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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invisible%20Man
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Invisible Man
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Invisible Man is Ralph Ellison's first novel, published by Random House in 1952. It addresses many of the social and intellectual issues faced by African Americans in the early 20th century, including black nationalism, the relationship between black identity and Marxism, and the reformist racial policies of Booker T. Washington, as well as issues of individuality and personal identity.
Invisible Man won the U.S. National Book Award for Fiction in 1953, making Ellison the first African-American writer to win the award.
In 1998, the Modern Library ranked Invisible Man 19th on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century. Time magazine included the novel in its 100 Best English-language Novels from 1923 to 2005 list, calling it "the quintessential American picaresque of the 20th century", rather than a "race novel, or even a bildungsroman". Malcolm Bradbury and Richard Ruland recognize a black existentialist vision with a "Kafka-like absurdity". According to The New York Times, Barack Obama modeled his 1995 memoir Dreams from My Father on Ellison's novel.
Background
Ellison says in his introduction to the 30th Anniversary Edition that he started to write what would eventually become Invisible Man in a barn in Waitsfield, Vermont, in the summer of 1945 while on sick leave from the Merchant Marine. The barn was actually in the neighboring town of Fayston. The book took five years to complete with one year off for what Ellison termed an "ill-conceived short novel". Invisible Man was published as a whole in 1952. Ellison had published a section of the book in 1947, the famous "Battle Royal" scene, which had been shown to Cyril Connolly, the editor of Horizon magazine by Frank Taylor, one of Ellison's early supporters.
In his speech accepting the 1953 National Book Award, Ellison said that he considered the novel's chief significance to be its "experimental attitude". Before Invisible Man, many (if not most) novels dealing with African Americans were written solely for social protest, notably, Native Son and Uncle Tom's Cabin. The narrator in Invisible Man says, "I am not complaining, nor am I protesting either", signaling the break from the normal protest novel that Ellison held about his work. In the essay "The World and the Jug", which is a response to Irving Howe's essay "Black Boys and Native Sons", which "pit[s] Ellison and [James] Baldwin against [Richard] Wright and then", as Ellison would say, "gives Wright the better argument", Ellison makes a fuller statement about the position he held about his book in the larger canon of work by an American who happens to be of African ancestry. In the opening paragraph to that essay Ellison poses three questions: "Why is it so often true that when critics confront the American as Negro they suddenly drop their advanced critical armament and revert with an air of confident superiority to quite primitive modes of analysis? Why is it that Sociology-oriented critics seem to rate literature so far below politics and ideology that they would rather kill a novel than modify their presumptions concerning a given reality which it seeks in its own terms to project? Finally, why is it that so many of those who would tell us the meaning of Negro life never bother to learn how varied it really is?"
Placing Invisible Man within the canon of either the Harlem Renaissance or the Black Arts Movement is difficult. It owes allegiance to both and neither. Ellison's resistance to being pigeonholed by his peers bubbled over into his statement to Irving Howe about what he deemed to be a relative vs. an ancestor. He says to Howe "...perhaps you will understand when I say that he [Wright] did not influence me if I point out that while one can do nothing about choosing one's relatives, one can, as an artist, choose one's 'ancestors'. Wright was, in this sense, a 'relative'; Hemingway an 'ancestor'." It was this idea of "playing the field", so to speak, not being "all-in", that led to some of Ellison's more staunch critics. Howe, in "Black Boys and Native Sons", but also other black writers such as John Oliver Killens, who once denounced Invisible Man by saying: "The Negro people need Ralph Ellison's Invisible Man like we need a hole in the head or a stab in the back. ... It is a vicious distortion of Negro life."
Ellison's "ancestors" included, among others, The Waste Land by T. S. Eliot. In an interview with Richard Kostelanetz, Ellison states that what he had learned from the poem was imagery and also improvisation techniques he had only before seen in jazz. Some other influences include William Faulkner and Ernest Hemingway. Ellison once called Faulkner the South's greatest artist. In the Spring 1955 Paris Review, Ellison said of Hemingway: "I read him to learn his sentence structure and how to organize a story. I guess many young writers were doing this, but I also used his description of hunting when I went into the fields the next day. I had been hunting since I was eleven, but no one had broken down the process of wing-shooting for me, and it was from reading Hemingway that I learned to lead a bird. When he describes something in print, believe him; believe him even when he describes the process of art in terms of baseball or boxing; he’s been there."
Some of Ellison's influences had a more direct impact on his novel as when Ellison divulges this, in his introduction to the 30th anniversary of Invisible Man, that the "character" ("in the dual sense of the word") who had announced himself on his page he "associated, ever so distantly, with the narrator of Dostoevsky's Notes From Underground". Although, despite the "distantly" remark, it appears that Ellison used that novella more than just on that occasion. The beginning of Invisible Man, for example, seems to be structured very similar to Notes from Underground: "I am a sick man" compared to "I am an invisible man".
Arnold Rampersad, Ellison's biographer, expounds that Melville had a profound influence on Ellison's freedom to describe race so acutely and generously. [The narrator] "resembles no one else in previous fiction so much as he resembles Ishmael of Moby-Dick". Ellison signals his debt in the prologue to the novel, where the narrator remembers a moment of truth under the influence of marijuana and evokes a church service: "Brothers and sisters, my text this morning is the 'Blackness of Blackness'. And the congregation answers: 'That blackness is most black, brother, most black...'" In this scene Ellison "reprises a moment in the second chapter of Moby-Dick", where Ishmael wanders around New Bedford looking for a place to spend the night and enters a black church: "It was a negro church; and the preacher's text was about the blackness of darkness, and the weeping and wailing and teeth-gnashing there." According to Rampersad, it was Melville who "empowered Ellison to insist on a place in the American literary tradition" by his example of "representing the complexity of race and racism so acutely and generously" in Moby-Dick. Other likely influences to Ellison, by way of how much he speaks about them, are: Kenneth Burke, Andre Malraux, and Mark Twain, to name a few.
Political influences and the Communist Party
The letters he wrote to fellow novelist Richard Wright as he started working on the novel provide evidence for his disillusion with and defection from the Communist Party USA for perceived revisionism. In a letter to Wright on August 18, 1945, Ellison poured out his anger toward party leaders for betraying African-American and Marxist class politics during the war years: "If they want to play ball with the bourgeoisie they needn't think they can get away with it... Maybe we can't smash the atom, but we can, with a few well-chosen, well-written words, smash all that crummy filth to hell." Ellison resisted attempts to ferret out such allusions in the book itself however, stating "I did not want to describe an existing Socialist or Communist or Marxist political group, primarily because it would have allowed the reader to escape confronting certain political patterns, patterns which still exist and of which our two major political parties are guilty in their relationships to Negro Americans."
Plot summary
The narrator, an unnamed black man, begins by describing his living conditions: an underground room wired with hundreds of electric lights, operated by power stolen from the city's electric grid. He reflects on the various ways in which he has experienced social invisibility during his life and begins to tell his story, returning to his teenage years.
The narrator lives in a small Southern town and, upon graduating from high school, wins a scholarship to an all-black college. However, to receive it, he must first take part in a brutal, humiliating battle royal for the entertainment of the town's rich white dignitaries.
One afternoon during his junior year at the college, the narrator chauffeurs Mr. Norton, a visiting rich white trustee, out among the old slave-quarters beyond the campus. By chance, he stops at the cabin of Jim Trueblood, who has caused a scandal by impregnating both his wife and his daughter in his sleep. Trueblood's account horrifies Mr. Norton so badly that he asks the narrator to find him a drink. The narrator drives him to a bar filled with prostitutes and patients from a nearby mental hospital. The mental patients rail against both of them and eventually overwhelm the orderly assigned to keep the patients under control, injuring Mr. Norton in the process. The narrator hurries Mr. Norton away from the chaotic scene and back to campus.
Dr. Bledsoe, the college president, excoriates the narrator for showing Mr. Norton the underside of black life beyond the campus and expels him. However, Bledsoe gives several sealed letters of recommendation to the narrator, to be delivered to friends of the college in order to assist him in finding a job so that he may eventually earn enough to re-enroll. The narrator travels to New York and distributes his letters, with no success; the son of one recipient shows him the letter, which reveals Bledsoe's intent to never admit the narrator as a student again.
Acting on the son's suggestion, the narrator seeks work at the Liberty Paint factory, renowned for its pure white paint. He is assigned first to the shipping department, then to the boiler room, whose chief attendant, Lucius Brockway, is highly paranoid and suspects that the narrator is trying to take his job. This distrust worsens after the narrator stumbles into a union meeting, and Brockway attacks the narrator and tricks him into setting off an explosion in the boiler room. The narrator is hospitalized and subjected to shock treatment, overhearing the doctors' discussion of him as a possible mental patient.
After leaving the hospital, the narrator faints on the streets of Harlem and is taken in by Mary Rambo, a kindly old-fashioned woman who reminds him of his relatives in the South. He later happens across the eviction of an elderly black couple and makes an impassioned speech that incites the crowd to attack the law enforcement officials in charge of the proceedings. The narrator escapes over the rooftops and is confronted by Brother Jack, the leader of a group known as "the Brotherhood" that professes its commitment to bettering conditions in Harlem and the rest of the world. At Jack's urging, the narrator agrees to join and speak at rallies to spread the word among the black community. Using his new salary, he pays Mary back the rent he owes her and moves into an apartment provided by the Brotherhood.
The rallies go smoothly at first, with the narrator receiving extensive indoctrination on the Brotherhood's ideology and methods. Soon, though, he encounters trouble from Ras the Exhorter, a fanatical black nationalist who believes that the Brotherhood is controlled by whites. Neither the narrator nor Tod Clifton, a youth leader within the Brotherhood, is particularly swayed by his words. The narrator is later called before a meeting of the Brotherhood and accused of putting his own ambitions ahead of the group. He is reassigned to another part of the city to address issues concerning women, seduced by the wife of a Brotherhood member, and eventually called back to Harlem when Clifton is reported missing and the Brotherhood's membership and influence begin to falter.
The narrator can find no trace of Clifton at first, but soon discovers him selling dancing Sambo dolls on the street, having become disillusioned with the Brotherhood. Clifton is shot and killed by a policeman while resisting arrest; at his funeral, the narrator delivers a rousing speech that rallies the crowd to support the Brotherhood again. At an emergency meeting, Jack and the other Brotherhood leaders criticize the narrator for his unscientific arguments and the narrator determines that the group has no real interest in the black community's problems.
The narrator returns to Harlem, trailed by Ras's men, and buys a hat and a pair of sunglasses to elude them. As a result, he is repeatedly mistaken for a man named Rinehart, known as a lover, a hipster, a gambler, a briber, and a spiritual leader. Understanding that Rinehart has adapted to white society at the cost of his own identity, the narrator resolves to undermine the Brotherhood by feeding them dishonest information concerning the Harlem membership and situation. After seducing the wife of one member in a fruitless attempt to learn their new activities, he discovers that riots have broken out in Harlem due to widespread unrest. He realizes that the Brotherhood has been counting on such an event in order to further its own aims. The narrator gets mixed up with a gang of looters, who burn down a tenement building, and wanders away from them to find Ras, now on horseback, armed with a spear and shield, and calling himself "the Destroyer". Ras shouts for the crowd to lynch the narrator, but the narrator attacks him with the spear and escapes into an underground coal bin. Two white men seal him in, leaving him alone to ponder the racism he has experienced in his life.
The epilogue returns to the present, with the narrator stating that he is ready to return to the world because he has spent enough time hiding from it. He explains that he has told his story in order to help people see past his own invisibility, and also to provide a voice for people with a similar plight: "Who knows but that, on the lower frequencies, I speak for you?"
Underlying meanings
In Invisible Man, the ideology of not being seen as his true self deeply influences the narrator. He is given several identities to conform to throughout the novel, none of which he feels is his true identity, leading him to the understanding of being invisible. "I am invisible, understand, simply because people refuse to see me" (Ellison 3). After diving in and investing greatly in roles placed upon him by society, and still feeling "unseen" he begins to sometimes believe he had actually been a figment of imagination. He has referred to his life as a dream where others were sleepwalking, and he was a character who could not be seen. As the prologue comes to an end, the narrator explains where he is now in life living in the basement of a “white only” apartment complex. Here he embraced the ideas of being invisible as he lives unnoticed and undetected underground, coming only to the outside world through a hole in the ground.
As said in the first chapter, "All my life I had been looking for something, and everywhere I turned someone tried to tell me what it was... I was naive. I was looking for myself and asking everyone except myself questions, which I, and only I, could answer" (Ellison 15). This phenomenon can be further explained by Fehmida Manzoor's study stating, "Human identities get shaped and constructed in society through social discursive practices... The 'signs' in a social setup infuse certain ideologies to frame identities of center and margin and these signs get expressed by discourse through human behavioral patterns." He had let the societal norms dictate his character and what he would make out of himself. This quote brings about another underlying meaning to the text through the collection of items that give him a sense of identity. Along this journey, he seems to compile many trinkets that indicate his personal insecurity, such as things given to him or things that make him feel of greater value. In his briefcase, he kept things that gave him a sense of individuality. Among these things kept were the identify that the Brotherhood had given to him and a pair of sunglasses that made him look and feel like Rineheart. The collection of these items gives deeper meaning to the underlying feeling of the narrator's unfound identity.
Reception
Critic Orville Prescott of The New York Times called the novel "the most impressive work of fiction by an American Negro which I have ever read", and felt it marked "the appearance of a richly talented writer". Novelist Saul Bellow in his review found it "a book of the very first order, a superb book...it is tragi-comic, poetic, the tone of the very strongest sort of creative intelligence". George Mayberry of The New Republic said Ellison "is a master at catching the shape, flavor and sound of the common vagaries of human character and experience".
Anthony Burgess described the novel as "a masterpiece".
In 2003, a sculpture titled "Invisible Man: A Memorial to Ralph Ellison" by Elizabeth Catlett, was unveiled at Riverside Park at 150th Street in Manhattan, opposite from where Ellison lived and three blocks from the Trinity Church Cemetery and Mausoleum, where he is interred in a crypt. The 15-foot-high, 10-foot-wide bronze monolith features a hollow silhouette of a man and two granite panels that are inscribed with Ellison quotations.
Adaptation
It was reported in October 2017 that streaming service Hulu was developing the novel into a television series.
See also
Juneteenth
Three Days Before the Shooting...
References
External links
"Ralph Ellison, 1914–1994: His Book Invisible Man Won Awards and Is Still Discussed Today" (VOA Special English).
New York Times article on the 30th Anniversary of the novel's publication—includes an interview with the author.
Teacher's Guide at Random House.
Invisible Man study guide, themes, quotes, character analyses, teaching resources.
1952 American novels
1952 debut novels
African-American novels
American autobiographical novels
Existentialist novels
Novels set in Harlem
National Book Award for Fiction winning works
Novels about race and ethnicity
Novels by Ralph Ellison
Random House books
Southern United States in fiction
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing%E2%80%93Sikorsky%20RAH-66%20Comanche
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Boeing–Sikorsky RAH-66 Comanche
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The Boeing–Sikorsky RAH-66 Comanche is an American stealth armed reconnaissance and attack helicopter designed for the United States Army. Following decades of development, the RAH-66 program was canceled in 2004 before mass production began, by which point nearly US$7 billion had been spent on the program.
During the early 1980s, the U.S. Army started to formulate requirements for the replacement of its helicopters then in service, which resulted in the launch of the Light Helicopter Experimental (LHX) program. Nearly a decade later, following the refinement of requirements, evaluation of submissions, and the rebranding of the program as the Light Helicopter (LH) program, during April 1991, the Army announced the selection of the Boeing–Sikorsky team's design as the contest winner, shortly after which a contract for construction of prototypes was awarded. The Comanche was to incorporate several advanced elements, such as stealth technologies, and a number of previously untried design features. Operationally, it was to employ advanced sensors in its reconnaissance role, in which it was intended to designate targets for the AH-64 Apache. It was also armed with one rotary cannon and could carry missiles and rockets in internal bays and optionally on stub wings for light attack duties.
Two RAH-66 prototypes were constructed and underwent flight testing between 1996 and 2004. On 1 June 2000, the program entered its $3.1 billion engineering and manufacturing development (EMD) phase. However, during 2002, the Comanche program underwent heavy restructuring; the number of Comanches that were to be purchased was cut to 650. At the time, the projected total cost for the full production of the Comanche in such numbers stood at $26.9 billion. As early as the late 1990s, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) had reported that it had "serious doubts" about the program, observing that the Comanche would "consume almost two thirds of the whole Aviation budget by Fiscal Year 2008". Multiple government agencies had acted to cut the number of Comanches on order, but, as a consequence of the heavy reductions to the numbers to be procured, the unit costs soared.
On 23 February 2004, the U.S. Army announced the termination of the Comanche program, stating they had determined that the RAH-66 would require numerous upgrades to be viable on the battlefield and that the service would instead direct the bulk of its rotary systems funds to renovating its existing attack, utility, and reconnaissance helicopters. The Army also announced new plans to accelerate the development of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), which could also perform the scouting role intended for the Comanche, but with less risk. Since program cancellation, both of the prototypes have been placed on public display.
Development
Origins and LHX
During 1982, the U.S. Army initiated the Light Helicopter Experimental (LHX) program with the aim of producing a replacement for several existing rotorcraft, including the UH-1, AH-1, OH-6, and OH-58 helicopters. Then in 1988 a formal request for proposal (RFP) was issued to various manufacturers; the requirement had evolved into a battlefield reconnaissance helicopter by this time. In October 1988, the Army announced two teams, these being Boeing–Sikorsky and Bell–McDonnell Douglas, received contracts to further develop their concepts. During the 1990s, the program's name was changed from LHX to simply Light Helicopter (LH). In April 1991, the Army awarded the Boeing–Sikorsky team a $2.8 billion contract to complete six prototypes. Later that month the helicopter was officially named RAH-66 Comanche.
During November 1993, assembly of the first prototype commenced at Sikorsky's facility in Stratford, Connecticut and at Boeing's manufacturing plant in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Later all of the rotorcraft's sub-assemblies were transferred to the former location where final assembly occurred. In December 1994, the Department of Defense reduced the number of planned prototypes to two as the services shifted budgets to pay for increased troop salaries. On 25 May 1995, the first Comanche prototype was formally rolled out at Sikorsky's production facility, after which it was transferred to West Palm Beach, Florida to commence flight testing activities. On 4 January 1996, the prototype Comanche, flown by test pilots Bob Gradle and Rus Stiles, performed its 39-minute maiden flight. The first flight had been originally planned to take place during August 1995, but had been delayed by a number of structural and software problems that had been encountered. On 30 March 1999, the second prototype conducted its first flight, before joining the flight test program shortly thereafter.
Prototype testing
The flight test program was conducted using the pair of prototypes produced, which had been assigned the serial numbers 94-0327 and 95-0001. Following a demonstration of its ability to meet certain key criteria, on 1 June 2000, the RAH-66 entered the $3.1 billion engineering and manufacturing development (EMD) phase of the program. Through the early 2000s, the U.S. Army maintained its plans for the intended purchase of over 1,200 Comanches, which were to fill both the scout helicopter and light attack roles; as late as 2003, it was being anticipated that deliveries of operational RAH-66s would commence as scheduled during 2006.
During late 2000, it was revealed that an effort to reduce the Comanche's empty weight by approximately or 2.1 per cent in order to conform with its established target weight had been initiated. The first Comanche prototype, serial 94-0327, completed 318 flights over 387 hours before reaching the end of its testing career during January 2002. The second prototype, serial 95-0001, had accumulated 103.5 flight hours and 93 sorties by May 2001. During late 2001 and early 2002, testing with the second RAH-66 was halted while the aircraft underwent extensive modifications, received both mission equipment and more powerful T800-LHT-801 engines. On 23 May 2002, the second prototype re-commenced flight testing with the additional equipment fitted. Accordingly, the expanded test programme involved new aspects such as the testing of the armaments and night vision systems; these test flights continued into 2003. During testing, the Comanche was recorded as having attained a cruise speed of , as well as having achieved a "dash speed" of . It also demonstrated ability to perform a 180° turn in under five seconds.
During 2002, the Comanche program underwent heavy restructuring; consequently, the planned number of Comanches to be purchased was decreased to 650 rotorcraft. At the time, the projected total cost for the full production of the Comanche in such numbers stood at $26.9 billion. Originally, the EMD phase was to last for six years with five Comanches to be constructed for the testing regime. During 2003, production on the third RAH-66, which was to be the first EMD-conformant helicopter, was started. Subsequently, eight RAH-66s were to be constructed for operational testing purposes. The initial production RAH-66s were to be completed in a Block I configuration that included the majority of the rotorcraft's planned weapons and sensors. From the 16th Comanche onwards, deliveries would have been made to the Block II standard with all of the planned capabilities.
Cancellation
On 23 February 2004, the U.S. Army announced that they had decided to terminate all work on the Comanche program. At the time, it was stated that the Army had determined that a number of upgrades would be necessary in order for the RAH-66 to be capable of surviving on the battlefield in the face of current anti-aircraft threats; however, the Army had instead decided to re-direct the bulk of its funding for rotary development toward the renovation of its existing helicopter fleet of attack, utility, and reconnaissance aircraft. Specifically, the Army also had plans to reuse the funds allocated to the Comanche program to speed up development of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), which could also perform the scouting role intended for the vehicle. At the time of its termination, the Comanche program had reportedly spent US$6.9 billion. The contract termination fees involved were estimated to total US$450–680 million for the main program partners Sikorsky and Boeing.
Subsequently, the Army decided to pursue development of another battlefield scout helicopter under the Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter program; this resulted in another rotorcraft, designated as the Bell ARH-70, being selected and developed with the intention to replace the OH-58D in place of the Comanche. However, on 16 October 2008, the Department of Defense notified Congress and Bell that it was canceling the program, reportedly due to cost overruns on its development.
A multitude of reasons contributed to the ultimate cancellation of the RAH-66 program. According to aviation author James Williams, efforts to speed up the program via the elimination of risk-mitigation measures and the stream of continuous adjustments to account for annual budget cuts to the rotorcraft resulted in the formation of a negative cycle that functioned to greatly extend the rotorcraft's development schedule. Over the course of the Comanche's development, multiple government agencies had acted to cut the number of helicopters that were intended to be ordered; one particularly common basis for such curtailments was that the Cold War had ended and thus such quantities were unnecessary (a phenomenon known as the "peace dividend"). However, significant reductions in volume directly resulted in the rapid climbs in the projections of the Comanche's unit cost; in turn, this stimulated and gave validity to critics of the program, such as the Army Acquisition Executive James Ambrose, who had prominently declared that the Army would not receive any aircraft "costing a dollar over $7.5 million".
As early as 1995, it is claimed by Williams that the Comanche had been facing complete cancellation as a choice between which defense development programs were to be scrapped. During mid-1999, the Comanche was subject to substantial governmental scrutiny; the Government Accountability Office (GAO) reported that it had "serious doubts" about the program and noted that the Comanche would "consume almost two thirds of the whole Aviation budget by Fiscal Year 2008". In addition, wartime experiences, such as from the Kosovo War, had led to some senior figures within the Army to place a greater emphasis on the use of unmanned platforms for conducting many of the same roles for which the Comanche was being developed to perform. By 2000, Williams postulates that the primary reason for retaining the program was out of concern for the state of the helicopter industry—Sikorsky's production and employment figures were at their lowest for decades and the contract was considered critical.
Author Fred Brooks criticized the program's requirement for the Comanche to be capable of ferrying itself across the Atlantic as an example of excessive requirements being present in a project's design phase and of their costly repercussions. Williams observes that the Comanche's weight requirements were unachievable, and claimed that this was due to poor management, in which no party was allegedly aware of or in control of the rotorcraft's final weight; there were concerns that, when outfitted with actual equipment required for operations, the Comanche's engines would be incapable of lifting the total weight of the helicopter. Additionally, it has been claimed that it proved difficult to convince the Army that the program suffered from serious troubles while key individuals failed to realize the existence of insurmountable technical problems. Prized elements of the program, such as certain software capabilities and its integration, failed to foster confidence with Army overseers; several capabilities were viewed as having been unproven and risky, while the anticipated consumption of up to 40 per cent of the aviation budget by the Comanche alone for a number of years was considered to be extreme. According to Williams, it was concluded that the Army's aviation budget would be better spent on the delivery of less risky and more critical needs.
In a report published during 2008, the GAO recorded that an Army spokesperson had stated that "the program's costs could no longer be justified". Author Cindy Williams stated of the Comanche: "The rationale for cutting Comanche... is twofold. First, the doctrinal niche that the Comanche occupies is unnecessary in the near term and probably not viable in the longer term. Secondly, as with all rotary-wing aircraft, the Comanche is a voracious consumer of strategic airlift."
The manufacturing team, Sikorsky and Boeing, have attributed factors that were outside of their control, such as budget cuts, "requirement creep", and a protracted development period, to have caused problems with the program, rather than dysfunctionality on their part. Under the Comanche program, each company was responsible for the construction of different elements of the rotorcraft. Since the termination, both companies have decided to team up again to produce a jointly-developed prototype, designated as the SB-1 Defiant, for the Army's Future Vertical Lift (FVL) programme.
Design
The Comanche was intended to be an advanced armed reconnaissance and attack helicopter. The Comanche was specifically tailored to the role of armed scout to replace the U.S. Army's OH-58D Kiowa Warrior, which is an upgraded version of a Vietnam War-era observation helicopter. It was both smaller and lighter than the AH-64 Apache attack helicopter that it had been intended to accompany. The RAH-66 was powered by a pair of LHTEC T800 turboshaft engines, each capable of generating up to 1,563 hp (1,165 kW) of power. The RAH-66's fuselage was long and composed of composite materials; it was designed to be capable of fitting more readily onto transport ships, enabling the Comanche to be more rapidly deployed to flash points and other rapidly-developing situations. However, in the event of strategic transport assets not being available, the helicopter's ferry range of would have allowed it to fly itself to battlefields overseas on its own.
As intended, it would have functioned as a stealth helicopter, incorporating a number of different techniques and technologies in order to reduce its radar cross-section (RCS) along with other areas of visibility and detectability. The exterior surfaces of the RAH-66 were faceted and covered with both radar-absorbent material (RAM) coatings and infrared-suppressant paint; as a result of these combined measures, the Comanche's RCS was stated to be 360 times smaller than that of the AH-64 Apache. The acoustic signature of the helicopter was also reported to be noticeably lower than that of comparable helicopters; this reduction had been partially achieved through the adoption of an all-composite five-blade main rotor and pioneering canted tail rotor assembly.
As intended, the Comanche was to be equipped with sophisticated avionics, including navigation and detection systems, which would have enabled operations at night and in inclement weather. Its primary mission was scouting using its advanced sensors, in particular locating and designating targets for attack helicopters, such as the AH-64 Apache, to strike. The Comanche was furnished with a digital fly-by-wire flight control system. Each of the two crew members were to be provided with a pair of multi-functional LCDs in addition to the Helmet-Integrated Display and Sight System (HIDSS).
For the light attack role, the RAH-66 was to be furnished with various armaments. It was equipped with a single chin-mounted 20 mm three-barrel XM301 rotary cannon, which could be pointed rearwards and retracted under a fairing when not in use to decrease the helicopter's radar cross-section. In addition, the RAH-66 was capable of internally carrying a maximum of six AGM-114 Hellfire air-to-ground missiles or up to twelve AIM-92 Stinger air-to-air missiles, which would be evenly divided between a pair of retractable weapons pylons. Beyond storing munitions internally, the Comanche could also mount external stub wings to carry up to eight Hellfire missiles or sixteen Stinger missiles. However, operations performing with armaments mounted externally would reduce the effectiveness of the Comanche's stealth technologies.
Aircraft on display
Both prototype airframes 94-0327, 95-0001, are located at the United States Army Aviation Museum at Fort Novosel, Alabama.
Specifications (RAH-66A)
See also
References
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Boeing RAH Comanche history page on Boeing.com
RAH-66 Comanche page on Globalsecurity.org
RAH-66 Comanche site (rah66.com)
RAH-66 Comanche EMD Forges Ahead. Aviation Week, June 2001.
news/08253news.xml&headline=Comanche%20Weight%20Control%20Gets%20Special%20Attention Comanche Weight Control Gets Special Attention. Aviation Week, 24 August 2003.
United States military helicopters
1990s United States attack aircraft
1990s United States military reconnaissance aircraft
Cancelled military aircraft projects of the United States
H-066 Comanche
Experimental helicopters
H-066 Comanche
Fantail helicopters
1990s United States helicopters
Twin-turbine helicopters
Aircraft first flown in 1996
Stealth helicopters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyloid
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Amyloid
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Amyloids are aggregates of proteins characterised by a fibrillar morphology of typically 7–13 nm in diameter, a β-sheet secondary structure (known as cross-β) and ability to be stained by particular dyes, such as Congo red. In the human body, amyloids have been linked to the development of various diseases. Pathogenic amyloids form when previously healthy proteins lose their normal structure and physiological functions (misfolding) and form fibrous deposits within and around cells. These protein misfolding and deposition processes disrupt the healthy function of tissues and organs.
Such amyloids have been associated with (but not necessarily as the cause of) more than 50 human diseases, known as amyloidosis, and may play a role in some neurodegenerative diseases. Some of these diseases are mainly sporadic and only a few cases are familial. Others are only familial. Some are iatrogenic as they result from medical treatment. Prions are an infectious form of amyloids that can act as a template to convert other non-infectious forms. Amyloids may also have normal biological functions; for example, in the formation of fimbriae in some genera of bacteria, transmission of epigenetic traits in fungi, as well as pigment deposition and hormone release in humans.
Amyloids have been known to arise from many different proteins. These polypeptide chains generally form β-sheet structures that aggregate into long fibers; however, identical polypeptides can fold into multiple distinct amyloid conformations. The diversity of the conformations may have led to different forms of the prion diseases.
An unusual secondary structure named α sheet has been proposed as the toxic constituent of amyloid precursor proteins, but this idea is not widely accepted at present.
Definition
The name amyloid comes from the early mistaken identification by Rudolf Virchow of the substance as starch ( in Latin, from ), based on crude iodine-staining techniques. For a period, the scientific community debated whether or not amyloid deposits are fatty deposits or carbohydrate deposits until it was finally found (in 1859) that they are, in fact, deposits of albumoid proteinaceous material.
The classical, histopathological definition of amyloid is an extracellular, proteinaceous fibrillar deposit exhibiting β-sheet secondary structure and identified by apple-green birefringence when stained with congo red under polarized light. These deposits often recruit various sugars and other components such as serum amyloid P component, resulting in complex, and sometimes inhomogeneous structures. Recently this definition has come into question as some classic, amyloid species have been observed in distinctly intracellular locations.
A more recent, biophysical definition is broader, including any polypeptide that polymerizes to form a cross-β structure, in vivo or in vitro, inside or outside cells. Microbiologists, biochemists, biophysicists, chemists and physicists have largely adopted this definition, leading to some conflict in the biological community over an issue of language.
Proteins forming amyloids in diseases
To date, 37 human proteins have been found to form amyloid in pathology and be associated with well-defined diseases. The International Society of Amyloidosis classifies amyloid fibrils and their associated diseases based upon associated proteins (for example ATTR is the group of diseases and associated fibrils formed by TTR). A table is included below.
Non-disease and functional amyloids
Many examples of non-pathological amyloid with a well-defined physiological role have been identified in various organisms, including human. These may be termed as functional or physiological or native amyloid.
Functional amyloid in Homo sapiens:
Intralumenal domain of melanocyte protein PMEL
Peptide/protein hormones stored as amyloids within endocrine secretory granules
Receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 1/3 (RIP1/RIP3)
Fragments of prostatic acid phosphatase and semenogelins
Functional amyloid in other organisms:
Curli fibrils produced by E. coli, Salmonella, and a few other members of the Enterobacteriales (Csg). The genetic elements (operons) encoding the curli system are phylogenetic widespread and can be found in at least four bacterial phyla. This suggest that many more bacteria may express curli fibrils.
GvpA, forming the walls of particular Gas vesicles, i.e. the buoyancy organelles of aquatic archaea and eubacteria
Fap fibrils in various species of Pseudomonas
Chaplins from Streptomyces coelicolor
Spidroin from Trichonephila edulis (spider) (Spider silk)
Hydrophobins from Neurospora crassa and other fungi
Fungal cell adhesion proteins forming cell surface amyloid regions with greatly increased binding strength
Environmental biofilms according to staining with amyloid specific dyes and antibodies.
Tubular sheaths encasing Methanosaeta thermophila filaments
Functional amyloid acting as prions
Several yeast prions are based on an infectious amyloid, e.g. [PSI+] (Sup35p); [URE3] (Ure2p); [PIN+] or [RNQ+] (Rnq1p); [SWI1+] (Swi1p) and [OCT8+] (Cyc8p)
Prion HET-s from Podospora anserina
Neuron-specific isoform of CPEB from Aplysia californica (marine snail)
Structure
Amyloids are formed of long unbranched fibers that are characterized by an extended β-sheet secondary structure in which individual β strands (β-strands) (coloured arrows in the adjacent figure) are arranged in an orientation perpendicular to the long axis of the fiber. Such a structure is known as cross-β structure. Each individual fiber may be 7–13 nanometres in width and a few micrometres in length. The main hallmarks recognised by different disciplines to classify protein aggregates as amyloid is the presence of a fibrillar morphology with the expected diameter, detected using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) or atomic force microscopy (AFM), the presence of a cross-β secondary structure, determined with circular dichroism, FTIR, solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR), X-ray crystallography, or X-ray fiber diffraction (often considered the "gold-standard" test to see whether a structure contains cross-β fibres), and an ability to stain with specific dyes, such as Congo red, thioflavin T or thioflavin S.
The term "cross-β" was based on the observation of two sets of diffraction lines, one longitudinal and one transverse, that form a characteristic "cross" pattern. There are two characteristic scattering diffraction signals produced at 4.7 and 10 Å (0.47 nm and 1.0 nm), corresponding to the interstrand and stacking distances in β sheets. The "stacks" of β sheet are short and traverse the breadth of the amyloid fibril; the length of the amyloid fibril is built by aligned β-strands. The cross-β pattern is considered a diagnostic hallmark of amyloid structure.
Amyloid fibrils are generally composed of 1–8 protofilaments (one protofilament also corresponding to a fibril is shown in the figure), each 2–7 nm in diameter, that interact laterally as flat ribbons that maintain the height of 2–7 nm (that of a single protofilament) and are up to 30 nm wide; more often protofilaments twist around each other to form the typically 7–13 nm wide fibrils. Each protofilament possesses the typical cross-β structure and may be formed by 1–6 β-sheets (six are shown in the figure) stacked on each other. Each individual protein molecule can contribute one to several β-strands in each protofilament and the strands can be arranged in antiparallel β-sheets, but more often in parallel β-sheets. Only a fraction of the polypeptide chain is in a β-strand conformation in the fibrils, the remainder forms structured or unstructured loops or tails.
For a long time our knowledge of the atomic-level structure of amyloid fibrils was limited by the fact that they are unsuitable for the most traditional methods for studying protein structures. Recent years have seen progress in experimental methods, including solid-state NMR spectroscopy and Cryo-Electron Microscopy. Combined, these methods have provided 3D atomic structures of amyloid fibrils formed by amyloid β peptides, α-synuclein, tau, and the FUS protein, associated with various neurodegenerative diseases.
X-ray diffraction studies of microcrystals revealed atomistic details of core region of amyloid, although only for simplified peptides having a length remarkably shorter than that of peptides or proteins involved in disease. The crystallographic structures show that short stretches from amyloid-prone regions of amyloidogenic proteins run perpendicular to the filament axis, consistent with the "cross-β" feature of amyloid structure. They also reveal a number of characteristics of amyloid structures – neighboring β-sheets are tightly packed together via an interface devoid of water (therefore referred to as dry interface), with the opposing β-strands slightly offset from each other such that their side-chains interdigitate. This compact dehydrated interface created was termed a steric-zipper interface. There are eight theoretical classes of steric-zipper interfaces, dictated by the directionality of the β-sheets (parallel and anti-parallel) and symmetry between adjacent β-sheets. A limitation of X-ray crystallography for solving amyloid structure is represented by the need to form microcrystals, which can be achieved only with peptides shorter than those associated with disease.
Although bona fide amyloid structures always are based on intermolecular β-sheets, different types of "higher order" tertiary folds have been observed or proposed. The β-sheets may form a β-sandwich, or a β-solenoid which may be either β-helix or β-roll. Native-like amyloid fibrils in which native β-sheet containing proteins maintain their native-like structure in the fibrils have also been proposed. There are few developed ideas on how the complex backbone topologies of disulfide-constrained proteins, which are prone to form amyloid fibrils (such as insulin and lysozyme), adopt the amyloid β-sheet motif. The presence of multiple constraints significantly reduces the accessible conformational space, making computational simulations of amyloid structures more feasible.
One complicating factor in studies of amyloidogenic polypeptides is that identical polypeptides can fold into multiple distinct amyloid conformations. This phenomenon is typically described as amyloid polymorphism.
It has notable biological consequences given that it is thought to explain the prion strain phenomenon.
Formation
Amyloid is formed through the polymerization of hundreds to thousands of monomeric peptides or proteins into long fibers. Amyloid formation involves a lag phase (also called nucleation phase), an exponential phase (also called growth phase) and a plateau phase (also called saturation phase), as shown in the figure. Indeed, when the quantity of fibrils is plotted versus time, a sigmoidal time course is observed reflecting the three distinct phases.
In the simplest model of 'nucleated polymerization' (marked by red arrows in the figure below), individual unfolded or partially unfolded polypeptide chains (monomers) convert into a nucleus (monomer or oligomer) via a thermodynamically unfavourable process that occurs early in the lag phase. Fibrils grow subsequently from these nuclei through the addition of monomers in the exponential phase.
A different model, called 'nucleated conformational conversion' and marked by blue arrows in the figure below, was introduced later on to fit some experimental observations: monomers have often been found to convert rapidly into misfolded and highly disorganized oligomers distinct from nuclei. Only later on, will these aggregates reorganise structurally into nuclei, on which other disorganised oligomers will add and reorganise through a templating or induced-fit mechanism (this 'nucleated conformational conversion' model), eventually forming fibrils.
Normally folded proteins have to unfold partially before aggregation can take place through one of these mechanisms. In some cases, however, folded proteins can aggregate without crossing the major energy barrier for unfolding, by populating native-like conformations as a consequence of thermal fluctuations, ligand release or local unfolding occurring in particular circumstances. In these native-like conformations, segments that are normally buried or structured in the fully folded and possessing a high propensity to aggregate become exposed to the solvent or flexible, allowing the formation of native-like aggregates, which convert subsequently into nuclei and fibrils. This process is called 'native-like aggregation' (green arrows in the figure) and is similar to the 'nucleated conformational conversion' model.
A more recent, modern and thorough model of amyloid fibril formation involves the intervention of secondary events, such as 'fragmentation', in which a fibril breaks into two or more shorter fibrils, and 'secondary nucleation', in which fibril surfaces (not fibril ends) catalyze the formation of new nuclei. Both secondary events increase the number of fibril ends able to recruit new monomers or oligomers, therefore accelerating fibril formation through a positive feedback mechanism. These events add to the well recognised steps of primary nucleation (formation of the nucleus from the monomers through one of models described above), fibril elongation (addition of monomers or oligomers to growing fibril ends) and dissociation (opposite process).
Such a new model is described in the figure on the right and involves the utilization of a master equation that includes all steps of amyloid fibril formation, i.e. primary nucleation, fibril elongation, secondary nucleation and fibril fragmentation. The rate constants of the various steps can be determined from a global fit of a number of time courses of aggregation (for example ThT fluorescence emission versus time) recorded at different protein concentrations. The general master equation approach to amyloid fibril formation with secondary pathways has been developed by Knowles, Vendruscolo, Cohen, Michaels and coworkers and considers the time evolution of the concentration of fibrils of length (here represents the number of monomers in an aggregate). where denotes the Kronecker delta. The physical interpretation of the various terms in the above master equation is straight forward: the terms on the first line describe the growth of fibrils via monomer addition with rate constant (elongation). The terms on the second line describe monomer dissociation, i.e. the inverse process of elongation. is the rate constant of monomer dissociation. The terms on the third line describe the effect of fragmentation, which is assumed to occur homogeneously along fibrils with rate constant . Finally, the terms on the last line describe primary and secondary nucleation respectively. Note that the rate of secondary nucleation is proportional to the mass of aggregates, defined as .
Following this analytical approach, it has become apparent that the lag phase does not correspond necessarily to only nucleus formation, but rather results from a combination of various steps. Similarly, the exponential phase is not only fibril elongation, but results from a combination of various steps, involving primary nucleation, fibril elongation, but also secondary events. A significant quantity of fibrils resulting from primary nucleation and fibril elongation may be formed during the lag phase and secondary steps, rather than only fibril elongation, can be the dominant processes contributing to fibril growth during the exponential phase. With this new model, any perturbing agents of amyloid fibril formation, such as putative drugs, metabolites, mutations, chaperones, etc., can be assigned to a specific step of fibril formation.
Amino acid sequence and amyloid formation
In general, amyloid polymerization (aggregation or non-covalent polymerization) is sequence-sensitive, that is mutations in the sequence can induce or prevent self-assembly. For example, humans produce amylin, an amyloidogenic peptide associated with type II diabetes, but in rats and mice prolines are substituted in critical locations and amyloidogenesis does not occur. Studies comparing synthetic to recombinant β amyloid peptide in assays measuring rate of fibrillation, fibril homogeneity, and cellular toxicity showed that recombinant β amyloid peptide has a faster fibrillation rate and greater toxicity than synthetic β amyloid peptide.
There are multiple classes of amyloid-forming polypeptide sequences. Glutamine-rich polypeptides are important in the amyloidogenesis of Yeast and mammalian prions, as well as trinucleotide repeat disorders including Huntington's disease. When glutamine-rich polypeptides are in a β-sheet conformation, glutamines can brace the structure by forming inter-strand hydrogen bonding between its amide carbonyls and nitrogens of both the backbone and side chains. The onset age for Huntington's disease shows an inverse correlation with the length of the polyglutamine sequence, with analogous findings in a C. elegans model system with engineered polyglutamine peptides.
Other polypeptides and proteins such as amylin and the β amyloid peptide do not have a simple consensus sequence and are thought to aggregate through the sequence segments enriched with hydrophobic residues, or residues with high propensity to form β-sheet structure. Among the hydrophobic residues, aromatic amino-acids are found to have the highest amyloidogenic propensity.
Cross-polymerization (fibrils of one polypeptide sequence causing other fibrils of another sequence to form) is observed in vitro and possibly in vivo. This phenomenon is important, since it would explain interspecies prion propagation and differential rates of prion propagation, as well as a statistical link between Alzheimer's and type 2 diabetes. In general, the more similar the peptide sequence the more efficient cross-polymerization is, though entirely dissimilar sequences can cross-polymerize and highly similar sequences can even be "blockers" that prevent polymerization.
Amyloid toxicity
The reasons why amyloid cause diseases are unclear. In some cases, the deposits physically disrupt tissue architecture, suggesting disruption of function by some bulk process. An emerging consensus implicates prefibrillar intermediates, rather than mature amyloid fibers, in causing cell death, particularly in neurodegenerative diseases. The fibrils are, however, far from innocuous, as they keep the protein homeostasis network engaged, release oligomers, cause the formation of toxic oligomers via secondary nucleation, grow indefinitely spreading from district to district and, in some cases, may be toxic themselves.
Calcium dysregulation has been observed to occur early in cells exposed to protein oligomers. These small aggregates can form ion channels through lipid bilayer membranes and activate NMDA and AMPA receptors. Channel formation has been hypothesized to account for calcium dysregulation and mitochondrial dysfunction by allowing indiscriminate leakage of ions across cell membranes. Studies have shown that amyloid deposition is associated with mitochondrial dysfunction and a resulting generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can initiate a signalling pathway leading to apoptosis. There are reports that indicate amyloid polymers (such as those of huntingtin, associated with Huntington's disease) can induce the polymerization of essential amyloidogenic proteins, which should be deleterious to cells. Also, interaction partners of these essential proteins can also be sequestered.
All these mechanisms of toxicity are likely to play a role. In fact, the aggregation of a protein generates a variety of aggregates, all of which are likely to be toxic to some degree. A wide variety of biochemical, physiological and cytological perturbations has been identified following the exposure of cells and animals to such species, independently of their identity. The oligomers have also been reported to interact with a variety of molecular targets. Hence, it is unlikely that there is a unique mechanism of toxicity or a unique cascade of cellular events. The misfolded nature of protein aggregates causes a multitude of aberrant interactions with a multitude of cellular components, including membranes, protein receptors, soluble proteins, RNAs, small metabolites, etc.
Histological staining
In the clinical setting, amyloid diseases are typically identified by a change in the spectroscopic properties of planar aromatic dyes such as thioflavin T, congo red or NIAD-4. In general, this is attributed to the environmental change, as these dyes intercalate between β-strands to confine their structure.
Congo Red positivity remains the gold standard for diagnosis of amyloidosis. In general, binding of Congo Red to amyloid plaques produces a typical apple-green birefringence when viewed under cross-polarized light. Recently, significant enhancement of fluorescence quantum yield of NIAD-4 was exploited to super-resolution fluorescence imaging of amyloid fibrils and oligomers. To avoid nonspecific staining, other histology stains, such as the hematoxylin and eosin stain, are used to quench the dyes' activity in other places such as the nucleus, where the dye might bind. Modern antibody technology and immunohistochemistry has made specific staining easier, but often this can cause trouble because epitopes can be concealed in the amyloid fold; in general, an amyloid protein structure is a different conformation from the one that the antibody recognizes.
See also
JUNQ and IPOD
Proteopathy
Protein aggregation predictors
References
External links
Bacterial Inclusion Bodies Contain Amyloid-Like Structure at SciVee
Amyloid Cascade Hypothesis
Amyloid: Journal of Protein Folding Disorders web page
Role of anesthetics in Alzheimer's disease: Molecular details revealed
Amyloidosis
Histopathology
Structural proteins
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Quebec
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History of Quebec
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Quebec was first called Canada between 1534 and 1763. It was the most developed colony of New France as well as New France's centre, responsible for a variety of dependencies (ex. Acadia, Plaisance, Louisiana, and the Pays d'en Haut). Common themes in Quebec's early history as Canada include the fur trade -because it was the main industry- as well as the exploration of North America, war against the English, and alliances or war with Native American groups.
Following the Seven Years' War, Quebec became a British colony in the British Empire. It was first known as the Province of Quebec (1763–1791), then as Lower Canada (1791–1841), and then as Canada East (1841–1867) as a result of the Lower Canada Rebellion. During this period, the inferior socio-economic status of francophones (because anglophones dominated the natural resources and industries of Quebec), the Catholic church, resistance against cultural assimilation, and isolation from non English-speaking populations were important themes.
Quebec was confederated with Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick in 1867, beginning the Confederation of Canada. Important events that mark this period are the World Wars, the Grande Noirceur, the Quiet Revolution (which improved the socio-economic standing of French Canadians and secularized Quebec), and the emergence of the contemporary Quebec sovereignty movement.
These three large periods of Quebec's history are represented on its coat of arms with three fleur-de-lis, followed by a lion, and then three maple leaves.
History
Indigenous societies
Aboriginal settlements were located across the area of present-day Quebec before the arrival of Europeans. In the northernmost areas of the province, Inuit communities can be found. Other aboriginal communities belong to the following First Nations:
Abenakis
Algonquins
Atikamekw
Crees
Innu
Malecite
Mi'kmaq
Mohawks
Naskapi
Wendats
The aboriginal cultures of present-day Quebec are diverse, with their own languages, way of life, economies, and religious beliefs. Before contact with Europeans, they did not have a written language, and passed their history and other cultural knowledge along to each generation through oral tradition.
Today around three-quarters of Quebec's aboriginal populations lives in small communities scattered throughout the rural areas of the province, with some living on reserves.
Jacques Cartier sailed into the St. Lawrence River in 1534 and established an ill-fated colony near present-day Quebec City at the site of Stadacona, a village of the St. Lawrence Iroquoians. Linguists and archaeologists have determined these people were distinct from the Iroquoian nations encountered by later French and Europeans, such as the five nations of the Haudenosaunee. Their language was Laurentian, one of the Iroquoian family. By the late 16th century, they had disappeared from the St. Lawrence Valley.
Paleo-Indian Era (11,000–8000 BC)
Existing archaeological evidence attests to a human presence on the current territory of Quebec sometime around 10,000 BC.
Archaic era (8000–1500 BC)
The Paleoindian period was followed by the Archaic, a time when major changes occurred in the landscape and the settlement of the territory of Quebec. With the end of glaciation, the inhabitable territory increased in size and the environment (such as climate, vegetation, lakes and rivers) became increasingly stable. Migrations became rarer and moving around became a seasonal activity necessary for hunting, fishing or gathering.
The nomadic populations of the Archaic period were better established and were very familiar with the resources of their territories. They adapted to their surroundings and experienced a degree of population growth. Their diet and tools diversified. Aboriginal peoples used a greater variety of local material, developed new techniques, such as polishing stone, and devised increasingly specialized tools, such as knives, awls, fish hooks, and nets.
Woodland era (3000 BC–1500 AD)
Agriculture appeared experimentally toward the 8th century. It was only in the 14th century that it was fully mastered in the Saint Lawrence River valley. The Iroquoians cultivated corn, marrow, sunflowers, and beans.
European explorations
In the 14th century, the Byzantine Empire fell. For the Christian West, this made trade with the Far East, usually for things like spices and gold, more difficult because sea routes were now under the control of less cooperative Arab and Italian merchants. As such, in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Spanish and Portuguese, and then the English and French, began to search for a new sea route.
