invited us anywhere. We just decided to create such a club ourselves in order to express our position. We have a common ideology." The ideology of the liberal club is neoconservatism.
Patriotic Platform
In 2012, following the results of the 13th Party Congress, a decision was made to transform the state-patriotic club into an independent patriotic platform of the party. Dmitry Medvedev also announced the need to restart the platform at the congress. Irina Yarovaya, Chairman of the State Duma Committee on Security and Anti-Corruption, was approved as the coordinator.
As part of the platform's activities, the work of the following federal projects was coordinated: IT Breakthrough, Libraries of Russia, Children's Sports, the Gardener's House is the Support of the Family, Historical Memory, Strong Family, Youth Anti-Corruption Project, People's Control, Runet Development, and Own House.
On April 5, 2017, the Presidium of the General Council of United Russia approved Dmitry Sablin, deputy of the State Duma and first deputy chairman of the All-Russian Public Organization of Veterans "Military Brotherhood", as the coordinator of the party's Patriotic Platform. The change of coordinator was connected with the need to intensify intra-party work and structural changes in the management of the platform.
Entrepreneurial Platform
On March 10, 2016, the Entrepreneurial Platform was created, the co-coordinators of which were the founder of the Korkunov chocolate brand Andrey Korkunov, the head of the Splat-Cosmetics company Evgeny Demin, and State Duma deputy and Chairman of the Board of the Kuzbass Chamber of Commerce and Industry Tatyana Alekseyeva. The first two also entered the supreme council of United Russia. By the end of the month, a presentation of a program of priority steps to support business was promised, which will then be given to the government.
Faction in the State Duma
After the 2003 parliamentary elections, United Russia, having accepted into its faction the deputies who passed through single-mandate constituencies, the majority of independents, all deputies from the People's Party and those who switched from other parties, received a constitutional majority, which allowed it to pursue its line in the Duma, not taking into account the opinions and objections of the opposition (CPRF, LDPR, Rodina, independent deputies).
The book Operation United Russia, written by Forbes and Vedomosti journalists Ilya Zhegulev and Lyudmila Romanova, describes the functioning of the United Russia faction in the State Duma:
After the Duma elections in 2007, United Russia again had a constitutional majority. The number of deputies in the United Russia faction amounted to 315 people.
Due to the large size of the faction and to improve the efficiency of its management, four groups were created in the faction, the leaders of which are Artur Chilingarov, Vladimir Pekhtin, Tatiana Yakovleva, and Nikolay Bulayev. The leader of the faction was Boris Gryzlov.
After the 2011 elections, the size of the faction decreased to 238 deputies, which, although it retained the ability for it to adopt federal laws without taking into account other opinions (quorum - 226 deputies), created the need to support other factions for the adoption of federal constitutional laws and amendments to the Constitution of the Russian Federation (the quorum for the adoption of which is 300 deputies).
In the 2016 State Duma elections, held on party lists and in single-mandate districts, United Russia received a record number of seats for the party - 340.
Leadership of the faction in the State Duma of the VIII convocation
Faction leader: Vladimir Vasilyev
First deputy heads of the faction: Dmitry Vyatkin, Vyacheslav Makarov
Heads of intra-factional groups - deputy heads of the faction: Aleksandr Borisov, Vladimir Ivanov, Ivan Kvitka, Viktor Seliverstov, Adalbi Shkhagoshev
Deputy heads of faction: Andrey Isayev, Yevgeny Revenko, Sergey Morozov, Igor Kastyukevich
United Russia has created an expert council for legislative activities, whose task is to evaluate all the initiatives of the members of the faction and their elaboration before submitting them to the State Duma. It included members of the governing bodies of the party, representatives of the faction, and party experts. The first meeting of the council took place on 14 December 2021.
Legislative initiatives are assumed to first come to the coordinating council for a preliminary assessment. Then, if necessary, they will be taken up by the working groups of the expert council, which will further develop the bills. The decision to create such a scheme was made on 10 November by the Presidium of the General Council of United Russia.
Representation in the leadership of the State Duma
Since 2003, the Chairman of the State Duma has been a deputy from the United Russia faction - Boris Gryzlov (2003-2011), Sergey Naryshkin (2011-2016) and Vyacheslav Volodin (since 2016).
First Deputy Chairman of the State Duma from the party - Oleg Morozov (2005-2011), Alexander Zhukov (since 21 December 2011).
Deputy Chairmen of the State Duma from the party - Olga Timofeeva (since 9 October 2017), Sergey Neverov (since 4 December 2011), Pyotr Tolstoy (since 5 October 2016), Irina Yarovaya (since 5 October 2016).
The head of the United Russia faction in the State Duma from the party - Boris Gryzlov (2003-2011), Andrey Vorobyov (2011-2012), Vladimir Vasilyev (2012–2017), Sergey Neverov (since 9 October 2017).
Party work in the pandemic
United Russia was the only political force that had not gone into isolation for a period of restrictive measures. Party members helped doctors and provided support to the victims. The party has successfully established volunteer activities, deployed volunteer headquarters in all regions of the country, and initiated "social" lawmaking and the adoption of joint decisions with the government to support citizens and businesses.
At the initiative of party chairman Dmitry Medvedev, more than 500 million rubles of membership fees and charitable donations were directed to support doctors during the pandemic.
The party purchased and donated ten reanimobiles to needy regions for medical institutions in the Altai Krai, Kursk and Pskov Oblasts, and the Republics of Adygea, Altai, Kalmykia, Karelia, Mari El, Tuva, and Chuvashia.
Funds were raised to purchase 500,000 sets of personal protective equipment (gloves and masks) distributed among 67 regions. 10,000 protective suits were sent to doctors in the Jewish Autonomous Region, the Trans-Baikal Kra and Krasnoyarsk Krais, the Nizhny Novgorod, Pskov, Samara, and Smolensk Oblasts, and the Republics of Dagestan, Ingushetia, North Ossetia-Alania.
As part of the all-Russian action "Thank you to the doctors", the party donated 200 cars to medical institutions nationwide. Through volunteer centers, specialists working in the red zone received about 360,000 tea kits. The volunteer center in Stavropol donated 20 tons of drinking water to the hospital in Kommunarka.
The United Russia Volunteer Center donated five ventilators to one of the hospitals in the Lipetsk Oblast. The regional branch of United Russia in the Novgorod region purchased 87 units of new medical equipment for the region's clinics, thanking the financial assistance of entrepreneurs.
United Russia has significantly reduced campaign costs for the 2020-2021 elections and reduced travel and organizational costs, directing all its resources to help those who need it most. Most party members, including candidates for the governor's chair, were active participants in the work of the party's regional volunteer centers.
In addition to helping medical workers, United Russia supported teachers and students as part of the all-Russian action "Help study at home". Schoolchildren in need were provided with tablets, computers, and laptops for distance learning. The party took on the task of organizing the collection of equipment, attracting major sponsoring partners, and distributing the collected equipment throughout the country. First, such assistance was provided to residents of rural areas, children from low-income and large families, and children from orphanages. As a result of the campaign, more than 500,000 schoolchildren and teachers from all regions where applications were received acquired the necessary devices for learning at home.
United Russia launched a large-scale program to support the elderly, especially veterans. Volunteers delivered daily food, medicine, and essential goods, fulfilled many other pensioner requests, explained social support measures, and provided necessary psychological assistance. In some regions, it was possible to identify people needing constant outside care and organize home-based social services. A two-way hotline was created - party representatives were engaged not only in receiving calls but also in calling veterans with the subsequent resolution of problematic issues.
United Russia has agreed with the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of Russia that students' volunteer activities should be considered an educational or industrial practice.
Party volunteer centers
To help people during the pandemic, United Russia has created volunteer centers in all regions of the country. The first of them opened on 19 March 2020 in Kaluga.
The centers united more than 100,000 volunteers. This made it possible to provide targeted assistance to all those in need and reduce the burden on the state healthcare system and social services.
The most demanded areas of work were auto-volunteering (delivering doctors to patients' homes), providing doctors in the "red zone" with hot meals and food packages, delivering free medicines to outpatients, supporting the elderly, and helping to organize the work of call centers.
During the work of volunteer centers, the following was delivered:
10 million hot meals for medical personnel;
more than 1.8 million food packages for citizens;
more than 2.4 million drug kits for home delivery.
Almost 1.7 million calls to the hotline and more than 1.1 million shifts by medical volunteers have been worked out.
Headquarters "We Are Together"
The all-Russian action #МыВместе () and its headquarters united those who needed help during the coronavirus pandemic and those who provided it. Volunteers helped deliver food and medicine to those who applied to the "Hot Line".
The We Are Together campaign's volunteer headquarters and hotline were launched on 21 March 2020. United Russia and the All-Russian People's Front have become an infrastructure platform for Medical Volunteers and the Association of Volunteer Centers. First, headquarters were deployed in the regions, and then local volunteer organizations began to join them.
Opinions about the party, criticism, accusations, scandals
Rating polls
According to a poll by the Levada Center at the beginning of 2021, only 27% of Russians would vote for United Russia if elections to the State Duma were held in the near future. This is the lowest support rating for the party among all published polls since mid-2016. In August 2020, 31% of respondents were ready to vote for the party.
Support
According to correspondence published in February 2012, employees of the central executive committee of United Russia (Sergey Gorbachev, Pavel Danilin, Alexander Dupin, Yefim Kuts), under the leadership of Alexey Chesnakov, have been creating custom publications (at least 250) since the spring of 2011 in support of the party and criticizing the opposition. Subsequently, these materials were published in several online publications (Aktualnye Kommentarii, Obshaya Gazeta, Newsland, Infox.ru, The Moscow Post, Utro.ru, Vzglyad.ru, Vek, Polit.ru) and paper newspapers (Argumenty i Fakty, Komsomolskaya Pravda, Moskovskij Komsomolets, Nezavisimaya Gazeta) under the guise of editorial texts and credited to fictitious names.
Criticism
In 2003, political scientist V. Bely called the party "a colossus with feet of clay" because, in his opinion, the main source of its strength is reliance on Vladimir Putin and power. Some politicians believe that United Russia has become, or is becoming, similar to the CPSU. In 2005, political scientist Vladimir Vasiliev, in an interview with the REGNUM News Agency, said that after making changes to the electoral legislation that are beneficial for the ruling party, "United Russia will turn out to be not a combat-ready army for Putin, but a convoy that needs to be saturated."
Opponents of the party often use ideological clichés in relation to it. In particular, the leader of the Youth Yabloko, Ilya Yashin, in 2004; the leader of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation, Gennady Zyuganov, in 2008; and the leader of the Liberal Democratic Party, Vladimir Zhirinovsky, in 2015 used the expression "aggressively obedient majority" concerning the party and its faction in the State Duma of Russia.
The party is criticized both in Russia and abroad. For example, The Washington Post claimed that United Russia "pushed through a series of laws that critics say are designed to prevent genuine electoral struggle and consolidate the party's dominance." According to the adopted laws, parties must have their organizations throughout the country and have at least 50,000 members. According to a Washington Post journalist, "party registration is overseen by the Russian Ministry of Justice, which is accused of intimidating those who oppose the government. In order to secure representation in parliament, any party must obtain the support of at least 7% of the voters, and if it fails, the votes cast for the party are distributed among the larger parties, which increases the proportional share of parliamentary seats given to these parties. Political analysts believe that United Russia received the greatest benefit from the introduction of the 7 percent threshold." Party representatives, on the contrary, believe that "its policy leads to the creation of a competitive system of parties and may even weaken the position of the party in the next parliament."
Commenting on the 2007 Duma election campaign, The Wall Street Journal wrote that United Russia and Russian President Vladimir Putin received "huge amounts of airtime on Kremlin-controlled television channels" even though, according to the newspaper, the opposition's election campaign was taken off the air, and its publications were confiscated. The Wall Street Journal wrote that government officials pressured subordinates and directors of large companies to vote for United Russia and that, according to some allegations, company employees were instructed by management to photograph their completed ballot before putting it in the ballot box.
According to journalist Chrystia Freeland, published in The New York Times, "We have known since 1996 that Russia is not a democracy. We now know that Russia is not a dictatorship controlled by one party, one spiritual hierarchy, or one dynasty. This is a regime ruled by one person. "There is no party," said one of Russia's leading independent economists. "All politics is built around one person."
The party has been repeatedly criticized for the lack of a real program. On 8 April 2011, Russian political scientist Gleb Pavlovsky, in an interview, in particular, said: "We see chaos, where no one is sure of anything: six months before the elections, the ruling party does not know what its program is and whose interests it will represent". On 27 October 2011, Gazeta.Ru published an article titled Vacuum Bomb of Power. The authorities failed to come up with not only a program for the elections, but at least a more or less fresh idea", which states that the authorities admit that they do not have any program of action yet; that the "Program of People's Initiatives" is not a program, but a set of wishes, considerations, which cannot be taken as a guide to action. "The programmatic appeal of the United Russia party", published on the website of the party, the author of Gazeta.ru calls "something" that the authorities also do not hold for the program of action, after the publication of which a joke was born in the circles of the political elite: "In the next election of V. Putin, the program will be a joke about V. Putin.". Gennady Zyuganov, in an interview with Novaya Gazeta, spoke about the second stage of the 12th Congress of United Russia, held on 27 November 2011:
Former Moscow mayor Yuri Luzhkov, who once stood at the beginning of the creation of the party and left it, called United Russia a "political corpse".
Yevgeny Urlashov, mayor of Yaroslavl, June 19, 2013: "The United Russia party in the [Yaroslavl] region is the most corrupt, arrogant, and engages in blackmail, bribery, deceit, and hates people." Notably, a month later, by the decision of the Basmanny District Court of Moscow, Urlashov was temporarily removed from office for taking a bribe; in 2016, he was sentenced to 12.5 years in prison with a sentence in a strict regime colony.
United Russia's support for the raising of the retirement age in 2018 led to the party's ratings to fall to its lowest level since 2011. Mass protests against the measure were also held. The pension reform also led to a negative impact on the party's performance in regional elections later in the year.
"Party of crooks and thieves"
United Russia has come in for criticism that it is "the party of crooks and thieves" (, abbreviated as PZhiV, a term coined by activist Alexey Navalny in February 2011) due to the continuing prevalence of corruption in Russia. He argues it by the presence in the party of major officials and businessmen involved in corruption and criminal cases. In October 2011, Novaya Gazeta published an article describing how members of the public were writing the slogan on banknotes in protest. In December 2011, Putin rejected the accusation of corruption, saying that it was a general problem that was not restricted to one particular party: "They say that the ruling party is associated with theft, with corruption, but it's a cliché related not to a certain political force, it's a cliché related to power. ... What's important, however, is how the ruling government is fighting these negative things". A poll taken in November 2011 found that more than one-third of Russians agreed with the characterisation of United Russia as "the party of crooks and thieves". After the 2011 legislative elections, a few leaders within United Russia called for investigations of fraud and reform of the party. According to the Levada Center in April 2013, about half of Russians agreed with this characterization of the party.
On 28 September 2010, Boris Nemtsov spoke about United Russia on the air of Radio Liberty, saying that "all the people know that this is a party of thieves and corrupt officials." According to the leader of the Liberal Democratic Party, Vladimir Zhirinovsky, he used this expression back in 2009, and Nemtsov simply intercepted these words.
In April 2013, during a sociological survey conducted by the Levada Center, the majority of Russians surveyed (51%) agreed with the characterization of United Russia as a "party of crooks and thieves."
Pension reform of 2018
The support in the summer and autumn of 2018 by the Duma deputies from the United Russia party of the government bill on changes in the pension system, which boils down to raising the retirement age, sharply reduced the level of public confidence in the party, as well as in the president and the Government of Russia. In the eyes of many ordinary citizens, belonging to the "United Russia" has become a fact that discredits the politician, and not belonging, on the contrary, has become a virtue. This, in particular, affected the gubernatorial elections in a number of regions in September 2018, where candidates from the opposition parties won with a significant advantage.
Allegations of violations of the electoral law
Regional elections (2008-2009)
During regional elections and elections of mayors of Russian cities in March 2009, individual cases of voter bribery, falsification of voting results in favor of some representatives of the United Russia party, and their use of negative campaigning were recorded.
On 1 March 2009, police in Murmansk detained a group of citizens distributing bottles of vodka to voters in exchange for votes for United Russia candidate Mikhail Savchenko, the current mayor of Murmansk. One of the detainees wrote to the police that he had personally received 600,000 rubles to organize the bribery.
In Karachay-Cherkessia, according to the protocol of precinct No. 50, out of 2,664 voters, 1,272 voters (47.8%) voted for United Russia, and in the protocol of the Republican Election Commission (RIC) in the same precinct, 2,272 votes for United Russia were already listed (85.3%). The votes were taken from the Communist Party of the Russian Federation and the Patriots of Russia party. Following a decision of the city court of Cherkessk, 1000 votes were taken from United Russia and distributed between the Communist Party of the Russian Federation and the Patriots of Russia.
During the elections of the mayor of Tomsk on 15 March 2009, on the personal instructions of the chairman of the regional election commission, Yelman Yusubov, it was impossible to demand from the voter a document (a business trip order, a travel document, a referral to a doctor, etc.) confirming his absence on the day of voting at his place of residence, which led to mass illegal early voting of students and significantly affected the outcome of voting in favor of the United Russia candidate, Mayor Nikolai Nikolaychuk, who, according to official data, won the election. A telephone poll conducted by the local television company TV2 in the Rush Hour program showed that opposition candidate Alexander Deyev was winning the mayoral election by a wide margin, after which there were immediate failures at the city telephone exchange, and the poll was disrupted. In one of the maternity hospitals, women in labor were forced to vote for Nikolaichuk; otherwise, their babies were threatened with harm. In the lists of voters now and then, there were unidentifiable people registered in the apartments of the townspeople. Some residents of Tomsk were surprised to see the names of their deceased neighbors among those who voted.
As a result of such machinations, the turnout of voters from 17:00 to 19:00 sharply increased by 7,000 people. Representatives of the electoral committee then could not clearly explain this fact. Even before voting legally ended at 20:00, the sign of "Mayor Nikolaychuk Nikolai Alekseevich" was hung in the administration of Tomsk. In the reception room of the United Russia deputies of the regional and city dumas Chingis Akatayev and Denis Molotkov, newspapers with negative press directed against Deyev were found. Tomsk Governor Viktor Kress, fearing that the candidate from the party in power would lose the election, put pressure on voters, saying several times on local TV channels that he would not work with the mayor if opposition self-nominated Alexander Deyev became the mayor. Moreover, he slandered Deyev, saying that he was convicted.
According to the CEC of the Russian Federation, United Russia won 77.3% of the vote in the municipal elections in St. Petersburg. On 30 March 2009, Anton Chumachenko, a member of United Russia, who allegedly won in one of the districts of St. Petersburg, in an open letter to the residents of the Morskoy district, called the methods of his fellow party members "a cynical mockery of the right", stating that "the results of the vote in our district were frankly rigged. From all the protocols of the six precinct election commissions, it follows that I was not included in the top five candidates who received the majority of votes." Yabloko candidate Boris Vishnevsky, whose victory appeared on the CEC website the night after the election (according to zaks.ru) but then disappeared, claimed that the votes were allocated to his rivals from United Russia.
During the election campaign for the post of head of the city of Vologda (2008), candidate Alexander Lukichev (a member of the A Just Russia party) was removed from the election on charges of violating intellectual property rights. Ye. Shulepov, a United Russia candidate, won the election.
Federal election irregularities
Elections to the State Duma (2007)
The party has been repeatedly accused of illegal use of administrative resources (for example, the so-called campaign assignments to recruit supporters). One of the well-known cases was the confession of the mayor of Khabarovsk, Alexander Sokolov, before the Duma elections in 2007: "Given the special role of United Russia, we recommended that the chairmen of precinct commissions join the party."
In addition, precedents were recorded in the Duma elections of 2007, when up to 109% of votes were for United Russia. There were cases of massive ballot stuffing, forcing students to vote under the threat of failing exams, etc.
Elections of the President of Russia (2008)
On 7 October 2011, the leader of the A Just Russia party, Sergey Mironov, published on his blog a copy of an internal document of the St. Petersburg headquarters of United Russia, which describes in detail the technologies for falsifying the protocols of precinct election commissions and instructions for stuffing ballots in the 2008 presidential elections in Russia.
In the presidential elections of Russia on 2 March 2008, such violations were noticed as giving a bribe to an observer, multiple voting by one person (and without documents), and issuing already filled-out ballots to voters.
Elections to the State Duma (2011)
By the start of the 2011 federal election campaign, Gazeta.Ru and the Association for the Protection of Voters' Rights GOLOS launched an interactive map of law violations, which any participant in the elections could take part in creating. As of 7 November 2011, there were 956 messages in the database of the map of violations, of which 403 related to "using the possibilities of power to create advantages"; as of 1 December 2011, 4316 and 1674 in total; according to the results of the elections, 7801 and 2024. United Russia then created a website to "confront opposition violations" in the elections.
On 24 October 2011, on the website of State Duma deputy Gennady Gudkov, the abstracts of the report were published, which the governor of the Moscow Oblast, Boris Gromov, allegedly delivered on 6 October 2011 in the Odintsovo district. Gudkov considered this report a "plan for preparing election fraud" in the Moscow Oblast. According to him, in the report, Gromov called: "to aim local administrative bodies and the apparatus of administrations to suppress any attempts to violate the electoral legislation", "to contribute to the filling of financial resources", "to try to limit opponents in advertising", and "to pay attention to pre-election work in municipalities where the positions of United Russia are not so unambiguous."
According to Gudkov, the violations are not limited to one report: on 15 September, the Minister of Press and Information of the region, Sergey Moiseyev, "instructed" 56 chief editors of regional and municipal media in approximately the same style.
On 24 October 2011, the Election Commission of the Jewish Autonomous Oblast warned United Russia in the Jewish Autonomous Region for placing banners violating the electoral law.
On 27 October 2011, a video appeared on the Internet where Denis Agashin, a member of the General Council of United Russia and the head of the administration of the city of Izhevsk, called on pensioners to vote for United Russia, saying that the financing of the city depends on the results of the vote. Sergei Zheleznyak, First Deputy Secretary of the Presidium of the General Council of the United Russia party, said that Agashin is not a candidate for deputy from the party and held a meeting with representatives of veteran organizations "on his own initiative." On 18 November 2011, the Leninsky District Court of Izhevsk found Agashin guilty of illegal campaigning and fined him 2,000 rubles.
On 5 November 2011, the head of the administration of the President of Udmurtia and the government of the republic, Alexander Goriyanov, announced on camera the scheme "money for votes in favor of United Russia":
According to the aforementioned First Deputy Secretary of the Presidium of the General Council of the Party, Sergei Zheleznyak, it is quite logical to link the socio-economic development of a region or municipality with United Russia since it is United Russia that proposes budget projects related to the socio-economic development of the region and votes for them.
According to the Kommersant newspaper, since 2 November, a "signature collection form in support of United Russia" has been distributed among Voronezh civil servants, in which the regional governor Alexey Gordeyev asks to support the party in the elections to the State Duma. As a sign of consent, officials must put their signature under this, having previously indicated their addresses and telephone numbers.
According to the news agency URA.ru, on the evening of 5 November in Yekaterinburg, police detained a resident, Daniil Kornev, on whose car there was a sticker, privately made by the townspeople, with the well-known aphorism of blogger Alexei Navalny "United Russia is a party of crooks and thieves" and an image of a bear with a bag in its mouth against the backdrop of a map of Russia. An administrative offense report was drawn up against him (Part 1 of Article 5.12 of the Code of the Russian Federation on Administrative Offenses "Production, distribution or placement of campaign materials in violation of election legislation"), from which it follows the sticker is campaigning for United Russia not paid for from the election fund, and a subpoena was served. In Pervouralsk, local businessman Vitaly Listratkin was fined 1,000 rubles for distributing forty mugs with a statement about United Russia. On 31 October, at the office of the Parnassus branch in Yekaterinburg, law enforcement officers seized a batch of stickers with Navalny's phrase and a computer.
On November 6, journalist and blogger Oleg Kozyrev discovered an almost complete "confusing" similarity between the campaign materials of United Russia and the Moscow Electoral Commission. Subsequently, it turned out that under the slogan "Moscow for life, for people" and the design accompanying it, there was a simultaneous advertising campaign, firstly, by the Moscow government, secondly, by the Moscow City Electoral Committee, and thirdly, by the United Russia party. The Central Election Commission of the Russian Federation and the Moscow City Electoral Committee did not find any contradictions to the electoral legislation in that the election billboards of the United Russia party are similar to the Moscow City Electoral Committee's public service announcements dedicated to the December elections. A similar point of view was expressed by Senator Valery Ryazansky, member of the Bureau of the Supreme Council of the United Russia party, on Echo of Moscow radio:
On 6 November, a video appeared on the Internet with information that in Murmansk, United Russia members concluded agreements for "self-agitation" at 1,500 rubles per vote given to the party and 250 rubles per brought friend.
On 23 November 2011, Novaya Gazeta published an article about the correspondence between United Russia, the department for the media, press, broadcasting, and mass communications of the Krasnodar Krai, Internet trolls, and regional officials, from which it follows that pro-United Russia comments in the blogosphere are most often written by officials and deputies for money, and that United Russia is conducting its election campaign in the Kuban with a blunt and blatant use of administrative resources. The election posters of the ruling party, which are hung all over the country, are pasted during working hours by the same officials who are united by Internet mailings conducted by the Kuban media department on instructions from Moscow.
On 23 November 2011, Gazeta.ru published an article with a transcript of a closed speech by Alexander Aksyonov, head of the Sokolinaya Gora District Council in Moscow. The transcript explains in detail how the plan to collect votes for United Russia should be carried out. Aksyonov demands the heads of enterprises collect absentee certificates from their subordinates and hand them over to officials so that United Russia can gain 58% in the elections in Moscow (even though according to a closed Foundation "Public Opinion" poll conducted at the start of the campaign and published in Gazeta.ru, United Russia had a rating of 29% in Moscow). According to RIA Novosti, the Moscow City Electoral Committee stated that the information contained in the article "is unfounded" and that the audio recording raises doubts about its authenticity.
On 21 December 2011, a member of the regional political council of United Russia, Vladimir Semago, appeared in Novaya Gazeta with an article titled "This is not a falsification of the election results, but a conspiracy to forcibly retain power". In the article, he stated that a group of conspirators created a criminal community to rig parliamentary elections to retain power. The community included the CEC headed by Vladimir Churov and the chairmen of grassroots election commissions. Similar communities were created at the regional level in executive power structures. The conspirators' activities received support from the FSB, the Ministry of Internal Affairs and, most likely, were coordinated at the very top. Such actions fall under articles 210 and 278 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation and are punishable by imprisonment from 10 to 20 years.
Scientists from the Medical University of Vienna have proposed a method for assessing the presence of electoral fraud. As a result, they proved that there were falsifications in the elections of the Russian President in 2012 and to the State Duma of the Russian Federation in 2011; in particular, ballot stuffing for some candidates. The article appeared in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences and is available in the public domain.
Notable departures from the party
Former co-chairman of the Party Supreme Council Yury Luzhkov, who left the party simultaneously with a resignation from the post of mayor of Moscow, speaking on 21 October 2010 as a dean of the International University in Moscow with the lecture "Development of Moscow and the Renaissance of Russia" and answering questions from the audience, said that he was always wary of United Russia since there were no democratic institutions. "The irony of fate: I am one of the founding fathers of the United Russia party. My attitude towards it has always been warily critical." "I always told the party chairman Boris Gryzlov that we have no discussions. We always and in everything obey the administration." "When the 122 federal law on the monetization of benefits was adopted, there were two thousand comments to it; we accepted it without discussion. Then there was the popular phrase: Duma is no place for discussions. You can not do it this way!". "The party is a servant, and I left it," Luzhkov concluded.
Other famous personalities that left the party include State Duma deputy (2000-2016) and ex-governor of the Krasnoyarsk Krai Valery Zubov, State Duma deputy (1999-2005) and ex-governor of the Chelyabinsk Oblast Mikhail Yurevich, ex-head of Khakassia Aleksey Lebed, ballerina and actress Anastasia Volochkova, farmer and politician Zhoakim Krima, writer Yevgeny Kasimov, General Yevgeny Yuryev, former State Duma deputies Vladimir Semago and Anatoly Yermolin, director of the Lenin State Farm CJSC and, at the time of leaving the party, the operating deputy of the Moscow Oblast Duma Pavel Grudinin, former State Duma deputy Igor Morozov, Deputy Prime Minister of the Irkutsk Region Alexander Bitarov, former head of the Bolshaya Okhta municipality of St. Petersburg Nikolai Payalin, ex-head of the administration of several St. Petersburg regions and brother of politician Arkady Dvorkovich Mikhail Dvorkovich, and cousin of Vladimir Putin Igor Putin.
In addition to criminal grounds in some cases (see below), for political reasons, the Governor of the Stavropol Krai Alexander Chernogorov, the mayor of Volgograd Roman Grebennikov, and mayor of Tula Alisa Tolkacheva were excluded from the party.
Mass departures from the party
In 2015, almost a hundred people in Kopeysk left United Russia. All employees who left the party worked at three Kopeysk enterprises: Gorvodokanal CJSC, Kopeysk Treatment Plant LLC, and Kopeysk Water Supply Networks LLC. The employees of these enterprises have not been paid salaries for a long time since the organizations do not have the funds for this. Employees blamed the head of Kopeysk, Vyacheslav Istomin, for the lack of money. According to the employees of the enterprises, their complaints about the situation were ignored. This prompted them to write a statement about leaving the party.
In 2021, in the Altai Krai village of Stepnoye, more than 120 employees of the Kuchuksulfat plant simultaneously left the United Russia party. According to these employees, because of the current situation with the plant, they are worried about the possible change of the owner of the enterprise and afraid of a raider seizure of the enterprise, and they do not see any actions from the party to help resolve the issue.
Sanctions
On 16 December 2022, due to Russia's invasion of Ukraine, United Russia was included in the EU sanctions list. According to the European Union, the party supported Russia's aggressive war against Ukraine and the annexation of Ukrainian territories; thus, the party is responsible for supporting actions that undermine or threaten Ukraine's territorial integrity and independence.
All party assets in the European Union will be frozen, and any member of these parties will be banned from entering the EU.
On 24 February 2023, United Russia was included in the sanctions list of Canada.
Notable members
Vladimir Putin, President of Russia and former chairman of the party
Boris Gryzlov, former Interior Minister and Chairman of the Supreme Council of the United Russia and former leader of the party
Vyacheslav Volodin, current Chairman of the State Duma
Valentina Matviyenko, current Chairwoman of the Federation Council
Sergey Shoygu, current Defence Minister, former Emergency Minister, former leader of Unity party and former leader of the party
Mintimer Shaymiev, President of Tatarstan until 2010
Vladislav Surkov, First Deputy Chief of Staff of the President
Alexander Zhukov, First Vice Chairman of the State Duma and former Deputy Prime Minister
Dmitry Medvedev, current chairman of the party, former Prime Minister of Russia, former President of Russia and the leader of the party's Federal list to the Duma (since 24 September 2011)
Denis Pushilin and Leonid Pasechnik, leaders of the self-proclaimed Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic
Sergei Romanovtsev, Soviet veteran and hero of World War Two in the Great Patriotic War.
Ruslan Edelgeriev, Chairman of the Government of the Chechen Republic from 24 May 2012 to 25 June 2018.
See also
Belaya Rus
Democratic Party of Korea, a South Korean left-liberal party, but it has long had friendly exchanges with the United Russia and had an official 'cooperation protocol' relationship in 2017. However, since 2022, DPK has suspended all cooperation with United Russia, citing Russia's invasion of Ukraine.
For United Ukraine, a political alliance created two weeks later in Ukraine and led by the Party of Regions
Russian Unity
Serbian Progressive Party
Unity Party (South Ossetia)
References
Notes
Further reading
External links
Official website of United Russia
Official website of the Duma fraction
Youth wing of the party
2001 establishments in Russia
Conservative parties in Russia
Eurosceptic parties in Russia
Organizations that oppose LGBT rights in Russia
National conservative parties
Nationalist parties in Russia
Political parties established in 2001
Registered political parties in Russia
Russian irredentism
Social conservative parties
Anti-Americanism
Anti-Western sentiment
Anti-Ukrainian sentiment in Russia
Russian nationalist parties
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan%20Galtung
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Johan Galtung
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Johan Vincent Galtung (born 24 October 1930) is a Norwegian sociologist who is the principal founder of the discipline of peace and conflict studies. He was the main founder of the Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO) in 1959 and served as its first director until 1970. He also established the Journal of Peace Research in 1964.
In 1969, he was appointed to the world's first chair in peace and conflict studies, at the University of Oslo. He resigned his Oslo professorship in 1977 and has since held professorships at several other universities; from 1993 to 2000 he taught as Distinguished Professor of Peace Studies at the University of Hawaii. He was the Tun Mahathir Professor of Global Peace at the International Islamic University Malaysia until 2015.
Background
Galtung was born in Oslo. He earned the cand. real. degree in mathematics at the University of Oslo in 1956, and a year later completed the mag. art. (PhD) degree in sociology at the same university. Galtung received the first of thirteen honorary doctorates in 1975.
Galtung's father and paternal grandfather were both physicians. The Galtung name has its origins in Hordaland, where his paternal grandfather was born. Nevertheless, his mother, Helga Holmboe, was born in central Norway, in Trøndelag, while his father was born in Østfold, in the south. Galtung has been married twice, and has two children by his first wife Ingrid Eide, Harald Galtung and Andreas Galtung, and two by his second wife Fumiko Nishimura, Irene Galtung and Fredrik Galtung.
Galtung experienced World War II in German-occupied Norway, and as a 12-year-old saw his father arrested by the Nazis. By 1951, he was already a committed peace mediator, and elected to do 18 months of social service in place of his obligatory military service. After 12 months, Galtung insisted that the remainder of his social service be spent in activities relevant to peace.
Career
Upon receiving his mag. art. degree, Galtung moved to Columbia University, in New York City, where he taught for five semesters as an assistant professor in the department of sociology. In 1959, Galtung returned to Oslo, where he founded the Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO). He was the institute's director until 1969.
In 1964, Galtung led PRIO to establish the first academic journal devoted to Peace Studies: the Journal of Peace Research. In the same year, he assisted in the founding of the International Peace Research Association. In 1969, he left PRIO for a position as professor of peace and conflict research at the University of Oslo, a position he held until 1978.
He was the director general of the International University Centre in Dubrovnik and helped to found and lead the World Future Studies Federation. He has held visiting positions at other universities, including Santiago, Chile, the United Nations University in Geneva, and at Columbia, Princeton and the University of Hawaii. In 2014, he was appointed as the first Tun Mahathir Professor of Global Peace at the International Islamic University Malaysia.
Economist and fellow peace researcher Kenneth Boulding has said of Galtung that his "output is so large and so varied that it is hard to believe that it comes from a human". He is a member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.
In 1993, he co-founded TRANSCEND: A Peace Development Environment Network. In 1987, he was given the Right Livelihood Award.
Work and views
Conflict Triangle
In Galtung's 1969 paper, "Violence, Peace and Peace Research," he presents his theory of the Conflict Triangle, a framework used in the study of peace and conflict, with the purpose of defining the three key elements of violence that form this "triangle." The theory is based on the principle that peace must be defined by widely accepted social goals, and that any state of peace is characterized by the absence of violence. When a conflict has features of all three areas of violence, the result is a more consolidated, static state of violence in a social system, which may include a conflict or a nation-state, whereas the absence of these three typologies of violence results in peace.
Structural Violence
Structural Violence, also referred to as social injustice, is defined as injustice and inequality built into the structure of society, resulting in unequal power and, subsequently, imbalanced life chances. There is no requirement for a clear actor to be defined as committing the violence, rather it is embedded within the institutions of the society, where the power to decide the distribution of resources is uneven. Rather than conveying a physical image, structural violence is an avoidable impairment of fundamental human needs. Structural violence is increased in situations where low income individuals also suffer in the rank dimensions of education, health, and power. This is due to an overall consolidation of factors in the social structure, resulting in a high correlation between social class and disempowerment. Structural violence can be recognized through its relative stability, having been built into the social structure. This can make structural violence difficult to ascertain, despite its often vast consequences. This concept has been applied in a large number of cases, some of the most notable are listed below.
Akhil Gupta argued in 2012 that structural violence has been the key influence in the nature and distribution of extreme suffering in India, driven by the Indian state in its alleged corruption, overly bureaucratic standards of governance used to exclude the middle and working classes from the political system through a system of politicized poverty.
Jacklyn Cock's 1989 paper in the Review of African Political Economy applied Galtung's theory of structural violence, analysing the role of militarized society under the apartheid regime of South Africa in the development of patriarchal values that is a form of structural violence against women. Cock found that tacit misdirection of women in society by its leadership focused their energies toward the direct and indirect incorporation of the patriarchal regime in order to maintain the status quo.
Mats Utas claimed that even those youth in Liberia indirectly unaffected by direct violence in the civil war of 1989-1996 suffered from structural violence in the form of association with different blocs, leading to poverty, joblessness and marginalisation effects.
Cultural Violence
Cultural violence is defined as any aspect of a culture that can be used to legitimise violence in its direct or structural form. Unlike direct and structural violence, then, cultural violence is a foundational principle for extended conflict. The existence of prevailing or prominent social norms make direct and structural violence seem natural or at least acceptable, and serves to explain how prominent beliefs can become so embedded in a given culture that they function as absolute and inevitable and are reproduced uncritically across generations. Galtung expanded on the concept of cultural violence in a 1990 paper also published in the Journal of Peace Research. This concept has been applied in a limited number of cases, with most occurring after Galtung's follow up paper in 1990, some of the most notable of which are listed below.
In Ed Husain's 2007 book The Islamist, seminal extremist literature such as Sayyid Qutb's Milestones is highlighted as being particularly influential on many young Muslims in terms of defining their identity and life goals, in which the book embodies the principles outlined whereby there is a cultural imperative for violence built into the societal values or cultural values of Islam through such extremist literature.
Gregory Phillips argues in his 2003 book, Addictions and Healing in Aboriginal Country, that resistance to the Western medical sphere driven by previous atrocities committed against the Aboriginal community has led to a fierce resistance effort against modern medicine, addiction treatment and perhaps fuels a desire to seek out drugs and illicit substances as a starting point of addiction. Wide scale suspicion against medical practitioners and government representatives has become engendered in the Aboriginal community.
In Enduring Violence: Ladina Women's Lives in Guatemala, the 2011 book by Cecilia Menjívar, it is argued that the preexisting cultural conditions of mediania, or half and half, agriculture led to women facing large scale cultural violence due to high rents, low returns and high required investment with additionally harsh conditions due to the conflict in Guatemala. Given the patriarchal culture of Guatemala, any earnings would go to the partner of the working woman, leaving a large poverty gap enshrined in the demographic diversity of the country.
Direct Violence
Direct Violence is characterised as having an actor that commits the violence, and is thus able to be traced back to persons as actors. Direct violence shows less stability, given it is subject to the preference sets of individuals, and thus is more easily recognised. Direct violence is the most visible, occurring physically or verbally, and the victim and the offender can be clearly identified. Direct violence is highly interdependent with structural and cultural violence: cultural and structural violence causes direct violence which on the other hand reinforces the former ones. This concept has been applied in a large number of cases, some of which are listed below.
A 2011 paper by the International Center for Research on Women (ICRW) demonstrated the widespread nature of child marriage in South Asia. The ICRW highlighted marriage before the age of 18 as a fundamental human rights violation, one that leads to early childbearing, with significantly higher maternal mortality and morbidity rates as well as higher infant mortality rates amongst women. The paper most directly presented evidence to show that child brides are at heightened risk of violence in the home.
In Matthew Chandler's 2009 paper on so-called "non-violent" techniques utilised by Hezbollah still include forms of Direct Violence, most notably the threat of violence toward Fouad Siniora's allies after his 2008 order to dismantle the Hezbollah telecommunications network in 2008, which led to the freezing of the order. Further, Hezbollah are argued to have used their operation of social services, in lieu of government operations, as a ransom for support as well as rewarding their fighters with guaranteed healthcare and support for their families. Chandler argues this is due to opposition within the group to harming Lebanese civilians, who they view as "their own", or exacerbating conflict through civil war.
In 2005, Steven Wright made the case for Peacekeeping efforts to be regarded as violence due to increasing use of techniques such as pre-interrogation treatment, and the use of non-lethal weapons such as tear gas for crowd dispersal and plastic bullets, which he terms "torture-lite", being increasingly common in peacekeeping manuals across a number of nation-states and supranational organisations.
Reinforcing Factors
Galtung focuses a section of the paper on the means of direct and structural violence, in particular, developing groups of factors that may be included as types of such forms and methods of maintaining and reinforcing the mechanisms of such violence. In terms of reinforcing factors, Galtung identifies six key areas:
Linear Ranking Order
Systems in which there is an open and complete ranking of actors leaves no doubt as to the actor who is ranked more highly, and is thus a mechanism of structural violence due to the reinforcement of an existing power dynamic.
Acyclical Interaction Pattern
Systems in which all actors are connected via a one-way ‘correct’ path of interaction, where outcomes are structurally dependent on using this system in the intended way of its design. This makes structural systems stable, as change can only be achieved through this consolidated power-seeking and power-retaining system.
Rank-Centrality Correlation
Within the social system, actors that are higher ranked are more central within the system itself, reinforcing their importance to the status quo as well as their incentives to maintain it.
(4) System Congruence
Social systems are made up of similar components, allowing those who are ranked highly and are successful at mobilising one system shifting from a comparative advantage within one system to an absolute advantage over all systems of desired operation.
Rank Concordance
Actors that are ranked highly within one metric, such as income, are also ranked highly on other metrics such as education and health. This congruence is also present in actors ranked low within these metrics, and serves to limit mobility within the social system.
Interlevel High Rank Coupling
Collaboration amongst the highest ranks results in the system being defined in such a way that benefits the most powerful actors, usually through a sub optimally ranked representative (not the highest ranked actor), which limits allegations of system consolidation by the most powerful.
Beyond Galtung's initial paper and thesis, scholars have applied the Conflict Triangle to a broad array of conflicts, struggles and occupations since 1969, and retroactively.
Criticism of the model
Galtung's Conflict Triangle and Peace Research paper are widely cited as the foundational pieces of theory within peace and conflict studies. However, they are not without criticism. Galtung uses very broad definitions of violence, conflict and peace, and applies the terms of mean both direct and indirect, negative and positive, and violence in which one cannot distinguish actors or victims, which serves to limit the direct application of the model itself.
Galtung uses a positivist approach, in that he assumes that every rational tenet of the theory can be verified, serving to reject social processes beyond relationships and actions. This approach enforces a paradigm of clear-cut, currently testable propositions as the ‘whole’ of the system, and thus is often deemed reductionist. Galtung also wields an explicit normative orientation in the paper, in which there is a weighting toward evaluative statements that may show bias or simply opinion, or indeed a trend toward the institutions and concepts of peace in the West, which may serve to limit the applicability of the model more widely.
Peacebuilding
Galtung first conceptualized peacebuilding by calling for systems that would create sustainable peace. The peacebuilding structures needed to address the root causes of conflict and support local capacity for peace management and conflict resolution. Galtung has held several significant positions in international research councils and has been an advisor to several international organisations. Since 2004, he has been a member of the Advisory Council of the Committee for a Democratic UN.
Galtung is strongly associated with the following concepts:
Structural violence – widely defined as the systematic ways in which a regime prevents individuals from achieving their full potential. Institutionalized racism and sexism are examples of this.
Negative vs. positive peace – popularized the concept that peace may be more than just the absence of overt violent conflict (negative peace), and will likely include a range of relationships up to a state where nations (or any groupings in conflict) might have collaborative and supportive relationships (positive peace). Though he did not cite them, these terms were, in fact, previously defined and discussed in a series of lectures starting in 1899 by Jane Addams (in her 1907 book she switched to calling it 'newer ideals of peace' but continued to contrast them to the term negative peace), and in 1963 in the letter from a Birmingham jail by Martin Luther King Jr.
Criticism of the United States
In 1973, Galtung criticised the "structural fascism" of the US and other Western countries that make war to secure materials and markets, stating: "Such an economic system is called capitalism, and when it's spread in this way to other countries it's called imperialism", and praised Fidel Castro's Cuba in 1972 for "break[ing] free of imperialism's iron grip". Galtung has stated that the US is a "killer country" guilty of "neo-fascist state terrorism" and compared the US to Nazi Germany for bombing Kosovo during the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia.
In an article published in 2004, Galtung predicted that the US empire will "decline and fall" by 2020. He expanded on this hypothesis in his 2009 book titled The Fall of the US Empire - and Then What? Successors, Regionalization or Globalization? US Fascism or US Blossoming?.
Views on Communist regimes
During his career, Galtung statements and views have drawn criticism including his criticism of Western countries during and after the Cold War and what his critics perceived as a positive attitude to the Soviet Union, Cuba and Communist China. A 2007 article by Bruce Bawer published by the City Journal magazine and a subsequent article in February 2009 by Barbara Kay in the National Post criticised Galtung's opinion of China during the rule of Mao Zedong. China, according to Galtung, was "repressive in a certain liberal sense", but he insisted "the whole theory about what an 'open society' is must be rewritten, probably also the theory of 'democracy'—and it will take a long time before the West will be willing to view China as a master teacher in such subjects." Calling Galtung a "lifelong enemy of freedom", Bawer said Galtung discouraged Hungarian resistance against the Soviet invasion in 1956, and criticized his description in 1974 of Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and Andrei Sakharov as "persecuted elite personages".
Views on Jews and Israel
Galtung has recommended that people should read The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, a fabricated antisemitic text purporting to describe a Jewish plan for global domination. In defending his claims that Jews control American media companies, Galtung cited an article published by National Vanguard, a neo-Nazi organization. Galtung's rhetoric has been criticized by Terje Emberland, a historian at the Center for Studies of the Holocaust and Religious Minorities in Oslo, and Øystein Sørensen, a University of Oslo historian known for his scholarship on conspiracy theories. Asked by NRK about his controversial remarks, Galtung reiterated his recommendation that people should read The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. Galtung rejects that he is anti-Semitic.
The Israeli newspaper Haaretz accused Galtung in May 2012 of antisemitism for (1) suggesting the possibility of a link between the 2011 Norway attacks and Israel's intelligence agency Mossad; (2) maintaining that "six Jewish companies" control 96% of world media; (3) identifying what he contends are ironic similarities between the banking firm Goldman Sachs and the conspiratorial antisemitic forgery The Protocols of the Elders of Zion; and (4) theorizing, although not justified, antisemitism in post–World War I Germany was a predictable consequence of German Jews holding influential positions. As a result of such statements, TRANSCEND International, an organisation co-founded by Galtung, released a statement in May 2012 attempting to clarify his opinions. On August 8, 2012, the World Peace Academy in Basel, Switzerland announced it was suspending Galtung from its organization, citing what it posited were his "reckless and offensive statements to questions that are specifically sensitive for Jews."
Galtung said the claims were "smearing and libel",
Selected awards and recognitions
Dr honoris causa, University of Tampere, 1975, peace studies
Dr honoris causa, University of Cluj, 1976, future studies
Dr honoris causa, Uppsala University, 1987, Faculty of Social Sciences
Dr honoris causa, Soka University, Tokyo, 1990, peace/buddhism
Dr honoris causa, University of Osnabrück, 1995, peace studies
Dr honoris causa, University of Torino, 1998, sociology of law
Dr honoris causa, FernUniversität Hagen, 2000, philosophy
Dr honoris causa, University of Alicante, 2002, sociology
Dr honoris causa, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, 2006, law
Dr honoris causa, Complutense University, Madrid, 2017, politics and sociology
Honorary professor, University of Alicante, Alicante, 1981
Honorary professor, Free University of Berlin, 1984–1993
Honorary professor, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 1986
Honorary professor, Witten/Herdecke University, Witten, 1993
Distinguished professor of peace studies, University of Hawaii, 1993-
John Perkins University Distinguished Visiting Professor, 2005-
Right Livelihood Award, 1987
First recipient of the Humanist Prize of the Norwegian Humanist Association, 1988
Jamnalal Bajaj International Award for Promoting Gandhian Values, 1993
Brage Prize, 2000
First Morton Deutsch Conflict Resolution Award, 2001
Honorary Prize of the Norwegian Sociological Association, 2001
Premio Hidalgo, Madrid, 2005
Augsburg Golden Book of Peace, 2006
Member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters
Honorary member of the Green Party, 2009
Erik Bye Memorial Prize, 2011
Selected works
Galtung has published more than a thousand articles and over a hundred books.
Statistisk hypotesepröving (Statistical hypothesis testing, 1953)
Gandhis politiske etikk (Gandhi's political ethics, 1955, with philosopher Arne Næss)
Theory and Methods of Social Research (1967)
Violence, Peace and Peace Research (1969)
Members of Two Worlds (1971)
Fred, vold og imperialisme (Peace, violence and imperialism, 1974)
Peace: Research – Education – Action (1975)
Learning from China? (1977, with Fumiko Nishimura)
Europe in the Making (1989)
Global Glasnost: Toward a New World Information and Communication Order? (1992, with Richard C. Vincent)
Global Projections of Deep-Rooted U.S Pathologies (1996)
Peace By Peaceful Means: Peace and Conflict, Development and Civilization (1996)
Johan uten land. På fredsveien gjennom verden (Johan without land. On the Peace Path Through the World, 2000, autobiography for which he won the Brage Prize)
50 Years: 100 Peace and Conflict Perspectives (2008)
Democracy – Peace – Development (2008, with Paul D. Scott)
50 Years: 25 Intellectual Landscapes Explored (2008)
Globalizing God: Religion, Spirituality and Peace (2008, with Graeme MacQueen)
See also
Cost of conflict, a tool which attempts to calculate the price of conflict to the human race
Democratic peace theory, a theory which posits that democracies are hesitant to engage in armed conflict with other identified democracies
Critical race theory, a critical examination of society and culture, to the intersection of race, law, and power
References
Sources
Boulding, Elise. 1982. "Review: Social Science—For What?: Festschrift for Johan Galtung." Contemporary Sociology. 11(3):323-324. JSTOR Stable URL
Boulding, Kenneth E. 1977. "Twelve Friendly Quarrels with Johan Galtung." Journal of Peace Research. 14(1):75-86. JSTOR Stable URL
External links
TRANSCEND: A Peace Development Environment Network
Galtung-Institute for Peace Theory and Peace Practice
Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO)
Biography on Right Livelihood Award
Lecture transcript and video of Galtung's speech at the Joan B. Kroc Institute for Peace & Justice at the University of San Diego, December 2010
Audio recordings with Johan Galtung in the Online Archive of the Österreichische Mediathek (Interviews and lectures in German). Retrieved 18 September 2019
1930 births
Living people
Peace and conflict scholars
Norwegian male writers
Norwegian sociologists
Norwegian mathematicians
Nonviolence advocates
Writers from Oslo
European pacifists
Norwegian political scientists
Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters
Norwegian expatriates in the United States
Norwegian expatriates in France
Norwegian expatriates in Japan
Norwegian expatriates in Malaysia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20political%20parties%20in%20Japan
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List of political parties in Japan
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In Japan, any organization that supports a candidate needs to register itself as a political party. Each of these parties have some local or national influence. This article lists political parties in Japan with representation in the National Diet, either in the House of Representatives (Japan's lower house) or in the House of Councillors (Japan's upper house). The article also mentions political parties within the nation that either used to be within representation, or parties that currently are.
Current parties
Main parties
Legal status as a political party (seitō) is tied to having five members in the Diet or at least two percent nationally of either proportional or local vote in the last Representatives or one of the last two Councillors elections. Political parties receive public party funding (¥ 250 per citizen, about ¥ 32 bill. in total per fiscal year, distributed according to recent national elections results – last HR general and last two HC regular elections – and Diet strength on January 1), are allowed to concurrently nominate candidates for the House of Representatives in an electoral district and on a proportional list, may take political donations from legal persons, i.e. corporations, and other benefits such as air time on public broadcaster NHK.
Local parties
Under Japanese law, all of the parties below are "political organizations" (seiji dantai), not "political parties" (seitō, see above).
Parties represented in prefectural assemblies
Genzei Nippon ("Tax Cuts Japan"), party founded by Nagoya mayor Takashi Kawamura in 2010, mainly active in Nagoya municipal and Aichi prefectural politics, won some seats in other areas in the 2011 local elections, had its first National Diet member in 2011, achieved party status in 2012, decided to merge into Datsu-Genpatsu in November 2012 (2010–2012). Currently active in local Nagoya politics.
New Socialist Party of Japan, a left breakaway group from the Japanese Socialist Party, created in 1996 when the latter formed the Social Democratic Party; the New Socialist Party was represented in the national Diet from 1996 to 1998.
Several member organizations of the Japan People's Political Network, a federation of local consumer movements that entered politics in the 1970s includes:
Chiba Prefecture Citizens Movement
Citizen Network of Saitama
Kanagawa Network Movement
Tokyo Seikatsusha Network
Tukuba Shimin Network
Chiiki Seitō Iwate ("Iwate regional party", 2010–) of former Social Democrats and independents
Kyoto Party (Kyōto-tō, 2010–)
Osaka Restoration Association, the dominant party in Ōsaka prefecture formed by the former governor Tōru Hashimoto who wants to dissolve Ōsaka city and Sakai city and turn them into Special wards of Ōsaka. Affiliated with the Nippon Ishin no Kai.
Tomin First no Kai
Okinawa Social Mass Party (Okinawa Shakai Taishū-tō), formerly the Okinawa Socialist Mass Party.
Green Niigata, Midori Niigata (Niigata, communist)
formerly Niigata New Party for People, Shimin Shin-tō Niigata (Niigata, communist)
Fukui Party, active in the Fukui Prefecture
Other parties represented in local councils
Greens Japan (Midori no Tō, lit. "Green Party"), created in 2012 as the successor of Greens Japan (Midori no Mirai, lit. "Green Future"), a green party formed by the merger of the conservative-green Greens Japan (Midori no Table, "Green Table") and the left-wing-green Rainbow and Greens (Niji to Midori) in 2008.
Happiness Realization Party (far-right, 2009–), previously held a seat at the House of Councillors
Citizens Network Hokkaido, a member of the Japan People's Political Network
Citizen Politics Network of Fukuoka, a member of the Japan People's Political Network
Other parties
Current political parties that used to be in the Diet but are not currently represented:
Rikken Yōseikai (far-right, 1923–1942, 1946–)
Dainiin Club Dainiin Kurabu (1983–)
New Party for Salaried Men Sararīman Shintō (centrist, 1983–)
Takeru (centrist, 2001–)
Political Group of Okinawa Revolution (Sōzō, lit. Creation), Okinawa regionalist party formed by LDP defectors in 2005, represented in the national Diet from 2005 to 2008, merged with the PNP Okinawa prefectural federation in 2012, keeping its name
Japan has other minor parties not represented in Parliament (which have never been represented before), some are new, others with communist and socialist ideologies, as well as a few nationalist, reformist, and far-right parties. Some of them include:
National Socialist Japanese Workers' Party (far-right) (1982–present)
Japan Nation Party (nationalist) (1988–present)
Ishin Seitō Shimpū (far-right) (1995–present)
Tokyo Tea Party (inspired by the U.S. Tea Party movement) (2010–present)
Ainu Party, party representing the rights of the Ainu people.
Japan First Party (far-right) (2016–present)
Pirate Party Japan, based on the Swedish Pirate Party
Greater Japan Patriotic Party (far-right) (1951-present)
Kariyushi Club Kariyushi Kurabu (Okinawa, independentist)
Conservative Party of Japan (far-right) (2023–present)
Defunct parties
Former major parties
Liberal Party (Jiyūtō): initially Constitutional Liberal Party (Rikken Jiyūtō), the strongest party in the early House of Representatives and the mainstream liberal opposition to government military spending and foreign policy (1890–1898)
Progressive Party (Shinpotō): created during a temporary alliance between Liberals and the oligarchy (1896–1898)
Constitutional Party (Kenseitō): formed by a merger of Liberal and Progressive Party (1898–1900)
True Constitutional Party (Kensei Hontō): breakaway of liberals discontented with the alliance with the government (1898–1910)
Rikken Seiyūkai: formed in 1900 by a now permanent alliance between parts of the Meiji oligarchy, the bureaucracy and members of the liberal parties it became the dominant force in party politics throughout the Empire (1900–1940)
Constitutional People's Party (Rikken Kokumintō, created in a merger of the True Constitutional Party with smaller groups, the party pushed the government for an expansion of constitutional rights (1910–1922)
Rikken Dōshikai (1913–1916), another attempt by Katsura Tarō to form a strong opposition to the Seiyūkai (1913–1916)
Constitutional Assembly (Kenseikai, the core group of the constitutional movement in the Taishō era (1916–1927)
True Seiyū Party (Seiyū Hontō): a Seiyūkai breakaway during the "three constitutional factions" (goken sampa) alliance between Seiyūkai, Kenseikai and Kakushin Club ("Reform Club") (1923–1926)
Constitutional Democratic Party (Rikken Minseitō, main opponent of the Seiyūkai in the final years of party rule and during the rise of the military (1927–1940)
Imperial Rule Assistance Association (1940–1945)
Japanese Liberal Party (JLP or LP; Nihon Jiyūtō, mainstream democratic conservative party around former Seiyūkai politicians (1945–1948)
Japanese Progressive Party (Nihon Shinpotō): conservative party around former Minseitō politicians (1945–1947)
Japanese Socialist Party (JSP; Nihon Shakaitō): divided into Left JSP and Right JSP in the early 1950s), a small minority before the war, the Socialists became the main opposition to the soon united conservatives, but continually lost ground to more centrist opposition parties over the decades (1945–1996)
Summer breeze assembly (Ryokufūkai, reestablished several times after), created as the largest parliamentary group in the first House of Councillors by conservatives and some liberals and moderate socialists including a number of former House of Peers members, it had a centrist approach and was willing to work with centre-left and centre-right cabinets (1947–1960)
Democratic Party (1947) (DP; Minshutō): created by the Progressive Party and a Liberal breakaway group, the party tried to occupy the "centre" between Liberals and Socialists, but was soon divided over cooperation with either group (1947–1950)
Democratic Liberal Party (DLP or LP; Minshujiyūtō, created from the Liberal Party when Democrats opposed to the coalition with the Socialists joined it (1948–1950)
Liberal Party (LP; Jiyūtō): created after the Democrats had finally split over cooperation with the Liberal government, but soon divided itself into followers of first JLP president Hatoyama Ichirō who returned to politics when the SCAP purge was lifted and the "Yoshida school" of his successor Yoshida Shigeru. forefather of Liberal Democratic Party (1950–1955)
Japanese Democratic Party (JDP; Nihon Minshutō): Hatoyama-led breakaway from the liberals merged with smaller groups including the opposition remnants of the Democratic Party; the "conservative merger" (hoshu gōdō) of 1955 united Liberal Party and Japanese Democratic Party in the Liberal Democratic Party that dominated postwar politics for decades. Forefather of Liberal Democratic Party. (1954–1955)
New Frontier Party (NFP; Shinshintō, lit. "New Progressive Party"), formed after an anti-LDP government had collapsed to create a unified opposition party ranging from socialists to conservatives (1994–1997)
Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ; Minshutō): the DPJ was founded in 1998 as a result of the merger of several anti-LDP opposition parties, and was the ruling party in 2009–2012. Its membership covered a broad spectrum of political beliefs, but it was generally considered a centrist party. (1998–2016)
Japan Restoration Party (JRP; Nippon Ishin no Kai): the JRP was founded by Tōru Hashimoto the Governor of Osaka Prefectire in 2012 as a result of the merger of several right-wing regional parties, and was the third biggest political block in the National Diet. (2012–2014)
Japan Innovation Party (JIP; Ishin no Tō): formed by a merger of the right-wing JRP and centre-right Unity Party, the Osaka regional group split off the JIP as Initiatives from Osaka in 2015 and the centre-right JIP later merged with the DPJ. (2014–2016)
Democratic Party (DP; Minshintō): formed by a merger of the remainder of JIP and the DPJ, the party splinter during the 2017 general election among four groups: the centre-left CDP, the centre-right Kibō no Tō, group of centre align independent block, and the a centre align block remain with the DP. After the election, the more left-leaning centre group join the CDP or remain independent, while the right-leaning centre group merged with the Kibō no Tō to established the DPP. (2016–2018)
Others
Pre- and early constitutional era
Freedom and People's Rights Movement and liberal parties in the early House of Representatives
Public Party of Patriots (Aikoku Kōtō, 1874, briefly reestablished in 1890 and merged into the (Rikken) Jiyūtō)
Self-help Society (Risshisha, 1874–1883)
Patriot Society (Aikokusha, 1875–1880)
Liberal Party (Jiyūtō, 1881–1884)
Constitutional Progressive Party (Rikken Kaishintō, 1882–1896), merged with other groups to form the Progressive Party (Shinpotō)
Daidō Club (1889–1890)
Liberal Party (Jiyūtō, 1890), merged with other groups to form the Rikken Jiyūtō
Oriental Liberal Party (Tōyō Jiyūtō, 1892–1893), asianist, radical liberal
Opponents and "moderate faction" (onwa-ha, meaning pro-government; also ritō, "official parties") in the early House of Representatives
Constitutional Imperial Rule Party (Rikken Teiseitō, 1882–1883)
Great Achievement Association (Taiseikai, 1890–1891)
People's Liberal Party (Kokumin Jiyūtō, 1890–1891)
Central Negotiations Assembly (Chūō Kōshōkai, 1892–1893)
People's Association (Kokumin Kyōkai, 1892–1899)
Great Japanese Association (Dainihon Kyōkai, 1893)
Independent Club (Dokuritsu Club)
Same-minded Club (Dōshi Club)
Empire of Japan until 1940
Imperial Party (Teikokutō, 1899–1905)
Daidō Club (1905–1910)
Yūkōkai (1906–1908)
Centre Club (Chūō Club, 1910–1913)
Impartial Association, also Upright Party (Chūseikai, 1913–1916)
Reform Club (Kakushin Club, 1922–1925)
Impartial Club (Chūsei Club, 1924–1925)
Shinsei Club (1925–1928)
Reform Party (Kakushintō, 1927–1932)
Kokumin Dōshikai (1929–1932)
People's Union (Kokumin Dōmei, 1932–1940)
Shōwakai (1935–1937)
Tōhōkai (1936–1944)
Socialist and labour movement
Social Democratic Party (Shakaiminshutō, 1901)
Japan Socialist Party (1906) (Nihon Shakaitō, 1906–1907)
Japanese Commoners Party (Nihon Heimintō, 1906–)
Farmers and Workers Party (Nōminrōdōtō, 1925)
Workers and Farmers Party (Rōdōnōmintō, 1926–1928)
Japanese Workers and Farmers Party (Nihon Rōnōtō, 1926–1928)
Japan Farmers Party (Nihon Nōmintō, 1926–1928)
Social People Party (Shakai Minshūtō, 1926–1932)
Workers and Farmers Party (Rōdōshanōmintō, 1928–)
Japanese Masses Party (Nihon Taishūtō, 1928–1930)
Workers and Farmers Party (Rōnōtō, 1929–1931)
National Masses Party (Zenkoku Taishūtō, 1930–1931)
National Workers and Farmers Mass Party (Zenkoku Rōnōtaishūtō, 1931–1932)
Socialist Masses Party (Shakai Taishūtō, 1932–1940)
In 1940, all remaining political parties with the exception of the Tōhōkai became part of the Imperial Rule Assistance Association or were banned.
Postwar Japan
Note: Postwar parties often give themselves "English" names which sometimes differ significantly from translations of their Japanese names.
LDP precursor and breakaway parties
Japanese Cooperative Party (Nihon Kyōdōtō, centrist party promoting cooperativism by prewar Minseitō politician Sanehiko Yamamoto (1945–1946),
Cooperative Democratic Party (Kyōdō Minshutō, created by a merger of the Japanese Cooperative Party with smaller groups (1946–1947),
National Party (Kokumintō, centrist party formed by independents and mini-parties (1946–1947),
National Cooperative Party (Kokumin Kyōdōtō, 1947–1950), merger of Cooperative Democratic Party and People's Party (1947–1950),
Japan Farmers' Party (Nihon Nōmintō, farmers' party mostly represented in Hokkaidō
New Farmers' Party (Nōminshintō, (1947–1949)
Farmers' Cooperative Party (Nōmin Kyōdōtō, in 1952 some members joined the Progressive Party, others joined the Cooperative Party, a breakaway of right-wing socialists from the JSP (1949–1952)
People's Democratic Party (Kokumin Minshutō, created after the Democratic Party split by a merger of the Democratic opposition wing with the People's Cooperative Party of Takeo Miki (1950–1952)
New Political Club (Shinsei Club, group around prewar Minseitō politicians returning to politics after the SCAP purge had been lifted, joined the Progressive Party (1951–1952)
Japanese Reconstruction League (Nihon Saiken Renmei, group around prewar Minseitō politicians returning to politics after the SCAP purge had been lifted, joined the Liberal Party (1952–1953)
Progressive Party (Kaishintō, merger of People's Democratic Party with parts of the Farmers' Cooperative Party and the Shinsei Club, became part of Hatoyama's Japanese Democratic Party in 1954 (1952–1954)
Japanese Liberal Party (Nihon Jiyūtō, 1953), generally referred to as Secessionist Liberal Party (buntōha jiyūtō) or Hatoyama Liberal Party, the first breakaway of Ichirō Hatoyama and his followers from the Liberal Party, a majority including Hatoyama returned to the Liberal Party later that year (1953–1953)
Japanese Liberal Party (1953) (Nihon Jiyūtō, small group from Hatoyama's Liberal Party that didn't want to return to Yoshida's Liberal Party, joined Hatoyama's Japanese Democratic Party in 1954 (1953–1954)
New Liberal Club (Shin Jiyū Club, 1976–1986), breakaway of LDP Diet members predominantly from urban constituencies, in a joint parliamentary group with the Social Democratic Federation in the early 1980s, then part of a coalition government with the LDP under Yasuhiro Nakasone, most returned to the LDP in 1986 (1976–1986)
Tax Party (Zeikintō, 1983–1990), party of former New Liberal Club member Chinpei Nozue (1983–1990)
Progressive Party (Shinpotō, party of New Liberal Club member Seiichi Tagawa who didn't return to the LDP, dissolved after Tagawa's retirement from politics (1987–1993)
New Party Harbinger (Shintō Sakigake, centrist, reformist-ecologist, LDP breakaway in the 1993 no-confidence vote against the Miyazawa Cabinet (1993–1998)
New Future Party (Shintō Mirai, 1994), breakaway of five Mitsuzuka faction Representatives, joined the New Frontier Party (1993–1994)
Japan Renewal Party (Shinseitō, lit. "Renewal Party", liberal, breakaway of the Hata-Ozawa faction from the LDP in the 1993 no-confidence vote against the Miyazawa Cabinet, joined the New Frontier Party (1993–1994)
Kōshikai (1994), breakaway of LDP Diet members opposed to the Grand Coalition with the JSP, joined the New Frontier Party (1994–1994)
Sakigake Party (Sakigake, lit. "Harbinger", New Party Harbinger successor after some Diet members had joined the Democratic Party (1998–2002)
Japan Greens (Midori no Kaigi, lit. "Green Conference", Sakigake successor of Councillor (until 2004) Atsuo Nakamura (2002–2004)
Japan Greens (Midori no Table, lit. "Green Table", "Green Conference" successor, merged with left-wing ecologist Rainbow and Greens to form "Japan Greens" (Midori no Mirai) (2004–2008)
People's New Party (PNP; Kokumin Shintō,2005–2013 ) (2005–2013)
Sunrise Party (Taiyō no Tō, "Party of the Sun"), formed in November 2012 by Takeo Hiranuma's Sunrise Party of Japan (Tachiagare Nippon, "Rise up, Japan") and Shintarō Ishihara who resigned as governor of Tokyo to return to national politics, merged into Japan Restoration Party in November 2012 (2010–2012)
JSP breakaway parties
Socialist Reform Party (Shakai Kakushintō, renamed (1948–1951)
Workers and Farmers Party (Rōdōshanōmintō, rejoined the JSP (1948–1957)
Social Democratic Party (Shakaiminshutō, 1951–1952), renamed
Cooperative Party (Kyōdōtō, 1952), (re-)joined the right-wing Socialists (1952–1952)
Democratic Socialist Party (Japan) (Minshu-shakaitō, abbreviated and later officially Minshatō, social-democratic, broke off from the JSP over the US-Japanese security treaty of 1960, joined the NFP (1960–1994)
Socialist Citizens' Federation (Shakai Shimin Rengō, right-wing JSP breakaway around Saburō Eda (1977–1978)
Socialist Club (Shakai Club, right-wing JSP breakaway around Hideo Den (1977–1978)
Social Democratic Federation (Shakaiminshu Rengō, merger of Socialist Citizens' Federation and Socialist Club, led by Hideo Den, then by Eda's son Satsuki, in a joint parliamentary group with the New Liberal Club in the early 1980s, dissolved in 1994, most members joined Japan New Party (1978–1994)
New Party 'Liberals for Protecting the Constitution' (Shintō Goken Liberal, party around Hideo Den, opposed to the NFP and supporting the JSP-LDP Murayama Cabinet, split into Heiwa Shimin (Peace – Citizens) and Kenpō Midori-nō no Rentai (Constitution, Green Agriculture Collective), Den joined the Sangiin Forum (1994–1995)
Citizens' League (Shimin Rengō, JSP breakaway opposed to the "Grand" Coalition with the LDP around Sadao Yamahana and Banri Kaieda, joined the Democratic Party (1995–1996)
Other NFP and DPJ precursor and breakaway parties
Rengō no Kai formed as political arm of the newly formed RENGO trade union federation (a merger of JSP-aligned Sōhyō and DSP-aligned Dōmei), helped win an opposition majority in the House of Councillors in 1989, renamed (1989–1993)
Japan New Party (Nihon Shintō, liberal, (1992–1994)
Democratic Reform Party (Minshu Kaikaku Rengō, lit. "Democratic Reform League", joined the "new" Democratic Party (1993–1998)
New Kōmei Party (Kōmei Shintō, "New Justice Party", 1994), one of two groups resulting from the dissolution of Kōmeitō (1994–1994)
Sun Party (Taiyōtō, liberal reformist, NFP breakaway around Tsutomu Hata, joined Minseitō (1996–1998)
Democratic Party of Japan (1996–1998) (Minshutō, "Democratic Party", liberal, 1996–1998), formed by Naoto Kan Yukio Hatoyama and of New Party Harbinger, then part of the Grand Coalition with LDP and SDP, together with SDP and NFP politicians; after the dissolution of the NFP most successor parties joined the DPJ parliamentary group and merged a few months later to form the "new" Democratic Party (1996–1998)
From Five, NFP breakaway around Morihiro Hosokawa, joined Minseitō (1997–1998)
New Fraternity Party (Shintō Yūai, liberal reformist, 1998), NFP successor around Kansei Nakano (1998–1998)
Liberal Party (Japan, 1998) (Jiyūtō, liberal, 1998–2003), party of Ichirō Ozawa followers after the New Frontier Party had dissolved, joined the LDP in a coalition government from 1999 to 2000 (1998–2003)
Good Governance Party (Minseitō, "Democratic Party", liberal, 1998), merger of three member parties of the DPJ parliamentary group (1998–1998)
Voice of the People (Kokumin no Koe, 1998), NFP successor around Michihiko Kano, joined Minseitō (1998–1998)
(Kaikaku Club, NFP successor around Tatsuo Ozawa (1998–2002)
New Peace Party (Shintō Heiwa, 1998), NFP successor of former Kōmeitō Representatives, reestablished Kōmeitō (1998–1998)
Dawn Club (Reimei Club, 1998), NFP successor of former Kōmeitō Councillors, merged with Kōmei and reestablished Kōmeitō (1998–1998)
Conservative Party (Japan) (Hoshutō, liberal, 2000–2002), a breakaway group from the Liberal Party wanting to continue the coalition with the LDP and Kōmeitō (2000–2002)
New Conservative Party (Hoshushintō, liberal, 2002–2003), merger of parts of the Conservative Party (others returned to the LDP) with a breakaway group from the Democratic Party, joined the LDP (2002–2003)
Japan Renaissance Party (Kaikaku Club, lit. "Reform Club", conservative, formed during the "twisted Diet" (nejire kokkai, opposition majority in the House of Councillors) by Democratic and independent Councillors ready to cooperate with the LDP-Kōmeitō government, formed New Renaissance Party
New Renaissance Party (Kaikaku Shintō, lit. "New Reform Party"; 2010–2016)
Kizuna Party (Shintō Kizuna, "New Kizuna Party"), founded in December 2011 by former Ozawa Democrats, opposed to VAT hike, opposed to joining TPP, merged into People's Life First in 2012 (2011–2012)
People's Life First (Kokumin no Seikatsu ga Daiichi, LF), founded by Ichirō Ozawa and other DPJ Diet members opposing a planned sales tax increase in Summer 2012, merged into TPJ in November 2012 (2012–2012)
Others
Japanese Women's Party (Nihon Joseitō, 1977), short-lived party of feminist leader Misako Enoki (1977–1977)
Welfare Party (Fukushitō, 1983–?), party of Representative Eita Yashiro who joined the LDP in 1984, the party never won a seat in the Diet again and eventually dissolved
Sports and Peace Party (Supōtsu Heiwa Tō, centrist, (1989–2004)
Truth Party (Shinritō, 1989–?), party of Ōmu Shinrikyō founder Shōkō Asahara, its 25 candidates in the 1990 House of Representatives election altogether but a few thousand votes
Nakayoshi no Tō, a women's party that regularly contested House of Councillors proportional elections (1993–2016)
Kōmei ("Justice", one of two groups resulting from the dissolution of Kōmeitō, merged with Reimei Club and reestablished Kōmeitō (1994–1998)
Liberal League (Jiyū Rengō, libertarian, (1994–2005)
House of Councillors Forum (Sangiin Forum, group formed by ex-SDF Councillor Hideo Den and independents (Motoo Shiina and others) (1995–1996)
Rainbow and Greens (Niji to Midori, green, (1998–2008)
formerly House of Councillors Club (Sangiin Club, centrist, parliamentary group of Motoo Shiina, Masami Tanabu and others (1998–1999)
Independents (Mushozoku no Kai, lit. "assembly of independents", centrist, (1999–2004)
The Spirit of Japan Party (Nippon Sōshintō, lit. "Japan Innovation Party"), formed by prefectural and municipal politicians in 2010, dissolved to join Japan Restoration Party in 2012 (2010–2012)
Tax Cuts Japan (Genzei Nippon – Han TTP – Datsu-Genpatsu o Jitsugen suru Tō, "Tax Cuts Japan, Anti-TPP, Nuclear Phaseout Realization Party"; Datsu-Genpatsu), founded in a merger of Genzei Nippon ("Tax Cuts Japan") and Han-TPP in November 2012, merged into TPJ in November 2012 (2012–2012)
"Anti-TPP, Nuclear Phaseout, Consumption Tax Hike Freeze Realization Party" (Han-TPP — Datsu-Genpatsu — Shōhizei Zōzei Tōketsu wo Jitsugen Suru Tō; Han-TPP), founded by Masahiko Yamada and Shizuka Kamei in November 2012 following their respective departures from the DPJ and the PNP, merged with Genzei Nippon in November 2012. (2012–2012)
Tomorrow Party of Japan Nippon Mirai no Tō, short-lived anti-nuclear party formed by a merger between Ichirō Ozawa's People's Life First and the Datsu-Genpatsu ("nuclear phaseout") party, itself a merger of Masahiko Yamada's Han-TPP ("anti-TPP") and Takashi Kawamura's Genzei Nippon ("Tax cuts Japan"), and the Representatives who had joined Green Wind. Lost all of its seats and dissolved into Green Wind in 2013. (2012–2013)
Green Wind - Another short-lived anti-nuclear party. Dissolved in 2013. (2012–2013)
Party for Japanese Kokoro (Nippon no Kokoro) - Originally established as the 'Party for Future Generations' in 2014, led by Shintaro Ishihara. Split from the Japan Restoration Party, its last member was transferred to the LDP in 2018 and the party was dissolved. (2014–2018)
Internet Breakthrough Party of Japan (led by Iron Chef Commentator and Judge and former LDP member Shinichirō Kurimoto)
Kibō no Tō, Party of Hope, national version of the localist party Tomin First no Kai. At the beginning it attached many electors from the left-leaning Democratic Party, but in 2018 most of those members left for Democratic Party for the People. As remaining party members continue to leave the party, the party disbanded in year 2021 as its last representative announced retirement. (2017-2021)
Political parties in U.S. Okinawa
Okinawa People's Party (Okinawa Jinmintō, communist, 1947–1973), joined the Japanese Communist Party after the return to the mainland
Okinawa Social Mass Party (Okinawa Shakai Taishūtō, pro-reversion, socialist, 1950–), after the return to the mainland, a merger with the Japanese Socialist Party was planned, and its only Representative joined the DSP, but the party continues to exist as a regional party
Ryukyu Democratic Party (Ryūkyū Minshutō, conservative, 1952–1959)
Okinawa Liberal Democratic Party (1959) (Okinawa Jiyūminshutō, 1959–?), split over the "Caraway whirlwind" of High Commissioner Lt. Gen. Paul W. Caraway
Democratic Party (Minshutō, 1964–1967), renamed
Okinawa Liberal Democratic Party (1967) (Okinawa Jiyūminshutō, 1967–1970), became the prefectural federation of the mainland Liberal Democratic Party
See also
Politics of Japan
Liberalism in Japan
List of political parties by country
Political party
Uyoku dantai
References
Hrebenar, Ronald J. et al. Japan's New Party System. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2000.
Hunter, Janet. Concise Dictionary of Modern Japanese History. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984.
Political parties
Japan
Japan
Political parties
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changeling
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Changeling
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A changeling, also historically referred to as an auf or oaf, is a human-like creature found in folklore throughout Europe. A changeling was believed to be a fairy that had been left in place of a human (typically a child) stolen by other fairies.
Description
A changeling is typically identifiable via several traits, which vary from culture to culture.
In Irish legend, a fairy child may appear sickly and will not grow in size like a normal child, and may have notable physical characteristics such as a beard or long teeth. They may also display intelligence far beyond their apparent years and possess uncanny insight. A common way that a changeling could identify itself is through displaying unusual behaviour when it thinks it is alone, such as jumping about, dancing or playing an instrument – though this last example is found only within Irish and Scottish legend.
"A human child might be taken due to many factors: to act as a servant, the love of a human child, or malice. Most often, it was thought that fairies exchanged the children. In rare cases, the very elderly of the fairy people would be exchanged in the place of a human baby so that the old fairy could live in comfort, coddled by its human parents. Simple charms such as an inverted coat or open iron scissors left where the child sleeps were thought to ward them off; other measures included a constant watch over the child."
Folklorist D. L. Ashliman proposes in his essay 'Changelings' that changeling tales illustrate an aspect of family survival in pre-industrial Europe. A peasant family's subsistence frequently depended upon the productive labour of each member, and it was difficult to provide for a person who was a permanent drain on the family's scarce resources. "The fact that the changelings' ravenous appetite is so frequently mentioned indicates that the parents of these unfortunate children saw in their continuing existence a threat to the sustenance of the entire family. Changeling tales support other historical evidence in suggesting that infanticide was frequently the solution selected."
Fairies would also take adult humans, especially the newly married and new mothers; young adults were taken to marry fairies instead, while new mothers were often taken to nurse fairy babies. Often when an adult was taken instead of a child, an object such as a log was left in place of the stolen human, enchanted to look like the person. This object in place of the human would seem to sicken and die, to be buried by the human family, while the living human was among the fairies. Bridget Cleary is one of the most well-known cases of an adult thought to be a changeling by her family; her husband killed her, attempting to force the fairies to return his 'real' wife.
Function
In medieval Scandinavia, it was believed that trolls considered it more respectable to be raised by humans than by their kind and would consequently seize the opportunity to give their children a human upbringing. Some believed that trolls would only take unbaptised children, since once a child had been baptized – and therefore received into the Catholic faith – the trolls were powerless to abduct it.
Beauty in human children and young women, particularly traits that evoke brightness or reflectivity, such as blonde hair and blue or silver eyes, are said to attract fairies, as they perhaps find preciousness in these traits.
In Scottish folklore, the children might be replacements for fairy children in the tithe to Hell; this is best known from the ballad of Tam Lin.
According to common Scottish myths, a child born with a caul (part of the amniotic membrane) across their face is a changeling and will soon die (is "of fey birth").
Other folklore says that human milk is necessary for fairy children to survive. In these cases, either the newborn human child would be switched with a fairy baby to be suckled by the human mother, or the human mother would be taken back to the fairy world to breastfeed the fairy babies. Human midwives were also thought to be necessary to bring fairy babies into the world.
Some stories tell of changelings who forget they are not human and proceed to live a human life. However, in some stories, changelings who do not forget return to their fairy family, possibly leaving the human family without warning. The human child that was taken may often stay with the fairy family forever. Feeling connected to a changeling's fate, some families merely turn their changeling loose to the wilderness.
Some folklorists believe that fairies were memories of inhabitants of various European regions who had been driven into hiding by invaders. They held that changelings had occurred; the hiding people would exchange their sickly children for the healthy children of the occupying invader.
In folklore
Cornwall
The Mên-an-Tol stones in Cornwall are said to have a fairy or pixie guardian who can make miraculous cures. In one case, a changeling baby was passed through the stone for the mother to have her real child returned to her. Evil pixies had changed her child, and the stones could reverse their spell.
Germany
In Germany, the changeling is known as Wechselbalg, Wechselkind, Kielkopf or Dickkopf (the last hinting at the huge necks and heads of changelings).