In 1508, only 16 years after the first voyage of Christopher Columbus, Thomas Auber, who was likely part of a fishing trip near Newfoundland, brought back a few Amerindians to France. This indicates that in the early 16th century, French navigators ventured in the gulf of the St. Lawrence, along with the Basques and the Spaniards who did the same.
Around 1522–1523, the Italian navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano persuaded King Francis I of France to commission an expedition to find a western route to Cathay (China). Therefore, King Francis I launched a maritime expedition in 1524, led by Giovanni da Verrazzano, to search for the Northwest Passage. Though this expedition was unsuccessful, it established the name "New France" for Northeastern North America.
Jacques Cartier's voyages
On June 24, 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier planted a cross on the Gaspé Peninsula and took possession of the territory in the name of King François I of France.
On his second voyage on May 26, 1535, Cartier sailed upriver to the St. Lawrence Iroquoian villages of Stadacona, near present-day Quebec City, and Hochelaga, near present-day Montreal. That year, Cartier decided to name the village and its surrounding territories Canada, because he had heard two young natives use the word kanata ("village" in Iroquois) to describe the location. 16th-century European cartographers would quickly adopt this name. Cartier also wrote that he thought he had discovered large amounts of diamonds and gold, but this ended up only being quartz and pyrite. Then, by following what he called the Great River, he traveled West to the Lachine Rapids. There, navigation proved too dangerous for Cartier to continue his journey towards the goal: China. Cartier and his sailors had no choice but to return to Stadaconé and winter there. In the end, Cartier returned to France and took about 10 Native Americans, including the St. Lawrence Iroquoians chief Donnacona, with him. In 1540, Donnacona told the legend of the Kingdom of Saguenay to the King of France. This inspired the king to order a third expedition, this time led by Jean-François de La Rocque de Roberval and with the goal of finding the Kingdom of Saguenay. But, it was unsuccessful.
In 1541, Jean-François Roberval became lieutenant of New France and had the responsibility to build a new colony in America. It was Cartier who established the first French settlement on American soil, Charlesbourg Royal.
France was disappointed after the three voyages of Cartier and did not want to invest further large sums in an adventure with such uncertain outcome. A period of disinterest in the new world on behalf of the French authorities followed. Only at the very end of the 16th century interest in these northern territories was renewed.
Still, even during the time when France did not send official explorers, Breton and Basque fishermen came to the new territories to stock up on codfish and whale oil. Since they were forced to stay for a longer period of time, they started to trade their metal objects for fur provided by the indigenous people. This commerce became profitable and thus the interest in the territory was revived.
Fur commerce made a permanent residence in the country worthwhile. Good relations with the aboriginal providers were necessary. For some fishermen however, a seasonal presence was sufficient. Commercial companies were founded that tried to further the interest of the Crown in colonizing the territory. They demanded that France grant a monopoly to one single company. In return, this company would also take over the colonization of the French American territory. Thus, it would not cost the king much money to build the colony. On the other hand, other merchants wanted commerce to stay unregulated. This controversy was a big issue at the turn of the 17th century.
By the end of the 17th century, a census showed that around 10,000 French settlers were farming along the lower St. Lawrence Valley. By 1700, fewer than 20,000 people of French origin were settled in New France, extending from Newfoundland to the Mississippi, with the pattern of settlement following the networks of the cod fishery and fur trade, although most Quebec settlers were farmers.
New France (1534–1763)
Modern Quebec was part of the territory of New France, the general name for the North American possessions of France until 1763. At its largest extent, before the Treaty of Utrecht, this territory included several colonies, each with its own administration: Canada, Acadia, Hudson Bay, and Louisiana.
The borders of these colonies were not precisely defined, and were open on the western side, as the maps below show:
Around 1580, France became interested in America again, because the fur trade had become important in Europe. France returned to America looking for a specific animal: the beaver. As New France was full of beavers, it became a colonial-trading post where the main activity was the fur trade in the Pays-d'en-Haut. In 1600, Pierre de Chauvin de Tonnetuit founded the first permanent trading post in Tadoussac for expeditions carried out in the Domaine du Roy.
In 1603, Samuel de Champlain travelled to the Saint Lawrence River and, on Pointe Saint-Mathieu, established a defence pact with the Innu, Wolastoqiyik and Micmacs, that would be "a decisive factor in the maintenance of a French colonial enterprise in America despite an enormous numerical disadvantage vis-à-vis the British colonization in the South". Thus also began French military support to the Algonquian and Huron peoples in defence against Iroquois attacks and invasions. These Iroquois attacks would become known as the Beaver Wars and would last from the early 1600s to the early 1700s.
Colony of Canada (1608–1759)
Early years (1608–1663)
Quebec City was founded in 1608 by Samuel de Champlain. Some other towns were founded before, like Tadoussac in 1604 which still exists today, but Quebec was the first to be meant as a permanent settlement and not a simple trading post. Over time, it became a province of Canada and all of New France.
The first version of the town was a single large walled building, called the Habitation. A similar Habitation was established in Port Royal in 1605, in Acadia. This arrangement was made for protection against perceived threats from the indigenous people. The difficulty of supplying the city of Quebec from France and the lack of knowledge of the area meant that life was hard. A significant fraction of the population died of hunger and diseases during the first winter. However, agriculture soon expanded and a continuous flow of immigrants, mostly men in search of adventure, increased the population.
The settlement was built as a permanent fur trading outpost. First Nations traded their furs for many French goods such as metal objects, guns, alcohol, and clothing. In 1616, the Habitation du Québec became the first permanent establishment of the with the arrival of its two very first settlers: Louis Hébert and Marie Rollet.
The French quickly established trading posts throughout their territory, trading for fur with aboriginal hunters. The coureur des bois, who were freelance traders, explored much of the area themselves. They kept trade and communications flowing through a vast network along the rivers of the hinterland. They established fur trading forts on the Great Lakes (Étienne Brûlé 1615), Hudson Bay (Radisson and Groseilliers 1659–60), Ohio River and Mississippi River (La Salle 1682), as well as the Saskatchewan River and Missouri River (de la Verendrye 1734–1738). This network was inherited by the English and Scottish traders after the fall of the French Empire in Quebec, and many of the coureur des bois became voyageurs for the British.
In 1612, the Compagnie de Rouen received the royal mandate to manage the operations of New France and the fur trade. In 1621, they were replaced by the Compagnie de Montmorency. Then, in 1627, they were substituted by the Compagnie des Cent-Associés. Shortly after being appointed, the Compagnie des Cent-Associés introduced the Custom of Paris and the seigneurial system to New France. They also forbade settlement in New France by anyone other than Roman Catholics. The Catholic Church was given en seigneurie large and valuable tracts of land estimated at nearly 30% of all the lands granted by the French Crown in New France.
Because of war with England, the first two convoys of ships and settlers bound for the colony were waylaid near Gaspé by British privateers under the command of three French-Scottish Huguenot brothers, David, Louis and Thomas Kirke. Quebec was effectively cut off. In 1629, there was the surrender of Quebec, without battle, to English privateers led by David Kirke during the Anglo-French War. On 19 July 1629, with Quebec completely out of supplies and no hope of relief, Champlain surrendered Quebec to the Kirkes without a fight. Champlain and other colonists were taken to England, where they learned that peace had been agreed (in the 1629 Treaty of Suza) before Quebec's surrender, and the Kirkes were obliged to return their takings. However, they refused, and it was not until the 1632 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye that Quebec and all other captured French possessions in North America were returned to New France. Champlain was restored as de facto governor but died three years later.
In 1633, Cardinal Richelieu granted a charter to the Company of One Hundred Associates, which had been created by the Cardinal himself in 1627. This gave the company control over the booming fur trade and land rights across the territory in exchange for the company supporting and expanding settlement in New France (at the time encompassing Acadia, Quebec, Newfoundland, and Louisiana). Specific clauses in the charter included a requirement to bring 4000 settlers into New France over the next 15 years. The company largely ignored the settlement requirements of their charter and focused on the lucrative fur trade, only 300 settlers arriving before 1640. On the verge of bankruptcy, the company lost its fur trade monopoly in 1641 and was finally dissolved in 1662.
In 1634, Sieur de Laviolette founded Trois-Rivières at the mouth of the Saint-Maurice River. In 1642, Paul de Chomedey de Maisonneuve founded Ville-Marie (now Montreal) on Pointe-à-Callière. He chose to found Montreal on an island so that the settlement could be naturally protected against Iroquois invasions. Many heroes of New France come from this period, such as Dollard des Ormeaux, Guillaume Couture, Madeleine de Verchères and the Canadian Martyrs.
Royal province (1663–1760)
The establishment of the Conseil souverain, political restructuring which turned New France into a province of France, ended the period of company rule and marked a new beginning in the colonization effort.
In 1663, the Company of New France ceded Canada to the King, King Louis XIV, who officially made New France into a royal province of France. New France would now be a true colony administered by the Sovereign Council of New France from Québec, and which functioned off . A governor-general, assisted by the intendant of New France and the bishop of Québec, would go on to govern the colony of Canada (Montreal, Québec, Trois-Rivières and the Pays-d'en-Haut) and its administrative dependencies: Acadia, Louisiana and Plaisance.
The French settlers were mostly farmers and they were known as "Canadiens" or "Habitants". Though there was little immigration, the colony still grew because of the Habitants' high birth rates. In 1665, the Carignan-Salières regiment developed the string of fortifications known as the "Valley of Forts" to protect against Iroquois invasions. The Regiment brought along with them 1,200 new men from Dauphiné, Liguria, Piedmont and Savoy. To redress the severe imbalance between single men and women, and boost population growth, King Louis XIV sponsored the passage of approximately 800 young French women (known as les filles du roi) to the colony. In 1666, intendant Jean Talon organized the first census of the colony and counted 3,215 Habitants. Talon also enacted policies to diversify agriculture and encourage births, which, in 1672, had increased the population to 6,700 Canadiens.
In 1686, the Chevalier de Troyes and the Troupes de la Marine seized three northern forts the English had erected on the lands explored by Charles Albanel in 1671 near Hudson Bay. Similarly, in the south, Cavelier de La Salle took for France lands discovered by Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet in 1673 along the Mississippi River. As a result, the colony of New France's territory grew to extend from Hudson Bay all the way to the Gulf of Mexico, and would also encompass the Great Lakes.
In the early 1700s, Governor Callières concluded the Great Peace of Montreal, which not only confirmed the alliance between the Algonquian peoples and New France, but also definitively ended the Beaver Wars. In 1701, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville founded the district of Louisiana and made its administrative headquarter Biloxi. Its headquarters was later moved to Mobile, and then to New Orleans. During this time, the town had a population of 2,000 settlers. In 1738, Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, extended New France to Lake Winnipeg. In 1742, his voyageur sons, François and Louis-Joseph, crossed the Great Plains and discovered the Rocky Mountains.
From 1688 onwards, the fierce competition between the French Empire and British Empire to control North America's interior and monopolize the fur trade pitted New France and its Indigenous allies against the Iroquois and English -primarily in the Province of New York- in a series of four successive wars called the French and Indian Wars by Americans, and the Intercolonial wars in Quebec. The first three of these wars were King William's War (1688–1697), Queen Anne's War (1702–1713), and King George's War (1744–1748). Many notable battles and exchanges of land took place. In 1690, the Battle of Quebec became the first time Québec's defences were tested. In 1713, following the Peace of Utrecht, the Duke of Orléans ceded Acadia and Plaisance Bay to the Kingdom of Great Britain, but retained Île Saint-Jean, and Île-Royale (Cape Breton Island) where the Fortress of Louisbourg was subsequently erected. These losses were significant since Plaisance Bay was the primary communication route between New France and France, and Acadia contained 5,000 Acadians. In the siege of Louisbourg in 1745, the British were victorious, but returned the city to France after war concessions.
Catholic nuns
Outside the home, Canadian women had few domains which they controlled. An important exception came with Roman Catholic nuns. Stimulated by the influence in France of the popular religiosity of the Counter-Reformation, new orders for women began appearing in the seventeenth century and became a permanent feature of Quebec society.
The Ursuline Sisters arrived in Quebec City in 1639, and in Montreal in 1641. They spread as well to small towns. They had to overcome harsh conditions, uncertain funding, and unsympathetic authorities as they engaged in educational and nursing functions. They attracted endowments and became important landowners in Quebec. Marie de l'Incarnation (1599–1672) was the mother superior at Quebec, 1639–72.
During the 1759 Quebec Campaign of the Seven Years' War, Augustinian nun Marie-Joseph Legardeur de Repentigny, Sœur de la Visitation, managed the Hôpital Général in Quebec City and oversaw the care of hundreds of wounded soldiers from both the French and British forces. She wrote in after-action report on her work, noting, "The surrender of Quebec only increased our work. The British generals came to our hospital to assure us of their protection and at the same time made us responsible for their sick and wounded." The British officers stationed at the hospital reported on the cleanliness and high quality of the care provided. Most civilians deserted the city, leaving the Hôpital Général as a refugee centre for the poor who had nowhere to go. The nuns set up a mobile aid station that reached out to the cities refugees, distributing food and treating the sick and injured.
British conquest of New France (1754–1763)
In the middle of the 18th century, British North America had grown to be close to a full-fledged independent country, something they would actually become a few decades later, with more than 1 million inhabitants. Meanwhile, New France was still seen mostly as a cheap source of natural resources for the metropolis, and had only 60,000 inhabitants. Nevertheless, New France was territorially larger than the Thirteen Colonies, but had a population less than the size. There was warfare along the borders, with the French supporting Indian raids into the American colonies.
The earliest battles of the French and Indian War occurred in 1754 and soon widened into the worldwide Seven Years' War. The territory of New France at that time included parts of present-day Upstate New York, and a series of battles were fought there. The French military enjoyed early successes in these frontier battles, gaining control over several strategic points in 1756 and 1757.
The British sent substantial military forces, while the Royal Navy controlled the Atlantic, preventing France from sending much help. In 1758 the British captured Louisbourg, gaining control over the mouth of the St. Lawrence, and also took control of key forts on the frontier in battles at Frontenac and Duquesne. In spite of the spectacular defeat of the supposed main British thrust in the Battle of Carillon (in which a banner was supposedly carried that inspired the modern flag of Quebec), the French military position was poor.
In the next phase of the war, begun in 1759, the British aimed directly at the heart of New France. General James Wolfe led a fleet of 49 ships holding 8,640 British troops to the fortress of Quebec. They disembarked on Île d'Orléans and on the south shore of the river; the French forces under Louis-Joseph de Montcalm, Marquis de Saint-Veran, held the walled city and the north shore. Wolfe laid siege to the city for more than two months, exchanging cannon fire over the river, but neither side could break the siege. As neither side could expect resupply during the winter, Wolfe moved to force a battle. On 5 September 1759, after successfully convincing Montcalm he would attack by the Bay of Beauport east of the city, the British troops crossed close to Cap-Rouge, west of the city, and successfully climbed the steep Cape Diamond undetected. Montcalm, for disputed reasons, did not use the protection of the city walls and fought on open terrain, in what would be known as the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. The battle was short and bloody; both leaders died in battle, but the British easily won. (The Death of General Wolfe is a well-known 1770 painting by artist Benjamin West depicting the final moments of Wolfe.)
Now in possession of the main city and capital, and further isolating the inner cities of Trois-Rivières and Montreal from France, the rest of the campaign was only a matter of slowly taking control of the land. While the French had a tactical victory in the Battle of Sainte-Foy outside Quebec in 1760, an attempt to lay siege to the city ended in defeat the following month when British ships arrived and forced the French besiegers to retreat. An attempt to resupply the French military was further dashed in the naval Battle of Restigouche, and Pierre de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnial, New France's last Royal governor, surrendered Montreal on 8 September 1760. Because the Seven Years' War was still ongoing in Europe, the British put the region under a British military regime between 1760 and 1763.
Britain's success in the war forced France to cede all of Canada to the British at the Treaty of Paris. The Royal Proclamation of 7 October 1763 by King George III of Great Britain set out the terms of government for the newly captured territory, as well as defining the geographic boundaries of the territory.
The rupture from France would provoke a transformation within the descendants of the Canadiens that would eventually result in the birth of a new nation whose development and culture would be founded upon, among other things, ancestral foundations anchored in Northeastern America. What British Commissioner John George Lambton (Lord Durham) would describe in his 1839 report would be the kind of relationship that would reign between the "Two Solitudes" of Canada for a long time: "I found two nations at war within one state; I found a struggle, not of principles, but of races". Incoming British immigrants would find that Canadiens were as full of national pride as they were, and while these newcomers would see the American territories as a vast ground for colonization and speculation, the Canadiens would regard Quebec as the heritage of their own race - not as a country to colonize, but as a country already colonized.
British North America (1760–1867)
Royal Proclamation (1763–1774)
British rule under Royal Governor James Murray was benign, with the French Canadians guaranteed their traditional rights and customs. The British Royal Proclamation of 1763 united three Quebec districts into the Province of Quebec. It was the British who were the first to use the name "Quebec" to refer to a territory beyond Quebec City. The British tolerated the Catholic Church, and protected the traditional social and economic structure of Quebec. The people responded with one of the highest birth rates ever recorded, 65 births per thousand per year. Much French law was retained inside a system of British courts, all under the command of the British governor. The goal was to satisfy the Francophile settlers, albeit to the annoyance of British merchants.
Quebec Act (1774)
With unrest growing in the colonies to the south, which would one day grow into the American Revolution, the British were worried that the Canadiens might also support the growing rebellion. At the time, Canadiens formed the vast majority of the population of the Province of Quebec. To secure the allegiance of Canadiens to the British crown, Governor James Murray and later Governor Guy Carleton promoted the need for accommodations. This eventually resulted in enactment of the Quebec Act of 1774. The Quebec Act was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain setting procedures of governance in the Province of Quebec. Among other components, this act restored the use of the French civil law for private matters while maintaining the use of the English common law for public administration (including criminal prosecution), replaced the oath of allegiance so that it no longer made reference to the Protestant faith, and guaranteed free practice of the Catholic faith. The purpose of this Act was to secure the allegiance of the French Canadians with unrest growing in the American colonies to the south.
American Revolutionary War
When the American Revolutionary War broke out in early 1775, Quebec became a target for American forces, that sought to liberate the French population there from British rule. In September 1775 the Continental Army began a two-pronged invasion, with one army capturing Montreal while another traveled through the wilderness of what is now Maine toward Quebec City. The two armies joined forces, but were defeated in the Battle of Quebec, in which the American General Richard Montgomery was slain. The Americans were driven back into New York by the arrival of a large army of British troops and German auxiliaries ("Hessians") in June 1776.
Before and during the American occupation of the province, there was a significant propaganda war in which both the Americans and the British sought to gain the population's support. The Americans succeeded in raising two regiments in Quebec, led by James Livingston and Moses Hazen, one of which served throughout the war. Hazen's 2nd Canadian Regiment served in the Philadelphia campaign and also at the Siege of Yorktown, and included Edward Antill, a New Yorker living in Quebec City (who actually led the regiment at Yorktown as Hazen had been promoted to brigadier general), Clément Gosselin, Germain Dionne, and many others. Louis-Philippe de Vaudreuil, a Quebecker, was with the French Navy in the Battle of the Chesapeake that prevented the British Navy from reaching Yorktown, Virginia.
After General John Burgoyne's failed 1777 campaign for control of the Hudson River, Quebec was used as a base for raiding operations into the northern parts of the United States until the end of the war. In the Western theater of the war, U.S. forces had much better success in areas north of the Ohio River, which were annexed to Quebec in 1774. During the Illinois campaign, Virginia militia leader George Rogers Clark captured Kaskaskia without any loss of life. From there, his men marched into and captured Vincennes, but was soon lost to British Lieutenant Colonel Henry Hamilton, the commander at Fort Detroit. It was later retaken by Clark in the Siege of Fort Vincennes in February 1779. Roughly half of Clark's militia in the theater were French Canadian volunteers sympathetic to the American cause.
When the war ended in 1783, Quebec shrunk as a result, with portions of its southwest being ceded to the new United States in accordance with the Treaty of Paris. Around 75,000 or 15% of the Loyalists fled the new United States, with 85% of the rest choosing to stay. These refugees were resettled into parts of the province that bordered on Lake Ontario. These settlers eventually sought to separate themselves administratively from the French-speaking Quebec population, which occurred in 1791.
Constitutional Act (1791–1840)
The Constitutional Act of 1791 divided Quebec into Upper Canada (the part of present-day Ontario south of Lake Nipissing plus the current Ontario shoreline of Georgian Bay and Lake Superior) and Lower Canada (the southern part of present-day Quebec). Newly arrived English-speaking Loyalist refugees had refused to adopt the Quebec seigneurial system of land tenure, or the French civil law system, giving the British reason to separate the English-speaking settlements from the French-speaking territory as administrative jurisdictions. Upper Canada's first capital was Newark (present-day Niagara-on-the-Lake); in 1796, it was moved to York (now Toronto).
The new constitution, primarily passed to answer the demands of the Loyalists, created a unique situation in Lower Canada. The Legislative Assembly, the only elected body in the colonial government, was continually at odds with the Legislative and Executive branches appointed by the governor. When, in the early 19th century, the Parti canadien rose as a nationalist, liberal and reformist party, a long political struggle started between the majority of the elected representatives of Lower Canada and the colonial government. The majority of the elected representatives in the assembly were members of the francophone professional class: "lawyers, notaries, doctors, innkeepers or small merchants", who comprised 77.4% of the assembly from 1792 to 1836.
By 1809, the government of Newfoundland was no longer willing to supervise the coasts of Labrador. To solve this issue, and as a result of lobbying in London, the British government assigned the coasts of Labrador to the colony of Newfoundland. The inland border between the jurisdiction of Lower Canada and Newfoundland was not well-defined.
In 1813, Beauport-native Charles-Michel de Salaberry became a hero by leading the Canadian troops to victory at the Battle of Chateauguay, during the War of 1812. In this battle, 300 Voltigeurs and 22 Amerindians successfully pushed back a force of 7,000 Americans. This loss caused the Americans to abandon the Saint Lawrence Campaign, their major strategic effort to conquer Canada. In 1831, more than 50,000 people immigrated to Quebec. The next year brought 52,000 individuals and with them the Asiatic cholera, and within five months 4,200 deaths resulted.
Gradually, the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada, who represented the people, came more and more into conflict with the superior authority of the Crown and its appointed representatives. Starting in 1791, the government of Lower Canada was criticized and contested by the Parti canadien. In 1834, the Parti canadien presented its 92 resolutions, a series of political demands which expressed a genuine loss of confidence in the British monarchy. London refused to consider these and, in response, submitted . Discontentment intensified throughout the public meetings of 1837, sometimes being led by tribunes like Louis-Joseph Papineau. Despite opposition from ecclesiastics, for example Jean-Jacques Lartigue, the Rebellion of the Patriotes began in 1837. Key goals for the rebels were to have responsible government and, for many, to terminate prejudicial dominance of the English minority over the French majority. Louis-Joseph Papineau was instrumental in acting as a leadership figure for the rebels, yet his ideological views were ambiguous concerning the relative importance of seigneurial landowners, the Roman Catholic Church, and the francophone bourgeoisie. Under his influence, the first rebellion of 1837 was directed at the seigneurs and the clergy as much as the anglophone governor. The 1837 rebellion resulted in a declaration of martial law, and suspension of Canada's Constitution. To centralize authority under the Crown, John Lambton, Lord Durham was named governor of all of British North America.
In 1837, Louis-Joseph Papineau and Robert Nelson led residents of Lower Canada to form an armed resistance group called the Patriotes in order to seek an end to the unilateral control of the British governors. They made a Declaration of Independence in 1838, guaranteeing human rights and equality for all citizens without discrimination. Their actions resulted in rebellions in both Lower and Upper Canada. The Patriotes forces were victorious in their first battle, the Battle of Saint-Denis, due to government forces being unprepared. However, the Patriotes were unorganized and badly equipped, leading to them suffering a defeat in their second battle, the Battle of Saint-Charles, and another defeat in their final battle, the Battle of Saint-Eustache. Following the government defeat of the Patriotes, the Catholic clergy recovered their moral authority among the people and preached for the cohesion and development of the nation in the fields of education, health and civil society.
Martial law and Special Council (1838–1840)
The second rebellion in 1838 was to have more far-reaching consequences. In 1838, Lord Durham arrived in Canada as High Commissioner. Although skirmishes with government troops were relatively bloodless during the second rebellion of 1838, the Crown dealt forcefully in punishing the rebels. 850 of them were arrested; 12 were eventually hanged, and 58 were transported to Australian penal colonies.
In 1839, Lord Durham was called upon by the Crown to deliver a Report on the Affairs of British North America as a result of the rebellions. The Special Council that governed the colony from 1838 to 1841 enacted many reforms with the aim of improving economic and bureaucratic affairs, such as land ownership and the establishment of new schools. These institutional reforms ultimately became the foundation of "responsible government" in the colony.
Many American colonists who remained loyal to England left the 13 Atlantic colonies before American independence for Canada, with many settling in communities in southern Quebec. In the 19th century, Quebec experienced several waves of immigration, principally from England, Scotland and Ireland. At the turn of the 20th century, immigrants to Quebec came mainly from Ireland, but large numbers of immigrants arrived from Germany and other areas of western Europe.
Union Act
Lord Durham recommended that Upper Canada and Lower Canada be united, in order to make the francophone population of Lower Canada a minority within the united territory and weaken its influence. Durham expressed his objectives in plain terms. His recommendation was followed; the new seat of government was located in Montreal, with the former Upper Canada being referred to as "Canada West" and the former Lower Canada being referred to as "Canada East". The Act of Union 1840 formed the Province of Canada. Rebellion continued sporadically, and in 1849, the burning of the Parliament Buildings in Montreal led to the relocation of the seat of government to Toronto. Historian François-Xavier Garneau, like other Canada East francophones during the 1840s, had deep concerns about the united entity and the place of the francophones within it.
This union, unsurprisingly, was the main source of political instability until 1867. The differences between the two cultural groups of the Province of Canada made it impossible to govern without forming coalition governments. Furthermore, despite their population gap, both Canada East and Canada West obtained an identical number of seats in the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada, which created representation problems. In the beginning, Canada East was under-represented because of its superior population size. Over time, however, massive immigration from the British Isles to Canada West occurred, which increased its population. Since the two regions continued to have equal representation in the Parliament, this meant that it was now Canada West that was under-represented. The representation issues were frequently called into question by debates on "Representation by Population", or "Rep by Pop". When Canada West was under-represented, the issue became a rallying cry for the Canada West Reformers and Clear Grits, led by George Brown.
In 1844, the capital of the Province of Canada was moved from Kingston to Montreal.
In this period, the Loyalists and immigrants from the British Isles decided to no longer refer to themselves as English or British, and instead appropriated the term "Canadian", referring to Canada, their place of residence. The "Old Canadians" responded to this appropriation of identity by henceforth identifying with their ethnic community, under the name "French Canadian". As such, the terms French Canadian and English Canadian were born. French Canadian writers began to reflect on the survival of their own. François-Xavier Garneau wrote an influential national epic, and wrote to Lord Elgin: "I have undertaken this work with the aim of re-establishing the truth so often disfigured, and of repelling the attacks and insults which my compatriots have been and still are the daily target of, from men who would like to oppress and exploit them all at every opportunity. I thought the best way to achieve this was to simply expose their story". His and other written works allowed French Canadians to preserve their collective consciousness and to protect themselves from assimilation, much like works like Evangeline had done for Acadians.
Political unrest came to a head in 1849, when English Canadian rioters set fire to the Parliament Building in Montreal following the enactment of the Rebellion Losses Bill, a law that compensated French Canadians whose properties were destroyed during the rebellions of 1837–1838. This bill, resulting from the Baldwin-La Fontaine coalition and Lord Elgin's advice, was a very important one as it established the notion of responsible government. In 1854, the seigneurial system was abolished, the Grand Trunk Railway was built and the Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty was implemented. In 1866, the Civil Code of Lower Canada was adopted. Then, the long period of political impasse that was the Province of Canada came to a close as the Macdonald-Cartier coalition began to reform the political system.
Grande Hémorragie
In the 1820s and 1830s, rapid demographic growth made access to land in Lower Canada increasingly difficult for young people. Crop failures and political repression in 1838–1839 placed an additional strain on the agricultural sector in the southern part of the colony. Only slowly did French Canadian farmers adapt to competition and new economic realities. According to some contemporary observers, their farming methods were outdated. About this time the textile industry in New England experienced a boom. With living conditions so harsh, and work very hard to find even in the largest city, Montreal, emigration seemed the only option for many. As the first wave moved out in the 1850s, word of mouth soon began to move larger crowds by the late 1870s. Mill owners hired these French immigrants to staff their mills more cheaply than American and Irish-born workers, who were themselves displaced.
When the first wave of emigrants left Quebec, the local government did not pay much attention as the numbers were relatively small. However, when the emigration began to increase and the provincial economy was going through a depression, leaders of the province attempted to halt the emigration. Though a small group of intellectuals believed French-Canadian culture could be recreated or maintained on U.S. soil, many more elites warned against emigration; they argued that cultural and moral perdition would occur south of the border. Instead they proposed domestic colonization in Quebec and the development of the St. Lawrence River valley's periphery. Nevertheless, more than 200,000 left between 1879 and 1901.
Canada (1867–present)
In the decades immediately before Canadian Confederation in 1867, French-speaking Quebeckers, known at that time as Canadiens, remained a majority within Canada East. Estimates of their proportion of the population between 1851 and 1861 are 75% of the total population, with around 20% of the remaining population largely composed of English-speaking citizens of British or Irish descent. From 1871 to 1931, the relative size of the French-speaking population stayed much the same, rising to a peak of 80.2% of Quebec's population in 1881. The proportion of citizens of British descent declined slightly in contrast, from a peak of 20.4% of the population in 1871, to 15% by 1931. Other minorities made up the remainder of the population of the province.
After several years of negotiations, in 1867 the British Parliament passed the British North America Acts, by which the Province of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia joined to form the Dominion of Canada. Canada East became the Province of Quebec. Canada remained self-governing locally, but the British continued to control its external affairs.
After having fought as a Patriote at the Battle of Saint-Denis in 1837, George-Étienne Cartier joined the ranks of the Fathers of Confederation and submitted the 72 resolutions of the Quebec Conference of 1864 approved for the establishment of a federated state -Quebec- whose territory was to be limited to the region which corresponded to the historic heart of the French Canadian nation and where French Canadians would most likely retain majority status. In the future, Quebec as a political entity would act as a form of protection against cultural assimilation and would serve as a vehicle for the national affirmation of the French-Canadian collective to the face of a Canadian state that would, over time, become dominated by Anglo-American culture. Despite this, the objectives of the new federal political regime were going to serve as great obstacles to the assertion of Quebec and the political power given to the provinces would be restricted. Quebec, economically weakened, would have to face political competition from Ottawa, the capital of the strongly centralizing federal state. On July 15, 1867, Pierre-Joseph-Olivier Chauveau became Quebec's first Premier.
Growth of Montreal
Urban expansion characterized Montreal around the time of Confederation, as rural French Canadians moved to the city to find work. Immigrants flocked to Montreal, Canada's largest city at the time, and so did many people from other parts of Canada. Major business and financial institutions were established in Montreal, including the headquarters of several national banks and corporations. Prominent businessmen included brewer and politician John Molson Jr., jeweller Henry Birks, and insurer James Bell Forsyth. Montreal's population grew rapidly, from around 9000 in 1800, to 23,000 in 1825, and 58,000 in 1852. By 1911, the population was over 528,000. The City of Montreal annexed many neighbouring communities, expanding its territory fivefold between 1876 and 1918. As Montreal was the financial center of Canada during this era, it was the first Canadian city to implement new innovations, like electricity, streetcars and radio.
Influence of the Catholic institutions
Many aspects of life for French-speaking Quebeckers remained dominated by the Catholic Church in the decades following 1867. The Church operated many of the institutions of the province, including most French-language schools, hospitals, and charitable organizations. The leader of the Catholic Church in Quebec was the Bishop of Montreal, and from 1840 to 1876 this was Ignace Bourget, an opponent of liberalism. Bourget eventually succeeded in gaining more influence than the liberal, reformist Institut Canadien. At his most extreme, Bourget went so far as to deny a Church burial to Joseph Guibord, a member of the Institut, in 1874. A court decision forced Bourget to allow Guibord to be buried in a Catholic cemetery, but Bourget deconsecrated the burial plot of ground, and Guibord was buried under army protection. The conservative approach of the Catholic Church was the major force in Quebec society until the reforms of the Quiet Revolution during the 1960s. In 1876, Pierre-Alexis Tremblay was defeated in a federal by-election because of pressure from the Church on voters, but succeeded in getting his loss annulled with the help of a new federal law. He quickly lost the subsequent election. In 1877, the Pope sent representatives to force the Quebecois Church to minimize its interventions in the electoral process.
Catholic women started dozens of independent religious orders, funded in part by dowries provided by the parents of young nuns. The orders specialized in charitable works, including hospitals, orphanages, homes for unwed mothers, and schools. In the first half of the twentieth century, about 2-3% of Quebec's young women became nuns; there were 6,600 in 1901 and 26,000 in 1941. In Quebec in 1917, 32 different teaching orders operated 586 boarding schools for girls. At that time there was no public education for girls in Quebec beyond elementary school. The first hospital was founded in 1701. In 1936, the nuns of Quebec operated 150 institutions, with 30,000 beds to care for the long-term sick, the homeless, and orphans. Between 1870 and 1950, thousands of young girls were sent to Quebec City, to the reform school (1870–1921) and the industrial school (1884–1950) of the Hospice St-Charles, both operated by the Sisters of the Good Shepherd.
Lionel Groulx wanted to build a nationalistic French-Canadian identity, in purpose to protect the power of the Church and dissuade the public from popular-rule and secularist views. Groulx propagated French-Canadian nationalism and argued that maintaining a Roman Catholic Quebec was the only means to 'emancipate the nation against English power.' He believed the powers of the provincial government of Quebec could and should be used within Confederation, to bolster provincial autonomy (and thus Church power), and advocated it would benefit the French-Canadian nation economically, socially, culturally and linguistically. Groulx successfully promoted Québécois nationalism and the ultra-conservative Catholic social doctrine, to which the Church would maintain dominance in political and social life in Quebec. In the 1920s–1950s, this form of traditionalist Catholic nationalism became known as clerico-nationalism.
During the 1940s and 1950s Quebec Premier Maurice Duplessis party, the Union Nationale, often had the active support of the Roman Catholic Church during political campaigns, using the slogan Le ciel est bleu; l'enfer est rouge ("Heaven is blue; hell is red"; red is the colour of the Liberal party, and blue was the colour of the Union Nationale).
Politics
The 1885 execution in Saskatchewan of Métis rebel leader Louis Riel resulted in protests in Quebec, as the French Canadians thought they were being deliberately persecuted for their religion and language. Honoré Mercier became the outspoken leader of the protest movement. The federal Cabinet members of the Quebec Conservative Party had reluctantly supported Prime minister Macdonald's decision in favour of execution. Support for Conservatives eroded.
Seizing the opportunity to build a coalition of his Liberals and dissident Conservatives, Mercier revived the "Parti National" name for the 1886 Quebec provincial election, and won a majority of seats. However, the coalition consisted of mostly Liberals and only a few Conservatives, so the "Liberal" name was soon reinstituted. The Conservatives, reduced to a minority in the Legislative Assembly, clung to power for a few more months. Mercier became Premier of Quebec in 1887. Seeing provincial autonomy as the political expression of Quebec nationalism, he collaborated with Ontario premier Oliver Mowat to roll back federal centralism.
With his strong nationalist stance, Mercier was very much a precursor of later nationalist premiers in future decades who confronted the federal government and tried to win more power for Quebec. He promoted contacts with francophones in other parts of North America outside of Quebec including Western Canada and New England. Those francophones had not yet been assimilated into the English-Canadian or American culture to the extent they would be in the future. Mercier promoted reform, economic development, Catholicism, and the French language. He won popularity but also made enemies. He was returned to the legislature as the Member for the district of Bonaventure and his party won the 1890 election with an increased majority. He was defeated in 1892.
Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier
In 1896, Wilfrid Laurier became the first French Canadian to become Prime Minister of Canada. Educated in both French and English, Laurier remained in office as Prime Minister until October 1911. Laurier had several notable political achievements in Quebec, among them winning Quebec votes for the Liberal Party, against the desires of the powerful Catholic clergy.
In 1899, Henri Bourassa was outspoken against the British government's request for Canada to send a militia to fight for Britain in the Second Boer War. Laurier's compromise was to send a volunteer force, but the seeds were sown for future conscription protests during the world wars. Bourassa challenged, unsuccessfully, the proposal to build warships to help protect the empire. He led the opposition to mandatory conscription during World War I, arguing that Canada's interests were not at stake. He opposed Catholic bishops who defended military support of Britain and its allies.
Boundaries
As more provinces joined Canadian Confederation, there was a pressing need to formalize provincial boundaries. In 1898, the Canadian Parliament enacted the Quebec Boundary Extension Act, 1898, which gave Quebec a part of Rupert's Land, which Canada had bought from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1870. This Act expanded the boundaries of Quebec northward. In 1912, the Canadian Parliament enacted the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act, 1912, which gave Quebec another part of Rupert's Land: the District of Ungava. This extended the borders of Quebec northward all the way to the Hudson Strait.
Population migration also characterized life in late 19th century Quebec. In the late 19th century, overpopulation in the Saint Lawrence Valley led many Quebeckers to immigrate to the Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean region, the Laurentides, and New England, providing a link with that region that continues to this day. In 1909, the government passed a law obligating wood and pulp to be transformed in Quebec. This helped slow the Grande Hémorragie by allowing Quebec to export its finished products to the US instead of its labour force. Clerico-nationalists eventually started to fall out of favour in the federal elections of 1911.
In 1927, the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council drew a clear border between northeast Quebec and south Labrador. However, the Quebec government did not recognize the ruling of this council, resulting in a boundary dispute. The Quebec-Labrador boundary dispute is still ongoing today, leading some to comment that Quebec's borders are the most imprecise in the Americas.
First World War
When World War I broke out, Canada was automatically involved as a Dominion. Many English Canadians voluntarily enlisted to fight. Unlike English Canadians, who felt a connection to the British Empire, French Canadians felt no connection to anyone in Europe. Furthermore, Canada was not threatened by the enemy, who was an ocean away and uninterested in conquering Canada. So, French Canadians saw no reason to fight. Nevertheless, a few French Canadians did enlist in the 22nd Battalion - precursor to the Royal 22e Regiment. By late 1916, the horrific number of casualties were beginning to cause reinforcement problems. After enormous difficulty in the federal government, because virtually every French-speaking MP opposed conscription while almost all the English-speaking MPs supported it, the Military Service Act became law on August 29, 1917. French Canadians protested in what is now called the Conscription Crisis of 1917. The conscription protests grew so much that they eventually led to the of 1918.
Great Depression
The worldwide Great Depression that began in 1929 hit Quebec hard, as exports, prices, profits and wages plunged and unemployment soared to 30%, and even higher in lumbering and mining districts. Politically there was a move to the right, as Quebec's leaders noted that across the globe the failures attributed to capitalism and democracy had led to the spread of socialism, totalitarianism, and Civil War. The Spanish Civil War in particular alarmed devout Catholics, who demanded that Canada keep out representatives of the anti-Catholic Loyalist government of Spain. There was a wave of clericalism and Quebec nationalism that represented a conservative reaction of a traditional society which feared social change as a threat to its survival.
With so many men unemployed or on lower wages, it was a major challenge for housewives to cope with the shortages of money and resources. Often they updated strategies their mothers used when they were growing up in poor families. Cheap foods were used, such as soups, beans and noodles. They purchased the cheapest cuts of meat—sometimes even horse meat—and recycled the Sunday roast into sandwiches and soups. They sewed and patched clothing, traded with their neighbors for outgrown items, and kept the house colder. New furniture and appliances were postponed until better days. These strategies, Baillargeon finds, show that women's domestic labour—cooking, cleaning, budgeting, shopping, childcare—was essential to the economic maintenance of the family and offered room for economies. Most of her informants also worked outside the home, or took boarders, did laundry for trade or cash, and did sewing for neighbors in exchange for something they could offer. Extended families used mutual aid—extra food, spare rooms, repair-work, cash loans—to help cousins and in-laws. Half the devout Catholics defied Church teachings and used contraception to postpone births—the number of births nationwide fell from 250,000 in 1930 to about 228,000 and did not recover until 1940.
The populist poet Emile Coderre (1893–1970), writing as "Jean Narrache" gave voice to the poor people of Montreal as they struggled for survival during the Great Depression. Writing in the language of the street, Narrache adopted the persona of a man living in poverty who reflects on the ironies attending the meagerness of social assistance, the role of class, the pretensions of the commercial elite, and the counterfeit philanthropy of the rich.
There was political alienation as more and more voters complained of the indifference and incompetence of both the national leadership of Prime Minister Bennett and the Conservative party, as well as the provincial leadership of Liberal Premier Louis-Alexandre Taschereau. Many of the discontented gravitated toward the ultramontane nationalists especially Henri Bourassa, editor of Le Devoir, and the highly traditional Catholic writer Lionel Groulx, editor of L'action canadienne-française. Building on this disenchantment, Maurice Duplessis led the new Union nationale party to victory in 1936 with 58% of the vote and became premier.
Second World War
Prosperity returned with the Second World War, as demand soared for the province's manpower, raw materials and manufactures. 140,000 young men, both Francophone and Anglophone, rushed to enlist, although English was the dominant language in all the services and essential for promotion.
Duplessis expected to ride antiwar sentiment to victory when he called an election in the fall of 1939. He miscalculated as the Liberals scored a landslide, with 70 seats to only 14 for the Union nationale.
Canadian leaders managed to avoid the depths of the conscription crisis that had soured relations between Anglophones and Francophones during the First World War. During the Conscription Crisis of 1944 Quebecers protested the conscription. Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King tried, but did not succeed in, avoiding full conscription in Canada, and it became a reality in the final months of World War II. However, the end of the war also meant the end of the crisis. MacKenzie King succeeded in portraying himself as "a moderate", and at the same time "limited the ethnic bitterness" that had marked the 1917 conscription crisis.
Maurice Duplessis
Duplessis returned as premier in the 1944 election, and held power without serious opposition for the next fifteen years, until his death, winning elections in 1948, 1952 and 1956. He became known simply as le Chef ("the boss"). He championed rural areas, provincial rights, and anti-Communism, and opposed the trade unions, modernizers and intellectuals. He worked well with the powerful Anglo businessmen who controlled most of the economy. A highly controversial figure even today, Duplessis and his Union Nationale party dominated the province. Duplessis' years in power have been ridiculed as the La Grande Noirceur ("Great Darkness") by his opponents. The Duplessis years were ones of close church-state relations. Quebec society remained culturally insular during this period, in contrast to the modernizing influences sweeping through the rest of North America. Traditional Catholic morality and Church doctrine defined many aspects of daily life, highlighting traditionalism. For example, most schools and hospitals were Church-controlled. Births outside marriage were rare, abortion was illegal, and divorce was not fully legalized in Quebec until 1968. In recent years, many people in Quebec have spoken out about exploitation by Church and government institutions during the Duplessis years, such as the tragedy of the Duplessis Orphans.
Agitation for reform came from liberal Quebeckers during the Duplessis years, although such provocative attitudes were often frowned upon and marginalized. In 1948, a collective of artists calling themselves Les Automatistes published , meaning "total refusal". The pamphlet was an attempt to start a new vision of Quebec. It has been described as "an anti-religious and anti-establishment manifesto and one of the most influential social and artistic documents in modern Quebec history". It would have a lasting impact, influencing the supporters of Quebec's Quiet Revolution during the 1960s.
Other signs of frustration with the status quo appeared with the bitter Asbestos Strike of 1949. It led to a greater appreciation of labour and social-democratic issues in Quebec.
In fall of 1950 Rivière-du-Loup was the site of a nuclear accident. A USAF B-50 was returning a nuclear bomb to the USA. The bomb was released due to engine troubles, and then was destroyed in a non-nuclear detonation before it hit the ground. The explosion scattered nearly 100 pounds (45 kg) of uranium (U-238).
Quiet Revolution (1960–1980)
During the 1960s, the Quiet Revolution ushered in an array of socio-political transformations, from secularism and the welfare state to a specifically Québécois national identity. The baby boom generation embraced the changes that liberalized social attitudes in the province.
The 1960s were largely a time of optimism in Quebec. Expo 67 marked Montreal's pinnacle as Canada's largest and most important city and prompted the construction of what is now Parc Jean Drapeau and the Montreal Metro. In 1962, the mayor of Montreal, Jean Drapeau (the man who later was behind Expo 67 and the '76 Olympics projects) instigated the construction of the Metro (subway). The first phase of the subway was completed in 1966. These mega-projects came in the same era as Canada's Confederation centennial celebrations in 1967, when a wave of patriotism swept through most of Canada.
In 1960, the Liberal Party of Quebec was brought to power with a two-seat majority, having campaigned with the slogan "" ("Its time for things to change"). This new Jean Lesage government had the "team of thunder": René Lévesque, Paul Gérin-Lajoie, Georges-Émile Lapalme and Marie-Claire Kirkland-Casgrain. This government made many reforms in the fields of social policy, education, health and economic development. It also created the Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec, Labour Code, Ministry of Social Affairs, Ministry of Education, Office québécois de la langue française, Régie des rentes and Société générale de financement.
The Quiet Revolution was particularly characterized by the 1962 Liberal Party's slogan "" ("Masters in our own house"), which, to the Anglo-American conglomerates that dominated the economy and natural resources of Quebec, announced a collective will for freedom of the French-Canadian people.
During the Quiet Revolution, the government of Quebec invested heavily in the province's industries. A large component of this was nationalizing some predominant industries into state run business, for example Hydro-Québec, in an attempt to modernize the economy and to encourage the development of francophone businesses. It was during this period that the government established the Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec, the Régie des rentes and the Société générale de financement to promote the development of the industries in Quebec. In 1961, the Conseil d’orientation économique was established to promote economic growth of the regions of Quebec, growth which was once heavily funded by the Government of Canada.
Confrontations between the lower clergy and the laity began. As a result, state institutions began to deliver services without the assistance of the church, and many parts of civil society began to be more secular. During the Second Vatican Council, the reform of Quebec's institutions was overseen and supported by the Holy See. In 1963, Pope John XXIII proclaimed the encyclical , establishing human rights. In 1964, the confirmed that the laity had a particular role in the "management of ".
In 1964, British Columbia lent Quebec $100 million.
In 1965, the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism wrote a preliminary report underlining Quebec's distinct character, and promoted open federalism, a political attitude guaranteeing Quebec to a minimum amount of consideration. To favour Quebec during its Quiet Revolution, Canada, through Lester B. Pearson, adopted a policy of open federalism. In 1966, the Union Nationale was re-elected and continued on with major reforms.
The upheavals of the 1960s were also a time of conflict for some in Quebec. The emergence of extremist nationalist violence marked a dark chapter in the province's history, when in 1963, the first bombs of the Front de libération du Québec were detonated in Montreal. A major recognition of Quebec's cultural importance came in 1964 when, under authority granted by the Government of Canada, the Province of Quebec signed its first international agreement in Paris. The same year, during an official visit by the Queen, the police were required to maintain order during a demonstration by members of the Quebec separatist movement.
Militant activity came to a head in 1970 with the October Crisis, which led to Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau invoking the War Measures Act. In addition, the Quebec Ombudsman Louis Marceau was instructed to hear complaints of detainees and the Quebec government agreed to pay damages to any person unjustly arrested (only in Quebec). On February 3, 1971, John Turner, the Minister of Justice of Canada, reported that 497 persons had been arrested throughout Canada under the War Measures Act, of whom 435 had been released. The other 62 were charged, of whom 32 committed crimes of such seriousness that a Quebec Superior Court judge refused them bail. The crisis ended a few weeks after the death of Pierre Laporte at the hands of his captors. The fallout of the crisis marked the zenith and twilight of the FLQ which lost membership and public support.
Religion and culture
In the midst of the powerful and urban changes, cultural change took root as well. Quebec was greatly affected by the baby boom; between 1960 and 1970, more than 1.2 million Quebeckers reached the age of 14. As more young Québécois rejected Catholic teachings, they made life choices that were a complete change from tradition in the province. Cohabitation rates among young couples rose, as the institution of marriage gradually lost its obligatory status. Births outside of marriage began to rise, from 3.7 percent in 1961 to 10 percent in 1976, then 22 percent by 1984. As of 2015, 62.9% of births were outside of marriage.
Student protests at local universities erupted, mirroring the youth protests throughout the United States and Western Europe during the 1960s and early 1970s. Reforms included an expansion of post-secondary educational opportunities for both English- and French-speaking Quebeckers. In 1968, the Université du Québec à Montréal opened. Protests by English-speaking students led to the establishment of Concordia University in Montreal that same year. The Quiet Revolution combined declericalization with the Church reforms of Vatican II. There was a dramatic change in the role of nuns. Many left the convent while very few young women entered. The Provincial government took over the nuns' traditional role as provider of many of Quebec's educational and social services. Ex-nuns often continued the same roles in civilian dress, and men for the first time started entering the teaching profession.
With the Quiet Revolution, Quebeckers affirmed their identity, especially in the arts, culture and language. It was during the revolution that the government of Quebec formed the Ministry of Culture which focused mainly on defending the French language and culture. The transformation of Quebec was also marked by the adoption of the Law on the assurance-hospitalisation, guaranteeing universal health care through a tax-funded public delivery system. In 1964, Quebec had recognized the equality between men and women and allows all women to have jobs which were once exclusively for men.
Separatism
Quebec nationalism, by now popularly termed Quebec separatism, began to gain momentum in the late 1960s as a vocal minority began to push to bring the movement into the mainstream. In 1967, René Lévesque quit the Quebec Liberal Party and founded the Mouvement Souveraineté-Association.