Several methods are known in Germany to identify a changeling and to return the replaced real child:
confusing the changeling by cooking or brewing in eggshells. This will force the changeling to speak, claiming its age and revealing its position beyond synchronicity.
attempting to heat the changeling in the oven – perhaps a lie by capacity to endure present.
hitting or whipping the changeling
The changeling must sometimes be fed with a woman's milk before replacing the children.
In German folklore, several possible parents are known for changelings. Those are:
the devil, a belief shared by Martin Luther who advocated for killing changelings
a female dwarf
a water spirit
a Roggenmuhme/Roggenmutter ("Rye Aunt"/"Rye Mother", a demonic woman living in cornfields and stealing human children)
Ireland
In Ireland, looking at a baby with envy – "over looking the baby" – was dangerous, as it endangered the baby, who was then in the fairies' power. So too was admiring or envying a woman or man dangerous, unless the person added a blessing; the non-disabled and beautiful were in particular danger. Women were especially in danger in liminal states: being a new bride or mother.
Putting a changeling in a fire would cause it to jump up the chimney and return the human child. Still, at least one tale recounts a mother with a changeling finding that a fairy woman came to her home with the human child, saying the other fairies had done the exchange, and she wanted her own baby. The tale of surprising a changeling into speech – by brewing eggshells – is also told in Ireland, as in Wales. Various legends describe other ways to foil a would-be fairy kidnapper. One was to shout "Gairim agus coisricim thú " (I bless you) or "God bless you," which would cause the fairy to abandon the child it was trying to steal. Another possible tactic was to insert oneself into an argument over who would keep the child; shouting "Give it to me" would trick the fairy into releasing the child back to a human.
In some instances, changelings were regarded not as substituted fairy children but as old fairies brought to the human world to die.
Irish legends regarding changelings typically follow the same formula: a tailor is the one who first notices a changeling, the inclusion of a fairy playing bagpipes or some other instrument, and the kidnapping of a human child through a window.
The modern Irish girl's name, Siofra, means an elvish or changeling child, deriving from Síobhra(í), meaning fairy(/fairies). The Aos sí, siabhra (commonly anglicised as "sheevra"), may be prone to evil and mischief. However, the Ulster folk song 'The Gartan Mother's Lullaby' also uses "sheevra" simply to mean "spirit" or "fairy".
The Isle of Man
The Isle of Man had a wide collection of myths and superstitions concerning fairies, and numerous folk tales have been collected concerning supposed changelings. Sophia Morrison, in her "Manx Fairy Tales" (David Nutt, London, 1911), includes the tale of "The Fairy Child of Close ny Lheiy", a story of a child supposedly swapped by the fairies for a loud and unruly fairy child. The English poet and topographer George Waldron, who lived in the Isle of Man during the early 18th century, cites a tale of a reputed changeling that was shown to him, possibly a child with an inherited genetic disorder:
"Nothing under heaven could have a more beautiful face; but though between five and six years old, and seemingly healthy, he was so far from being able to walk, or stand, that he could not so much as move any one joint; his limbs were vastly long for his age, but smaller than an infant's of six months; his complexion was perfectly delicate, and he had the finest hair in the world; he never spoke, nor cried, ate scarcely anything, and was very seldom seen to smile, but if any one called him a fairy-elf, he would frown and fix his eyes so earnestly on those who said it, as if he would look them through. His mother, or at least his supposed mother, being very poor, frequently went out a-charing, and left him a whole day together. The neighbours, out of curiosity, have often looked in at the window to see how he behaved when alone, which, whenever they did, they were sure to find him laughing and in the utmost delight. This made them judge that he was not without company more pleasing to him than any mortal's could be; and what made this conjecture seem the more reasonable was, that if he were left ever so dirty, the woman at her return saw him with a clean face, and his hair combed with the utmost exactness and nicety."
Lowland Scotland and Northern England
In the Anglo-Scottish border region it was believed that elves (or fairies) lived in "elf hills" (or "fairy hills"). Along with this belief in supernatural beings was the view that they could spirit away children, and even adults, and take them back to their world (see Elfhame). Often, it was thought a baby would be snatched and replaced with a simulation of the baby, usually a male adult elf, to be suckled by the mother. The real baby would be treated well by the elves and would grow up to be one of them, whereas the changeling baby would be discontented and wearisome. Many herbs, salves, and seeds could be used for discovering the fairy-folk and ward off their designs. It was also believed that to force a changeling to reveal itself, it must either be surprised into speech or made to laugh.
In one tale, a mother suspected her baby had been taken and replaced with a changeling. This view was proven to be correct one day when a neighbour ran into the house shouting, "Come here and ye'll se a sight! Yonder's the Fairy Hill a' alowe" (i.e., "the Fairy Hill is on fire"). To this, the elf got up, saying "Waes me! What'll come o' me wife and bairns?" and made his way out of the chimney.
At Byerholm near Newcastleton in Liddesdale sometime during the early 19th century, a dwarf called Robert Elliot or Little Hobbie o' The Castleton as he was known, was reputed to be a changeling. When taunted by other boys, he would not hesitate to draw his gully (a large knife) and dispatch them; however, being woefully short in the legs, they usually out-ran him and escaped. However, he was courageous, and when he heard that his neighbour, the six-foot three-inch () William Scott of Kirndean, a sturdy and strong borderer, had slandered his name, he invited the man to his house, took him up the stairs and challenged him to a duel. Scott beat a hasty retreat.
Child ballad 40, The Queen of Elfland's Nourice, depicts the abduction of a new mother, drawing on the folklore of the changelings. Although incomplete, it contains the mother's grief and the Queen of Elfland's promise to return her to her child if she would nurse the queen's child until it can walk.
Poland
The Mamuna or Boginki is a Slavic spirit that exchanges babies (making them into odmieńce) in the cradle. The changelings left by the Mamuna were said to have a noticeably different appearance; an abnormally large abdomen, unusually small or large head, a hump, thin arms and legs, a hairy body, and long claws. Mamuna changelings would also get their first set of teeth prematurely compared to a human baby.
To protect a child from being kidnapped by the Mamuna, the mother would tie a red ribbon around the baby's wrist, put a red hat on its head, and keep it out of the moonlight. Other preventative methods included not washing diapers after sunset and never turning their head away from the baby as it slept. Still, even if the Mamuna took a child, there was a way to force her to return it. The mother would take the changeling child to a midden, whip it with a birch stick, and pour water from an eggshell over it, all while shouting, "Take yours; give mine back." Typically, the Mamuna would feel sorry for their child and return the human baby to its mother.
Scandinavia
In Nordic traditional belief, it was generally believed that trolls or beings from the subterranean realms exchanged children.
Since most of the supernatural beings of Scandinavian folklore are said to be afraid of iron, Scandinavian parents would often place an iron tool such as a pair of scissors or a knife on top of the cradle of an un-baptised infant to prevent its abduction by the trolls. It was believed that if a human child were still taken, despite such measures, the parents could force the child's return by treating the changeling cruelly, using methods such as whipping or even inserting it in a heated oven. In at least one case, a woman was taken to court for killing her child in an oven. In Sweden, it was believed that a fire must be kept lit in the room housing a child before it is christened and that the water used to bathe the child should not be thrown out, since both of these precautions will prevent the child from being taken by trolls.
In one Swedish tale, the human mother is advised to brutalize the changeling (bortbyting) so the trolls will return her son. Still, she refuses, unable to mistreat an innocent child despite knowing its nature. When her husband demands she abandon the changeling, she refuses, and he leaves her – whereupon he meets their son in the forest, wandering free. The son explains that since his mother had never been cruel to the changeling, so the troll mother had never been cruel to him, and when she sacrificed what was dearest to her, her husband, they had realized they had no power over her and released him.
The tale is notably retold by Swedish children's story author Helena Nyblom as Bortbytingarna in the 1913 book Bland tomtar och troll. (which is depicted by the image), a princess is kidnapped by trolls and replaced with their offspring against the wishes of the troll mother. The changelings grow up with their new parents, but both find it hard to adapt: the human girl is disgusted by her future bridegroom, a troll prince, whereas the troll girl is bored by her life and her dull human prospective groom. Upset with the conditions of their lives, they both go astray in the forest, passing each other without noticing it. The princess comes to the castle, whereupon the queen immediately recognizes her, and the troll girl finds a troll woman cursing loudly as she works. The troll girl bursts out that the troll woman is much more fun than any other person she has ever seen, and her mother happily sees that her true daughter has returned. The human girl and the troll girl marry happily on the same day.
Spain
In Asturias (Northern Spain), there is a legend about the Xana, a sort of nymph who used to live near rivers, fountains, and lakes, sometimes helping travellers on their journeys. The Xanas were conceived as little female fairies with supernatural beauty. They could deliver "xaninos" babies that were sometimes swapped with human babies – some legends claim this was for them to be baptized, while others claim that it is because the Xana cannot produce milk. The legend says that to distinguish a "xanino" from a human baby, some pots and egg shells should be put close to the fireplace; a xanino would say: "I was born one hundred years ago, and since then I have not seen so many egg shells near the fire!".
Wales
In Wales, the changeling child (plentyn cael (sing.), plant cael (pl.)) initially resembles the human child for which it has been substituted, but gradually grows uglier in appearance and behaviour: ill-featured, malformed, ill-tempered, given to screaming and biting. It may be of less than usual intelligence but may equally well be identifiable because of its more-than-childlike wisdom and cunning.
The common means employed to identify a changeling is to cook a family meal in an eggshell. The child will exclaim, "I have seen the acorn before the oak, but I never saw the likes of this," and vanish, only to be replaced by the original human child. Alternatively, or following this identification, it is supposedly necessary to mistreat the child by placing it in a hot oven, holding it in a shovel over a hot fire, or bathing it in a solution of foxglove.
In the historical record
King Charles I of England (1600 - 1649) was reportedly rumored to have been a changeling due to his "peevish nature" as a child and a nursemaid's claim that a figure appeared mysteriously at his bedside and cast a cloak over the sleeping baby's cradle.
Children identified as changelings by the superstitious were often abused or murdered, sometimes in the belief that changelings could be forced to admit their true nature by beatings, exposure to fire or water, or other trials.
Two 19th-century cases reflect the belief in changelings. In 1826, Anne Roche bathed Michael Leahy, a four-year-old boy unable to speak or stand, three times in the Flesk; he drowned the third time. She swore she was merely attempting to drive the fairy out of him. The jury acquitted her of murder. In 1895, Bridget Cleary was killed by several people, including her husband and cousins, after a short bout of illness (probably pneumonia). Local storyteller, Jack Dunne accused Bridget of being a fairy changeling. It is debatable whether her husband, Michael, actually believed her to be a fairy; many believe that he concocted a "fairy defense" after murdering his wife in a fit of rage. The killers were convicted of manslaughter rather than murder, as even after the death, they claimed to be convinced they had killed a changeling, not Bridget Cleary herself.
Outside Europe
Africa
The Igbo people of eastern Nigeria traditionally believed that a woman who lost numerous children, whether stillborn or early in infancy, was being tormented by an ogbanje, a malicious spirit that reincarnated itself over and over again. One of the most commonly prescribed methods for ridding oneself of an ogbanje was to find and destroy its iyi-uwa, a buried object tying it to the mortal world.
Many scholars now believe that ogbanje stories arose as an attempt to explain the loss of children with sickle-cell anemia. Even today, infant death is common among children born with severe sickle-cell anemia, especially in areas of Africa lacking adequate medical resources.
The similarity between the European changeling and the Igbo ogbanje is so marked that Igbos themselves often translate the word into English as "changeling". The abiku was a rough analogue of the ogbanje among the related Yoruba peoples to the west of Igboland.
In the modern world
The word oaf, a clumsy or stupid person, is derived from the historic English word for a changeling, auf. This, in turn, is believed to have originated from the Middle English alven and elven, and ultimately from the Old Norse word for an elf, alfr.
Medical explanations
Modern scholars hypothesize some changeling tales developed in an attempt to explain deformed, developmentally disabled, or neurodivergent children.
Among the diseases or disabilities with symptoms that match the description of changelings in various legends are spina bifida, cystic fibrosis, PKU, progeria, Down syndrome, homocystinuria, Williams syndrome, Hurler syndrome, Hunter syndrome, autism spectrum disorder, Prader-Willi Syndrome, and cerebral palsy. The greater incidence of congenital disabilities in boys correlates to the belief that male infants were more likely to be taken by fairies. Psychologist Stuart Vyse writes that modern parents have higher expectations of childbirth, and when "children don't meet these expectations, parents sometimes find a different demon to blame." A condition known as regressive autism, where children appear to follow neurotypical development in their early years and then start to show symptoms of autism, can also be compared to marks of a changeling child.
In particular, it has been suggested that autistic children would likely be labeled as changelings or elf-children due to their strange, sometimes inexplicable behavior. For example, this association might explain why fairies are often described as having an obsessive impulse to count things like handfuls of spilled seeds. This counting preoccupation has found a place in autistic culture.
Some autistic adults have come to identify with changelings (or other replacements, such as aliens) due to their experiences of feeling out of place in the world.
In nature
Several species of birds, fish, and arthropods regularly practice brood parasitism, or non-reciprocal offspring-swapping. Rather than raising their young alone, they will lay their egg in another's nest, leaving the burden of raising their young on the unsuspecting parents of another species altogether. More often than not, the invading species hatches sooner than its "step-siblings" and grows faster, eventually hogging most nourishment brought in, and may actually "evict" the young of the host species by pushing them out of their own nest.
In popular culture
Changelings feature in the Supernatural season 3 episode The Kids Are Alright.
The 2008 film Changeling derives its names from this folklore.
The 2019 horror film The Hole in the Ground is based on changeling folklore.
The children's series My Little Pony Friendship is Magic features shape-shifting pony-like creatures called changelings.
In the Disney Channel series So Weird episode "Changeling", the characters babysit a child who has been swapped with a changeling.
The Changeling is an American horror fantasytelevision series created by Kelly Marcel and directed by Melina Matsoukas based on the novel of the same name by Victor LaValle for Apple TV+
See also
Capgras delusion
Doppelgänger
Fox spirit
Half-elf
Imbunche
Incubus/Succubus
Korrigan
Otherkin
Spriggan
Wendigo
Al (folklore)
References
Aos Sí
Dwarves (folklore)
Elves
European folklore
European legendary creatures
Fairies
Fantasy creatures
Supernatural legends
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savage%20Islands
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Savage Islands
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The Savage Islands or Selvagens Islands ( ; also known as the Salvage Islands) are a small Portuguese archipelago in the North Atlantic Ocean, south of Madeira, and north of the Canary Islands. The archipelago includes two major islands, Selvagem Grande and Selvagem Pequena, each surrounded by a cluster of islets and reefs, with the total area of . The archipelago is administered as part of the Portuguese municipality of Funchal, belongs to the Madeiran civil parish of Sé, and is the southernmost point of Portugal.
It was designated a natural reserve in 1971, recognising its role as a very important nesting point for several species of birds. Since then, the susceptible bird populations (namely Cory's shearwater) and nearby waters have been more closely protected by the Portuguese government. Given its status, remoteness and few fresh water sources, the archipelago is today largely uninhabited. The only residents year-round are stationed on Selvagem Grande Island, which includes reserve staff and scientists conducting research on wildlife. Two rangers are also usually resident on Selvagem Pequena between May and October. In May 2016, a National Geographic Society scientific expedition prompted the extension of the marine reserve.
Geography
The Savage Islands are part of Macaronesia, the name used to designate the island groups of the North Atlantic Ocean, near Europe and off the coast of Morocco in North Africa. The archipelago lies about from Madeira, and from the Canary Islands. The islands are considered to be a column branch that extends from the Canary Islands at a depth. The total land area of the Savage Islands is .
With little fresh water and surrounded by dangerous reefs (which makes limited access difficult), the archipelago consists of two major islands and several islets, in two groups about apart, designated:
Northeast Group – includes the main island of Selvagem Grande () and three small islets: Sinho Islet (Portuguese: Ilhéu Sinho), Palheiro do Mar, and Palheiro da Terra.
Southwest Group – including the main island of Selvagem Pequena () and Fora Islet (Portuguese: Ilhéu de Fora, ), also called Great Piton and Little Piton respectively, it is surrounded by a group of very small islets (Alto, Comprido and Redondo) and a group collectively known as the Northern Islets (Portuguese: Ilhéus do Norte).
The geological history of the archipelago can be traced back to the Opening of the North Atlantic Ocean 200 mya in the end of the Triassic period.
The islands' physical characteristics are the consequences of mountain-forming and volcanic forces that occurred between 60 and 70 million years ago, typical of many of the islands of Macaronesia. The islands were created during the Oligocene period 29 million years ago, from a large submarine volcano generated by the Canary hotspot and shaped by erosion and marine sedimentation. The larger islands and islet (Grande, Pequena and Fora, respectively) are the remnants of the peaks of these submarine mounts, and although located north of the Canaries, they were never connected to the African continent or any other continental landmass.
The archipelago had 2 historic magmatic activity periods, one 29.5 mya and the other one 3.4 mya and two significant hiatuses between eruptions, the first lasted 12 million years and the second lasted 4.6 million years, a unique occurrence to oceanic volcanic islands.
The islands themselves are crossed by many calcareous faults, some marbleised, and made of basaltic rock, ash, and other volcanic materials. On Selvagem Grande there are remnants of extinct cones, such as Atalaia, Tornozelos and Cabeço do Inferno. Other areas are sand covered from extensive aeolian, fluvial and marine erosion; headlands include Atalaia and Leste on Selvagem Grande, and Norte, Oeste, Leste and Garajaus on Selvagem Pequena.
Beaches are uncommon in the islands, although Selvagem Pequena has some beaches of cobbles and coarse and medium sands.
Climate
Though only as recently as 2016 was a meteorological station installed by IPMA on Selvagem Grande, the islands are regarded as having a mild subtropical desert climate (Köppen: BWh), with temperatures warmer than those of Madeira. Due to their small size, the surrounding Atlantic and other exterior factors dictate the weather patterns felt throughout the year. Both diurnal and seasonal temperature variation are very low. The lack of any significant mountain range diminishes the amount of orographically induced precipitation and its exposure to the cool Canary Current prevents the formation of convective clouds for most of the year. Summers hover between during the day and during the night, and winters average around during the day and during the night. Saharan dust can occasionally come into contact with the islands, bringing much hotter temperatures. Winds blowing from south-west can also bring exceptionally heavy rainfall. The dominant wind direction is Northeast (NE).
In the past these islands would have had a higher level of moisture than they do now, which may justify the presence of a large number of fossil shells of land snails (Theba macandrewiana) on the plateau of Selvagem Grande.
Fauna and flora
The scientific and natural interest of this tiny group of islands lies in its marine biodiversity, its unique flora and fauna and many avian species that breed annually on its rock cliffs or use them on their stopover on normal migratory patterns.
The Selvagens Islands and their surrounding waters present pristine marine and terrestrial communities, with many of its ecosystems in an unaltered state (such as in Selvagem Pequena and Ilhéu de Fora) and habitat for a wide variety of endemic species and species in an unfavorable state of conservation, they are a unique example of the Macaronesian biogeographical region biota.
The archipelago has the highest density (per 100 km) of exclusive endemic terrestrial plants of the Macaronesian Region and the lowest number of exotic terrestrial plants taxa (17) of the Madeira Region.
Although commercial tours of the islands and their biomes are available, all visitors require authorisation from the Madeira Nature Park, the regional environmental authority.
Birds
Selvagens Islands are one of the most important breeding areas for seabirds of Macaronesia and the North Atlantic, offering conditions that are unique in all the world.
About 3% of the birds species are resident species, the remaining are migratory species. The abundance of birds on the islands, at one time, made the islands an attractive hunting area for peoples of the region. At the end of the 19th century the German naturalist Ernst Schmitz noted that 20–22,000 Cory's shearwaters were hunted in September or October in the islands; the hunts continued until 1967. Madeiran expeditions to the islands were responsible for the killing of juvenile birds for food, while their down was used to stuff pillows and comforters.
Presently the islands are home or stopover for: Cory's shearwaters (>30,000), white-faced storm-petrel (>80,000), Bulwer's petrel (approximately 4000), North Atlantic little shearwater (1400), Madeiran storm-petrel (1500), yellow-legged gull (50), common tern (>60), roseate tern (<5) and Berthelot's pipit (the only resident bird species); which are subjects of annual scientific expeditions. Many of these species are vulnerable to other local predator bird species, like the yellow-legged gull, which will consume both eggs and chicks (the white-faced storm-petrel and Bulwer's petrel are primarily susceptible). The islands are home to the largest known breeding colony in the world of Cory's shearwater and the only site in the Atlantic where Swinhoe's storm petrel can be regularly found. The Selvagens archipelago has been recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because of its seabird colonies.
Sealife
Jacques-Yves Cousteau once found what he believed were "the cleanest waters in the world" around this minor archipelago; there is an abundance of marine activity, much endemic to the environment, including the barred hogfish, puffer fish (Tetraodontidae), sea spider and many species of sea urchin. At depth of about the waters around the islands are teeming with algae and many migratory species of common fish, routinely migrating from the islands of Cape Verde, Madeira and the Canaries.
Out of eight total species of sea turtle in the world, five of them occur in Selvagens Islands waters. The most frequent is the loggerhead turtle, followed by Kemp's ridley sea turtle, Hawksbill sea turtle, Green sea turtle and Leatherback sea turtle.
A total of 10 cetacean species are recorded for Selvagens Islands surrounding waters, including some with a "Vulnerable" or "Threatened" global conservation statuses according to IUCN list of threatened species such as fin whales, sperm whales, bottlenose dolphins, common dolphins, short-finned pilot whales, Atlantic spotted dolphins, pygmy sperm whale, sei whale, Bryde's whale and a non-confirmed beaked whale species, but many others are expected to be discovered. The sub-tropical geographical position of Selvagens Islands puts it at the limit of the northern distribution range of many tropical oceanic cetaceans species and at the southern limit of species from more temperate latitudes.
Despite having a much smaller submerged area with depths less than than other larger Macaronesian archipelagos, the islands have remarkable fish species richness.
There are 88 known species of coastal fish, some of them included in endangered and vulnerable status such as the dusky grouper, the Island grouper or the barred hogfish. 27.3% of fish are from the tropical eastern Atlantic Ocean, 10.2% from temperate waters and 6.8% from subtropical waters.
Other animals
Ten terrestrial vertebrates are known to live on these islands. Two terrestrial reptiles, Tarentola boettgeri bischoffi, a subspecies of Boettger's wall gecko and Teira dugesii selvagensis, a subspecies of Madeiran wall lizard, are exclusive to Selvagens Islands.
The islands are the only terrestrial mammal-free archipelago in the Macaronesia of the North Atlantic.
The Selvagens archipelago is a hotspot of endemic terrestrial arthropods. There are about 219 species and subspecies of terrestrial invertebrates, 92% accounting for arthropods. About 20% of the whole taxa is endemic to the islands. Some endemic species include the sea snails Adeuomphalus marbisensis, Sticteulima lata, Alvania dijkstrai, Alvania freitasi, Alvania harrietae, Atlanta selvagensis, Manzonia boucheti, Osilinus atratus selvagensis and the land snail Theba macandrewiana.
Other terrestrial invertebrates endemic to the islands include three species of Cossoninae, two species of spider beetles, Cryptorhynchinae and Malachiinae and a species of Bean weevil, Click beetle, Thrips, Harpalinae, Pterostichinae, Lamiinae, Paederinae, Trogossitinae, Julida and a recently discovered species of Aplocnemus.
The current number of known endemic species and subspecies is certainly a poor estimate of its real number.
Plantlife
As a consequence of limited introduction, the terrestrial flora has an outstanding interest. More than 100 species of indigenous plants have been catalogued (most creeping plants and bushes). These plants are similar in many respects to indigenous species on the islands of Madeira and the Canaries, which are better suited to dry arid environments. Germination of these species occurs immediately and briefly after annual showers, and include: Lotus glaucus subsp. salvagensis, Scilla madeirensis, Monizia edulis, Erysimum arbuscula, Misopates salvagense, Urtica portosanctana, Asparagus nesiotes, Autonoe madeirensis, among others.
Some endemic species to the archipelago include: Argyranthemum thalassophilum, Monanthes lowei and Euphorbia anachoreta and 2 subspecies of Lobularia canariensis.
Selvagem Pequena and the Fora Islet are the richest floral repositories, since they were never populated by non-indigenous animals or plants. For a period, some indigenous species (primarily Roccella tinctoria and other lichens) were harvested from the islands to support the dye industry of Europe, primarily to England and Flanders in the 15th and 16th centuries, but these adventures were discontinued later.
History
Diogo Gomes de Sintra discovered the islands by chance in 1438. Although the Canary Islands had been inhabited by the Guanches, humans are not known to ever have set foot on the Madeira archipelago or the Savage Islands before the Portuguese discoveries and expansion. Consequently, this island group presented itself to Portuguese navigators uninhabited.
The first attempted settlement of the islands occurred around 1438 by the Portuguese, although few details remain of this endeavour. The oldest extant description of the colonisation was written around 1463 by the Portuguese mariner Diogo Gomes de Sintra. Gomes wrote that the islands were used to collect , as a base for red paint/dyes; referred to the lichens of the scientific families Roccellaceae and Parmeliaceae. In those days, the islands of the Atlantic (the Azores and Madeira) belonged to Henry the Navigator, the Grandmaster of the Order of Christ (the Portuguese successor to the Knights Templar in Portugal). However, the islands were generally omitted from the lists of their possessions.
By the 16th century the Savage Islands were held by a family from Madeira, known as Teixeiras Caiados. How the islands found themselves under Caiados control is unknown. In 1560 they were given to João Cabral de Noronha. After 1717 they are recorded in wills, inheritances, inventories and other documents. Between 1774 and 1831 taxes were paid to the king. The islands were also recorded in the books of the of Funchal.
From the 15th to the 19th centuries, the islands were used for different economic activities, such as collecting barilla weed and shells and mollusks. The islands, although uninhabited, were also used as a waypoint for fishing, while goats and rabbits were hunted on Selvagem Grande. Until about 1967, in September or October, there were organised hunts for the chicks of the Cory's shearwaters for their oil and meat.
The islands have a reputation as pirate treasure islands, and there are many stories of treasure hunting. According to reliable primary documents, at least four times (in 1813, 1851, 1856 and 1948), serious dig attempts were made to recover the supposed treasures but nothing was found.
In 1904 the islands were sold to Luís Rocha Machado. The Permanent Commission of International Maritime Law gave sovereignty of the Savage Islands to Portugal on 15 February 1938.
In 1959, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), now known as the World Wide Fund for Nature, became interested in the islands and signed a contract/promise with the owner, Luís Rocha Machado. In 1971 the Portuguese government intervened and acquired the islands, converting them into a nature reserve. The Savage Islands Reserve was created as part of the Madeira Nature Park; it is one of the oldest nature reserves of Portugal and it also includes the surrounding shelf to a depth of . In 1976, permanent surveillance began, and in 1978 the reserve was elevated to the status of Nature Reserve. In 2002, part of the nature reserve was nominated for UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites: they are currently included in the tentative World Heritage Site list.
In the 21st century, the Savage Islands have a permanent team of wardens from Madeira Nature Reserve (on Selvagem Grande there is a permanent research station with two wardens year-round, while Selvagem Pequena is staffed usually by two wardens between May and October). These and the Zino family (a family of British origin, known as "the guardians of the Savages") are the only permanent human inhabitants of the islands. Selvagem Grande gained a weather station controlled by IPMA (the Portuguese Institute of the Sea and the Atmosphere) and is permanently patrolled by the Portuguese Maritime Police to improve safety in navigation and search and rescue, and to prevent pollution and stop illegal fisheries in the reserve.
Disputed territory
Portugal places its southernmost exclusive economic zone claim south of the Savage Islands. Spain formerly objected to it on the basis that the Savage Islands do not have a separate continental shelf, stating that the border should comprise an equidistant line drawn halfway between Madeira and the Canaries. According to article 121 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: "Rocks which cannot sustain human habitation or economic life of their own shall have no exclusive economic zone or continental shelf." The status of the Savage Islands as islands or rocks was thus at the core of the dispute.
Despite the islands having numerous visitors, mostly for scientific purposes, and the fact that several settlements were tried throughout the centuries, today the Savage Islands are a special natural reserve whose only year-round inhabitants are the wardens of Madeira's Natural Park. Over the years, apart from the EEZ debate, a number of issues pertaining to the Savage Islands led to disputes between the two countries, namely the construction of a lighthouse, the administration of airspace (done from the closer Canary Islands), the right to perform military air exercises, and, most importantly, illegal fishing and poaching in the archipelago and its vicinity.
19th century
1880s – In an 1881 Maritime Signalisation Commission meeting, Spain requested the building of a lighthouse on the islands. The Portuguese recognised the importance of the lighthouse to the Canary Islands sea route, but deemed it not a priority at the time. In response, the Spanish Foreign Affairs Ministry stated that "the sovereignty of the islands is unclear".
20th century
1910s – In 1911, given the lack of action over the requested lighthouse, Spain said it would build it on its own (and annex the archipelago). After a Portuguese protest questioning what it termed "Spanish confusion" over the issue, Spain said its intention was to reach an agreement "in the most amicable terms". In 1913, the Portuguese Navy conducted a survey, led by Admiral Schultz Xavier, of the Selvagem Grande Island and recommended Pico da Atalaia as the best location for the lighthouse.
1930s – On February 15, 1938, the Permanent Commission of International Maritime Law declared Portugal as the legitimate sovereign over the islands. The Spanish government, however, was in the midst of fighting the Spanish Civil War and did not have the opportunity to present its case to the commission.
1970s – In 1971, the Portuguese government bought the islands from their previous Madeiran owner, and decreed the creation of a natural reserve in the archipelago to protect the area from illegal fishing and poaching, which had severely reduced the bird populations in recent years. In 1972, two Spanish civilian boats, San Pedro de Abona and Áries, were arrested near the islands. In 1975, fishermen from the Canary Islands disembarked in the islands and waved a Spanish flag. In 1976 another Spanish boat, Ecce Homo Divino, was detained for illegal fishing.
1996-1997 – On 8 April 1996, Spanish F-18 fighters overflew the islands, followed by a low altitude Puma SA-330J flyby over Selvagem Grande on August 2. On the following October 16th, another F-18 flyby over the reserve was filmed by the Portuguese RTP TV channel, prompting the Portuguese Foreign Affairs Ministry to protest. In May 1997, the Ministry of Defense formally requested the Spanish government to stop training exercises near the natural reserve. Spain agreed, but on 1 August 1997 and 24 September 1997, new flybys by Spanish airplanes took place in the vicinity, prompting vehement protests from the Portuguese authorities which led to a formal apology by the Spanish ambassador to Portugal, after which the flights stopped. After this period, the islands were reinforced with a small Portuguese Navy detachment, purportedly to help patrol the islands against illegal fishing and poaching. Later in 1997, Spain formally recognised Portuguese sovereignty over the islands.
21st century
2005 – 23 June, four Spanish fishing boats were detained south of the islands. A few days later, on 8 July, a biologist and one of the nature reserve wardens in the Selvagem Grande Island were threatened with a knife and underwater fishing spear guns by a group of Spanish fishermen. A group of ten Portuguese marines were placed on the island for a month to put an end to poaching of protected species.
2007 – June, one Spanish search and rescue airplane flew over the islands at low altitude, prompting the Portuguese Ministry of the Environment to contact its Spanish counterpart over the issue.
2013 – 5 July, Spain sends letter officially complaining to the UN that the Savage islands are just rocks, which would invalidate the Portuguese sovereignty over the claimed EEZ surrounding the islands.
2013 – 18 July, The serving President of Portugal, Aníbal Cavaco Silva with the President of the Regional Government of Madeira, Alberto João Jardim arrived on the islands on board the Portuguese Navy frigate Vasco da Gama visit and stay on the Islands as part of a tour to meet residents and officials based there. Aníbal Cavaco Silva became the first President to stay overnight on the islands as former Presidents Mário Soares and Jorge Sampaio only visited for a few hours.
2014 – The head of the Spanish Government, Mariano Rajoy, announced that Repsol, an Oil and Gas company will conduct surveys to find oil and gas in the surrounding waters of the nearby Canary islands, would begin "very likely" between July and September.
2014 – 22 September, Canarian secessionists on behalf of the Canarian Nationalist Alternative party, staged a protest on the smaller island of Selvagem Pequena, to urge the Portuguese government to intercede with the European Parliament so as not to jeopardise the fragile and unique biodiversity of the Macaronesian islands, before the Spanish government completely surrenders to the interests of Repsol. After two days the protestors were transported to Funchal by the Portuguese Navy.
2014 – 17 December, Spain sends Dr Luis Somoza Losada to the UN to give a 448-point report asking for the expansion of Spanish territory at the expense of Portugal. After returning to Spain from New York he states "It's the biggest enlargement of Spanish sovereignty since Christopher Columbus". Luis Somoza Losada was a coordinator of a team made up of civilians and military that was commissioned to underpin the ambitious maritime expansion of Spain around the Savage Islands. Conducting 6 surveys of the area on 3 ships: the Hespérides, Miguel Oliver and Sarmiento de Gamboa, he discovered that there was gas in the area and possibly oil.
2016 – 21 August, the territory starts being permanently patrolled by two elements of the Polícia Marítima, the Portuguese water police, stationed on the Selvagem Grande Island.
2016 – 30 August, Portuguese President Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa, joined by the Minister for Internal Administration Constança Urbano de Sousa, and the President of the Regional Government of Madeira Miguel Albuquerque, visited Selvagem Grande. Rebelo de Sousa remarked that "Wherever the President of the Republic goes, he marks our territory", and justified the voyage by saying that the Head of State must go to every part of the national territory.
See also
Exclusive economic zone of Portugal
Autonomous Region of Madeira
List of islands of Portugal
Macaronesia
References
Notes
Sources
External links
Selvagens Expeditions
Ilhas Selvagens
Islands of the Autonomous Region of Madeira
Islands of Macaronesia
Uninhabited islands of Portugal
Volcanoes of Portugal
Funchal
Important Bird Areas of Madeira
Nature reserves in Portugal
Natura 2000 in Portugal
Territorial disputes of Spain
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max%20von%20Laue
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Max von Laue
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Max Theodor Felix von Laue (; 9 October 1879 – 24 April 1960) was a German physicist who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1914 for his discovery of the diffraction of X-rays by crystals.
In addition to his scientific endeavors with contributions in optics, crystallography, quantum theory, superconductivity, and the theory of relativity, Laue had a number of administrative positions which advanced and guided German scientific research and development during four decades. A strong objector to Nazism, he was instrumental in re-establishing and organizing German science after World War II.
Biography
Early years
Laue was born in Pfaffendorf, now part of Koblenz, Germany, to Julius Laue and Minna Zerrenner. In 1898, after passing his Abitur in Strassburg, he began his compulsory year of military service, after which in 1899 he started to study mathematics, physics, and chemistry at the University of Strassburg, the University of Göttingen, and the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich (LMU). At Göttingen, he was greatly influenced by the physicists Woldemar Voigt and Max Abraham and the mathematician David Hilbert. After only one semester at Munich, he went to the Friedrich-Wilhelms-University of Berlin in 1902. There, he studied under Max Planck, who gave birth to the quantum theory revolution on 14 December 1900, when he delivered his famous paper before the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft. At Berlin, Laue attended lectures by Otto Lummer on heat radiation and interference spectroscopy, the influence of which can be seen in Laue's dissertation on interference phenomena in plane-parallel plates, for which he received his doctorate in 1903. Thereafter, Laue spent 1903 to 1905 at Göttingen. Laue completed his Habilitation in 1906 under Arnold Sommerfeld at LMU.
Career
He was a Privatdozent in Berlin and an assistant to Planck. He also met Albert Einstein for the first time; their friendship contributed to the acceptance and development of Einstein's theory of relativity. Laue continued as assistant to Planck until 1909. In Berlin, he worked on the application of entropy to radiation fields and on the thermodynamic significance of the coherence of light waves.
From 1909 to 1912, Laue was a Privatdozent at the Institute for Theoretical Physics, under Arnold Sommerfeld, at LMU. During the 1911 Christmas recess and in January 1912, Paul Peter Ewald was finishing the writing of his doctoral thesis under Sommerfeld. It was on a walk through the Englischer Garten in Munich in January, that Ewald told Laue about his thesis topic. The wavelengths of concern to Ewald were in the visible region of the spectrum and hence much larger than the spacing between the resonators in Ewald's crystal model. Laue seemed distracted and wanted to know what would be the effect if much smaller wavelengths were considered. In June, Sommerfeld reported to the Physikalische Gesellschaft of Göttingen on the successful diffraction of X-rays by Laue, Paul Knipping and Walter Friedrich at LMU, for which Laue would be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics, in 1914. While at Munich, he wrote the first volume of his book on relativity during the period 1910 to 1911.
In 1912, Laue was called to the University of Zurich as an extraordinarius professor of physics. Upon his father's elevation to the ranks of hereditary nobility in 1913, he became 'Max von Laue'. A new professor extraordinarius chair of theoretical physics had been created in 1914 at the University of Berlin. He was offered the position but turned it down, and it was offered to Max Born. But Born was in the army until WW I ended, and before he had occupied the chair, Laue changed his mind and accepted the position.
From 1914 to 1919, Laue was at the University of Frankfurt as ordinarius professor of theoretical physics. He was engaged in vacuum tube development, at the University of Würzburg, for use in military telephony and wireless communications from 1916.
He was called to the University of Berlin as ordinarius professor of theoretical physics, a position he held from 1919 until 1943, when he was declared emeritus, with his consent and one year before the mandatory retirement age. At the university in 1919, other notables were Walther Nernst, Fritz Haber, and James Franck. Laue, as one of the organizers of the weekly Berlin Physics Colloquium, typically sat in the front row with Nernst and Einstein, who would come over from the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Physik in Berlin-Dahlem, where he was the director. Among Laue's notable students at the university were Leó Szilárd, Fritz London, Max Kohler, and Erna Weber. He published the second volume of his book on relativity in 1921.
As a consultant to the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt (PTR), Laue met Walther Meissner who was working there on superconductivity. Meissner had discovered that a weak magnetic field decays rapidly to zero in the interior of a superconductor, which is known as the Meissner effect. Laue showed, in 1932, that the threshold of the applied magnetic field which destroys superconductivity varies with the shape of the body. He published a total of 12 papers and a book on superconductivity. One of the papers was co-authored with brothers Fritz and Heinz London. Meissner published a biography on Laue in 1960.
The Kaiser-Wilhelm Gesellschaft zur Förderung der Wissenschaften (Today: Max-Planck Gesellschaft zur Förderung der Wissenschaften) was founded in 1911. Its purpose was to promote the sciences by founding and maintaining research institutes. One such institute was the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für Physik (KWIP) founded in Berlin-Dahlem in 1914, with Einstein as director. Laue was a trustee of the institute from 1917, and in 1922 he was appointed deputy director, whereupon he took over the administrative duties from Einstein. Einstein was traveling abroad when Adolf Hitler became Chancellor in January 1933, and Einstein did not return to Germany. Laue then became acting director of the KWIP, a position he held until 1946 or 1948, except for the period 1935 to 1939, when Peter Debye was director. In 1943, to avoid casualties to the personnel, the KWIP moved to Hechingen. It was at Hechingen that Laue wrote his book on the history of physics Geschichte der Physik, which was eventually translated into seven other languages.
Opposition to Nazism
Laue opposed Nazism in general and Deutsche Physik in particular – the former persecuted the Jews, in general, and the latter, among other things, put down Einstein's theory of relativity as Jewish physics, which Laue saw as ridiculous: "science has no race or religion". Laue and his close friend Otto Hahn secretly helped scientific colleagues persecuted by Nazi policies to emigrate from Germany. Laue also openly opposed Nazi policies. An address on 18 September 1933 at the opening of the physics convention in Würzburg, opposition to Johannes Stark, an obituary note on Fritz Haber in 1934, and attendance at a commemoration for Haber are examples which clearly illustrate Laue's courageous, open opposition:
Laue, as chairman of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, gave the opening address at the 1933 physics convention. In it, he compared the persecution of Galileo and the oppression of his scientific views on the solar theory of Copernicus to the then conflict and persecution over the theory of relativity by the proponents of Deutsche Physik, against the work of Einstein, labeled "Jewish physics."
Johannes Stark, who had received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1919, wished to become the Führer of German physics and was a proponent of Deutsche Physik. Against the unanimous advice of those consulted, Stark was appointed President of the PTR in May 1933. However, Laue successfully blocked Stark's regular membership in the Prussian Academy of Sciences.
Haber received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1918. In spite of this and his many other contributions to Germany, he was forced to emigrate from Germany as a result of the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, which removed Jews from their jobs. Laue's obituary note praising Haber and comparing his forced emigration to the expulsion of Themistocles from Athens was a direct affront to the policies of National Socialism.
In connection with Haber, Max Planck, Otto Hahn and Laue organized a commemoration event held in Berlin-Dahlem on 29 January 1935, the first anniversary of Haber's death – attendance at the event by professors in the civil service had been expressly forbidden by the government. While many scientific and technical personnel were represented at the memorial by their wives, Laue and Wolfgang Heubner were the only two professors to attend. This was yet another blatant demonstration of Laue's opposition to National Socialism. The date of the first anniversary of Haber's death was also one day before the second anniversary of National Socialism seizing power in Germany, thus further increasing the affront given by holding the event.
The speech and the obituary note earned Laue government reprimands. Furthermore, in response to Laue blocking Stark's regular membership in the Prussian Academy of Sciences, Stark, in December 1933, had Laue sacked from his position as advisor to the PTR, which Laue had held since 1925. Chapters 4 and 5, in Welker's Nazi Science: Myth, Truth, and the Atomic Bomb, present a more detailed account of the struggle by Laue and Planck against the Nazi takeover of the Prussian Academy of Sciences.
In a commonly reported anecdote Laue is supposed to have carried parcels in his hands when exiting his house, so to avoid having to give the Nazi Salute
Hidden Nobel prize
When Nazi Germany invaded Denmark in World War II, the Hungarian chemist George de Hevesy dissolved the Nobel Prize gold medals of Laue and James Franck in aqua regia to prevent the Nazis from discovering them. At the time, it was illegal to take gold out of the country, and if it had been discovered that Laue had done so he could have faced prosecution in Germany. Hevesy placed the resulting solution on a shelf in his laboratory at the Niels Bohr Institute. After the war, he returned to find the solution undisturbed and precipitated the gold out of the acid. The Nobel Society then re-cast the Nobel Prize gold medals, using the original gold.
Post-war
On 23 April 1945, French troops entered Hechingen, followed the next day by a contingent of Operation Alsos – an operation to investigate the German nuclear energy effort, seize equipment, and prevent German scientists from being captured by the Soviets. The scientific advisor to the Operation was the Dutch-American physicist Samuel Goudsmit, who, adorned with a steel helmet, appeared at Laue's home. Laue was taken into custody and taken to Huntingdon, England, and interned at Farm Hall with other scientists thought to be involved in nuclear research and development.
While incarcerated, Laue was a reminder to the other detainees that one could survive the Nazi reign without having "compromised"; this alienated him from others being detained. During his incarceration, Laue wrote a paper on the absorption of X-rays under the interference conditions, and it was later published in Acta Crystallographica. On 2 October 1945, Laue, Otto Hahn, and Werner Heisenberg, were taken to meet with Henry Hallett Dale, president of the Royal Society, and other members of the Society. There, Laue was invited to attend 9 November 1945 Royal Society meeting in memory of the German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, who discovered X-rays; permission was, however, not forthcoming from the military authorities detaining von Laue.
Laue was returned to Germany early in 1946. He went back to being acting director of the KWIP, which had been moved to Göttingen. It was also in 1946 that the Kaiser-Wilhelm Gesellschaft was renamed the Max-Planck Gesellschaft, and, likewise, the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für Physik became the Max-Planck Institut für Physik. Laue also became an adjunct professor at the University of Göttingen. In addition to his administrative and teaching responsibilities, Laue wrote his book on superconductivity, Theorie der Supraleitung, and revised his books on electron diffraction, Materiewellen und ihre Interferenzen, and the first volume of his two-volume book on relativity.
In July 1946, Laue went back to England, only four months after having been interned there, to attend an international conference on crystallography. This was a distinct honor, as he was the only German invited to attend. He was extended many courtesies by the British officer who escorted him there and back, and a well-known English crystallographer as his host; Laue was even allowed to wander around London on his own free will.
After the war, there was much to be done in re-establishing and organizing German scientific endeavors. Laue participated in some key roles. In 1946, he initiated the founding of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft in only the British Occupation Zone, as the Allied Control Council would not initially allow organizations across occupation zone boundaries. During the war, the PTR had been dispersed; von Laue, from 1946 to 1948, worked on its re-unification across three zones and its location at new facilities in Braunschweig. Additionally, it took on a new name as the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, but administration was not taken over by Germany until after the formation of West Germany on 23 May 1949. Circa 1948, the President of the American Physical Society asked Laue to report on the status of physics in Germany; his report was published in 1949 in the American Journal of Physics. In 1950, Laue participated in the creation of the Verband Deutscher Physikalischer Gesellschaften, formerly affiliated under the Nordwestdeutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft.
In April 1951, Laue became director of the Max-Planck Institut für physikalische Chemie und Elektrochemie, a position he held until 1959. In 1953, at the request of Laue, the Institute was renamed the Fritz Haber Institut für physikalische Chemie und Elektrochemie der Max-Planck Gesellschaft.
Personal life
It was in 1913 that Laue's father, Julius Laue, a civil servant in the military administration, was raised into the ranks of hereditary nobility. Thus Max Laue became Max von Laue. Laue married Magdalene Degen, while he was a Privatdozent at LMU. They had two children. Their son, Theodor Hermann von Laue (1916–2000), went to the United States in 1937, and received his B.A. and Ph.D. from Princeton University. After his service in the U.S. Army, Theodor taught modern history as a professor at various U.S. universities.
Among Laue's chief recreational activities were mountaineering, motoring in his automobile, motor-biking, sailing, and skiing. While not a mountain climber, he did enjoy hiking on the Alpine glaciers with his friends.
On 8 April 1960, while he was driving to his laboratory, Laue's car was struck in Berlin by a motorcyclist, who had received his license only two days earlier. The motorcyclist was killed and Laue's car was overturned. He died from his injuries sixteen days later on 24 April. Being a profound believer, he had asked that his epitaph should read that he had died trusting firmly in God's mercy.
Organizations
1919: Corresponding member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences
1921: Regular member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences
From 1921: Chairman of the physics commission of the Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft (Renamed in 1937: Deutsche Gemeinschaft zur Erhaltung und Förderun der Forschung. No longer active by 1945.)
From 1922: Member of the Board of Trustees of the Potsdam Astrophysics Observatory
1925 – 1933: Advisor to the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt (Today: Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt). Laue had been sacked in 1933 from his advisory position by Johannes Stark, Nobel Prize recipient and President of the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, in retribution for Laue's open opposition to the Nazis by blocking Stark's regular membership in the Prussian Academy of Sciences.
1931 – 1933: : Chairman of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft
Memberships in the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Kant Society, the Austrian Academy of Sciences (1960), the American Physical Society, the Société Française de Physique, the Société Française de Mineralogie et Crystallographie, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Philosophical Society, and the United States National Academy of Sciences.
Corresponding Member of the Academies of Sciences of Göttingen, Munich, Turin, Stockholm, Rome (Papal), Madrid, the Accademia dei Lincei of Rome, and the Royal Society of London.
Honours and awards
1914: Nobel Prize for Physics
1932: Max-Planck Medal of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft
1952: Knight of the Order Pour le Mérite
1953: Grand Cross with Star for Federal Services
1957: Officer of the Legion of Honour of France
1959: Helmholtz Medal of the East-Berlin Academy of Sciences
Landenburg Medal
Bimala–Churn–Law Gold Medal of the Indian Association at Calcutta
Selected bibliography
Max von Laue Die Relativitätstheorie. Band 1: Die spezielle Relativitätstheorie (Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn, Braunschweig, 1911, and 1919)
Max von Laue Das Relativitätstheorie. Erster Band. Das Relativitätsprinzip der Lorentz-transformation. Vierte vermehrte Auflage. (Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn, 1921)
Max von Laue Die Relativitätstheorie. Zweiter Band : Die Allgemeine Relativitätstheorie Und Einsteins Lehre Von Der Schwerkraft (Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn, Braunschweig, 1921 and 1923)
Max von Laue Korpuskular- und Wellentheorie (Leipzig, 1933)
Max von Laue Die Interferenzen von Röntgen- und Elektronenstrahlen. Fünf Vorträge. (Springer, 1935)
Max von Laue Eine Ausgestaltung der Londonschen Theorie der Supraleitung (Barth, 1942)
Max von Laue Materiewellen und ihre Interferenzen (Akadem. Verl.-Ges. Becker & Erler, 1944) (Geest und Portig, 1948)
Max von Laue Theorie der Supraleitung (Springer, 1947 and 1949)
Max von Laue, translated by Lothar Meyer and William Band Theory of Superconductivity (N.Y., 1952)
Max von Laue Geschichte der Physik (Univ.-Verl., 1946 and 1947), (Athenäum-Verl., 1950) and (Ullstein Taschenbücher-Verl., 1959, 1966 and 1982) [This book was translated into seven other languages.]
Max von Laue, translated by Ralph E. Oesper History of Physics (Academic Press, 1950)
Max von Laue Histoire De La Physique (Lamarre, 1953)
Max von Laue Geschiedenis der natuurkunde ('s Gravenhage, Stols, 1950 and 1954)
Max Planck and Max von Laue Wissenschaftliche Selbstbiographie (Barth, 1948)
Max von Laue Röntgenstrahlinterferenzen (Akadem. Verl.-Ges., 1948)
Max von Laue Die Relativitätstheorie. Bd. 2. Die allgemeine Relativitätstheorie (Vieweg, 1953)
Max Planck and Max von Laue Vorlesungen über Thermodynamik de Gruyter (Gebundene, 1954)
Walter Friedrich, Paul Knipping, and Max von Laue Interferenzerscheinungen bei Röntgenstrahlen (J. A. Barth, 1955)
Max von Laue Die Relativitätstheorie. Bd. 1. Die spezielle Relativitätstheorie (Vieweg, 1955)
Max von Laue Die Relativitätstheorie. Bd. 2. Die allgemeine Relativitätstheorie (Vieweg, 1956)
Max von Laue Max von Laue
Max von Laue Röntgenwellenfelder in Kristallen (Akademie-Verl., 1959)
Max von Laue Von Laue-Festschrift. 1 (Akadem. Verl.-Ges., 1959)
Max von Laue Von Laue-Festschrift. 2 (Akadem. Verl.-Ges., 1960)
Max von Laue and Ernst Heinz Wagner Röntgenstrahl-Interferenzen (Akadem. Verl.-Ges., 1960)
Max von Laue and Friedrich Beck Die Relativitätstheorie. Bd. 1. Die spezielle Relativitätstheorie (Vieweg, 1961 and 1965)
Max von Laue Gesammelte Schriften und Vorträge. Bd. 1 (Vieweg, 1961)
Max von Laue Gesammelte Schriften und Vorträge. Bd. 2 (Vieweg, 1961)
Max von Laue Gesammelte Schriften und Vorträge. Bd. 3 (Vieweg, 1961)
Max von Laue Aufsätze und Vorträge (Vieweg, 1961 and 1962)
Max von Laue and Friedrich Beck Die Relativitätstheorie. Bd. 2. Die allgemeine Relativitätstheorie (Vieweg, 1965)
Max von Laue Die Relativitätstheorie II. Die allgemeine Relativitätstheorie (Vieweg Friedr. und Sohn Ver, 1982)
Other publications
Received 1 April 1913, published in issue No. 10 of 15 May 1913. As cited in Mehra, Volume 5, Part 2, 2001, p. 922.
Received 1 October 1913, published in issue No. 21 of 1 November 1913. As cited in Mehra, Volume 5, Part 2, 2001, p. 922.
Presented on 24 September 1913 at the 85th Naturforscherversammlung, Vienna, published in issue No. 22/23 of 15 November 1913. As cited in Mehra, Volume 5, Part 2, 2001, p. 922.
Received 21 November 1913, published in issue No. 25 of 15 December 1913. As cited in Mehra, Volume 5, Part 2, 2001, p. 922.
See also
History of special relativity
Laue equations
Sagnac effect
Trouton–Noble experiment
Twin paradox
Einstein synchronisation
Institut Laue–Langevin
Laue (crater)
10762 von Laue
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Max von Laue Biography – Deutsches Historisches Museum Berlin
– University of Frankfurt on Main
including the Nobel Lecture, 3 June 1920 Concerning the Detection of X-ray Interferences
Nobel Presentation Address – An account of Laue's work is by Professor G. Granqvist, Chairman of the Nobel Committee for Physics
1879 births
1960 deaths
20th-century German physicists
Scientists from Koblenz
Experimental physicists
Optical physicists
Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences
Nobel laureates in Physics
German Nobel laureates
Scientists from the Rhine Province
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
University of Strasbourg alumni
University of Göttingen alumni
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich alumni
Academic staff of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich
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Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin
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396459
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Henry%20Bragg
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William Henry Bragg
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Sir William Henry Bragg (2 July 1862 – 12 March 1942) was an English physicist, chemist, mathematician, and active sportsman who uniquely shared a Nobel Prize with his son Lawrence Bragg – the 1915 Nobel Prize in Physics: "for their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays". The mineral Braggite is named after him and his son. He was knighted in 1920.
Biography
Early years
Bragg was born at Westward, near Wigton, Cumberland, England, the son of Robert John Bragg, a merchant marine officer and farmer, and his wife Mary née Wood, a clergyman's daughter. When Bragg was seven years old, his mother died, and he was raised by his uncle, also named William Bragg, at Market Harborough, Leicestershire. He was educated at the Grammar School there, at King William's College on the Isle of Man and, having won an exhibition (scholarship), at Trinity College, Cambridge. He graduated in 1884 as third wrangler, and in 1885 was awarded a first class honours in the mathematical tripos.
University of Adelaide
In 1885, at the age of 23, Bragg was appointed (Sir Thomas) Elder Professor of Mathematics and Experimental Physics in the University of Adelaide, Australia, and started work there early in 1886. Being a skilled mathematician, at that time he had limited knowledge of physics, most of which was in the form of applied mathematics he had learnt at Trinity. Also at that time, there were only about a hundred students doing full courses at Adelaide, of whom less than a handful belonged to the science school, whose deficient teaching facilities Bragg improved by apprenticing himself to a firm of instrument makers. Bragg was an able and popular lecturer; he encouraged the formation of the student union, and the attendance, free of charge, of science teachers at his lectures.
Bragg's interest in physics developed, particularly in the field of electromagnetism. In 1895, he was visited by Ernest Rutherford, en route from New Zealand to Cambridge; this was the commencement of a lifelong friendship. Bragg had a keen interest in the new discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Röntgen. On 29 May 1896 at Adelaide, Bragg demonstrated before a meeting of local doctors the application of "X-rays to reveal structures that were otherwise invisible". Samuel Barbour, senior chemist of F. H. Faulding & Co., an Adelaide pharmaceutical manufacturer, supplied the necessary apparatus in the form of a Crookes tube, a glass discharge tube. The tube had been obtained at Leeds, England, where Barbour visited the firm of Reynolds and Branson, a manufacturer of photographic and laboratory equipment. Barbour returned to Adelaide in April 1896. Barbour had conducted his own experiments shortly after return to Australia, but results were limited due to limited battery power. At the University, the tube was attached to an induction coil and a battery borrowed from Sir Charles Todd, Bragg's father-in-law. The induction coil was utilized to produce the electric spark necessary for Bragg and Barbour to "generate short bursts of X-rays". The audience was favorably impressed. Bragg availed himself as a test subject, in the manner of Röntgen and allowed an X-ray photograph to be taken of his hand. The image of the fingers in his hand revealed "an old injury to one of his fingers sustained when using the turnip chopping machine on his father's farm in Cumbria".
As early as 1895, Professor William H. (later Sir William) Bragg was working on wireless telegraphy, though public lectures and demonstrations focussed on his X-ray research which would later lead to his Nobel Prize. In a hurried visit by Rutherford, he was reported as working on a Hertzian oscillator. There were many common practical threads to the two technologies and he was ably assisted in the laboratory by Arthur Lionel Rogers who manufactured much of the equipment. On 21 September 1897 Bragg gave the first recorded public demonstration of the working of wireless telegraphy in Australia during a lecture meeting at the University of Adelaide as part of the Public Teachers' Union conference. Bragg departed Adelaide in December 1897, and spent all of 1898 on a 12-month leave of absence, touring Great Britain and Europe and during this time visited Marconi and inspected his wireless facilities. He returned to Adelaide in early March 1899, and already on 13 May 1899, Bragg and his father-in-law, Sir Charles Todd, were conducting preliminary tests of wireless telegraphy with a transmitter at the Observatory and a receiver on the South Road (about 200 metres). Experiments continued throughout the southern winter of 1899 and the range was progressively extended to Henley Beach. In September the work was extended to two way transmissions with the addition of a second induction coil loaned by Mr. Oddie of Ballarat. It was desired to extend the experiments cross a sea path and Todd was interested in connecting Cape Spencer and Althorpe Island, but local costs were considered prohibitive while the charges for patented equipment from the Marconi Company were exorbitant. At the same time Bragg's interests were leaning towards X-rays and practical work in wireless in South Australia was largely dormant for the next decade.
The turning-point in Bragg's career came in 1904 when he gave the presidential address to section A of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science at Dunedin, New Zealand, on "Some Recent Advances in the Theory of the Ionization of Gases". This idea was followed up "in a brilliant series of researches" which, within three years, earned him a fellowship of the Royal Society of London. This paper was also the origin of his first book Studies in Radioactivity (1912). Soon after the delivery of his 1904 address, some radium bromide was made available to Bragg for experimentation. In December 1904 his paper "On the Absorption of α Rays and on the Classification of the α Rays from Radium" appeared in the Philosophical Magazine, and in the same issue a paper "On the Ionization Curves of Radium", written in collaboration with his student Richard Kleeman, also appeared.
At the end of 1908, Bragg returned to England. During his 23 years in Australia "he had seen the number of students at the University of Adelaide almost quadruple, and had a full share in the development of its excellent science school." He had returned to England on the maiden voyage of the SS Waratah, a ship which vanished at sea on its second voyage the next year. He had been alarmed at the ship's tendency to list during his voyage, and had concluded that the ship's metacentre was just below her centre of gravity. In 1911, he testified his belief that the Waratah was unstable at the Inquiry into the ship's disappearance.
University of Leeds
Bragg occupied the Cavendish chair of physics at the University of Leeds from 1909 until 1915. He continued his work on X-rays with much success. He invented the X-ray spectrometer and with his son, Lawrence Bragg, then a research student at Cambridge, founded the new science of X-ray crystallography, the analysis of crystal structure using X-ray diffraction.
World War I
Both of his sons were called into the army after war broke out in 1914 . The following year he was appointed Quain Professor of physics at University College London. He had to wait for almost a year to contribute to the war effort: finally, in July 1915, he was appointed to the Board of Invention and Research set up by the Admiralty. In September, his younger son Robert died of wounds at Gallipoli. In November, he shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with elder son William Lawrence. The Navy was struggling to prevent sinkings by unseen, submerged U boats. The scientists recommended that the best tactic was to listen for the submarines. The Navy had a hydrophone research establishment at Aberdour Scotland, staffed with navy men. In November 1915, two young physicists were added to its staff. Bowing to outside pressure for using science, in July 1916, the Admiralty appointed Bragg as scientific director at Aberdour, assisted by three additional young physicists. They developed an improved directional hydrophone, which finally convinced the Admiralty of their usefulness. Late in 1916, Bragg with his small group moved to Harwich, where the staff was enlarged and they had access to a submarine for tests. In France, where scientists had been mobilized since the beginning of the war, the physicist Paul Langevin made a major stride with echolocation, generating intense sound pulses with quartz sheets oscillated at high frequency, which were then used as microphones to listen for echoes. Quartz was usable when vacuum tubes became available at the end of 1917 to amplify the faint signals. The British made sonar practicable by using mosaics of small quartz bits rather than slices from a large crystal. In January 1918, Bragg moved into the Admiralty as head of scientific research in the anti-submarine division. By war's end British vessels were being equipped with sonar manned by trained listeners.
Inspired by William Lawrence's methods for locating enemy guns by the sound of their firing, the output from six microphones miles apart along the coast were recorded on moving photographic film. Sound ranging is much more accurate in the sea than in the turbulent atmosphere. They were able to localize the sites of distant explosions, which were used to obtain the precise positions of British warships and of minefields.
University College London
After the war Bragg returned to University College London, where he continued to work on crystal analysis.
Royal Institution
From 1923, he was Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution and director of the Davy Faraday Research Laboratory. This institution was practically rebuilt in 1929–30 and, under Bragg's directorship many valuable papers were issued from the laboratory. In 1919, 1923, 1925 and 1931 he was invited to deliver the Royal Institution Christmas Lecture on The World of Sound; Concerning the Nature of Things, Old Trades and New Knowledge and The Universe of Life respectively.
The Royal Society and the coming war
Bragg was elected president of the Royal Society in 1935. The physiologist A. V. Hill was biological secretary and soon A. C. G. Egerton became physical secretary. During World War I all three had stood by for frustrating months before their skills were employed for the war effort. Now the cause of science was strengthened by the report of a high-level Army committee on lessons learned in the last war; their first recommendation was to "keep abreast of modern scientific developments". Anticipating another war, the Ministry of Labour was persuaded to accept Hill as a consultant on scientific manpower. The Royal Society compiled a register of qualified men. They proposed a small committee on science to advise the Committee on Imperial Defence, but this was rejected. Finally in 1940, as Bragg's term ended, a scientific advisory committee to the War Cabinet was appointed. Brag was among the 2,300 names of prominent persons listed on the Nazis' Special Search List, of those who were to be arrested on the invasion of Great Britain and turned over to the Gestapo. Bragg died in 1942.
Honours and awards
Bragg was joint winner with his son, Lawrence Bragg, of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1915: "For their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-ray".
Bragg was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1907, vice-president in 1920, and served as President of the Royal Society from 1935 to 1940. He was elected an International Member of the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1939 and an International Member of the American Philosophical Society. He was elected as a member of the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium on 1 June 1946.
He was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1917 and Knight Commander (KBE) in the 1920 civilian war honours. He was admitted to the Order of Merit in 1931.
Matteucci Medal (1915)
Rumford Medal (1916)
Copley Medal (1930)
Franklin Medal (1930)
John J. Carty Award of the National Academy of Sciences (1939)
Private life
In 1889, in Adelaide, Bragg married Gwendoline Todd, a skilled water-colour painter, and daughter of astronomer, meteorologist and electrical engineer Sir Charles Todd. They had three children, a daughter, Gwendolen and two sons, William Lawrence, born in 1890 in North Adelaide, and Robert. Gwendolen married the English architect Alban Caroe, Bragg taught William at the University of Adelaide, and Robert was killed in the Battle of Gallipoli. Bragg's wife, Gwendoline, died in 1929.
Bragg played tennis and golf, and as a founding member of the North Adelaide and Adelaide University Lacrosse Clubs, contributed to the introduction of lacrosse to South Australia and was also the secretary of the Adelaide University Chess Association.
Bragg died in 1942 in England and was survived by his daughter Gwendolen and his son, Lawrence.
Legacy
The lecture theatre of King William's College (KWC) is named in memory of Bragg; the Sixth-Form invitational literary debating society at KWC, the Bragg Society, is also named in his memory. One of the school "Houses" at Robert Smyth School, Market Harborough, Leicester, is named "Bragg" in memory of him being a student there. Since 1992, the Australian Institute of Physics has awarded The Bragg Gold Medal for Excellence in Physics for the best PhD thesis by a student at an Australian university. The two sides of the medal contain the images of Sir William Henry and his son Sir Lawrence Bragg.
The Experimental Technique Centre at Brunel University is named the Bragg Building. The Sir William Henry Bragg Building at the University of Leeds opened in 2021.
In 1962, the Bragg Laboratories were constructed at the University of Adelaide to commemorate 100 years since the birth of Sir William H. Bragg.
The Australian Bragg Centre for Proton Therapy also in Adelaide, Australia was completed in late 2013. It is named for both father and son and offers radiation therapy for cancer patients.
In August 2013, Bragg's relative, the broadcaster Melvyn Bragg, presented a BBC Radio 4 programme "Bragg on the Braggs" on the 1915 Nobel Prize in Physics winners.
Publications
William Henry Bragg, William Lawrence Bragg, "X Rays and Crystal Structure", G. Bell & Son, London, 1915.
William Henry Bragg, The World of Sound (1920)
William Henry Bragg, The Crystalline State – The Romanes Lecture for 1925. Oxford, 1925.
William Henry Bragg, Concerning the Nature of Things (1925)
William Henry Bragg, Old Trades and New Knowledge (1926)
William Henry Bragg, An Introduction to Crystal Analysis (1928)
William Henry Bragg, The Universe of Light (1933)
See also
George Gamow – has 1931 photograph with Bragg, location unspecified.
List of Nobel laureates in Physics
List of presidents of the Royal Society
References
Further reading
"[a] most valuable record of his work and picture of his personality is the excellent obituary written by Professor Andrade of London University for the Royal Society of London." Statement made by Sir Kerr Grant, in:
"The Life and work of Sir William Bragg", the John Murtagh Macrossan Memorial Lecture for 1950, University of Queensland. Written and presented by Sir Kerr Grant, Emeritus Professor of Physics, University of Adelaide. Reproduced as pages 5–37 of Bragg Centenary, 1886–1986, University of Adelaide.
"William and Lawrence Bragg, Father and Son: The Most Extraordinary Collaboration in Science", John Jenkin, Oxford University Press 2008.
Ross, John F. A History of Radio in South Australia 1897–1977 (J. F. Ross, 1978)
External links
Annotated Bibliography for William Henry Bragg from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
Data from the University of Leeds
Fullerian Professorships
Nobelprize.org – The Nobel Prize for Physics in 1915
1862 births
1942 deaths
20th-century British physicists
Academics of University College London
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Australian people of English descent
Australian lacrosse players
British lacrosse players
Experimental physicists
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Academics of the University of Leeds
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Presidents of the Royal Society
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British crystallographers
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British Nobel laureates
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Leeds Blue Plaques
Recipients of the Matteucci Medal
Presidents of the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics
[Category:Cavendish Professors of Physics]]
Members of the American Philosophical Society
Recipients of Franklin Medal
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396462
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party%20of%20the%20Democratic%20Revolution
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Party of the Democratic Revolution
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The Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD, , ) is a social democratic political party in Mexico. The PRD originated from the Democratic Current, a political faction formed in 1986 from the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). The PRD was formed after the contested general election in 1988, which the PRD's immediate predecessor, the National Democratic Front, believed was rigged by the PRI. This sparked a movement away from the PRI's authoritarian rule.
As of 2020, the PRD is a member of the Va por México coalition. Internationally, the PRD is a member of the Progressive Alliance. The members of the party are known colloquially in Mexico as Perredistas.
History
Early origins
Break from the PRI (1986–1988)
The PRD has its origins with the leftist members of the PRI, Institutional Revolutionary Party. The PRI had dominated Mexican politics since its founding in 1929. In 1986, a group of PRI members – including Ifigenia Martínez, Rodolfo González Guevara, Porfirio Muñoz Ledo, and Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas – formed the Democratic Current, a political faction within the PRI. The Democratic Current aimed to pressure the PRI to become a more democratic party and to address the issue of national debt including the social effects of the economic crisis that came from attempting to pay that debt. The Democratic Current was also against technocratization, in which the people in power had not held public office and were scholars that were often educated abroad. Under the Miguel de la Madrid presidency which lasted from 1982–1988, the PRI and Mexico were moving towards a technocracy especially since de la Madrid was a technocrat himself. The Democratic Current did not have many technocrats and was thus left out of the decision-making process. This political marginalization led the Democratic Current members to be more vocal about their concerns because they did not have a position of power to protect within the PRI.
After public criticisms and debate between the Democratic Current and the PRI, ten Democratic Current members signed Working Document Number One which was the official beginning of the Democratic Current. However, the PRI refused to acknowledge the Democratic Current as an organization unless they joined a union, which was allowed in the PRI. The forming of a group that was not united because of work but because of difference in ideology within the PRI caused fear of division within the party.
Once de la Madrid's six-year term as president was coming to a close, the PRI chose six possible candidates for president and notably did not choose Cárdenas. The PRI had no process to apply as candidate so Cárdenas could not run as a candidate for president. On October 4, 1987 Carlos Salinas de Gortari was ultimately chosen as the PRI candidate. Gortari did not embody anything that the Democratic Current wanted and many of the Democratic Current members left the PRI including Cárdenas during November 1987. Some Democratic Current members went on to support Cárdenas in his 1988 quest for presidency and help in the founding of the PRD.
1988 presidential election
On October 12, 1987, Cárdenas became the Authentic Party of the Mexican Revolution's presidential candidate. Cárdenas still remained an independent candidate due to electoral laws which meant that many parties could choose Cárdenas as their candidate. The groups of the independent left that supported Cárdenas were the Socialist Mexican Party which included the Unified Socialist Party of Mexico, the Mexican Workers' Party, the Patriotic Revolutionary Party, the Communist Left Unity, and the People's Revolutionary Movement. The parastatal groups, state-owned enterprises that are separate from government, that supported Cárdenas were the Authentic Party of the Mexican Revolution, Popular Socialist Party, and the Party of the Cardenist Front of National Reconstruction, which made up the National Democratic Front. Other groups that supported Cárdenas were the Social Democratic Party, Ecologist Green Party of Mexico, Democratic Unity, , Critical Point Revolutionary Organization, and Neighborhood Assembly In order to provide a mechanism to coordinate and communicate with one another about campaign activities, these groups formed a coordinating body named the National Democratic Front (Mexico). The Socialist Mexican Party did not join in an official capacity, rather the party signed a separate pact with the Democratic Current.
In the 1988 presidential election, Cárdenas had come closer than any other political candidate to winning against the PRI, which had been in power since 1929. The victory of the PRI's candidate, Carlos Salinas de Gortari, was largely considered guilty of electoral fraud in 1988; this was after the computers tabulating votes had reportedly crashed. As a result, Cárdenas claimed that he had won the election, although he never declared himself president. The National Democratic Front continued to support Cárdenas by signing a Declaration for the Defense of Popular Sovereignty. Protests erupted in support of Cárdenas, the largest of which occurred on July 16 and had an attendance of at least 300,000 people. Nonetheless, the election was ratified. Years later, it was determined that there was indeed electoral fraud in the election.
Founding
The 1988 election sparked a movement against the authoritarian rule of the PRI. As an integral part of the movement towards democracy, the Party of the Democratic Revolution was formed as Mexico's only leftwing party. On May 5, 1989, Cárdenas declared the establishment of the PRD. Former PRI members who also helped found the PRD include: Cárdenas, Porfirio Muñoz Ledo, Ifigenia Martínez y Hernández and Andrés Manuel López Obrador.
The party was founded by smaller left-wing parties such as the Mexican Communist Party (PCM, Mexican Communist Party), Unified Socialist Party of Mexico (PSUM, Unified Socialist Party of Mexico), Socialist Mexican Party (PMS, Socialist Mexican Party) and Mexican Workers' Party (PMT, Mexican Workers' Party). The PMS donated its registration with the Federal Electoral Commission (CFE) to enable the new party to be established.
First decade (1989–1999)
Small leftist group leaders joined the PRD which left small leftist organizations vulnerable. Additionally, some leftist organizations were wary that their individual concerns would be lost by joining a political group.
In the early years, the PRD was not successful in elections because of electoral fraud. The PRD often claimed that the PRI was participating in electoral fraud. This was in contrast to PAN, the conservative party, who chose to cooperate with the PRI. However, the PRD also cooperated with the PRI to make policy changes that moved towards democracy.
Salinas, PRI member and president of Mexico from 1988 to 1994, had made some improvements to the Mexican economy but Mexico still did not have a democratic system. During this time the PRD had become involved with many social justice movements against the neoliberal and antidemocratic policies of the PRI. The most famous of which was the party's involvement with the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN). Some members of the party wanted to strongly and publicly denounce the armed struggle, whereas others decided to emphatically approve the movement and its goals therefore, it was difficult to form a united front. Nonetheless, many PRD supporters also supported the EZLN and bolstered the movement through the use of posters and murals at PRD events. Although, these instances portrayed the party to appear to be more radical than they actually were, Cárdenas himself took advantage of this support. He met with Subcomandante Marcos and did not attempt to distance the party from the EZLN. This support did not pay off as the EZLN did not help the PRD win any votes and Marcos accused the PRD of being the same as the PRI and PAN. The PRI labeled Cárdenas and the PRD as sympathizers of the EZLN and supporters of armed struggle. Additionally, the PRD had a difficult time transitioning from a movement with a non-negotiable goal to a party that pushed gradual reforms.
1994 presidential election: Cárdenas
Cárdenas ran for national presidency under the PRD in 1994. Cárdenas ran against Diego Fernández, PAN candidate, and PRI party winner of the election, Ernesto Zedillo Ponce. Cárdenas made the Alianza Democrática Nacional campaign, where he mobilized 57 organizations. Cárdenas did not cooperate well with the PRD and was sometimes contradictory to the PRD.
The PRI used its media influence to promote the idea that changing the governing party would disrupt the nation as well as to portray Cárdenas and the PRD as confrontational and violent.
After his loss Cárdenas claimed fraud; however, the party did not support him and instead focused on winning seats in congress.
1994 presidential election aftermath
In 1997, the PRD won its first governorship with Cárdenas as governor of Mexico City. The PRD also gained the second largest majority in the Chamber of Deputies. These victories were due in part to changes in electoral rules. These changes included the creation of the new Federal Elections Institute in 1990 which established six independent councilors who required legislative approval.
This division between currents was seen during the internal election of March 14, 1999 when there were voting discrepancies.
By the end of 1999, 650 members of the PRD had been assassinated, mostly by the PRI, as a way to intimidate those working towards democracy, civic engagement, and social movements.
Second decade (1999–2009)
2000 presidential election: Cárdenas
After the election of Vicente Fox, PAN candidate, the PRD announced that it would not file any complaints about the elections. This was a shift in strategy from the usual protests of fraud. However, some local PRD activists groups filed complaints but these were turned down by the PRD and the electoral court.
2006 presidential election
The former mayor of Mexico City, Andrés Manuel López Obrador, was the presidential candidate for the "Coalición por el Bien de Todos" (Coalition for the Good of All) in the 2006 presidential elections. López Obrador ran against Felipe Calderón, PAN candidate, and Roberto Madrazo, PRI candidate.
López Obrador's campaign relied on citizen's networks (redes ciudadanas) that focused on mobilizing the public to campaign. This strategy focused on López Obrador as an individual and not the PRD. This was worrisome to PRD leaders because they thought that the PRD's concerns would not be addressed. However, many party members thought that López Obrador would win so these concerns were not addressed.
After the general election of July 2, 2006, and a recount of the 9.09% of the ballot tally sheets which supposedly presented irregularities, the Federal Electoral Institute recorded the vote results in favor of Felipe Calderón by a margin of 0.58 percent, about 243,000 votes. These results were later validated by the Federal Electoral Tribunal. However, the PRD claimed that there was election fraud. The claims of election fraud have been rejected by the Federal Electoral Tribunal (TEPJF), which considered these "notoriously out of order" ("notoriamente improcedente") and certified PAN's candidate Felipe Calderón as the winner.
López Obrador then rallied his supporters to hold demonstrations in the capital, Mexico City. These demonstrations were organized by the PRD, whose stronghold is in Mexico City. The PRD had called for demonstrations and set up camps in the capital's main square, blocking one of its main avenues (Paseo de la Reforma) for six weeks to demand a recount of all votes, which was not granted. The camps were later dismantled after confrontation with the Mexican Army became likely.
On September 5, the Federal Electoral Tribunal announced that there was not enough evidence of electoral fraud which legitimized Calderon as President. This caused López Obrador to maintain his campaign of civil disobedience and declared himself as "Legitimate President" in a "public open vote" (people in the main square raising their hands). López Obrador did not recognize the legitimacy of Calderón as president. The PRD was criticized for not complying with the democratic system that it had lauded and helped create. However, the PRD could not agree on whether they should move forward and cooperate with the current system and contribute to policy or take on an uncompromising stance in an attempt to overturn the current system. This split later trickled on to other things such as electoral and petroleum reforms where one part of the party wanted to cooperate while the other refused to out of allegiance to López Obrador.
In 2008 after bitter infighting within the party Jesús Ortega, an opponent of Andrés Manuel López Obrador, was elected party president. In the 2009 legislative elections, López Obrador supported two smaller parties while maintaining his ties to the PRD.
Videoscandals
The party had enjoyed a reputation of honesty unmatched by its competitors, until the "Video Scandals" a series of videos where notable party members were taped receiving cash funds or betting large sums of money in a Las Vegas casino.
Later, another video was recorded by Cuba's government where Carlos Ahumada, the man providing the money, states that members of the PRI and PAN, PRD's rivals, were planning the situation presented in the first video as part of a plot against Andrés Manuel López Obrador to discredit him as a possible presidential candidate.
Party members who were seen on the video tapes were expelled from the party, but those who were supposedly associated, but never legally charged, are still active members.
Modern era (2009–present)
2012 presidential election
López Obrador ran for president again in 2012, but lost to Enrique Peña Nieto.
After the loss, López Obrador told a rally in Mexico City's main plaza Zocalo on 9 September 2012 that he would withdraw from the Democratic Revolution Party "on the best of terms," as well as the Labor Party and Citizens' Movement (MC). He added that he was working on founding a new party from the Movement for National Regeneration, which he would later name MORENA.
2018 presidential election: Ricardo Anaya
The defeat of the PAN and the PRD in the Mexico general elections in 2012, as well as the departure of Andrés Manuel López Obrador from the PRD, caused these two parties to approach each other despite the friction obtained in the 2006 general elections.
During 2017, Ricardo Anaya, then President of PAN, announced his party's proposal to create an alliance of politicians called "Opposition Wide Front" in order to "form a coalition government that will result in a stable majority that can be governed the country and make the change of regime a reality."
On 5 September the PAN formalized an alliance with PRD and MC under the name of "Citizen Front for Mexico," registering the coalition before the National Electoral Institute, an alliance to last for 6 years.
On 17 December, the three parties ratified the alliance with the creation of an electoral coalition to participate in the federal elections of 2018 and multiple state elections with the name of "Por México al Frente."
2018 presidential election aftermath
In August 2018 PRD abandoned Por México al Frente. In early 2019, the PRD split, with 9 deputies leaving the PRD and joining Morena and the government coalition of López Obrador. This gave the government a two-thirds majority, allowing for the passage of constitutional reform.
On 22 December 2020, the PRD formed the new alliance Va por México, together with the National Action Party and the Institutional Revolutionary Party.
Electoral history
Presidential elections
Congressional elections
Chamber of Deputies
Senate elections
Governorships
Source:
Mexico D.F.
Zacatecas
Tlaxcala
Baja California Sur
Michoacán
Guerrero
Chiapas
Tabasco
Morelos
Oaxaca
Puebla
Sinaloa
Principles
The PRD believes that Mexico currently has major problems of economic and social inequality that halt social development and affect liberty and democratic coexistence. Which is why the PRD has developed the following principles for their political party.
Democracy
The PRD considers democracy to be the most fundamental principle that it hopes to establish in Mexico.
The PRD believes that democracy is the political regime that should be established in society because the ruling power goes to the people through voting.
The internal organization of the party should be democratic.
The PRD believes that democracy in Mexico is strengthened by an open, democratic, and transparent system of parties.
The PRD acknowledges the diversity of Mexico and is committed to preserve and develop it.
The PRD is also committed to a secular state in which there can be liberty, tolerance, and coexistence between all people.
Human rights
The PRD is against any form of segregation or discrimination.
The PRD fights to promote, expand, respect, protect, and guarantee the exercise of human rights understood in its most broad meaning which includes:
civil rights
political rights
economic rights
social rights
cultural rights
environmental rights
right to access to information
right to solidarity for the collective benefit for all citizens
and rights of ethnic groups
The PRD also emphasizes these rights in regard to the following groups
young people
children
women
senior citizens
the lesbian, gay, transsexual, transgender, bisexual and intersexual community
migrant workers in the nation and abroad.
The PRD recognizes indigenous communities as equal in regard to the human rights that they are entitled to, with differences that must be respected.
These differences include their:
traditions
culture
forms of social expression
and language.
The human rights that they are entitled to include:
right to self autonomy
right to their land
right to the use of their land
right to conservation
right to collectively use their natural resources
right to access to economic development.
The PRD believes it is an obligation of the state to support with public policy and methods necessary to guarantee the development of all indigenous communities and towns.
The PRD sustains the fundamental principle of the San Andrés Accords.
The PRD is also against the death penalty, militarization of police, and military jurisdiction to crimes and misdemeanors of civic order.
Substantive equality and diversity in regard to sexual orientation
The PRD believes in the equality between women and men as well as gender mainstreaming.
The PRD champions the access to the same treatment and opportunities between men and women.
The PRD strives for women to have access to exercise their human, sexual, and reproductive rights and to make choices about their body in a free and informed manner.
The PRD promotes gender equality in all social spheres which are manifested in patriarchal and machismo-based power relations that threaten the dignity of women.
Education, science, and culture
The PRD defends the educational principles that inspired the third article of the constitution and alights itself with an education -from beginning education to university- that is secular, public, free, scientific, and of quality, as well as an education that strengthens national identity.