During an official visit to Quebec as a guest of the government of Canada, in front of a huge crowd the President of France, Colonel Charles de Gaulle,who had been temporarily given the rank of general in WWII, undiplomatically declared from the balcony of the Montreal city hall; "Vive le Québec libre!" (Long live free Quebec!). The crowd cheered and applauded loudly. A public outcry erupted over such an unprecedented interference in the affairs of another nation, an act to which the Canadian federal government strongly took offence. De Gaulle abruptly cancelled his visit to Ottawa and went home.
Violence erupted in 1970 with the October Crisis, when Front de libération du Québec members kidnapped British Trade Commissioner James Cross and Quebec Minister of Labour Pierre Laporte. Pierre Laporte was later found murdered. Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau used the War Measures Act, which allowed anyone suspected of being involved with the terrorists to be held temporarily without charge. Not all reformists supported Quebec separatism, for example, the editors of the political journal Cité Libre.
Politics
The growth of Quebec's government bureaucracy and its perceived interventionism produced friction with the federal government, particularly since the federal government followed a policy of close centralization.
English-speaking Canada showed concern at the changes happening in Quebec society and the protests of the Québécois. In 1963, Canada's Prime Minister, Lester B. Pearson, asked the famous question, "What does Quebec want?" as he instituted a royal commission of enquiry into bilingualism and biculturalism to find an answer for this question, and to propose measures to satisfy the demands of the Québécois. French-speaking communities beyond Quebec were also pushing for increased linguistic and cultural accommodations; in 1965 the report of the Laurendeau-Dunton royal commission recommended making French an official language in the parliaments of Canada, the provincial assemblies of Ontario and New Brunswick, in federal tribunals and in all federal government administration of Canada.
The implementation of the proposed measures only increased the divide between English Canada and Quebec francophones. English Canadians considered the measures put in place to be unacceptable concessions to francophones, while francophones considered the measures an insufficient response to their aspirations.
Throughout these constant frictions between the federal government and the provincial government, the Quebec nationalist movement transformed itself into an independence movement. The Ralliement national (RN), led by Gilles Grégoire, and the Rassemblement pour l'indépendance nationale (RIN), led by Pierre Bourgault and Hubert Aquin, were founded in 1960 and quickly became political parties. In 1967, René Lévesque, who until then had been a leading figure in the Liberal Party of Quebec, quit the Liberals to found the Mouvement Souveraineté-Association (MSA).
In 1968, the separatist forces reorganized into a single political party, the Parti Québécois, under the leadership of René Lévesque. Separatist parties gained 8% of the popular vote in Quebec in 1966, 23% in 1970 and 30% in 1973. These results were not strong enough to result in a majority in Quebec's provincial assembly, but they showed the rapid development of a separatist ideology in Quebec.
1970–1980
Traditional values continued to be put into question, in particular at the moral and religious level. Every form of authority was questioned, and demonstrations by students and workers' unions were frequent. A noticeable, growing confidence was evident in Quebec, supported by economic and social successes. After a period of rapid change, Quebec paused to search for its path.
A period of fast economic growth was ending. Several factors contributed to the stagnation and even the reduction, in many cases, of the buying power of Québécois:
the gas price shocks of 1973–1974 and of 1979 generated price inflation and high interest rates;
economic growth shrank;
taxes increased to pay for government programs put in place during the period 1960–1975;
governments, struggling with spending and growing deficits, disengaged itself from some services that citizens now had to pay for out of their own pocket;
globalization of the economy put downward pressure on salaries.
Quebec's Premier Robert Bourassa unveiled plans for the James Bay Project in 1971. It expanded the capacity of Hydro-Québec by creating one of the largest hydro-electric projects in the world and eventually created a new understanding of the relationship between Quebec and the Cree Nation. Tensions with aboriginal groups were to re-emerge in the 1990s during the Oka Crisis Standoffs in Kanesatake and Kahnawake.
1980 referendum
In 1976, the separatist Parti Québécois under René Lévesque was elected, and formed the first separatist government of the province. The Parti Québécois promised in its campaign that it would not declare independence without obtaining a mandate through a referendum. The mandate of the Parti Québécois was to govern the province well, and not to bring about independence. The first years of the Parti Québécois government were very productive and the government passed progressive laws that were well accepted by the majority of the population, such as French language protection laws, a law on the financing of political parties, laws for compensating road accident victims, for protecting farm land, and many other social-democracy-type laws. Even opponents of the Parti Québécois occasionally acknowledged that the Party governed the province well.
On May 20, 1980, the first referendum was held on sovereignty-association, but was rejected by a majority of 60 percent (59.56% "No", 40.44% "Yes"). Polls showed that the overwhelming majority of anglophones and immigrants voted against, and that francophones were almost equally divided.
Constitution Act, 1982
Together with the Canada Act 1982, an Act of Parliament passed by the British Parliament severed virtually all remaining constitutional and legislative ties between the United Kingdom and Canada. The Act was signed by all the provinces except Quebec.
On the night of November 4, 1981, (widely known among Quebec sovereigntists as La nuit des longs couteaux and in the rest of Canada as the "Kitchen Accord") Federal Justice Minister Jean Chrétien met with all of the provincial premiers except René Lévesque to sign the document that would eventually become the new Canadian constitution. The next morning, they presented the "fait accompli" to Lévesque. Lévesque refused to sign the document and returned to Quebec. In 1982, Trudeau had the new constitution approved by the British Parliament, with Quebec's signature still missing (a situation that persists to this day). The Supreme Court of Canada confirmed Trudeau's assertion that every province's approval is not required to amend the constitution. Quebec is the only province not to have formally assented to the patriation of the Canadian constitution in 1982.
Meech Lake Accord and Charlottetown Accord
Between 1982 and 1992, the Quebec government's attitude changed to prioritize reforming the federation. The subsequent attempts at constitutional amendments by the Mulroney and Bourassa governments ended in failure with both the Meech Lake Accord of 1987 and the Charlottetown Accord of 1992, resulting in the creation of the Bloc Québécois.
1995 referendum
On October 30, 1995, a second referendum for Quebec sovereignty was rejected by a slim margin (50.58% "No", 49.42% "Yes"). Instrumental leaders of the Quebec separatist side were Lucien Bouchard and Quebec Premier Jacques Parizeau. Bouchard had left the senior ranks of Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's Progressive Conservative government to form Canada's first federal separatist party (the Bloc Québécois) in 1991 and had become the leader of the Opposition after the 1993 federal election. He campaigned heavily for the "Yes" side against Liberal Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, a major proponent of the federalist "No" side. Parizeau, a longtime separatist who had played an important role in the 1980 referendum, promised a referendum for sovereignty in his electoral campaign leading up to the 1994 provincial election, which had earned him a majority government in the province. In the aftermath of the referendum, he faced criticism when he blamed the loss of the referendum on "money and the ethnic vote" in his concession speech. Parizeau resigned as Premier and as leader of the Parti québécois the day after his controversial speech, claiming he had always planned to do so in the case of separatist defeat, and Bouchard left federal politics to replace him in January 1996.
Federalists accused the sovereigntist side of asking a vague, overcomplicated question on the ballot. Its English text read as follows:
Do you agree that Québec should become sovereign after having made a formal offer to Canada for a new economic and political partnership within the scope of the bill respecting the future of Québec and of the agreement signed on June 12, 1995?
2000–present
In 1998, following the Supreme Court of Canada's decision on the reference relating to the secession of Quebec, the Parliaments of Canada and Quebec defined the legal frameworks within which their respective governments would act in another referendum. On October 30, 2003, the National Assembly voted unanimously to affirm "that the people of Québec form a nation".
After winning the provincial election in 1998, Bouchard retired from politics in 2001. Bernard Landry was then appointed leader of the Parti Québécois and premier of Quebec. In 2003, Landry lost the election to the Quebec Liberal Party and Jean Charest. Landry stepped down as PQ leader in 2005, and in a crowded race for the party leadership, André Boisclair was elected to succeed him. He also resigned after the renewal of the Quebec Liberal Party's government in the 2007 general election and the Parti Québécois becoming the second opposition party, behind the Action Démocratique.
On November 27, 2006, the House of Commons of Canada passed a motion recognizing that the "Québécois form a nation within a united Canada." The motion was introduced in the House of Commons by the federal government.
In January 2007, The Quebec town of Hérouxville received international attention when its town council passed controversial measures concerning practices which the residents deemed unsuitable for life in Hérouxville for potential new immigrants, despite the fact that the town has no immigrant population. The mayor and the municipal council approved a code of behavior for immigrants, which occurred in the context of a debate on "reasonable accommodation" for other cultures in Quebec. This would start a debate which would lead to the Parti Québécois Quebec Charter of Values.
Quebec elected Pauline Marois as its first female premier on September 4, 2012. Marois served as leader of the separatist Parti Québécois. The Parti Québécois was elected with a minority of seats in the province's legislative assembly, with remaining seats held by two federalist (non-separatist) parties. Shortly after the election, during a radio network interview in France, Marois stated that another referendum was not conceivable in the current circumstances, although she emphasized that she would support Quebec's interests.
During the 2011 Canadian federal elections, Quebec voters rejected the sovereignist Bloc Québécois in favour of the federalist and previously minor New Democratic Party (NDP). As the NDP's logo is orange, this event was called the "orange wave".
Marois called a provincial election for April 2014, during which her party was defeated by the Parti libéral du Québec (PLQ). The PLQ won by a large margin, securing a majority government. In the 2018 Quebec general election, the Coalition Avenir Québec defeated the Liberals, forming a majority government. François Legault is the current Premier.
In January 2017, A Quebec City mosque was the subject of a mass shooting. There were six deaths and numerous others injured.
In May 2017, floods spread across southern Quebec, with Montreal declaring a state of emergency.
In 2018, the Coalition Avenir Québec (CAQ), led by François Legault, won the provincial general elections.This marked the first time since the 1966 election, which was won by the now-defunct Union Nationale, that a party other than the Quebec Liberals or the Parti Québécois formed government in Quebec. It was also the first time since then that a centre-right party had won government in the province.
In June 2019, Quebec passed Bill 21, a law which bars public servants from wearing religious symbols while on duty.
In the 2019 Canadian federal election, The Bloc Québécois increased its number of seats from 10 in 2015, to 32 seats in 2019, both over taking the NDP to become the third largest party in Canada and regaining official party status.
Between 2020 and 2021, Quebec took measures to protect itself against the COVID-19 pandemic.
After a 45-year hiatus in language legislation in Quebec, the provincial legislature passed An Act respecting French, the official and common language of Québec in 2022. This act greatly expanded the requirement to speak French in many public and private settings. The preliminary notes of the bill make its purpose clear: "the purpose of this bill is to affirm that the only official language of Québec is French. It also affirms that French is the common language of the Québec nation." This act amended the Charter of the French language and introduced "new fundamental language rights," such as reinforcing French as the language of legislation, justice, civil administration, professional orders, employers, commerce and business, and educational instruction. Premier François Legault and his Coalition Avenir Québec government justified this as necessary to preserve the French language that is central to Quebec nationalism.
The Coalition Avenir Québec Government increased its parliamentary majority in the 2022 Quebec general election. The Liberals dropped to their lowest seat count since 1956 and recorded their lowest share of the popular vote in their history; however, they remained the official opposition. The Parti Québecois had its worst general election result in history, losing most of its seats.
Summary of Quebec's political transformations
Names in bold refer to provinces, others to sub-provincial levels of government; the first names listed are those areas mostly nearly corresponding to contemporary Quebec.
Canada, the core of New France (1608–1761): a French colony
Province of Quebec (1763–1791): a British colony
Lower Canada, one of the Canadas (1791–1841): a British colony
the Canada East portion of the Province of Canada (1841–1867): a British colony
Quebec (1867–present): a province of Canada
See also
Timeline of Quebec history
History of Montreal
List of National Historic Sites of Canada in Quebec
General:
List of years in Canada
History of Canada
British Empire
List of French possessions and colonies
French colonial empire
References
Primary sources
Innis, Harold Adams, ed. Select documents in Canadian economic history, 1497–1783 (1929), French documents are not translated by Harold Adams Innis
; 707pp
Journals
Quebec History, large-scale encyclopedia
Quebec Studies
Revue d'histoire de l'Amérique française
Further reading
Brunet, Michel. French Canada in the early decades of British rule (1981) online, 18pp; basic survey
Cook, Ramsay, ed. French-Canadian Nationalism: An Anthology (1969)
Coulombe; Pierre A. Language Rights in French Canada (1997)
Desbiens, Caroline. Power from the North: Territory, Identity, and the Culture of Hydroelectricity in Quebec (2014)
Dickinson, John A., and Brian Young. A Short History of Quebec ( McGill-Queen's Press 2000)
Dumont, Micheline et al. (The Clio Collective,) Québec Women: A History (1987)
Falardeau, Jean-C. and Mason Wade, eds; Canadian Dualism: Studies of French-English Relations (1960), bilingual
Fraser, Graham (2002). PQ: René Lévesque and the Parti Québécois in Power, Montreal, McGill-Queen's University Press; 2nd edition, 434 pages
Fyson, Donald. "Between the Ancien Régime and Liberal Modernity: Law, Justice and State Formation in colonial Quebec, 1760–1867," History Compass 12#5 (2014) pp 412–432 DOI: 10.1111/hic3.12154
Gagnon, Alain-G., and Mary Beth Montcalm. Quebec Beyond the Quiet Revolution. Scarborough: Nelson, 1990.
Gagnon, Alain-G. ed. Quebec: State and Society (1984)
Heintzman, Ralph. "The political culture of Quebec, 1840–1960." Canadian Journal of Political Science 16#1 (1983): 3-60. in JSTOR
Jenkins, Kathleen. Montreal: Island City of the St Lawrence (1966), 559pp.
Lachapelle, Guy, et al. The Quebec Democracy: Structures, Processes and Policies. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1993.
Laforest, Guy. Trudeau and the End of a Canadian Dream (1995)
Langlois, Simon. Recent Social Trends in Quebec, 1960–1990 (1991)
Lewis, H. Harry. " Population of Quebec Province: Its Distribution and National Origins," Economic Geography (1940) 16#1 pp. 59–68 in JSTOR
Linteau, Paul-André, René Durocher, Jean-Claude Robert, and Robert Chodos. Quebec: A History 1867–1929 (1983) Quebec Since 1930 (1991), standard 2 vol textbook.
Linteau, Paul-André, and Peter McCambridge. The History of Montreal: The Story of Great North American City (2013)
MacDonald, L. Ian. From Bourassa to Bourassa: a Pivotal Decade [i.e. the years 1976–1984] in Canadian History. [S.l.]: Harvest House, 1984. 324 p., ill. with b&w port. photos. pbk
McRoberts, Kenneth. Quebec: Social Change and Political Crisis. (McClelland and Stewart, 1988)
Manning; Helen Taft. The Revolt of French Canada, 1800–1835: A Chapter of the History of the British Commonwealth (1962) online
Marshall, Bill, ed. France and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History (3 Vol 2005)
Moogk, Peter. La Nouvelle France: The Making of French Canada a Cultural History (2000) to 1763
Ouellet, Fernand. Lower Canada 1791–1840 (1980) a major scholarly survey
Roberts, Leslie. Montreal: From Mission Colony to World City (Macmillan of Canada, 1969).
Saywell, John. The Rise of the Parti Québécois 1967–76 (1977)
Trofimenkoff, Susan Mann. Dream of Nation: a Social and Intellectual History of Quebec. Toronto: Gage, 1983. 344pp; second edition (2003) under the name of Susan Mann.
Vacante, Jeffery. "The Posthumous Lives of René Lévesque," Journal of Canadian Studies/Revue d'études canadiennes (2011) 45#2 pp 5–30 online,
Wade, Mason. The French Canadians 1760–1967 (2 vol. 2nd ed. 1975), standard history online
Weiss, Jonathan, and Jane Moss. French-Canadian Literature (1996)
Whitcomb, Dr. Ed. A Short History of Quebec. Ottawa. From Sea To Sea Enterprises, 2012. 92 p. . 92 p.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Nassau%20de%20Zuylestein%2C%204th%20Earl%20of%20Rochford
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William Nassau de Zuylestein, 4th Earl of Rochford
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William Henry Nassau de Zuylestein, 4th Earl of Rochford, KG, PC (17 September 1717 O.S. – 29 September 1781) was a British courtier, diplomat and statesman of Anglo-Dutch descent. He occupied senior ambassadorial posts at Madrid and Paris, and served as Secretary of State in both the Northern and Southern Departments. He is credited with the earliest-known introduction of the Lombardy poplar to England in 1754.
He was a personal friend of such major cultural figures as the actor David Garrick, the novelist Laurence Sterne, and the French playwright Beaumarchais. George III valued Rochford as his expert advisor on foreign affairs in the early 1770s, and as a loyal and hard-working cabinet minister. Rochford was the only British secretary of state between 1760 and 1778 who had been a career diplomat.
Rochford played key roles in the Manila Ransom negotiation with Spain (1763–66), the French acquisition of Corsica (1768), the Falkland Islands crisis of 1770–1, the crisis following the Swedish Revolution of 1772, and the aftermath of the Royal Marriages Act of 1772. In addition to his work as foreign secretary, he carried a heavy burden of domestic responsibilities in the early 1770s, especially Irish affairs. He was a key member of the North administration in the early phase of the American War of Independence. Illness and a political scandal forced him from office in November 1775.
Biography
Early life
William Henry Nassau van Zuylestein was born in 1717, the elder son of Frederick Nassau van Zuylestein, 3rd Earl of Rochford, and his wife Elizabeth ('Bessy') Savage, daughter of the 4th Earl Rivers. His ancestry was Anglo-Dutch, descended in an illegitimate line from William the Silent's son Frederick Henry (1584–1647), Prince of Orange. Rochford's grandfather and great-grandfather both had English wives, ladies-in-waiting at the courts of William II and William III of Orange. His grandfather was a close companion of William III, accompanying him to England in the Glorious Revolution of 1688–9, and later rewarded with the earldom of Rochford.
Educated at Eton College (1725–32) as Viscount Tunbridge, Rochford's school friends included three future secretaries of state, Conway, Halifax and Sandwich. However, he also made a lifelong enemy at Eton of the Prime minister's son, the influential writer Horace Walpole. Instead of going to university, Rochford was sent to the Academy at Geneva, where he lodged with the family of Professor Antoine Maurice. From Geneva he emerged as fluent in French as he was in Dutch and English, and succeeded his father as 4th Earl of Rochford in 1738 at the age of twenty-one.
Courtier
Rochford was appointed a Gentleman of the Bedchamber to George II in 1739 (a mark of special royal favour) and served in this role until 1749. He inherited strong Whig principles and was a loyal supporter of the Hanoverian Protestant succession, but also admired Sir Robert Walpole's peaceful foreign policy. At the time of the 1745 Jacobite rebellion he offered to raise a regiment, but this was not needed. He was active in Essex politics in the government's interest, but he was no orator and made no impression in the House of Lords. He was appointed Vice-Admiral of Essex in 1748. Though ambitious for high political office, he avoided the factions and cultivated the King's son, the Duke of Cumberland, as his patron. Cumberland successfully lobbied for Rochford to be given a diplomatic post at the end of the War of the Austrian Succession, and he was named Envoy to Turin in January 1749.
Envoy at Turin
Rochford arrived at Turin on 9 September 1749. This was still the most important of the Italian courts for British foreign policy at this time, and he started as Envoy Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary, the highest rank in the British diplomatic service short of ambassador. However, he had agreed to accept an ordinary Envoy's salary for a probationary period, and this gave him a strong incentive to show zeal and become a thoroughly professional diplomat. His first negotiations, on behalf of a company of English miners and the Protestant Vaudois communities of the Piedmont Alps, were entirely successful, and he then obtained his full salary. He ingratiated himself with the king, Carlo-Emmanuele III, by accompanying him on early morning hunting rides. Rochford made useful friends at court, and was highly regarded by the diplomatic corps at Turin. He played a minor but useful role in the complex negotiations for the Treaty of Aranjuez (1752). He made a tour of Italy in 1753 and used a spy to gain intelligence of the Young Pretender's court at Rome. He also made full use of British consuls in the region to obtain information about trade matters and French involvement in Corsica, rewarding them with the removal of the duty on British shipping at Villafranca.
Lord Lieutenant of Essex
Recalled from Turin for the duration of the Seven Years' War (1755–63), Rochford resumed his career as a courtier, appointed by George II as First Lord of the Bedchamber and Groom of the Stole, highly prestigious posts. He was also appointed a member of the Privy Council in 1755. As Lord Lieutenant of Essex from May 1756, Rochford was closely involved in forming the Essex regiment of militia, becoming its Colonel in November 1759. At the death of George II in 1760 Rochford lost his lucrative court posts, but was compensated with a generous pension. He spent the early 1760s involved in local Essex politics and 'improved' the Park at his St Osyth estate, adding a formal Dutch garden and a maze. However, his landed income was small for an earl, and a return to diplomacy became a financial necessity. He was named Ambassador to Spain on 18 June 1763.
Ambassador to Spain
Rochford's secret instructions for his Madrid embassy were mainly concerned with countering French influence over the king, Carlos III, and reporting on Spain's naval reconstruction after her late and disastrous entry into the Seven Years' War. His first major negotiation resulted from Spain's expulsion of British logwood cutters from the Yucatán Peninsula in Honduras. With strong support from Grenville's administration, Rochford's threats of naval force made the Spanish back down, but gave him a reputation as an anti-Bourbon. Less successful were his efforts to compel Spain to pay the disputed Manila Ransom, which the French foreign minister Choiseul suggested should be submitted to arbitration. Rochford's alertness uncovered a French plot to set fire to British naval dockyards, a scheme which was postponed until 1770. His friendship with the British consul-general at Madrid, Stanier Porten (uncle of the historian Edward Gibbon) deepened his interest in trade matters, and he used the consuls as well as paid spies to get accurate information about Spain's naval rebuilding. While at Madrid he befriended the young French playwright Beaumarchais, whose experiences in Spain later formed the basis of his play The Marriage of Figaro. Near the close of his embassy, Rochford was an eyewitness to the Madrid Riots of 1766.
Ambassador to France
Rochford's appointment to Paris was unexpected, and he left Madrid in such haste that he had to pawn his plate to settle his debts. He insisted on taking the exceptionally capable Porten to Paris as his secretary of embassy. Choiseul at once embroiled Rochford in a scheme to trade off Britain's claim to the Manila Ransom for relinquishment of the Falkland Islands, but the misreporting of a previous ambassador, Lord Hertford, and the inexperience of the secretary of state, Lord Shelburne, wrecked this transaction. Choiseul was furious, and unfairly blamed Rochford. Rochford was almost the only member of the diplomatic corps at Paris brave enough to stand up to Choiseul's bullying, and their negotiations over such matters as Dunkirk, the Canada Bills and the East India Company's claim for compensation for wartime expenses in India were often acrimonious. Rochford prepared thoroughly and mastered the details, winning grudging concessions from Choiseul on all three issues.
Choiseul's greatest coup (and Rochford's greatest failure) concerned France's secret acquisition of Corsica from the Republic of Genoa in 1768. Though Rochford gave early warning of the likely terms, and paid a spy to get a copy of the draft treaty, the British cabinet led by Lord Grafton was too preoccupied by rioting in London and failed to support their ambassador in Paris. Rochford also had the misfortune to fall seriously ill for a fortnight at the height of the crisis, enabling Choiseul to clinch the deal with Genoa. Britain's protests thereafter were ineffectual, and an angry Rochford returned to London to resign his embassy. Instead, he was offered a cabinet seat, which he finally accepted on 21 October 1768, on condition that Porten became his under-secretary.
Northern Secretary
Contemporary observers such as Edmund Burke and the anonymous letter-writer 'Junius' thought it odd that Rochford was appointed northern secretary when all of his diplomatic experience had been in southern courts, but Lord Weymouth had insisted on taking the Southern Department as the more important of the secretaryships. British foreign policy, and Britain's reputation in Europe, had sunk to their lowest ebb of the eighteenth century thanks to the 1768 Corsican fiasco, but Rochford's realistic and capable handling of his new portfolio strengthened British foreign policy in several ways. British diplomats abroad were relieved to be dealing with a secretary of state who knew the business of diplomacy, and regularly kept them informed. Hamish Scott has suggested that Rochford 'almost single-handed' averted the impending shipwreck for Britain's reputation in Europe.
Britain's main goal at this time was a treaty of alliance with Russia, but the Empress Catherine II and her foreign minister Panin insisted on a hefty subsidy, which Rochford refused. Instead he persuaded George III to pour secret service money into Swedish politics, to support Russia and undermine French influence. Britain's envoy at Stockholm, Sir John Goodricke, made adroit use of this money, and helped to maintain Sweden's liberal constitution. According to Michael Roberts, Rochford was much more practical and realistic than Choiseul in his handling of Swedish affairs.
Falklands Crisis
Spain's expulsion of a British garrison from the Falkland Islands in May 1770 sparked a major diplomatic crisis that brought Europe to the brink of war. Historians have hitherto attributed the resolution of this crisis to a 'secret promise' by the British Prime Minister Lord North that Britain would quietly evacuate the islands at some future date if the Spanish agreed to disavow their officers and restore the fort to Britain. Recent research in the foreign diplomatic archives suggests an entirely different view of the British side of this crisis. Far from resolving the crisis, North's 'secret promise' nearly wrecked an agreed policy of firm response backed by the threat of naval force. This was Rochford's policy, backed by George III. Though he was Northern Secretary in 1770, Rochford's advice to cabinet as a former ambassador to Madrid and Paris was decisive. Weymouth's laziness and frequent absences left his Southern portfolio for Rochford to manage as well as his own. It was Rochford who ordered the Admiralty to prepare a fleet for war, and sent a simple demand for disavowal and restitution to Madrid. Spain's response crucially depended on French support in the event of war, and France began to prepare a fleet, but the French king's dismissal of Choiseul in December 1770 removed that prospect, and the recall of the British envoy Harris from Madrid showed that Britain was still prepared to go to war. Weymouth also resigned in December 1770, and Rochford replaced him as southern secretary on 19 December 1770.
Southern Secretary
Rochford had already taken charge of the Falklands negotiation, and now received the Spanish acceptance of his demands. The disarmament talks over the next few months were often stormy, however, and there was still a risk of war until April 1771, when all sides disarmed simultaneously, as Rochford had proposed. After Sandwich was named as First Lord of the Admiralty, Rochford's successor as northern secretary was Lord Suffolk, who spent a year improving his French so that he could converse with the foreign diplomats in London. In the meantime, Rochford was de facto foreign minister, handling all of Britain's diplomatic correspondence until 1772. Before the creation of separate Home and Foreign offices in 1782, the Southern Secretary carried a heavy burden of domestic responsibilities, including oversight of Ireland. The Irish correspondence almost equalled the rest of Rochford's domestic correspondence across 1771–5.
Rochford's first successes as Southern Secretary were to persuade the new French foreign minister the duc d'Aiguillon to settle the long-standing Canada Bills dispute, and to forestall a French attempt to reinforce their depleted possessions in India. After George III's clumsy intervention in Denmark in 1772 to support his disgraced sister, Queen Caroline, Rochford's first big challenge as southern secretary was the Swedish crisis of 1772–3, following the constitutional coup by Gustavus III in August 1772. This crisis again brought Europe to the brink of war, as Russia threatened to invade Sweden and France threatened to send a fleet to the Baltic to support Gustavus. Rochford played a key role in this crisis, advising caution to the Russians and warning the French that Britain would also send a fleet to the Baltic. Panin finally decided not to invade, and the crisis eased as the French switched their naval armament from Brest to Toulon.
The First Partition of Poland in 1772 had, as Rochford noted, 'changed absolutely the System of Europe', demonstrating the emergence of Russia and Prussia as predatory new powers. With encouragement from George III, Rochford had embarked on a risky new policy of secret friendship with France, with the long-term goal of forming a defensive alliance of the maritime colonial powers as a counterbalance to the 'eastern powers'. The Swedish crisis wrecked this initiative, and Rochford then turned to cultivate friendship with Spain, in an attempt to 'drive a wedge' into the Family Compact. Relations with both Bourbon powers were more cordial by 1775 than they had been since 1763, but France's clandestine support for the American colonies increasingly negated one leg of this policy.
Rochford's most difficult domestic duty as southern secretary was to act on behalf of George III in the painful negotiations of May 1773 with his brother, the Duke of Gloucester, who had secretly married Horace Walpole's niece, Maria Waldegrave, in 1766. She was now pregnant, and Gloucester wanted an assurance of financial support for his family. In view of the Royal Marriages Act of 1772, George III regarded this news as a betrayal by his most trusted sibling, and was deeply hurt, refusing at first to make any reply. Rochford was the only cabinet member willing to act as intermediary. Horace Walpole's dislike for Rochford now turned to bitter hatred. He vilified Rochford because he could not openly vilify the king.
Retirement
Poor health and the bungled arrest of an American banker in London, Stephen Sayre, on suspicion of a plot to kidnap George III, prompted Rochford's retirement on 11 November 1775, with a generous pension and a promise of the 'Blue Ribband' (Knight of the Garter). He was twice offered the lucrative viceroyalty of Ireland in 1776, and would have been an ideal candidate, but he declined on health grounds. On 12 June 1776 Rochford was elected Master of Trinity House, the corporation responsible for lighthouses, pilots and mariners' welfare. On behalf of George III he also undertook secret talks with Beaumarchais, and made a quick trip incognito to Paris to try to persuade the French government to stop sending aid to the American rebels, concluding that France was about to declare open war. He became a Knight of the Garter in 1779. His last years were devoted to the Essex Militia, even after the threat of a French invasion had passed. He died at St Osyth on 29 September 1781. He was succeeded by his bachelor nephew, at whose death in 1830 the Rochford title became extinct.
Personal life
In May 1742 Rochford married Lucy Younge, daughter of Edward Younge of Durnford in Wiltshire, but the marriage produced no children. Rochford and Lucy first lived at Easton in Suffolk, a property inherited from his uncle Henry Nassau, and they only moved to the family seat at St Osyth in Essex after the death of Rochford's mother in 1746. Rochford also bought a town house in London, at 48 Berkeley Square, which he owned until 1777. The Rochfords allowed each considerable freedom in their personal lives, even by the rather relaxed standards of the eighteenth century nobility, and Lucy Rochford was notorious for her numerous lovers, who included the Duke of Cumberland and the Prince of Hesse. Rochford had mistresses at Turin, one of whom, an opera-dancer named Signora Banti, followed him to London, but he never acknowledged her children as his own. Lucy objected to this expensive mistress, and Rochford agreed to give her up if Lucy also gave up her current lover, Lord Thanet. She responded that he was not a drain on their finances, but quite the contrary.
Rochford's next mistress, Martha Harrison, gave him a daughter, Maria Nassau, who was adopted by Lucy as her surrogate daughter. Maria lived with them in Paris, and thereafter at St Osyth. Rochford had affairs in Paris with the wives of two of Choiseul's friends, the marquise de Laborde and Mme Latournelle. Another mistress, Ann Labbee Johnson, followed him to London and bore him a son and daughter. After Lucy's death in 1773 Rochford brought Ann and the children to live with him at St Osyth. His will made her sole executrix of his estate and paid tribute to her 'friendship and affection'.
In his youth Rochford was an accomplished horseman and an expert yachtsman, once racing his yacht from Harwich to London against that of Richard Rigby, and was also involved in early Essex cricket matches. He used his yacht to visit his estates at Zuylestein in Holland's Utrecht province. He was an enthusiast for English country dancing, fostering their popularity at the court of Turin in the 1750s. His greatest loves (apart from his various mistresses) were the theatre, music and opera. (He played the baroque guitar.) Confessing himself 'excessively curious for plants', he collected specimens on a visit to the Swiss Alps in 1751 to send home to St Osyth. Most famously, he is credited with the first known introduction of the Lombardy poplar to southern England, bringing home a sapling strapped to the centre-pole of his carriage in 1754.
Legacy and Significance
With no spectacular triumphs or major treaties to his name, and with his most important secret negotiations unknown at the time, Rochford was soon forgotten after his death. His reputation also suffered at the hands of Horace Walpole, who never missed a chance to belittle Rochford. In his Memoirs of the Reign of King George III, Walpole described Rochford as 'a man of no abilities and of as little knowledge, except in the routine of office'. Yet elsewhere Walpole had recognised Rochford's honesty and flexibility. The disappearance of Rochford's personal papers (until those relating to his Turin appointment were rediscovered in 1971) meant that historians had very little with which to reconstruct his personal life, but many of his letters have survived in their recipients' collections, especially those of Garrick and Denbigh.
Detailed research in British and foreign diplomatic archives has enabled a more accurate assessment of the 4th Earl of Rochford's public career. As a diplomat he was thoroughly professional, in an age of titled amateurs. He was businesslike and methodical, mastering the detail of complex negotiations, and was widely respected as a tough negotiator and an honest broker. His diplomatic experience proved invaluable when he became secretary of state, and it is clear from the foreign archives how well he managed British foreign policy up to the outbreak of the American War of Independence. He was exceptionally well-informed, and his unpublished Plan to Prevent War in Europe (1775) reveals him as a strategic thinker, and one of the most imaginative of Britain's eighteenth century secretaries of state.
George III once remarked on Rochford's 'many amiable qualities', adding that his 'Zeal makes him rather in a hurry'. The king also told Stanier Porten that Rochford was 'more active and had more spirit' than anyone else in the North cabinet of the early 1770s. Hamish Scott has described Rochford as 'the ablest man to control foreign policy in the first decade of peace [after 1763], a statesman of intelligence, perception and considerable application'.
Rochford's major diplomatic legacy was his policy of trying to detach Spain from the Family Compact with France. In his last year in office Rochford had reassured the Spanish ministers that Britain wanted them to remain neutral and would not strike first. He also warned the Spanish that their colonies in Central and South America might be tempted to follow the example of the rebellious North American colonies. These considerations meant that Spain did not automatically join France in open war at sea in 1778, but delayed for another year. That British commanders in America squandered the time thus gained was not Rochford's fault. Historians now agree that the American rebels won the war mainly because Britain's naval resources were too thinly stretched by the involvement of the Bourbon powers.
Chronology
1717 – birth of William Henry Nassau van Zuylestein at St Osyth
1725–38 – educated at Eton College and the academy, Geneva
1738 – succeeds his father as 4th Earl of Rochford
1738–49 – Lord of the Bedchamber to George II
1748 – Vice-Admiral of the coasts of Essex
1749–55 – Envoy Extraordinary at the court of Turin
1755–60 – member of the Privy Council, Groom of the Stole to George II
1756 – Lord Lieutenant of Essex
1759 – Colonel of the Essex Militia
1763–66 – Ambassador to Spain
1766 – witnesses the Madrid Riots
1766–68 – Ambassador to France
1768 – fails to prevent French acquisition of Corsica
1768–70 – Secretary of State, Northern Department
1770–71 – takes charge in Falklands Crisis
1770–75 – Secretary of State, Southern Department
1773 – conducts secret negotiations with France
1773 – helps resolve the Swedish Crisis
1775 – unpublished 'Plan to Prevent War in Europe'
1775–81 – retirement
1776 – Master of Trinity House
1779 – Knight of the Garter
1781 – dies at St Osyth on 29 September
Arms
The earls of Rochford used the arms below, inherited via the founder of their Family Fredrick of Nassau, lord of Zuylestein, illegitimate son of Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange.
See also
Ambassadors (from United Kingdom to France)
Sources
Geoffrey W. Rice (2010 b), The Life of the Fourth Earl of Rochford (1717–1781), Eighteenth-Century Anglo-Dutch Courtier, Diplomat and Statesman (Lewiston NY, Edwin Mellen Press, 2010), 766 pp
G.W. Rice (1992), 'Archival Sources for the Life and Career of the Fourth earl of Rochford (1717–81), British Diplomat and Statesman', Archives (British Records Association, London), v.20, n.88 (October 1992), 254–68
G.W. Rice (1977), 'British Consuls and Diplomats in the Mid-Eighteenth Century: An Italian Example', English Historical Review, 92 (1977), 834–46
G.W. Rice (1989), 'Lord Rochford at Turin, 1749–55: A Pivotal Phase in Anglo-Italian Relations in the Eighteenth Century', in Knights Errant and True Englishmen: British Foreign Policy, 1660–1800, ed. Jeremy Black (Edinburgh, 1989), pp. 92–112
G.W. Rice (1980), 'Great Britain, the Manila Ransom and the First Falkland Islands Dispute with Spain, 1766', The International History Review, v.2, n.3 (July, 1980), 386–409
G.W. Rice (2006), 'Deceit and Distraction: Britain, France and the Corsican Crisis of 1768', The International History Review, v.28, n.2 (June, 2006), 287–315
G.W. Rice (2010 a), 'British Foreign Policy and the Falkland Islands Crisis of 1770–71', The International History Review, v.32, n.2 (2010), 273–305
W.M.C. Regt, 'Nassau-Zuylestein', in Genealogische en Heraldische Bladen (1907)
Collins, Peerage of England, 5th edition (London, 1779)
Horace Walpole, Memoirs of the Reign of King George the Third, ed. G.F. Russell Barker (London, 1894)
Hamish Scott, 'Anglo-Austrian Relations after the Seven Years' War: Lord Stormont in Vienna, 1763–1772', unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, 1977
Hamish Scott, British Foreign Policy in the Age of the Democratic Revolution (Oxford, 1990)
Stella Tillyard, A Royal Affair: George III and his Troublesome Siblings (London, 2006)
Nicholas Tracy, 'Parry of a Threat to India, 1768–1774', The Mariner's Mirror, 59 (1973), 35–48
Julie Flavell, 'The Plot to Kidnap King George III', BBC History Magazine (November, 2006), 12–16
Letitia M. Hawkins, Memoirs, Anecdotes, etc. (London, 1824)
Ian McIntyre, Garrick (Harmondsworth, 1999)
Michael Roberts, British Diplomacy and Swedish Politics, 1758–1773 (London, 1980)
N.A.M. Rodger, The Insatiable Earl: a Life of John Montagu, Fourth Earl of Sandwich, 1718–1792 (New York, 1994)
Jeremy Black, George III: America's Last King (New Haven, 2006)
Brendan Simms, Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire, 1714–1783 (London, 2007)
References
External links
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1781 deaths
British Secretaries of State
Knights of the Garter
Lord-Lieutenants of Essex
Members of the Privy Council of Great Britain
Ambassadors of Great Britain to France
Ambassadors of Great Britain to Spain
Earls of Rochford
Leaders of the House of Lords
Court of George III of the United Kingdom
Members of Trinity House
People educated at Eton College
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montego%20Bay
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Montego Bay
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Montego Bay is the capital of the parish of St. James in Jamaica. The city is the fourth-largest urban area in the country by population, after Kingston, Spanish Town, and Portmore, all of which form the Greater Kingston Metropolitan Area, home to over half a million people. As a result, Montego Bay is the second-largest anglophone city in the Caribbean, after Kingston.
Montego Bay is a popular tourist destination featuring duty-free shopping, a cruise line terminal and several beaches and resorts. The city is served by the Donald Sangster International Airport, the busiest airport in the Anglophone Caribbean, which is located within the official city limits. The city is enclosed in a watershed, drained by several rivers such as the Montego River. Montego Bay is referred to as "The Second City", "MoBay" or "Bay".
Toponymy
Christopher Columbus named the bay of Montego, Golfo de Buen Tiempo ("Fair Weather Gulf"). The name "Montego Bay" is believed to have originated as a corruption of the Spanish word manteca ("lard"), allegedly because during the Spanish period it was the port where lard, leather and beef were exported.
History
The Arawak tribe of South America are Jamaica's first known inhabitants and were there to greet Columbus when he ventured to the island in 1494. Jamaica was a colony of Spain from 1511 until 1655, when Oliver Cromwell's Caribbean expedition, the Western Design, drove the Spanish from the island. After the British removed the Spanish rule, along with the majority of all buildings and infrastructure, the colonials established the Parish of St. James which directly influenced the area in becoming a huge contributor of sugar cane. In fact, during this period of British governing, Montego Bay was the largest producer of sugar cane on the island of Jamaica, giving the region more value than originally anticipated.
Throughout the duration of slavery, from the mid-17th century until 1834, and well into the 20th century, the town of Montego Bay functioned primarily as a sugarcane port. The island's last major slave revolt, the Christmas Rebellion or Baptist War (1831–1832) took place in and around the area of Montego Bay. The rebellion set estates and plantations to flame and was the start of a broader political push toward emancipation. Retribution was quickly sought by British leaders and many were hanged for their attempts at revolt; the leader of the revolt, Samuel Sharpe, was hanged there in 1832. Recognition was later given, and Sharpe was proclaimed a national hero of Jamaica in 1975, and the main square of the town was renamed in his honor. Eventually, Jamaica was emancipated on August 1, 1834 which granted all new children born or children under the age of six "free", but held individuals outside of that parameter to be apprentices and work forty hours a week in compensation to their previous or original owners. It was not until four years after these restrictions were put in place that all slave and apprentices were given the status of full freedom. After the half decade emancipation process, Montego Bay and its sugar cane industry took a hit. Therefore, it branched out and took root in expanding into exporting bananas and coffee as well.
Montego Bay's city status prior to British rule was debated; however, it had its city status revoked during Jamaica's British colonial period. It was re-proclaimed a city by act of parliament in 1980, but this has not meant that it has acquired any form of autonomy, for it continues to be an integral part of the parish of St. James.
Today, Montego Bay is known for Cornwall Regional Hospital, port facilities, second homes for numerous upper-class Jamaicans from Kingston as well as North Americans and Europeans, fine restaurants, and shopping. The coastland near Montego Bay is occupied by numerous tourist resorts, most newly built, some occupying the grounds of old sugarcane plantations with some of the original buildings and mill-works still standing. The most famous is the White Witch's Rose Hall which features a world-class golf course.
The infrastructure of the city is going through a series of modernizations which once completed, aims to keep Montego Bay as a top destination in the region. The Montego Bay Convention Centre, built on a large site near to the Rose Hall estate, was opened by Jamaican Prime Minister Bruce Golding on 7 January 2011.
Demographics
The majority of the city's population is of African descent. The city is also home to sizeable minority ethnic groups such as the East Indians and Chinese, who came to the country as indentured servants in the mid-to-late 19th century. The Chinese especially occupy important roles in the city's economy especially in retail where Downtown Montego Bay is home to many shops and supermarkets owned by Chinese immigrants. The city's East Indian population also play a key role as they operate many gift and jewelry shops in the city which are mostly geared to tourists.
There is a minority of Europeans, some descending from immigrants from Germany (the city is a 90-minute drive from German settlements such as German Town in Westmoreland) and Great Britain (who own most of the land in the city from as far back as the days of the slave trade).
The city is home to many immigrants from Hispanic countries such as Mexico, Cuba and Spain as well as many French, Russians and Italians (who mostly own homes or beachfront properties in the area).
The city also is home to many Americans and Canadians, who work the tourism or business process outsourcing (BPO) industries.
Religion
There are a wide variety of Christian churches in the city. Most are Protestant, a legacy of British colonisation of the island. The chief denominations are Church of God, Baptist, Anglican, Methodist, Roman Catholic, Seventh-day Adventist and Pentecostal. Afro-Christian syncretic religions such as the Rastafari movement also have a significant following. The city also has a unit of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
The city also has communities of Buddhists, Hindus, and Muslims.
Economy
Montego Bay is pivotal to Jamaica's economy. The city holds most of the weight of the country's tourism sector. Most of the country's visitors arrive and depart from Montego Bay's airport or port. Many international companies have resorts in the city including Hyatt, Hilton Hotels, Holiday Inn, RIU Hotels, Royalton and Iberostar. The city is the home to the headquarters of international resort chain Sandals. The Government of Jamaica, through the Ministry of Tourism, has begun to focus on bolstering the city's entertainment and gastronomic offerings. Though the city's airport hosts a number international chains, the city itself does not have access to these restaurants. By virtue of this new focus, the city has become home to a newly established Hard Rock Café and became home to Starbucks' first Jamaican location, at Doctor's Cave Beach, in November 2017. The city also serves as the Head Office for Starbucks' operations in Jamaica.
The city is also home to a thriving Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) sector. The city has call centres which cater to many Fortune 500 companies such as Delta, Netflix and many others. In addition, Vistaprint established its only call centre in Montego Bay which located in the city's up and coming tech park. Most of the city's business is done in the downtown area, however, as of recent, the CBD has begun to migrate to the suburb of Fairview/Bogue which is home to the Fairview Town Centre, which is a five-minute commute from Montego Freezone, the city's dedicated area to BPO activity. The area is mostly populated with retail and banking, most notable are Scotiabank's new Fairview branch, The G-West building, Flow's first and flagship store in the Caribbean redesigned by retail experts, Shikatani Lacroix, and Fontana Pharmacy's flagship store. The town centre is also important to the city as it hosts places such as Digicel's Corporate offices for Western Jamaica as well as many auditing, law and insurance firms.
Institutions
The city hosts many financial institutions such as Scotiabank, FCIB, National Commercial Bank, Jamaica National Commercial Bank (JN Bank) and many others. The city also has offices for many auditing firms such as KPMG and PwC.
The city is home to many health institutions such as the Cornwall Regional Hospital as well as the recently opened, Hospiten, a Spanish-owned, private hospital located in Rose Hall.
Education in the city can be found from Pre-K up to Tertiary. The city has many Pre-K and Basic Schools. Beyond this, the city has many Primary and Preparatory Schools. Secondary Education is also provided in the city most notable of which are the Montego Bay High School for Girls, Mount Alvernia High School—a Roman Catholic High School for Girls which shares the same crest, motto and wears a uniform similar to that of sister school of Immaculate Conception High School in Kingston, Herbert Morrison Technical High School and the oldest school in the city, Cornwall College, an all-boys' school.
Tertiary Institutions in the city are namely the University of West Indies (UWI) – Western Jamaica Campus, The University of Technology (UTECH) Montego Bay Campus, Sam Sharpe Teachers' College (SSTC) and the Montego Bay Community College (MBCC). Most tertiary institutions in the city are accredited.
Transport
Roads
The North Coast Highway runs through the city of Montego Bay, with 2 lanes in each direction within the city, terminating at the Queen's Drive and resuming at the intersection of the Alice Eldemire Drive and Barnett Street. The North Coast Highway connects Montego Bay with the North-South section of Highway 2000 (called T3), which begins at Mammee Bay in Ocho Rios, St. Ann and terminates at an interchange which leads onto the Mandela Highway in St. Catherine and into the nation's capital, Kingston.
Another major road within the city is the B15 (Montego Bay to Falmouth) road. The city is also well served by buses, mini-busses and taxis, which operate from the Montego Bay Transport Centre.
The Government of Jamaica announced that a tolled bypass to the city has been planned to be built in order to reduce traffic congestion and travel times. The bypass is to begin at Westgate and end at Ironshore. The bypass is expected to cost around USD $200 Million.
Rail
The now disused Montego Bay railway station served the Kingston to Montego Bay main line. The railway station opened c. 1894, and closed in October 1992 when all passenger traffic on Jamaica's railways abruptly ceased.
Air
Montego Bay is served by Jamaica's largest airport, the Sangster International Airport. The airport has the distinction of being the busiest airport in the English-speaking Caribbean, serving 4.3 million passengers in 2017.
The airport was the hub of Jamaica's former national airline Air Jamaica. The airline also had its reservations, Western Jamaica sales & ticketing office, as well as its vacations division in the city until its purchase by Caribbean Airlines in 2011, when they moved their offices to Kingston. The site is now the headquarters for Island Routes, a company owned by the Sandals-ATL Group, which in the past was affiliated with the airline.
The airport is served by several North American and European airlines, connecting the island with the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and South America. The southern U.S. city of Miami can be reached within 70 minutes. The southern U.S. cities of Charlotte, Houston, Atlanta and Tampa can be reached by non-stop flights in less than three hours. Other locations like Philadelphia, New York City, Toronto, Washington, D.C., and Montreal can be reached in under four hours. The airport is also one of two airports in the Caribbean (other being Havana), that has a non-stop flight to Los Angeles, allowing passengers the ability to connect to flights to Asia, Australia and Oceania. The airport has undergone major expansion since 2003, and has won awards including the coveted World Travel Award for being the Caribbean's Leading Airport, beating airports like Punta Cana International Airport and Grantley Adams International Airport.
Port
There is a free port and cruise line terminal on a man-made peninsula jutting into the bay.
Communications
Fixed voice and broadband
Fixed voice and broadband services in Montego Bay is provided by FLOW. FLOW uses a Hybrid Fibre and Coaxial network to provide IPTV, VoIP & POTS and cable broadband capable of speeds up to 100 Mbit/s. FLOW also uses a Copper network to provide POTS and ADSL capable of speeds up to 12 Mbit/s. This copper network is currently being upgraded to VDSL2, which may allow speeds of over 50 Mbit/s over existing copper lines as well as provide a migration path for the provider to Fibre to the Home. FLOW also has a fibre-optic network in the neighbourhood of Rhyne Park which provides up to 100 Mbit/s as well. There are several other small cable companies such as Cornwall Communications, that provides cable broadband and voice over its cable network; however, they are vastly incomparable in subscriber numbers to FLOW.
Mobile voice and broadband
Mobile voice and broadband services in Montego Bay is dominated by both incumbents, FLOW & Digicel. Both carriers provide GSM, EDGE, 3G HSPA & HSPA+ connectivity in and around the city.
Currently, FLOW offers HSPA+ of up to 21 Mbit/s on 850 MHz and 1900 MHz with speeds of up to 21 Mbit/s. FLOW also offers LTE data in Montego Bay. The company is the currently the only carrier to provide comprehensive LTE coverage within the city itself. Coverage also extends out towards to the adjoining rural areas surrounding Montego Bay such as Liliput to east and Hopewell (in the parish of Hanover) to the west. FLOW's LTE network uses LTE Band 4, commonly known as AWS. Users can avail themselves of speeds of up to 150 Mbit/s down and 50 Mbit/s up. In some areas in the city, FLOW subscribers are able to access LTE Advanced with speeds up to 225 Mbit/s; making Montego Bay the only city in Jamaica to have access to such.
Digicel, Jamaica's larger mobile network, also offers 21 Mbit/s HSPA+; however, they also offer DC-HSDPA (commonly known as DC-HSPA+) allowing capable devices speeds of up to 42 Mbit/s on paired 850 MHz spectrum. Digicel's LTE network is also available in Montego Bay, owing to its commitment to provide an islandwide LTE network, offering LTE in the city for its subscribers. The network is theoretically capable of speeds up to 75 Mbit/s on 10 MHz of Band 17 spectrum.
In popular culture
The city was the subject of a namesake song by Bobby Bloom in 1970, which became a Top Ten hit in the United States for Bloom. It was covered by Jon Stevens in 1980 and by Amazulu in 1986, becoming minor hits for both.
Several scenes from the 1973 James Bond film Live and Let Die (in which Roger Moore appeared as Bond for the first time) were filmed around Montego Bay.
Climate
Montego Bay has a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen climate classification Am), with a wet season and a drier season and the temperature being warm or hot year-round. The average annual high temperature is , while the average annual low temperature is . The hottest time of year is from June to September. August has the highest average high at . July and August have the highest average low at . January and February have the lowest average high at . February has the lowest average low at .
Montego Bay receives of rain over 127 precipitation days, with wetter and drier months. The dry season is fairly short, lasting from January to April. July also sees a dip in precipitation. October, the wettest month, receives of rainfall over 14 precipitation days on average. Humidity remains consistently high year-round. Montego Bay receives 2788 hours of sunshine annually (7.6 hours per day) on average, with the sunshine being distributed fairly evenly across the year.
Notable people
Corey Ballentine, football cornerback and kick returner for the Atlanta Falcons
Steve Bucknor, Test cricket umpire
Violet Brown, Jamaican supercentenarian
Ian Goodison, Jamaican footballer
Richard Hart, Jamaican politician
Richard Hill, lawyer and abolitionist
Donovan Ricketts, Jamaican footballer
Musashi Suzuki, Japanese footballer
Ruby Turner, singer and actress
Nicholas Walters, professional boxer
See also
List of cities in the Caribbean
Railway stations in Jamaica
References
External links
Aerial view
1980 establishments in Jamaica
Populated places established in the 16th century
Populated coastal places in Jamaica
Populated places in Saint James Parish, Jamaica
Port cities in the Caribbean
Year of establishment missing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirk%20Nowitzki
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Dirk Nowitzki
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Dirk Werner Nowitzki (, ; born June 19, 1978) is a German former professional basketball player who is a special advisor for the Dallas Mavericks of the National Basketball Association (NBA). Listed at , he is widely regarded as one of the greatest power forwards of all time and is considered by many to be the greatest European player of all time. In 2021, he was selected to the NBA 75th Anniversary Team. In 2023, Nowitzki was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame.
An alumnus of the DJK Würzburg basketball club, Nowitzki was chosen as the ninth pick in the 1998 NBA draft by the Milwaukee Bucks and was immediately traded to the Dallas Mavericks, where he played his entire 21-year National Basketball Association (NBA) career. Nowitzki led the Mavericks to 15 NBA playoff appearances (2001–2012; 2014–2016), including the franchise's first Finals appearance in 2006 and its only NBA championship in 2011. Known for his scoring ability, versatility, accurate outside shooting, and trademark fadeaway jump shot, Nowitzki won the NBA Most Valuable Player Award in 2007 and the NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award in 2011.
Nowitzki is the only player ever to play for a single NBA franchise for 21 seasons. He is a 14-time All-Star, a 12-time All-NBA Team member, the first European player to start in an All-Star Game, and the first European player to receive the NBA Most Valuable Player Award. Nowitzki is the highest-scoring foreign-born player in NBA history. He is the first Maverick voted onto an All-NBA Team and holds several all-time Mavericks franchise records. On December 10, 2012, he became the first non-American player to receive the Naismith Legacy Award. Following his retirement, Nowitzki stood sixth on the NBA all-time scoring list.
In international play, Nowitzki led the Germany national team to a bronze medal in the 2002 FIBA World Championship and silver in EuroBasket 2005, and was the leading scorer and MVP in both tournaments. He is also the first German men's player to have his number retired, receiving this honor in September 2022.
Early life
Born in Würzburg, Germany, Dirk Werner Nowitzki comes from an athletic family: his mother Helga Nowitzki (née Bredenbröcker) was a professional basketball player and his father Jörg-Werner was a handball player who represented Germany at the highest international level. His older sister Silke Nowitzki, a local champion in track and field, also became a basketball player and now works for the NBA in International TV.
Nowitzki was a very tall child; most of the time he stood above his peers by a foot or more. He initially played handball and tennis. He managed to become a ranked junior tennis player in the German youth circuit, but soon grew tired of being called a "freak" for his height and eventually turned to basketball. After joining the local DJK Würzburg, the 15-year-old attracted the attention of former German international basketball player Holger Geschwindner, who spotted his talent immediately and offered to coach him individually two to three times per week. After getting both the approval of Nowitzki and his parents, Geschwindner put his student through an unorthodox training scheme: he emphasized shooting and passing exercises, and shunned weight training and tactical drills, because he felt it was "unnecessary friction". Furthermore, Geschwindner encouraged Nowitzki to play a musical instrument and read literature to make him a more complete personality.
After a year, the coach was so impressed with Nowitzki's progress that he advised him, "You must now decide whether you want to play against the best in the world or just stay a local hero in Germany. If you choose the latter, we will stop training immediately, because nobody can prevent that anymore. But if you want to play against the best, we have to train on a daily basis." After pondering this lifetime decision for two days, Nowitzki agreed to enter the full-time training schedule, choosing the path to his eventual international career. Geschwindner let him train seven days a week with DJK Würzburg players and future German internationals Robert Garrett, Marvin Willoughby, and Demond Greene, and in the summer of 1994, then 16-year-old Nowitzki made the DJK squad.
Professional career
DJK Würzburg (1994–1998)
When Nowitzki joined the team, DJK played in Germany's second-tier level league, the Second Bundesliga, South Division. His first trainer was Pit Stahl, who played the tall teenager as an outside-scoring forward rather than an inside-scoring center to utilise his shooting skills. In the 1994–95 Second Bundesliga season, ambitious DJK finished as a disappointing sixth of 12 teams; the rookie Nowitzki was often benched and struggled with bad school grades, which forced him to study rather than work on his game. In the next 1995–96 Second Bundesliga season, Nowitzki established himself as a starter next to Finnish star forward Martti Kuisma and soon became a regular double-digit scorer: after German national basketball coach Dirk Bauermann saw him score 24 points in a DJK game, he stated that "Dirk Nowitzki is the greatest German basketball talent of the last 10, maybe 15 years."
In the 1996–97 Second Bundesliga season, Nowitzki averaged 19.4 points per game and led DJK again to second place after the regular season, but could not help his team gain promotion. In the following 1997–98 Second Bundesliga season, Nowitzki finished his "Abitur" (German A-levels), but had to do compulsory military service in the Bundeswehr which lasted from September 1, 1997, to June 30, 1998; The 18-year-old, who had grown to tall, made progress, leading DJK to a 36:4-point total (in Germany, a victory gives 2:0 points and a loss 0:2) and ending as leading scorer with 28.2 points per game. In the promotion playoffs, DJK finally broke its hex, finishing at first place with 14:2 points and earning promotion to the next higher league; Nowitzki was voted "German Basketballer of the Year" by the German BASKET magazine.
Abroad, Nowitzki's progress was noticed. A year later, the teenager participated in the Nike "Hoop Heroes Tour", where he played against NBA stars like Charles Barkley and Scottie Pippen. In a 30-minute show match, Nowitzki outplayed Barkley and even dunked on him, causing the latter to exclaim: "The boy is a genius. If he wants to enter the NBA, he can call me." On March 29, 1998, Nowitzki was chosen to play in the Nike Hoop Summit, one of the premier talent watches in U.S. men's basketball. In a match between the U.S. talents and the international talents, Nowitzki scored 33 points on 6-of-12 shooting, 14 rebounds and 3 steals for the internationals and outplayed future US NBA players Rashard Lewis and Al Harrington. He impressed with a combination of quickness, ball handling, and shooting range, and from that moment a multitude of European and NBA clubs wanted to recruit him.
Dallas Mavericks (1998–2019)
Difficult start (1998–1999)
Projected to be the seventh pick in the 1998 NBA draft, Nowitzki passed up many college offers and went directly into the NBA as a prep-to-pro player. The Milwaukee Bucks selected Nowitzki with the ninth pick in the draft and traded him to the Dallas Mavericks in a multi-team deal; future star point guard Steve Nash came to Dallas in the same trade. Nowitzki and Nash quickly became close friends. Nowitzki became only the fourth German player in NBA history, following pivots Uwe Blab and Christian Welp and All-Star swingman Detlef Schrempf, who was a 35-year-old veteran of the Seattle SuperSonics when his young compatriot arrived. Nowitzki finished his DJK career as the only Würzburg player to have ever made the NBA.
In Dallas, Nowitzki joined a franchise which had last made the playoffs in 1990. Shooting guard Michael Finley captained the squad, supported by center Shawn Bradley (once a number two draft pick) and team scoring leader Cedric Ceballos, an ex-Laker forward. The start of the season was delayed by the 1998–99 NBA lockout, which put the entire season in jeopardy. In limbo, Nowitzki returned to DJK Würzburg and played thirteen games before both sides worked out a late compromise deal that resulted in a shortened NBA schedule of only 50 games. When the season finally started, Nowitzki struggled. Played as a power forward by coach Don Nelson, the 20-year-old felt overpowered by the more athletic NBA forwards, was intimidated by the expectations as a number nine pick, and played bad defense; hecklers taunted him as "Irk Nowitzki", omitting the "D" which stands for "defense" in basketball slang. He only averaged 8.2 points and 3.4 rebounds in 20.4 minutes of playing time. Looking back, Nowitzki said: "I was so frustrated I even contemplated going back to Germany.... [the jump from Second Bundesliga to the NBA] was like jumping out of an airplane hoping the parachute would somehow open." The Mavericks only won 19 of their 50 games and missed the playoffs.
"Big Three" era (1999–2004)
1999–00 season: Improving as a sophomore
On January 4, 2000, team owner Ross Perot Jr. sold the Mavericks to Internet billionaire Mark Cuban for $280 million. Cuban quickly invested into the Mavericks and restructured the franchise, attending every game at the sidelines, buying the team a $46 million Boeing 757 to travel in, and increasing franchise revenues to over $100 million. Nowitzki lauded Cuban, stating that he "created the perfect environment... we only have to go out and win." As a result of Nelson's tutelage, Cuban's improvements and his own progress, Nowitzki significantly improved in his second season. Nowitzki averaged 17.5 points, 6.5 rebounds and 2.5 assists per game in 35.8 minutes. He was voted runner-up in the NBA Most Improved Player Award behind Jalen Rose, and made it into the NBA All-Star Sophomore squad. The Nowitzki also was chosen for the Three-Point Contest, becoming the tallest player ever to participate. While he improved on an individual level, the Mavericks missed the playoffs after a mediocre 40–42 season.
2000–01 season: First All-NBA and playoff appearances
In the 2000–01 NBA season, Nowitzki further improved his averages, recording 21.8 points, 9.2 rebounds, and 2.1 assists per game. As a sign of his growing importance, he joined team captain Finley as only one of two Mavericks to play and start in all 82 games, and had 10 games in which he scored at least 30 points. Nowitzki became the first Maverick ever to be voted into the All-NBA squads, making the Third Team. In addition, his best friend Nash became a valuable point guard, and with Finley scoring more than ever, pundits took to calling this trio the "Big Three" of the Mavericks.
Posting a 53–29 record in the regular season, the Mavericks reached the playoffs for the first time since 1990. As the fifth seed, they were paired against the Utah Jazz, who were led by point guard John Stockton and power forward Karl Malone. The Mavericks won the series in five games, setting up a meeting with their Texas rivals, the San Antonio Spurs. The Mavericks lost the first three games of the series, and Nowitzki fell ill with the flu and later lost a tooth after a collision with Spurs guard Terry Porter. After a Game 4 win, Nowitzki scored 42 points and grabbed 18 rebounds in Game 5, but could not prevent a deciding 105–87 loss.
2001–02 season: First All-Star selection
Prior to the 2001–02 NBA season, Nowitzki signed a six-year, $90 million contract extension, which made him the second-highest-paid German athlete after Formula One champion Michael Schumacher. He continued to improve, averaging 23.4 points, 9.9 rebounds and 2.4 assists per game. Nowitzki was voted into the All-NBA Second Team and into his first All-Star Game. After making the playoffs with a 57–25 record, the Mavericks swept Kevin Garnett and the Minnesota Timberwolves in the first round; Nowitzki averaged 33.3 points per game. In the second round, the Mavericks met the Sacramento Kings and rival power forward Chris Webber. After splitting the first two games, Kings coach Rick Adelman changed his defensive scheme, assigning Hedo Türkoğlu to cover Nowitzki. Türkoğlu would use his agility to play Nowitzki tightly, and if the taller Maverick tried to post up Türkoğlu, Webber would double team Nowitzki. In Game 3 in Dallas, the Mavericks lost, 125–119; Nowitzki scored only 19 points and said: "I simply could not pass Türkoğlu, and if I did, I ran into a double team and committed too many turnovers." In Game 4, Nowitzki missed two potentially game-deciding jump shots, and the Mavericks lost, 115–113, at home. In Game 5, the Mavericks were eliminated, 114–101. However, Nowitzki received a consolation award: the Gazzetta dello Sport voted him as "European Basketballer of the Year", his 104 votes lifting him over second-placed Dejan Bodiroga (54) and Stojakovic (50).
2002–03 season: First Western Conference Finals appearance
Before the 2002–03 NBA season, Don Nelson and Mark Cuban put more emphasis on defense, specializing in a zone anchored by prolific shotblockers Raef LaFrentz and Shawn Bradley. The Mavericks won their first fourteen games, and Finley, Nash and Nowitzki were voted "Western Conference Players of the Month" in November 2002. In that season, Nowitzki lifted his averages again, now scoring 25.1 points, 9.9 rebounds and 3.0 assists per game. He led the Mavericks to a franchise-high 60–22 record, which earned them the third seed: as a result, the Mavericks had to play sixth seed Portland Trail Blazers in the 2003 NBA Playoffs. Now playing in a best-of-seven series instead of the former best-of-five, the Mavericks quickly won the first three games, but then completely lost their rhythm and the next three. In Game 7, Nowitzki hit a clutch three to make it 100–94 with 1:21 left and the Mavericks won 107–95. "This was the most important basket of my career", he later said, "I was not prepared to go on vacation that early." In the next round, the Mavericks met the Kings again, and the series went seven games. Nowitzki delivered a clutch performance in Game 7; he scored 30 points, grabbed 19 rebounds, and played strong defense, leading the Mavericks to a series-deciding 112–99 win. In the Western Conference Finals, the Mavericks met the Spurs again. In Game 3, Nowitzki went up for a rebound and Spurs guard Manu Ginóbili collided with his knee, forcing him out of the series. Without their top scorer, the Mavericks ultimately lost in six games.
2003–04 season: Playoff disappointment
After Dallas traded starting center Raef LaFrentz to Boston for forward Antoine Walker, Nelson decided to start Nowitzki at center. To cope with his more physical role, Nowitzki put on of muscle mass over summer, sacrificed part of his agility, and put more emphasis on defense rather than scoring. Nowitzki's averages fell for the first time in his career, dropping to 21.8 points, 8.7 rebounds and 2.7 assists per game, but he still led the Mavericks in scoring, rebounding, steals (1.2 spg) and blocks (1.35 bpg). These figures earned him nominations for the All-Star Game and the All-NBA Third Team. Compiling a 52–30 record, the Mavericks met their familiar rivals the Sacramento Kings in the playoffs once again, but were eliminated in five games.
Franchise player (2004–2010)
2004–05 season: First All-NBA First Team selection
Before the 2004–05 NBA season, the Mavericks were re-tooled again. Center Erick Dampier was acquired from the Golden State Warriors in an eight-player trade. Also, Nowitzki's close friend and fellow international teammate Steve Nash left Dallas and returned to the Phoenix Suns as a free agent, going on to win two Most Valuable Player awards with the Suns. During the season, long-time head coach Don Nelson resigned, and his assistant Avery Johnson took on head coaching duties. In the midst of these changes, Nowitzki stepped up his game and averaged 26.1 points a game (a career high) and 9.7 rebounds; and his 1.5 blocks and 3.1 assists were also career-high numbers. On December 2, 2004, Nowitzki scored 53 points in an overtime win against the Houston Rockets, a career best. Nowitzki was voted to the All-NBA First Team for the first time. He also placed third in the league's MVP voting, behind Nash and Shaquille O'Neal.
However, the Mavericks had a subpar 2005 NBA Playoffs campaign. In the first round, Dallas met Houston Rockets scoring champion Tracy McGrady and center Yao Ming. The Rockets took a 2–0 series lead before the Mavericks won three games in a row. After losing Game 6, Dallas won Game 7 convincingly and won the series even though Nowitzki struggled with his shooting. In the Western Conference Semi-finals, the Mavericks met the Phoenix Suns, the new club of Nash. They split the first four games before the Suns won the last two games. In Game 6, which the Mavericks lost in overtime, Nowitzki was not at his best: he scored 28 points, but also sank only 9 of his 25 field goal attempts and missed all five of his shots in overtime.
2005–06 season: First NBA Finals appearance
Prior to the 2005–06 NBA season, veteran Mavericks captain Michael Finley was waived, leaving Nowitzki as the last player remaining from the Mavericks' "Big Three" of Nash, Finley, and himself. Nowitzki averaged 26.6 points, 9.0 rebounds, and 2.8 assists during the season. Not only was this his third 2,000-point season, but his scoring average of 26.6 points was highest ever by a European. He improved his shooting percentage, setting personal season records in field goals (48.0%), three-point shots (40.6%) and free throws (90.1%). During the 2006 All-Star Weekend in Houston, Nowitzki scored 18 points to defeat Seattle SuperSonics guard Ray Allen and Washington Wizards guard Gilbert Arenas in the Three-Point Contest.
Nowitzki paced Dallas to a 60-win season. The team finished with the third-best record in the league behind the defending champion San Antonio Spurs and the defending Eastern Conference champion Detroit Pistons. As in the 2004–05 season, he finished third in the league's MVP voting, this time behind Nash and LeBron James. He was again elected to the first team All-NBA squad. Nowitzki averaged 27.0 points, 11.7 rebounds, and 2.9 assists in the playoffs. In the opening round, the Mavericks swept the Memphis Grizzlies, 4–0, with Nowitzki making a clutch three-pointer in the closing seconds of Game 3 which tied the game and forced overtime. In the Western Conference Semi-finals, the Mavericks played against the San Antonio Spurs again. After splitting the first six games, the Mavericks took a 20-point lead in Game 7 before Spur Manu Ginóbili broke a tie at 101 by hitting a 3 with 30 seconds left. On the next play, Nowitzki completed a three-point play, which tied the game at 104. In the end, the Mavericks won, 119–111, and Nowitzki ended the game with 37 points and 15 rebounds. Nowitzki commented: "I don't know how the ball went in. Manu hit my hand. It was a lucky bounce." The Mavericks advanced to the Western Conference Finals, where they again met the Suns. Nowitzki scored 50 points to lead the Mavericks to a victory in the crucial Game 5 with the series tied at 2; the Mavericks won the series in six games and faced the Miami Heat in the 2006 NBA Finals. A content Nowitzki commented: "We've been a good road team all season long, we believed in each other. We went through some ups and downs this season, but the playoffs are all about showing heart and playing together." Of Nowitzki's performance, ESPN columnist Bill Simmons wrote, "Dirk is playing at a higher level than any forward since [Larry] Bird."
The Mavericks took an early 2–0 Finals lead, but then gave away a late 15-point lead in a Game 3 loss. Nowitzki only made 20 of his last 55 shots in the final three games as the Mavericks lost the Finals series, 4–2, to the Heat. The German was criticized by ESPN as "clearly... not as his best this series" and remarked: "That was a tough loss (in Game 3) and that really changed the whole momentum of the series."
2006–07 season: NBA MVP and franchise record in wins
In the 2006–07 season, Nowitzki shot a career-best 50.2% from the field, recorded averages of 24.6 points, 8.9 rebounds, and 3.4 assists, and led the Mavericks to a franchise-high 67 wins and the No. 1 seed in the Western Conference in the 2007 NBA Playoffs. He averaged 50% from the field, 40% for three-pointers, and 90% from the free-throw line, becoming (at the time) only the fifth player in NBA history to join the 50–40–90 club. Nowitzki was touted as the overwhelming favorite for the Most Valuable Player award and was expected to lead the Mavericks to an easy win against the eighth-seed Golden State Warriors, despite the Warriors having won all three regular-season meetings against Dallas. However, the Mavericks ended up losing to the Warriors in six games, marking the first time a No. 8 seed had beaten the No. 1 seed in a best-of-seven series in NBA history. In the clinching Game 6, Nowitzki shot just 2–13 from the field for only eight points. Defended by Stephen Jackson, Nowitzki averaged nearly five points less than his regular-season average in that series and shot 38.3% from the field as compared to 50.2% during the regular season. He described that loss as a low point in his career: "This series, I couldn't put my stamp on it the way I wanted to. That's why I'm very disappointed." In spite of this historic playoffs loss, Nowitzki was named the NBA's regular-season Most Valuable Player and beat his friend and back-to-back NBA MVP Nash with more than 100 votes. He also became the first European player in NBA history to receive the honor.
2007–08 season: First triple-double
The 2007–08 campaign saw another first-round playoff exit for Nowitzki and the Mavericks. Despite a mid-season trade that brought veteran NBA All-Star Jason Kidd to Dallas, the Mavericks finished seventh in a highly competitive Western Conference. Nowitzki averaged 23.6 points, 8.6 rebounds, and a career-high 3.5 assists for the season. In the playoffs, they faced rising star Chris Paul's New Orleans Hornets, and were eliminated in five games. The playoff loss led to the firing of Avery Johnson as head coach and the eventual hiring of Rick Carlisle. The few positive highlights that season for Nowitzki were his first career triple-double against the Milwaukee Bucks on February 6, 2008, with 29 points, 10 rebounds, and a career-high 12 assists, and on March 8, 2008 (34 points against the New Jersey Nets), when he surpassed Rolando Blackman with his 16,644th point to become the Mavericks' all-time career points leader.
2008–09 season: Playoff upset
The 2008–09 NBA season saw Nowitzki finish with averages of 25.9 points, 8.4 rebounds, and 2.4 assists. He was fourth in the league in scoring, and garnered his fourth All-NBA First Team selection. He also made the 2009 All-Star game, his eighth appearance. Nowitzki led Dallas to a tight finish towards the playoffs, finishing 50–32 for the season (6th in the West), after a slow 2–7 start. In the playoffs, the German led Dallas to an upset win over long-time rival San Antonio (the third seed), winning the first-round series, 4–1. The Mavericks, however, fell short against the Denver Nuggets, 4–1, in the second round, with Nowitzki averaging 34.4 points, 11.6 rebounds, and 4 assists in the series.
2009–10 season: 20,000 points
The Mavericks finished the 2009–10 NBA season as the second seed for the 2010 NBA Playoffs. Notable additions to the squad were multiple All-Stars Shawn Marion and Caron Butler, with the latter coming in the second half of the season. On January 13, 2010, Nowitzki became the 34th player in NBA history—and the first European—to hit the 20,000-point milestone, while ending the regular season with averages of 25 points, 7.7 rebounds, 2.7 assists, and 1 block. He was selected to the 2010 All-Star Game, his ninth appearance. The Mavericks faced off against San Antonio once more in the first round of the playoffs, but for the third time in four seasons, they failed to progress to the next round. Nowitzki became a free agent after the season, but signed a four-year, $80 million deal to remain in Dallas.
Championship season (2010–2011)
Prior to the 2010–11 season, the Mavericks traded for center Tyson Chandler. Nowitzki was injured in the middle of the season, but finished the regular season with averages of 23 points, 7 rebounds, and 3 assists. Despite missing nine games, Nowitzki was selected to the All-Star Game for the tenth time. The Mavericks defeated Portland in the first round of the playoffs and swept the two-time defending champion Lakers in the Conference Semifinals. In the Conference Finals, they faced the Oklahoma City Thunder and their All-NBA duo of Kevin Durant and Russell Westbrook. In Game 1, Nowitzki scored 48 points and set an NBA record of 24 consecutive free throws made in a game as well as a record for most free throws in a game without a miss. In Game 4, with Dallas leading the series 2–1, Nowitzki scored 40 points to rally his team from a 99–84 fourth-quarter deficit to a 112–105 overtime victory. Dallas won the Western Conference title in Game Five.
In the 2011 NBA Finals, Dallas once again faced the Miami Heat, which had acquired All-Stars LeBron James and Chris Bosh before the season began. During a Game 1 loss in Miami, Nowitzki tore a tendon in his left middle finger; however, MRIs were negative, and Nowitzki vowed that the injury would not be a factor. In Game 2, he led a Dallas rally from an 88–73 fourth-quarter deficit, making a driving left-handed layup over Bosh to tie the series at 1. Miami took a 2–1 series lead after Nowitzki missed a potential game-tying shot at the end of Game 3. Despite carrying a fever in Game 4, he hit the winning basket to tie the series yet again at 2, evoking comparisons to Michael Jordan's "Flu Game" against Utah in the 1997 NBA Finals. Dallas went on to win the next two games, with Nowitzki scoring 10 fourth-quarter points in the series-clinching game in Miami. The championship was the first in the history of the franchise. Nowitzki was named NBA Finals Most Valuable Player.
Post-championship and final years (2011–2019)
2011–12 season: Naismith Legacy Award
As Dallas celebrated their title, the NBA was in a lockout that ended on December 8, 2011. The defending champions lost core players, such as DeShawn Stevenson, J. J. Barea, Peja Stojaković, and Tyson Chandler, while adding Lamar Odom, Delonte West, and veteran all-star Vince Carter in free agency. The Mavericks played only two preseason games, which led to a slow start for Nowitzki. Nowitzki made his 11th straight All-Star game appearance in Orlando. Nowitzki led his team in scoring 45 times during the season. Nowitzki's streak of 11 seasons with 1,500 points came to an end after scoring 1,342 in the shortened NBA season. Dallas clinched the seventh spot in the West, and were matched against the Oklahoma City Thunder in the 2012 NBA Playoffs. The Thunder swept the Mavericks in four games.
2012–13 season: Surgery and missing playoffs
Before the season, Jason Kidd and Jason Terry left the Mavericks in free agency. Nowitzki underwent knee surgery in October 2012 and missed the first 27 games of the season. He returned on December 23, 2012, in a game against San Antonio. In January 2013, Nowitzki and some of his teammates made a pact not to shave their beards until the team reached .500. They were often called "The Beard Bros." On April 14, 2013, after a fadeaway jumper in a game against the New Orleans Hornets, Nowitzki became the 17th player in NBA history to score 25,000 points. The Mavs went on to win the game and climbed back to .500 with a 40–40 record, and Nowitzki shaved his beard. However the Mavericks missed the playoffs for the first time since Nowitzki's second season, ending their 12-year playoff streak.
2013–14 season: Magic Johnson Award
On January 29, 2014, Nowitzki scored his 26,000th point in a 115–117 loss to the Houston Rockets. In 35 minutes of play, he recorded 38 points, 17 rebounds, and 3 assists. On March 12, 2014, in a 108–101 victory over the Utah Jazz, Nowitzki finished the game with 31 points and passed John Havlicek on the NBA scoring list with 26,426 points. On April 8, 2014, Nowitzki scored his 26,712th point, passing Oscar Robertson to move to the 10th position on the all-time scoring list. Nowitzki led the Mavericks back to the playoffs where they faced their in-state rival San Antonio Spurs in the first round. Dallas lost the series in seven games, and the Spurs went on to win the NBA championship.
2014–15 season: 10,000 rebounds
On July 15, 2014, Nowitzki re-signed with the Mavericks to a reported three-year, $25 million contract. He was also reunited with former championship teammate Tyson Chandler, who was traded to Dallas after a three-year stint with New York. However, longtime teammate Shawn Marion signed with the Cleveland Cavaliers before the season.
On November 11, 2014, Nowitzki scored 23 points to surpass Hakeem Olajuwon as the highest-scoring player born outside the United States, as the Mavericks came from 24 points down to defeat Sacramento, 106–98. Nowitzki hit a jumper from just inside the three-point line early in the fourth quarter to pass Olajuwon at No. 9, and he finished the night at 26,953 career points. Six days later, Nowitzki became the fourth player in NBA history to eclipse 27,000 career points with the same franchise, joining Michael Jordan, Karl Malone and Kobe Bryant. On December 26 against the Los Angeles Lakers, Nowitzki passed Elvin Hayes for eighth place on the NBA's all-time scoring list. He went on to pass Moses Malone for seventh place on the NBA's all-time scoring list on January 5, 2015, in a 96–88 overtime win over the Brooklyn Nets. He recorded his 10,000th career rebound on March 24 against the San Antonio Spurs, and scored his 28,000th career point on April 1 against the Oklahoma City Thunder.
The Mavericks finished the regular season as the No. 7 seed in the Western Conference with a record of 50–32. They faced the Houston Rockets in the first round of the playoffs and lost the series in five games.
2015–16 season: Final playoff appearance
On November 11, 2015, Nowitzki scored a season-high 31 points in a 118–108 win over the Los Angeles Clippers. He also grabbed a team-high 11 rebounds and passed former teammate Shawn Marion for 15th on the all-time career rebounding list. On December 23, Nowitzki moved past Shaquille O'Neal into sixth place on the NBA's career scoring list, then made the go-ahead basket with 19.2 seconds left in overtime to help the Mavericks defeat the Brooklyn Nets, 119–118. On February 21, he scored 18 points against the Philadelphia 76ers, becoming the sixth player in NBA history to reach 29,000 career points. On March 20, he set a new season high with 40 points in a 132–120 overtime win over the Portland Trail Blazers. His 20th career 40-point game was his first since January 2014, and the first by a 37-year-old since Karl Malone in 2000–01.
In Game 4 of the Mavericks' first-round playoff series against the Oklahoma City Thunder, Nowitzki passed Elgin Baylor (3,623 points) for 15th on the NBA's career playoff scoring list. The Mavericks lost the series four games to one.
2016–17 season: NBA Teammate of the Year and 30,000 points
On July 27, 2016, Nowitzki re-signed with the Mavericks. Nowitzki missed several games early in the season with Achilles tendon problems. On March 7, 2017, in a 122–111 win over the Los Angeles Lakers, Nowitzki became the sixth player in NBA history to score 30,000 regular-season points. He also became the first international player to reach the milestone and one of only three to score all 30,000-plus with one team—the others being Karl Malone (Utah Jazz) and Kobe Bryant (L.A. Lakers). The Mavericks finished the season with a 33–49 record and missed the NBA Playoffs.
Following the 2016–17 season, Nowitzki exercised his player option to become a free agent; this move allowed the Mavericks to re-sign him with less money and be able to pursue other free agents.
2017–18 season: Season-ending surgery
On July 6, 2017, Nowitzki re-signed with the Mavericks on a two-year, $10 million contract (with a team option on the second year). On February 5, 2018, in a 104–101 loss to the Los Angeles Clippers, Nowitzki became the sixth player in NBA history to reach 50,000 career minutes. On February 28, 2018, in a 111–110 overtime loss to the Oklahoma City Thunder, Nowitzki reached 31,000 career points. On March 17, 2018, in a 114–106 loss to the Brooklyn Nets, Nowitzki played in his 1,463rd game, moving past Kevin Garnett into fifth place in the NBA career list. He had season-ending ankle surgery on April 5 after appearing in 77 of the first 78 games. The Mavericks finished the season with a 24–58 record and missed the NBA Playoffs.
2018–19 season: Final season
On July 23, 2018, Nowitzki re-signed with the Mavericks for the 2018–19 season. With his season debut on December 13, 2018, he set the NBA record for the most seasons played with the same team (21), breaking a tie with Kobe Bryant, who spent 20 seasons with the Lakers. He also became the fifth player in NBA history to play 21 seasons, tying an NBA record. Nowitzki was named to his 14th All-Star game as a special team roster addition. On March 18, 2019, Nowitzki became the sixth-highest scoring player of all time, surpassing Wilt Chamberlain's 31,419 points in a loss to the New Orleans Pelicans. In his team's final home game of the season, a 120–109 victory over the Phoenix Suns on April 9, Nowitzki scored 30 points, and announced his retirement in an emotional ceremony during which Charles Barkley, Larry Bird, Shawn Kemp, Scottie Pippen, and Detlef Schrempf appeared on the court to give laudatory speeches for Nowitzki. One day later, he played his final NBA game, recording a double-double with 20 points and 10 rebounds in a 105–94 loss to the Spurs.
National team career
Nowitzki began playing for the German national basketball team in 1997. In his debut tournament, the EuroBasket 1999, the 21-year-old rookie emerged as the main German scorer, but Germany finished seventh and failed to qualify for the 2000 Olympic Games. In the EuroBasket 2001, Nowitzki was top scorer with 28.7 points per game, and narrowly lost the MVP vote to Serbian player Peja Stojaković. Germany reached the semi-finals and were close to beating host nation Turkey, but Hedo Türkoğlu hit a three-point buzzer beater to tie it, and the Turks eventually won in overtime. Germany then lost, 99–90, against Spain, and did not win a medal. However, with averages of 28.7 points and 9.1 rebounds, Nowitzki led the tournament in both statistics, and was voted to the All-Star team. Back home, the German basketball team attracted up to 3.7 million television viewers, a German basketball record at the time.
Nowitzki earned his first medal when he led Germany to a bronze medal in the 2002 FIBA World Championship. In the quarter-finals against the Pau Gasol-led Spain, Spain was up 52–46 after three-quarters, but then Nowitzki scored 10 points in the last quarter and led Germany to a 70–62 win. In the semi-finals, his team played against the Argentinian team led by Manu Ginóbili, but despite leading, 74–69, four minutes from the end and despite Argentina losing Ginobili to a foot injury, the South Americans won, 86–80. However, the Germans won 117–94 against New Zealand in the consolation finals and won bronze, and Nowitzki, as the tournament's top scorer, (24.0 points per game), was elected the tournament MVP. Back in Germany, over four million television viewers followed the games, an all-time record in German basketball history.
In a preparation game for EuroBasket 2003, Nowitzki suffered a foot injury after a collision with French player Florent Piétrus; as a result, Nowitzki played inconsistently and was also often target of hard fouls. In the decisive second-round match against Italy (only the winner was allowed to play the medal round), Germany lost, 86–84, finished ninth and did not qualify for the 2004 Olympic Games. Nowitzki scored 22.5 points per game (third overall), but in general seemed to lack focus and dominance due to his injury.
In the EuroBasket 2005, Nowitzki led a depleted German squad into the Finals, beating title favorites Slovenia in the quarter-finals and Spain in the semi-finals on the way. EuroBasket pundits praised Nowitzki in both matches: against Slovenia (76–62), the forward scored a game-high 22 points and commented: "The Slovenians underestimated us. They said we were the team they wanted and that was wrong, you shouldn't do that in the quarter-finals." Against Spain (74–73), Nowitzki scored a game-high 27 points and scored the decisive basket: down by one and with only a few seconds to go, he drove on Spanish forward Jorge Garbajosa, and hit a baseline jump shot over Garbajosa's outstretched arms with 3.9 seconds to go. The German later commented: "It was indescribable. Garbajosa kind of pushed me towards the baseline so I just went with it." Despite losing the Finals, 78–62, to the Greeks, Nowitzki was the tournament's leading scorer (26.1 per game), and second-leading rebounder (10.6 per game), and shot blocker (1.9 per game), and he was also voted the Most Valuable Player of the tournament. When he was subbed out towards the end of the final, Nowitzki received a standing ovation from the crowd, which he later recalled as "one of the best moments of [his] career". The German team was awarded a silver medal.
In the 2006 FIBA World Championship, Nowitzki led the German team to an eighth place and commented: "It's tough luck. But overall, finishing eighth in the world is not bad."
In the EuroBasket 2007, in which the top three teams automatically qualified for the 2008 Olympics, Nowitzki led Germany to a fifth place. He was the leading scorer with 24.0 points per game. The fifth place meant that Germany fell short of direct qualification, but was allowed to participate in the 2008 Olympic Qualifying Tournament. Nowitzki led Germany into a decisive match against Puerto Rico for the last remaining slot. In that crucial match, he scored a game-high 32 points and was vital for the 96–82 win which sent the German basketball team to their first Olympics since the 1992 Summer Olympics. Nowitzki was chosen to be the flag bearer for the German Olympic Team at the Opening Ceremony for the 2008 Olympics. Nowitzki led the German team to a tenth-place finish, and averaged 17.0 points and 8.4 rebounds for the tournament.
In 2009, Nowitzki skipped the EuroBasket 2009. In July 2010, he said that he would skip the 2010 FIBA World Championship. In summer 2011, Nowitzki played with Germany in the EuroBasket 2011, where the team reached ninth place. In 2015, Nowitzki captained Germany at the EuroBasket. They won only one game, and were eliminated in the group stage, on home soil. In January 2016, Nowitzki officially announced his retirement from Germany's national team. In his career with Germany's senior men's national team, he averaged 19.7 points, 7.5 rebounds, and 1.6 assists per game.
Nowitzki was named the Euroscar European Basketball Player of the Year by the Italian sports newspaper Gazzetta dello Sport for five years running from 2002 to 2006 and again in 2011. He was also named the Mister Europa European Player of the Year by the Italian sports magazine Superbasket in 2005, and the FIBA Europe Men's Player of the Year twice in 2005 and 2011. He was named to the FIBA EuroBasket 2000–2020 Dream Team in 2020.
The German Basketball Federation (DBB) honored Nowitzki with a jersey (number 14) retirement in September 2022, ahead of EuroBasket 2022. The ceremony was held on September 2, immediately before Germany's EuroBasket opening game against France in Cologne. DBB also announced that a replica of Nowitzki's national team jersey would hang from the arena rafters at all future Germany men's home games.
Player profile
Nowitzki was a versatile frontcourt player who mostly played the power forward, but also played center and small forward in his career. An exceptional shooter for his size, Nowitzki made 88% of his free throws, nearly 50% of his field goal attempts and nearly 40% of his 3-point shots, and won the 2006 NBA All-Star Three-Point Contest. In the 2006–07 season, Nowitzki became only the fifth member of the NBA's 50–40–90 Club for players who shot 50% or better from the field, 40% or better on three-pointers, and 90% or better on free-throws in a single season while achieving the NBA league minimum number of makes in each category.
Nowitzki's shooting accuracy, combined with his long seven-foot frame and unique shooting mechanics (such as having a release point above his head), made his jump shots difficult to contest. Before the start of the 2011 NBA Finals, LeBron James called Nowitzki's one-legged fadeaway the second most unstoppable move ever, behind only Kareem Abdul-Jabbar's skyhook.
Additionally, Nowitzki could drive to the basket from the perimeter like few men his size were able to do. NBA.com lauded his versatility by stating: "The 7–0 forward who at times mans the pivot can strike fear in an opponent when he corrals a rebound and leads the break or prepares to launch a three-point bomb." Charles Barkley said the best way to guard Nowitzki was to "get a cigarette and a blindfold". Later on in his career, Nowitzki also developed an unorthodox post-up game, often backing down his opponents from the free-throw line or near the middle of the key, opening up the floor for multiple passing angles should a double team come his way. In 2022, to commemorate the NBA's 75th Anniversary The Athletic ranked their top 75 players of all time, and named Nowitzki as the 21st greatest player in NBA history.
Nowitzki was the sixth player in NBA history, and the first European, to hit the 30,000-point milestone. Apart from being the Mavericks' all-time leader in points, rebounds, field goals, field goal attempts, 3-pointers, 3-point attempts, blocks, free throws, and free-throw attempts, Nowitzki made the NBA All-Star games fourteen times and the All-NBA Teams twelve times. He was voted NBA MVP of the 2006–07 NBA season, becoming the first European player to receive the honor, as well as the MVP of the 2011 NBA Finals. Other achievements include winning the 2006 Three-Point Contest and the 2017 NBA Teammate of the Year award, being voted European Basketballer of the Year five times in a row by La Gazzetta dello Sport. He was the leading scorer and MVP of the 2002 FIBA World Championship, and EuroBasket 2005 tournaments.
Nowitzki is the only player to record at least 30,000 points, 10,000 rebounds, 3,000 assists, 1,200 steals, 1,200 blocks and 1,500 three-point field goals.
NBA career statistics
Regular season
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 47 || 24 || 20.4 || .405 || .206 || .773 || 3.4 || 1.0 || .6 || .6 || 8.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 82 || 81 || 35.8 || .461 || .379 || .830 || 6.5 || 2.5 || .8 || .8 || 17.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 82 || style="background:#cfecec;"|82* || 38.1 || .474 || .387 || .838 || 9.2 || 2.1 || 1.0 || 1.2 || 21.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 76 || 76 || 38.0 || .477 || .397 || .853 || 9.9 || 2.4 || 1.1 || 1.0 || 23.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 80 || 80 || 39.0 || .463 || .379 || .881 || 9.9 || 3.0 || 1.4 || 1.0 || 25.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 77 || 77 || 37.9 || .462 || .341 || .877 || 8.7 || 2.7 || 1.2 || 1.4 || 21.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 78 || 78 || 38.7 || .459 || .399 || .869 || 9.7 || 3.1 || 1.2 || 1.5 || 26.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 81 || 81 || 38.1 || .480 || .406 || .901 || 9.0 || 2.8 || .7 || 1.0 || 26.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 78 || 78 || 36.2 || .502 || .416 || .904 || 8.9 || 3.4 || .7 || .8 || 24.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 77 || 77 || 36.0 || .479 || .359 || .879 || 8.6 || 3.5 || .7 || .9 || 23.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 81 || 81 || 37.7 || .479 || .359 || .890 || 8.4 || 2.4 || .8 || .8 || 25.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 81 || 80 || 37.5 || .481 || .421 || .915 || 7.7 || 2.7 || .9 || 1.0 || 25.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"|†
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 73 || 73 || 34.3 || .517 || .393 || .892 || 7.0 || 2.6 || .5 || .6 || 23.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 62 || 62 || 33.5 || .457 || .368 || .896 || 6.8 || 2.2 || .7 || .5 || 21.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 53 || 47 || 31.3 || .471 || .414 || .860 || 6.8 || 2.5 || .7 || .7 || 17.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 80 || 80 || 32.9 || .497 || .398 || .899 || 6.2 || 2.7 || .9 || .6 || 21.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 77 || 77 || 29.6 || .459 || .380 || .882 || 5.9 || 1.9 || .5 || .4 || 17.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 75 || 75 || 31.5 || .448 || .368 || .893 || 6.5 || 1.8 || .7 || .7 || 18.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 54 || 54 || 26.4 || .437 || .378 || .875 || 6.5 || 1.5 || .6 || .7 || 14.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 77 || 77 || 24.7 || .456 || .409 || .898 || 5.7 || 1.6 || .6 || .6 || 12.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 51 || 20 || 15.6 || .359 || .312 || .780 || 3.1 || .7 || .2 || .4 || 7.3
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2" | Career
| 1,522 || 1,460 || 33.8 || .471 || .380 || .879 || 7.5 || 2.4 || .8 || .8 || 20.7
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2" | All-Star
| 14 || 2 || 16.2 || .450 || .290 || .875 || 3.7 || 1.1 || .7 || .4 || 8.7
Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2001
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 10 || 10 || 39.9 || .423 || .283 || .883 || 8.1 || 1.4 || 1.1 || .8 || 23.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2002
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 8 || 8 || 44.6 || .445 || .571 || .878 || 13.1 || 2.3 || 2.0 || .8 || 28.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2003
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 17 || 17 || 42.5 || .479 || .443 || .912 || 11.5 || 2.2 || 1.2 || .9 || 25.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2004
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 5 || 5 || 42.4 || .450 || .467 || .857 || 11.8 || 1.4 || 1.4 || 2.6 || 26.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2005
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 13 || 13 || 42.4 || .402 || .333 || .829 || 10.1 || 3.3 || 1.4 || 1.6 || 23.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2006
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 23 || 23 || 42.7 || .468 || .343 || .895 || 11.7 || 2.9 || 1.1 || .6 || 27.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2007
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 6 || 6 || 39.8 || .383 || .211 || .840 || 11.3 || 2.3 || 1.8 || 1.3 || 19.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2008
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 5 || 5 || 42.2 || .473 || .333 || .808 || 12.0 || 4.0 || .2 || 1.4 || 26.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2009
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 10 || 10 || 39.5 || .518 || .286 || .925 || 10.1 || 3.1 || .9 || .8 || 26.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2010
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 6 || 6 || 38.8 || .547 || .571 || .952 || 8.2 || 3.0 || .8 || .7 || 26.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"|2011†
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 21 || 21 || 39.3 || .485 || .460 || .941 || 8.1 || 2.5 || .6 || .6 || 27.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2012
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 4 || 4 || 38.5 || .442 || .167 || .905 || 6.3 || 1.8 || .8 || .0 || 26.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2014
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 7 || 7 || 37.6 || .429 || .083 || .806 || 8.0 || 1.6 || .9 || .9 || 19.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2015
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 5 || 5 || 36.2 || .452 || .235 || .929 || 10.2 || 2.4 || .4 || .4 || 21.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2016
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 5 || 5 || 34.0 || .494 || .364 || .941 || 5.0 || 1.6 || .4 || .6 || 20.4
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2" | Career
| 145 || 145 || 40.7 || .462 || .365 || .892 || 10.0 || 2.5 || 1.0 || .9 || 25.3
|}
Career highlights
NBA
NBA Finals MVP: 2011
NBA Most Valuable Player: 2007
14× NBA All-Star: 2002–2012, 2014–2015, 2019
12× All-NBA Team: 2001–2012
4× First Team: 2005–2007, 2009
5× Second Team: 2002–2003, 2008, 2010–2011
3× Third Team: 2001, 2004, 2012
NBA Three-Point Contest champion: 2006
NBA Shooting Stars champion: 2010
NBA Teammate of the Year: 2017
Ranked 6th in all-time-scoring
Ranked 5th in all-time defensive-rebounds
Ranked 2nd in all-time NBA Finals free throw percentage
82 consecutive free throws made in the regular season (the third-longest streak of all time)
26 consecutive free throws made in the Finals (longest streak of all time)
One of three players with at least 30,000 points, 10,000 rebounds, 3,000 assists, 1,000 steals and 1,000 blocks
One of two players with 150 three-pointers and 100 blocks in a single season: 2001
One of four players with an NBA Playoff career average of 25 ppg and 10 rpg (25.3 ppg, 10.0 rpg)
One of eight members of the 50–40–90 club: 2007
One of three players to surpass the mark of 1,000 in both three-pointers and blocks for the career
One of four players to surpass the marks of 30,000 in points and 10,000 in rebounds for the career
Holds the record for most free-throws made in a single playoff season with 205 free-throws made: 2006
Dallas Mavericks all-time statistical leader in games, seasons, points, rebounds, blocks, field goals, three-point field goals and free throws
NBA record for most seasons with one team (21) and games played in a career spent with only one team (1,522)
German national basketball team
2002 FIBA World Championship: bronze medal, MVP, top scorer, all-tournament team
EuroBasket 2005: silver medal, MVP, top scorer, all-tournament team
2006 FIBA World Championship, EuroBasket 2001, EuroBasket 2007: top scorer, all-tournament team
Goldener Ehrenring (golden honorary ring) of the DBB (German Basketball Federation): 2007
FIBA EuroBasket 2000–2020 Dream Team:
Third leading scorer (1,052 points) in the history of EuroBasket
Leading scorer in the history of the senior German national basketball team (3,045 points in 153 international games)
Member of the German national basketball team which was voted Outstanding German Team of the Year: 2005
Other achievements and highlights
German League MVP: 1999
German League Top Scorer: 1999
6× Euroscar: 2002–2006, 2011
2× FIBA Europe Men's Player of the Year: 2005, 2011
Mr. Europa: 2005
5× All-Europeans Player of the Year: 2005–2008, 2011
German national flag bearer at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, China
Best NBA Player ESPY Award: 2011
Best Male Athlete ESPY Award: 2011
Outstanding Team ESPY Award with the Dallas Mavericks: 2011
Sports Illustrated NBA All-Decade Second Team (2000–2009)
Silbernes Lorbeerblatt: 2011
German Sports Personality of the Year: 2011
Naismith Legacy Award: 2012
Magic Johnson Award: 2014
Laureus Lifetime Achievement Award: 2020
Personal life
Nowitzki's older sister, Silke Nowitzki, described Nowitzki as a confident but low-key character, unspoiled by money and fame. He enjoys reading and playing the saxophone. Nowitzki passed his Abitur examination at Röntgen Gymnasium Grammar School of Würzburg. He founded the Dirk Nowitzki Foundation, a charity which aims at fighting poverty in Africa.
Nowitzki dated Sybille Gerer, a female basketball player from his local club DJK Würzburg. The relationship started in 1992 and lasted for 10 years before it ended in 2002; Nowitzki said, "At the end, we found out we developed in separate ways.... It did not work anymore, but we are still good friends." He added: "I surely want to start a family and have kids, but I cannot imagine it happening before I become 30."
In 2010, Nowitzki met and began dating Jessica Olsson, sister of twin Swedish footballers Martin Olsson and Marcus Olsson. The couple got married on July 20, 2012, at Nowitzki's home in Dallas. They have a daughter, born in July 2013 and two sons, born in March 2015 and November 2016. Though Nowitzki has considered acquiring U.S. citizenship, he remains a German national.