Economy
The PRD, since its founding, believes that the state should have jurisdiction and should intervene in the fundamental and prioritized areas of the productive sector, as are nutrition, production of clean energy, telecommunications, the process of technology, infrastructure, communication mediums, financial systems, and technology trade for the national and regional development, restraining ownership and dominion of hydrocarbons and radio-electric spectrum for the nation and the recovery of basic goods that guarantee sovereignty.
Social justice
The PRD defends the rights of every Mexican worker, the preservation and expansion of social security and the permanent improvements of contractual conditions.
Environment
The PRD adopts the principle of sustainable development as well as preserving the cultural environment. The PRD does this to satisfy the necessities of current and future generations, based on the responsible use of natural resources, including new tools for development, that would allow for the protection and recovery of the environment with comprehensive public policy.
International scope
The PRD supports the self-determination of communities, non-intervention, legal equality of states, the cooperation for national development and sovereignty and the respect and incorporation of international treaties to legislation.
Internal organization
The PRD consists of: congresses, councils, and executive committees, an assembly, and a committee. The nation, states, and municipalities have the same organization. They each have a congress, a council, and an executive committee. Congress has the most authority, the council coordinates communication between congresses, and the executive committee applies the guidelines set in place by the council. The maximum rule for any elected position is three years. The national, state, and municipal president cannot be reelected for the same position. The PRD has an anti-discriminatory policy for its internal elections. The PRD has policies put in place that guarantee the inclusion of women, young people, and indigenous people.
The National Congress is the maximum authority of the PRD. The National Congress approves the statue, the declaration of principles, the program, and the political organization of the party. 90% of the National Congress is made up from delegates elected in municipal assemblies. The rest of the National Congress is made up by two delegates for each State Council, the presidents of the State Councils, the members of the National Executive Committee, and by the elected delegates of the National Council that shall not exceed 4% of the total delegates in the Party's Congress. The National Council chooses the majority of its 21-member executive committee except for the president of the party, the secretary of the party, and the parliamentary group coordinators.
In 2014, the PRD became the first political party to have internal elections organized by the Federal Electoral Institute where those affiliated with the party could vote for the members of the National Congress and Council as well as State and Municipal Councils. 2 million people participated in the internal elections which is about 45% of those affiliated with the party.
Currents
Inside the PRD, there are "currents" that are dedicated to specific approaches and stances or about specific themes or movements. These include:
National Democratic Alternative (Alternativa Democrática Nacional)
New Left (Nueva Izquierda)
New Sun Forum (Foro Nuevo Sol)
National Democratic Left (Izquierda Democrática Nacional)
Political Action Group (Grupo Acción Política)
Presidents
See also
Politics of Mexico
List of political parties in Mexico
History of democracy in Mexico
References
Further reading
Bruhn, Kathleen. "PRD local governments in Michoacan: implications for Mexico’s democratization process." Subnational Politics and Democratization in Mexico (1999): 19-48.
1989 establishments in Mexico
Political parties established in 1989
Political parties in Mexico
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CUNY%20Graduate%20Center
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CUNY Graduate Center
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The Graduate School and University Center of the City University of New York (CUNY Graduate Center) is a public research institution and postgraduate university in New York City. Serving as the principal doctorate-granting institution of the City University of New York (CUNY) system, The CUNY Graduate Center is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very High Research Activity". The school is situated in the landmark B. Altman and Company Building at 365 Fifth Avenue in Midtown Manhattan, opposite the Empire State Building. The CUNY Graduate Center has 4,600 students, 31 doctoral programs, 14 master's programs, and 30 research centers and institutes. A core faculty of approximately 140 is supplemented by over 1,800 additional faculty members from CUNY's eleven senior colleges and New York City's cultural and scientific institutions.
Several doctoral programs at the CUNY Graduate Center, including Criminal Justice, English, History, Philosophy, and Sociology, have been ranked among the top 30 in the United States. For the Fall 2022 semester, 16% of applicants across all doctoral programs at the CUNY Graduate Center were offered admission.
CUNY Graduate Center faculty include recipients of the Nobel Prize, the Abel Prize, Pulitzer Prize, the National Humanities Medal, the National Medal of Science, the National Endowment for the Humanities, the Rockefeller Fellowship, the Schock Prize, the Bancroft Prize, the Wolf Prize, Grammy Awards, the George Jean Nathan Award for Dramatic Criticism, Guggenheim Fellowships, the New York City Mayor's Award for Excellence in Science and Technology, the Presidential Early Career Awards for Scientists and Engineers, and memberships in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the National Academy of Sciences.
History
CUNY began offering doctoral education through its Division of Graduate Studies in 1961, and awarded its first two Ph.D.s to Daniel Robinson and Barbara Stern in 1965. Robinson, formerly a professor of philosophy at the University of Oxford, received his Ph.D. in psychology, while Stern, late of Rutgers University, received her Ph.D. in English literature.
In 1969, the Division of Graduate Studies formally became the Graduate School and University Center. Mathematician Mina S. Rees served as the institution's first president from 1969 until her retirement in 1972. Rees was succeeded as president of the Graduate Center by environmental psychologist Harold M. Proshansky, who served until his death in 1990. Provost Steven M. Cahn was named acting president in Spring 1991. Psychologist Frances Degen Horowitz was appointed president in September, 1991. In 2005, Horowitz was succeeded by the school's provost, Professor of English Literature William P. Kelly.
During Kelly's tenure at the Graduate Center, the university saw significant growth in revenue, funding opportunities for students, increased Distinguished Faculty, and a general resurgence. This is in accordance with three primary goals articulated in the Graduate Center's strategic plan. The first of these involves enhancing student support. In 2013, 83 dissertation-year fellowships were awarded at a total cost of $1.65 million. The Graduate Center is also developing new programs to advance research prior to the dissertation phase, including archival work. The fiscal stability of the university has enabled the chancellery to increase, on an incremental basis, the value of these fellowships. The packages extended for the 2013-14 years increase stipends and reduce teaching requirements. In 2001, the Graduate Center provided 14 million dollars in student support, and, in Fall 2013, 51 million in student support.
On April 23, 2013, the CUNY Board of Trustees announced that President Kelly would serve as interim chancellor for the City University of New York beginning July 1 with the retirement of Chancellor Matthew Goldstein. GC Provost Chase F. Robinson, a historian, was appointed to serve as interim president of the Graduate Center in 2013, and then served as president from July 2014 to December 2018.
Joy Connolly became provost in August 2016 and interim president in December 2018. Julia Wrigley was appointed as interim provost in December 2018. In July 2019, James Muyskens became interim president, as Connolly had been appointed president of the American Council of Learned Societies. On March 30, 2020, Robin L. Garrell, Vice Provost for Graduate Education and Dean of Graduate Division at University of California, Los Angeles, was announced as the next president of The Graduate Center. She assumed office on August 1, 2020.
Steve Everett assumed the position of Provost and Senior Vice President in August 2021.
Campus
The CUNY Graduate Center's main campus is located in the B. Altman and Company Building at 34th Street and Fifth Avenue in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. CUNY shares the B. Altman Building with the Oxford University Press. The CUNY Graduate Center has occupied its current location since 2000, before which it was housed in Aeolian Hall on West 42nd Street across from the New York Public Library Main Branch. In 2017, the CUNY Advanced Science Research Center at 85 St. Nicholas Terrace in Manhattan's Harlem neighborhood became part of the CUNY Graduate Center.
Advanced Science Research Center
The Advanced Science Research Center at the Graduate Center (CUNY ASRC) is an interdisciplinary STEM center for research and discovery that leverages expertise across five increasingly interconnected fields: nanoscience, photonics, structural biology, neuroscience, and environmental science. The CUNY ASRC aims to enhance STEM education and promote a collaborative research culture where scientists from different fields can work side by side in the center's core facilities, pursuing new research that yields practical benefits for society. It is located in a state-of-the-art, 200,000-square-foot building on the southern edge of City College's campus in Upper Manhattan.
The CUNY ASRC, which opened its doors in September 2014, is an outgrowth of CUNY's “Decade of Science” initiative, a 10-year-long, multibillion-dollar commitment to elevating science research and education.
The CUNY ASRC formally joined the CUNY Graduate Center in spring 2017. Today, the CUNY ASRC is a hub for CUNY's integrated research network across the five boroughs of New York City. Five years after the center opened, over 200 graduate, undergraduate, and high school students had been mentored by CUNY ASRC scientists. In that time, the center also hosted over 400 conferences, seminars, and workshops and awarded over $600,000 in seed grants to CUNY faculty.
Research initiatives
The CUNY ASRC was founded on the principle that the next great scientific advances will result from the interaction of researchers across different disciplines. Thus, the center integrates five diverse research fields to encourage collaboration among established scientists, early-career researchers, and students in areas that shape 21st-century global science.
Nanoscience: Exploring on the tiniest scale, using the living world for inspiration to create new materials and devices that advance fields ranging from biomedicine to energy production
Photonics: Discovering new ways to control light, heat, radio waves, and sound for future optical computers, ultrasensitive cameras, and cell phone technology
Structural biology: Combining physics and chemistry to explore biology at the molecular and cellular levels, with the intention of identifying new ways to treat diseases
Neuroscience: Investigating how the brain senses and responds to environmental and social experiences, with a focus on neural networks, metabolic changes, and molecular signals occurring in brain cells, with the goal of developing biosensors and innovative solutions to promote mental health
Environmental sciences: Developing high-tech, interdisciplinary solutions to urgent environmental challenges, including air and water issues, climate change, and disease transmission
Each research initiative occupies one floor of the CUNY ASRC building that hosts four faculty laboratories and between two and four core facilities.
Core facilities
The CUNY ASRC houses 15 individual core facilities containing a wide array of cutting-edge equipment. These facilities are open to researchers from CUNY, other academic institutions, nonprofit organizations, and for-profit companies. The CUNY ASRC welcomes researchers from the New York metropolitan area and from across the country and the globe.
The facilities include:
Advanced Laboratory for Chemical and Isotopic Signatures (ALCIS) Facility
Biomolecular Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Facility
Comparative Medicine Unit (CMU)
Epigenetics Facilities
Imaging Facility
Live Imaging & Bioenergetics Facility
MALDI Imaging Joint Facility
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Facility
Macromolecular Crystallization Facility
Mass Spectrometry Core Facility
Nanofabrication Facility
Next Generation Environmental Sensor (NGENS) Lab
Photonics Core Facility
Radio Frequency and mm-Wave Facility
Surface Science Facility
Education and outreach
The CUNY ASRC promotes science education throughout CUNY, New York City, and well beyond. Students from CUNY's community and senior colleges participate in research opportunities during the academic year and over the summer through programs such as the CUNY Summer Undergraduate Research Program. Likewise, graduate students from master's and doctoral programs at the Graduate Center and from the Grove School of Engineering are integral members of CUNY ASRC research teams.
IlluminationSpace
The CUNY ASRC's IlluminationSpace is an interactive education center that makes science accessible to New Yorkers of all ages and backgrounds. IlluminationSpace has welcomed high school field trips and offered free community hours. Currently, it offers a variety of virtual programs and resources for exploring the science that takes place at the CUNY ASRC.
The CUNY ASRC received a Public Interest Technology University Network 2021 Challenge Grant to establish the IlluminationSpace as a hub for public interest technology, STEM pathways, and science communications and outreach at CUNY. The goal of the funding is to better serve New York City's underrepresented communities by applying a community-informed approach to democratize STEM and sustain impact. It will tap a diverse range of experts and lived experiences to build an ecosystem of engagement and exchange that benefits NYC's BIPOC communities and the CUNY STEM community.
Community Sensor Lab
The CUNY ASRC Community Sensor Lab is a workshop series that teaches high school students and community members how to build low-cost, DIY sensors that can monitor aspects of the environment from the level of carbon dioxide and pollutants in the air to acidity in the soil and water.
Faculty opportunities
The CUNY ASRC offers a seed grant program to fund collaborative research that supports tenured and tenure-track faculty at CUNY colleges. The program started in 2015 and currently awards six one-year, $20,000 grants annually.
In addition, the center's National Science Foundation CAREER Bootcamp Program, which guides tenure-track faculty through the proposal writing process, have helped CUNY researchers secure substantial NSF CAREER grants.
Grants and research
Between 2014 and 2019, CUNY ASRC researchers secured 126 grants totaling $61 million. Several recent grants have set records for CUNY and the CUNY Graduate Center. Faculty, postdoctoral fellows, and graduate students at the CUNY ASRC also hold several patents. Professor Kevin Gardner, director of the CUNY ASRC Structural Biology Initiative, was instrumental in the identification of hypoxia-inducible factor 2-alpha (HIF-2α) as a druggable target and the drug development efforts that led to the FDA-approved first-in-kind kidney cancer drug from Merck, belzutifan.
Center for Advanced Technology – Sensor CAT
The CUNY ASRC is home to one of 15 Centers for Advanced Technology (CATs) designated by Empire State Development NYSTAR. Funded by a nearly $8.8 million grant, the CUNY ASRC Sensor CAT spurs academic-industry partnerships to develop sensor-based technology. Developing biomedical and environmental sensors is a particular focus, as is finding new approaches to sensing through photonics, materials, and nanoscience research.
Simons Collaboration
Supported by a 2020 grant of up to $16 million from the Simons Foundation, a team of scientists led by Professor Andrea Alù, director of the CUNY ASRC Photonics Initiative, is studying wave transport in metamaterials. The team's work could lead to greater sensing capabilities for the Internet of Things, improvements in biomedical applications, and extreme control of sound waves for medical imaging and wireless technology.
Department of Defense Vannevar Bush Faculty Fellowships
Professors Rein Ulijn and Andrea Alù, the directors of the CUNY ASRC Nanoscience Initiative and the CUNY ASRC Photonics Initiative, each won a prestigious Vannevar Bush Faculty Fellowship from the U.S. Department of Defense. The fellowship is the agency's most prestigious single-investigator award.
Alù’s $3 million fellowship, awarded in 2019, support his efforts to develop new materials that enable extreme wave manipulation in the context of thermal radiation and heat management. Alù was also named the 2021 Blavatnik National Awards Laureate in Physical Sciences and Engineering.
Ulijn's $3 million fellowship, awarded in 2021, supports his work to understand how complex mixtures of molecules acquire functionality and to repurpose this understanding to create new nanotechnology that is inspired by living systems.
Mina Rees Library
The Mina Rees Library, named after former president Mina Rees, supports the research, teaching, and learning activities of the CUNY Graduate Center by connecting its community with print materials, electronic resources, research assistance and instruction, and expertise about the complexities of scholarly communication. Situated on three floors of the CUNY Graduate Center, the library is a hub for discovery, delivery, digitization, and a place for solitary study. The library offers many services, including research consultations, a 24/7 online chat service with reference librarians, and workshops and webinars on using research tools.
The library also serves as a gateway to the collections of other CUNY libraries, the New York Public Library (NYPL), and libraries worldwide. It participates in a CUNY-wide book delivery system and offers an interlibrary loan service to bring materials from outside CUNY to Graduate Center scholars. The main branch of NYPL is just a few blocks up Fifth Avenue, and NYPL's Science, Industry and Business Library is just around the corner inside the B. Altman Building. CUNY Graduate Center students and faculty are NYPL's primary academic constituents, with borrowing privileges from NYPL research collections. NYPL's participation in the Manhattan Research Library Initiative (MaRLI) extends borrowing privileges for CUNY Graduate Center students to NYU and Columbia libraries as well.
The Mina Rees Library is a key participant in the CUNY Graduate Center's digital initiatives. It supports the digital scholarship of students and faculty and promotes the understanding, creation, and use of open-access literature. Among its special collections is the Activist Women's Voices collection, an oral history project focused on unheralded New York City community-based women activists.
Cultural venues
The CUNY Graduate Center houses three performance spaces and two art galleries. The Harold M. Proshansky Auditorium, named for the institution's second president, is located on the concourse level and contains 389 seats. The Baisley Powell Elebash Recital Hall, located on the first floor, seats 180. The Martin E. Segal Theatre, also located on the first floor, seats 70.
James Gallery
The ground floor of the CUNY Graduate Center houses the Amie and Tony James Gallery, also known as the James Gallery, which the Center for the Humanities oversees. The James Gallery intends to bring scholars and artists into dialog with one another and serve as a site for interdisciplinary research. The James Gallery hosts numerous exhibitions annually, and has hosted solo exhibitions by notable American and international artists such as Alison Knowles and Dor Guez.
CUNY TV and NYC Media
CUNY TV
The University's citywide cable channel, CUNY TV, broadcasts on cable and WNYE's digital terrestrial television subchannel 25.3. Its production studios and offices are located on the first floor, while the broadcast satellite dishes reside on the building's ninth floor (rooftop).
NYC Media
Sharing CUNY TV's main facilities is NYC Media, which is the official broadcast network and media production group of the NYC Mayor's Office of Media and Entertainment. The group includes WNYE-FM (91.5) radio station and WNYE-TV television channel (Channel 25), which also puts out “NYCLife” programming on 25.1 and “NYCGov” on 25.2, all broadcast 24/7 from within the building.
Academics
Rankings
The latest edition of U.S. News & World Report Best Graduate School Ranking ranked CUNY Graduate Center's PhD program in Criminal Justice 15th, its English program 17th, its Sociology PhD program 26th, its History PhD program 26th, and its Mathematics PhD program 47th best in the nation. In the 2016 edition of QS World University Rankings, CUNY Graduate Center's PhD program in Philosophy was ranked 44th globally. In the 2022 edition of the Philosophical Gourmet Report ranked CUNY Graduate Center's philosophy program 14th best in the United States and 16th best in English-speaking countries.
Faculty
Faculty members include the recipients of the Nobel Prize, Pulitzer Prize, the National Humanities Medal, the National Medal of Science, the Schock Prize, the Bancroft Prize, Grammy Awards, the George Jean Nathan Award for Dramatic Criticism, Guggenheim Fellowships, the New York City Mayor's Award for Excellence in Science and Technology, the Presidential Early Career Awards for Scientists and Engineers, and memberships in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the National Academy of Sciences. Many departments are recognized internationally for their level of scholarship.
Courses in the social sciences, humanities, and mathematics, and courses in the sciences requiring no laboratory work convene at the Graduate Center. Due to the consortial nature of doctoral study at the CUNY Graduate Center, courses requiring laboratory work, courses for the clinical doctorates, and courses in business, criminal justice, engineering, and social welfare convene on CUNY college campuses.
Community
The CUNY Graduate Center pioneered the CUNY Academic Commons in 2009 to much praise. The CUNY Academic Commons is an online, academic social network for faculty, staff, and graduate students of the City University of New York (CUNY) system. Designed to foster conversation, collaboration, and connections among the 24 individual colleges that make up the university system, the site, founded in 2009, has quickly grown as a hub for the CUNY community, serving in the process to strengthen a growing group of digital scholars, teachers, and open-source projects at the university. The project has received awards and grants from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Sloan Consortium and was the winner of the 2013 Digital Humanities Award. It continues to be in the forefront of scholarly social media.
Also affiliated with the institution are four University Center programs: CUNY Baccalaureate for Unique and Interdisciplinary Studies through which undergraduates can earn individualized bachelor's degrees by completing courses at any of the CUNY colleges; the CUNY School of Professional Studies and the associated Joseph S. Murphy Institute for Worker Education and Labor Studies; the CUNY Graduate School of Journalism, which offers a master's degree in journalism; and Macaulay Honors College.
Research
CUNY Graduate Center describes itself as "research-intensive" and is classified by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education to be an R1 or have "highest research activity." The CUNY Graduate Center's primary library, named after Mina Rees, is located on campus; however, its students also have borrowing privileges at the remaining 31 City University of New York libraries, which collectively house 6.2 million printed works and over 300,000 e-books. Beginning in 1968, the CUNY Graduate Center maintains a formal collaboration with the New York Public Library that allows faculty and students access to NYPL's extensive research collections, regular library resources, as well as three research study rooms located in the Stephen A. Schwarzman Building. Further, , students have access to the libraries of Columbia University and New York University through the NYPL's Manhattan Research Library Initiative. The CUNY Graduate Center library also maintains an online repository called CUNY Academic Works, which hosts open-access faculty and student research.
Advanced Research Collaborative (ARC)
The CUNY Graduate Center's Advanced Research Collaborative (ARC) program conducts research in seven core areas of study:
Inequality - Research on the structural foundations of increasing inequality across our society and ways to mobilize communities around various alternatives.
Immigration - Interdisciplinary research on the social, cultural, and political impacts of international migration, with special attention on the role of immigration in New York City and comparative studies on how immigration and ethnic diversity are experienced in different nations.
Multilingualism - Interdisciplinary research on complex social, cultural, and policy issues raised by multilingualism.
Digital Initiatives: Research in a broad range of digital projects and digital resources, including data mining and the digital humanities.
Urban Studies: Critical issues facing large cities around the world and the role played therein by public, nonprofit, and business organizations.
Initiatives and committees
The CUNY Graduate Center does additional work through its initiatives and committees:
Futures Initiative
Graduate Center Digital Initiatives
Initiative for the Theoretical Sciences (ITS)
Revolutionizing American Studies Initiative
The Committee for the Study of Religion
The Committee on Globalization and Social Change
The Committee for Interdisciplinary Science Studies
Endangered Language Initiative
Intellectual Publics
Centers and institutes
With over 30 research institutes and centers the CUNY Graduate Center produces work on a range of social, cultural, scientific and civic issues.
Advanced Science Research Center
American Social History Project/Center for Media and Learning
Barry S. Brook Center for Music Research and Documentation (founded in 1989)
Bildner Center for Western Hemisphere Studies
Center for Jewish Studies
Center for Advanced Study in Education (CASE)
Center for Human Environments
Center for Latin American, Iberian, and Latino Cultures
Center for Place, Culture and Politics
Center for the Humanities
Center for the Study of Culture, Technology and Work
Center for the Study of Women and Society
Center for Urban Education Policy
Center for Urban Research
Center on Philanthropy and Civil Society
CIDR: CUNY Institute for Demographic Research
CLAGS: The Center for LGBTQ Studies
Committee on Globalization and Social Change
CUNY Institute for Software Design and Development (CISDD)
European Union Studies Center
Foundation for Iberian Music
Gotham Center for New York City History
Henri Peyre French Institute
Howard Samuels Center
Human Ecodynamics Research Center
Institute for Language Education in Transcultural Context
Institute for Research on the African Diaspora in the Americas & the Caribbean (IRADAC)
Latin/Greek Institute
Leon Levy Center for Biography
Middle East and Middle Eastern American Center (MEMEAC)
Martin E. Segal Theatre Center
Ralph Bunche Institute for International Studies
Research Center for Music Iconography (founded in 1972)
Research Institute for the Study of Language in Urban Society (RISLUS)
Saul Kripke Center
Stone Center on Socio-Economic Inequality
Teaching and Learning Center
The Writers' Institute at The Graduate Center
American Social History Project
The American Social History Project/Center for Media and Learning (ASHP/CML) was established in 1981 to create and disseminate materials that help with understanding the diverse cultural and social history of the United States. Founded by Stephen Brier and Herbert Gutman, who sought to teach the history of everyday Americans, early projects included the film 1877: The Grand Army of Starvation, about the 1877 railway strike.
ASHP has created curriculum grounded in the work of Howard Zinn, Herbert Gutman, and Stephen Brier which aims to teach social studies at the high school level with the inclusion of diverse viewpoints, including indigenous groups, enslaved Americans, immigrants, and the working class. Notable curricula and teaching tools have included Freedom's Unfinished Revolution: An Inquiry into the Civil War and Reconstruction, and Who Built America? . Other curriculum, such as Golden Lands, Working Hands, has focused on labor history; these types of ASHP materials emphasize collaborative teaching and learning strategies and have been popular in teaching districts that prioritize union labor.
Digital teaching resources created by ASHP have included the History Matters website; and the online resource Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité: Exploring the French Revolution. As teaching tools, these websites place an emphasis on inclusion of primary source material for use in the classroom, alongside teaching strategies for seamless use of these documents in classroom curriculum. The online resource, September 11 Digital Archive, has received acclaim for its comprehensive representation of historic perspectives. ASHP is also a partner of the Mission US project and co-produced Mission US: Cheyenne Odyssey, an award-winning video game about a Cheyenne tribesman whose way of life is challenged by western expansion.
ASHP was established out of the success of a series of National Endowment for the Humanities summer seminars; seminar topics have included Learning to Look: Teaching Humanitites with Visual Images and New Media, Visual Culture of the American Civil War and its Aftermath, and LGBTQ+ Histories of the United States. This focus on professional development opportunities for educators has included other workshops such as the Bridging Historias: Latino/a History and Culture in the Community College Classroom program.
Stone Center on Socio-Economic Inequality
The James M. and Cathleen D. Stone Center on Socio-Economic Inequality was launched on September 1, 2016. The Stone Center expanded and replaced the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) Center, which opened its doors at the Graduate Center in 2009. It began a post-doctoral program in 2019.
The Stone Center has hosted several scholarly convenings. One year after its launch, it hosted the 2017 Meeting Of The Society For The Study Of Economic Inequality (ECINEQ). In 2021, it convened wealth inequality scholars for the two-day conference, From Understanding Inequality to Reducing Inequality.
Notable people
The CUNY Graduate Center has graduated 15,000 alumni worldwide, including numerous academics, politicians, artists, and entrepreneurs. As of 2016, the CUNY Graduate Center counted five MacArthur Foundation Fellows among its alumni, including writer Maggie Nelson as the most recent recipient. Among alumni graduated between 2003 and 2018, more than two-thirds are employed at educational institutions and over half have remained within New York City or its metro area.
Among the CUNY Graduate Center's alumni are leading scholars across numerous disciplines, including art historian and ACT-UP activist Douglas Crimp, political scientist Douglas Hale, anthropologist Faye Ginsburg, sociologist Michael P. Jacobson, historian Maurice Berger, and philosopher Nancy Fraser. The City University of New York has been acknowledged for its exceptional number of faculty and students who have been awarded nationally recognized prizes in poetry. Among this group include student Gregory Pardlo, winner of the 2015 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry
The CUNY Graduate Center holds a reputation for attracting established scholars to its faculty. In 2001, the CUNY Graduate Center initiated a five-year faculty recruitment campaign to hire additional renowned academics and public intellectuals in order to bolster the institution's faculty roster. Those recruited during the drive include André Aciman, Jean Anyon, Mitchell Duneier, Victor Kolyvagin, Robert Reid-Pharr and Saul Kripke.
The CUNY Graduate Center utilizes a unique consortium model, which hosts 140 faculty with sole appointments at the CUNY Graduate Center, most of whom are senior scholars in their respective disciplines, as well as draws upon 1,800 faculty from across the other CUNY schools to both teach classes and advise graduate students.
Notable faculty members include:
Historian Ervand Abrahamian
Writer André Aciman
Poet Ammiel Alcalay
Material scientist Andrea Alù
Sociologist Stanley Aronowitz
Anthropologist Talal Asad
Biophysicist William Bialek
Art historian Claire Bishop
Musicologist Barry S. Brook
Literary historian Mary Ann Caws
Composer John Corigliano
English professor Cathy Davidson
Music theorist Philip Ewell
Critical psychologist Michelle Fine
Sociolinguist Ofelia García
Geographer Ruth Wilson Gilmore
Economist Michael Grossman (economist)
Computer Scientist Robert Haralick
Geographer David Harvey
Historian Dagmar Herzog
Historian James Oakes
Historian David Nasaw
Art historian David Joselit
Physicist Michio Kaku
Poet Wayne Koestenbaum
Mathematician Victor Kolyvagin
Economist Paul Krugman
Literary critic Eric Lott
Economist Branko Milanović
Social psychologist Stanley Milgram
Feminist theorist and memoirist Nancy K. Miller
Developmental psychologist Katherine Nelson
Political scientist Frances Fox Piven
Literary critic Robert Reid-Pharr
Literary historian and biographer David S. Reynolds
Spanish professor Paul Julian Smith
Mathematician Dennis Sullivan
Student life
Students at the CUNY Graduate Center have the option of living in Graduate housing, located in East Harlem. The eight story building includes a gym, laundry facilities, lounge and rooftop terrace with views of the Midtown skyline. The Graduate housing was opened in the Fall of 2011 in conjunction with the construction of the Hunter College School of Social Work.
The Doctoral and Graduate Students' Council (DGSC) is the sole policy-making body representing students in doctoral and master's programs at the CUNY Graduate Center.
There are over forty doctoral student organizations ranging from the Middle Eastern Studies Organization and Africana Studies Group to the Prison Studies Group and the Immigration Working Group. These chartered organizations host conferences, publish online magazines, and create social events aimed at fostering a community for CUNY Graduate Center students.
Doctoral students at the CUNY Graduate Center also produce a newspaper funded by the DGSC and run by a committee of editors from the various doctoral programs. The paper, entitled The GC Advocate, comes out six times per academic year and is free of charge for students, faculty, staff, and visitors.
References
External links
Graduate Center
Universities and colleges in Manhattan
University art museums and galleries in New York City
34th Street (Manhattan)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willenhall
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Willenhall
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Willenhall is a historic market town and civil parish in the Metropolitan Borough of Walsall, in the West Midlands, England, with a population taken at the 2011 census of 28,480. It is situated between Wolverhampton and Walsall, historically in the county of Staffordshire. It lies upon the River Tame, and is part of the Black Country.
The town is historically famous for the manufacture of locks and keys. As early as 1770 Willenhall contained 148 skilled locksmiths and its coat of arms reflects the importance of this industry to its growth. It was home to the National Union of Lock and Metal Workers from 1889 until 2004. Its motto is Salus Populi Suprema Lex – The welfare of the people is the highest law.
The urban district of Willenhall (established by the Local Government Act 1894) was partitioned in 1966 between the county boroughs of Walsall and Wolverhampton (since 1974 the metropolitan boroughs of Walsall and Wolverhampton).
The northern border of Willenhall has always been adjoining open land, although the extent of Willenhall's expansion has meant in the last 100 years its northern border has been moved by about two miles. This is mostly due to housing developments in the Short Heath and New Invention areas.
History
Willenhall has been described as "undoubtedly a place of great antiquity, on the evidence of its name it manifestly had its origins in an early Saxon settlement. The Anglo-Saxon form of its name Willanhale may be interpreted as 'the meadow land of Willa' – Willa being a personal name." Alternatively, the name may mean willow halh, the first element of it being the Old English wilgen 'of willows'. The Old English word halh meaning "a nook or corner of land, often used of land in a hollow or river bend."
The first record of the settlement of Willenhall is from the eighth century when a treaty was signed there by King Ethelbald of Mercia, in which Willenhall was referred to as Willenhalch. In 996 the town was referred to as Willenhale, and as Winenhale it was mentioned in the Domesday Book (1086) as a very small settlement, and it remained so until the growth of industry in the 18th century.
During the 10th century, Willenhall was in the Shire of Stafford and The Hundred of Offlow (unit of a 100 villages), consisting of 30 households and a population of around 120. In the Middle Ages, Willenhall was included in the parish of St. Peter's Collegiate Church, Wolverhampton. Although there was a church in the village, people would have to travel to Wolverhampton for weddings and funerals. It was not until 1840 that Willenhall had a parish church. St. Giles was the first church to be built. The present church is the third on the site, dating from 1867. The River Tame flows through the churchyard and was until recent years one of the few places where the water surfaced.
Willenhall was a small agricultural village throughout the Middle Ages. From Tudor times, the natural mineral wealth began to be exploited with ore being sent out to charcoal furnaces in nearby Cannock Chase. The iron product was then returned to be turned into small metal goods. Nails were a common product and by the end of 17th century Willenhall had a healthy hand trade, making grid irons, curry combs, bolts, latches and coffin handles. According to the Hearth Tax Returns in 1665, Willenhall comprised 136 households and 894 persons. The population did not increase dramatically until the 18th century when iron and coal began to be fully exploited. The town grew up around the Market Place and Stafford Street with many tiny streets crammed with houses, workshops and pubs. Evidence of the town's growing prosperity is still visible today in the Dale House, once the home of the Hincks family, and 33 Market Place, the home of the Clemsons, both maltsters.
Willenhall suffered its very own great fire in 1659, when most of the town centre was devastated. Most common homes at this time were still made of wattle and daub with glassless wind-eyes (windows), properties easily razed by fire. Rebuilding where money allowed was in brick; The Bell Inn Public House being a good surviving example from 1660, although now closed for business and in the ownership of a local heritage trust (the Willenhall Townscape Heritage Initiative).
Willenhall's first workhouse opened in 1741 adjacent to what is now Upper Lichfield Street; it was in operation for 100 years before merging with Wolverhampton. By 1801, the population was 3,143.
Poor housing and lack of any proper sanitation led to a cholera epidemic in 1849 when 292 people died. Many of those who died were buried in the Cholera Burial Ground "on land at the bottom of Doctors Piece." A commemorative plaque at the site reads:THE PARISH OF WILLENHALL WAS VISITED BY CHOLERA IN 1849.THE FIRST DEATH BY THAT DISEASE TOOK PLACE ON THE 17TH AUGUST, THE LAST ON 4TH OCTOBER. IN 49 DAYS 292 PERSONS DIED, THE CHURCHYARD OF ST GILES BEING TOO CROWDED FOR FURTHER INTERMENT, THIS GROUND, A PORTION OF THE CHURCH ESTATE WAS (WHILE YET UNCONSECRATED) FIRST USED FOR BURIALS ON THE FIRST OF SEPTEMBER. ON THREE DAYS THE BURIALS WERE 15 DAILY THE WHOLE NUMBER INTERRED HERE AND IN THE CHURCHYARD BEING 211.
The epidemic shocked the town into improving conditions, and in 1854 the Willenhall Local Board of Health was founded: to reflect a growth in civic pride, it established a library building in Clemson Street in 1866. The board was a forerunner of Willenhall Urban District Council which took over in 1894.
The clock in the Market Place was erected in 1892 by public subscription to the memory of Joseph Tonks, who was a doctor working in the town post-cholera. About the clock, Hackwood writes: This was erected, as an inscription upon it testifies, as a memorial to the late Joseph Tonks, surgeon. "whose generous and unsparing devotion in the cause of alleviating human suffering" was "deemed worthy of public record."
Tonks brought both health and sanitation to Willenhall, but died at the age of 35.
20th century
By 1901, the population of "Willenhall, minus Short Heath" was 18,515.
Football came to Willenhall on 4 September 1905 when Spring Bank Stadium was opened in Temple Road, serving Willenhall Swifts F.C., whose first opponents in a friendly at the stadium were the Football League side Birmingham City. The club merged with Willenhall Pickwicks in 1919 to form Willenhall F.C., who achieved swift success as Birmingham and District League champions in 1922. However, the club soon fell into financial problems and went into liquidation in 1930. Spring Bank Stadium was sold and converted into a greyhound track, which remained open until 1980. It was demolished soon afterwards and replaced by housing.
Football returned to Willenhall in 1953 with the formation of Willenhall Town F.C., who played at a site on Noose Lane until 2013 and played in the local leagues until 2022. Since 2010, the Noose Lane ground has been owned by, and the home of, local league club Sporting Khalsa F.C.
Two war memorials were erected in the town after World War I to commemorate the hundreds of men from the town who lost their lives in the conflict. The memorial park was opened in 1922 in honour of those killed in that war.
The entertainment industry in Willenhall was boosted in 1914 by the opening of the town's first cinema, the Coliseum. It was followed a year later by the Picture House. A third cinema, the Dale Cinema, opened in the town in 1932. However, the closure of The Dale at the end of 1967 signalled the end of cinemas in Willenhall after 53 years. The building was later converted into a bingo hall and since December 1999 has been a J D Wetherspoon public house.
The growing population of Willenhall around the turn of the 20th century led to increased overcrowding and a need for new properties to be built. In 1920, the town's first council houses were built in Temple Road. Over the next 50 years or so, thousands of new private and council houses were built, mostly expanding on developments up to three miles north of the town centre. Willenhall Town Hall was completed in 1935 and public baths were erected in 1939.
The majority of Willenhall became part of Walsall Metropolitan Borough in 1966. However, a percentage, mainly Portobello, came under the jurisdiction of City of Wolverhampton Council, and still continues to be so.
By the late 1970s, the local industry was in decline, and by the year 2000 most of the town's lock-makers had closed or relocated. The former Yale factory was demolished in 2009 and replaced by a Morrisons supermarket which opened in January 2010.
However, the town's high street retains many of its old buildings which have been local landmarks since the turn of the 20th century or earlier.
Future
"Much of the town centre is a designated conservation area and a £2.1 million bid for the Heritage Lottery funding is being prepared ... to fund enhancements to local buildings." So, within the next few years Willenhall Town Centre is set to undergo some regeneration. Currently the outskirts of the town centre are lined with abandoned factories, although most have been demolished and will be replaced with new flats. The part currently includes a Morrisons branch along with Lidl, Tesco and Spar within its borders.
There were plans to reopen Willenhall Bilston Street railway station, which was one of two old railway stations in the town (the other being Willenhall Stafford Street railway station), however recently funding for the line which the station would have served has been given the green light and the service was that was withdrawn in December 2008 will be reinstated to serve Willenhall. Therefore, plans for the reopening of the station have currently been discussed.
Parish churches
The town of Willenhall is the home of four different parish churches of the Church of England: St. Giles', St. Stephen's, St. Anne's, and Holy Trinity. St. Giles' did not originally have its own ecclesiastical district: before 1846 it was a Chapel of Ease to the mother church of" St. Peter's, Wolverhampton. The chapel was for those who could not afford to go to Wolverhampton to worship, baptize or marry.
St. Giles' Chapel was the most ancient chapel in the town of Willenhall. It was considered a chapel of ease before 1846 and was probably built "at the commencement of the 14th century." "The medieval church was demolished in 1748" because it began to decay from old age. The new church was completed in about two years and in 1750, the new church was again open for worship. In 1848, it became a parish church of the Church of England in Willenhall. St. Stephen's and Holy Trinity were finished in 1854, and St. Anne's was built about 10 years later.
The Parish Church of St. Stephen's is named after St. Stephen the Martyr. The church register began in 1848, but it took six years to fund the building of the church. After funds were raised, it was built and then consecrated on 31 October 1854. In the second half of the 20th century, the church began to deteriorate because of dry rot, and it was demolished in 1978. Because of the deterioration of the church, work began on a new church in January 1977, and it was dedicated on 8 September 1979. Many of the statues from the original church were brought into the new one.
St Anne's Church was also built as a chapel of ease in 1858, but it became a Parish church in 1861. "In the 1970s the church interior was turned around by 90degrees, a raised dais being built on the south wall, with a new altar, the old Sanctuary becoming the Lady Chapel." However, after restoration in the 21st century, most of the lead was then stolen from its roof.
Industry
Willenhall is famous for the manufacture of locks, and the Locksmith's House (The Lock Museum), dating from Victorian times, demonstrates how one particular family of lockmakers lived and worked at the very beginning of the 20th century. This small museum is managed by the Black Country Living Museum and is open for pre-arranged group visits, including educational programmes for schools. The Locksmith's House is situated in New Road.
To make trading easier, the New Road (a toll road) was built before 1820, acting as an effective bypass for the main high street. Outside the town itself, settlements grew up around local industries. The area around Lane Head and Sandbeds had a thriving mining community and Portobello grew around the brickmaking industry. There was much coal mining in the Willenhall area until the 19th century when the industry came to a dramatic halt after a strike when the mines were flooded and lost forever. Lockmaking began in the area in Elizabethan times mainly in Wolverhampton, Willenhall and Bilston. Eventually it became concentrated in Willenhall, where lock making had begun as a cottage industry with many families producing locks and parts for locks in sheds or outhouses at the rear of their homes. Because long hours bending over their work tended to produce workers with humps on their backs, the town became known locally as 'Humpshire' and is still regarded as such with affection by many locals.
As late as 1956 there were still local men who had humps. Some public houses even had holes in the wall behind the wooden bench seats to allow their patrons to sit comfortably with their hump in the hole. Nearly all examples of such pubs have been lost. The Bell Inn in Market Street is an example of such a pub with curved holes in the walls to allow hump backed drinkers to sit up straight. Rushbrook's was a bakery in Market Street, Willenhall. In 1853, Rushbrook's struck their own "Rushbrook Farthing", a tradesman's token widely in use in the area. In the early 1960s the Spring Vale Tavern in St Anne's Road was renamed The Rushbrook Farthing in remembrance of this unusual practice.
Transport
Public transport
Willenhall is well served by buses. The town centre lies on the 529 Bus route, which links Walsall and Wolverhampton running every 10 minutes on average during weekdays. This is mostly operated by National Express West Midlands but one positioning journey to/from County Bridge is operated by Let's Go. Other local bus routes link the town to Ashmore Park, Wednesfield, Wednesbury, Darlaston, Bilston and Bloxwich as well as the local areas of Coppice Farm, Pool Hayes, Short Heath, Lodge Farm, Little London, New Invention, Bentley, Portobello and Lane Head.
Most of these bus routes are operated by National Express West Midlands, which operates over 80% of the bus network in the West Midlands conurbation. Some services are also operated by Diamond West Midlands.