Nowitzki acknowledged close ties to his mentor Holger Geschwindner, whom he called his best friend. He is also good friends with his ex-teammate Steve Nash. Nash said of playing with Nowitzki, "We were both joining a new club, living in a new city, we were both single and outsiders: this creates a bond... He made life easier for me and I for him... Our friendship was something solid in a very volatile world." Nowitzki added, "He would have also become a good friend if we had met at the supermarket."
Nowitzki is a keen association football fan and an avid supporter of Arsenal F.C.
Books
Nowitzki's career has been chronicled in books. Dirk Nowitzki: German Wunderkind, written by German sports journalists Dino Reisner and Holger Sauer, was published in 2004 by CoPress Munich. The 160-page hardcover book follows Nowitzki's beginnings in his native Würzburg, documents his entry into and ascent within the NBA, and ends at the beginning of the 2004–05 NBA season.
In November 2011, the Würzburg local newspaper Main-Post published a 216-page book written by its sports journalists Jürgen Höpfl and Fabian Frühwirth: Einfach Er – Dirk Nowitzki – Aus Würzburg an die Weltspitze, (Just Him – Dirk Nowitzki – From Würzburg to the Top of the World). Both Höpfl and Frühwirth accompanied Nowitzki throughout his career, collecting interviews and photos used in the book. It looks back on the 2011 NBA Finals but also has a strong focus on Nowitzki's relation to his hometown Würzburg and his career progression which began there. The book features insights from former coaches, family members, and friends.
Thomas Pletzinger published in 2019 the 502-page biography The Great Nowitzki, which was regarded as one of the best sports-biographies to have ever been published in German.
In popular culture
In 2014, the film documentary Nowitzki. The Perfect Shot was released, which retells Nowitzki's career and life.
Honors
On October 30, 2019, by a unanimous resolution of the Dallas City Council, part of Olive Street was renamed Nowitzki Way, which runs past the American Airlines Center. In December 2019, Nowitzki received the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany from Federal President Frank-Walter Steinmeier, in recognition of his social commitment.
On January 5, 2022, Nowitzki's number 41 was retired by the Mavericks. The same night, Mark Cuban unveiled the design for the statue of Nowitzki that was planned to be installed outside the arena. The statue was unveiled on Christmas Day later that year.
See also
List of National Basketball Association career games played leaders
List of National Basketball Association career scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association career rebounding leaders
List of National Basketball Association career 3-point scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association career free throw scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association career minutes played leaders
List of National Basketball Association career playoff scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association career playoff rebounding leaders
List of National Basketball Association career playoff free throw scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association players with 9 or more steals in a game
List of National Basketball Association players with 50 or more points in a playoff game
List of National Basketball Association franchise career scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association seasons played leaders
List of NBA players who have spent their entire career with one franchise
2008 Summer Olympics national flag bearers
List of European basketball players in the United States
Footnotes
References
External links
The Dirk Nowitzki Foundation
Dirk Nowitzki at fiba.com
1978 births
Living people
2002 FIBA World Championship players
2006 FIBA World Championship players
Basketball players at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Dallas Mavericks players
Euroscar award winners
German expatriate basketball people in the United States
German men's basketball players
Laureus World Sports Awards winners
Milwaukee Bucks draft picks
Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees
National Basketball Association All-Stars
National Basketball Association Most Valuable Player Award winners
National Basketball Association players from Germany
National Basketball Association players with retired numbers
Olympic basketball players for Germany
Sportspeople from Würzburg
Power forwards (basketball)
Recipients of the Silver Laurel Leaf
Recipients of the Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Würzburg Baskets players
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Mallory
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Stephen Mallory
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Stephen Russell Mallory (1812 – November 9, 1873) was a Democratic senator from Florida from 1851 to the secession of his home state and the outbreak of the American Civil War. For much of that period, he was chairman of the Committee on Naval Affairs. It was a time of rapid naval reform, and he insisted that the ships of the U.S. Navy should be as capable as those of Britain and France, the foremost navies in the world at that time. He also wrote a bill and guided it through Congress to provide for compulsory retirement of officers who did not meet the standards of the profession.
Although he was not a leader in the secession movement, Mallory followed his state out of the Union. When the Confederate States of America was formed, he was named Secretary of the Navy in the administration of President Jefferson Davis. He held the position throughout the existence of the Confederacy. Because of indifference to naval matters by most others in the Confederacy, Mallory was able to shape the Confederate Navy according to the principles he had learned while serving in the U.S. Senate. Some of his ideas, such as the incorporation of armor into warship construction, were quite successful and became standard in navies around the world. On the other hand, the navy was often handicapped by administrative ineptitude in the Navy Department. During the war, he was weakened politically by a Congressional investigation into the Navy Department for its failure in defense of New Orleans. After months of taking testimony, the investigating committee concluded that it had no evidence of wrongdoing on his part.
Mallory resigned after the Confederate government had fled from Richmond at the end of the war, and he and several of his colleagues in the cabinet were imprisoned and charged with treason. After more than a year in prison, the public mood had softened, and he was granted parole by President Andrew Johnson. He returned to Florida, where he supported his family in his final years by again practicing law. Unable to hold elective office by the terms of his parole, he continued to make his opinions known by writing letters to newspapers. His health began to deteriorate although he was not incapacitated until the very end.
He was the father of Stephen Russell Mallory, a U.S. Representative and Senator from Florida.
Early life
Mallory was born in Trinidad, British West Indies, in 1812. His parents were Charles and Ellen Mallory. His father was a construction engineer originally from Redding, Connecticut. He met and married the Irish-born Ellen Russell in Trinidad, and there the couple had two sons.
The family moved to the United States and settled in Key West, Florida, in 1820. Young Stephen was sent to school near Mobile, Alabama, but his education was interrupted by his father's death. His elder brother John also died about this time. To support herself and her surviving son, Ellen opened a boarding house for seamen. Then she sent her son away for further schooling at a Moravian academy in Nazareth, Pennsylvania. Although he was for all of his life a practicing Catholic, he had only praise for the education he received at the academy. After about three years, his mother could no longer afford to pay his tuition, so in 1829 his schooling ended and he returned home.
Adulthood in Florida
Young Mallory prepared for a profession by reading law in the office of Judge William Marvin. Because of its geographical position, Key West was often sought as a port of refuge for ships caught in storms and was for the same reason near frequent shipwrecks. Marvin was recognized as an authority on maritime law, particularly applied to laws of wreck and salvage, and Mallory argued many admiralty cases before him. He was reputed to be one of the best young trial lawyers in the state.
His career prospering, in 1838 Mallory courted and wed Angela Moreno, a member of a wealthy Spanish-speaking family living in Pensacola. Their marriage produced nine children, five of whom died young; surviving into adulthood were daughters Margaret ("Maggie") and Ruby, and sons Stephen R. Jr. ("Buddy"), and Attila ("Attie"). Buddy followed his father into politics, and he would eventually also serve as U.S. Senator from Florida. Angela Moreno was the cousin of Felix Senac, future Confederate Paymaster and agent in Europe, born like her in 1815 in Pensacola.
Mallory held a few minor public offices, beginning in 1832 with his selection as town marshal. One of his first paid positions was as Inspector of Customs, for which he earned three dollars per day. Later, President Polk appointed him Collector of Customs. Before his marriage, he joined the Army and took part in the Seminole War, 1835–1837. He also was elected judge for Monroe County for the years 1837–1845.
In 1850, the sectional differences that eventually culminated in the Civil War led to a convention to be held in Nashville, Tennessee, for the purpose of defining a common course of action for all Southern (slave-holding) states. Although Mallory had held no statewide offices, he was regarded as sufficiently powerful in the state Democratic Party to be chosen as an alternate delegate to the convention. Personal considerations kept him from attending, but he expressed his agreement with the purposes of the convention in a letter that was widely reprinted in the Florida newspapers.
In the Senate, 1851–1861
The term in office of senator from Florida David Levy Yulee expired in 1850. He sought reappointment, but he had aligned himself too strongly with the Fire-eaters, and also had antagonized some commercial interests in the state. The moderates who favored working within the Union still dominated Florida politics, and they successfully sought to put Mallory in place of the radical Yulee. The selection process in the Florida state legislature was somewhat irregular, and Yulee protested, carrying his protest all the way to the Senate itself. That body determined that the Florida legislature had acted within its authority in certifying Mallory, and so he was seated.
Senator from Florida
Much of what he did in the Senate can be described as the typical sponsorship of legislation that would benefit his state. With his sponsorship, the Senate passed a bill that would aid railroads in Florida, and another that would sell off some of the live oak reservations maintained by the Federal government for the Navy; both bills failed in the House of Representatives. He was more successful with bills aimed at prosecuting the ongoing campaign against the Seminole Indians, although the problem seems to have been overstated. His bills would provide compensation for persons who had suffered from the depredations of Indian raids and would further the process of removing the aborigines from the state. He also introduced bills that provided for marine hospitals in port cities in Florida. None of this would have been considered exceptional for the era.
Committee on Naval Affairs
Mallory was placed on the Senate Committee on Naval Affairs. His assignment became significant when President Millard Fillmore, in his Message to Congress of December 13, 1851, recommended Congressional action on two issues. First was the problem of what to do with ineffective officers in the Navy. At the time, promotion was based solely on seniority, and no policy existed for removing officers who could not or would not fulfill their duties. Second was the issue of discipline in the enlisted rates. The practice of flogging had been outlawed in the previous Congress, and many of the old captains believed discipline on their warships was deteriorating; they wanted a return to the old ways or at least a reasonable substitute that would enable them to exert their authority.
Mallory's first major speech in Congress was in favor of a return to flogging, which he argued was needed in order that a captain would be able to control his seamen in battle. His position was unpopular throughout the nation, and Congress refused to lift the ban. His views on flogging, for good or ill, were forgotten when he turned his energies to the second of President Fillmore's proposals, that of reforming the officer corps of the Navy. He was by this time chairman of the Senate Committee on Naval Affairs, and the law that Congress passed was recognized as coming from his hand. It established a Retirement Board of senior naval officers, who examined the qualifications of all other commissioned officers. Those who were deemed incapable or unworthy of their rank were placed on a retired list, the first compulsory retirement in the history of the U.S. Navy. By most accounts, the board did its work creditably, but many of the officers who were adversely affected did not agree. Among those who were forced into early retirement was Matthew Fontaine Maury, too crippled to go to sea, but whose study of ocean currents formed the basis for the new science of oceanography. Maury and some of the other retirees enlisted other senators to support their cases, and the debate was renewed. In the end, however, Mallory's views prevailed, a testimonial to his parliamentary skills. The enmity between Maury and Mallory lasted the remainder of their lives and distorted their performance in the Civil War when both men sided with the South.
Mallory's tenure on the Committee on Naval Affairs came during a time of great innovation in naval warfare. He kept abreast of developments in other navies, and he made sure that the U.S. Navy would incorporate the latest thinking into its new ships. Britain and France, then the two foremost navies in the world, were in the process of converting their fleets from sail to steam, and from paddles to screws. In 1853, the committee recommended passage of a bill providing for the addition of six new screw frigates to the fleet; when delivered, some considered them to be the best frigates in the world. In 1857, his committee persuaded the Senate to authorize twelve sloops-of-war. These entered the Navy beginning in 1858, on the verge of the Civil War.
Another innovation that was being considered was that of armor. Mallory was here somewhat ahead of his time, enthusiastically supporting iron cladding for ships before the fledgling metals industry in the country could supply it in the requisite quantities. No armored vessels were commissioned while he was in the Senate, but whatever fault there was lay elsewhere. He spoke up for extending appropriations for an armored vessel that was intended for the defense of New York Harbor; named the Stevens Battery after its designer and builder Robert L. Stevens, it had been laid down in 1842 but was still incomplete in 1853, when Mallory gave his argument. His pleading was unsuccessful in that the Senate did not agree to continue funding the project, but in his supporting speech he expressed some of the principles that guided his thinking when he later became the Confederate Secretary of the Navy.
Secession crisis
Representing as he did a state in the Deep South, Mallory could hardly have avoided taking a public stance on the issues that were tearing the nation apart. The occasion arose when the Senate considered the admission of Kansas to the Union. Its Lecompton Constitution would allow slavery in Kansas, and citizens who were against extending the practice into new territories seized upon the widespread irregularities in the adoption procedure to oppose it. Senator Preston King of New York mounted a two-hour attack on the constitution and Southern policy in general, following which Mallory replied in what his biographers describe as "probably his most effective speech in the Senate." One segment of his talk presented the rationale of the slave-holders in their unwillingness to accept majority rule. Addressing the question whether the constitution had been ratified by "the people," he said: "States have conferred, and may at any time confer, their whole political power on a minority. They may make disqualifications dependent upon the tenure of freehold estate, upon the payment of tax, upon militia duty, or upon the color of skin; but whoever the State chooses to confer her political authority upon, are the people." He foresaw the decline in relative power of the slave-holding states, although at this time he did not believe it would necessarily lead to secession. He concluded his remarks by a pledge to follow the South whatever happened: "It is not for me to indicate the path she [the South] may, in her wisdom, pursue; but, sir, ... my whole heart is with her, and she will find me treading it with undivided affections."
Despite his willing adherence to the Southern position on the issues that were dividing the country, Mallory was not prominent in the secession movement. He advocated reconciliation almost up to the moment that Florida passed its ordinance of secession. That occurred on January 10, 1861, making Florida the third state (behind South Carolina and Mississippi) to leave the Union. On January 21, Mallory delivered his farewell speech in the United States Senate.
In the days before Abraham Lincoln took office, parties in the seceding states disagreed over the proper course of action concerning the forts within their domains. In Florida, three forts remained in the possession of the United States Army: Fort Zachary Taylor at Key West, Fort Jefferson in the Dry Tortugas, and Fort Pickens near Pensacola. Some of the most strident secessionists proposed that they be taken over immediately, by force if needed, beginning with Fort Pickens. Cooler heads hoped to avoid bloodshed and gain possession by negotiation; they made much of the conciliatory words of William H. Seward, already selected to be Secretary of State in the incoming administration. Mallory and Florida's other senator, David L. Yulee, and the two senators from Alabama sent telegrams to their respective governors urging caution. Other Southern senators lent their support, and President-elect Jefferson Davis seemed to agree. In the end, the moderates won out, and no attack was made on Fort Pickens. Although Mallory was hardly alone, his political opponents later used his perceived pro-Union stance as an excuse to attack him.
Confederate Secretary of the Navy: nomination and confirmation
The governmental structure of the newly formed Confederate States of America was very much like that of the parent United States. The executive branch was partitioned into several departments, each headed by a secretary or equivalent who would advise the president. The constitution provided for a navy that would be directed by its own department, and President Jefferson Davis nominated Mallory to be Confederate States Secretary of the Navy. He was chosen for two principal reasons: first, he had extensive experience with nautical affairs, both in his boyhood home of Key West and later in Washington; and second, he was from Florida. In a bow to the principle of states' rights, Davis had to spread representation in his cabinet around among the seceding states. Although the requirement of geographical representation sometimes meant that the occupant would not be the best person available, the selection process worked well in Mallory's case.
Mallory's nomination as Secretary of the Navy was submitted to the Provisional Congress as soon as the act establishing a navy was passed. Despite his evident qualifications, it drew significant opposition; his detractors cited the Fort Pickens incident as evidence that he was not strongly pro-secession. Ultimately, however, he was confirmed.
Naval organization and operations
As few other persons in the Confederate government were interested in naval matters, Mallory had almost free rein to shape the department, as well as the navy it controlled, according to his own views. The result was very much the product of his prior experience. The Department of the Navy was organized into separate offices, equivalent to the bureau system of the United States Navy; whereas the U.S. Navy had five bureaus, the Confederate Navy had only four: Orders and Detail (dealing with personnel), Provisions and Clothing, Medicine and Surgery, and Ordnance and Hydrography. Although there was no Office of Construction and Repair, its function was met by John L. Porter. Porter served as Chief Naval Constructor, without title from the start until the position was officially established in 1863, and thereafter with title until the end of the war. A few other functions lay outside the bureau system: a small Marine Corps, a few men who were sent to Europe to acquire vessels there and who reported directly to Mallory, and a Torpedo Bureau.
At the start, the Confederate Navy faced one of the problems that Mallory had encountered when he was chairman of the United States Senate Committee on Naval Affairs: an overabundance of high-ranking officers who were too old to go to sea. This came about because the Confederacy had created its navy by promising that men resigning from the U.S. Navy would enter the CS Navy at their old rank. Hoping to avoid the stagnation that was the result of the former promotion process, Mallory proposed that promotion should depend solely on "gallant or meritorious conduct during the war." His proposal was quickly made into law by the Confederate Congress. Still not completely satisfied, in 1863 Mallory initiated the creation of a Provisional Navy, which in effect established two officer corps. The officers whom Mallory or his advisers deemed incapable of combat were retained in the Regular Navy, while young and presumably more aggressive officers would transfer to the Provisional Navy. Officers for fighting ships would be drawn from the Provisional Navy, and they could be promoted without regard for seniority if they served with distinction.
Mallory also was able to shape naval policy and doctrine. After viewing the disparity between the shipbuilding and other manufacturing facilities of the Confederacy and those of the Union, he set forth a fourfold plan for the navy:
1. Send out commerce raiders to destroy the enemy's mercantile marine.
2. Build ironclad vessels in Southern shipyards for defensive purposes.
3. Obtain by purchase or construction abroad armored ships capable of fighting on the open seas.
4. Employ new weapons and techniques of warfare.
Attacks on Union commerce
From the start, one of the main efforts of the Confederate Navy was to counter the blockade of its ports by the Union Navy. Mallory believed that by attacking the merchant shipping that carried trade to Northern ports he could force his Union counterpart, Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles, to divert his own small fleet to defend against the raiders. In the early days of the war, the Confederacy tried to enlist the services of private shipowners in the service by offering letters of marque and reprisal. Issuance of the letters was not in the purview of the Navy Department, but Mallory was aware of them and saw them as part of his plan. For several reasons, the privateers did not have the success that was hoped for. Although they ventured out throughout the war, they had only fleeting success, and that had ceased by the end of the first year.
He was more directly involved in the activities of the commissioned raiders, ships of the Confederate States Navy that were sent out to destroy rather than capture enemy commerce. He first proposed their use as early as April 18, 1861. The first raider, , avoided the Union blockade at New Orleans on June 30, 1861. From then until after the war was over, the small group of raiders plundered Union shipping, inflicting damage on the American Merchant Marine that persists to the present day. They failed of their primary purpose, however, because Welles maintained the Union blockade, and international trade continued as before, carried in ships flying foreign flags.
Naval reform: ironclads
No other aspect of Mallory's tenure as Secretary of the Navy is better known than his advocacy of armored vessels. He argued that the Confederacy could never produce enough ships to compete with the industrial Union on a ship-by-ship basis. As he saw it, the South should build a few ships that were individually so far superior to their opponents as to dominate. In his words, "The perfection of a warship would doubtless be a combination of the greatest known ocean speed with the greatest known floating battery and power of resistance." He hoped that armored warships would prove to be the "ultimate weapon." He did not anticipate that his opponents would also produce armored vessels, which rapidly became important parts of both navies. Furthermore, other navies, notably Great Britain and France, stepped up the conversions of their own fleets from wood to iron. Certainly, the change was under way even before the Civil War broke out; his legacy consists in forcing the change to be made sooner than would otherwise have been done.
The first ironclad to be created at Mallory's urging was . The burned and scuttled had been raised at Gosport (Norfolk) Navy Yard, and an armored casemate built on her hull. For armament, she carried 12 guns. She was also fitted with an iron ram. On March 8, 1862, she attacked the Union fleet enforcing the blockade at Hampton Roads, on the James River near Norfolk. She sank two major Union warships ( and ), and menaced a third (), which had grounded in the attempt to get into action. The damages she suffered were negligible. In that first day of the battle, she had demonstrated the basic validity of Mallory's belief that armored warships could destroy the best wooden ships and were almost impervious to damage in return. As is well known, when Virginia returned to battle the next day intending to finish off Minnesota, she encountered the Union's . The two armored vessels fought inconclusively, demonstrating the flaw in Mallory's argument: an ultimate weapon is truly decisive only if one side does not have it.
After Virginia, most other Confederate ironclads had at best-limited success, and many were complete failures. Particularly embarrassing were four that were contracted to be built for service on the Mississippi River. Of the four, only one, , entered into combat in the way that was intended, with full crew and under steam. Of the others, was destroyed on the stocks; was hastily launched and then burned to avoid capture; and was used merely as an ineffectual floating battery at the Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip, when the fate of New Orleans was decided, and she was then blown up rather than be surrendered. No parties in the Confederacy acquitted themselves well in the three losses, but Mallory must bear a large part of the blame. Poor administration is among the foremost reasons for the delays that hindered completion of the vessels. By failing to prioritize their construction, he allowed Louisiana and Mississippi to compete for scarce resources. Because he did not delegate responsibility, he was swamped with details of the construction of Virginia while letting problems concerning the other ships go unresolved. And because he accepted the role implicitly assigned to his service as secondary to the Army, the Navy had to work with only the materials and funds that were left over after the Army had satisfied its needs.
Mission to Europe
The backward condition of shipyards in the seceding states convinced Mallory that he would have to look abroad to obtain the vessels that he thought would be able to challenge the U.S. Navy. He selected two men as his primary representatives: James D. Bulloch and Lieutenant James H. North of the Confederate States Navy. North was a disappointment, but Bulloch proved to be one of the most effective agents for the Confederacy in Europe. He sought diligently and discreetly in England to acquire ships for the purposes of his government while working within or around the framework of the neutrality laws of the host nation.
Four of the Confederate Navy raiders were purchased in Britain: , , , and above all, . Probably Mallory would have liked to have more, but the record shows that the few that were commissioned were more than adequate.
Efforts to purchase or have built ironclad warships were unsuccessful despite Bulloch's best efforts. Buying them was never seriously considered, as the Royal Navy would not care to give any of its best ships to a foreign power, no matter how favorably disposed. Contracts were made with private shipyards in both Britain and France to build rams to Confederate naval specifications, but their ultimate purpose could not be disguised. They therefore directly violated the neutrality laws, and American (that is, Union) officials immediately informed the governments of their existence. For a while, Her Majesty's Government chose to turn a blind eye on developments, but the Union victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg caused them to reconsider. On September 5, 1863, Ambassador Charles Francis Adams sent a message to Foreign Minister Lord John Russell informing him that the first of the ironclads was about to leave, and that "it would be superfluous in me to point out to your Lordship that this means war." The ship was not permitted to leave and was later seized for the Royal Navy. As the French government had implicitly agreed to follow Britain's lead concerning North America, all the contracts were voided.
New weapons
The Civil War provided a testing ground for numerous innovations in warfare, and Mallory was in position to provide support for many of them. His advocacy of armored vessels has been described and is the development most closely associated with his name, but he encouraged the development of several other weapons. For example, he favored the use of rifled guns, as opposed to the smoothbore muzzle loaders used in the Union Navy. The favored gun was a rifle designed by the head of his Office of Ordnance and Hydrography, Lieutenant John Mercer Brooke. The Brooke rifle gave Rebel gunners a qualitative advantage over their Yankee counterparts that persisted to the end of the war.
The torpedo office, officially named the Submarine Battery Service, developed underwater explosive devices, known as "torpedoes" at that time but as "mines" today. The office was initially led by Mallory's enemy Matthew Fontaine Maury, and later by Lieutenant Hunter Davidson. The first ship to be lost to mines was , on December 12, 1862. Subsequently, more vessels of all types were lost in combat to mines and torpedoes than from all other causes combined.
In Charleston Harbor, Army Captain Francis D. Lee, supported by General P. G. T. Beauregard, developed a small boat that would carry a spar torpedo. His craft, known as , successfully exploded a torpedo against the side of , severely damaging her. Later, the more famous used one of Lee's spar torpedoes to sink , the first ship to be sunk by a submarine. The Navy Department had not provided active support for Lee's experiments, but their successful result led to the use of spar torpedoes on ships throughout the fleet. (Less favorably for the Rebel cause, spar torpedoes were also immediately adopted by the Union Navy, and one was used in October 1864 to sink the ironclad .)
Investigation of the Navy Department
The loss of New Orleans came as a tremendous shock to the Confederacy, and a spate of recriminations followed. Members of Congress, noting the failure of the ironclads, blamed the navy in particular, and suggested that there was no need for a separate Navy Department. Hoping to forestall such a proposal, Mallory was able to persuade the Congress instead to investigate the conduct of the department. Each house put five of its members on the investigating committee. The chairman, Senator Clement C. Clay, was known as one of Mallory's friends, as was Representative Ethelbert Barksdale. They were at least partially balanced by Representative Henry S. Foote, a persistent critic of secession and everything that the entire Davis administration had done. Also weighing in against Mallory was Senator Charles M. Conrad, chairman of the Naval Affairs Committee, who was not a member of the investigating committee but who did appear as a prosecution witness. The committee continued to meet for more than six months, and ended with no finding of neglect or malfeasance.
The investigation may have weakened Mallory politically and certainly diverted him from other duties, but it was not enough to drive him from office. Perhaps because there was no one to replace him and perhaps because he absorbed shafts that were aimed at the president, Davis retained him in the cabinet until the end of the war. After the surrender of Lee's army at Appomattox, Mallory remained with Davis and the other cabinet members as they fled deeper into the South, first to Danville, Virginia, then to Greensboro, North Carolina, Charlotte, Abbeville, South Carolina, and finally Washington, Georgia. There, Mallory submitted his resignation and went to La Grange, Georgia, where he was temporarily reunited with his wife and children.
After the war
Capture and imprisonment
A large part of the population of the Northern states believed that the Davis government was somehow involved in the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, and although there was no evidence of their complicity, it was a political reality that had to be dealt with. One result was that the political radicals were able to force the government to prosecute those who had led the war against the Union. Mallory was one of the Confederate leaders who were charged with treason, among other things; on May 20, 1865, while he was still at La Grange, he was roused from his sleep at about midnight and taken into custody. From there he was taken to Fort Lafayette in New York Harbor, where he was confined as a political prisoner.
For several months, the demand of the public for vengeance increased, so that Mallory feared that he would face the death penalty if convicted. However, no bill of particulars to specify precisely which of his acts constituted treason was ever presented, and it became increasingly clear that no one in the Confederate government was guilty of assassinating the former president. The period for extracting vengeance passed with no one put on trial, and hope was revived. From his prison cell, Mallory began to write letters in a personal campaign to gain release. He petitioned President Andrew Johnson directly, and enlisted the support of some of his former colleagues in the Senate. His wife Angela visited Washington and importuned President Johnson and other persons who had influence. Johnson was already quite lenient in granting pardons, and the popular clamor for harsh punishment began to recede by the end of the year. On March 10, 1866, Johnson granted Mallory a "partial parole." Although he was no longer in jail, he was required to stay with his daughter in Bridgeport, Connecticut until he could take the oath of allegiance.
Release and return to Florida
In June 1866, Mallory visited Washington, where he called on many of his old friends and political adversaries, including President Johnson and Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton, who received him cordially. He got permission to return to Florida; his return was somewhat delayed by problems with his health, but on July 19 he arrived at his home in Pensacola.
By the terms of his parole, Mallory was not permitted to hold public office, so he made a living by reopening his old law practice. Nominally excluded from politics, he managed to make his views known by writing letters and editorials for Florida newspapers. At first he urged acceptance of the reconstituted Union and acquiescence in the policies of Reconstruction, but he soon came out in opposition, particularly against black suffrage.
He had long suffered occasional attacks of gout, and these continued to plague him in the postwar years. In the winter of 1871–1872 he began to complain of his heart, and his health began to deteriorate. Still, he remained active, and the end came rather quickly. He is said to have been "listless" on November 8, 1873, and that night he began to fail. On the morning of November 9 he died. He was buried in St. Michael's Cemetery, Pensacola, Florida.
See also
List of United States senators born outside the United States
Notes
References
Anderson, Bern, By Sea and by River: The Naval History of the Civil War. New York: Knopf, 1962; reprint, Da Capo Press, 1989.
Durkin, Joseph T., Confederate Navy Chief: Stephen R. Mallory. Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press, 1987.
Historical Times Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Civil War, Patricia L. Faust, editor. New York: Harper & Row, 1986.
Hearn, Chester G., The Capture of New Orleans, 1862. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1995.
Luraghi, Raimondo, A History of the Confederate Navy. (tr. Paolo E. Coletta, Marina del Sud: storia della marina confederate nella Guerra Civile Americana, 1861–1865. Rizzoli, 1993.) Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1996.
Perry, Milton F., Infernal Machines: The Story of Confederate Submarine and Mine Warfare. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1965.
Scharf, J. Thomas, History of the Confederate States Navy from Its Organization to the Surrender of Its Last Vessel; Its Stupendous Struggle with the Great Navy of the United States, the Engagements Fought in the Rivers and Harbors of the South and upon the High Seas, Blockade-Running, First Use of Iron-Clads and Torpedoes, and Privateer History. New York, Rogers & Sherwood, 1887.
Simson, Jay W., Naval Strategies of the Civil War: Confederate Innovations and Federal Opportunism. Nashville, Tenn.: Cumberland House, 2001.
Still, William N., Iron Afloat: The Story of the Confederate Armorclads. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1971; reprint, Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press, 1985.
Tucker, Spencer C., Handbook of 19th Century Naval Warfare. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2000.
Underwood, Rodman L., Stephen Russell Mallory: a Biography of the Confederate Navy Secretary and United States Senator. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., 2005. (alk. paper)
External links
Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress
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1813 births
1873 deaths
American people of Irish descent
Executive members of the Cabinet of the Confederate States of America
19th-century American politicians
Confederate States Navy
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Florida Democrats
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Politicians from Pensacola, Florida
People of Florida in the American Civil War
Trinidad and Tobago emigrants to the United States
People from Redding, Connecticut
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Harley%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Oxford%20and%20Earl%20Mortimer
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Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer
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Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer, KG PC FRS (5 December 1661 – 21 May 1724) was an English statesman and peer of the late Stuart and early Georgian periods. He began his career as a Whig, before defecting to a new Tory ministry. He was raised to the peerage of Great Britain as an earl in 1711. Between 1711 and 1714 he served as Lord High Treasurer, effectively Queen Anne's chief minister. He has been called a prime minister, although it is generally accepted that the de facto first minister to be a prime minister was Robert Walpole in 1721.
The central achievement of Harley's government was the negotiation of the Treaty of Utrecht with France in 1713, which brought an end to twelve years of English and Scottish involvement in the War of the Spanish Succession. In 1714 Harley fell from favour following the accession of the first monarch of the House of Hanover, George I, and was for a time imprisoned in the Tower of London by his political enemies.
He was also a noted literary figure, serving as a patron of both the October Club and the Scriblerus Club. Harley Street is sometimes said to be named after him, although it was his son Edward Harley who actually developed the area.
Early life: 1661–1688
Harley was born in Bow Street, London, in 1661, the eldest son of Sir Edward Harley, a prominent landowner in Herefordshire and his wife Abigail Stephens and the grandson of Sir Robert Harley and his third wife, the celebrated letter-writer Brilliana, Lady Harley. He was educated at Shilton, near Burford, in Oxfordshire, in a small school which produced at the same time a Lord High Treasurer (Harley himself), a Lord High Chancellor (Lord Harcourt) and a Lord Chief Justice of the Common Pleas (Lord Trevor). Harley then spent some time at Foubert's Academy, but disliked it. He entered the Middle Temple on 18 March 1682, but was never called to the bar.
The principles of Whiggism and Nonconformism were taught to him at an early age, and he never formally abandoned his family's religious opinions, although he departed from them in politics.
His father was wrongly imprisoned for suspected support for the 1685 Monmouth rebellion. Harley wrote afterwards that "we are not a little rejoiced" at Monmouth's defeat.
Glorious Revolution: 1688–1689
During 1688 Harley acted as his father's agent in promoting support for William, Prince of Orange and the Protestant cause against the policies of James II. When William landed in England on 5 November, Sir Edward Harley and his son immediately raised a troop of horse in support of the cause of William III, and took possession of the city of Worcester on his behalf. Harley was sent to report to William, meeting him at Henley. Harley obtained a commission as a major of militia foot in Herefordshire, which he held for several years.
Backbench member of parliament: 1689–1701
This recommended Robert Harley to the notice of the Boscawen family, and led to his election, in April 1689, as the parliamentary representative of Tregony, a borough under their control, whilst at the same time acting as High Sheriff of Herefordshire. He sat for Tregony for one parliament, after which, in 1690, he was elected by the constituency of New Radnor, which he represented until his elevation to the peerage in 1711. From an early age, Harley paid particular attention to the conduct of public business, taking special care over the study of the forms and ceremonies of the House of Commons.
Harley supported the Toleration Bill during its passage through the Commons and he hoped for "an equal settlement of religion" to be achieved by the inclusion of Presbyterians in the Church of England. However, this was not adopted. He also helped to defeat a Tory amendment to the Bill of Rights that would have enabled James II's son James Francis Edward Stuart to inherit the crown if he converted to Protestantism. On 14 May, Harley delivered his maiden speech in which he reminded the House of recent Tory persecutions (such as the harsh punishment of Monmouth's followers) and said that this injustice must be remedied.
After a series of French victories in Flanders during the early years of the Nine Years' War, Harley believed that the subordination of English soldiers to Dutch officers was the cause of the heavy English casualties. He, therefore, proposed a motion that future appointments of English foot regiments should be manned by Englishmen, which the House passed on 23 November 1692. He also opposed Lord Somers' proposed Abjuration Bill. If passed, this would have compelled office-holders to take an oath against recognising James II as the lawful king upon penalty of dismissal and imprisonment on the first refusal, with the penalties of high treason upon the second refusal.
During the early 1690s, Harley became a leader, second only to Paul Foley, of the 'Old Whigs' who were willing to cooperate with Tories in pursuing 'Country Party' measures against the ministerial or court Whigs in office, the so-called Whig Junto. In December 1690 he was elected to the Commission of Public Accounts to "examine, take and state" the accounts of the realm since William's accession, as expenditure had ballooned.
Harley supported a Bill to exclude from the Commons holders of government office and placemen in an effort to weaken court patronage. In taking part in the debates, Harley wrote: "I hope we have shown the parts of honest men and lovers of our country". He also supported the Triennial Bill to limit the maximum life of a Parliament to three years. In the Commons in early 1693, he claimed that long parliaments were not as representative as short-lived ones and he drew from his pocket a copy of King William's Declaration of 1688 in which he had promised frequent parliaments.
In 1696 Harley advocated the founding of a Land Bank that would serve the agricultural interest as the Bank of England served the monied interest.
After the general election of 1698, Harley emerged as the leader of the combined Country Whig-Tory opposition alliance against the Junto, or what Harley called the 'New Country Party'. Also in this year, he began his association with Sidney Godolphin, and through him ultimate entry into the circle around Princess Anne.
In November 1698 and in January 1700 Harley was approached by the ministry to accept office in the government, on the latter occasion being offered the Secretaryship of State. He refused on both occasions as he did not want to serve with the Whigs. Upon the death of Anne's only surviving child, Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, in July 1700, King William III became concerned with the succession. William believed it was imperative that the crown should go to Sophia, Electress of Hanover, or her descendants, should Anne die without child. He wrote to Harley and summoned him to an audience, where he asked Harley what demands the Commons would make in order to be persuaded to pass a Bill incorporating the new line of succession. It was agreed that the Bill would include further limitations of the monarch's power. Afterwards, William approved his election as Speaker of the House of Commons.
Speaker of the House of Commons: 1701–1705
After the general election of February 1701, he held the office of Speaker during three consecutive Parliaments until March 1705. From 18 May 1704, he combined this office with that of the Secretary of State for the Northern Department, displacing The Earl of Nottingham.
As Speaker of the first Parliament, Harley oversaw the passage of the Act of Settlement 1701, as previously agreed with King William. Harley was pleased that both the Whigs and the Tories had agreed on placing further limits on the power of the crown and he was reported to have said that "he hoped in a little time our infamous distinctions and parties, but particularly Jacobitism, should be wholly abolished and extirpated".
Northern Secretary: 1704–1708
Harley was an early practitioner of 'spin'; he recognised the political importance of careful management of the media. In 1703 Harley first made use of Daniel Defoe's talents as a political writer. This proved so successful that he was later to employ both Delarivier Manley and Jonathan Swift to pen pamphlets for him for use against his many opponents in politics.
During the time of his office, the Act of Union 1707 with Scotland was brought about. At the time of his appointment as Secretary of State, Harley had given no outward sign of dissatisfaction with the Whigs, and it was mainly through Marlborough's influence that he was admitted to the ministry.
For some time, so long indeed as the victories of the great English general cast a glamour over the policy of his friends, Harley continued to act loyally with his colleagues. But in the summer of 1707, it became evident to Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin that some secret influence behind the throne was shaking the confidence of the Queen in her ministers. The sovereign had resented the intrusion into the administration of the impetuous Lord Sunderland, and had persuaded herself that the safety of the Church of England depended on the fortunes of the Tories. These convictions were strengthened in her mind by the new favourite Abigail Masham (a cousin of the Duchess of Marlborough through her mother, and of Harley on her father's side), whose coaxing contrasted favourably in the eyes of the Queen with the haughty manners of her old friend, the Duchess of Marlborough.
Both the Duchess and Godolphin were convinced that this change in the disposition of the queen was due to the influence of Harley and his relatives, but he was permitted to remain in office. Later, an ill-paid and poverty-stricken clerk, William Gregg, in Harley's office, was found to have given the French enemy copies of many documents which should have been kept from the knowledge of all but the most trusted advisers of the court, and it was found that through the carelessness of the head of the department the contents of such papers became the common property of all in his service. The celebrated author Daniel Defoe, then an employee of Harley's, had warned that his lax security was an invitation to treason. The Queen was informed by Godolphin and Marlborough that they would no longer serve with Harley. They did not attend her next council, on 8 February 1708, and when Harley proposed to proceed with the business of the day the Duke of Somerset drew attention to their absence. The Queen found herself forced (11 February) to accept the resignations of both Harley and Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke.
Thomson criticizes Harley's tenure at the Northern Department, calling him "culpably negligent in the conduct of his business". In addition to citing the lax security already mentioned, Thomson writes that Harley "so arranged matters that the unhappy clerks in his office could not begin work until midnight or a little before and so were unable to leave till dawn. Even where there was nothing to do, they were kept in attendance until about three in the morning".
Opposition: 1708–1710
Harley was forced from office, but his cousin Abigail, who had recently married, continued in the Queen's service. Harley employed her influence without scruple, and not in vain. The cost of the protracted war with France, and the danger to the national church, the chief proof of which lay in the prosecution of Henry Sacheverell, were the weapons which he used to influence the masses of the people. Marlborough himself could not be displaced, but his relations were dismissed from their posts in turn. When the greatest of these, Lord Godolphin, was ejected from office on 10 August 1710, five commissioners to the treasury were appointed; among them was Harley as Chancellor of the Exchequer.
Chancellor of the Exchequer: 1710–1711
It was the aim of the new chancellor to frame an administration from the moderate members of both parties, and to adopt with but slight changes the policy of his predecessors; but his efforts were doomed to disappointment. The Whigs refused to join an alliance with him, and the Tories, who were successful beyond their wildest hopes at the polling booths, could not understand why their leaders did not adopt a policy more favourable to the interests of their party.
The clamours of the wilder spirits, the country members who met at the October Club, began to be re-echoed even by those who were attached to the person of Harley, when, through an unexpected event, his popularity was restored at a bound. A French refugee, the former abbé La Bourlie (better known by the name of the Marquis de Guiscard), was being examined before the Privy Council of Great Britain on a charge of treason, when he stabbed Harley in the breast with a penknife (8 March 1711). Fortunately for Harley, he had a taste for fine clothes, and on that occasion was wearing an ornate gold brocade waistcoat: it seems that the knife stuck in one of the ornaments. Why Guiscard was allowed to enter the room carrying a weapon is still something of a mystery, but, as the Gregg affair demonstrated, Harley was notoriously lax in matters of security, and it is likely that Guiscard had not been properly searched. To a man in good health, the wounds would not have been serious, but the minister had been suffering from ill health and Swift had penned the prayer, "Pray God preserve his health, everything depends upon it". The joy of the nation on his recovery knew no bounds. Both Houses presented an address to the crown, a suitable response came from the Queen, and on Harley's reappearance in the Lower House, the Speaker made an oration which was spread by broadsheet through the country.
One of the most pressing problems at this time was the major crisis in public finance caused by the need to pay for the war against France. The architect of Great Britain's finance was Lord Halifax, and he wrote to Harley on the day that the new Treasury board met: "Your great abilities and your knowledge of the Revenue, will soon make you master of all the business, but how you will restore credit, and find money for the demands that will be upon you exceeds my capacity". Harley in 1711 created the South Sea Company to handle the national debt—it proved highly successful (at first—the notorious "bubble" began in 1720). He succeeded in restoring confidence under his tenure; whereas the Jacobite invasion scare of 1708 and the alarm caused by the Queen's illness in early 1714 both caused runs on the bank, Godolphin's fall did not precipitate one.
Lord High Treasurer: 1711–1714
On 23 May 1711 the minister became Baron Harley, of Wigmore in the County of Hereford, and Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer (the latter, despite its form, being a single peerage). Harley claimed the title of Oxford because of his relationship through marriage to the previous holders, the De Veres. The title of Earl Mortimer was added in case a claim was laid to the Oxford earldom. On 29 May he was appointed Lord Treasurer, and on 25 October 1712 became a Knight of the Garter.
A further attempt was made on his life in November with the Bandbox Plot, in which a hat-box, armed with loaded pistols to be triggered by a thread within the package was sent to him; the assassination attempt was forestalled by the prompt intervention of Jonathan Swift.
With the sympathy which these attempted assassinations had evoked, and with the skill which the Lord Treasurer possessed for conciliating the calmer members of either political party, he passed several months in office without any loss of reputation. He rearranged the nation's finances, and continued to support her generals in the field with ample resources for carrying on the campaign, though his emissaries were in communication with the French King, and were settling the terms of a peace independently of England's allies. After many weeks of vacillation and intrigue, when the negotiations were frequently on the point of being interrupted, the preliminary peace was signed, and in spite of the opposition of the Whig majority in the House of Lords, which was met by the creation of twelve new peers nicknamed Harley's Dozen, the much-vexed Treaty of Utrecht was brought to a conclusion on 31 March 1713. The Whig cry of "No Peace Without Spain", was not sufficient to block Parliamentary approval of the Treaty.
While these negotiations were under discussion, the friendship between Harley (Oxford) and St John, the latter who had become Secretary of State in September 1710, was fast changing into hatred. The latter had resented the rise in fortune which the stabs of Guiscard had secured for his colleague Harley, and when he was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron St John and Viscount Bolingbroke, instead of with an Earldom, his resentment knew no bounds. The royal favourite, Abigail, whose husband had been called to the Upper House as Baron Masham, deserted her old friend and relation for his more vivacious rival. The Jacobites found that, although the Lord Treasurer was profuse in his expressions of goodwill for their cause, no steps were taken to ensure its triumph, and they no longer placed reliance on promises which were repeatedly made and repeatedly broken. Even Harley's (Oxford's) friends began to complain of his dilatoriness, and to find some excuse for his apathy in ill health, aggravated by excess in the pleasures of the table and by the loss of his favourite child. The confidence of Queen Anne was gradually transferred from Oxford to Bolingbroke; on 27 July 1714 the former surrendered his staff as lord treasurer, and on 1 August the queen died.
Imprisonment: 1715–1717
On the accession of George I of Great Britain, the defeated minister retired to Herefordshire, but a few months later his impeachment was decided upon and he was committed to the Tower of London on 16 July 1715. He was accused of high treason and high crimes and misdemeanours, with the death penalty a distinct possibility. Many of the charges related to his negotiation of the Treaty of Utrecht. Further charges were added regarding his alleged secret plotting with the Jacobite claimant James. His political allies St John and Ormonde both fled to France before they could be arrested on similar grounds and entered the service of James. Initially, he was in ill health, suffering from pneumonia and was cared for by his wife Sarah who remained with him during the first weeks of his imprisonment.
Not long after he was detained a major Jacobite Rising occurred and was defeated. Interrogators of Jacobite prisoners tried to discover if there was a connection with Harley in the plan, but none could be established. This significantly delayed Harley's trial, as priority was given to the leading rebels, several of whom were executed. This may have benefited him as the angry mood amongst Whigs against him had calmed by 1717.
Harley also benefited from the Whig Split between rival factions led by James Stanhope and Robert Walpole. Walpole and his supporters went into opposition and joined with the Tories to attack Stanhope's government on many issues.
After an imprisonment of nearly two years, Harley was formally acquitted of the charges of high treason and high crimes and misdemeanours for which he had been impeached two years earlier, and allowed to resume his place among the peers.
Later life: 1717–1724
Immediately following his release Oxford was informed by George I that he was no longer welcome at court. He joined with the Tory lords to oppose the new Whig Oligarchy in Parliament, in alliance with the Opposition Whigs. In 1719 they joined together in opposition to Stanhope's Peerage Bill which was defeated. After this Lord Oxford increasingly took little part in public affairs, and died almost unnoticed in London on 21 May 1724.
Literary importance
Harley's importance to literature cannot be overstated. As a patron of the arts, he was notable. As a preservationist, he was invaluable. He used his wealth and power to collect an unparalleled library. He commissioned the creation of ballad collections, such as The Bagford Ballads, and he purchased loose poems from all corners. He preserved Renaissance literature (particularly poetry), Anglo-Saxon literature that was then incomprehensible, and a great deal of Middle English literature. His collection, with that of his son Edward, 2nd Lord Oxford and Mortimer, was sold to Parliament in 1753 for the British Museum by the Countess of Oxford and Countess Mortimer and her daughter, the Duchess of Portland; it is known as the Harley Collection.
When he was in office, Harley promoted the careers of Jonathan Swift, Alexander Pope, and John Gay. He also wrote with them as a member of the Scriblerus Club. He, along with The 1st Viscount Bolingbroke, contributed to the literary productions of the Club. His particular talent lay in poetry, and some of his work (always unsigned) has been preserved and may be found among editions of Swift's poetry. Additionally, he likely had some hand in the writing of The Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus, though it is impossible to tell how much.
In the opinion of the historian David C. Douglas, in Harley's time "the whole company of scholars looked up to Robert Harley, Earl of Oxford, as the great Maecenas of English medieval learning, and they were right to do so, for he was the correspondent and benefactor of very many of them, and he deserved their gratitude as surely as he earned through his book-collecting the thanks of posterity".
Family
In May 1685 Harley married as his first wife Elizabeth, a daughter of Thomas Foley, and they had four children before she died in November 1691:
Abigail (1685? - 15 July 1750), who married George Hay, later 8th Earl of Kinnoull in 1709.
Edward (2 June 1689-16 June 1741), who married Henrietta Cavendish Holles and succeeded as 2nd Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer.
Elizabeth (2 June 1689-20 November 1713), who married Peregrine Osborne, later 3rd Duke of Leeds in 1712; and
Robert, who died in infancy in 1690.
They lived at Brampton Bryan Hall, which he inherited from his father in 1700.
After Elizabeth's death, Harley married Sarah (died 17 June 1737), daughter of Simon Middleton of Edmonton, London, on 18 September 1694. They had no children. He died in 1724 at his house in Albemarle Street, Westminster, and was buried in the churchyard of St Barnabas, Brampton Bryan, Herefordshire.
See also
Early-18th-century Whig plots
Notes
References
Brian W. Hill, Robert Harley: Speaker, Secretary of State and Premier Minister (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988).
E. S. Roscoe, Robert Harley, Earl of Oxford, Prime Minister, 1710–14 (London: Methuen, 1902). Appendices: I. Swift's character of the Earl of Oxford.--II. Money lent to the Queen by the Earl of Oxford.--III. Note on the manuscripts and letters of and relating to Robert Harley, Earl of Oxford. online
W. A. Speck, ‘Harley, Robert, first earl of Oxford and Mortimer (1661–1724)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, Oct 2007, accessed 18 January 2011.
Further reading
Biographies
Biddle, Sheila. Bolingbroke and Harley (London: Allen & Unwin, 1975).
Downie, J. A. Robert Harley and the Press (Cambridge University Press, 1979).
Hamilton, Elizabeth. The Backstairs Dragon: A Life of Robert Harley, Earl of Oxford (Hamish Hamilton, 1969).
McInnes, Angus. Robert Harley: Puritan Politician (Littlehampton Book Services, 1970).
Miller, O.B. Robert Harley Earl of Oxford. The Stanhope Prize Essay, 1925 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1925).
Background studies
Bennett, Gareth Vaughan. "Robert Harley, the Godolphin ministry, and the bishoprics crisis of 1707." The English Historical Review 82.325 (1967): 726–746. in JSTOR
Cobbett, William, Thomas B. Howell, and J. Thomas, State Trials (London: 1809–26, part of a 34 vol. series).
Feiling, Keith. A History of the Tory Party, 1640–1714 (1924).
Davies, Godfrey. "The Fall of Harley in 1708." The English Historical Review 66.259 (1951): 246–254. in JSTOR
Gregg, Edward. Queen Anne (1980)
Geoffrey Holmes, 'Harley, St John and the Death of the Tory Party', in Geoffrey Holmes (ed.), Britain after the Glorious Revolution 1689–1714 (London: Macmillan, 1969), pp. 216–237.
Holmes, Geoffrey S., and William Arthur Speck. "The Fall of Harley in 1708 Reconsidered." The English Historical Review 80.317 (1965): 673–698. in JSTOR
Holmes, Geoffrey. British politics in the age of Anne (A&C Black, 1987).
Hoppit, Julian. A land of liberty?: England 1689–1727 (Oxford UP, 2000).
Johnson, Richard R. "Politics Redefined: An Assessment of Recent Writings on the Late Stuart Period of English History, 1660 to 1714." The William and Mary Quarterly (1978): 691–732. in JSTOR
William Edward Hartpole Lecky. History of England in the Eighteenth Century. London, 1878–90
Thomas B. Macaulay, History of England (London, 1855).
McInnes, Angus. "The Appointment of Harley in 1704." The Historical Journal 11.2 (1968): 255–271. in JSTOR
MacLachlan, A. D. 'The Road to Peace 1710–13', in Geoffrey Holmes (ed.), Britain after the Glorious Revolution 1689–1714 (London: Macmillan, 1969), pp. 197–215.
Roberts, Clayton. "The Fall of the Godolphin Ministry." The Journal of British Studies 22.1 (1982): 71–93. in JSTOR
Philip Stanhope, 5th Earl Stanhope, History of England, Comprising the Reign of Queen Anne until the Peace of Utrecht (London: 1870).
Snyder, Henry L. "Godolphin and Harley: A Study of Their Partnership in Politics." The Huntington Library Quarterly (1967): 241–271. in JSTOR
Sundstrom, Roy A. Sidney Godolphin: Servant of the state (University of Delaware Press, 1992).
Trevelyan, G.M. England under Queen Anne (3 v 1930–34).
External links
Works relating to Robert Harley at the Internet Archive
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalawag
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Scalawag
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In United States history, the term scalawag (sometimes spelled scallawag or scallywag) referred to white Southerners who supported Reconstruction policies and efforts after the conclusion of the American Civil War.
As with the term carpetbagger, the word has a long history of use as a slur in Southern partisan debates. The post-Civil War opponents of the scalawags claimed they were disloyal to traditional values and white supremacy. Scalawags were particularly hated by 1860s–1870s Southern Democrats, who called Scalawags traitors to their region, which was long known for its widespread chattel slavery of Black people. Prior to the Civil War, most Scalawags had been opposed to the southern states' secession from the United States to form the Confederate States of America.
The term is commonly used in historical studies as a descriptor of Reconstruction Era Southern white Republicans, although some historians have discarded the term due to its history of pejorative use.
Origins of the term
The term is a derogatory epithet, yet it is used by many historians in works by Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins (1991), James Alex Baggett (2003), Hyman Rubin (2006), and Frank J. Wetta (2012). The word scalawag has an uncertain origin. Its earliest attestation is from 1848 to mean a disreputable fellow, good-for-nothing, scapegrace, or blackguard. It has been speculated that "perhaps the original use of the word" referred to low-grade farm animals, but this meaning of the word is not attested until 1854. The term was later adopted by their opponents to refer to Southern whites who formed a Republican coalition with black freedmen and Northern newcomers (called carpetbaggers) to take control of their state and local governments. Among the earliest uses in this new meaning were references in Alabama and Georgia newspapers in the summer of 1867, first referring to all Southern Republicans, then later restricting it to only white ones.
Historian Ted Tunnel writes:
Reference works such as Joseph Emerson Worcester's 1860 Dictionary of the Caribbean Spanish Language defined scalawag as "A low worthless fellow; a scapegrace." Scalawag was also a word for low-grade farm animals. In early 1868 a Mississippi editor observed that scalawag "has been used from time immemorial to designate inferior milch cows in the cattle markets of Virginia and Kentucky." That June the Richmond Enquirer concurred; scalawag had heretofore "applied to all of the mean, lean, mangy, hidebound skiny [sic], worthless cattle in every particular drove." Only in recent months, the Richmond paper remarked, had the term taken on political meaning.
During the 1868–69 session of Judge "Greasy" Sam Watts' court in Haywood County, North Carolina, William Closs testified that a scalawag was "a Native born Southern white man who says he is no better than a negro and tells the truth when he says it". Some accounts record his testimony as "a native Southern white man, who says that a negro is as good as he is, and tells the truth when he says so".
By October 1868 a Mississippi newspaper was defining the expression scathingly in terms of Redemption politics. The term continued to be used as a pejorative by conservative pro-segregationist southerners well into the 20th century. But historians commonly use the term to refer to the group of historical actors with no pejorative meaning intended.
History
After the American Civil War during the Reconstruction Era 1863 to 1869, Presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson undertook policies designed to bring the South back to normal as soon as possible, while the Radical Republicans used Congress to block President Johnson's policies, which favored ex-Confederates. The Radical Republicans imposed harsh terms, and asserted new rights for the ex-slaves, the Freedmen. In the South, Black Freedmen and White Southerners with Republican sympathies joined forces with Northerners who had moved south – called "Carpetbaggers" by their southern opponents – to implement the policies of the Republican party.
Despite being a minority, scalawags gained power by taking advantage of the Reconstruction laws of 1867, which disenfranchised the majority of Southern white voters as they could not take the Ironclad oath, which required they had never served in Confederate armed forces or held any political office under the state or Confederate governments. Historian Harold Hyman says that in 1866 Congressmen "described the oath as the last bulwark against the return of ex-rebels to power, the barrier behind which Southern Unionists and Negroes protected themselves."
The coalition controlled every former Confederate state except Virginia, as well as Kentucky and Missouri – which were claimed by both the North and the South – for varying lengths of time between 1866 and 1877. Two of the most prominent scalawags were General James Longstreet, one of Robert E. Lee's top generals, and Joseph E. Brown, who had been the wartime governor of Georgia. During the 1870s, many scalawags left the Republican Party and joined the conservative-Democrat coalition. Conservative Democrats had replaced all Republican minority governments in the South by 1877, after the disputed presidential election of 1876, in which the remaining Reconstruction governments had certified the Republican electors despite the Democratic candidate having carried the states.
Historian John Hope Franklin gives an assessment of the motives of Southern Unionists. He noted that as more Southerners were allowed to vote and participate:
A curious assortment of native Southerners thus became eligible to participate in Radical Reconstruction. And the number increased as the President granted individual pardons or issued new proclamations of amnesty ... Their primary interest was in supporting a party that would build the South on a broader base than the plantation aristocracy of Antebellum days. They found it expedient to do business with Negroes and so-called carpetbaggers, but often they returned to the Democratic party as it gained sufficient strength to be a factor in Southern politics.
Eventually many scalawags joined the Democratic Redeemer coalition. A minority persisted as Republicans and formed the "tan" half of the "Black and Tan" Republican party. It was a minority element in the GOP in every Southern state after 1877.
Most of the 430 Republican newspapers in the South were edited by scalawags—only 20 percent were edited by carpetbaggers. White businessmen generally boycotted Republican papers, which survived through government patronage.
Alabama
In Alabama, Wiggins says scalawags dominated the Republican Party. Some 117 Republicans were nominated, elected, or appointed to the most lucrative and important state executive positions, judgeships, and federal legislative and judicial offices between 1868 and 1881. They included 76 white southerners, 35 northerners, and 6 former slaves. In state offices during Reconstruction, white southerners were even more predominant: 51 won nominations, compared to 11 carpetbaggers and one black. 27 scalawags won state executive nominations (75%), 24 won state judicial nominations (89%), and 101 were elected to the Alabama General Assembly (39%). However, fewer scalawags won nominations to federal offices: 15 were nominated or elected to Congress (48%) compared to 11 carpetbaggers and 5 blacks. 48 scalawags were members of the 1867 constitutional convention (49.5% of the Republican membership); and seven scalawags were members of the 1875 constitutional convention (58% of the minuscule Republican membership.)
In terms of racial issues, Wiggins says:
White Republicans as well as Democrats solicited black votes but reluctantly rewarded blacks with nominations for office only when necessary, even then reserving the more choice positions for whites. The results were predictable: these half-a-loaf gestures satisfied neither black nor white Republicans. The fatal weakness of the Republican party in Alabama, as elsewhere in the South, was its inability to create a biracial political party. And while in power even briefly, they failed to protect their members from Democratic terror. Alabama Republicans were forever on the defensive, verbally and physically."
South Carolina
In South Carolina there were about 100,000 scalawags, or about 15% of the white population. During its heyday, the Republican coalition attracted some wealthier white southerners, especially moderates favoring cooperation between open-minded Democrats and responsible Republicans. Rubin shows that the collapse of the Republican coalition came from disturbing trends to corruption and factionalism that increasingly characterized the party's governance. These failings disappointed Northern allies who abandoned the state Republicans in 1876 as the Democrats under Wade Hampton reasserted control. They used the threat of violence to cause many Republicans to stay quiet or switch to the Democrats.
Louisiana
Wetta shows that New Orleans was a major Scalawag center. Their leaders were well-to-do well-educated lawyers, physicians, teachers, ministers, businessmen, and civil servants. Many had Northern ties or were born in the North, moving to the boom city of New Orleans before the 1850s. Few were cotton or sugar planters. Most had been Whigs before the War, but many had been Democrats. Nearly all were Unionists during the War. They had joined a Republican coalition with blacks but gave at best weak support to black suffrage, black office holding, or social equality. Wetta says that their "cosmopolitanism broke the mold of southern provincialism" typical of their southern-democratic opponents. That is, scalawags had "a broader worldview."
Mississippi
The most prominent scalawag of all was James L. Alcorn of Mississippi. He was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1865, but like all southerners was not allowed to take a seat while the Republican Congress was pondering Reconstruction. He supported suffrage for freedmen and endorsed the Fourteenth Amendment, as demanded by the Republicans in Congress. Alcorn became the leader of the scalawags, who composed about a third of the Republicans in the state, in coalition with carpetbaggers and freedmen. Elected governor by the Republicans in 1869, he served from 1870 to 1871. As a modernizer he appointed many like-minded former Whigs, even if they were Democrats. He strongly supported education, including public schools for blacks only, and a new college for them, now known as Alcorn State University. He maneuvered to make his ally Hiram Revels its president. Radical Republicans opposed Alcorn and were angry at his patronage policy. One complained that Alcorn's policy was to see "the old civilization of the South modernized" rather than lead a total political, social and economic revolution.
Alcorn resigned the governorship to become a U.S. Senator (1871–1877), replacing his ally Hiram Revels, the first African American senator. Senator Alcorn urged the removal of the political disabilities of white southerners, rejected Radical Republican proposals to enforce social equality by federal legislation, he denounced the federal cotton tax as robbery and defended separate schools for both races in Mississippi. Although a former slaveholder, he characterized slavery as a cancer upon the body of the Nation and expressed the gratification which he and many other Southerners felt over its destruction.
Alcorn led a furious political battle with Senator Adelbert Ames, the carpetbagger who led the other faction of the Republican Party in Mississippi. The fight ripped apart the party, with most blacks supporting Ames, but many—including Revels, supporting Alcorn. In 1873, they both sought a decision by running for governor. Ames was supported by the Radicals and most African Americans, while Alcorn won the votes of conservative whites and most of the scalawags. Ames won by a vote of 69,870 to 50,490, and Alcorn retired from state politics.
Newton Knight has gained increased attention since the 2016 release of the feature film Free State of Jones.
Mountains
The mountain districts of Appalachia were often Republican enclaves. People there held few slaves, and they had poor transportation, deep poverty, and a standing resentment against the Low Country politicians who dominated the Confederacy and conservative Democrats in Reconstruction and after. Their strongholds in West Virginia, eastern Kentucky and Tennessee, western Virginia and North Carolina, and the Ozark region of northern Arkansas, became Republican bastions. These rural folk had a long-standing hostility toward the planter class. They harbored pro-Union sentiments during the war. Andrew Johnson was their representative leader. They welcomed Reconstruction and much of what the Radical Republicans in Congress advocated.
Outside the US
The term 'scally' is also used in the United Kingdom to refer to elements of the working class and petty criminality, in a similar vein to the more contemporary chav.
In Philippines, scalawags were used to denote rogue police or military officers.
Accusations of corruption
Scalawags were denounced as corrupt by Redeemers. The Dunning School of historians sympathized with the claims of the Democrats. Agreeing with the Dunning School, Franklin said that the scalawags "must take at least part of the blame" for graft and corruption.
The Democrats alleged the scalawags to be financially and politically corrupt, and willing to support bad government because they profited personally. One Alabama historian claimed: "On economic matters scalawags and Democrats eagerly sought aid for economic development of projects in which they had an economic stake, and they exhibited few scruples in the methods used to push beneficial financial legislation through the Alabama legislature. The quality of the book keeping habits of both Republicans and Democrats was equally notorious." However, historian Eric Foner argues there is not sufficient evidence that scalawags were any more or less corrupt than politicians of any era, including Redeemers.
Who were the scalawags?
White Southern Republicans included formerly closeted Southern abolitionists as well as former slaveowners who supported equal rights for freedmen. (The most famous of this latter group was Samuel F. Phillips, who later argued against segregation in Plessy v. Ferguson.) Included, too, were people who wanted to be part of the ruling Republican Party simply because it provided more opportunities for successful political careers. Many historians have described scalawags in terms of social class, showing that on average they were less wealthy or prestigious than the elite planter class.
As Thomas Alexander (1961) showed, there was persistent Whiggery (support for the principles of the defunct Whig Party) in the South after 1865. Many ex-Whigs became Republicans who advocated modernization through education and infrastructure—especially better roads and railroads. Many also joined the Redeemers in their successful attempt to replace the brief period of civil rights promised to African Americans during the Reconstruction era with the Jim Crow era of segregation and second-class citizenship that persisted into the 20th century.
Historian James Alex Baggett's The Scalawags provides a quantitative study of the population.
See also
Southern Unionist
Freedmen
Peckerwood
Reconstruction era of the United States
Redeemers
Collaborationism
Pejorative
Notes
References
DeSantis, Vincent P. Republicans Face the Southern Question: The New Departure Years, 1877–1897 (1998)
Garner; James Wilford. Reconstruction in Mississippi (1901). online edition
Hume, Richard L. and Jerry B. Gough. Blacks, Carpetbaggers, and Scalawags: The Constitutional Conventions of Radical Reconstruction (Louisiana State University Press, 2008); statistical classification of delegates.
Jenkins, Jeffery A., and Boris Heersink. "Republican Party Politics and the American South: From Reconstruction to Redemption, 1865-1880." (2016 paper t the 2016 Annual Meeting of the Southern Political Science Association); online.
McKinney, Gordon B. Southern Mountain Republicans, 1865–1900: Politics and the Appalachian Community (1998)
Pereyra, Lillian A., James Lusk Alcorn: Persistent Whig. (1966).
Perman, Michael. The Road to Redemption: Southern Politics 1869–1879 (1984)
Rubin, Hyman. South Carolina Scalawags (2006)
Tunnell, Ted. "Creating 'the Propaganda of History': Southern Editors and the Origins of Carpetbagger and Scalawag," Journal of Southern History (Nov 2006) 72#4 online at The Free Library
Wetta, Frank J. The Louisiana Scalawags: Politics, Race, and Terrorism During the Civil War and Reconstruction (Louisiana State University Press; 2012)
Wiggins; Sarah Woolfolk. The Scalawag in Alabama Politics, 1865—1881 (1991)
Further reading
Primary sources
Fleming, Walter L. Documentary History of Reconstruction: Political, Military, Social, Religious, Educational, and Industrial 2 vol (1906). Uses broad collection of primary sources; vol 1 on national politics; vol 2 on states
Memoirs of W. W. Holden (1911), North Carolina Scalawag governor
1860s neologisms
American Civil War political groups
Factions in the Republican Party (United States)
Political pejoratives for people
Politics of the Southern United States
Reconstruction Era
Republican Party (United States) terminology
White American culture
White supremacy in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion%20capture
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Motion capture
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Motion capture (sometimes referred as mo-cap or mocap, for short) is the process of recording the movement of objects or people. It is used in military, entertainment, sports, medical applications, and for validation of computer vision and robots. In filmmaking and video game development, it refers to recording actions of human actors and using that information to animate digital character models in 2D or 3D computer animation. When it includes face and fingers or captures subtle expressions, it is often referred to as performance capture. In many fields, motion capture is sometimes called motion tracking, but in filmmaking and games, motion tracking usually refers more to match moving.
In motion capture sessions, movements of one or more actors are sampled many times per second. Whereas early techniques used images from multiple cameras to calculate 3D positions, often the purpose of motion capture is to record only the movements of the actor, not their visual appearance. This animation data is mapped to a 3D model so that the model performs the same actions as the actor. This process may be contrasted with the older technique of rotoscoping.
Camera movements can also be motion captured so that a virtual camera in the scene will pan, tilt or dolly around the stage driven by a camera operator while the actor is performing. At the same time, the motion capture system can capture the camera and props as well as the actor's performance. This allows the computer-generated characters, images and sets to have the same perspective as the video images from the camera. A computer processes the data and displays the movements of the actor, providing the desired camera positions in terms of objects in the set. Retroactively obtaining camera movement data from the captured footage is known as match moving or camera tracking.
The first virtual actor animated by motion-capture was produced in 1993 by Didier Pourcel and his team at Gribouille. It involved "cloning" the body and face of French comedian Richard Bohringer, and then animating it with still-nascent motion-capture tools.
Advantages
Motion capture offers several advantages over traditional computer animation of a 3D model:
Low latency, close to real time, results can be obtained. In entertainment applications this can reduce the costs of keyframe-based animation. The Hand Over technique is an example of this.
The amount of work does not vary with the complexity or length of the performance to the same degree as when using traditional techniques. This allows many tests to be done with different styles or deliveries, giving a different personality only limited by the talent of the actor.
Complex movement and realistic physical interactions such as secondary motions, weight and exchange of forces can be easily recreated in a physically accurate manner.
The amount of animation data that can be produced within a given time is extremely large when compared to traditional animation techniques. This contributes to both cost-effectiveness and meeting production deadlines.
Potential for free software and third-party solutions reducing its costs.
Disadvantages
Specific hardware and special software programs are required to obtain and process the data.
The cost of the software, equipment and personnel required can be prohibitive for small productions.
The capture system may have specific requirements for the space in which it is operated, depending on camera field of view or magnetic distortion.
When problems occur, it is easier to shoot the scene again rather than trying to manipulate the data. Only a few systems allow real-time viewing of the data to decide if the take needs to be redone.
The initial results are limited to what can be performed within the capture volume without extra editing of the data.
Movement that does not follow the laws of physics cannot be captured.
Traditional animation techniques, such as added emphasis on anticipation and follow through, secondary motion or manipulating the shape of the character, as with squash and stretch animation techniques, must be added later.
If the computer model has different proportions from the capture subject, artifacts may occur. For example, if a cartoon character has large, oversized hands, these may intersect the character's body if the human performer is not careful with their physical motion.
Applications
There are many applications of Motion Capture. The most common are for video games, movies, and movement capture, however there is a research application for this technology being used at Purdue University in robotics development.
Video Games
Video games often use motion capture to animate athletes, martial artists, and other in-game characters. As early as 1988, an early form of motion capture was used to animate the 2D player characters of Martech's video game Vixen (performed by model Corinne Russell) and Magical Company's 2D arcade fighting game Last Apostle Puppet Show (to animate digitized sprites). Motion capture was later notably used to animate the 3D character models in the Sega Model arcade games Virtua Fighter (1993) and Virtua Fighter 2 (1994). In mid-1995, developer/publisher Acclaim Entertainment had its own in-house motion capture studio built into its headquarters. Namco's 1995 arcade game Soul Edge used passive optical system markers for motion capture. Motion capture also uses athletes in based-off animated games, such as Naughty Dog's Crash Bandicoot, Insomniac Games' Spyro the Dragon, and Rare's Dinosaur Planet.
Robotics
Indoor positioning is another application for optical motion capture systems. Robotics researchers often use motion capture systems when developing and evaluating control, estimation, and perception algorithms and hardware. In outdoor spaces, it’s possible to achieve accuracy to the centimeter by using the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) together with Real-Time Kinematics (RTK). However, this reduces significantly when there is no line-of-sight to the satellites — such as in indoor environments. The majority of vendors selling commercial optical motion capture systems provide accessible open source drivers that integrate with the popular Robotic Operating System (ROS) framework, allowing researchers and developers to effectively test their robots during development.
In the field of aerial robotics research, motion capture systems are widely used for positioning as well. Regulations on airspace usage limit how feasible outdoor experiments can be conducted with Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS). Indoor tests can circumvent such restrictions. Many labs and institutions around the world have built indoor motion capture volumes for this purpose.
Purdue University houses the world’s largest indoor motion capture system, inside the Purdue UAS Research and Test (PURT) facility. PURT is dedicated to UAS research, and provides tracking volume of 600,000 cubic feet using 60 motion capture cameras. The optical motion capture system is able to track targets in its volume with millimeter accuracy, effectively providing the true position of targets — the “ground truth” baseline in research and development. Results derived from other sensors and algorithms can then be compared to the ground truth data to evaluate their performance.
Movies
Movies use motion capture for CGI effects, in some cases replacing traditional cel animation, and for completely CGI creatures, such as Gollum, The Mummy, King Kong, Davy Jones from Pirates of the Caribbean, the Na'vi from the film Avatar, and Clu from Tron: Legacy. The Great Goblin, the three Stone-trolls, many of the orcs and goblins in the 2012 film The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey, and Smaug were created using motion capture.
The film Batman Forever (1995) used some motion capture for certain special effects. Warner Bros. had acquired motion capture technology from arcade video game company Acclaim Entertainment for use in the film's production. Acclaim's 1995 video game of the same name also used the same motion capture technology to animate the digitized sprite graphics.
Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999) was the first feature-length film to include a main character created using motion capture (that character being Jar Jar Binks, played by Ahmed Best), and Indian-American film Sinbad: Beyond the Veil of Mists (2000) was the first feature-length film made primarily with motion capture, although many character animators also worked on the film, which had a very limited release. 2001's Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within was the first widely released movie to be made primarily with motion capture technology. Despite its poor box-office intake, supporters of motion capture technology took notice. Total Recall had already used the technique, in the scene of the x-ray scanner and the skeletons.
The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers was the first feature film to utilize a real-time motion capture system. This method streamed the actions of actor Andy Serkis into the computer-generated skin of Gollum / Smeagol as it was being performed.
Storymind Entertainment, which is an independent Ukrainian studio, created a neo-noir third-person / shooter video game called My Eyes On You, using motion capture in order to animate its main character, Jordan Adalien, and along with non-playable characters.
Out of the three nominees for the 2006 Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, two of the nominees (Monster House and the winner Happy Feet) used motion capture, and only Disney·Pixar's Cars was animated without motion capture. In the ending credits of Pixar's film Ratatouille, a stamp appears labelling the film as "100% Pure Animation – No Motion Capture!"
Since 2001, motion capture has been used extensively to simulate or approximate the look of live-action cinema, with nearly photorealistic digital character models. The Polar Express used motion capture to allow Tom Hanks to perform as several distinct digital characters (in which he also provided the voices). The 2007 adaptation of the saga Beowulf animated digital characters whose appearances were based in part on the actors who provided their motions and voices. James Cameron's highly popular Avatar used this technique to create the Na'vi that inhabit Pandora. The Walt Disney Company has produced Robert Zemeckis's A Christmas Carol using this technique. In 2007, Disney acquired Zemeckis' ImageMovers Digital (that produces motion capture films), but then closed it in 2011, after a box office failure of Mars Needs Moms.
Television series produced entirely with motion capture animation include Laflaque in Canada, Sprookjesboom and in The Netherlands, and Headcases in the UK.
Movement Capture
Virtual reality and Augmented reality providers, such as uSens and Gestigon, allow users to interact with digital content in real time by capturing hand motions. This can be useful for training simulations, visual perception tests, or performing virtual walk-throughs in a 3D environment. Motion capture technology is frequently used in digital puppetry systems to drive computer-generated characters in real time.
Gait analysis is one application of motion capture in clinical medicine. Techniques allow clinicians to evaluate human motion across several biomechanical factors, often while streaming this information live into analytical software.
Some physical therapy clinics utilize motion capture as an objective way to quantify patient progress.
During the filming of James Cameron's Avatar all of the scenes involving this process were directed in real-time using Autodesk MotionBuilder software to render a screen image which allowed the director and the actor to see what they would look like in the movie, making it easier to direct the movie as it would be seen by the viewer. This method allowed views and angles not possible from a pre-rendered animation. Cameron was so proud of his results that he invited Steven Spielberg and George Lucas on set to view the system in action.
In Marvel's The Avengers, Mark Ruffalo used motion capture so he could play his character the Hulk, rather than have him be only CGI as in previous films, making Ruffalo the first actor to play both the human and the Hulk versions of Bruce Banner.
FaceRig software uses facial recognition technology from ULSee.Inc to map a player's facial expressions and the body tracking technology from Perception Neuron to map the body movement onto a 2D or 3D character's motion on-screen.
During Game Developers Conference 2016 in San Francisco Epic Games demonstrated full-body motion capture live in Unreal Engine. The whole scene, from the upcoming game Hellblade about a woman warrior named Senua, was rendered in real-time. The keynote was a collaboration between Unreal Engine, Ninja Theory, 3Lateral, Cubic Motion, IKinema and Xsens.
In 2020, the two-time Olympic figure skating champion Yuzuru Hanyu graduated from Waseda University. In his thesis , using data provided by 31 sensors placed on his body, he analysed his jumps. He evaluated the use of technology both in order to improve the scoring system and to help skaters improve their jumping technique. In March 2021 a summary of the thesis was published in the academic journal.
Methods and systems
Motion tracking or motion capture started as a photogrammetric analysis tool in biomechanics research in the 1970s and 1980s, and expanded into education, training, sports and recently computer animation for television, cinema, and video games as the technology matured. Since the 20th century, the performer has to wear markers near each joint to identify the motion by the positions or angles between the markers. Acoustic, inertial, LED, magnetic or reflective markers, or combinations of any of these, are tracked, optimally at least two times the frequency rate of the desired motion. The resolution of the system is important in both the spatial resolution and temporal resolution as motion blur causes almost the same problems as low resolution. Since the beginning of the 21st century - and because of the rapid growth of technology - new methods have been developed. Most modern systems can extract the silhouette of the performer from the background. Afterwards all joint angles are calculated by fitting in a mathematical model into the silhouette. For movements you can not see a change of the silhouette, there are hybrid systems available that can do both (marker and silhouette), but with less marker. In robotics, some motion capture systems are based on simultaneous localization and mapping.
Optical systems
Optical systems utilize data captured from image sensors to triangulate the 3D position of a subject between two or more cameras calibrated to provide overlapping projections. Data acquisition is traditionally implemented using special markers attached to an actor; however, more recent systems are able to generate accurate data by tracking surface features identified dynamically for each particular subject. Tracking a large number of performers or expanding the capture area is accomplished by the addition of more cameras. These systems produce data with three degrees of freedom for each marker, and rotational information must be inferred from the relative orientation of three or more markers; for instance shoulder, elbow and wrist markers providing the angle of the elbow. Newer hybrid systems are combining inertial sensors with optical sensors to reduce occlusion, increase the number of users and improve the ability to track without having to manually clean up data.
Passive markers
Passive optical systems use markers coated with a retroreflective material to reflect light that is generated near the camera's lens. The camera's threshold can be adjusted so only the bright reflective markers will be sampled, ignoring skin and fabric.
The centroid of the marker is estimated as a position within the two-dimensional image that is captured. The grayscale value of each pixel can be used to provide sub-pixel accuracy by finding the centroid of the Gaussian.
An object with markers attached at known positions is used to calibrate the cameras and obtain their positions, and the lens distortion of each camera is measured. If two calibrated cameras see a marker, a three-dimensional fix can be obtained. Typically a system will consist of around 2 to 48 cameras. Systems of over three hundred cameras exist to try to reduce marker swap. Extra cameras are required for full coverage around the capture subject and multiple subjects.
Vendors have constraint software to reduce the problem of marker swapping since all passive markers appear identical. Unlike active marker systems and magnetic systems, passive systems do not require the user to wear wires or electronic equipment. Instead, hundreds of rubber balls are attached with reflective tape, which needs to be replaced periodically. The markers are usually attached directly to the skin (as in biomechanics), or they are velcroed to a performer wearing a full-body spandex/lycra suit designed specifically for motion capture. This type of system can capture large numbers of markers at frame rates usually around 120 to 160 fps although by lowering the resolution and tracking a smaller region of interest they can track as high as 10,000 fps.
Active marker
Active optical systems triangulate positions by illuminating one LED at a time very quickly or multiple LEDs with software to identify them by their relative positions, somewhat akin to celestial navigation. Rather than reflecting light back that is generated externally, the markers themselves are powered to emit their own light. Since the inverse square law provides one quarter of the power at two times the distance, this can increase the distances and volume for capture. This also enables a high signal-to-noise ratio, resulting in very low marker jitter and a resulting high measurement resolution (often down to 0.1 mm within the calibrated volume).
The TV series Stargate SG1 produced episodes using an active optical system for the VFX allowing the actor to walk around props that would make motion capture difficult for other non-active optical systems.
ILM used active markers in Van Helsing to allow capture of Dracula's flying brides on very large sets similar to Weta's use of active markers in Rise of the Planet of the Apes. The power to each marker can be provided sequentially in phase with the capture system providing a unique identification of each marker for a given capture frame at a cost to the resultant frame rate. The ability to identify each marker in this manner is useful in real-time applications. The alternative method of identifying markers is to do it algorithmically requiring extra processing of the data.
There are also possibilities to find the position by using colored LED markers. In these systems, each color is assigned to a specific point of the body.
One of the earliest active marker systems in the 1980s was a hybrid passive-active mocap system with rotating mirrors and colored glass reflective markers and which used masked linear array detectors.
Time modulated active marker
Active marker systems can further be refined by strobing one marker on at a time, or tracking multiple markers over time and modulating the amplitude or pulse width to provide marker ID. 12-megapixel spatial resolution modulated systems show more subtle movements than 4-megapixel optical systems by having both higher spatial and temporal resolution. Directors can see the actor's performance in real-time, and watch the results on the motion capture-driven CG character. The unique marker IDs reduce the turnaround, by eliminating marker swapping and providing much cleaner data than other technologies. LEDs with onboard processing and radio synchronization allow motion capture outdoors in direct sunlight while capturing at 120 to 960 frames per second due to a high-speed electronic shutter. Computer processing of modulated IDs allows less hand cleanup or filtered results for lower operational costs. This higher accuracy and resolution requires more processing than passive technologies, but the additional processing is done at the camera to improve resolution via subpixel or centroid processing, providing both high resolution and high speed. These motion capture systems typically cost $20,000 for an eight-camera, 12-megapixel spatial resolution 120-hertz system with one actor.
Semi-passive imperceptible marker
One can reverse the traditional approach based on high-speed cameras. Systems such as Prakash use inexpensive multi-LED high-speed projectors. The specially built multi-LED IR projectors optically encode the space. Instead of retro-reflective or active light emitting diode (LED) markers, the system uses photosensitive marker tags to decode the optical signals. By attaching tags with photo sensors to scene points, the tags can compute not only their own locations of each point, but also their own orientation, incident illumination, and reflectance.
These tracking tags work in natural lighting conditions and can be imperceptibly embedded in attire or other objects. The system supports an unlimited number of tags in a scene, with each tag uniquely identified to eliminate marker reacquisition issues. Since the system eliminates a high-speed camera and the corresponding high-speed image stream, it requires significantly lower data bandwidth. The tags also provide incident illumination data which can be used to match scene lighting when inserting synthetic elements. The technique appears ideal for on-set motion capture or real-time broadcasting of virtual sets but has yet to be proven.
Underwater motion capture system
Motion capture technology has been available for researchers and scientists for a few decades, which has given new insight into many fields.
Underwater cameras
The vital part of the system, the underwater camera, has a waterproof housing. The housing has a finish that withstands corrosion and chlorine which makes it perfect for use in basins and swimming pools. There are two types of cameras. Industrial high-speed cameras can also be used as infrared cameras. Infrared underwater cameras come with a cyan light strobe instead of the typical IR light for minimum fall-off underwater and high-speed cameras with an LED light or with the option of using image processing.
Measurement volume
An underwater camera is typically able to measure 15–20 meters depending on the water quality, the camera and the type of marker used. Unsurprisingly, the best range is achieved when the water is clear, and like always, the measurement volume is also dependent on the number of cameras. A range of underwater markers are available for different circumstances.
Tailored
Different pools require different mountings and fixtures. Therefore, all underwater motion capture systems are uniquely tailored to suit each specific pool instalment. For cameras placed in the center of the pool, specially designed tripods, using suction cups, are provided.
Markerless
Emerging techniques and research in computer vision are leading to the rapid development of the markerless approach to motion capture. Markerless systems such as those developed at Stanford University, the University of Maryland, MIT, and the Max Planck Institute, do not require subjects to wear special equipment for tracking. Special computer algorithms are designed to allow the system to analyze multiple streams of optical input and identify human forms, breaking them down into constituent parts for tracking. ESC entertainment, a subsidiary of Warner Brothers Pictures created especially to enable virtual cinematography, including photorealistic digital look-alikes for filming The Matrix Reloaded and The Matrix Revolutions movies, used a technique called Universal Capture that utilized 7 camera setup and the tracking the optical flow of all pixels over all the 2-D planes of the cameras for motion, gesture and facial expression capture leading to photorealistic results.
Traditional systems
Traditionally markerless optical motion tracking is used to keep track of various objects, including airplanes, launch vehicles, missiles and satellites. Many such optical motion tracking applications occur outdoors, requiring differing lens and camera configurations. High-resolution images of the target being tracked can thereby provide more information than just motion data. The image obtained from NASA's long-range tracking system on the space shuttle Challenger's fatal launch provided crucial evidence about the cause of the accident. Optical tracking systems are also used to identify known spacecraft and space debris despite the fact that it has a disadvantage compared to radar in that the objects must be reflecting or emitting sufficient light.
An optical tracking system typically consists of three subsystems: the optical imaging system, the mechanical tracking platform and the tracking computer.
The optical imaging system is responsible for converting the light from the target area into a digital image that the tracking computer can process. Depending on the design of the optical tracking system, the optical imaging system can vary from as simple as a standard digital camera to as specialized as an astronomical telescope on the top of a mountain. The specification of the optical imaging system determines the upper limit of the effective range of the tracking system.
The mechanical tracking platform holds the optical imaging system and is responsible for manipulating the optical imaging system in such a way that it always points to the target being tracked. The dynamics of the mechanical tracking platform combined with the optical imaging system determines the tracking system's ability to keep the lock on a target that changes speed rapidly.
The tracking computer is responsible for capturing the images from the optical imaging system, analyzing the image to extract the target position and controlling the mechanical tracking platform to follow the target. There are several challenges. First, the tracking computer has to be able to capture the image at a relatively high frame rate. This posts a requirement on the bandwidth of the image-capturing hardware. The second challenge is that the image processing software has to be able to extract the target image from its background and calculate its position. Several textbook image-processing algorithms are designed for this task. This problem can be simplified if the tracking system can expect certain characteristics that is common in all the targets it will track. The next problem down the line is controlling the tracking platform to follow the target. This is a typical control system design problem rather than a challenge, which involves modeling the system dynamics and designing controllers to control it. This will however become a challenge if the tracking platform the system has to work with is not designed for real-time.
The software that runs such systems is also customized for the corresponding hardware components. One example of such software is OpticTracker, which controls computerized telescopes to track moving objects at great distances, such as planes and satellites. Another option is the software SimiShape, which can also be used hybrid in combination with markers.
RGB-D cameras
RGB-D cameras such as kinect capture both the color and depth images. By fusing the two images, 3D colored voxel can be captured, allowing motion capture of 3D human motion and human surface in real-time.
Because of the use of a single-view camera, motions captured are usually noisy. Machine learning techniques have been proposed to automatically reconstruct such noisy motions into higher quality ones, using methods such as lazy learning and Gaussian models. Such method generates accurate enough motion for serious applications like ergonomic assessment.
Non-optical systems
Inertial systems
Inertial motion capture technology is based on miniature inertial sensors, biomechanical models and sensor fusion algorithms. The motion data of the inertial sensors (inertial guidance system) is often transmitted wirelessly to a computer, where the motion is recorded or viewed. Most inertial systems use inertial measurement units (IMUs) containing a combination of gyroscope, magnetometer, and accelerometer, to measure rotational rates. These rotations are translated to a skeleton in the software. Much like optical markers, the more IMU sensors the more natural the data. No external cameras, emitters or markers are needed for relative motions, although they are required to give the absolute position of the user if desired. Inertial motion capture systems capture the full six degrees of freedom body motion of a human in real-time and can give limited direction information if they include a magnetic bearing sensor, although these are much lower resolution and susceptible to electromagnetic noise. Benefits of using Inertial systems include: capturing in a variety of environments including tight spaces, no solving, portability, and large capture areas. Disadvantages include lower positional accuracy and positional drift which can compound over time. These systems are similar to the Wii controllers but are more sensitive and have greater resolution and update rates. They can accurately measure the direction to the ground to within a degree. The popularity of inertial systems is rising amongst game developers, mainly because of the quick and easy setup resulting in a fast pipeline. A range of suits are now available from various manufacturers and base prices range from $600 (like Husky Sense) to US$80,000.
Mechanical motion
Mechanical motion capture systems directly track body joint angles and are often referred to as exoskeleton motion capture systems, due to the way the sensors are attached to the body. A performer attaches the skeletal-like structure to their body and as they move so do the articulated mechanical parts, measuring the performer's relative motion. Mechanical motion capture systems are real-time, relatively low-cost, free from occlusion, and wireless (untethered) systems that have unlimited capture volume. Typically, they are rigid structures of jointed, straight metal or plastic rods linked together with potentiometers that articulate at the joints of the body. These suits tend to be in the $25,000 to $75,000 range plus an external absolute positioning system. Some suits provide limited force feedback or haptic input.
Magnetic systems
Magnetic systems calculate position and orientation by the relative magnetic flux of three orthogonal coils on both the transmitter and each receiver. The relative intensity of the voltage or current of the three coils allows these systems to calculate both range and orientation by meticulously mapping the tracking volume. The sensor output is 6DOF, which provides useful results obtained with two-thirds the number of markers required in optical systems; one on upper arm and one on lower arm for elbow position and angle. The markers are not occluded by nonmetallic objects but are susceptible to magnetic and electrical interference from metal objects in the environment, like rebar (steel reinforcing bars in concrete) or wiring, which affect the magnetic field, and electrical sources such as monitors, lights, cables and computers. The sensor response is nonlinear, especially toward edges of the capture area. The wiring from the sensors tends to preclude extreme performance movements. With magnetic systems, it is possible to monitor the results of a motion capture session in real time. The capture volumes for magnetic systems are dramatically smaller than they are for optical systems. With the magnetic systems, there is a distinction between alternating-current(AC) and direct-current(DC) systems: DC system uses square pulses, AC systems uses sine wave pulse.
Stretch sensors
Stretch sensors are flexible parallel plate capacitors that measure either stretch, bend, shear, or pressure and are typically produced from silicone. When the sensor stretches or squeezes its capacitance value changes. This data can be transmitted via Bluetooth or direct input and used to detect minute changes in body motion. Stretch sensors are unaffected by magnetic interference and are free from occlusion. The stretchable nature of the sensors also means they do not suffer from positional drift, which is common with inertial systems. Stretchable sensors, on the other hands, due to the material properties of their substrates and conducting materials, suffer from relatively high signal-to-noise ratio, requiring filtering or machine learning to make them usable for motion capture. These solutions result in higher latency when compared to alternative sensors.
Related techniques
Facial motion capture
Most traditional motion capture hardware vendors provide for some type of low-resolution facial capture utilizing anywhere from 32 to 300 markers with either an active or passive marker system. All of these solutions are limited by the time it takes to apply the markers, calibrate the positions and process the data. Ultimately the technology also limits their resolution and raw output quality levels.
High-fidelity facial motion capture, also known as performance capture, is the next generation of fidelity and is utilized to record the more complex movements in a human face in order to capture higher degrees of emotion. Facial capture is currently arranging itself in several distinct camps, including traditional motion capture data, blend-shaped based solutions, capturing the actual topology of an actor's face, and proprietary systems.
The two main techniques are stationary systems with an array of cameras capturing the facial expressions from multiple angles and using software such as the stereo mesh solver from OpenCV to create a 3D surface mesh, or to use light arrays as well to calculate the surface normals from the variance in brightness as the light source, camera position or both are changed. These techniques tend to be only limited in feature resolution by the camera resolution, apparent object size and number of cameras. If the users face is 50 percent of the working area of the camera and a camera has megapixel resolution, then sub millimeter facial motions can be detected by comparing frames. Recent work is focusing on increasing the frame rates and doing optical flow to allow the motions to be retargeted to other computer generated faces, rather than just making a 3D Mesh of the actor and their expressions.
Radio frequency positioning
Radio frequency positioning systems are becoming more viable as higher frequency radio frequency devices allow greater precision than older technologies such as radar. The speed of light is 30 centimeters per nanosecond (billionth of a second), so a 10 gigahertz (billion cycles per second) radio frequency signal enables an accuracy of about 3 centimeters. By measuring amplitude to a quarter wavelength, it is possible to improve the resolution down to about 8 mm. To achieve the resolution of optical systems, frequencies of 50 gigahertz or higher are needed, which are almost as dependent on line of sight and as easy to block as optical systems. Multipath and reradiation of the signal are likely to cause additional problems, but these technologies will be ideal for tracking larger volumes with reasonable accuracy, since the required resolution at 100 meter distances is not likely to be as high. Many scientists believe that radio frequency will never produce the accuracy required for motion capture.
Researchers at Massachusetts Institute of Technology researchers said in 2015 that they had made a system that tracks motion by radio frequency signals.
Non-traditional systems
An alternative approach was developed where the actor is given an unlimited walking area through the use of a rotating sphere, similar to a hamster ball, which contains internal sensors recording the angular movements, removing the need for external cameras and other equipment. Even though this technology could potentially lead to much lower costs for motion capture, the basic sphere is only capable of recording a single continuous direction. Additional sensors worn on the person would be needed to record anything more.
Another alternative is using a 6DOF (Degrees of freedom) motion platform with an integrated omni-directional treadmill with high resolution optical motion capture to achieve the same effect. The captured person can walk in an unlimited area, negotiating different uneven terrains. Applications include medical rehabilitation for balance training, bio-mechanical research and virtual reality.
3D pose estimation
In 3D pose estimation, an actor's pose can be reconstructed from an image or depth map.
See also
Animation database
Gesture recognition
Finger tracking
Inverse kinematics (a different way of making CGI effects realistic)
Kinect (created by Microsoft Corporation)
List of motion and gesture file formats
Motion-capture acting
Video tracking
VR positional tracking
References
External links
The fascination for motion capture , an introduction to the history of motion capture technology
Computer-related introductions in 1994
Audiovisual introductions in 2000
Computer animation
3D computer graphics
Computing input devices
Articles containing video clips
Motion control photography
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396996
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady%20Deathstrike
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Lady Deathstrike
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Lady Deathstrike (Yuriko Oyama), occasionally spelled Deathstryke, is a supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. She is a foe of the X-Men, especially Wolverine.
Her father Lord Dark Wind created the adamantium-bonding process that was forced on Wolverine by Weapon X. A self-styled warrior, Lady Deathstrike hired the villain Spiral's "body shoppe" to bond adamantium to her skeleton in addition to other cyber-genetic enhancements. She has worked as a mercenary and assassin and feels a need to prove herself by killing Wolverine. Lady Deathstrike is the sister of human crime boss Lord Deathstrike (Kazuo Oyama). She, along with former X-Men members Mystique, Sabretooth, Domino, Warpath, and Old Man Logan formed a team called Weapon X-Men, but later changed to Weapon X-Force after Logan and Warpath left with Omega Red.
A mutant version of Lady Deathstrike, played by Kelly Hu and without any of Deathstrike's backstory, appeared as a brainwashed henchman of William Stryker in the 2003 film X2.
Publication history
She first appeared as Yuriko Oyama in Daredevil #197 (August 1983) and later as Lady Deathstrike in Alpha Flight #33 (April 1986). She was created by writer Dennis O'Neil and artist Larry Hama. Writers Bill Mantlo and Chris Claremont added defining characteristics such as her cyborg abilities, while artist Barry Windsor-Smith designed her cyborg appearance.
Fictional character biography
Early life in Japan
Yuriko Oyama (大山 ゆりこ Oyama Yuriko) was born in Osaka, Japan. Her father was Lord Dark Wind (Kenji Oyama), a Japanese crime lord and criminal scientist who created the process by which adamantium can be bonded to bone. Kenji was a former Japanese kamikaze pilot during World War II. His face was horribly scarred in a failed suicide attack on an American battleship. Feeling ashamed by his failure decades earlier, he scarred the faces of Yuriko and her two brothers in a ritual design. Her two brothers later died while in their father's service.
Yuriko teamed up with Daredevil to free her lover, Kiro, from her father's servitude, and to take vengeance on her father for her scarring and the death of her two brothers. She guided Daredevil to Lord Dark Wind's private island in search of Bullseye. However, when Yuriko slew Lord Dark Wind, the devoted Kiro chose suicide to honor his master.
Wolverine, X-Men, and Alpha Flight
Distraught, Yuriko belatedly embraced her father's ideals and sought to track down whoever dishonored him and restore Japan's honor. She adopted a costumed identity, as a samurai warrior. She attempted to find Bullseye with an adamantium tracking device, intending to get revenge on him for betraying her father and retrieve the adamantium in his bones for study. Instead, the device led to Wolverine, whose skeleton had also been bonded with adamantium. Deathstrike sought to kill him to right the wrong of the theft of her father's theories and to restore her family's honor; however, she and her followers were defeated by Wolverine and Vindicator of Alpha Flight. She went to the Mojoverse and sought Spiral's "body shoppe" where she received extensive cybernetic enhancements including adamantium bones and talons. As a cyborg, she became a professional criminal, and joined forces with former Hellfire Club mercenaries-turned-cyborgs Cole, Macon, and Reese. The four cyborgs stalked Wolverine and Katie Power in New York.
Lady Deathstrike — along with Cole, Macon, and Reese — joined the team of criminal cyborgs called the Reavers, led by Donald Pierce. Together, the Reavers captured and crucified Wolverine. Lady Deathstrike was accidentally teleported along with Wolverine and Puck to 1937 in Spain. There, she joined forces with a Luftwaffe unit, and battled Wolverine. Her right arm was destroyed by a tank, and when she returned to the present she was given a new right arm. The Reavers gang was broken up by Trevor Fitzroy's Sentinels and most of them were destroyed, though Deathstrike herself survived. She later battled Wolverine and Sabretooth in Times Square.
At times she has resigned her quest to kill Logan and has even worked with the X-Men cooperatively toward a common goal, such as the defeat of Stryfe. In an encounter with Logan shortly after Magneto removed the adamantium from his skeleton, Lady Deathstrike again encountered Puck and Vindicator. The fight with Wolverine destroyed much of Vindicator's house and ended when Wolverine revealed his bone claws. As Logan no longer possessed the adamantium stolen from her father, she concluded there was no honor to be gained by killing him. She leaves the premises peacefully. However, she still remains a mercenary and an assassin.
When Captain America appears in Japan after a year spent in another dimension, he manages to find Lady Deathstrike working with terrorists. Their goals were to drive American influence out of Japan, by any means possible, including mass murder. Captain America defeats her before any innocent lives are lost.
Lady Deathstrike resurfaced as an ally of William Stryker. She displays a new ability to access the Internet via her cybernetics but this led to her being co-opted and controlled by Mount Haven's computer systems.
Lady Deathstrike was responsible for mutilating and nearly killing Sunfire, whose legs she severed in battle.
Civil War
Following her confrontation with Rogue and Sunfire, Lady Deathstrike resurfaced as a member of one of the United States government's Army of Thunderbolts in the super hero Civil War, temporarily released from prison in order to go after the Secret Avengers, who resisted the Superhuman Registration Act. She fights alongside other criminals such as Venom, Jester, Bullseye, Jack O'Lantern, Taskmaster, and Songbird. She participates in the final battle of the Civil War in Times Square, New York City, before being sent to the Negative Zone Prison.
Messiah Complex
Lady Deathstrike returns during the Messiah Complex story to play an important role in the series, facing off against X-23. This was confirmed by IGN Comics, who, in their editorial analysis "13 Days of Messiah Complex," revealed that Deathstrike would be leading a new team of Reavers throughout the event. As reported, Lady Deathstrike appears alongside the Reavers, now made up of nameless Purifiers with armor and weapons instead of any former members. Having allied with the Purifiers to destroy mutant-kind, Lady Deathstrike leads the new Reaver team against the New X-Men, gravely wounding Hellion in the process. Her armor was destroyed by X-23 and Rockslide. She appears again in pursuit of Cable and the mutant newborn where she battled X-Force and X-23 again and X-23 nearly kills her.
Sisterhood of Mutants
Lady Deathstrike is apparently saved from death due to the actions of Spiral, as she is later seen under repair in Spiral's Body Shoppe when Madelyne Pryor approaches Spiral with an invitation of membership in her Sisterhood of Mutants. Despite not originally being approached to join the Sisterhood, Lady Deathstrike accepts Pryor's offer nonetheless. It appears that while Spiral repaired Lady Deathstrike's body, she gave her a more submissive personality, as during missions with the Sisterhood, she continually does whatever she is told, while referring to Spiral as "Mistress". After the Sisterhood resurrects Psylocke, they make their move on the X-Men, with Lady Deathstrike being tasked to take down Wolverine, by piercing his lungs. Lady Deathstrike kept Wolverine busy while the Sisterhood raided his room for one of his most treasured possessions: a lock of Jean Grey's hair.
Rejoining with the Reavers
Lady Deathstrike reappeared with the Reavers. Still driven for revenge against Wolverine, Lady Deathstrike worked with the Reavers to suicide-bomb Utopia. However, when X-Force intervened, Lady Deathstrike escaped her body via Internet.
During the Ends of the Earth storyline, Lady Deathstrike was seen in one of Doctor Octopus's facilities in Australia. When Kangaroo II enters this facility, Lady Deathstrike ambushes and kills him in one swift swipe from her claw.