Willenhall is poorly served by other modes of public transport. Both of the town's two railway stations (Willenhall Bilston Street railway station and Willenhall Stafford Street railway station) have been closed for over 40 years, and although plans were brought to reopen Bilston Street, this never materialised due to the withdrawal of funding for the rail line it would serve. The station at Bilston Street was set to reopen by the end of 2021 after securing funding in March 2018, and will be the first time Willenhall has had a rail connection since 1965.
Willenhall is currently not served by the West Midlands Metro light rail network, but one of the numerous expansion plans for the system is the 5 W's Route, which would link Willenhall with Wednesfield, Wolverhampton, Wednesbury and Walsall and via Darlaston, Bentley, Reedswood, Birchills, New Cross Hospital, Walsall Manor Hospital and Heath Town. Currently, there are some plans to create a line from Stourbridge to Wednesfield via Willenhall, however this is not planned to open or even start construction until at least the late 2020s, once the other 3 metro lines are open.
Road infrastructure
Willenhall is about 10 minutes drive away from Junction 10 of the M6. Many main roads run through the area including The Keyway (which runs from Willenhall to Wolverhampton/Willenhall border) and the A454, The Black Country Route.
Due to its central location, Willenhall is home to the main hubs of Poundland as well as transport companies Aspray and DX Freight. Additionally, dairy firm Müller Milk & Ingredients has a depot in the Ashmore Lake area of the town.
Location
Willenhall is located in between Wolverhampton and Walsall, near to Bilston, Darlaston, Bloxwich and Wednesfield.
Location grid
Landmarks
The main landmarks include: The Locksmith's House museum in New Road; the cholera burial ground in Doctors Piece; St Giles Church; the bandstand in Willenhall Park; the Clock Tower, The Bell Inn, the malthouse (now Davey's Locker shop), and the Lock and Key sculptures in the market place; Dale House (now a restaurant) and the Dale cinema (now a Wetherspoon's pub); the Toll House (now a restaurant), and the old Town Hall (now the library) in Walsall Street.
Education
Willenhall is home to three secondary schools. St Thomas More Catholic School is located near to the border of Bilston and Darlaston, Willenhall E-Act Academy (formerly known as Willenhall Comprehensive School, which moved from Bilston Road) and is now located on the town's Lodge Farm estate. Finally Pool Hayes Academy (formerly known as Pool Hayes Arts and Community School) is located on the town's Summer Hayes Estate. There is also Moseley Park school located on the Moseley road in Willenhall, near Portobello, and Stow Heath Primary School.
For younger students in Willenhall there are numerous primary schools, these are:
Fibbersley Park Academy – A recently built Super School located near Willenhall Park, made up of the merger of Clothier Street, Little London & Lakeside Primary now closed. Fibbersley Park Academy had an extension in 2016* increasing the year groups from 60 to 90 pupils.
Short Heath Junior School, Rosedale CofE Primary School & Lane Head Nursery School – Three federated schools located on the outskirts of the Lodge Farm Estate & Lane Head.
Barcroft School – The product of the recent merger of Elm Street Infants and Albion Road Juniors. Located near Willenhall Town Centre albion road and barcroft have been demolished
Woodlands Primary – Located in the Short Heath area of the town, very near to Lane Head.
Lodge Farm Primary – Located next to Willenhall School Sports College, very near the border with Bentley.
New Invention Junior/Infants – Two high achieving schools located next to each other in New Invention
Beacon Primary – A large school located in the middle of the New Invention Estate.
St. Giles CofE Primary School – A combined nursery, infant and primary school located next the St. Giles church on Walsall Street in the town centre
Pool Hayes Primary School – Located on the Summer Hayes estate. Not far from Pool Hayes Academy.
Sport
Football
The town has two football clubs.Willenhall Town F.C. who play in West Midlands (Regional) League Division One and Sporting Khalsa F.C. who play in Northern Premier League Division One Midlands, after being promoted as champions in the 2020–21 Midland Football League.
In the 2005/06 season Willenhall won the Birmingham Senior Cup with a 1–0 win over Stourbridge. Their most successful period was in the early 1980s, when they reached the first round of the FA Cup in the 1981–82 season and were FA Vase runners-up in 1981.
Sporting Kalsha won the West Midland Premier League in 2014–15 and reached the 4th Qualifying round of the FA Cup, losing 3–1 at home to F.C. United of Manchester in front of over 2,200 spectators.
Rugby
Willenhall also has its own rugby union football club, formed by some employees of Rubery Owen in 1966. They are based in nearby Essington.
Greyhound racing
Willenhall Greyhound Stadium operated from 1932 to 1980.
Neighbourhoods
Short Heath
New Invention
Lodge Farm
Poet's Estate
Rough Wood
Coppice Farm
Portobello
Fibbersley
Allens Rough
Little London
The Crescent
The Summers
St Anne's
Manor Farm
County Bridge
Summer Hayes
Sneyd
Scholars Heath
Rose Hill
Lakeside
Park Side
St Giles
Lane Head
Neachells
Recreational
Willenhall Memorial Park
Fibbersley Nature Trail and Reserve
Rough Wood Chase
The Summers
Coppice Farm Open Space
Old Bentley Canal walk
Short Heath Park
Twin towns
Willenhall is twinned with:
Drancy, France. An alliance agreement was signed by the then mayors in charge, namely Chaiman. Williams and his French counterpart Mr Nilès at the City Hall of Drancy on 29 November 1959. In 2019, a Willenhall delegation was sent over to celebrate the Alliance's 60th anniversary. A road in Willenhall was named Drancy Avenue.
See also
Louise Porton – double murderer who formerly lived in the town
Richard Wilkes – an 18th-century antiquarian who lived in Willenhall
References
External links
Willenhall News (theyamyam)
History of the Bell Inn
Willenhall History Society
Towns in the West Midlands (county)
Metropolitan Borough of Walsall
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396525
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philokalia
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Philokalia
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The Philokalia (, from philia "love" and kallos "beauty") is "a collection of texts written between the 4th and 15th centuries by spiritual masters" of the mystical hesychast tradition of the Eastern Orthodox Church. They were originally written for the guidance and instruction of monks in "the practice of the contemplative life". The collection was compiled in the 18th century by Nicodemus the Hagiorite and Macarius of Corinth based on the codices 472 (12th century), 605 (13th century), 476 (14th century), 628 (14th century) and 629 (15th century) from the library of the monastery of Vatopedi, Mount Athos.
Although these works were individually known in the monastic culture of Greek Orthodox Christianity before their inclusion in the Philokalia, their presence in this collection resulted in a much wider readership due to its translation into several languages. The earliest translations included a Church Slavonic language translation of selected texts by Paisius Velichkovsky (Dobrotolublye, Добротолю́бїе) in 1793, a Russian translation by Ignatius Bryanchaninov in 1857, and a five-volume translation into Russian (Dobrotolyubie) by Theophan the Recluse in 1877. There were subsequent Romanian, Italian, French, German, Spanish, Finnish and Arabic translations.
The book is the "principal spiritual text" for all the Eastern Orthodox churches. The publishers of the current English translation state that "the Philokalia has exercised an influence far greater than that of any book other than the Bible in the recent history of the Orthodox Church."
Philokalia (sometimes Philocalia) is also the name given to an anthology of the writings of Origen compiled by Basil of Caesarea and Gregory of Nazianzus. Other works on monastic spirituality have also used the same title over the years.
History
Nikodemos and Makarios were monks at Mount Athos, a mountainous peninsula in northern Greece, historically considered the geographical center of Orthodox spirituality and home to 20 monasteries. The first edition, in Greek, was published in Venice in 1782, with a second Greek edition published in Athens in 1893. All the original texts were in Greek—two of them were first written in Latin and translated into Greek in the Byzantine era.
Paisius Velichkovsky's translation into Church Slavonic, Dobrotolublye (published in Moscow in 1793), included selected portions of the Philokalia and was the version that the pilgrim in The Way of a Pilgrim carried on his journey. That book about a Russian pilgrim who is seeking advice on interior prayer helped popularize the Philokalia and its teachings in Russia. Velichkovsky's translation was the first to become widely read by the public, away from the monasteries—helped by the popularity of The Way of a Pilgrim, and the public influence of the startsy at Optina Monastery known as the Optina Elders. Two Russian language translations appeared in the 19th century, one by Ignatius Brianchaninov (1857) and another by Theophan the Recluse's Dobrotolubiye (1877). The latter was published in five volumes and included texts that were not in the original Greek edition.
Velichkovsky was initially hesitant to share his translation outside of the Optina Monastery walls. He was concerned that people living in the world would not have the adequate supervision and guidance of the startsy in the monastery, nor would they have the support of the liturgical life of the monks. He was finally persuaded by the Metropolitan of St. Petersburg to publish the book in 1793. Brianchanivov expressed the same concerns in his work, warning his readers that regular practice of the Jesus Prayer, without adequate guidance, could cause spiritual delusion and pride, even among monks. Their concerns were contrary to the original compiler of the Philokalia, Nicodemos, who wrote that the Jesus Prayer could be used to good effect by anyone, whether monastic or layperson. All agreed that the teachings on constant inner prayer should be practiced under the guidance of a spiritual teacher, or starets.
The first partial English and French translations in the 1950s were an indirect result of the Bolshevik revolution, which brought many Russian intellectuals into Western Europe. T. S. Eliot persuaded his fellow directors of the publishing house Faber and Faber to publish a partial translation into English from the Theophan Russian version, which met with surprising success in 1951. A more complete English translation, from the original Greek, began in 1979 with a collaboration between G. E. H. Palmer, Kallistos Ware, and Philip Sherrard. They released four of the five volumes of the Philokalia between 1979 and 1995. In 1946, the first installment of a ten volume Romanian translation by Father Dumitru Stăniloae appeared. In addition to the original Greek text, Stăniloae added "lengthy original footnotes of his own" as well as substantially expanding the coverage of texts by Saint John of the Ladder, Saint Dorotheos of Gaza, Maximus the Confessor, Symeon the New Theologian, and Gregory Palamas. This work is 4,650 pages in length. Writings by the Trappist monk Thomas Merton on hesychasm also helped spread the popularity of the Philokalia, along with the indirect influence of J. D. Salinger's Franny and Zooey, which featured The Way of a Pilgrim as a main plot element.
Teachings
The collection's title is The Philokalia of the Niptic Fathers, or more fully The Philokalia of the Neptic Saints gathered from our Holy Theophoric Father, through which, by means of the philosophy of ascetic practice and contemplation, the intellect is purified, illumined, and made perfect. Niptic is an adjective derived from the Greek Nipsis (or Nepsis) referring to contemplative prayer and meaning "watchfulness". Watchfulness in this context includes close attention to one's thoughts, intentions, and emotions, with the aim of resisting temptations and vain and egoistic thoughts, and trying to maintain a constant state of remembrance of God. There are similarities between this ancient practice and the concept of mindfulness as practiced in Buddhism and other spiritual traditions. The Philokalia teachings have also influenced the revival of interior prayer in modern times through the centering prayer practices taught by Thomas Keating and Thomas Merton.
Philokalia is defined as the "love of the beautiful, the exalted, the excellent, understood as the transcendent source of life and the revelation of Truth." In contemplative prayer the mind becomes absorbed in the awareness of God as a living presence as the source of being of all creatures and sensible forms. According to the authors of the English translation, Kallistos Ware, G. E. H. Palmer, and Philip Sherrard, the writings of the Philokalia have been chosen above others because they:
...show the way to awaken and develop attention and consciousness, to attain that state of watchfulness which is the hallmark of sanctity. They describe the conditions most effective for learning what their authors call the art of arts and the science of sciences, a learning which is not a matter of information or agility of mind but of a radical change of will and heart leading man towards the highest possibilities open to him, shaping and nourishing the unseen part of his being, and helping him to spiritual fulfilment and union with God."
The Philokalia is the foundational text on hesychasm ("quietness" or "stillness"), an inner spiritual tradition with a long history dating back to the Desert Fathers. The practices include contemplative prayer, quiet sitting, and recitation of the Jesus Prayer. While traditionally taught and practiced in monasteries, hesychasm teachings have spread over the years to include laymen. Nikodemos, in his introduction, described the collected texts as "a mystical school of inward prayer" which could be used to cultivate the inner life and to "attain the measure of the stature of the fullness of Christ." While the monastic life makes this easier, Nikodemos himself stressed that "unceasing prayer" should be practiced by all.
The hesychast teachings in the Philokalia are viewed by Orthodox Christians as inseparable from the sacraments and liturgy of the Orthodox Church, and are given by and for those who are already living within the framework of the Church. A common theme is the need for a spiritual father or guide.
Timeline of editions and translations
4th-15th centuries The original texts are written by various spiritual masters. Most are written in Greek, two are written in Latin and translated into Greek during Byzantine times.
1782 First edition, Greek, published in Venice, compiled by Nikodemos and Makarios.
1793 Church Slavonic translation of selected texts, Dobrotolublye, by Paisius Velichkovsky, published in Moscow. This translation was carried by the pilgrim in The Way of a Pilgrim. First to be read outside of monasteries, with a strong influence on the two following Russian translations.
1857 Russian language translation, by Ignatius Brianchaninov.
1877 Russian language translation, by Theophan the Recluse, included several texts not in the Greek original, and omitted or paraphrased some passages.
1893 Second Greek edition, published in Athens, included additional texts by Patriarch Kallistos.
1946-1976 In 1946, the first installment of a twelve volume Romanian translation by Father Dumitru Stăniloae appeared.
1951, 1954 First partial English translations by E. Kadloubovsky and G. E. H. Palmer in two volumes: Writings from the Philokalia on Prayer of the Heart and Early Fathers from the Philokalia. These were translated from Theophane's Russian version, and published by Faber and Faber.
1953 "Small Philokalia" is published in French: Petite Philocalie de la prière du cœur (ed. Jean Gouillard, Points / Sagesses)
1957-1963 Third Greek edition, published in Athens by Astir Publishing Company in five volumes. Modern English translation based on this edition.
1963 Parts of the Philokalia is published in Italian for the first time (La filocalia. Testi di ascetica e mistica della Chiesa orientale, Giovanni Vannucci, Libreria Editrice Fiorentina, Firenze)
1965 First translation of selected texts from Philokalia is published in Finnish by name Sisäinen kauneus. Rukousta koskevia poimintoja Filokaliasta. (Inner Beauty. Selected texts from the Philokalia on Prayer.) from German translation of Kleine Philokalie. The translation was made by Irinja Nikkanen and it was published by Pyhäin Sergein ja Hermanin veljeskunta (Brotherhood of sts. Sergius and Herman).
1979-1995 English translation by Kallistos Ware, G. E. H. Palmer, and Philip Sherrard, of the first four of the five Greek volumes, from the Third Greek edition. This was published by Faber and Faber.
1981-1993 A Finnish translation was made from the original Byzantine Greek text by Valamon ystävät ry (Friends of Valamo monastery registered association) in four volumes. Translation was made by nun Kristoduli, Irinja Nikkanen and Matti Jeskanen. An appendix (fifth volume) by nun Kristoduli was published at 1998.
1982-1987 An Italian translation by M. Benedetta Artioli and M. Francesca Lovato of the Community of Monteveglio and P. Gribaudi is published in Turin in four volumes.
1988 Little Philokalia on prayer of heart (Piccola filocalia della preghiera del cuore) in Italian is translated by Jean Gouillard and published in Milan.
1998 A Polish translation of Philokalia by Józef Naumowicz is published in Kraków.
2020 An English translation by Anna Skoubourdis of the fifth volume of the Philokalia is published by Virgin Mary of Australia and Oceania.
Contents
This listing of texts is based on the English translation of four volumes by Bishop Kallistos Ware, G. E. H. Palmer, and Philip Sherrard. Some works in the Philokalia are also found in the Patrologia Graecae and Patrologia Latina of J. P. Migne.
Volume 1
St. Isaiah the Solitary
On Guarding the Intellect: 27 Texts
Evagrius the Solitary
Outline Teaching on Asceticism and Stillness in the Solitary
Texts on Discrimination in respect of Passions and Thoughts
Extracts from the Texts on Watchfulness
On Prayer: 153 Texts
St. John Cassian
On the Eight Vices: Written for Bishop Kastor
On Control of the Stomach
On the Demon of Unchastity and the Desire of the Flesh
On Avarice
On Anger
On Dejection
On Listlessness
On Self-Esteem
On Pride
On the Holy Fathers of Sketis and on Discrimination: Written for Abba Leontios
St. Mark the Ascetic
On the Spiritual Law: 200 Texts
On Those who Think that They are Made Righteous by Works: 226 Texts
Letter to Nicolas the Solitary
St. Hesychios the Priest
On Watchfulness and Holiness: Written for Theodoulos
St. Neilos the Ascetic
Ascetic Discourse
St. Diadochos of Photiki
On Spiritual Knowledge and Discrimination: 100 Texts
St. John of Karpathos
For the Encouragement of the Monks in India who had Written to Him: 100 Texts
Ascetic Discourse Sent at the Request of the Same Monks in India: A Supplement to the 100 Texts
St. Antony the Great
On the Character of Men and on the Virtuous Life: 170 Texts
This piece by Anthony was changed to an appendix in the English translation by Palmer, Sherrard, and Ware (1979, p. 327), because of their view that the language and the general idea is not explicitly Christian and may not have been written by Antony.
Volume 2
St. Theodoros the Great Ascetic ()
A Century of Spiritual Texts
Theoretikon
St. Maximos the Confessor
Four Hundred Texts on Love, with a foreword to Elpidios the Presbyter
Two Hundred Texts on Theology and the Incarnate Dispensation of the Son of God (written for Thalassios)
Various Texts on Theology, the Divine Economy, and Virtue and Vice
On the Lord's Prayer
On Love, Self Control, and Life in accordance with the Intellect (written for Paul the Presbyter)
St. John of Damascus
On the Virtues and the Vices
A Discourse on Abba Philemon
St. Theognostos
On the Practice of the Virtues, Contemplation and the Priesthood
Volume 3
St. Philotheos of Sinai
Forty Texts on Watchfulness
Ilias the Presbyter
A Gnomic Anthology: Part I
A Gnomic Anthology: Part II
A Gnomic Anthology: Part III
A Gnomic Anthology: Part IV
Theophanis the Monk
The Ladder of Divine Graces
St. Peter of Damascus
Book I: A Treasury of Divine Knowledge
Introduction
The Seven Forms of Bodily Discipline
The Seven Commandments
The Four Virtues of the Soul
Active Spiritual Knowledge
The Bodily Virtues as Tools for the Acquisition of the Virtues of the Soul
The Guarding of the Intellect
Obedience and Stillness
The Eight Stages of Contemplation
The First Stage of Contemplation
The Second Stage of Contemplation
The Third Stage of Contemplation
The Fourth Stage of Contemplation
The Fifth Stage of Contemplation
The Sixth Stage of Contemplation
The Seventh Stage of Contemplation
The Eighth Stage of Contemplation
That there are No Contradictions in Holy Scripture
The Classification of Prayer according to the Eight Stages of Contemplation
Humility
Dispassion
A Further Analysis of the Seven Forms of Bodily Discipline
Discrimination
Spiritual Reading
True Discrimination
That we should not Despair even if we Sin Many Times
Short Discourse on the Acquisition of the Virtues and on Abstinence from the Passions
How to Acquire True Faith
That Stillness is of Great Benefit to those Subject to Passion
The Great Benefit ofTrue Repentance
God's Universal and Particular Gifts
How God has done All Things for our Benefit
How God's Speech is not Loose Chatter
How it is Impossible to be Saved without Humility
On Building up the Soul through the Virtues
The Great Value of Love and of Advice given with Humility
That the Frequent Repetition found in Divine Scripture is not Verbosity
Spurious Knowledge
A List of the Virtues
A List of the Passions
The Difference between Thoughts and Provocations
Book II: Twenty-Four Discourses
Spiritual Wisdom
The Two Kinds of Faith
The Two Kinds of Fear
True Piety and Self-Control
Patient Endurance
Hope
Detachment
Mortification of the Passions
The Remembrance of Christ's Sufferings
Humility
Discrimination
Contemplation of the Sensible World
Knowledge of the Angelic Orders
Dispassion
Love
Knowledge of God
Moral Judgment
Self-Restraint
Courage
Justice
Peace
Joy
Holy Scripture
Conscious Awareness in the Heart
St. Symeon the Metaphrast: Paraphrases of the Homilies of St. Macarius of Egypt
Spiritual Perfection
Prayer
Patient Endurance and Discrimination
The Raising of the Intellect
Love
The Freedom of the Intellect
Volume 4
St. Symeon the New Theologian
On Faith
153 Practical and Theological Texts
The Three Methods of Prayer [attributed to him]
Nikitas Stithatos
On the Practice of the Virtues: One Hundred Texts
On the Inner Nature of Things and on the Purification of the Intellect: One Hundred Texts
On Spiritual Knowledge, Love and the Perfection of Living: One Hundred Texts
Theoliptos, Metropolitan of Philadelphia
On Inner Work in Christ and the Monastic Profession
Texts
Nikiphoros the Monk
On Watchfulness and the Guarding of the Heart
From the Life of Our Holy Father Antony
From the Life of St Theodosios the Cenobiarch
From the Life of St Arsenios
From the Life of St Paul of Mount Latros
From the Life of St Savvas
From the Life of Abba Agathon
From Abba Mark's Letter to Nicolas
From St John Klimakos
From St Isaiah the Solitary
From St Makarios the Great
From St Diadochos
From The Ascetical Homilies by St Isaac the Syrian
From St John of Karpathos
From St Symeon the New Theologian
From Nikiphoros Himself
St. Gregory of Sinai
On Commandments and Doctrines, Warnings and Promises; on Thoughts, Passions and Virtues, and also on Stillness and Prayer: 137 Texts
Further Texts
On Passion-Imbued Change
On Beneficent Change
On Morbid Defluxions
On the Signs of Grace and Delusion, Written for the Confessor Longinos: Ten Texts
On How to Discover the Energy of the Holy Spirit
On the Different Kinds of Energy
On Divine Energy
On Delusion
On Stillness: Fifteen Texts
Two Ways of Prayer
the Beginning of Watchfulness
Different Ways of Psalmodizing
On Prayer: Seven Texts
How the Hesychast Should Sit for Prayer and Not Rise Again Too Quickly
How to Say the Prayer
How to Master the Intellect in Prayer
How to Expel Thoughts
How to Psalmodize
How to Partake of Food
On Delusion and Other Subjects
St. Gregory Palamas
To the Most Reverend Nun Xenia
A New Testament Decalogue
In Defence of Those who Devoutly Practise a Life of Stillness
Three Texts on Prayer and Purity of Heart
Topics of Natural and Theological Science and on the Moral and Ascetic Life: 150 Texts
The Declaration of the Holy Mountain in Defence of Those who Devoutly Practice a Life of Stillness
Volume 5
This volume was published in English translation in 2020. These are the contents of the modern Greek translation.
Kallistos and Ignatios Xanthopoulos
Method and precise canon for those who choose the hesychastic and monastic life: 100 chapters
Kefalaia (Chapters): 81 chapters
Kallistos Tilikoudis (presumed the same as Kallistos Angelikoudis)
On Hesychastic Practice
Kallistos Katafygiotis (presumed the same as Kallistos Angelikoudis)
On union with God, and Life of Theoria
Saint Simeon, Archbishop of Thessaloniki
Chapters on the Sacred and Deifying prayer
Saint Mark the Gentle
On the Words that are Contained in the Sacred Prayer
Anonymous
Interpretation of "Kyrie Eleison" (Lord Have Mercy)
Saint Simeon the New Theologian
Discourse on Faith and teaching for those who say that it is not possible for those who find themselves in the worries of the world to reach the perfection of the virtues, and narration that is beneficial at the beginning.
On the Three Ways of Prayer
St. Gregory of Sinai
Excerpts from the life of St. Maximos Kapsokalivis
All Christians Must Pray Uninterruptedly
Indices
Translations
See also
Lovingkindness ()
Poustinia
Hermit
References
Further reading
Paschalis M. Kitromilides, "Philokalia's first journey?" in Idem, An Orthodox Commonwealth: Symbolic Legacies and Cultural Encounters in Southeastern Europe (Aldershot, 2007) (Variorum Collected Studies Series: CS891).
Bingaman B & Nassif B (eds) (2012) The Philokalia. A Classic Text of Orthodox Spirituality. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
External links
Quotes from the Philokalia at Orthodox Church Quotes
The Philokalia digitized (PDF)
An historical survey of the Philokalia by Rev Prof Andrew Louth
Volume 3 at archive.org
18th-century Eastern Orthodoxy
1782 anthologies
Hesychast literature
18th-century Christian texts
Christian monasticism
Christian mysticism
Prayer
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396530
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaullist%20Party
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Gaullist Party
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In France, the term Gaullist Party is usually used to refer to the largest party professing to be Gaullist. Gaullism claims to transcend the left–right divide in a similar way to populist republican parties elsewhere such as Fianna Fáil in Republic of Ireland, the Justicialist Party in Argentina, and the African National Congress in South Africa.
In the past, some Gaullist voters saw themselves as leaning towards the political left, a view ascribed to the once-leading Gaullist André Malraux. Most of Charles de Gaulle's own followers leaned towards the political right, christian democratic or national conservative. Consequently, left-leaning voters started showing less support again after Malraux's death in 1976, as figures of the Gaullist left (like Jacques Chaban-Delmas) were gradually marginalised. Under its various names and acronyms, the Gaullist Party has been the dominant organisation of the French right since the beginning of the Fifth Republic (1958).
De Gaulle vs. the parties (1944–1947)
Author of the L'Appel of 18 June 1940, and founder and leader of the Free French Forces, General Charles de Gaulle is the symbol of the French Resistance to the Nazi occupation and the Vichy government. Yet, based in London, then in Algiers, he was forced to compromise with the domestic Resistance movements dominated by various political forces (such as the Communists). In 1944, while France was liberated, De Gaulle presided over the provisional government composed of Communists, Socialists, and Christian Democrats. Because De Gaulle refused to create a great political party unifying the non-Communist Resistance, a lot of parties re-emerged. The Christian democratic Popular Republican Movement (MRP) seemed to be the closest to De Gaulle.
The provisional government implemented policies inspired by the programme of the National Council of Resistance: nationalization of banks and some industrial companies (for example Renault), and the development of a Welfare State. However, it was divided about the way forward for political institutions and the constitution for the Fourth Republic. For De Gaulle, the "regime of the parties" that had characterized the Third Republic was a cause of the 1940 military disaster. He advocated a strong executive power, governing in the national interest, led by a man who was an incarnation of national unity. Indeed, in his mind, France is strong when it is united and the parties, represented in Parliament, serve particular interests and thus express national divisions.
In November 1945, a large majority of the French voters accepted the elaboration of a new Constitution. At the same time, they elected a new National Assembly. The French Communist Party, the Socialist French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO) and the Christian democratic MRP were the largest forces represented in this Assembly. It re-elected de Gaulle as president of the provisional government but, disagreeing with restoration of the "regime of the parties", de Gaulle resigned in January 1946.
In May 1946, a first constitutional law was rejected by referendum. One month later, a new Assembly was elected in order to write a new constitutional text. In his Bayeux Manifesto, De Gaulle outlined his institutional ideas but he was accused of wanting re-establish a Bonapartist government. Furthermore, without the support of a political force, he could not influence the constitutional law being prepared. René Capitant founded a Gaullist Union for the Fourth Republic but it could not prevent the approval of the text prepared by the elected Assembly, which restored the parliamentary system.
Gaullist Party and Fourth Republic: opposition and desert crossing (1947–1958)
In 1947, he gathered the anti-Communist opposition in the Rally of the French People (Rassemblement du peuple français or RPF). He accused the Fourth Republic of being dominated by the "parliamentary fiddles" and to organize the state helplessness. In keeping with its strongly nationalist stance, it accused the French Communist Party of being a vassal of the Soviet Union. Furthermore, it denounced what it called the "abandonment" of colonies by the Third Force cabinets, and it viewed French participation in the European Economic Community to be a threat to the nation. In addition, the Gaullists recommended an association between capital and labour in order to end the "struggle of classes", which hampered national unity.
Six months after its founding, membership of the RPF reached one million. It took control of the executive of many cities, including Paris, Marseille and Bordeaux. After the 1951 legislative election, despite the change to the ballot system, the RPF formed the largest parliamentary group of the Assembly but had a systematic opposition.
In 1952, some RPF deputies voted in favour of Antoine Pinay's cabinet then joined the majority, against the instructions of De Gaulle. They left the RPF parliamentary group. More and more divided, the RPF suffered a significant decrease in support in the 1953 local elections. On 6 May 1953, De Gaulle asked to the Gaullist deputies to abandon the name "RPF". One month later, 5 Gaullist deputies joined Joseph Laniel's government. Indeed, they participated to right-wing majorities then, a part of the Gaullists as Jacques Chaban-Delmas joined the center-left Republican Front under the label National Centre of Social Republicans (Centre national des républicains sociaux or CNRS).
At the end of the 1950s, the Fourth Republic floundered in the Algerian War. The 13 May 1958 crisis led to turmoil, and a threat of military coup was brandished. Emissaries sent by de Gaulle such as Jacques Soustelle participated in this bustle. The National Assembly accepted to call back De Gaulle to lead the cabinet. On 28 September, a new constitution was approved by referendum and the Fifth Republic was born. The parliamentary system was not questioned, but the presidential function was enhanced.
Gaullist Party's height (1958–1976)
In order that he should not be faced with an hostile Assembly, dominated by the parties (as was the case in 1945–1946), De Gaulle let his followers organize a political party, the Union for the New Republic (Union pour la nouvelle république or UNR). After the November 1958 legislative election, it became the largest force in the political system. It was allied with center-left and center-right parties to support De Gaulle, who was elected President of France by a congress of local and national elects in December 1958. Michel Debré was nominated as Prime minister.
However, the change of Algerian policy divided the party. The chairman of the National Assembly Jacques Chaban-Delmas considered Algeria was a part of the presidential "reserved domain", as well as foreign and military affairs. Soustelle, leader of the pro-French Algeria faction in the party, left the cabinet in 1960, then was ejected from the UNR. He joined Georges Bidault at the head of the Organisation armée secrète which perpetrated terrorist attacks. After this crisis, the UNR appeared as the party of de Gaulle's unconditional supporters, hence its reputation of "boot party". Debré theorized its function of strap of the government. With De Gaulle refusing to be a party leader, Debré covertly took this position.
Meanwhile, the center-left parties returned to the opposition in 1959, followed in 1962 by the center-right parties, who criticized the eurosceptic declarations of De Gaulle and the "presidentialisation". Indeed, De Gaulle instituted presidential election by universal suffrage, defying all the political forces (except UNR). The French voters approved this by referendum. De Gaulle had intended to replace Debré with Georges Pompidou as Prime minister but this was denied by a vote of no-confidence. De Gaulle dissolved the National Assembly. Associated with the left-wing Gaullists of the Democratic Union of Labour (Union démocratique du travail or UDT), and allied with Valéry Giscard d'Estaing's Independent Republicans, the UNR won the 1962 legislative election and Pompidou was confirmed to lead the cabinet.
Naturally, the UNR/UDT supported De Gaulle's candidature at the 1965 presidential election. But he won only after a second ballot, which he considered as a disavowal. Relations became more difficult with the only allied party in the presidential majority, the Independent Republicans, while the opposition was reconstructed.
While the Democratic Center intensified its criticism, some Christian-Democrats, such Maurice Schumann, joined the Gaullist Party, renamed Union of Democrats for the Fifth Republic (Union des démocrates pour la Cinquième République or UD-Ve). Prime Minister Pompidou led the party during the 1967 legislative campaign. He encouraged the emergence of a new generation of Gaullist politicians who were loyal to him. The incumbent parliamentary majority only just won.
One year later, Gaullist power was confronted with the social and student May 1968 crisis. Although the newly renamed Union for the Defense of the Republic (Union pour la défense de la République or UDR) triumphed at the June 1968 legislative election, disagreements had appeared between De Gaulle and Pompidou. Pompidou reproached De Gaulle for leaving the country without informing him, during the crisis. For De Gaulle, his project of association between capital and labour could prevent this sort of social crisis, but Pompidou wished to scrap it. Indeed, for De Gaulle's circle, Pompidou was more a classical conservative than a real Gaullist.
Pompidou left the leadership of the cabinet in order to prepare his future presidential campaign. In this, he declared his candidacy if De Gaulle were to resign. That was the case in 1969, after the failure of the referendum about Senate and regional reform, and he won the 1969 presidential election despite the reluctance of some of the "barons of Gaullism".
His Prime Minister Jacques Chaban-Delmas announced a reform programme for a "New Society". It raised sceptical reactions from the conservative wing of the UDR, then from Pompidou himself. They reproached him for giving too many concessions to the left-wing opposition. In President Pompidou's circle, he was accused of wanting to weaken the presidential functions in favour of himself. The party became the Union of Democrats for the Republic (Union des démocrates pour la République) while this crisis broke out. Pompidou refused Chaban-Delmas a vote of confidence in the National Assembly and, when he held it anyway, Pompidou forced him to resign and nominated Pierre Messmer. The UDR, allied with the Independent Republicans and Centre, Democracy and Progress, won the 1973 legislative election and succeeded in blocking the "Union of the Left" and its Common Programme.
When Pompidou died in office, on 2 April 1974, his two former Prime Ministers, Chaban-Delmas and Messmer, claimed the UDR candidacy for the presidential election. Finally, the latter withdrew, but some influential personalities in the party, notably in the circle of the late president, doubted of the capacity of Chaban-Delmas to defeat François Mitterrand, the representative of the "Union of the Left". Behind the young minister Jacques Chirac, a former adviser of Pompidou, they published the Call of the 43. They covertly supported Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, Minister of Economy and the Independent Republicans's leader. Giscard eliminated Chaban-Delmas in the first round, then narrowly defeated Mitterrand in the second. He was the first non-Gaullist President of the Fifth Republic.
Chirac became Prime minister and became the leader of the UDR in December 1974, in spite of the negative opinions of many historical Gaullist personalities (Michel Debré, Jacques Chaban-Delmas, etc.). They accused him of having betrayed the party during the previous presidential campaign. Some months later, a conflict broke out between the executive leadership and Chirac left the cabinet in August 1976.
Chirac-led neo-Gaullist party: RPR and UMP (1976–2007)
In December 1976, the UDR was replaced by the Rally for the Republic (Rassemblement pour la République or RPR). This name was chosen due to its similarity with the RPF. Indeed, the New Gaullist Party was devised as a machine of reconquest behind one man, Jacques Chirac.
Without withdrawing from the presidential majority, the RPR criticized the executive duo of President Giscard d'Estaing and Prime minister Raymond Barre. In December 1978, six months before the 1979 European Parliament election, the Call of Cochin denounced the appropriation of France by "the foreign party", which sacrificed the national interests and the independence of the country in order to build a federal Europe. This accusation targeted clearly Giscard d'Estaing. The RPR contrasted the social doctrine of Gaullism to the president's liberalism.
The RPR supported Chirac in the 1981 presidential election but he was eliminated in the first round. He refused to give instructions for voting for the second round, even if he said "in a private capacity", he would vote for Giscard d'Estaing. In fact, the RPR was suspected of working for the defeat of the incumbent president.
While the Socialist Party leader François Mitterrand became president, the RPR gradually abandoned the Gaullist doctrine, adopting the European and liberal positions of the Union for French Democracy (Union pour la démocratie française or UDF). The two parties competed for the leadership of the right-wing opposition, but they presented a common list at the 1984 European Parliament election and a platform to prepare for winning the 1986 legislative election.
From 1986 to 1988, Chirac "cohabited" as Prime minister with Mitterrand, but lost the 1988 presidential election. After his defeat, his leadership was challenged by younger politicians who wished to renew the right. Furthermore, the abandonment of the Gaullist doctrine was criticized by Charles Pasqua and Philippe Séguin. They tried to remove him from the RPR leadership in 1990, in vain. However, the division re-appeared with the 1992 Maastricht referendum. Chirac voted "yes" whereas Séguin and Pasqua campaigned for "no".
The "Union for France", a RPR/UDF coalition, won the 1993 legislative election. Chirac refused to re-cohabit with Mitterrand, and his confidente Edouard Balladur became Prime minister. Balladur promised he would not be a candidate in the 1995 presidential election. Nevertheless, polls indicated Balladur was the favorite in the presidential race and furthermore, he was supported by the majority of right-wing politicians. He decided finally to be a candidate against Chirac. However, they claimed they remained "friends for 30 years".
The Socialists being weakened after the 14 years of Mitterrand's presidency, the main contest was the competition in the right, between Balladur and Chirac, two Neo-Gaullists. Balladur proposed a neoliberal programme and took advantage of the "positive results" of his cabinet, whereas Chirac advocated Keynesianism to reduce the "social fracture" and criticized the "dominant ideas", targeting Balladur. Chirac won the 1995 presidential election.
In November 1995, his Prime Minister Alain Juppé, "the best among us" according to Chirac, announced a plan of Welfare-State reforms which sparked wide social conflict. President Chirac dissolved the National Assembly and lost the 1997 legislative election. He was forced to cohabit with a left-wing cabinet led by Lionel Jospin until 2002.
Séguin succeeded Juppé as RPR leader. But, he criticized the ascendancy of President Chirac over the party. He resigned during the 1999 European election campaign, while Pasqua presented a dissident list to advocate the Gaullist idea of a "Europe of nations". Pasqua founded the Rally for France (Rassemblement pour la France or RPF) and obtained more votes than the RPR official list led by Nicolas Sarkozy. Michèle Alliot-Marie was elected RPR leader, against the wishes of President Chirac who supported another candidate.
Before the 2002 presidential election, RPR and non-RPR supporters of Chirac gathered in an association: the "Union on the move". It became the Union for the Presidential Majority (Union pour la majorité présidentielle or UMP) after the 21 April electoral shock. Chirac was re-elected and the new party won the legislative election. It was renamed Union for a Popular Movement a few months later, establishing the UMP as a permanent organization. Chirac finished his presidency in 2007 after 12 years ruled.
Nicolas Sarkozy era (2007–2017)
Nicolas Sarkozy was elected President of France in 2007. During his leadership, the gaullist party shifted to the right with more conservative policies. Sarkozy was defeated in 2012. Despite his defeat, Sarkozy remained influential in the party politics. He became then President of the UMP in 2014 and renamed the gaullist party into Republicans in 2015. However, in 2016, Sarkozy was defeated in the presidential primaries.
Laurent Wauquiez era (2017–present)
Laurent Wauquiez was selected as leader of the Republicans in 2017. Since then the party has moved to further right.
Secretaries General
1947–1951: Jacques Soustelle
1951–1954: Louis Terrenoire
1958–1959: Roger Frey
1959: Albin Chalandon
1959–1961: Jacques Richard
1961–1962: Roger Dusseaulx
1962: Louis Terrenoire
1962–1968: Jacques Baumel
1968–1971: Robert Poujade
1971–1972: René Tomasi
1972–1973: Alain Peyrefitte
1973–1974: Alexandre Sanguinetti
1974–1975: Jacques Chirac
1975: André Bord
1975–1976: Yves Guéna
Presidents of RPR/UMP/LR
1976–1994: Jacques Chirac (1974-1976 and 1986-1988 served as Prime Minister of France, 1995-2007 served as President of France)
1994–1997: Alain Juppé (1995-1997 served as Prime Minister of France)
1997–1999: Philippe Séguin
1999: Nicolas Sarkozy
1999–2002: Michèle Alliot-Marie
Presidents of UMP
2002–2004: Alain Juppé
2004–2007: Nicolas Sarkozy (2007–2012, served as President of the French Republic; during the Sarkozy presidency, the president of UMP was vacant and led by Secretary-General)
2012–2014: Jean-François Copé
2014–2015: Nicolas Sarkozy
Presidents of LR
2015–2016: Nicolas Sarkozy
2016–2019: Laurent Wauquiez
2019–present: Christian Jacob
References
Berstein, Serge, Histoire du gaullisme, Perrin, Paris, 2001.
Charles de Gaulle
Politics of France
Conservative parties in France
Nationalism in France
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izzy%20Stradlin
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Izzy Stradlin
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Jeffrey Dean Isbell (born April 8, 1962), best known as Izzy Stradlin, is an American guitarist, singer, and songwriter. He was a co-founder, rhythm guitarist, and backing vocalist of the hard rock and heavy metal band Guns N' Roses, which he left at the height of their fame in 1991, and with whom he recorded four studio albums.
Following his departure from Guns N' Roses, Stradlin fronted his own rock band, Izzy Stradlin and the Ju Ju Hounds, before continuing to record as a solo artist. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Guns N' Roses in 2012.
Life and career
Early life
Stradlin was born 1962 in Lafayette, Indiana.