Lady Deathstrike and the Reavers are later seen in the Core, an underground city populated by robots. She battles with Captain Britain after the Secret Avengers arrive in the city in search of Ant-Man.
Lady Deathstrike's consciousness was later uploaded in the body of Ana Cortes, establishing a symbiotic relationship with Ana's consciousness. Cortes was a teenage Latin female that has returned to Bogota, Colombia from boarding school after the death of her father to inherit her deceased father's kingdom. She then traveled to the Jean Grey Academy alongside her friend Reiko to find Karima Shapandar and retrieve the Omega Sentinel technology. Deathstrike and her team see her jogging with Monet, and attempt to ambush them. During the confrontation, Karmina is shot, and Monet manages to protect her temporarily, until Monet gets caught off guard. Before Deathstrike could finish her attack, Karmina shoots, and injures Lady Deathstrike causing her to retreat to regroup and get more intel. She then learns of Arkea, and has hired Typhoid Mary to help her achieve this goal. Deathstrike and Typhoid Mary argue with John Sublime about Arkea and they manage to get information out of him that there was more than one piece of Arkea that was alive, as the one they had was dead and not viable. Mary knocks Sublime unconscious and she and Deathstrike manages to escape before Psylocke comes to check on Sublime. Deathstrike and Mary makes their way to Troms, Norway, where they find Amora, who has been exiled by Thor and stripped of her powers. Deathstrike promises Amora that she will make her powerful once again. Amora brings Deathstrike and Mary to where the Arkea meteorite is located when Mary wants to renegotiate the terms of her hire and want to become partners. Deathstrike says it was not just a partnership, but the formation of a new Sisterhood of Mutants. With the live Arkea taking possession of Reiko, she empowers Deathstrike, Mary and Amora. Deathstrike and her Sisterhood manage to escape the X-Men and Monet with Arkea activating several sentinels under the ocean. The mental conflict between Ana and Yuriko made Lady Deathstrike increasingly unstable. Ana Cortes grew to regret her life as a supervillain and did not like the direction Arkea was leading the Sisterhood. She notified the X-Men of the Sisterhood's location, after she became increasingly concerned about Arkea's bold moves such as having Amora resurrect Selene Gallio, the Black Queen. Ana flipped out and tried to get Typhoid Mary to kill her, but Mary refused. Upon Arkea asking Ana to come be a part of the procedure to resurrect Madelyne Pryor, Ana killed herself to prevent Arkea from using her further. Ana's death didn't stop Arkea's plans. Arkea simply removed Yuriko's consciousness from Ana's body and placed it in Reiko's body along with Arkea's own. Ana's body was spliced with Jean Grey's DNA in order to enable it to host Madelyne Pryor's consciousness. Amora then completed the resurrection of Madelyne Pryor. After the X-Men's confrontation with the Sisterhood, Karima leaves the X-Men to team up with Sabra and investigate the Cortes crime family. Though Arkea was destroyed by the X-Men, Lady Deathstrike's consciousness remained intact inside Reiko's body.
The Reavers later arrived in Killhorn Falls with Lady Deathstrike and attempt to hunt down Logan for good. As the Reavers attacked Killhorn Falls, Old Man Logan single-handedly killed all the Reavers soldiers and confronted Lady Deathstrike before saving Maureen. After being wounded multiple times, Logan manages to defeat Lady Deathstrike, as she started limping away when Logan blacked out. Thinking that he failed to protect Maureen from the chaos, Logan decided to set-off to find Lady Deathstrike.
While in hiding during the "Weapons of Mutant Destruction" storyline, Lady Deathstrike is discovered and captured by the new Weapon X. While held in their captivity, she is experimented on. This experiment led to her nanotechnology being used in their creation of Weapon H.
Hunt for Wolverine
During the "Hunt for Wolverine" storyline, Lady Deathstrike is seen at Chester's Bar where she tells Daken and Sabretooth about what the Reavers discovered when they went after Wolverine and that he has recently been sighted alive. The three of them go on the trail of Wolverine where they arrive in Maybelle, Arizona. Sabretooth and Lady Deathstrike continue searching Maybelle for Wolverine when they are attacked by zombies made from those at a birthday party. One of them bites Sabretooth as Lady Deathstrike gets him away from the zombies. Both of them wonder where the zombies came from. As they get to their car, it suddenly explodes. Sabretooth starts running and finds that his zombie bite is not healing. Sabretooth comes across more zombies as he starts killing them with Lady Deathstrike not far behind him. Both of them take refuge in a garage. When Daken catches up to them, Lady Deathstrike and Sabretooth are informed of a glowing green device in the power station that has to do with the zombies and they must fight their way past the zombies to destroy it before Maybelle is burned to the ground. While fighting zombies and Soteira Killteam Nine, Lady Deathstrike discovers that one of the soldiers from Soteira Killteam Nine is a zombified version of her father who stabs Lady Deathstrike. Lady Deathstrike recovers and continues her fight with her father until Lord Dark Wind cuts off her left hand. Using her right hand, Lady Deathstrike stabs her father in the neck. Then she does the same thing to a zombified Graydon Creed. After telling Sabretooth that the adamantium they tracked was her father's adamantium and learning that Daken is dead, Lady Deathstrike accompanies Sabretooth to where the glowing device is and destroy the device before Maybelle can be burned to the ground. The next day, Sabretooth and Lady Deathstrike carjack someone outside a diner as Sabretooth suggests to Lady Deathstrike to have her Reaver friends get her a new hand. Lady Deathstrike tells Sabretooth to shut up and drive.
Powers and abilities
Lady Deathstrike was transformed into a cyborg by Spiral and the "Body Shop" using alien technology of Mojo's dimension, with later modifications by Donald Pierce. She has superhuman strength, speed, stamina, durability, and agility. Deathstrike's skeleton has been artificially laced with molecules of adamantium, rendering her skeletal structure physically unbreakable. Later, in the pages of Uncanny X-Men, it was shown that Spiral used magic to infuse the metal into Deathstrike's body. Deathstrike's fingers have been replaced by five long adamantium claws replacing each finger of each hand. Aside from being as indestructible as her skeleton, these talons are capable of slicing through virtually any substance, other than adamantium itself and Captain America's shield. She is capable of telescoping these claws to twice their usual length. She also had the ability to interface with computers, allowing direct data access to her brain's memory centers. Although her normal form is visibly that of a cyborg, she uses disguises when necessary. She is a trained assassin and is skilled in a variety of Asian martial arts. Lady Deathstrike is especially skilled with swords, and while she prefers stealth and subtlety in her killings, she is emotionally disturbed and this interferes with her effectiveness. Deathstrike suffers from mental instability; she is an unbalanced fanatic, a condition worsened by her transformation into a cyborg.
Before she received her cybernetic enhancements, Deathstrike used a special five-foot steel katana that was electromagnetically tempered and sheathed in energy. The energy sheath enabled the sword to cut through most substances and made it as resilient as adamantium. She has also used shuriken, nunchakus, a high-powered long-range blaster which fires armor-piercing explosive bullets, and wrist-bands containing adamantium detectors. She also wore a modified traditional Japanese battle-armor which could withstand even superhuman blows. Her items were constructed by weapon-smiths of Lord Dark Wind's organization.
Deathstrike later received an upgrade that provides her with a kind of "cybernetic healing factor" that functions similarly, although not as efficiently, to Wolverine's.
Lady Deathstrike is fluent in both English and Japanese, and an accomplished pilot of various air and sea-craft.
The left side of Yuriko Oyama's face was scarred in a ritual design by her father; this was apparently surgically repaired when she became a cyborg.
Lady Deathstrike's original body was destroyed. She became a digital consciousness. She was downloaded into Ana Cortes, who became her host and the new Lady Deathstrike until Ana killed herself. Yuriko's mind was placed into the body of her friend Reiko, who currently hosts her.
Reception
Accolades
In 2009, IGN ranked Lady Deathstrike 78th in their "Top 100 Comic Book Vilains" list.
In 2019, CBR.com ranked Lady Deathstrike 6th in their "Marvel: Old Man Logan Villains" list.
In 2019, IGN ranked Lady Deathstrike 20th in their "Top 25 Marvel Villains" list.
In 2021, Screen Rant included Lady Deathstrike in their "10 Marvel Characters Fans Would Love To See In Marvel's Wolverine" list.
In 2022, CBR.com ranked Lady Deathstrike 9th in their "10 Deadliest Female Villains In Marvel Comics" list.
Other versions
Amalgam
In the Amalgam Comics universe, Lady Deathstrike was merged with Talia al Ghul of DC Comics and became Lady Talia. She was the lover of Logan Wayne aka Dark Claw, but swore revenge when Dark Claw murdered her father, Ra's Al-Pocalypse, to prevent him from unleashing a deadly chemical on the world. She became cybernetically enhanced and ambushed Dark Claw in his cave after tying up his sidekick, the Sparrow. In a choice between love and revenge, she nearly murders Logan, but his healing factor allows him to recover from the injury.
Ultimate Marvel
Lady Deathstrike has also appeared in Ultimate Marvel's Ultimate X-Men line. There, her connection lies mainly with Storm, instead of Wolverine as in the original storyline. As Yuriko (or 'Yuri'), she taught Storm how to hotwire vehicles and be a car thief. The two later had a falling out, and Yuri ended up being run over by a truck. Yuri survived, but needed to use a wheelchair. There, Dr. Cornelius of Weapon X offered to have her shattered body rebuilt with adamantium, extendable claws, and an accelerated healing factor based on Wolverine's DNA, which would allow her to have her revenge against Storm, though if she wanted to kill Storm she would have to kill Storm's friend Wolverine as well. Yuri agreed, and underwent the modifications. She later went after Storm and Wolverine, but was defeated, and later imprisoned by S.H.I.E.L.D.
While imprisoned at the Triskelion, she encountered the X-Men Dazzler and Angel (who were out searching for their friends, elsewhere in the base). After Dazzler taunted Yuri, saying how Storm had mentioned her to them, the power went out, allowing Yuri to escape her cell and stab Dazzler through the stomach. Before she could do anything else, the mutant Longshot (another prisoner at the Triskelion) snapped Yuri's neck. Whether or not this attack killed her is unknown. She has previously survived being struck by lightning and smashed by a falling tree. Dazzler survived Yuri's attack, remaining in a coma for a few weeks before awakening.
Wolverine Noir
A non-powered Yuriko briefly appears in Wolverine Noir when Logan investigated the Bowery and faced off against her, who mistakenly thought he works for Creed. The two discusses about Logan finding his brother Dog, but when Yuriko was about to kiss him, he refused and she disappeared. She later showed up deceased having been killed by Rose, Logan's ex girlfriend.
In other media
Television
Lady Deathstrike appears in the X-Men: The Animated Series two-part episode "Out of the Past", voiced by Jane Luk. This version was previously in a romantic relationship with Wolverine before joining the Reavers and becoming a cyborg to avenge the death of her father, Professor Oyama.
Film
Lady Deathstrike appears in X2, portrayed by Kelly Hu. This version is a brainwashed mutant and assistant to William Stryker who was granted an adamantium skeleton. She faces off against Wolverine, who defeats her and injects her with fluid adamantium.
Lady Deathstrike appears in Hulk Vs Wolverine, voiced by Janyse Jaud. This version is a member of Team X.
Video games
Lady Deathstrike appears as a playable character in X-Men: Next Dimension, voiced by Gwendoline Yeo. This version is a member of the Brotherhood of Mutants.
Lady Deathstrike appears as the final boss of X2: Wolverine's Revenge, voiced again by Gwendoline Yeo.
Lady Deathstrike appears as a boss in X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse, voiced by Kim Mai Guest. This version is an associate of Apocalypse.
Lady Deathstrike appears as a boss in X-Men: The Official Game, voiced by Vyvan Pham. This version is a student of the Silver Samurai and agent of HYDRA.
Lady Deathstrike appears as a boss in Wolverine: Adamantium Rage.
Lady Deathstrike appears as a mini-boss in Marvel Ultimate Alliance 2, voiced by Jocelyn Blue. She is among the supervillains injected with Iron Man's control nanites and tasked with fighting those who oppose the Superhuman Registration Act.
Lady Deathstrike appears in Strider Hiryu's ending in Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3.
Lady Deathstrike appears as a boss in Marvel Heroes, voiced by Minae Noji.
Lady Deathstrike appears as a playable character in Marvel Strike Force.
References
External links
Lady Deathstrike at Marvel.com
Deliver Us From Deathstrike at UncannyXmen.net
Characters created by Dennis O'Neil
Comics characters introduced in 1983
Cyborg supervillains
Female film villains
Female soldier and warrior characters in comics
Fictional blade fighters
Fictional female assassins
Fictional female martial artists
Fictional female swordfighters
Fictional henchmen
Fictional Japanese people
Fictional kenjutsuka
Fictional lords and ladies
Fictional mass murderers
Fictional swordfighters in comics
Marvel Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Marvel Comics characters with accelerated healing
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength
Marvel Comics cyborgs
Marvel Comics female supervillains
Marvel Comics film characters
Marvel Comics martial artists
Marvel Comics mutates
Wolverine (comics) characters
X-Men supporting characters
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397007
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutaneous%20squamous-cell%20carcinoma
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Cutaneous squamous-cell carcinoma
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Cutaneous squamous-cell carcinoma (cSCC), or squamous-cell carcinoma of the skin, also known as squamous-cell skin cancer, is, with basal-cell carcinoma and melanoma, one of the three principal types of skin cancer. cSCC typically presents as a hard lump with a scaly top layer, but it may instead form an ulcer. Onset often occurs over a period of months. Cutaneous squamous-cell carcinoma is more likely to spread to distant areas than basal cell cancer. When confined to the outermost layer of the skin, a pre-invasive, or in situ, form of cSCC is known as Bowen's disease.
The most significant risk factor for cSCC is high lifetime exposure to ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Other risks include prior scars, chronic wounds, actinic keratosis, paler skin that sunburns easily, Bowen's disease, arsenic exposure, radiation therapy, tobacco smoking, poor immune system function, prior basal cell carcinoma, and HPV infection. Risk from UV radiation is related to total exposure, rather than exposure early in life. Tanning beds have become another frequent source of ultraviolet radiation. Risk is also elevated in certain genetic skin disorders, such as xeroderma pigmentosum and certain forms of epidermolysis bullosa. cSCC begins from squamous cells found in the upper layers of the skin. Diagnosis is often based on skin examination, and confirmed by tissue biopsy.
In vivo and in vitro studies have shown that the upregulation of FGFR2, a subset of the fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) immunoglobin family, has a critical role to play in the progression of cSCC cells. Mutations in the TPL2 gene cause over-expression of FGFR2, which activates the mTORC1 and AKT pathways in both primary and metastatic cSCC cell lines. By using a chemical substance, called a "pan FGFR inhibitor", cell migration and cell proliferation in cSCC have been attenuated in vitro.
Avoiding exposure to ultraviolet radiation and the use of sunscreen appear to be effective methods of preventing cutaneous squamous-cell carcinoma. Treatment is typically by surgical removal. This can be by simple excision if the cancer is small; otherwise, Mohs surgery is generally recommended. Other options may include application of cold and radiation therapy. In cases in which distant spread has occurred, chemotherapy or biologic therapy may be used.
As of 2015, about 2.2 million people worldwide have cSCC at any given time. About 20% of all skin cancer cases consist of cSCC. About 12% of males and 7% of females in the United States develop cSCC at some point in time. While prognosis is usually good, when distant spread occurs five-year survival is ~34%. In 2015, cSCC resulted in approximately 52,000 deaths globally. The mean age at diagnosis is around 66 years. Following the successful treatment of one case of cSCC, a person is at significant risk of developing further cSCC lesions.
Signs and symptoms
SCC of the skin begins as a small nodule and as it enlarges the center becomes necrotic and sloughs and the nodule turns into an ulcer, and generally are developed from an actinic keratosis. Once keratinocytes begin to grow uncontrollably, they have the potential to become cancerous and produce cutaneous squamous-cell carcinoma.
The lesion caused by cSCC is often asymptomatic
Ulcer or reddish skin plaque that is slow growing
Intermittent bleeding from the tumor, especially on the lip
The clinical appearance is highly variable
Usually the tumor presents as an ulcerated lesion with hard, raised edges
The tumor may be in the form of a hard plaque or a papule, often with an opalescent quality, with tiny blood vessels
The tumor can lie below the level of the surrounding skin, and eventually ulcerates and invades the underlying tissue
The tumor commonly presents on sun-exposed areas (e.g. back of the hand, scalp, lip, and superior surface of pinna)
On the lip, the tumor forms a small ulcer, which fails to heal and bleeds intermittently
Evidence of chronic skin photodamage, as in multiple actinic keratoses (solar keratoses)
The tumor grows relatively slowly
Spread
Unlike basal-cell carcinoma (BCC), squamous-cell carcinoma (SCC) has a higher risk of metastasis.
Risk of metastasis is higher clinically in SCC arising in scars, on the lower lips, ears, or mucosa, and occurring in immunosuppressed and solid organ transplant patients. Risk of metastasis is also higher in SCC that are > 2 cm in diameter, growth into the fat layer and along nerves, presence of lymphovascular invasion, poorly differentiated cell architecture on histology, or thickness greater than 6 mm.
Causes
Cutaneous squamous-cell carcinoma is the second-most common cancer of the skin (after basal-cell carcinoma, but more common than melanoma). It usually occurs in areas exposed to the sun. Sunlight exposure and immunosuppression are risk factors for SCC of the skin, with chronic sun exposure being the strongest environmental risk factor. There is a risk of metastasis starting more than 10 years after diagnosable appearance of squamous-cell carcinoma, but the risk is low, though much higher than with basal-cell carcinoma. Squamous-cell cancers of the lip and ears have high rates of local recurrence and distant metastasis. In a recent study, it has also been shown that the deletion or severe down-regulation of a gene titled Tpl2 (tumor progression locus 2) may be involved in the progression of normal keratinocytes into becoming squamous-cell carcinoma.
cSCC represents about 20% of the non-melanoma skin cancers; 80-90% of cSCCs with metastatic potential are located on the head and neck.
Tobacco smoking also increases the risk for cutaneous squamous-cell carcinoma.
The vast majority of cSCC cases are located on exposed skin, and are often the result of ultraviolet exposure. cSCC usually occurs on portions of the body commonly exposed to the sun; the face, ears, neck, hands, or arms. The primary sign is a growing bump that may have a rough, scaly surface, and flat, reddish patches.
Unlike basal-cell carcinoma, cSCC carries a higher risk of metastasis than does basal-cell carcinoma, and may spread to the regional lymph nodes,
Erythroplasia of Queyrat (SCC in situ of the glans or prepuce in males, M or the vulva in females.) may be induced by human papilloma virus. It is reported to occur in the corneoscleral limbus. Erythroplasia of Queyrat may also occur on the anal mucosa or the oral mucosa.
Genetically, cSCC tumors harbor high frequencies of NOTCH and p53 mutations as well as less frequent alterations in histone acetyltransferase EP300, subunit of the SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complex PBRM1, DNA-repair deubiquitinase USP28, and NF-κB signaling regulator CHUK.
Immunosuppression
People who have received solid organ transplants are at a significantly increased risk of developing squamous-cell carcinoma due to the use of chronic immunosuppressive medication. While the risk of developing all skin cancers increases with these medications, this effect is particularly severe for cSCC, with hazard ratios as high as 250 being reported, versus 40 for basal cell carcinoma. The incidence of cSCC development increases with time posttransplant. Heart and lung transplant recipients are at the highest risk of developing cSCC due to more intensive immunosuppressive medications used.
Cutaneous squamous-cell carcinoma in individuals on immunotherapy or who have lymphoproliferative disorders (e.g. leukemia) tend to be much more aggressive, regardless of their location. The risk of cSCC, and non-melanoma skin cancers generally, varies with the immunosuppressive drug regimen chosen. The risk is greatest with calcineurin inhibitors like cyclosporine and tacrolimus, and least with mTOR inhibitors, such as sirolimus and everolimus. The antimetabolites azathioprine and mycophenolic acid have an intermediate risk profile.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis is confirmed via skin biopsy of the tissue or tissues suspected to be affected by SCC.
The pathological appearance of a squamous-cell cancer varies with the depth of the biopsy. For that reason, a biopsy including the subcutaneous tissue and basilar epithelium, to the surface is necessary for correct diagnosis. The performance of a shave biopsy (see skin biopsy) might not acquire enough information for a diagnosis. An inadequate biopsy might be read as actinic keratosis with follicular involvement. A deeper biopsy down to the dermis or subcutaneous tissue might reveal the true cancer. An excision biopsy is ideal, but not practical in most cases. An incisional or punch biopsy is preferred. A shave biopsy is least ideal, especially if only the superficial portion is acquired.
Histological characteristics
Histopathologically, the epidermis in cSCC in situ (Bowen's disease) will show hyperkeratosis and parakeratosis. There will also be marked acanthosis with elongation and thickening of the rete ridges. These changes will overly keratinocytic cells which are often highly atypical and may in fact have a more unusual appearance than invasive cSCC. The atypia spans the full thickness of the epidermis, with the keratinocytes demonstrating intense mitotic activity, pleomorphism, and greatly enlarged nuclei. They will also show a loss of maturity and polarity, giving the epidermis a disordered or "windblown" appearance.
Two types of multinucleated cells may be seen: the first will present as a multinucleated giant cell, and the second will appear as a dyskeratotic cell engulfed in the cytoplasm of a keratinocyte. Occasionally, cells of the upper epidermis will undergo vacuolization, demonstrating an abundant and strongly eosinophilic cytoplasm. There may be a mild to moderate lymphohistiocytic infiltrate detected in the upper dermis.
In situ disease
Bowen's disease is essentially equivalent to and used interchangeably with cSCC in situ, when not having invaded through the basement membrane. Depending on source, it is classified as precancerous or cSCC in situ (technically cancerous but non-invasive). In cSCC in situ (Bowen's disease), atypical squamous cells proliferate through the whole thickness of the epidermis. The entire tumor is confined to the epidermis and does not invade into the dermis. The cells are often highly atypical under the microscope, and may in fact look more unusual than the cells of some invasive squamous-cell carcinomas.
Erythroplasia of Queyrat is a particular type of Bowen's disease that can arise on the glans or prepuce in males, and the vulva in females. It mainly occurs in uncircumcised males, over the age of 40.
Invasive disease
In invasive cSCC, tumor cells infiltrate through the basement membrane. The infiltrate can be somewhat difficult to detect in the early stages of invasion: however, additional indicators such as full thickness epidermal atypia and the involvement of hair follicles can be used to facilitate the diagnosis. Later stages of invasion are characterized by the formation of nests of atypical tumor cells in the dermis, often with a corresponding inflammatory infiltrate.
Degree of differentiation
Prevention
Appropriate sun-protective clothing, use of broad-spectrum (UVA/UVB) sunscreen with at least SPF 50, and avoidance of intense sun exposure may prevent skin cancer. A 2016 review of sunscreen for preventing cutaneous squamous-cell carcinoma found insufficient evidence to demonstrate whether it was effective.
Management
Most cutaneous squamous-cell carcinomas are removed with surgery. A few selected cases are treated with topical medication. Surgical excision with a free margin of healthy tissue is a frequent treatment modality. Radiotherapy, given as external beam radiotherapy or as brachytherapy (internal radiotherapy), can also be used to treat cSCC. There is little evidence comparing the effectiveness of different treatments for non-metastatic cSCC.
Mohs surgery is frequently utilized; considered the treatment of choice for squamous-cell carcinoma of the skin, physicians have also utilized the method for the treatment of squamous-cell carcinoma of the mouth, throat, and neck. An equivalent method of the CCPDMA standards can be utilized by a pathologist in the absence of a Mohs-trained physician. Radiation therapy is often used afterward in high risk cancer or patient types. Radiation or radiotherapy can also be a standalone option in treating cSCC. As a non-invasive option brachytherapy serves a painless possibility to treat in particular but not only difficult to operate areas like the earlobes or genitals. An example of this kind of therapy is the high-dose brachytherapy Rhenium-SCT which makes use of the beta rays emitting property of rhenium-188. The radiation source is enclosed in a compound which is applied to a thin protection foile directly over the lesion. This way the radiation source can be applied to complex locations and minimize radiation to healthy tissue.
After removal of the cancer, closure of the skin for patients with a decreased amount of skin laxity involves a split-thickness skin graft. A donor site is chosen and enough skin is removed so that the donor site can heal on its own. Only the epidermis and a partial amount of dermis is taken from the donor site which allows the donor site to heal. Skin can be harvested using either a mechanical dermatome or Humby knife.
Electrodessication and curettage (EDC) can be done on selected squamous-cell carcinoma of the skin. In areas where cSCC is known to be non-aggressive, and where the patient is not immunosuppressed, EDC can be performed with good to adequate cure rate.
Treatment options for cSCC in situ (Bowen's disease) include photodynamic therapy with 5-aminolevulinic acid, cryotherapy, topical 5-fluorouracil or imiquimod, and excision. A meta-analysis showed evidence that PDT is more effective than cryotherapy and has better cosmetic outcomes. There is generally a lack of evidence comparing the effectiveness of all treatment options.
High-risk squamous-cell carcinoma, as defined by that occurring around the eye, ear, or nose, is of large size, is poorly differentiated, and grows rapidly, requires more aggressive, multidisciplinary management.
Nodal spread:
Surgical block dissection if palpable nodes or in cases of Marjolin's ulcers but the benefit of prophylactic block lymph node dissection with Marjolin's ulcers is not proven.
Radiotherapy
Adjuvant therapy may be considered in those with high-risk cSCC even in the absence of evidence for local metastasis. Imiquimod (Aldara) has been used with success for squamous-cell carcinoma in situ of the skin and the penis, but the morbidity and discomfort of the treatment is severe. An advantage is the cosmetic result: after treatment, the skin resembles normal skin without the usual scarring and morbidity associated with standard excision. Imiquimod is not FDA-approved for any squamous-cell carcinoma.
In general, squamous-cell carcinomas have a high risk of local recurrence, and up to 50% do recur. Frequent skin exams with a dermatologist is recommended after treatment.
Prognosis
The long-term outcome of squamous-cell carcinoma is dependent upon several factors: the sub-type of the carcinoma, available treatments, location and severity, and various patient health-related variables (accompanying diseases, age, etc.). Generally, the long-term outcome is positive, with a metastasis rate of 1.9-5.2% and a mortality rate of 1.5-3.4%.
When it does metastasize, the most commonly involved organs are the lungs, brain, bone and other skin locations. Squamous-cell carcinoma occurring in immunosuppressed people (such as those with organ transplant, human immunodeficiency virus infection, or chronic lymphocytic leukemia) the risk of developing cSCC and having metastasis is much higher than the general population.
One study found squamous-cell carcinoma of the penis had a much greater rate of mortality than some other forms of squamous-cell carcinoma, that is, about 23%, although this relatively high mortality rate may be associated with possibly latent diagnosis of the disease due to patients avoiding genital exams until the symptoms are debilitating, or refusal to submit to a possibly scarring operation upon the genitalia.
Epidemiology
The incidence of cutaneous squamous-cell carcinoma continues to rise around the world. This is theorized to be due to several factors; including an aging population, a greater incidence of those who are immunocompromised and the increasing use of tanning beds.
A recent study estimated that there are between 180,000 and 400,000 cases of cSCC in the United States in 2013. Risk factors for cSCC varies with age, gender, race, geography, and genetics. The incidence of cSCC increases with age and with those 75 years or older eing at a 5-10 times increased risk of developing cSCC as compared with those who are younger than 55 years old. Males are affected with cSCC at a ratio of 3:1 in comparison to females. Those who have light skin, red or blonde hair and light colored eyes are also at increased risk.
Squamous-cell carcinoma of the skin can be found on all areas of the body but is most common on frequently sun-exposed areas, such as the face, legs and arms. Solid organ transplant recipients (heart, lung, liver, pancreas, among others) are also at a heightened risk of developing aggressive, high-risk cSCC. There are also a few rare congenital diseases predisposed to cutaneous malignancy. In certain geographic locations, exposure to arsenic in well water or from industrial sources may significantly increase the risk of cSCC.
Additional images
See also
List of cutaneous conditions associated with increased risk of nonmelanoma skin cancer
References
External links
DermNet NZ: Squamous cell carcinoma
Anatomical pathology
Gastrointestinal cancer
Gynaecological cancer
Lung cancer
Integumentary neoplasia
Epidermal nevi, neoplasms, and cysts
Carcinoma
Infectious causes of cancer
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Papillomavirus-associated diseases
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace%20of%20Base
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Ace of Base
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Ace of Base is a Swedish pop group, formed in 1990, originally consisting of siblings Jonas, Linn, and Jenny Berggren, with Ulf Ekberg.
They achieved worldwide success following the release of their debut album, Happy Nation in 1992. Later re-issued as The Sign, it was certified nine times platinum in the United States and was the best-selling album of 1994. One of the most successful debut albums of all time, it was the first to produce three No. 1 singles on the Billboard Mainstream Top 40 chart: "All That She Wants", "The Sign" and "Don't Turn Around".
They continued to score hit singles throughout the 1990s, with songs such as "Beautiful Life", "Lucky Love", "Cruel Summer" and "Life Is a Flower". The group has sold 50 million copies of their first four studio albums, making them the third most successful Swedish group of all time, behind ABBA and Roxette.
Despite being largely inactive since 2012, the group has never officially disbanded. In the last decade, they have released a number of demo tracks, first via their Facebook page, then in 2015 on the compilation album Hidden Gems. A follow-up called Hidden Gems, Vol. 2 was included in the 2020 boxset All That She Wants: The Classic Collection. Jenny Berggren continues to perform the group's hits in solo concerts around the world.
History
1987–1992: Formation
In 1987, following several years as part of a new wave and punk cover band called G Konrad (named after Hungarian author György Konrád), Jonas Berggren formed a band with two friends, Johnny Lindén and Niklas Tränk, for a school project; his sisters Linn and Jenny later joined as singers. The new band went through several names: New Arbat Avenue after an avenue in Moscow; CAD (Computer-Aided Disco); and Tech-Noir, French for black technology, after a nightclub in the film The Terminator. They toured the clubs of Sweden with self-written material, techno inspired by 1980s Italo disco and house music.
Johnny left the group in 1989, and Niklas made his departure known by failing to turn up to a gig at Bältespännarparken in Gothenburg on August 4, 1990, instead attending a Rolling Stones concert on the other side of town. Jonas asked his friend Ulf Ekberg to stand in for Niklas.
Inspired by a Jamaican reggae band who resided in a studio next door to theirs, they experimented with a fusion of reggae and pop – dubbed "China reggae" by their Jamaican friends – which became the band's trademark sound.
After responding to an ad in the paper Göteborgs-Posten, the new quartet started working in the studio with record producer John Ballard, and decided to come up with a new name in order to make a fresh start, as well as to avoid confusion with another band with who were attracting bad reviews. Linn said: "No one could pronounce the name of the group and nobody could remember it." They settled on Ace of Base in early 1991, after Ulf was inspired by the Motörhead song "Ace of Spades".
In an interview in 2018, Ulf explained: The name came out of a hangover I had on New Year's Day. So, I was hungover, watching MTV and I saw Motörhead's video for their song "Ace of Spades". I liked the name and I thought I'd play around with those words. We're four members in this band, so I thought, "Good. Four aces. I'll keep the ace." Then I thought of our studio and how it's our base.
The group continued performing in the clubs of Gothenburg, but struggled to gain recognition, partly due to the preference of heavy metal music over techno in Gothenburg. They also sent out demo cassettes to numerous record companies but everybody refused to sign them. In May 1991, Jonas and Ulf made a trip to various record companies in Stockholm, including Polar Music, who wanted them to record more songs first, and SweMix, who were interested but didn't have the time to do anything with them until autumn.
In July, Klas Lunding at Telegram Records arranged for them to record a new version of "Wheel of Fortune" in their newly renovated Decibel Studio, but did not offer them a recording contract. Jonas recounts: When it had just been finished, Martin Dodd (Head of A&R at independent Danish label Mega Records) called and shouted: "Do not sign anything, do not sign anything!" They wanted everything from us, while Telegram only wanted the reggae songs and no up-tempos. We had already recorded a single with Telegram, but hadn't signed anything. Klas is not the fastest in the world, so to speakand that was perhaps lucky for us. So Mega bought the master tape from Klas for 34,000 SEK.
"Wheel of Fortune" was serviced to radio and nightclubs in Sweden in early 1992, with it reaching Gothenburg's local Jockeytoppen chart in March, and prompting an invitation to perform on music television channel ZTV. However, the record failed to gain traction in Sweden, so Mega switched focus to Denmark. After servicing the single to media three times, it was finally released commercially at the end of June 1992, entering the Danish singles chart at No. 6, before rising to No. 2.
1992–1994: International success and Happy Nation/The Sign
Following the success of "Wheel of Fortune" in Denmark, the group continued working on music. After hearing Kayo's "Another Mother" in a record store, a top 20 hit in Sweden in 1990, Jonas and Ulf decided that it was exactly the sound they wanted to create.
In early 1992, they sent producer Denniz PoP a demo tape including a song called "Mr. Ace". At first he wasn't particularly impressed, but the tape got stuck in the cassette player in his car. This resulted in him having to listen to it repeatedly and gradually he realized the song's potential. He'd lost the band's contact details but when they called him a few months later, he invited them to his SweMix studio to re-record the song in July 1992. The song became "All That She Wants" and upon its release at the end of August, it quickly climbed to No. 1 on the Danish chart, while the previous single was still sitting at No. 2. Keen to rush out an LP for the Christmas market, Mega Records pressed the band for an album, which was quickly recorded and mixed within a few weeks.
The album, Happy Nation, was released on November 2, 1992 in Denmark and its success prompted interest elsewhere in Europe. A pan-European licence was signed with Metronome/PolyGram (now Universal Music), but they were turned down by the American division. Within a few months, "All That She Wants" had reached No. 3 in Sweden and had spent eight weeks at No. 1 in Germany. In various European countries, "Happy Nation" and "Waiting for Magic" were released as further singles following the release of the album.
In May 1993, "All That She Wants" consolidated on its European success by topping the chart for three weeks in the United Kingdom. However, despite Mega Records's efforts to secure a distribution deal in the United States, the response was always the same: "This band will never work in the States." Eventually, Clive Davis, founder of Arista Records, heard the song playing on the radio whilst on vacation on his yacht, and rushed to sign a licence with Mega for the Americas. In October/November 1993, "All That She Wants" reached No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100, as well as in Australia.
The group had already started work on a second album, with the working title of The Sign, named after one of the new tracks they had written. Worried about sales of import copies of Happy Nation however, Davis opted to tweak the track list of the original LP by adding three new tracks and re-titling it The Sign. Released in the US on November 23, 1993, it remained in the top three of the Billboard Top 200 for 26 consecutive weeks, and was nominated for Best Pop Album at the 1995 Grammy Awards. The refreshed album was released in Europe as Happy Nation (US Version). Collectively, the different versions of the album reached the No. 1 position in at least 14 countries and sold over 21 million copies worldwide making it one of the best-selling debut albums of all time. It was also one of the best selling albums of 1994.
The second U.S. single was the album's title track "The Sign", released on December 14. It was even more successful than the first, spending six weeks at No. 1 and becoming the best-selling single of 1994. It was also a major hit internationally, peaking at No. 2 in the UK and Sweden and at No. 1 in Germany; whilst in Australia it topped the charts for four weeks.
Recorded at the request of Clive Davis, "Don't Turn Around", was the group's next single. The song had previously been released by Tina Turner as the B-side of her single "Typical Male" (1986), and had been a UK No. 1 hit for Aswad in 1988. The cover version reached the top 5 in the US, UK, Sweden, Denmark, and Finland.
Promotion for the album concluded with the final single release "Living in Danger", which was yet another top 40 hit internationally and was performed in front of the Brandenburg Gate at the first ever MTV Europe Music Awards in Berlin in November 1994.
The band were caught up in controversy when on 27 March 1993, the Swedish newspaper Expressen reported that Ulf had been a member of a skinhead gang in his teenage years, before his association with Ace of Base. Linn remarked in 1993: "Ulf gave all that up long ago and my family had nothing to do with any of that in the first place." In 2013, the story was revisited in a report by Vice, referring to an unauthorized CD released in 1998 called Uffe Was a Nazi!, containing songs with racist content which were claimed to have been recorded by Ulf's former band "Commit Suiside". Ulf was described as "a drug and alcohol-abusing teenager, when he was a member of a neo-Nazi skinhead gang". In an interview with E!, Ulf remarked: "I have always been deeply regretful of that period in my life, as I strive to bring happiness to people, and during that period I did not live up to that standard. [...] I'm truly deeply sorry for any hurt and disappointment this has caused for our fans, and I really hope that we clearly have stated that Ace of Base never shared any of these opinions and strongly oppose all extremist opinions on both the right and left wing."
In April 1994, an obsessed German fan broke into the Berggren family home, brandishing a knife. After managing to restrain her, the band decided they needed bodyguards. Recalling the attack in a 2016 interview, Jenny said:
"She woke me up with a knife to my throat. She broke into my parents’ house when I was staying there after two years away. I woke up and she was standing over me with the knife. I was terrified. That was the darker side of fame. I remember just after I was attacked I found out that we were Number 1 in the United States. All I could think was that I almost got killed. Everyone was like, 'wow, let's have a huge party'. I didn't want a party. I was broken."
1995–1997: The Bridge
Following the substantial success of the first album, the group were offered the chance to perform at Madison Square Garden in New York, and were asked to front brands such as Pepsi and Reebok in promotional campaigns, but after two years of travelling around the world to promote the first album, the band were too exhausted and declined all offers. Simultaneously, their various record companies around the world were demanding a second album promptly. To hasten the process, instead of Jonas and Ulf writing most of the album, each member was encouraged to submit their own tracks for consideration.
In the end, 17 tracks were chosen for the second album, titled The Bridge. It marked a considerable change of direction in sound; alongside the reggae and dance sounds that had made the group so popular were more experimental tracks and several ballads. The lead single, "Lucky Love", however, was a mainstream pop record, and was premiered in August 1995 at the World Championships in Athletics in Gothenburg. It debuted at No. 1 in Sweden upon release in October, becoming their first chart-topper in their homeland. It was also a top 20 hit across Europe, peaking at No. 1 in Finland, No. 2 in Denmark, No. 13 in Germany and No. 20 in the United Kingdom.
Arista Records instead opted for the more up-tempo track "Beautiful Life" as the first single in the US, where it peaked at No. 15 on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming the first American and UK hit for its co-producer Max Martin. It was released as the second single from the album in most countries, also reaching No. 15 in the UK and charting in at least 17 countries. An alternative acoustic mix of "Lucky Love" was chosen as the second U.S. single, peaking at No. 30.
The Bridge was certified platinum in 14 countries, but did not match the sales of the group's first album. "Never Gonna Say I'm Sorry" was released as the third single from the album and achieved moderate success in Europe, but failed to chart on the Hot 100 in the USA. In February 1996, the band performed at the Viña del Mar International Song Festival in Chile, topping the bill alongside 2 Unlimited.
After touring Asia and Australasia in April 1996, the group temporarily retreated from the limelight, scrapping plans to release either "My Déjà Vu" or "Edge Of Heaven" as a single, and emerging only in 1997 for an April performance at the World Music Awards, and at a July concert celebrating the 20th birthday of Princess Victoria of Sweden.
1998–1999: Flowers / Cruel Summer
Having felt rushed to record a second album, the group were given as much time as they need to produce their third, with much of it being recorded in Jonas's own studio, "The Barn". Declaring it their best album yet, the group titled it Flowers because they believed that the songs, wildly different in style, including Motown and gospel influences, resembled a varied bouquet of flowers. In live performances in support of the album, Linn relinquished lead vocal duties to sister Jenny, and on many promotional photos, Linn's face was blurred. Fans were reassured that Linn was happy with her new backing role in the group, and many reasons were given for her decision, including her having damaged her voice, her aerophobia deterring her from international travel, dealing with depression, and her dislike of fame.
The album's lead single "Life Is a Flower" was released in mainland Europe in April 1998, and became the most-played track on European radio of the year. It reached the top 5 in Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Hungary and in the UK, where it was certified silver. The album followed in June, hitting the top 20 in at least a dozen countries.
The group's British label London Records had requested the band record the 1983 hit "Cruel Summer" by Bananarama and it was selected as the second European single. Deciding that "Life Is a Flower" was "too European in nature", Clive Davis pushed "Cruel Summer" as the lead single for the United States, and it brought Ace of Base back into the U.S. Top 10 for the first time in four years, being certified gold. The album was also renamed Cruel Summer and featured a different track list from the European release. For this version of the album, Davis persuaded a reluctant Linn to record the Billy Steinberg-penned ballad "Everytime It Rains".
"Life Is a Flower" was re-recorded as "Whenever You're Near Me" and chosen as the second single from Cruel Summer, peaking at No. 76. "Travel to Romantis" and "Always Have, Always Will" were further singles in Europe whilst "Everytime It Rains" was issued as a single in the UK along with a repackaged edition of Flowers.
1999–2000: Singles of the 90s and Greatest Hits
The group went back into the studio in 1999, writing several tracks together as a quartet for the first time, and recording enough demo tracks for consideration for a fourth studio album. Ulf later revealed that they had hoped to release a track called "Pole Position" as the lead single, with a music video that would have featured the Formula One champion driver Jacques Villeneuve. Several of the tracks recorded for the scrapped studio album were eventually released in demo form by Jonas via Facebook in 2011.
In November 1999, Mega Records released the best-of album Singles of the 90s, a compilation of 16 hit singles. A new single taken from it, "C'est La Vie (Always 21)", was a modest chart hit in Sweden, Finland, Germany and Switzerland, and topped the charts in Spain. "Hallo Hallo" followed as the second single in parts of Europe, but only found minor success.
Arista Records fulfilled the group's four-album contract in the Americas by releasing Greatest Hits in March 2000. A new dance mix of "Everytime It Rains", previously included on Cruel Summer, was released as a radio single to promote the album. Both the single and album failed to chart in the USA.
2002–2003: Da Capo
Following a long time away from the pop scene, a new single called "Beautiful Morning" was serviced to radio in Europe in July 2002. Polydor Records reported that it was their fastest-added track to radio playlists of the year, and it went on peak at No. 38 in Germany and No. 14 in Sweden upon its commercial release in September.
After several delays due to requests from the record label, Ace of Base finally released their fourth studio album, Da Capo, on September 30, 2002, in Europe, and in Japan through Toshiba EMI with a different cover and three bonus tracks. The album received only a soft release in the United Kingdom and was not released in the Americas. The title comes from the musical term da capo, which translates as "back to the beginning", chosen as the sound of the album was seen as a return to the group's early blend of reggae and europop.
Although the album charted across much of Europe, it was not as successful as previous releases. Only Jenny and Ulf went on a promotional tour of Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland, Germany, Poland and Austria. Jonas chose to forego promotional activities because "it was better to be two then" and led to "less questions" about Linn's lack of participation. Linn attended only one performance in Germany, which was her last public appearance.
"The Juvenile" was selected as the album's second single in Germany, and was used for a Christmas campaign by TV channel RTL Television. The song was a re-written version of a track originally submitted for the James Bond movie GoldenEye in 1995. However, Clive Davis persuaded the band that it was not the best move for the band at the time so they withdrew it from consideration.
In Scandinavia, Edel-Mega released "Unspeakable" as the second single, but its poor chart performance ended the promotion of the album prematurely.
Linn left the band in 2002.
2003–2006: Hiatus
The group remained out of the spotlight throughout 2003 and 2004. During this time, Jenny performed solo live performances in several Christian shows with her husband Jakob Petrén and released an album as a vocalist with the Swedish group Arose.
In 2005, several songs featuring vocals by both Jenny and Linn were recorded with producer Tommy Ekman, including "Would You Believe" and "Make My Day". Jonas and Ulf later explained that the group did not have the energy to finish the project, though the tracks that were recorded eventually surfaced.
At the end of 2005, the group reunited, without Linn, for several live performances at the Night of the Proms in Belgium, alongside other artists such as Donna Summer.
2007–2009: Reunion
Ace of Base reunited as a trio to perform their first full-length concert since 1996 in Yekaterinburg, Russia, on November 15, 2007. They embarked on a world tour called Ace Of Base - Redefined!, which continued throughout 2008 and 2009. The set list included several new versions of their greatest hits.
While touring, in September 2008, the group performed a brand new song called "Sparks From A Fire".
The group teamed up with Jenny's husband Jakob to record material for a new studio album, which would consist of seven new songs and seven remakes of old hits.
However, this album was not released. A new compilation, Greatest Hits, was released on November 12, 2008.
Five re-recorded songs were released from the album in various forms: "Lucky Love 2009", "Don't Turn Around 2009", "The Sign (Freedom Bunch Mix)" and "Wheel of Fortune 2009", which was released worldwide on October 24, 2008, as a digital single. A fifth reworking, "Happy Nation 2009", was released separately as a remix kit. A remake of "All That She Wants" was also recorded and featured guest vocals by Britney Spears that stemmed from her own 2007 cover of the song. This remake was never officially released, but leaked online in June 2016.
Three of the new tracks recorded in this period ("Sparks From A Fire", "The Mask" and "Wish You Were Mine") were posted on YouTube in 2017.
2009–2012: New members, The Golden Ratio, and Ace Thursdays
In August 2009, in an interview with Digital Spy, Ulf mentioned adding another singer to the group alongside Jenny, explaining: "We're just deciding now whether to add a fourth member to the group again or to bring it out under a new name. At the moment we think it would be stronger with two female singers, so it's a little technical problem to solve." During this time, Ulf and Jonas began recording songs with singer Julia Williamson, whom they met through Martin Dodd, who had originally signed the group to Mega Records. Meanwhile, a new remix of "Cruel Summer" by Rico Bernasconi charted at No. 69 in Germany.
Jenny published her autobiography Vinna hela Världen in Sweden in September and announced that she was recording a solo album, which materialized in October 2010 as My Story. In November 2009, Jenny confirmed via Twitter that she would not be involved with the upcoming album, but later clarified that she had not left, saying that "other constellations will have other names".
Two new singers were revealed in February 2010 as Clara Hagman, a contestant from Idol 2009, who Ulf met whilst appearing as a guest judge on the show, and Julia Williamson.
In a 2010 interview with Aftonbladet, Jenny claimed "They didn't want to be with me", and that she was not allowed to participate in songwriting. Jonas and Ulf then said in an interview with Scandipop that Jenny wasn't happy with plans to introduce a new member, and while she never formally quit the group, they felt that they had no choice but to proceed without her.
The new quartet maintained the original band name, but it was stylized as "Ace.of.Base" on the artwork of single and album releases. In July 2010, a track called "Mr. Replay" appeared on a Polish promo compilation for DJs, becoming the first release from the new line-up. The first official single from the line-up, "All for You", was premiered on radio station Antenne AC on July 22, and was released on CD and download on September 10, debuting at No. 38 in Germany.
The album The Golden Ratio followed on September 24, entering the German album charts at No. 20. In Sweden, the album failed to chart, backed only by a radio release of the album's title track "The Golden Ratio" in October, followed by a performance of "Southern California" on Bingolotto in April 2011. An acoustic version of the album was being considered but never materialized. No further singles were released in support of the album.
In March 2011, Jonas began releasing previously unreleased material to fans via the band's official Facebook page and the website ReverbNation on a semi-regular basis, in events they referred to as "Ace Thursdays". Writing sessions for new material took place throughout the same year, though following the group's tour of Canada and Brazil in 2011, new music was put on hold.
2012–present: Departures, Hidden Gems and 30th anniversary
Ace Thursdays continued throughout 2012, but were discontinued in May 2013. In November 2012, Jenny was quoted as saying, "The rest of the band are doing other things. ... We're just wishing each other luck at this stage. I have a dream that we'll get back together, so I don't want to bang anyone on the head". Jenny began touring as "Jenny from Ace of Base" alongside popular Eurodance acts from the decade.
In January 2014, Julia announced that she had left the group in 2012. She later confirmed that Clara had also left, saying "I never really left the group, one day I just didn't hear anything from them and it's the same with Clara. Like it went up in smoke; really strange". Clara has since released several solo singles, and has collaborated with various EDM producers such as KREAM and R3hab.
A remix EP was released in July 2014, featuring new remixes of "All That She Wants".
The band filmed a multi-part documentary titled "The Story" at Google Headquarters that was posted on YouTube in March 2015. It was also aired on Swedish television.
In December 2014 and January 2015, remastered versions of their first four studio albums, in both European and American editions, were released digitally. This was followed in March by Hidden Gems, a compilation album consisting entirely of demos and b-sides. "Would You Believe", one of the last tracks recorded by the original quartet in 2005, was released as a promotional single.
In a 2015 interview with ABC News, Ulf said of a future reunion, "With the right elements in the next few years, I don't think it's impossible"; however, in July 2016, Jenny remarked: "We won't re-form. [...] We're finished working together but we're not finished being family together. We have a lot of fun plans in the future but no musical plans". In 2018, Jonas said a potential reunion had been discussed, but noted "We always got the same question "where is Malin?". I am still writing music, maybe one song each fortnight or something. It's a lot of fun, like therapy. And maybe if we do a reunion... I have songs for it!"
In 2019, Demon Music Group began releasing new compilations of the band's material in the United Kingdom. The first of these releases was Ace Of Base – Gold, which charted at No. 59 in the UK, marking the group's first return to the UK charts in 20 years.
To mark the group's 30th anniversary, a 12-disc box set called All That She Wants: The Classic Collection was released in July 2020. The set includes expanded versions of the group's original four studio albums and Hidden Gems, Hidden Gems, Vol. 2 – a new follow-up to the original Hidden Gems –, a new EP containing previously unreleased remixes of "Edge Of Heaven", and a DVD containing all of the group's music videos. Included among the 195 tracks are previously unreleased demos from the original line-up's final recording sessions in 2008 and live recordings of the group's first gig at Bältespännarparken in 1990. There is also a 4 LP coloured vinyl version of the box set, which only includes the four studio albums.