His father, Richard Clyde Isbell, was an engraver. His mother, Sonja LaVern Isbell, née Reagan, worked for a phone company. "I grew up in Florida and moved with my mom to Lafayette." They divorced when Stradlin was eight. His mother moved Stradlin and his two younger brothers, Kevin Thomas Isbell and Joseph "Joe" Isbell to Lafayette, Indiana. Of his hometown, Stradlin said, "It was cool growing up there. There's a courthouse and a college, a river and railroad tracks. It's a small town, so there wasn't much to do. We rode bikes, smoked pot, got into trouble - it was pretty Beavis and Butt-Head actually." Izzy's grandfather's half-brother, Joseph William "Little Joe" Isbell, was born 1916. He was also a recording and touring artist, described as a "country yodeler".
Stradlin developed an interest in music early in life; by the age of eight, his musical favorites included Bob Dylan, Pink Floyd, Alice Cooper, and Led Zeppelin. His biggest musical influence was his paternal grandmother, who played drums in a swing jazz band with her friends. Inspired, Stradlin talked his parents into buying him a drum kit.
In high school, Stradlin started a band with his friends, one of whom was singer William Bailey, later known as Axl Rose. Stradlin recalled, "We were long-haired guys in high school. You were either a jock or a stoner. We weren't jocks, so we ended up hanging out together. We'd play covers in the garage. There were no clubs to play at, so we never made it out of the garage." Despite his aversion to school, Stradlin graduated in 1980 with a D average, the only original member of Guns N' Roses with a high school diploma. Set on a career in music, he subsequently moved to Los Angeles, California.
1980–1984: Career beginnings
Shortly after his arrival in Los Angeles, Stradlin joined punk band Naughty Women. During his ill-fated first show with the band, audience members began attacking the musicians; Stradlin recalled, "I just grabbed a cymbal stand and stood on the side trying to fend them off, yelling, 'Get the fuck away from me, man!' That was my introduction to the rock scene in L.A." His two-month tenure in Naughty Women was followed by a stint in punk band The Atoms, before his drum kit was stolen from his car and he switched to bass. Stradlin then joined the heavy metal band Shire, during which he took up rhythm guitar to aid his songwriting.
In 1983, Stradlin formed Hollywood Rose with his childhood friend Axl Rose, who had moved to Los Angeles the previous year. In January 1984, the band recorded a five-song demo featuring the tracks "Killing Time", "Anything Goes", "Rocker", "Shadow of Your Love", and "Reckless Life", which were released in 2004 as part of the compilation album The Roots of Guns N' Roses. The group disbanded in August, following which Stradlin briefly joined Sunset Strip staple London. He also formed the short-lived band Stalin with singer Eric Leach and guitarist Taz Rudd of Symbol Six. In December, he reunited with Hollywood Rose.
1985–1991: Guns N' Roses
In March 1985, Stradlin founded Guns N' Roses with Axl Rose and members of L.A. Guns, Tracii Guns, Ole Beich and Rob Gardner, as a favor to L.A. Guns manager, Raz Cue, who had previously booked the act at the Troubadour. By June, the lineup consisted of Rose, guitarist Slash, rhythm guitarist Stradlin, bassist Duff McKagan, and drummer Steven Adler. They played nightclubs—such as the Whisky a Go Go, The Roxy, and The Troubadour—and opened for larger acts throughout 1985 and 1986. During this period, the band wrote much of its classic material, and Stradlin established himself as a key songwriter.
In July 1987, Guns N' Roses released their debut album, Appetite for Destruction, which has sold over 28 million copies worldwide, including 18 million in the United States alone. Stradlin wrote or cowrote most of its songs, including the hits "Sweet Child o' Mine" and "Paradise City". He also wrote the hit "Patience" on the follow-up G N' R Lies, released in November 1988 to US sales of five million copies, despite containing only eight tracks, four of which were included on the previously released EP Live ?!*@ Like a Suicide.
As their success grew, so did tensions within the band. In 1989, opening for The Rolling Stones, Rose made an on-stage announcement in which he threatened to leave the band if Slash and Adler did not stop "dancing with Mr. Brownstone," a reference to their song of the same name about heroin. After being sentenced to a year's probation for urinating in public aboard an airplane (after which the band nicknamed him "Whizzy"), Stradlin decided to attain sobriety; he returned to his house in Indiana, where he detoxed from drugs and alcohol.
In September 1991, Guns N' Roses released the long-awaited Use Your Illusion I and Use Your Illusion II, which debuted at No. 2 and No. 1 respectively in the US chart – an unprecedented feat. Stradlin cowrote the hits "Don't Cry" and "You Could Be Mine", and performed lead vocals on "Dust N' Bones", "You Ain't the First", "Double Talkin' Jive", and "14 Years". As with their previous records, his preferred guitar during recording was a Gibson ES-175.
By the release of the Use Your Illusion albums, Stradlin had become dissatisfied with life in Guns N' Roses: "Once I quit drugs, I couldn't help looking around and asking myself, 'Is this all there is?' I was just tired of it; I needed to get out." On November 7, 1991, it was announced that he had left Guns N' Roses, having played his final show as an official member on August 31 at Wembley Stadium.
Stradlin later said, "I didn't like the complications that became such a part of daily life in Guns N' Roses," citing the Riverport riot and Axl Rose's chronic lateness and diva behavior on the Use Your Illusion Tour as examples. He also objected to a contract with which he was presented: "This is right before I left – demoting me to some lower position. They were gonna cut my percentage of royalties down. I was like, 'Fuck you! I've been there from Day One. Why should I do that? Fuck you, I'll go play the Whisky.' That's what happened. It was utterly insane."
Stradlin added that getting sober played a part in his decision to leave, saying, "When you're fucked up, you're more likely to put up with things you wouldn't normally put up with."
Some of Stradlin's guitar playing recorded during the Illusion sessions appears on Guns N' Roses's 1993 covers album "The Spaghetti Incident?", although he was uncredited on the project.
1992–1994: Ju Ju Hounds and first return to Guns N' Roses
Following his departure from Guns N' Roses, Stradlin returned to his hometown of Lafayette, Indiana, where he began working on new material. He formed the band Izzy Stradlin and the Ju Ju Hounds, which consisted of Stradlin on vocals and rhythm guitar, Rick Richards of Georgia Satellites on lead guitar, Jimmy Ashhurst of Broken Homes on bass, and Charlie Quintana on drums. Their self-titled debut album was released in October 1992 to positive reviews; Rolling Stone called it "a ragged, blues-drenched, and thoroughly winning solo debut." Ju Ju Hounds played its first show in September at The Avalon in Chicago, before embarking on a tour of Europe, Australia, and North America.
In May 1993, Stradlin reunited with Guns N' Roses for five shows in Europe and the Middle East to fill in for his replacement, Gilby Clarke, who had broken his wrist in a motorcycle accident. After Stradlin returned to the Ju Ju Hounds, Axl Rose dedicated the Stradlin-penned "Double Talkin' Jive" to him during several shows. In September, the Ju Ju Hounds undertook a tour of Japan, where the band played its final show at the Shibuya Public Hall in Tokyo. Stradlin then took time off from music unannounced, leaving the Ju Ju Hounds and going to the Bahamas, traveling extensively and dedicating much of his time to his other passions - motor racing, skateboarding and even building a motor track close to his Indiana home.
1995–2002: Solo career and Velvet Revolver
In 1995, Stradlin began recording material for his first solo album, 117°. Released in March 1998, the album was recorded over a period of two years and featured his former bandmates Duff McKagan and Rick Richards, as well as former Reverend Horton Heat drummer Taz Bentley, whose work Stradlin admired. As before, Stradlin had little interest in promoting his music; he did few interviews and played no live performances. The album turned out to be his last release on his long-time label Geffen; as a result of the merge between Geffen and Interscope, Stradlin was dropped from the label's roster.
In December 1999, Stradlin's next solo album, Ride On, was released on the Universal Victor label in Japan. It featured the same lineup as his previous release. To promote the album, Stradlin - with McKagan, Richards, and Bentley— played four shows in Japan the following April. With the addition of keyboardist Ian McLagan, the group recorded two more albums: River, which was released in May 2001 on Sanctuary, and a second Japan-only release, On Down the Road, which followed in August 2002 on JVC Victor.
Stradlin was then asked by his former Guns N' Roses bandmates Duff McKagan, Slash, and Matt Sorum to join the supergroup Velvet Revolver. Although he contributed to the songwriting process while the band was in its formative stage, Stradlin ultimately declined to join due to his aversion to life on the road and his unwillingness to work with a lead singer, although he offered to share vocal duties with McKagan.
2003–2010: Independent solo career and second return to Guns N' Roses
In 2003, Stradlin recorded his sixth album, Like a Dog, with guitarist Rick Richards, drummer Taz Bentley, and bassist JT Longoria. It was originally scheduled for a late 2003 release, with just under one thousand promo copies made. However, the album was not released until October 2005, when Stradlin — prompted by a fan petition—made it available through internet order. The following year, Stradlin re-released Ride On, River, On Down the Road, and Like a Dog through iTunes.
In May 2006, thirteen years after his last performance with Guns N' Roses, Stradlin made a guest appearance at the band's show at the Hammerstein Ballroom in New York; he played on "Patience", "Think About You", and "Nightrain". He then performed with Guns N' Roses for 13 shows during the band's summer European tour. Stradlin said, "Axl [Rose] and I connected via cell phone this year, I stopped by. It was nice to reconnect with an old friend/war buddy/fellow musician. I told him later I'd like to join the fun in some way and he said I was welcome to come and play something, so I did! Took me about three weeks to recover from the six weeks of touring!" In December, he played three shows with the group at the Gibson Amphitheatre in Universal City, California.
Stradlin released his seventh album, Miami, through iTunes in May 2007. It again featured Rick Richards, Taz Bentley, and JT Longoria, as well as keyboardist Joey Huffman. Guitarist Richards described the album as being "a bit of a departure from Like a Dog but still quite a rocker." In July, a remixed version of Miami was released through iTunes; Stradlin called the new mix "much louder and more powerful sounding." In November of that year, he released a second iTunes-only album, Fire, the Acoustic Album, which also featured Richards, Bentley, and Longoria.
Stradlin's next iTunes release, Concrete, came out in July 2008. In addition to his regular collaborators, Stradlin also invited Duff McKagan to play bass on three songs, including the title track. Stradlin then released two more albums through iTunes: Smoke, which came out in December 2009, and Wave of Heat, which followed in July 2010 and again featured McKagan, who appears on seven tracks. Also in 2010, Stradlin appeared as a guest on Slash's first solo album, Slash; he performs rhythm guitar on the first track, "Ghost".
2011–present: Hall of Fame induction and third return to Guns N' Roses
In April 2012, Stradlin was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the classic lineup of Guns N' Roses. In a statement released through Duff McKagan's blog for Seattle Weekly, he thanked the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame "for the acknowledgement of our works over the years," his former bandmates, and his fans for their continuing support. Known to avoid public attention, Stradlin did not attend the induction ceremony.
In the month following the induction, Stradlin joined Guns N' Roses on stage during two shows at London's O2 Arena, where they performed a range of songs including "14 Years," which had not been performed live since his departure in 1991. He also performed with Guns N' Roses in July, at a private show in Saint-Tropez and a concert in Palma de Mallorca, and again in November, during the last two shows of the band's twelve-date "Appetite for Democracy" residency in Las Vegas. Also in November, Stradlin released the iTunes-only single "Baby-Rann"—his first release in over two years; an accompanying video was made available via YouTube.
Amidst rumors and speculation, Stradlin joined Twitter, and confirmed in a statement to Rolling Stone that he would not be involved with the 'reunited' Guns N' Roses lineup in 2016. He later stated that he declined because the band "didn't want to split the loot equally". In 2018, Alan Niven reported that Stradlin participated in a soundcheck with Guns N' Roses sometime in 2017, but ultimately left before guesting on the show.
Stradlin released numerous singles in 2016, previewing samples of the songs via his Twitter account and through the YouTube channel 'classicrockstuffs'. "Sunshine" by Jonathon Edwards and "Stuck in the Middle with You" by Stealers Wheel were acoustic videos made available through YouTube, whilst "Walk N' Song", "F.P. Money" (featuring former Guns N' Roses drummer Matt Sorum), "To Being Alive" and a cover version of the J.J. Cale song "Call Me the Breeze "featuring Jesse Aycock and Lauren Barth, were released to online music stores.
In 2017, Stradlin played guitar on the song "Grandview" by John Mellencamp, on his album Sad Clowns & Hillbillies. Martina McBride was also featured on the song.
Personal life
Stradlin has been divorced since 2001. As of 2016, Stradlin is living in or around Ojai, California.
Equipment
Guitars:
ESP Eclipse Custom
Gibson ES-175
Gibson Byrdland
Gibson ES-135
Gibson Les Paul Custom
Fender Telecaster
Gibson ES-355
Gibson Les Paul Special Double Cutaway
Amps:
Mesa Boogie Mark Series Mark I and Mark IIB Coliseum
Fender Bassman heads with a Mesa Boogie 4x12 cabinet
Marshall JCM-800
Discography
Solo albums
117° (1998)
Ride On (1999)
River (2001)
On Down the Road (2002)
Like a Dog (2005)
Miami (2007)
Fire, the Acoustic Album (2007)
Concrete (2008)
Smoke (2009)
Wave of Heat (2010)
with Guns N' Roses
Appetite for Destruction (1987)
G N' R Lies (1988)
Use Your Illusion I (1991)
Use Your Illusion II (1991)
"The Spaghetti Incident?" (1993) (uncredited)
with The Ju Ju Hounds
Pressure Drop EP (1992)
Izzy Stradlin and the Ju Ju Hounds (1992)
Izzy Stradlin and the Ju Ju Hounds Live EP (1993)
References
External links
1962 births
20th-century American guitarists
20th-century American singers
21st-century American singers
American heavy metal guitarists
American male guitarists
American multi-instrumentalists
American rock songwriters
American rock singers
Guitarists from Indiana
Guitarists from Los Angeles
Guns N' Roses members
Hollywood Rose members
Living people
People from Lafayette, Indiana
Rhythm guitarists
Singers from Indiana
Singers from Los Angeles
Songwriters from California
Songwriters from Indiana
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television%20pilot
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Television pilot
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A television pilot (also known as a pilot or a pilot episode and sometimes marketed as a tele-movie) in United Kingdom and United States television, is a standalone episode of a television series that is used to sell a show to a television network or other distributor. A pilot is created to be a testing ground to gauge whether a series will be successful. It is, therefore, a test episode for the intended television series, an early step in the series development, much like pilot studies serve as precursors to the start of larger activity.
A successful pilot may be used as the series premiere, the first aired episode of a new show, but sometimes a series' pilot may be aired as a later episode or never aired at all. Some series are commissioned straight-to-series without a pilot. On some occasions, pilots that were not ordered to series may also be broadcast as a standalone television film or special.
A "backdoor pilot" is an episode of an existing series that heavily features supporting characters or guest stars in previously unseen roles. Its purpose is to introduce the characters to an audience before the creators decide on whether or not they intend to pursue a spin-off series with those characters.
Television networks use pilots to determine whether an entertaining concept can be successfully realized and whether the expense of additional episodes is justified. A pilot is best thought of as a prototype of the show that is to follow, because elements often change from pilot to series. Variety estimates that only a little over a quarter of all pilots made for American television proceed to the series stage.
Pilot season
Each summer, the major American broadcast television networks – including ABC, CBS, NBC, Fox, PBS, Univision, and Telemundo – receive about 500 brief elevator pitches each for new shows from writers and producers. That fall, each network requests scripts for about 70 pitches and, the following January, orders about 20 pilot episodes. Actors come to Los Angeles from within the area or elsewhere in the United States and around the world to audition for them. By spring, actors are cast and production crews assembled to produce the pilots.
Casting is a lengthy and very competitive process. For the 1994 pilot of Friends, casting director Ellie Kanner reviewed more than 1,000 actors' head shots for each of the six main roles. She summoned 75 actors for each role to audition, and she then chose some to audition again for the show's creators. Of this group, the creators chose some to audition again for Warner Bros. Television executives, who chose the final group of a few actors to audition for NBC executives; as they decide whether to purchase a pilot, network executives generally have ultimate authority over casting. Since the networks work on the same shared schedule, directors, actors and others must choose the best pilot to work for with the hopes that the network will choose it. If it is not chosen, they have wasted their time and money and may have missed out on better career opportunities.
Once they have been produced, the pilots are presented to studio and network executives, and in some cases to test audiences; at this point, each pilot receives various degrees of feedback and is gauged on its potential to advance from one pilot to a full-fledged series. Using this feedback, and factoring in the current status and future potential of their existing series, each network chooses about four to eight pilots for series status. The new series are then presented at the networks' annual upfronts in May, where they are added to network schedules for the following season (either for a fall or "mid-season" winter debut), and at the upfront presentation, the shows are shown to potential advertisers and the networks sell the majority of the advertising for their new pilots. The survival odds for these new series are low, as typically only one or two of them survive for more than one season.
Types of pilots
Premise pilot
A premise pilot introduces the characters and their world to the viewer; it is structured so that it can be run as the first episode of the series if substantial changes are not made between the pilot and greenlighting. In the event the changes being made are so substantial that they would cause confusion to viewers, the pilot (or portions of it) is often re-shot, recast, or rewritten to fit the rest of the series.
The pilot for Gilligan's Island, for instance, showed the castaways when they had just become stranded on the island. However, three roles were recast before going to series, with the characters either modified or completely altered to the point where the pilot could no longer be used as a regular episode. As a result, CBS aired Gilligan's second produced episode, which opened with the same scene of the characters just stranded on the island (showing only those not re-cast), first; the story from the pilot from that point onward was largely reworked into a flashback episode which aired later (with several key scenes re-shot). Even Gilligan's theme song, which was originally done as a calypso number, was rewritten and recomposed to be completely different.
Another example is Star Trek, where footage from the unaired original pilot, "The Cage", was incorporated into the two-part episode, "The Menagerie", with the story justification that it depicts events that happened several years earlier. Conversely, the second pilot for Star Trek, "Where No Man Has Gone Before", aired as the third episode of the show's first season, even though it included some casting and costuming differences that set it apart from the preceding episodes.
If a network orders a two-hour pilot, it will usually broadcast it as a television film to recoup some of its costs even if the network chooses to not order the show. Sometimes, a made-for-TV-movie is filmed as a pilot, but because of actors not being available, the series intro is reshot for the first aired episode. The original Cagney & Lacey movie co-starred Loretta Swit (of M*A*S*H fame) as Chris Cagney, but when she could not get out of her contract, they reshot it with Meg Foster, who after the first season was replaced with Sharon Gless; therefore, the original movie is not considered part of the television series, and is not included in the series collections on DVD. In some cases, this does not hamper broadcast, such as Jackie Cooper playing the role of Walter Carlson in the TV movie pilot of the 1975 series The Invisible Man, but being replaced by Craig Stevens for the remainder of the series; the pilot is still considered part of the series and released to DVD as such. Likewise, The Homecoming: A Christmas Story had an almost entirely different cast from the series it was intended to pilot (The Waltons), but both have been rerun for many years.
Proof of concept
A proof of concept pilot usually takes place chronologically further into a series run than a premise pilot, to give network executives a better feel for how a typical episode would appear (since a premise pilot may have to deviate from a typical episode in order to properly introduce characters). Remington Steele used both a proof of concept and a premise pilot. Proofs of concept were particularly common for game shows; in such cases, the pilot may be entirely or partially scripted (and thus, due to regulations passed after the 1950s quiz show scandals, illegal to broadcast in many jurisdictions) and use fake contestants and "returning champions" to demonstrate those concepts. The adventure series Lassie had both a premise pilot, "The Inheritance", designed specifically to air as the series' first episode, showing how Lassie's series owner, Jeff Miller, came to acquire her; and a proof of concept pilot, "The Well", showcased situations typical to the series, which aired well on into the first season of the series.
Backdoor pilot
A backdoor pilot is a film or miniseries that serves as a proof of concept for a full series, but may be broadcast on its own even if the full series is not picked up. The term may also be used for an episode of an existing television show that serves to introduce a spin-off. Such backdoor pilots commonly focus on an existing character or characters from the parent series who are to be given their own show.
For example, to introduce A Different World, built around The Cosby Show character Denise Huxtable (Lisa Bonet), the Cosby Show episode "Hillman" was devoted to Denise's visit to the college that would become the new show's setting, and her encounters with some of the new show's supporting characters. A 2018 episode of ABC's 1980s-set sitcom The Goldbergs, titled "1990-Something", heavily featured teachers who were recurring characters on the series and served as the backdoor pilot to Schooled, which debuted in early 2019.
In other cases, an episode of the parent show may focus on one or more guest characters who have not previously appeared in the show. For example, the JAG season eight episodes "Ice Queen" and "Meltdown" introduced the characters for what would become NCIS, while the NCIS season six two-part episode "Legend" introduced the characters for what would become the NCIS spin-off series NCIS: Los Angeles, and the NCIS season 11 two-part episode "Crescent City" introduced the characters for what would become NCIS: New Orleans. NCIS: Los Angeles itself also included a backdoor pilot for a potential further spin-off – NCIS: Red – but the series was not picked up.
Similarly, the backdoor pilot for the television sitcom Empty Nest was an episode of The Golden Girls, which relegated that show's regular stars to supporting characters in an episode devoted to new characters who were introduced as their neighbors. Feedback on the episode resulted in Empty Nest being extensively reworked before its debut; while the concept and the "living next to the Golden Girls" setting was retained, the series ended up featuring different characters from those in the original Golden Girls episode.
A 2011 episode of the TV Land original sitcom Hot in Cleveland focused on the wedding of the character Elka (played by Betty White). Boyce Ballentine (Cedric the Entertainer), an R&B singer-turned-preacher, was introduced as the pastor for the wedding, with the intention of Boyce eventually having his own series on the network. That came to fruition in 2012, when TV Land introduced The Soul Man.
A historically important venue for backdoor pilots has been the anthology series. They have variously been used as a place to show work still being actively considered for pickup, and as a venue for completed work already rejected by the network. With the decline of anthology series, backdoor pilots have increasingly been seen as episodes of existing series, one-off television films, and miniseries. As backdoor pilots have either failed to sell or are awaiting audience reception from its one-time broadcast, networks will not advertise them as pilots, only promoting them as a "special" or "movie". It is thus often unclear to initial viewers of backdoor pilots that they are seeing a pilot of any kind, unless they have been privy to knowledgeable media coverage of the piece.
Not all backdoor pilots lead to a series. The Star Trek episode "Assignment: Earth" was a backdoor pilot for a spin-off of the same name, featuring a human named Gary Seven (played by Robert Lansing), taken from Earth's far past and raised by aliens to be sent to watch over Earth in the 1960s; while the series was not picked up, its characters have appeared in numerous non-canon Trek productions set in the 20th century. The third season two-part episode "Terra Firma" of Star Trek: Discovery is generally regarded as a backdoor pilot for a series featuring the character Philippa Georgiou. The final two episodes of the CBS sitcom Green Acres (1965–71) were both backdoor pilots. With CBS being pressured by advertisers to develop more urban-themed shows (ultimately at the expense of the network's rural-themed programs), Green Acres creator Jay Sommers was given an opportunity to develop two series ideas, both of which were rejected.
ABC attempted to create a spin-off of Charlie's Angels in 1980 called Toni's Boys. The backdoor pilot that aired near the end of season four was simply titled "Toni's Boys" and guest starred Barbara Stanwyck as Antonia "Toni" Blake, a wealthy widow and friend of Charlie Townsend's who ran a detective agency she inherited from her late husband. The agency was staffed by three handsome male detectives: Cotton Harper (Stephen Shortridge), Bob Sorensen (Bob Seagren), and Matt Parrish (Bruce Bauer). The three took direction from Toni and solved crimes in a manner similar to the Angels. The show was not picked up as a regular series for the following season.
The series finale of One Day at a Time in May 1984 served as a backdoor pilot to a spin-off featuring Pat Harrington, Jr.'s character Dwayne Schneider in a new setting, but CBS ultimately passed on the potential series. Similarly, the 1988 two-part series finale of The Facts of Life ("The Beginning of the End" and "The Beginning of the Beginning") also served as a backdoor pilot that focused on the decision Blair Warner (Lisa Whelchel) made in using her trust fund to purchase the financially troubled Eastland Academy. Blair became headmistress and opened enrollment to male students for the first time in Eastland history. Up-and-coming actors Juliette Lewis, Mayim Bialik, Seth Green, and Meredith Scott Lynn were featured as some of Eastland's new students. NBC did not pick up the new series.
The Dukes of Hazzard aired two episodes, named "Jude Emery" and "Mason Dixon's Girls", which served as a backdoor pilot complete with the Dukes cast interacting with the new characters. Ultimately, CBS passed on the two series in favor of a series starring Hazzard County deputy Enos Strate. Another example within sitcoms would be a season 2 episode of The Nanny called "The Chatterbox", which centered around a struggling actress who gets a job at a barbershop owned by a single father.
A pair of Married... with Children episodes aired as backdoor pilots that would not be picked up. The first, Radio Free Trumaine, featured Keri Russell as a college student who winds up working at the campus radio station, with David Garrison set to reprise his role as Steve Rhoades. The other was Enemies, which was intended as an antithesis to Friends in the same way the flagship Married... with Children was for The Cosby Show. The pilot featured a guest appearance by Alan Thicke.
In June 2010, Lifetime pursued a spinoff procedural drama of Army Wives featuring Brigid Brannagh's character, police officer Pamela Moran. The fourth-season episode "Murder in Charleston" was intended to serve as a backdoor pilot for the proposed spin-off. The episode sees Moran teaming up with an Atlanta-based detective on a murder that is related to a case she has been working on for the past three years. At the end of the episode, the detective encourages Moran to take a detective's exam, and to look for her if she is in Atlanta. In September 2010, however, Lifetime declined to pick up the project to series.
In 2013, The CW announced there was a spin-off of their genre hit Supernatural in the works. The 20th episode of season nine titled "Bloodlines", served as a back-door pilot, revealed in January 2014 to have been titled Supernatural: Bloodlines. The series was set to explore the "clashing hunter and monster cultures in Chicago". The show was not picked up by the CW for the 2014–2015 season due to dismal overall reception by viewers. The Gossip Girl episode "Valley Girls" was supposed to be a backdoor pilot for a prequel spin-off series starring Brittany Snow as a young Lily van der Woodsen, however the show was not picked up. "The Farm" was an episode of NBC's The Office that was supposed to act as a backdoor pilot for a spin-off series starring Rainn Wilson and focusing on his character, Dwight Schrute. Upon review, the spin-off was not picked up by NBC and the original version was never aired; instead it was reworked with additional material shot later, as the original version contained "certain aspects that were appropriate for a pilot of a new show".
The Arrow episode "The Scientist" served as a backdoor pilot for the spinoff series The Flash, introducing Barry Allen as a CSI searching for super-powered people in an attempt to find his mother's murderer. This episode also created the Arrowverse, a shared universe of interconnected DC Comics superhero TV series. The "Heroes Join Forces" crossover was a two-part backdoor pilot for another spinoff series set in the Arrowverse called Legends of Tomorrow, featuring a team of heroes and villains originally introduced in Arrow and The Flash. The series finale of Arrow, "Green Arrow & The Canaries" served as an unsuccessful backdoor pilot for a series of the same name. The 100 episode "Anaconda" also served as an unsuccessful backdoor pilot for a prequel series.
Put pilot
A put pilot is a pilot that the network has agreed to broadcast either as a special or series; if it does not, it will have to pay substantial monetary penalties to the studio. This usually guarantees that the pilot will be picked up by the network.
Unsold pilot
An unsold pilot or "busted pilot" is a produced episode that is never broadcast or made into a television series. Variety estimates that only a little over a quarter of all pilots made for American television proceed to the series stage.
Test run
Instead of a single pilot episode, an alternative is a test run, a small number of episodes that air as a short-run series with the potential to go into full production if successful. This is particularly common among shows that are intended to be stripped (airing five days a week).
Talk shows occasionally use test runs. Metromedia and its successor Fox Corporation were particularly associated with using test runs for talk shows, with examples including The Wendy Williams Show, The Huckabee Show (a spin-off of Huckabee that aired for six weeks in summer 2010), the final version of The Jerry Lewis Show, and The Kilborn File, an unsuccessful comeback vehicle for Craig Kilborn.
In 2021, Fox Alternative Entertainment utilized a test market approach for its new reality talent competition format The Big Deal, producing a season of the series for Irish broadcaster Virgin Media One with the intent to use it as a pitch for Fox and other broadcasters.
10/90
In a 10/90 production model, a network broadcasts ten episodes of a new television program without ordering a pilot first. If the episodes achieve a predetermined ratings level, the network orders 90 more to bring the total to 100 episodes, immediately enough to rerun the show in syndication. Series that used the 10/90 model include Tyler Perry's House of Payne, Meet the Browns, For Better or Worse, Debmar-Mercury's Anger Management, and Are We There Yet?. Byron Allen's sitcoms followed a similar model, with Mr. Box Office and The First Family airing 26-episode first seasons with the intention of following them up with a full 104-episode order if successful; both series failed to reach the threshold Allen sought, though they remained in limited production (three to four new episodes a year, mixed in with the first season) for a few years afterward.
Other examples
An earlier variant was the 13-episode pilot run; in the late 1980s and early 1990s, Disney Channel notably gave a 13-episode pilot order to two series it never picked up, but would go on to longer runs on other networks: Good Morning, Miss Bliss (which also had a traditional pilot on NBC and would be revived by that network as Saved by the Bell) and the Canadian drama Hillside (which would move to Nickelodeon, Disney Channel's primary rival, and air as Fifteen).
As distinguished from the series premiere
A successful pilot is often used as the series premiere, the first aired episode of a new show, or it may be aired as a later episode or never aired at all. For the Canadian supernatural drama Lost Girl, the pilot that sold the series to Showcase, "Vexed", was used as the eighth episode of the first series. In the case of Firefly, the original pilot ("Serenity") which was intended to serve as the series premiere was rejected by the network, and a new first episode, "Train Job", was shot specifically for broadcast.
Sometimes, too, viewers will assign the word "pilot" to a work that represented the first appearances of characters and situations later employed by a series – even if the work was not initially intended as a pilot for the series. A good example of this is "Love and the Television Set" (later retitled "Love and the Happy Days" for syndication), an episode of Love, American Style that featured a version of the Cunningham family. It was in fact a failed pilot for the proposed 1972 series New Family in Town, but was recycled as a successful pilot for 1974's Happy Days. So firmly embedded is the notion of it as a Happy Days pilot, that even series actress Erin Moran (who did not appear in the episode) viewed it as such, as well as its creator, Garry Marshall, since Happy Days itself did not have a separate pilot of its own. In a similar situation, the 1962 pilot Howie was resurrected 13 years later to form the basis of The Paul Lynde Show.
The original Star Trek TV series had two pilots, neither of which became the premiere episode when the series was picked up. The first, titled The Cage, didn't sell, but Desilu head Lucille Ball convinced NBC executives to allow shooting of a second pilot, Where No Man Has Gone Before, which was accepted by the network. The Cage was edited and expanded into a two-part story, shown as The Menagerie. This turned out to be an auspicious decision, because of various challenges which bogged down series production during the first season. The second pilot was also shown during that first season, as the third episode. The only major character to appear in both pilots was Spock.
On other occasions, the pilot is never broadcast on television at all. Viewers of Temple Houston, for example, would likely have considered "The Twisted Rope" its pilot because "The Man from Galveston" was only publicly exhibited in cinemas four months later. Even then, "The Man from Galveston" had an almost entirely different cast, and its main character was renamed to avoid confusion with the then-ongoing series.
Some television series are commissioned "straight-to-series" where a network orders a season without viewing any produced episodes, hence no episode is considered a pilot. For instance, "Invasion of the Bane", the first episode of The Sarah Jane Adventures, is not a pilot because the BBC had committed to the first season before seeing any filmed content – yet it is routinely referred to as a pilot. The straight-to-series model is usually used when established talent is attached to a series, or it is based on an established property or franchise. Amazing Stories (1985) is credited as being one of the first series commissioned without a pilot. The model has seen a rise since Netflix popularized it.
Theatrical release
A number of unsold pilots have been reworked into theatrically-released feature films, including Lum and Abner Abroad (1956), which wove together three pilot episodes for a 1956 series that would have starred the comedy duo of Lum and Abner; Agent for H.A.R.M. (1966); and Mulholland Drive (2001), which was composed of an unsold pilot episode appended with an ending shot specifically for the film.
In addition, a number of unsuccessful pilot episodes have been released as direct-to-video films, including Belle's Magical World (1998), Cruel Intentions 2 (2001) and Atlantis: Milo's Return (2003).
See also
Series premiere
Season premiere
Series finale
Season finale
References
Further reading
External links
NYTimes: No Smooth Ride on TV Networks' Road to Diversity (2009)
Television Obscurities – Unsold Pilots on Television, 1956–1966
Television Obscurities – Unsold Pilots on Television, 1967–1989
Pilot Season Secrets: Are You Ready?
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Lord%20of%20the%20Rings%20%281978%20film%29
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The Lord of the Rings (1978 film)
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The Lord of the Rings is a 1978 animated fantasy film directed by Ralph Bakshi from a screenplay by Chris Conkling and Peter S. Beagle. It is based on the novel of the same name by J. R. R. Tolkien, adapting from the volumes The Fellowship of the Ring and The Two Towers.
Set in Middle-earth, the film follows a group of fantasy races—Hobbits, Men, an Elf, a Dwarf and a wizard—who form a fellowship to destroy a magical ring made by the Dark Lord Sauron, the main antagonist.
Bakshi encountered Tolkien's writing early in his career. He had made several attempts to produce The Lord of the Rings as an animated film before producer Saul Zaentz and distributor United Artists provided funding. The film is notable for its extensive use of rotoscoping, a technique in which scenes are first shot in live-action, then traced onto animation cels. It uses a hybrid of traditional cel animation and rotoscoped live-action footage.
The Lord of the Rings was released in the United States on November 15, 1978, and in the United Kingdom on July 5, 1979. Although the film received mixed reviews from critics, and hostility from disappointed viewers who felt that it was incomplete, it was a financial success; there was no official sequel to cover the remainder of the story. However, the film has retained a cult following and was a minor inspiration for New Zealand filmmaker Peter Jackson.
Plot
Early in the Second Age of Middle-earth, Elven smiths forge nine Rings of Power for mortal Men, seven for the Dwarf-Lords, and three for the Elf-Kings. Soon after, the Dark Lord Sauron makes the One Ring, and uses it to attempt to conquer Middle-earth. After defeating Sauron, Prince Isildur takes the Ring, but after he is killed by Orcs, the Ring lies at the bottom of the river Anduin for over 2,500 years. Over time, Sauron captures the Nine Rings and transforms their owners into the Ringwraiths. The One Ring is discovered by Déagol, whose kinsman, Sméagol, kills him and takes the Ring for himself. The Ring twists his body and mind, and he becomes the creature Gollum (Peter Woodthorpe) who takes it with him into the Misty Mountains. Hundreds of years later, Bilbo Baggins (Norman Bird) finds the Ring in Gollum's cave and brings it back with him to the Shire.
Decades later, during Bilbo's birthday celebration, the Wizard Gandalf (William Squire) tells him to leave the Ring for his nephew Frodo (Christopher Guard). Bilbo reluctantly agrees, and departs for Rivendell. Seventeen years pass, during which Gandalf learns that evil forces have discovered that the Ring is in the possession of a Baggins. Gandalf meets Frodo to explain the Ring's history and the danger it poses, and Frodo leaves his home, taking the Ring with him. He is accompanied by three Hobbits, his cousins, Pippin (Dominic Guard), Merry (Simon Chandler), and his gardener Sam (Michael Scholes). After a narrow escape from the Ringwraiths, the hobbits eventually come to Bree, from which Aragorn (John Hurt) leads them to Rivendell. Frodo is stabbed atop Weathertop mountain by the chief of the Ringwraiths, and becomes sickened as the journey progresses. The Ringwraiths catch up with them shortly after they meet the Elf Legolas (Anthony Daniels); and at a standoff at the ford of Rivendell, the Ringwraiths are swept away by the river.
At Rivendell, Frodo is healed by Elrond (André Morell). He meets Gandalf again, after the latter escapes the corrupt wizard Saruman (Fraser Kerr), who plans to ally with Sauron but also wants the Ring for himself. Frodo volunteers to go to Mordor, where the Ring can be destroyed. Thereafter Frodo sets off from Rivendell with eight companions: Gandalf; Aragorn; Boromir (Michael Graham Cox), son of the Steward of Gondor; Legolas; Gimli (David Buck) the Dwarf, along with Pippin, Merry, and Sam.
Their attempt to cross the Misty Mountains is foiled by heavy snow, and they are forced into Moria. There, they are attacked by Orcs, and Gandalf falls into an abyss while battling a Balrog. The remaining Fellowship continue through the Elf-haven Lothlórien, where they meet the Elf queen Galadriel (Annette Crosbie). Boromir tries to take the Ring from Frodo, and Frodo decides to continue his quest alone; but Sam insists on accompanying him. Boromir is killed by Orcs while trying to defend Merry and Pippin. Merry and Pippin are captured by the Orcs, who intend to take them to Isengard through the land of Rohan. The captured hobbits escape and flee into Fangorn Forest, where they meet Treebeard (John Westbrook). Aragorn, Gimli, and Legolas track Merry and Pippin into the forest, where they are reunited with Gandalf, who was reborn after destroying the Balrog.
The four then ride to Rohan's capital, Edoras, where Gandalf persuades King Théoden (Philip Stone) that his people are in danger. Aragorn, Gimli, and Legolas then travel to the Helm's Deep. Frodo and Sam discover Gollum stalking them in an attempt to reclaim the Ring, and capture him; but spare his life in return for guidance to Mount Doom. Gollum eventually begins plotting against them, and wonders if "she" might help. At Helm's Deep, Théoden's forces resist the Orcs sent by Saruman, until Gandalf arrives with the absent Riders of Rohan, destroying the Orc army.
Cast
Christopher Guard as Frodo
William Squire as Gandalf
Michael Scholes as Sam
John Hurt as Aragorn
Simon Chandler as Merry
Dominic Guard as Pippin
Norman Bird as Bilbo
Michael Graham Cox as Boromir
Anthony Daniels as Legolas
David Buck as Gimli
Peter Woodthorpe as Gollum
Fraser Kerr as Saruman
Philip Stone as Théoden
Michael Deacon as Wormtongue
André Morell as Elrond
Alan Tilvern as Innkeeper
Annette Crosbie as Galadriel
John Westbrook as Treebeard
This primary cast was supported by a large cast of animation doubles, who were not credited on screen; the matter went to guild arbitration.
Production
Development
Director Ralph Bakshi was introduced to The Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien during the mid-1950s while working as an animator for Terrytoons. In 1957, the young animator started trying to convince people that the story could be told in animation.
In 1969, the rights were passed to United Artists, where an "elegant" Peter Shaffer script was abandoned. Film producer Denis O'Dell was interested in producing a film for the Beatles, and approached directors David Lean (busy with Ryan's Daughter), Stanley Kubrick (who deemed it "unfilmable"), and Michaelangelo Antonioni. John Boorman was commissioned to write a script in late 1969, but it was deemed too expensive in 1970.
Bakshi approached United Artists when he learned (from a 1974 issue of Variety) that Boorman's script was abandoned. Learning that Boorman intended to produce all three parts of The Lord of the Rings as a single film, Bakshi commented, "I thought that was madness, certainly a lack of character on Boorman's part. Why would you want to tamper with anything Tolkien did?" Bakshi began making a "yearly trek" to United Artists. Bakshi had since achieved box office success producing adult-oriented animated films such as Fritz the Cat but his recent film, Coonskin, tanked, and he later clarified that he thought The Lord of the Rings could "make some money" so as to save his studio.
In 1975, Bakshi convinced United Artists executive Mike Medavoy to produce The Lord of the Rings as two or three animated films, and a prequel to The Hobbit. Medavoy offered him Boorman's script, which Bakshi refused, saying that Boorman "didn't understand it" and that his script would have made for a cheap film like "a Roger Corman film". Medavoy accepted Bakshi's proposal to "do the books as close as we can, using Tolkien's exact dialogue and scenes".
Although he was later keen to regroup with Boorman for his script (and his surrogate project, Excalibur), Bakshi claimed Medavoy didn't want to produce his film at the time, but allowed him to shop it around if he could get another studio to pay for the expenses on Boorman's script. Bakshi attempted unsuccessfully to persuade Peter Bogdanovich to take on the project, but managed to gain the support of the then President of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Dan Melnick. Bakshi and Melnick made a deal with Mike Medavoy at United Artists to buy the Boorman script. Bakshi said later that "The Boorman script cost $3 million, so Boorman was happy by the pool, screaming and laughing and drinking, 'cause he got $3 million for his script to be thrown out." Boorman, however, was unhappy with the project going to animation after Tolkien once wrote to him, pleased that he was doing it in live-action. He never saw Bakshi's film, and after it was released, tried to remake his live-action version with Medavoy.
Work began on scripts and storyboards. When Melnick was fired from MGM in 1976, Bakshi's studio had spent between $200,000 and $600,000. The new executive Dick Shepherd hadn't read the books and, according to Bakshi, did not want to make the movie; Shepherd obliviously asked whether The Lord of the Rings was about a wedding. Bakshi then contacted Saul Zaentz (who had helped finance Fritz the Cat), asking him to produce The Lord of the Rings; Zaentz agreed.
Before production started, Bakshi met with Tolkien's daughter Priscilla to discuss how the film would be made. She showed him the room where her father did his writing and drawing. Bakshi says, "My promise to Tolkien's daughter was to be pure to the book. I wasn't going to say, 'Hey, throw out Gollum and change these two characters.' My job was to say, 'This is what the genius said.'"
Bakshi was approached by Mick Jagger, who wanted to play Frodo, but at the time the roles were already cast and recorded. David Carradine also approached Bakshi, offering to play Aragorn, and even suggested that Bakshi do it in live-action; while Bakshi's contract allowed this, he said it couldn't be done and that he'd "always seen it as animation". He said it was impossible to make it in live-action without it being "tacky".
Screenwriting
Bakshi began developing the script himself. Learning of the project, Chris Conkling got an interview with Bakshi but was initially hired to "do research, to say what the costumes should look like or what the characters would be doing at any given time". Together, they first decided how to break the films down. When they started, they contemplated a three-film structure, but "we didn't know how that middle film would work" without a beginning and an end. Conkling even started writing a treatment for one long, three-and-a-half hour feature of the entire work, but eventually settled on scripts for two 150-minute films, the first of which was titled "The Lord of the Rings, Part One: The Fellowship".
The second draft of the screenplay, written by Conkling, told the bulk of the story in flashback, from Merry Brandybuck's point of view, so as to lead into the sequel. This version included Tom Bombadil, who rescues the Hobbits from the Barrow Downs, as well as Farmer Maggot, the Old Forest, Glorfindel, Arwen, and several songs. Bakshi felt it was "a much too drastic departure from Tolkien". Conkling began writing a draft that was "more straightforward and true to the source".
Still displeased, Bakshi and Zaentz called in fantasy author Peter S. Beagle for a rewrite. Beagle's first draft eliminated the framing device and told the story beginning with Bilbo's Farewell Party, climaxing with the Battle of Helm's Deep, and ending with the cliffhanger of Gollum leading Frodo and Sam to Shelob. The revised draft includes a brief prologue to reveal the history of the Ring. Fans threatened Bakshi that "he'd better get it right" and according to the artist Mike Ploog, Bakshi constantly revised the story to include certain beasts at the behest of such fans.
Differences from the book
Of the adaptation process, Bakshi stated that some elements of the story "had to be left out but nothing in the story was really altered". The film greatly condenses Frodo's journey from Bag End to Bree. Stop-overs at Farmer Maggot's house, Frodo's supposed home in Buckland, and the house of the mysterious Tom Bombadil deep in the Old Forest are omitted. Maggot and his family, Bombadil and his wife Goldberry and the encounter with the Barrow-wight are thus all omitted, along with Fatty Bolger, a hobbit who accompanied Frodo at the beginning. According to Bakshi, the character of Tom Bombadil was dropped because "he didn't move the story along."
Directing
Bakshi said that one of the problems with the production was that the film was an epic, because "epics tend to drag. The biggest challenge was to be true to the book." When asked what he was trying to accomplish with the film, Bakshi stated "The goal was to bring as much quality as possible to the work. I wanted real illustration as opposed to cartoons." Bakshi said that descriptions of the characters were not included because they are seen in the film. He stated that the key thing was not "how a hobbit looks", since everyone has their own idea of such things, but that "the energy of Tolkien survives". In his view what mattered was whether the quality of animation was enough to make the movie work.
Bakshi was aware of the work of illustrators like the Brothers Hildebrandt, without accepting that their style had driven his approach; he stated that the film presented a clash of many styles, as in his other films.
Animation
Publicity for the film announced that Bakshi had created "the first movie painting" by utilizing "an entirely new technique in filmmaking". Much of the film used live-action footage which was then rotoscoped to produce an animated look. This saved production costs and gave the animated characters a more realistic look. In animation historian Jerry Beck's The Animated Movie Guide, reviewer Marea Boylan writes that "up to that point, animated films had not depicted extensive battle scenes with hundreds of characters. By using the rotoscope, Bakshi could trace highly complex scenes from live-action footage and transform them into animation, thereby taking advantage of the complexity live-action film could capture without incurring the exorbitant costs of producing a live-action film." Bakshi rejected the Disney approach which he thought "cartoony", arguing that his approach, while not traditional for rotoscoping, created a feeling of realism involving up to a thousand characters in a scene.
Bakshi went to England to recruit a voice cast from the BBC Drama Repertory Company, including Christopher Guard, William Squire, Michael Scholes, Anthony Daniels, and John Hurt. Daniels remembers that "The whole cast were in the same studio but we all had to leave a two second gap between the lines which made for rather stilted dialogue." For the live-action portion of the production, Bakshi and his cast and crew went to Spain, where the rotoscope models acted out their parts in costume in the open or in empty soundstages. Additional photography took place in Death Valley. Bakshi was so terrified of the horses used in the shoot that he directed those scenes from inside the caravan.
Bakshi had a difficult working relationship with producer Saul Zaentz. When Zaentz would bring potential investors to Bakshi's studio, he would always show them the same sequence, of Frodo falling off of his horse at the Ford (which was his stunt double actually falling over).
During the middle of a large shoot, union bosses called for a lunch break, and Bakshi secretly shot footage of actors in Orc costumes moving toward the craft service table, and used the footage in the film. Many of the actors who contributed voices to this production also acted out their parts for rotoscoped scenes. The actions of Bilbo Baggins and Samwise Gamgee were performed by Billy Barty, while Sharon Baird served as the performance model for Frodo Baggins. Other performers used on the rotoscoping session included John A. Neris as Gandalf, Walt Robles as Aragorn, Felix Silla as Gollum, Jeri Lea Ray as Galadriel, and Aesop Aquarian as Gimli. Although some cel animation was produced and shot for the film, very little of it appears in the final film. Most of the film's crowd and battle scenes use a different technique, in which live-action footage is solarized (per an interview with the film's cinematographer, Timothy Galfas, in the documentary Forging Through the Darkness: the Ralph Bakshi Vision for The Lord of the Rings) to produce a more three-dimensional look. In a few shots the two techniques are combined.
Bakshi claimed he "didn't start thinking about shooting the film totally in live action until I saw it really start to work so well. I learned lots of things about the process, like rippling. One scene, some figures were standing on a hill and a big gust of wind came up and the shadows moved back and forth on the clothes and it was unbelievable in animation. I don't think I could get the feeling of cold on the screen without showing snow or an icicle on some guy's nose. The characters have weight and they move correctly." After the Spanish film development lab discovered that telephone lines, helicopters, and cars could be seen in the footage Bakshi had shot, they tried to incinerate the footage, telling Bakshi's first assistant director that "if that kind of sloppy cinematography got out, no one from Hollywood would ever come back to Spain to shoot again."
Following the live-action shoot, each frame of the live footage was printed out, and placed behind an animation cel. The details of each frame were copied and painted onto the cel. Both the live-action and animated sequences were storyboarded. Of the production, Bakshi is quoted as saying,
Although he continued to use rotoscoping in American Pop, Hey Good Lookin', and Fire and Ice, Bakshi later regretted his use of the technique, stating that he felt that it was a mistake to trace the source footage rather than using it as a guide.
By the time Bakshi was done animating, he had only four weeks left to cut the film from a nearly 150-minute rough cut. Restoring a piece of animation where Gandalf fights the Balrog (replaced in the finished film by a photomontage), Eddie Bakshi remarked that little of the film was left on the cutting room floor. Bakshi asked three additional months to edit the film, but was declined. After test-screenings, it was decided to re-cut the end of the picture so that Gollum would resolve leading Frodo and Sam to Shelob before cutting back to Helm's Deep, so as to not end the film on a cliffhanger.
Working on the film were Tim Burton, Disney animator Dale Baer, and Mike Ploog, who worked also on other Bakshi animations such as Wizards.
Music
The film score was composed by Leonard Rosenman. Bakshi wanted to include music by Led Zeppelin but producer Saul Zaentz insisted upon an orchestral score because he would not be able to release the band's music on his Fantasy Records label. Rosenman wanted a large score, involving a 100-piece orchestra, 100-piece mixed choir and 100-piece boy choir, but ended up with a smaller ensemble. Bakshi initially called his score "majestic", but later stated that he hated Rosenman's score, which he found to be too cliché.
In Lord of the Rings: Popular Culture in Global Context, Ernest Mathijs writes that Rosenman's score "is a middle ground between his more sonorous but dissonant earlier scores and his more traditional (and less challenging) sounding music [...] In the final analysis, Rosenman's score has little that marks it out as distinctively about Middle Earth, relying on traditions of music (including film music) more than any specific attempt to paint a musical picture of the different lands and peoples of Tolkien's imagination." The film's score was issued as a double-LP soundtrack album in 1978. The album reached number 33 in the Canadian RPM Magazine album charts on February 24, 1979.
Canceled sequels
The film was originally intended to be distributed as The Lord of the Rings Part I. Initially a trilogy was planned, but this was revised to two planned films because of the limited budget. Arthur Krim resigned from United Artists and was replaced by Andy Albeck. According to Bakshi, when he completed the film, United Artists executives told him that they were planning to release the film without indicating that a sequel would follow, because they felt that audiences would not pay to see half of a film. Bakshi stated that he strongly opposed this, and agreed with the shocked viewers who complained that the film was unfinished. In his view, "Had it said 'Part One,' I think everyone would have respected it."
Although UA found that the film, while financially successful, "failed to overwhelm audiences", Bakshi began working on a sequel, and even had some B-roll footage shot. The Film Book of J.R.R. Tolkien's the Lord of the Rings, published by Ballantine Books on October 12, 1978, still referred to the sequel in the book's inside cover jacket. Indeed, in interviews Bakshi talked about doing "a part two film picking up where this leaves off", and even boasted that the second film could "pick up on sequences that we missed in the first book". Zaentz went so far as to try to stop the Rankin/Bass's The Return of the King TV special (which was already storyboarded before Bakshi's film came out) from airing, so as to not clash with Bakshi's sequel.
Bakshi was aware of Rankin/Bass's The Hobbit TV special, and angrily commented that "Lord of the Rings is not going to have any song for the sake of a record album." During the lawsuit, he commented that "They're not going to stop us from doing The Lord of the Rings and they won't stop us from doing The Hobbit. Anyone who saw their version of The Hobbit know it has nothing to do with the quality and style of our feature. My life isn't going to be altered by what Rankin-Bass chooses to do badly." Years later, he called their film "an awful, rip-off version of The Hobbit."
Bakshi found the two years spent on Rings immensely stressful, and the fan reaction scathing. He took comfort in talking to Priscilla Tolkien, who said she loved it, but got into an argument with Zaentz and refused to do Part Two. Reports vary as to whether the argument had to do with the dropping of the "Part One" subtitle or Bakshi's fee for the sequel.
Bakshi said he was "proud to have made part one" and that his work was "there for anyone who would make part two". In interviews leading up to the year 2000, he still toyed with the idea of making the sequel. For his part, Zaentz said he kept in touch with Bakshi, but confided to John Boorman that making the film was the worst experience of his life, which made him protective of the property. Indeed, he commented that the film "wasn't as good as we should have made" and later remarked that an "animated [film] couldn't do it. It was just too complex for animated to handle it, with the emotion that was needed and the size and scope."
During development of the live-action films, Bakshi said he was approached by Warner Bros. to make the second part, but refused as he was angry of not being notified about the live-action film. He did use the renewed interest in his film to restore it to DVD, and had the final line redubbed to bolster the film's sense of finality. After the live-action films found success, Bakshi stated that he would never have made the film if he had known what would happen during the production. He is quoted as saying that the reason he made the film was "to save it for Tolkien, because I loved the Rings very much".
He concluded that the film made him realize that he was not interested in adapting another writer's story.
Reception
Box office, awards and nominations
The Lord of the Rings was a financial success. Reports of the budget vary from $4 to $8 million, and as high as $12 million, while the film grossed $30.5 million at the North American box office. It thus made a profit, having kept its costs low. In the United Kingdom, the film grossed over $3.2 million. Despite this, the reaction from fans was hostile; Jerry Beck writes that they "intensely dislike[d]" the film's "cheap-looking effects and the missing ending", having been misled by the title to expect the film to cover the whole of the book.
The film was nominated for a Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation. It was nominated for a Saturn Awards for Best Fantasy Film. Leonard Rosenman's score was nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Original Motion Picture Score, and Bakshi won a Golden Gryphon award for the film at the Giffoni Film Festival.
Critical response
Critics gave mixed responses to the film, but generally considered it to be a "flawed but inspired interpretation". On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average of . The site's critical consensus reads: "Ralph Bakshi's valiant attempt at rendering Tolkien's magnum opus in rotoscope never lives up to the grandeur of its source material, with a compressed running time that flattens the sweeping story and experimental animation that is more bizarre than magical."
Frank Barrow of The Hollywood Reporter wrote that the film was "daring and unusual in concept". Joseph Gelmis of Newsday wrote that "the film's principal reward is a visual experience unlike anything that other animated features are doing at the moment." Roger Ebert called Bakshi's effort a "mixed blessing" and "an entirely respectable, occasionally impressive job ... [which] still falls far short of the charm and sweep of the original story." Vincent Canby of The New York Times called the film "both numbing and impressive".
David Denby of New York magazine felt that the film would not make sense to viewers who had not previously read the book. Denby wrote that the film was too dark and lacked humour, concluding that "The lurid, meaningless violence of this movie left me exhausted and sickened by the end." Michael Barrier, an animation historian, described The Lord of The Rings as one of two films that demonstrated "that Bakshi was utterly lacking in the artistic self-discipline that might have permitted him to outgrow his limitations."
Barry Langford, writing in the J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia, noted the film's deficiencies, including the "glaringly evident" weaknesses in the rotoscoping animation. The quality of rotoscoping from filmed live action is limited by the quality of the acting, which, given the lack of rehearsal and time for retakes, was not high. The prologue was not rotoscoped, but shot as "silhouetted dumb show through red filters", revealing clumsy mime and confused voiceover, announcing that Mordor defeated Elves and Men at the Battle of Dagorlad, which Langford observes would make the rest of the action incomprehensible. The small budget led to underwhelming battle scenes, as in the Mines of Moria where the Fellowship is confronted by what looks like a very small force of Orcs. The rotoscoping varies from strongly drawn to almost absent, leading to a markedly uneven treatment through the film. The characterisation, in Langford's view, similarly leaves much to be desired.
Influence on Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings
The film has been cited as an influence on director Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, although Jackson said that "our film is stylistically very different and the design is different." Reading about attempts to make the films live-action by Boorman and the Beatles contacting Kubrick and Lean to do the same, Jackson agreed animation was the most sensible choice at the time. Jackson remembers Bakshi's film as a "brave and ambitious attempt". In another interview, Jackson stated that it had "some quaint sequences in Hobbiton, a creepy encounter with the Black Rider on the road, and a few quite good battle scenes" but "about half way through, the storytelling became very disjointed" and it became "confusing" and "incoherent". He and his screenwriter and producer Fran Walsh remarked that Bakshi's Treebeard "looked like a talking carrot". Jackson watched the film for the first time since its premiere in 1997, when Harvey Weinstein screened it to begin the story conferences.
Ahead of the films' release, Bakshi said he did not "understand it" but that he does "wish it to be a good movie". He felt bad that he wasn't contacted by Zaentz, who was involved in the project, and erroneously said they were screening his film at New Line while working on the live-action films. Nevertheless, he clarified he wished the filmmakers success. He claims Warner Brothers approached him with a proposal to make part two at the time, but he complained that they didn't involve him in the live-action film, and refused.
After the films were released Bakshi said that while, "on the creative side", he does "feel good that Peter Jackson continued," he begrudged Saul Zaentz for not notifying him of the live-action films. He said that, with his own film already made, Jackson could study it: "I'm glad Peter Jackson had a movie to look at—I never did. And certainly there's a lot to learn from watching any movie, both its mistakes and when it works. So he had a little easier time than I did, and a lot better budget."
Bakshi had never watched the films, but saw trailers and while he praised the special effects, he said that Jackson "didn't understand" Tolkien and created "special effects garbage" to sell toys, saying his film has "more heart" and that, had he a similar budget, would have made a better film. Bakshi was told the live-action film was derivative of his own, and blamed Jackson for not acknowledging this influence: "Peter Jackson did say that the first film inspired him to go on and do the series, but that happened after I was bitching and moaning to a lot of interviewers that he said at the beginning that he never saw the movie. I thought that was kind of fucked up." Bakshi then said that Jackson mentioned his influence "only once" as "PR bologny". Jackson, who took a fan photograph with Bakshi in 1993, remains puzzled about Bakshi's indignation. In 2015, Bakshi apologized for some of his remarks. Bakshi's animator Mike Ploog praised the live-action film.
In fact, Jackson did acknowledge Bakshi's film as early as 1998, when he told a worried fan that he hoped to outdo Bakshi, as well as mentioning in the behind-the-scenes features that "the black Riders galloping out of Bree was an image I remember very clearly [...] from the Ralph Bakshi film." In the audio commentary to The Fellowship of the Ring, Jackson says Bakshi's film introduced him to The Lord of the Rings and "inspired me to read the book" and in a 2001 interview, said he "enjoyed [the film] and wanted to know more". On the audio commentary for the DVD release of The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring, Jackson acknowledges one shot, a low angle of a hobbit at Bilbo's birthday party shouting "Proudfeet!", as an intentional homage to Bakshi's film, which Jackson thought was "a brilliant angle".
Another influence came through one of Jackson's conceptual artists, John Howe, who unwittingly copied a scene from Bakshi's film in a painting that depicted the four Hobbits hiding under a branch from a Ringwraith. The painting was used in the 1987 J. R. R. Tolkien Calendar. Jackson turned the painting into a scene in the film.
Legacy
The film was adapted into comic book form with artwork by Spanish artist Luis Bermejo, under licence from Tolkien Enterprises. Three issues were published for the European market, starting in 1979, and were not published in the United States or translated into English due to copyright problems.
Warner Bros. (the rights holder to the post-September 1974 Rankin/Bass library and the Saul Zaentz theatrical library) first released the film on DVD and re-released on VHS in 2001 through the Warner Bros. Family Entertainment label. While the VHS version ends with the narrator saying "Here ends the first part of the history of the War of the Ring.", the DVD version has an alternate narration: "The forces of darkness were driven forever from the face of Middle-Earth by the valiant friends of Frodo. As their gallant battle ended, so, too, ends the first great tale of The Lord of the Rings." Later, The Lord of the Rings was released in a deluxe edition on Blu-ray and DVD on April 6, 2010. The Lord of the Rings was selected as the 36th greatest animated film by Time Out magazine, and ranked as the 90th greatest animated film of all time by the Online Film Critics Society.
References
External links
Movie Info
The Lord of the Rings at The Encyclopedia of Fantasy
The Lord of the Rings at the TCM Movie Database
1978 films
1978 animated films
1970s fantasy adventure films
1978 drama films
American films with live action and animation
American adventure drama films
American animated fantasy films
United Artists animated films
1970s English-language films
Films scored by Leonard Rosenman
Films based on British novels
Films based on fantasy novels
Films directed by Ralph Bakshi
United Artists films
Animated films based on British novels
Rotoscoped films
1970s American animated films
Films produced by Saul Zaentz
Films based on multiple works of a series
American fantasy adventure films
Films based on The Lord of the Rings
Films shot in Spain
Films shot in California
1970s British films
British adult animated films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian%20Josephson
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Brian Josephson
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Brian David Josephson (born 4 January 1940) is a Welsh theoretical physicist and professor emeritus of physics at the University of Cambridge. Best known for his pioneering work on superconductivity and quantum tunnelling, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1973 for his prediction of the Josephson effect, made in 1962 when he was a 22-year-old PhD student at Cambridge University. Josephson is the first Welshman to have won a Nobel Prize in Physics. He shared the prize with physicists Leo Esaki and Ivar Giaever, who jointly received half the award for their own work on quantum tunnelling.
Josephson has spent his academic career as a member of the Theory of Condensed Matter group at Cambridge's Cavendish Laboratory. He has been a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge since 1962, and served as professor of physics from 1974 until 2007.
In the early 1970s, Josephson took up transcendental meditation and turned his attention to issues outside the boundaries of mainstream science. He set up the Mind–Matter Unification Project at the Cavendish to explore the idea of intelligence in nature, the relationship between quantum mechanics and consciousness, and the synthesis of science and Eastern mysticism, broadly known as quantum mysticism. He has expressed support for topics such as parapsychology, water memory and cold fusion, which has made him a focus of criticism from fellow scientists.
Early life and career
Education
Josephson was born in Cardiff, Wales, to Jewish parents, Mimi (née Weisbard, 1911–1998) and Abraham Josephson. He attended Cardiff High School, where he credits some of the school masters for having helped him, particularly the physics master, Emrys Jones, who introduced him to theoretical physics. In 1957, he went up to Cambridge, where he initially read mathematics at Trinity College, Cambridge. After completing Maths Part II in two years, and finding it somewhat sterile, he decided to switch to physics.
Josephson was known at Cambridge as a brilliant, but shy, student. Physicist John Waldram recalled overhearing Nicholas Kurti, an examiner from Oxford, discuss Josephson's exam results with David Shoenberg, reader in physics at Cambridge, and asking: "Who is this chap Josephson? He seems to be going through the theory like a knife through butter." While still an undergraduate, he published a paper on the Mössbauer effect, pointing out a crucial issue other researchers had overlooked. According to one eminent physicist speaking to Physics World, Josephson wrote several papers important enough to assure him a place in the history of physics even without his discovery of the Josephson effect.
He graduated in 1960 and became a research student in the university's Mond Laboratory on the old Cavendish site, where he was supervised by Brian Pippard. American physicist Philip Anderson, also a future Nobel Prize laureate, spent a year in Cambridge in 1961–1962, and recalled that having Josephson in a class was "a disconcerting experience for a lecturer, I can assure you, because everything had to be right or he would come up and explain it to me after class." It was during this period, as a PhD student in 1962, that he carried out the research that led to his discovery of the Josephson effect; the Cavendish Laboratory unveiled a plaque on the Mond Building dedicated to the discovery in November 2012. He was elected a fellow of Trinity College in 1962, and obtained his PhD in 1964 for a thesis entitled Non-linear conduction in superconductors.
Discovery of the Josephson effect
Josephson was 22 years old when he did the work on quantum tunnelling that won him the Nobel Prize. He discovered that a supercurrent could tunnel through a thin barrier, predicting, according to physicist Andrew Whitaker, that "at a junction of two superconductors, a current will flow even if there is no drop in voltage; that when there is a voltage drop, the current should oscillate at a frequency related to the drop in voltage; and that there is a dependence on any magnetic field." This became known as the Josephson effect and the junction as a Josephson junction.
His calculations were published in Physics Letters (chosen by Pippard because it was a new journal) in a paper entitled "Possible new effects in superconductive tunnelling," received on 8 June 1962 and published on 1 July. They were confirmed experimentally by Philip Anderson and John Rowell of Bell Labs in Princeton; this appeared in their paper, "Probable Observation of the Josephson Superconducting Tunneling Effect," submitted to Physical Review Letters in January 1963.
Before Anderson and Rowell confirmed the calculations, the American physicist John Bardeen, who had shared the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics (and who shared it again in 1972), objected to Josephson's work. He submitted an article to Physical Review Letters on 25 July 1962, arguing that "there can be no such superfluid flow." The disagreement led to a confrontation in September that year at Queen Mary College, London, at the Eighth International Conference on Low Temperature Physics. When Bardeen (then one of the most eminent physicists in the world) began speaking, Josephson (still a student) stood up and interrupted him. The men exchanged views, reportedly in a civil and soft-spoken manner. See also: .
Whitaker writes that the discovery of the Josephson effect led to "much important physics," including the invention of SQUIDs (superconducting quantum interference devices), which are used in geology to make highly sensitive measurements, as well as in medicine and computing. IBM used Josephson's work in 1980 to build a prototype of a computer that would be up to 100 times faster than the IBM 3033 mainframe.
Nobel Prize
Josephson was awarded several important prizes for his discovery, including the 1969 Research Corporation Award for outstanding contributions to science, and the Hughes Medal and Holweck Prize in 1972. In 1973 he won the Nobel Prize in Physics, sharing the $122,000 award with two other scientists who had also worked on quantum tunnelling. Josephson was awarded half the prize "for his theoretical predictions of the properties of a supercurrent through a tunnel barrier, in particular those phenomena which are generally known as the Josephson effects". The other half of the award was shared equally by Japanese physicist Leo Esaki of the Thomas Watson Research Center in Yorktown, New York, and Norwegian-American physicist Ivar Giaever of General Electric in Schenectady, New York.
Positions held
Josephson spent a postdoctoral year in the United States (1965–1966) as research assistant professor at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. After returning to Cambridge, he was made assistant director of research at the Cavendish Laboratory in 1967, where he remained a member of the Theory of Condensed Matter group, a theoretical physics group, for the rest of his career. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1970, and the same year was awarded a National Science Foundation fellowship by Cornell University, where he spent one year. In 1972 he became a reader in physics at Cambridge and in 1974 a full professor, a position he held until he retired in 2007.
A practitioner of Transcendental Meditation (TM) since the early seventies, Josephson became a visiting faculty member in 1975 of the Maharishi European Research University in the Netherlands, part of the TM movement. He also held visiting professorships at Wayne State University in 1983, the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore in 1984, and the University of Missouri-Rolla in 1987.
Parapsychology
Early interest and Transcendental Meditation
Josephson became interested in philosophy of mind in the late sixties and, in particular, in the mind–body problem, and is one of the few scientists to argue that parapsychological phenomena (telepathy, psychokinesis and other paranormal themes) may be real. In 1971, he began practising Transcendental Meditation (TM), which had been taken up by several celebrities, including the Beatles.
Winning the Nobel Prize in 1973 gave him the freedom to work in less orthodox areas, and he became increasingly involved – including during science conferences, to the irritation of fellow scientists – in talking about meditation, telepathy and higher states of consciousness. In 1974, he angered scientists during a colloquium of molecular and cellular biologists in Versailles by inviting them to read the Bhagavad Gita (5th – 2nd century BCE) and the work of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, the founder of the TM movement, and by arguing about special states of consciousness achieved through meditation. "Nothing forces us," one scientist shouted at him, "to listen to your wild speculations." Biophysicist Henri Atlan wrote that the session ended in uproar.
In May that year, Josephson addressed a symposium held to welcome the Maharishi to Cambridge. The following month, at the first Canadian conference on psychokinesis, he was one of 21 scientists who tested claims by Matthew Manning, a Cambridgeshire teenager who said he had psychokinetic abilities; Josephson apparently told a reporter that he believed Manning's powers were a new kind of energy. He later withdrew or corrected the statement.
Josephson said that Trinity College's tradition of interest in the paranormal meant that he did not dismiss these ideas out of hand. Several presidents of the Society for Psychical Research had been fellows of Trinity, and the Perrott-Warrick Fund, set up in Trinity in 1937 to fund parapsychology research, is still administered by the college. He continued to explore the idea that there is intelligence in nature, particularly after reading Fritjof Capra's The Tao of Physics (1975), and in 1979 took up a more advanced form of TM, known as the TM-Sidhi program. According to Anderson, the TM movement produced a poster showing Josephson levitating several inches above the floor. Josephson argued that meditation could lead to mystical and scientific insights, and that, as a result of it, he had come to believe in a creator.
Fundamental Fysiks Group
Josephson became involved in the mid-1970s with a group of physicists associated with the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley, who were investigating paranormal claims. They had organized themselves loosely into the Fundamental Fysiks Group, and had effectively become the Stanford Research Institute's (SRI) "house theorists," according to historian of science David Kaiser. Core members in the group were Elizabeth Rauscher, George Weissmann, John Clauser, Jack Sarfatti, Saul-Paul Sirag, Nick Herbert, Fred Alan Wolf, Fritjof Capra, Henry Stapp, Philippe Eberhard and Gary Zukav.
There was significant government interest at the time in quantum mechanics – the American government was financing research at SRI into telepathy – and physicists able to understand it found themselves in demand. The Fundamental Fysiks Group used ideas from quantum physics, particularly Bell's theorem and quantum entanglement, to explore issues such as action at a distance, clairvoyance, precognition, remote viewing and psychokinesis.
In 1976, Josephson travelled to California at the invitation of one of the Fundamental Fysiks Group members, Jack Sarfatti, who introduced him to others including laser physicists Russell Targ and Harold Puthoff, and quantum physicist Henry Stapp. The San Francisco Chronicle covered Josephson's visit.
Josephson co-organized a symposium on consciousness at Cambridge in 1978, publishing the proceedings as Consciousness and the Physical World (1980), with neuroscientist V. S. Ramachandran. A conference on "Science and Consciousness" followed a year later in Cordoba, Spain, attended by physicists and Jungian psychoanalysts, and addressed by Josephson, Fritjof Capra and David Bohm (1917–1992).
By 1996, he had set up the Mind–Matter Unification Project at the Cavendish Laboratory to explore intelligent processes in nature. In 2002, he told Physics World: "Future science will consider quantum mechanics as the phenomenology of particular kinds of organised complex system. Quantum entanglement would be one manifestation of such organisation, paranormal phenomena another."
Reception and views on the scientific community
Josephson delivered the Pollock Memorial Lecture in 2006, the Hermann Staudinger Lecture in 2009 and the Sir Nevill Mott Lecture in 2010.
Matthew Reisz wrote in Times Higher Education in 2010 that Josephson has long been one of physics' "more colourful figures." His support for unorthodox causes has attracted criticism from fellow scientists since the 1970s, including from Philip Anderson. Josephson regards the criticism as prejudice, and believes that it has served to deprive him of an academic support network.
He has repeatedly criticized "science by consensus," arguing that the scientific community is too quick to reject certain kinds of ideas. "Anything goes among the physics community – cosmic wormholes, time travel," he argues, "just so long as it keeps its distance from anything mystical or New Age-ish." Referring to this position as "pathological disbelief," he holds it responsible for the rejection by academic journals of papers on the paranormal. He has compared parapsychology to the theory of continental drift, proposed in 1912 by Alfred Wegener (1880–1930) to explain observations that were otherwise inexplicable, which was resisted and ridiculed until evidence led to its acceptance after Wegener's death.
Science writer Martin Gardner criticized Josephson in 1980 for complaining to The New York Review of Books, along with three other physicists, about an article by J. A. Wheeler that ridiculed parapsychology. Several physicists complained in 2001 when, in a Royal Mail booklet celebrating the Nobel Prize's centenary, Josephson wrote that Britain was at the forefront of research into telepathy. Physicist David Deutsch said the Royal Mail had "let itself be hoodwinked" into supporting nonsense, although another physicist, Robert Matthews, suggested that Deutsch was skating on thin ice given the latter's own work on parallel universes and time travel.
In 2004, Josephson criticized an experiment by the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry to test claims by Russian schoolgirl Natasha Demkina that she could see inside people's bodies using a special kind of vision. The experiment involved her being asked to match six people to their confirmed medical conditions (plus one with none); to pass the test she had to make five correct matches, but made only four. Josephson argued that this was statistically significant, and that the experiment had set her up to fail. One of the researchers, Richard Wiseman, professor of psychology at the University of Hertfordshire, responded by highlighting that the conditions of the experiment had been agreed to before it started, and the potential significance of her claims warranted a higher than normal bar. Keith Rennolis, professor of applied statistics at the University of Greenwich, supported Josephson's position, asserting that the experiment was "woefully inadequate" to determine any effect.
Josephson's reputation for promoting unorthodox causes was cemented by his support for the ideas of water memory and cold fusion, both of which are rejected by mainstream scientists. Water memory is purported to provide a possible explanation for homeopathy; it is dismissed by scientists as pseudoscience, although Josephson has expressed support for it since attending a conference at which French immunologist Jacques Benveniste first proposed it. Cold fusion is the hypothesis that nuclear reactions can occur at room temperature. When Martin Fleischmann, the British chemist who pioneered research into it, died in 2012, Josephson wrote a supportive obituary in the Guardian, and had published in Nature a letter complaining that its obituary had failed to give Fleischmann due credit. Antony Valentini of Imperial College London withdrew Josephson's invitation to a 2010 conference on the de Broglie-Bohm theory because of his work on the paranormal, although it was reinstated after complaints.
Josephson's defense of paranormal claims and of cold fusion have led him to being described as an exemplar of a sufferer of the hypothetical Nobel disease.
Awards
£1,000 New Scientist prize, 1969
Research Corporation Award for outstanding contributions to science, 1969
Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1970
Fritz London Memorial Prize, 1970
Guthrie Medal (Institute of Physics), 1972
Van der Pol medal, International Union of Radio Science, 1972
Elliott Cresson Medal (Franklin Institute), 1972
Hughes Medal, 1972
Holweck Prize (Institute of Physics and French Institute of Physics), 1972
Nobel Prize in Physics, 1973
Honorary doctorate, University of Wales, 1974
Faraday Medal (Institution of Electrical Engineers), 1982
Honorary doctorate, University of Exeter, 1983
Sir George Thomson (Institute of Measurement and Control), 1984
Selected works
(2012). "Biological Observer-Participation and Wheeler's 'Law without Law'," in Plamen L. Simeonov, Leslie S. Smith and Andrée C. Ehresmann (eds.), Integral Biomathics, Springer, pp. 244–252.
(2005). "Foreword," in Michael A. Thalbourne and Lance Storm (eds.), Parapsychology in the Twenty-First Century, McFarland, pp. 1–2.
(2003). "We Think That We Think Clearly, But That's Only Because We Don't Think Clearly," in Patrick Colm Hogan and Lalita Pandit (eds.), Rabindranath Tagore: Universality and Tradition, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, pp. 107–115.
(2003). "String Theory, Universal Mind, and the Paranormal", arXiv, physics.gen-ph, 2 December 2003.
(2002). "Beyond quantum theory: A realist psycho-biological interpretation of reality’ revisited", Biosystems, 64(1–3), January, pp. 43–45.
(2000). "Positive bias to paranormal claims", Physics World, October.
(1999). "What is truth?, Physics World, February.
(1997). "Skeptics cornered", Physics World, September.
(1997). "What is Music a Language For?" in Paavo Pylkkänen, Pauli Pylkkö, and Antti Hautamäki (eds.), Brain, Mind and Physics, IOS Press, pp. 262–265.
(1996). "Consciously avoiding the X-factor", Physics World, December.
with Jessica Utts (1996). "Do you believe in psychic phenomena? Are they likely to be able to explain consciousness?", Times Higher Education, 8 April.
with Tethys Carpenter (1996). "What can Music tell us about the Nature of the Mind? A Platonic Model," in Stuart R. Hameroff, Alfred W. Kaszniak and Alwyn Scott (eds.), Toward a Science of Consciousness, MIT Press, pp. 691–694.
with Colm Wall and Anthony Clark (1995). "Light Barrier", New Scientist, 29 April.
(1994). "Awkward Eclipse", New Scientist, 17 December.
(1994). BBC 'Heretic' series", Times Higher Education Supplement, 12 August.
with Beverly A. Rubik (1992). "The challenge of consciousness research", Frontier Perspectives, 3(1), pp. 15–19.
with Fotini Pallikari-Viras (1991). "Biological Utilization of Quantum Nonlocality", Foundations of Physics, 21(2), pp. 197–207 (also available here).
(1990). "The History of the Discovery of Weakly Coupled Superconductors," in John Roche (ed.), Physicists Look Back: Studies in the History of Physics, CRC Press, p. 375.
(1988). "Limits to the universality of quantum mechanics", Foundations of Physics, 18(12), December, pp. 1195–1204.
with M. Conrad and D. Home (1987). "Beyond Quantum Theory: A Realist Psycho-Biological Interpretation of Physical Reality," in Alwyn van der Merwe, Franco Selleri and Gino Tarozzi (eds.), Microphysical Reality and Quantum Formalism, Springer, 1987, p. 285ff.
with D.E. Broadbent (1981). "Perceptual Experiments and Language Theories", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 295(10772), October, pp. 375–385.
with H. M. Hauser (1981). "Multistage Acquisition of Intelligent Behaviour" , Kybernetes, 10(1).
with V. S. Ramachandran (eds.) (1980). Consciousness and the Physical World, Pergamon Press.
with Richard D. Mattuck, Evan Harris Walker and Olivier Costa de Beauregard (1980). "Parapsychology: An Exchange", New York Review of Books, 27, 26 June, pp. 48–51.
(1979). "Foreword," in Andrija Puharich (ed.), The Iceland Papers: Select Papers on Experimental and Theoretical Research on the Physics of Consciousness, Essentia Research Associates.
(1978). "A Theoretical Analysis of Higher States of Consciousness and Meditation", Current Topics in Cybernetics and Systems, pp. 3–4.
(1974). "The Artificial Intelligence/Psychology Approach to the Study of the Brain and Nervous System", Lecture Notes in Biomathematics, 4, pp. 370–375.
(1974). "Magnetic field dependence of the surface reactance of superconducting tin at 174 MHz", Journal of Physics F: Metal Physics, 4(5), May, p. 751.
(1973). "The Discovery of Tunnelling Supercurrents", Science, Nobel lecture, 12 December, pp. 157–164.
(1969). "Equation of state near the critical point", Journal of Physics C: Solid State Physics, 2(7), July.
with J. Lekner (1969). "Mobility of an Impurity in a Fermi Liquid", Physical Review Letters. 23(3), pp. 111–113.
(1967). "Inequality for the specific heat: II. Application to critical phenomena", Proceedings of the Physical Society, 92(2), October.
(1967). "Inequality for the specific heat: I. Derivation", Proceedings of the Physical Society, 92(2), October.
(1966). "Macroscopic Field Equations for Metals in Equilibrium", Physical Review, 152, December, pp. 211–217.
(1966). "Relation between the superfluid density and order parameter for superfluid He near Tc", Physics Letters, 21(6), 1 July, pp. 608–609.
(1965). "Supercurrents through Barriers", Advances in Physics, 14(56), pp. 419–451.
(1964). Non-linear conduction in superconductors, (PhD thesis), University of Cambridge, December.
(1964). "Coupled Superconductors", Review of Modern Physics, 36(1), pp. 216–220.
(1962). "The Relativistic Shift in the Mössbauer Effect and Coupled Superconductors", submitted for Trinity College fellowship.
(1962). "Possible new effects in superconductive tunnelling", Physics Letters, 1(7), 1 July, pp. 251–253.
(1960). "Temperature-dependent shift of gamma rays emitted by a solid", Physical Review Letters, 4, 1 April.
See also
Josephson voltage standard
Josephson vortex
Long Josephson junction
Pi Josephson junction
Phi Josephson junction
List of Jewish Nobel laureates
List of Nobel laureates in Physics
List of physicists
Scientific phenomena named after people
References
Further reading
Brian Josephson's home page, University of Cambridge.
Brian Josephson, academia.edu.
"bdj50: Conference in Cambridge to mark the 50th Anniversary of the Publication of Brian Josephson’s Seminal Work", Department of Physics, University of Cambridge.
Anderson, Philip. "How Josephson Discovered His Effect", Physics Today, November 1970. Anderson's account of Josephson's discovery; he taught the graduate course in solid-state/many-body theory in which Josephson was a student.
Barone, A. and Paterno, G. Physics and Applications of the Josephson Effect, Wiley, 1982.
Bertlmann, R. A. and Zeilinger, A. (eds.), Quantum (Un)speakables: From Bell to Quantum Information, Springer, 2002.
Buckel, Werner and Kleiner, Reinhold. Superconductivity: Fundamentals and Applications, VCH, 1991.
Jibu, Mari and Yasue, Kunio. Quantum Brain Dynamics and Consciousness: An Introduction, John Benjamins Publishing, 1995.
Josephson, Brian; Rubik, Beverly A.; Fontana, David; Lorimer, David. "Defining consciousness", Nature, 358(618), 20 August 1992.
Rosen, Joe. "Josephson, Brian David," Encyclopedia of Physics, Infobase Publishing, 2009, pp. 165–166.
Stapp, Henry. "Quantum Approaches to Consciousness," in Philip David Zelazo, Morris Moscovitch and Evan Thompson (eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness, 2007.
Stenger, Victor J. The Unconscious Quantum: Metaphysics in Modern Physics and Cosmology, Prometheus Books, 1995.
External links
including the Nobel Lecture, 12 December 1973 The Discovery of Tunnelling Supercurrents
1940 births
Nobel laureates in Physics
Welsh Nobel laureates
British Nobel laureates
British theoretical physicists
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
British Jews
Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge
Fellows of the Institute of Physics
Fellows of the Royal Society
Jewish physicists
Living people
British parapsychologists
Scientists from Cardiff
Quantum mind
Welsh Jews
Welsh physicists
Cold fusion
Missouri University of Science and Technology faculty
Quantum mysticism advocates
Psychonautics researchers
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