Hidden Gems, Vol. 2 was released digitally in August 2020.
In 2020, Playground Records began releasing standalone digital singles which feature new remixes of the group's tracks. In November 2021, a remix EP was released for the album track "Dancer in a Daydream" which first appeared on Happy Nation in 1992. The EP features remixes by producer Trace Adam and was released alongside a new video with previously unseen footage.
On 28 April 2023, the group released a 26-compact disc singles box set, Beautiful Life: The Singles.
Legacy
Several musicians and singers have been influenced by Ace of Base. Lady Gaga has said her album The Fame Monster was influenced by the "super pop melodies of the 90s" by acts such as Ace of Base. The song "Alejandro" in particular has been heavily compared to Ace of Base's version of "Don't Turn Around"; Paul Lester from BBC commented that "[Alejandro] moves at an Ace of Base pace", and Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine described the song as a homage to them; The song "Eh, Eh (Nothing Else I Can Say)" from The Fame has also been linked to the band; Alexis Petridis from The Guardian noted that the song "is the first song in a long time that warrants comparison to the œuvre of Ace of Base".
Katy Perry said she wanted her third studio album, Teenage Dream, to sound like "The Sign"; In 2010, Perry said of the album: "It's what I said I wanted earlier....We nailed it: It's roller-skating! It's '90s! It's Ace of Base! It's Cyndi Lauper! It's like all these colors and more".
Robyn said she was inspired by Ace of Base for her song "Dancehall Queen", which was produced by Diplo and Klas Åhlund for her fifth studio album Body Talk Pt. 1."We were just having fun with that kind of genre music. And the idea of making this song came out of that discussion. It was fun. We really connected on something where music that you might put in one box becomes something else, depending on how you look at it".
Some of Clean Bandit's tracks have been compared to the band, notably their 2016 UK No. 1 single "Rockabye". Band members have named them as an influence in interviews.
Beck had plans to cover an Ace of Base album as part of his Beck's Record Club project in 2009; however, this never came to fruition.
Tegan and Sara's song "Closer" was inspired by the band's music.
Robert Alfons of Canadian synthpop group Trust said he was influenced by the synthesizers used by Ace of Base.
Yeasayer and Twin Shadow have both also cited Ace of Base as an influence.
The 2019 single "Liar", by Cuban pop singer Camila Cabello, interpolates the melody of "All That She Wants".
Awards and nominations
1992 Music Television Award- Best Pop Act (Nominee)
1992 Music Television Award- Best New Act (Nominee)
1993 Popcorn Music Awards - Best Album - Happy Nation
1993 Popcorn Music Awards - Best Song & Video - All That She Wants
1993 Swedish Grammis – Best Pop Group
1993 Swedish Grammis – TV audience price
1993 Bronze BRAVO Otto (Germany) – Best rock/pop Group
1993 Swedish Dance Music Awards - Best Breakthrough Artist
1994 MTV Europe Music Awards – Best Cover (Nominee)
1994 American Music Award – Favorite Band, Duo or Group – Pop / Rock
1994 American Music Award – Favorite New Artist – Pop / Rock
1994 Billboard Music Award – Number One Single
1994 Billboard Music Award – Top New Artist
1994 Billboard Music Award – Artist of the Year
1994 Peleg Music Award of Excellence – Best New Artist
1994 World Music Award – World's Best-Selling Scandinavian Recording Artists of the Year
1994 Echo (Germany) – Group of the Year
1994 Swedish Dance Music Awards - Best Swedish Dance Artist
1994 Swedish Dance Music Awards - Best Swedish Dance Album (nominee)
1994 OKEJ Magazine Award
1994 Visionary Award
1995 Grammy Awards – Best Pop Album for The Sign (nominee)
1995 Grammy Awards – Best New Artist (nominee)
1995 Grammy Awards – Best Vocal Performance By a Group or Duo for The Sign (nominee)
1995 World Music Award – World's Best-Selling Scandinavian Recording Artists of the Year
1995 Juno Awards – International Album of the Year for The Sign (nominee)
1995 Swedish Dance Music Awards - Best Swedish Dance Artist (nominee)
1996 European Award For Dance Music
1996 World Music Award – World's Best-Selling Scandinavian Recording Artists of the Year
1997 World Music Award – World's Best-Selling Scandinavian Recording Artists of the Year
1998 Midem Fono Award – Most Played Song of the Year – Life Is a Flower
1999 RSH Gold
2007 BMI Award for over 3 million performances of The Sign on US TV and radio
2011 Scandipop Award – Best group album
2016 BMI Award for over 4 million performances of The Sign on US TV and radio
2021 BMI Award for over 5 million performances of The Sign on US TV and radio
Discography
Studio albums
Happy Nation / The Sign (1992/1993)
The Bridge (1995)
Flowers / Cruel Summer (1998)
Da Capo (2002)
The Golden Ratio (2010)
See also
Swedish pop music
References
External links
[ Biography] on AllMusic
1990 establishments in Sweden
Arista Records artists
Co-ed groups
English-language singers from Sweden
Europop groups
Musical groups established in 1990
Musical groups from Gothenburg
Reggae fusion groups
Sibling musical groups
Swedish co-ed groups
Swedish Eurodance groups
Swedish pop music groups
World Music Awards winners
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega%20Red
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Omega Red
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Omega Red is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, most commonly in association with the X-Men. In 2009, Omega Red was ranked as IGN's 95th-greatest comic book villain of all time.
Publication history
Omega Red first appeared in X-Men #4 (vol. 2, January 1992), and was created by Jim Lee and John Byrne.
Fictional character biography
Little is known about the past of Arkady Gregorivich Rossovich except that he was a serial killer born in Soviet Russia. He was captured by the Interpol agent Sean Cassidy and turned over to the KGB, which wanted to experiment and attempt to create a supersoldier similar to Captain America. Omega Red is the result.
In another version of Omega Red's past, Arkady was a Soviet soldier stationed in a small Siberian town. He was a murderer; his crimes easily discoverable due to the town's small size and limited number of potential victims. He was caught by his fellow soldiers and summarily executed via a gunshot to the back of the head. His superiors are astonished when Arkady survives the execution, and recommend him for the aforementioned Soviet super soldier project, a brutal process; it is suggested that Arkady survives solely due to his evil and cruel nature. He becomes an operative for Soviet intelligence and the KGB.
The Soviet government implanted a retractable carbonadium tentacle within each of Omega Red's arms. Carbonadium was the Soviets' attempt to recreate the artificial alloy known as adamantium, as carbonadium is a more malleable form of adamantium. He uses them as weapons and as grappling appendages. He is able to wrap a victim in his coils to drain them of their "life" energy. This vampiric tendency is essential to Omega Red's survival; the carbonadium implants, while great offensive weapons, slowly poisoned him and he was required to regularly drain the life energy of a person, or perhaps take small amounts from larger numbers of individuals, in order to temporarily sustain his immune system. In order to stabilize his condition, Omega Red requires the "Carbonadium Synthesizer," a device that was stolen by Wolverine, Maverick, and Sabretooth during their final mission together as "Team X" and attempted rescue of double agent Janice Hollenbeck in the 1960s. It is because of his need for the Carbonadium Synthesizer that Omega Red has continuously sought out these three individuals over the years, believing they may know of its whereabouts. While Sabretooth and Maverick might have been aware of its location, it was eventually revealed that Wolverine actually does know where it is.
Omega Red also battled John Wraith in Berlin at that time.
At some time in the past, the Soviet government decided that Omega Red was too unpredictable and treacherous to be relied upon. As such, he needed to be put in cryogenic suspended animation until a method could be found to control him. After the fall of Communism in Russia he was revived from suspended animation by Matsu'o Tsurayaba, who led his own renegade faction of the clan of ninja known as The Hand. Omega Red became a warrior serving Matsu'o Tsurayaba and was led to believe that Wolverine knew the whereabouts of the Carbonadium Synthesizer which could save his life, and sought him out in an effort to find this device. In doing so, he came into conflict with the X-Men many times. In their first encounter in modern times, Omega Red captured Wolverine. He fought and defeated Wolverine, and brought him to Tsurayaba, Fenris, and Cornelius in Berlin. He battled the X-Men, and was wounded by Psylocke and defeated by the X-Men and Maverick but escaped. Later, Omega Red battled and fell under the mental control of the Soul Skinner in Siberia. The Soul Skinner then used him to battle Wolverine and the X-Men. Omega Red was able to subdue the team and capture Wolverine and Jubilee and was then sent to capture Colossus, who had retreated. Omega Red eluded capture by Wolverine after the Soul Skinner's death. He later fought against Chamber of Generation X, but suffered a humiliating defeat. Ultimately, Omega Red failed to eliminate Wolverine and proved to be no more loyal to the Hand than he was to the Soviet government.
He has worked for Neocommunist organizations and tried to kill a member of the Americomp organization, but was stopped by Daredevil and Black Widow.
Omega Red was later employed by Russian gangster Ivan Pushkin to incite a war between the terrorist organization HYDRA and the technology suppliers A. I. M.
While working for the drug lord known as the General, Omega Red was recruited by Sabretooth to attack Wolverine's friends and family alongside Lady Deathstrike. Sabretooth had promised both Omega Red and Deathstrike information on almost every mutant on Earth, but betrayed his new henchmen by teleporting away with Wolverine, his ward Amiko, and the information.
Omega Red is currently a crime lord (head of the Red Mafia) who poses as a legitimate business man, much like Wilson Fisk does in the U.S. At present, Omega Red has resumed his search for the Carbonadium Synthesizer. In Wolverine: Origins #6 and #7, Omega Red locates former Team X member, and now one of the numerous depowered mutants, Agent Zero, a.k.a. Maverick, who is the only person that knows the location of the Carbonadium Synthesizer. This brings him into direct confrontation with Wolverine, who has also sought out Maverick in hopes of locating the Carbonadium Synthesizer. The result of this encounter is that Wolverine outsmarts Omega Red, landing him in the custody of S.H.I.E.L.D.
Months later, it becomes known that the Red Room bought Omega Red's freedom with the hopes of using him to their own ends. Wolverine, Colossus, and Nightcrawler encounter him after he has freed himself from his master, however, and they engage in combat. Omega Red is largely impervious to Wolverine's claws; the Red Room had been experimenting on his body in an effort to enhance his healing factor. After Nightcrawler intervenes and knocks Omega Red unconscious, he is returned to S.H.I.E.L.D. custody.
Thanks to the enigmatic Romulus, Omega Red is transferred to a regular Russian prison to set a trap for Wolverine. Aided by Wild Child, their plan consisted of dropping Logan into molten steel. However, as Wild Child was preparing to finish the job, Omega Red interrupted him. While Wild Child and Omega Red battle each other, Logan managed to flee. A distracted Wild Child is consequently thrown into the molten steel by Omega Red after having his chest punctured.
Omega Red was killed after being stabbed in the heart with the Muramasa blade by Wolverine.
Omega Red later appears in Hell attempting to attack Wolverine by binding him with his tentacles, but is quickly taken down when Wolverine grabs him by the tentacles and flips him over.
The body of Arkady Rossovich was later obtained by some Russian members of the Church of St. Mitrophan who, after a mystical ceremony made by their magiks, were able to raise Omega Red back to life. However, the procedure is only temporary, as the grave will continue to call Arkady, nevertheless they reassure him that they will continue searching for a way to overcome this limitation. The limitation was eventually solved when the Russian Mafia used the abilities of X-Man Magik to restore Omega Red to his fullest strength, but he was nevertheless defeated and delivered to the custody of S.I.C.K.L.E. (the Russian version of S.H.I.E.L.D.).
Arriving bloodied and beaten at Krakoa and seeking asylum, Omega Red is met by Wolverine, who tries to persuade Magneto that Arkady is too dangerous to be allowed on the island, as he poses too serious a threat to the women and children living there. Investigating his claims of a secret vampire enclave hidden in Paris, Wolverine is captured by Vlad Dracula, who has rejuvenated himself by drinking his blood. As per their agreement, Dracula presents Omega Red with the Carbonadium Synthesizer, warning him that it now contains a detonator, whereupon Arkady will serve as a spy in the service of Vlad to aid against any interference from the mutants towards the Vampire Nation's hidden agenda. At Wolverine's insistence, Omega Red is restrained by Krakoa and psychically interrogated by Jean Grey, whereupon X-Force discovers that Omega Red has indeed been mesmerized by Dracula to possibly serve as a spy for the Vampire Nation in exchange for the Carbonadium Synthesizer that is implanted within his chest. While Beast discusses with Forge about creating a duplicate C-Synth containing audio surveillance and homing beacon capabilities, we learn that the detonator has exploded, killing Omega Red. Resurrection protocols will involve delayed consciousness uploading after his new body has hatched insuring he has no memory of his death or rebirth, allowing him to serve X-Force as a double agent in his future dealings with Dracula.
Powers and abilities
Omega Red is a mutant with superhuman strength, stamina, durability, agility, and reflexes, and the ability to secrete pheromones from his body typically referred to as "Death Spores". The death spores result in the weakness or death of humans in his immediate vicinity. The severity of the effect is based on the endurance, health, and relative proximity of the victims. The spores are fatal to ordinary humans within seconds, though some superhumanly powered beings can withstand exposure to them for extended periods of time.
Implanted within Omega Red's arms are long retractable tendril-like coils made of carbonadium, an artificial alloy that is the former Soviet Union's attempt at creating true adamantium. Carbonadium is more malleable than adamantium and, while being vastly stronger than steel, is considerably less durable than adamantium. Carbonadium, however, is for all practical purposes virtually indestructible. Omega Red can cause the coils to shoot forward from openings in the undersides of his wrists in order to ensnare his victims. Omega Red is able to use the tentacles as highly effective offensive weapons, often brandishing them like whips during combat. The natural durability of the tentacles, combined with his physical strength, are sufficient to cause damage to most conventional materials.
Omega Red also has superhuman levels of stamina sufficient to engage Wolverine in combat continuously for over eighteen hours with no signs of fatigue. His bodily tissues are harder and more resistant to certain types of injury than those of an ordinary human. While he is not invulnerable, his body can withstand great impact and blunt trauma forces that would result in severe injury or death in an ordinary human. However, his resistance to injury is considerably enhanced due to the red carbonadium armor that he wears, which has been sufficient to allow him to withstand powerful energy blasts from the likes of Chamber, and Wolverine's claws, without sustaining injury.
Omega Red has the ability, and need, to drain the life force of victims with his pheromones in order to sustain his own. Omega Red can likewise ensnare his victims within his tentacles, and use the coils as a conduit for his lethal pheromones. Due to the mutant "death factor" and the presence of the carbonadium within his body, Omega Red must drain the life force of others on a regular basis in order to sustain his own physical health and remain active. Omega Red can use these absorbed energies to, temporarily, increase his body's healing capabilities to the point where he can fully heal from a punctured lung within a few minutes. Only a device known as the Carbonadium Synthesizer can stabilize his condition, as carbonadium is the only metal that can neutralize the "death factor," thereby stabilizing it within his body.
Omega Red is an excellent hand-to-hand combatant and military tactician. He was trained in various forms of armed and unarmed combat by both the Soviet government and various organizations throughout the Japanese and Russian criminal underworlds. Highly intelligent, he has quickly become highly skilled in the management of criminal organizations.
Reception
In 2018, CBR.com ranked Omega Red 17th in their "Age Of Apocalypse: The 30 Strongest Characters In Marvel's Coolest Alternate World" list.
Other versions
Age of Apocalypse
In the "Age of Apocalypse" timeline, there is a different version of Omega Red known only as Rossovich. Instead of a homicidal maniac, Rossovich appeared more sane and business-like. He had ties to the mutant underground and the black market. He ended up face-to-face with Domino and Grizzly, who appeared to take his life when he couldn't provide them with the information they needed.
After the death of Apocalypse and the ascension of Weapon X into Weapon Omega, the heir of Apocalypse, it was mentioned that Rossovich had, in fact, survived and had returned to his country where under the alias of Omega Red had built an army strong enough to overrun most of Asia and Eastern Europe with relative ease. When Weapon Omega was eventually deposed, the threat from Omega Red to the East was expected, yet the first wave never came and it never would, as Omega Red had been given the knowledge that the canister containing the Apocalypse power was now in Prophet's possession.
Days of Future Now
In the "Days of Future Now" story, Omega Red is a member of X-Force.
Earth-6160
During the "Ultimate Invasion" storyline, Maker visited Earth-6160 and remade it into his own image. Omega Red appears as a member of the Rasputin family. He is among the Rasputin family members that attend Maker's event at The City in Latveria. Omega Red was with the Rasputin family when they attended a gathering following the death of Obadiah Stane. Omega Red and the Rasputin family are among the leaders that meet outside The City after it closed up with Maker, Kang the Conqueror, and Howard Stark still inside as they make plans to divide up Howard's territory.
Ultimate Marvel
In the Ultimate Marvel universe, Omega Red is an enemy of Spider-Man. He is depicted as a mutant with a hatred of humans. At some point, he had been hired to attack a cargo ship belonging to Roxxon Industries as a conspiracy by Tinkerer against its leader Donald Roxxon. After his fight with Spider-Man, he was arrested by S.H.I.E.L.D. However, he managed to escape when the Green Goblin escaped. His defeat by Spider-Man became public knowledge because of articles written by J. Jonah Jameson detailing his humiliation. Subsequently, his former clients blacklisted him. He blamed Jameson for the loss of his livelihood. When Jameson began writing articles critical of Roxxon, Omega Red went to the Daily Bugle office disguised as a janitor and ambushed Jameson in his office with the intent to do Roxxon a high-profile favor and restore his mercenary career. Unfortunately, Peter Parker happened to be in the Bugle office that day. Changing into his Spider-Man costume and bursting through Jameson's office window, he quickly subdued Omega Red, ultimately knocking him unconscious with a vending machine. His tentacles extend from the tops of his wrists instead of the bottom and appear to be organic, not artificial. He has demonstrated superhuman strength.
He is later imprisoned in S.H.I.E.L.D.'s Triskelion, and freed in a breakout by Electro hired by Norman Osborn along with Kraven, and Gwen Stacy/Carnage.
Several months later after the death of Spider-Man, Omega Red is seen resuming his work. He is stopped by the second Spider-Man.
In other media
Television
Omega Red appears in X-Men: The Animated Series, voiced by Len Doncheff. This version is a Soviet patriot who claims his armor and tentacles are made of carbonadium. In his most notable appearances in the episodes "Red Dawn" and "A Deal with the Devil", he fights to restore the Soviet Union and destroy several world capitals via nuclear warheads from a defunct Soviet submarine, only to be thwarted by the X-Men and left trapped in the aforementioned submarine.
Omega Red appears in the X-Men: Evolution episode "Target X", voiced by Richard Newman. This version is a former member of the Weapon X program and a HYDRA operative who seeks revenge on Wolverine, only to be eventually arrested by S.H.I.E.L.D.
Omega Red appears in Marvel Anime: Wolverine, voiced by Ryūzaburō Ōtomo in the Japanese version and by JB Blanc in the English dub.
Film
Omega Red appears in Hulk Vs Wolverine, voiced by Colin Murdock. This version is a member of Weapon X's Team X.
Omega Red makes a cameo appearance in Deadpool 2, portrayed by Dakoda Shepley. This version is a prisoner of a mutant prison called the Ice Box.
An Omega Red film was in development at 20th Century Fox before it was cancelled.
Video games
Omega Red appears in X-Men: Mutant Apocalypse as a Danger Room simulation.
Omega Red appears as a playable character in X-Men: Children of the Atom, voiced by George Buza.
Omega Red appears as a playable character in Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter, voiced again by Len Doncheff.
Omega Red appears as a playable character in Marvel vs. Capcom 2: New Age of Heroes, voiced again by Len Doncheff.
Omega Red appears as a boss in X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse, voiced by Steve Blum. This version works for Mikhail Rasputin and Apocalypse.
Omega Red appears as a boss in the Game Boy Advance version of X2: Wolverine's Revenge.
Omega Red and a variant of him who joined the Horsemen of Apocalypse appear as playable characters in Marvel Puzzle Quest.
Notes
References
External links
Omega Red at Marvel.com
Characters created by Jim Lee
Characters created by John Byrne (comics)
Comics characters introduced in 1992
Fictional assassins in comics
Fictional characters with absorption or parasitic abilities
Fictional cryonically preserved characters in comics
Fictional flexible weapons practitioners
Fictional Russian people
Fictional serial killers
Fictional Soviet people
Fictional whip users
Marvel Comics characters with accelerated healing
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength
Marvel Comics cyborgs
Marvel Comics male supervillains
Marvel Comics martial artists
Marvel Comics mutants
Villains in animated television series
Wolverine (comics) characters
X-Men supporting characters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetics%20%28Aristotle%29
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Poetics (Aristotle)
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Aristotle's Poetics ( Peri poietikês; ; ) is the earliest surviving work of Greek dramatic theory and the first extant philosophical treatise to focus on literary theory. In this text Aristotle offers an account of , which refers to poetry and more literally "the poetic art," deriving from the term for "poet; author; maker," .
Aristotle divides the art of poetry into verse drama (comedy, tragedy, and the satyr play), lyric poetry, and epic. The genres all share the function of mimesis, or imitation of life, but differ in three ways that Aristotle describes:
Differences in music rhythm, harmony, meter, and melody.
Difference of goodness in the characters.
Difference in how the narrative is presented: telling a story or acting it out.
The surviving book of Poetics is primarily concerned with drama; the analysis of tragedy constitutes the core of the discussion.
Although the text is universally acknowledged in the Western critical tradition, "almost every detail about [t]his seminal work has aroused divergent opinions". Of scholarly debates on the Poetics, four have been most prominent. These include the meanings of catharsis and hamartia, the Classical unities, and the question why Aristotle appears to contradict himself between chapters 13 and 14.
Background
Aristotle's work on aesthetics consists of the Poetics, Politics (Bk VIII), and Rhetoric. The Poetics was lost to the Western world for a long time. The text was restored to the West in the Middle Ages and early Renaissance only through a Latin translation of an Arabic version written by Averroes. The accurate Greek-Latin translation made by William of Moerbeke in 1278 was virtually ignored. At some point during antiquity, the original text of the Poetics was divided in two, each "book" written on a separate roll of papyrus. Only the first part—that which focuses on tragedy and epic (as a quasi-dramatic art, given its definition in Ch. 23)—survives. The lost second part addressed comedy. Some scholars speculate that the Tractatus coislinianus summarises the contents of the lost second book.
Overview
The table of contents page of the Poetics found in Modern Library's Basic Works of Aristotle (2001) identifies five basic parts within it.
Preliminary discourse on tragedy, epic poetry, and comedy, as the chief forms of imitative poetry.
Definition of a tragedy, and the rules for its construction. Definition and analysis into qualitative parts.
Rules for the construction of a tragedy: Tragic pleasure, or catharsis experienced by fear and pity should be produced in the spectator. The characters must be four things: good, appropriate, realistic, and consistent. Discovery must occur within the plot. Narratives, stories, structures, and poetics overlap. It is important for the poet to visualize all of the scenes when creating the plot. The poet should incorporate complication and dénouement within the story, as well as combine all of the elements of tragedy. The poet must express thought through the characters' words and actions, while paying close attention to diction and how a character's spoken words express a specific idea. Aristotle believed that all of these different elements had to be present in order for the poetry to be well-done.
Possible criticisms of an epic or tragedy, and the answers to them.
Tragedy as artistically superior to epic poetry: Tragedy has everything that the epic has, even the epic meter being admissible. The reality of presentation is felt in the play as read, as well as in the play as acted. The tragic imitation requires less time for the attainment of its end. If it has more concentrated effect, it is more pleasurable than one with a large admixture of time to dilute it. There is less unity in the imitation of the epic poets (plurality of actions) and this is proved by the fact that an epic poem can supply enough material for several tragedies.
Aristotle also draws a famous distinction between the tragic mode of poetry and the type of history-writing practiced among the Greeks. Whereas history deals with things that took place in the past, tragedy concerns itself with what might occur, or could be imagined to happen. History deals with particulars, whose relation to one another is marked by contingency, accident, or chance. Contrariwise, poetic narratives are determined objects, unified by a plot whose logic binds up the constituent elements by necessity and probability. In this sense, he concluded, such poetry was more philosophical than history was in so far as it approximates to a knowledge of universals.
Synopsis
Aristotle distinguishes between the genres of "poetry" in three ways:
Matter
language, rhythm, and melody, for Aristotle, make up the matter of poetic creation. Where the epic poem makes use of language alone, the playing of the lyre involves rhythm and melody. Some poetic forms include a blending of all materials; for example, Greek tragic drama included a singing chorus, and so music and language were all part of the performance. These points also convey . Recent work, though, argues that translating rhuthmos here as "rhythm" is absurd: melody already has its own inherent musical rhythm, and the Greek can mean what Plato says it means in Laws II, 665a: "(the name of) ordered body movement," or dance. This correctly conveys what dramatic musical creation, the topic of the Poetics, in ancient Greece had: music, dance, and language. Also, the musical instrument cited in Ch. 1 is not the lyre but the kithara, which was played in the drama while the kithara-player was dancing (in the chorus), even if that meant just walking in an appropriate way. Moreover, epic might have had only literary exponents, but as Plato's Ion and Aristotle's Ch. 26 of the Poetics help prove, for Plato and Aristotle at least some epic rhapsodes used all three means of mimesis: language, dance (as pantomimic gesture), and music (if only by chanting the words).
Subjects
(Also "agents" in some translations.) Aristotle differentiates between tragedy and comedy throughout the work by distinguishing between the nature of the human characters that populate either form. Aristotle finds that tragedy deals with serious, important, and virtuous people. Comedy, on the other hand, treats of less virtuous people and focuses on human "weaknesses and foibles". Aristotle introduces here the influential tripartite division of characters: superior (βελτίονας) to the audience, inferior (χείρονας), or at the same level (τοιούτους).
Method
One may imitate the agents through use of a narrator throughout, or only occasionally (using direct speech in parts and a narrator in parts, as Homer does), or only through direct speech (without a narrator), using actors to speak the lines directly. This latter is the method of tragedy (and comedy): without use of any narrator.
Having examined briefly the field of "poetry" in general, Aristotle proceeds to his definition of tragedy:
Tragedy is a representation of a serious, complete action which has magnitude, in embellished speech, with each of its elements [used] separately in the [various] parts [of the play] and [represented] by people acting and not by narration, accomplishing by means of pity and terror the catharsis of such emotions.
By "embellished speech", I mean that which has rhythm and melody, i.e. song. By "with its elements separately", I mean that some [parts of it] are accomplished only by means of spoken verses, and others again by means of song.
He then identifies the "parts" of tragedy:
plot (mythos)
Refers to the "organization of incidents". It should imitate an action that evokes pity and fear. The plot involves a change from bad towards good, or good towards bad. Complex plots have reversals and recognitions. These and suffering (or violence) evoke the tragic emotions. The most tragic plot pushes a good character towards undeserved misfortune because of a mistake (hamartia). Plots revolving around such a mistake are more tragic than plots with two sides and an opposite outcome for the good and the bad. Violent situations are most tragic if they are between friends and family. Threats can be resolved by being done in knowledge, done in ignorance and then discovered, or almost done in ignorance but discovered at the last moment.
Actions should follow logically from the situation created by what has happened before, and from the character of the agent. This goes for recognitions and reversals as well, as even surprises are more satisfying to the audience if they afterwards are seen as a plausible or necessary consequence.
character (ethos)
Character is the moral or ethical character of the agents. It is revealed when the agent makes moral choices. In a perfect tragedy, the character will support the plot, which means personal motivations and traits will somehow connect parts of the cause-and-effect chain of actions producing pity and fear.
The main character should be:
good—Aristotle explains that audiences do not like, for example, villains "making fortune from misery" in the end. It might happen though, and might make the play interesting. Nevertheless, the moral is at stake here and morals are important to make people happy (people can, for example, see tragedy because they want to release their anger).
appropriate—if a character is supposed to be wise, it is unlikely he is young (supposing wisdom is gained with age).
consistent—if a person is a soldier, he is unlikely to be scared of blood (if this soldier is scared of blood it must be explained and play some role in the story to avoid confusing the audience); it is also "good" if a character doesn't change opinion "that much" if the play is not "driven" by who characters are, but by what they do (an audience is confused by unexpected shifts in behaviour [and its reasons and morals] of characters).
"consistently inconsistent"—if a character always behaves foolishly it is strange if he suddenly becomes intelligent. In this case it would be good to explain such a change, otherwise the audience may be confused. If character changes opinion a lot it should be clear that he is a character who has this trait, not a real-life person – this is also to avoid confusion.
thought (dianoia)—spoken (usually) reasoning of human characters can explain the characters or story background.
diction (lexis)—Lexis is better translated, according to some, as "speech" or "language." Otherwise, the relevant necessary condition stemming from logos in the definition (language) has no followup: mythos (plot) could be done by dancers or pantomime artists, given chapters 1, 2, and 4, if the actions are structured (on stage, as drama was usually done), just like plot for us can be given in film or in a story-ballet with no words.
Refers to the quality of speech in tragedy. Speeches should reflect character: the moral qualities of those on the stage. The expression of the meaning of the words.
melody (melos)—"Melos" can also mean "music-dance", especially given that its primary meaning in ancient Greek is "limb" (an arm or a leg). This is arguably more sensible because then Aristotle is conveying what the chorus actually did.
The Chorus too should be regarded as one of the actors. It should be an integral part of the whole, and share in the action. Should be contributed to the unity of the plot. It is a factor in the pleasure of the drama.
spectacle (opsis)
Refers to the visual apparatus of the play, including set, costumes, and props (anything you can see). Aristotle calls spectacle the "least artistic" element of tragedy, and the For example: if the play has "beautiful" costumes and "bad" acting and "bad" story, there is "something wrong" with it. Even though that "beauty" may save the play it is "not a nice thing".
He offers the earliest-surviving explanation for the origins of tragedy and comedy:
Anyway, arising from an improvisatory beginning (both tragedy and comedy—tragedy from the leaders of the dithyramb, and comedy from the leaders of the phallic processions which even now continue as a custom in many of our cities)...
Influence
The Arabic version of Aristotle's Poetics that influenced the Middle Ages was translated from a Greek manuscript dated to some time prior to the year 700. This manuscript, translated from Greek to Syriac, is independent of the currently-accepted 11th-century source designated Paris 1741. The Syriac-language source used for the Arabic translations departed widely in vocabulary from the original Poetics and it initiated a misinterpretation of Aristotelian thought that continued through the Middle Ages.
The scholars who published significant commentaries on Aristotle's Poetics included Avicenna, Al-Farabi, and Averroes. Many of these interpretations sought to use Aristotelian theory to impose morality on the Arabic poetic tradition. In particular, Averroes added a moral dimension to the Poetics by interpreting tragedy as the art of praise and comedy as the art of blame.
Averroes' interpretation of the Poetics was accepted by the West, where it reflected the "prevailing notions of poetry" the 16th century.
Giorgio Valla's 1498 Latin translation of Aristotle's text (the first to be published) was included with the 1508 Aldine printing of the Greek original as part of an anthology of Rhetores graeci. By the early decades of the sixteenth century, vernacular versions of Aristotle's Poetics appeared, culminating in Lodovico Castelvetro's Italian editions of 1570 and 1576. Italian culture produced the great Renaissance commentators on Aristotle's Poetics, and in the baroque period Emanuele Tesauro, with his Cannocchiale aristotelico, re-presented to the world of post-Galilean physics Aristotle's poetic theories as the sole key to approaching the human sciences.
Recent scholarship has challenged whether Aristotle focuses on literary theory per se (given that not one poem exists in the treatise) or whether he focuses instead on dramatic musical theory that only has language as one of the elements.
The lost second book of Aristotle's Poetics is a core plot element (and the "MacGuffin") in Umberto Eco's novel The Name of the Rose.
Core terms
Anagnorisis or "recognition", "identification"
Catharsis or, variously, "purgation", "purification", "clarification"
Dianoia or "thought", "theme"
Ethos or "character"
Hamartia or "miscalculation" (understood in Romanticism as "tragic flaw")
Hubris or Hybris, "pride"
Lexis or "diction", "speech"
Melos, or "melody"; also "music-dance" (melos meaning primarily "limb")
Mimesis or "imitation", "representation," or "expression," given that, e.g., music is a form of mimesis, and often there is no music in the real world to be "imitated" or "represented."
Mythos or "plot," defined in Ch 6 explicitly as the "structure of actions."
Nemesis or, "retribution"
Opsis or "spectacle"
Peripeteia or "reversal"
Editions – commentaries – translations
Revised 2nd edition, in two volumes (1812): I & II
(posthumous)
Notes
References
Sources
Belfiore, Elizabeth, S., Tragic Pleasures: Aristotle on Plot and Emotion. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton UP (1992).
Bremer, J.M., Hamartia: Tragic Error in the Poetics of Aristotle and the Greek Tragedy, Amsterdam 1969
Butcher, Samuel H., Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art, New York 41911
Carroll, M., Aristotle's Poetics, c. xxv, Ιn the Light of the Homeric Scholia, Baltimore 1895
Cave, Terence, Recognitions. A Study in Poetics, Oxford 1988
Carlson, Marvin, Theories of the Theatre: A Historical and Critical Survey from the Greeks to the Present. Expanded ed. Ithaca and London: Cornell UP (1993). .
Destrée, Pierre, "Aristotle on the Power of Music in Tragedy," Greek & Roman Musical Studies, Vol. 4, Issue 2, 2016
Dukore, Bernard F., Dramatic Theory and Criticism: Greeks to Grotowski. Florence, KY: Heinle & Heinle (1974).
Downing, E., "oἷον ψυχή: Αn Εssay on Aristotle's muthos", Classical Antiquity 3 (1984) 164-78
Else, Gerald F., Plato and Aristotle on Poetry, Chapel Hill/London 1986
Halliwell, Stephen, Aristotle's Poetics, Chapel Hill 1986.
Halliwell, Stephen, The Aesthetics of Mimesis. Ancient Texts and Modern Problems, Princeton/Oxford 2002.
Hardison, O. B., Jr., "Averroes", in Medieval Literary Criticism: Translations and Interpretations. New York: Ungar (1987), 81–88.
Hiltunen, Ari, Aristotle in Hollywood. Intellect (2001). .
Ηöffe, O. (ed.), Aristoteles: Poetik, (Klassiker auslegen, Band 38) Berlin 2009
Janko, R., Aristotle on Comedy, London 1984
Jones, John, On Aristotle and Greek Tragedy, London 1971
Lanza, D. (ed.), La poetica di Aristotele e la sua storia, Pisa 2002
Leonhardt, J., Phalloslied und Dithyrambos. Aristoteles über den Ursprung des griechischen Dramas. Heidelberg 1991
Lienhard, K., Entstehung und Geschichte von Aristoteles 'Poetik''', Zürich 1950
Lord, C., "Aristotle's History of Poetry", Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 104 (1974) 195–228
Lucas, F. L., Tragedy: Serious Drama in Relation to Aristotle's "Poetics". London: Hogarth (1957). New York: Collier. . London: Chatto.
Luserke, M. (ed.), Die aristotelische Katharsis. Dokumente ihrer Deutung im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, Hildesheim/Zürich/N. York 1991
Morpurgo- Tagliabue, G., Linguistica e stilistica di Aristotele, Rome 1967
Rorty, Amélie Oksenberg (ed.), Essays on Aristotle's Poetics, Princeton 1992
Schütrumpf, E., "Traditional Elements in the Concept of Hamartia in Aristotle's Poetics", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 92 (1989) 137–56
Scott, Gregory L., Aristotle on Dramatic Musical Composition The Real Role of Literature, Catharsis, Music and Dance in the Poetics (2018),
Sen, R. K., Mimesis, Calcutta: Syamaprasad College, 2001
Sen, R. K., Aesthetic Enjoyment: Its Background in Philosophy and Medicine, Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1966
Sifakis, Gr. M., Aristotle on the Function of Tragic Poetry, Heraklion 2001.
Söffing, W., Deskriptive und normative Bestimmungen in der Poetik des Aristoteles, Amsterdam 1981
Sörbom, G., Mimesis and Art, Uppsala 1966
Solmsen, F., "The Origins and Methods of Aristotle's Poetics", Classical Quarterly 29 (1935) 192–201
Tsitsiridis, S., "Mimesis and Understanding. An Interpretation of Aristotle's Poetics 4.1448b4-19", Classical Quarterly 55 (2005) 435–46
Vahlen, Johannes, Beiträge zu Aristoteles' Poetik, Leipzig/Berlin 1914
Vöhler, M. – Seidensticker B. (edd.), Katharsiskonzeptionen vor Aristoteles: zum kulturellen Hintergrund des Tragödiensatzes, Berlin 2007
External links
librivox.org audio recording
Project Gutenberg – Poetics (Aristotle)
Aristotle's Poetics: Perseus Digital Library edition
Greek text from Hodoi elektronikai
Critical edition (Oxford Classical Texts) by Ingram Bywater
Seven parallel translations of Poetics: Russian, English, French
Aristotle: Poetics entry by Joe Sachs in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Notes of Friedrich Sylburg (1536-1596) in a critical edition (parallel Greek and Latin) available at Google Books
Analysis and discussion in the BBC's In Our Time'' series on Radio 4.
Books about literary theory
Non-fiction books about theatre
Books about writing
Narratology
Plot (narrative)
Books about poetry
Works by Aristotle
Aesthetics literature
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery%20in%20Canada
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Slavery in Canada
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Slavery in Canada includes historical practices of enslavement practiced by both the First Nations during the pre-Columbian era, and by colonists during the period of European colonization.
Britain banned the institution of slavery in present-day Canada (and British colonies) in 1833, though the practice of slavery in Canada had effectively ended already early in the 19th century through local statutes and court decisions resulting from litigation on behalf of enslaved people seeking manumission. The courts, to varying degrees, rendered slavery unenforceable in both Lower Canada and Nova Scotia. In Lower Canada, for example, after court decisions in the late 1790s, the "slave could not be compelled to serve longer than he would, and ... might leave his master at will." Upper Canada passed the Act Against Slavery in 1793, one of the earliest anti-slavery acts in the world.
As slavery in the United States continued until 1865 with the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment, black people (free and enslaved) began immigrating to Canada from the United States after the American Revolution and again after the War of 1812, many by way of the Underground Railroad.
Because Canada's role in the Atlantic slave trade was comparatively limited, the history of Black slavery in Canada is often overshadowed by the more tumultuous slavery practised elsewhere in the Americas.
Under Indigenous rule
Slave-owning people of what became Canada were, for example, the fishing societies such as the Yurok, that lived along the Pacific coast from Alaska to California, on what is sometimes described as the Pacific or Northern Northwest Coast. Some of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, such as the Haida and Tlingit, were traditionally known as fierce warriors and slave-traders, raiding as far as California. Slavery was hereditary, the slaves being prisoners of war and their descendants were slaves. Some nations in British Columbia continued to segregate and ostracize the descendants of slaves as late as the 1970s. Among a few Pacific Northwest nations about a quarter of the population were slaves.
One slave narrative was composed by an Englishman, John R. Jewitt. He had been taken alive when his ship was captured in 1802 by the Nuu-chah-nulth people due to the ship's captain having insulted their chief, Maquinna, and other slights inflicted against their people by other American and European captains. Jewitt's memoir provides a detailed look at life as a slave.
Under European colonization
The historian Marcel Trudel estimates that there were fewer than 4,200 slaves in the area of Canada (New France) and later the Canadas between 1671 and 1831. Around two-thirds of these slaves were of indigenous ancestry
(2,700 typically called panis, from the French term for Pawnee) and one third were of African descent (1,443). They were house servants and farm workers. The number of Black slaves increased during British rule, especially with the arrival of United Empire Loyalists after 1783. The Maritimes saw 1,200 to 2,000 slaves arrive prior to abolition, with 300 accounted for in Lower Canada, and between 500 and 700 in Upper Canada. A small portion of Black Canadians today are descended from these slaves.
People of African descent were forcibly captured by local chiefs as chattel slaves and sold to traders bound for southern areas of the Americas. Those in what is now called Canada typically came from the American colonies, as no shiploads of human chattel went to Canada directly from Africa. There were no large plantations in Canada, and therefore no demand for a large slave work force of the sort that existed in most European colonies in the Americas. Nevertheless, slaves in Canada were subjected to the same physical, psychological, and sexual violence and punishments as their American counterparts.
Under French rule
Under French rule, enslaved First Nations people outnumbered enslaved individuals of African descent. According to Afua Cooper, author of "The Hanging of Angélique: The Untold Story of Canadian Slavery and the Burning of Old Montréal", this was due to the relative ease with which New France could acquire First Nations slaves. She noted that the mortality of slaves was high, with the average age of First Nations slaves only 17, and the average age of slaves of African descent, 25. One of the first recorded Black slaves in Canada was brought by a British convoy to New France in 1628. Olivier le Jeune was the name given to the boy, originally from Madagascar.
By 1688, New France's population was 11,562 people, made up primarily of fur traders, missionaries, and farmers settled in the St. Lawrence Valley. To help overcome its severe shortage of servants and labourers, King Louis XIV granted New France's petition to import Black slaves from West Africa. Though no shipments ever arrived from Africa, colonists did acquire some Black slaves from other French and British colonies. From the late 1600s, they also acquired Indigenous slaves, mostly from what is now the U.S. Midwestern states, through their western fur-trade networks. Slaves of Indigenous origin were called "Panis," but few came from the Pawnee tribe. More commonly, they were of Fox, Dakota, Iowa, and Apache origin, captives taken in war by Indigenous allies and trading partners of the French.
While slavery was prohibited in France, it was permitted in its colonies as a means of providing the massive labour force needed to clear land, construct buildings and (in the Caribbean colonies) work on sugar, indigo and tobacco plantations. The 1685 Code Noir set the pattern for policing slavery in the West Indies. It required that all slaves be instructed as Catholics and not as Protestants. It concentrated on defining the condition of slavery, and established harsh controls. Slaves had virtually no rights, though the Code did enjoin masters to take care of the sick and old. The Code noir does not seem to have applied to Canada and so, in 1709, the intendant Jacques Raudot issued an ordinance officially recognizing slavery in New France; slavery existed before that date, but only as of 1709 was it instituted in law.
One slave is well-recorded in the history of Montreal: Marie-Joseph Angélique was held in slavery by a rich widow in that city. In 1734, after learning that she was going to be sold and separated from her lover, Angélique set fire to her owner's house and escaped. The fire raged out of control, destroying forty-six buildings. Captured two months later, Angélique was paraded through the city, then tortured until she confessed her crime. In the afternoon of the day of execution, Angélique was taken through the streets of Montreal and, after the stop at the church for her amende honorable, made to climb a scaffold facing the ruins of the buildings destroyed by the fire. There she was hanged until dead, with her body flung into the fire and the ashes scattered in the wind.
Historian Marcel Trudel recorded approximately 4,000 slaves by the end of New France in 1759, of which 2,472 were Aboriginal people, and 1,132 Blacks. After the Conquest of New France by the British, slave ownership remained dominated by the French. Trudel identified 1,509 slave owners, of which only 181 were English. Trudel also noted 31 marriages took place between French colonists and Aboriginal slaves.
Under British rule
First Nations owned or traded in slaves, an institution that had existed for centuries or longer among certain groups. Shawnee, Potawatomi, and other western tribes imported slaves from Ohio and Kentucky and sold or gifted them to allies and Canadian settlers. Mohawk Chief Thayendenaga (Joseph Brant) used black people he had captured during the American Revolution to build Brant House at Burlington Beach and a second home near Brantford. In all, Brant owned about forty black slaves.
Black slaves lived in the British regions of Canada in the 18th century—104 were listed in a 1767 census of Nova Scotia, but their numbers were small until the United Empire Loyalist influx after 1783. As white Loyalists fled the new American Republic, they took with them about 2,000 black slaves: 1,200 to the Maritimes (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island), 300 to Lower Canada (Quebec), and 500 to Upper Canada (Ontario). In Ontario, the Imperial Act of 1790 assured prospective immigrants that their slaves would remain their property. As under French rule, Loyalist slaves were held in small numbers and were employed as domestic servants, farm hands, and skilled artisans.
Following the Battle of the Plains of Abraham and the British conquest of New France, the subject of slavery in Canada is unmentioned—neither banned nor permitted—in both the Treaty of Paris of 1763 and the Quebec Act of 1774 or the Treaty of Paris of 1783.
The system of gang labour, and its consequent institutions of control and brutality, did not develop in Canada as it did in the USA. Because they did not appear to pose a threat to their masters, slaves were permitted to learn to read and write, Christian conversion was encouraged, and their marriages were recognized by law. Death rates among slaves were nevertheless high, confirming the brutal nature of the slave regime.
The Quebec Gazette of 12 July 1787 had an advertisement:
Abolition movement
Lower Canada (Quebec)
In Lower Canada, Sir James Monk, the Chief Justice, rendered a series of decisions in the late 1790s that undermined the ability to compel slaves to serve their masters; while "not technically abolishing slavery, [they] rendered it innocuous. The slave could not be
compelled to serve longer than he would, and ... might leave his master at will." After declaring from the bench that slavery had 'unsupported in law,' he thereafter 'systematically dismissed all suits by owners against runaway slaves.'
Although the legislature was petitioned several times to enact legislation clarifying the property rights of slaveholders and their protection (i.e. imprisonment of slaves), there was insufficient appetite to either abolish slavery outright or enforce slavery. "As Lower Canada passed no legislation on the matter, the extradition of fugitives was made impossible and Canada became therefore an asylum for the oppressed." As a result, slaves began to flee their masters within the province, but also from other provinces and from the United States. This occurred several years before the legislature acted in Upper Canada to limit slavery. While the decision was founded upon a technicality (the extant law allowing committal of slaves not to jails, but only to houses of correction, of which there were none in the province), Monk went on to say that "slavery did not exist in the province and to warn owners that he would apply this interpretation of the law to all subsequent cases." In subsequent decisions, and in the absence of specific legislation, Monk's interpretation held (even once there had been houses of correction established). In a later test of this interpretation, the administrator of Lower Canada, Sir James Kempt, refused in 1829 a request from the U.S. government to return an escaped slave, informing that fugitives might be given up only when the crime in question was also a crime in Lower Canada: "The state of slavery is not recognized by the Law of Canada. ... Every Slave therefore who comes into the Province is immediately free whether he has been brought in by violence or has entered it of his own accord."
Nova Scotia
While many black people who arrived in Nova Scotia during the American Revolution were free, others were not. Some blacks arrived in Nova Scotia as the property of white American Loyalists. In 1772, prior to the American Revolution, Britain outlawed the slave trade in the British Isles followed by the Knight v. Wedderburn decision in Scotland in 1778. This decision, in turn, influenced the colony of Nova Scotia. In 1788, abolitionist James Drummond MacGregor from Pictou published the first anti-slavery literature in Canada and began purchasing slaves' freedom and chastising his colleagues in the Presbyterian church who owned slaves. Historian Alan Wilson describes the document as "a landmark on the road to personal freedom in province and country". Historian Robin Winks writes it is "the sharpest attack to come from a Canadian pen even into the 1840s; he had also brought about a public debate which soon reached the courts". (Abolitionist lawyer Benjamin Kent was buried in Halifax in 1788.) In 1790 John Burbidge freed his slaves. Led by Richard John Uniacke, in 1787, 1789 and again on 11 January 1808 the Nova Scotian legislature refused to legalize slavery. Two chief justices, Thomas Andrew Lumisden Strange (1790–1796) and Sampson Salter Blowers (1797–1832), were instrumental in freeing slaves from their owners in Nova Scotia. They were held in high regard in the colony. Justice Alexander Croke (1801–1815) also impounded American slave ships during this time period (the most famous being the Liverpool Packet). During the war, Nova Scotian Sir William Winniett served as a crew on board HMS Tonnant in the effort to free slaves from America. (As the Governor of the Gold Coast, Winniett would later also work to end the slave trade in Western Africa.) By the end of the War of 1812 and the arrival of the Black Refugees, there were few slaves left in Nova Scotia. (The Slave Trade Act outlawed the slave trade in the British Empire in 1807 and the Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 outlawed slavery altogether.)
The Sierra Leone Company was established to relocate groups of formerly enslaved Africans, nearly 1,200 black Nova Scotians, most of whom had escaped enslavement in the United States. Given the coastal environment of Nova Scotia, many had died from the harsh winters. They created a settlement in the existing colony in Sierra Leone (already established to make a home for the "poor blacks" of London) at Freetown in 1792. Many of the "black poor" included other African and Asian inhabitants of London. The Freetown settlement was joined, particularly after 1834, by other groups of freed Africans and became the first African American haven in Africa for formerly enslaved Africans.
Upper Canada (Ontario)
By 1790, the abolition movement was gaining credence in Canada and the ill intent of slavery was evidenced by an incident involving a slave woman being violently abused by her slave owner on her way to being sold in the United States. In 1793, Chloe Cooley, in an act of defiance yelled out screams of resistance. The abuse committed by her slave owner and her violent resistance was witnessed by Peter Martin and William Grisely. Peter Martin, a former slave, brought the incident to the attention of Lieutenant Governor John Graves Simcoe. Under the auspices of Simcoe, the Act Against Slavery of 1793 was legislated. The elected members of the executive council, many of whom were merchants or farmers who depended on slave labour, saw no need for emancipation. Attorney-General John White later wrote that there was "much opposition but little argument" to his measure. Finally the Assembly passed the Act Against Slavery that legislated the gradual abolition of slavery: no slaves could be imported; slaves already in the province would remain enslaved until death, no new slaves could be brought into Upper Canada, and children born to female slaves would be slaves but must be freed at age 25. To discourage manumission, the Act required the master to provide security that the former slave would not become a public charge. The compromise Act Against Slavery stands as the only attempt by any Ontario legislature to act against slavery. This legal rule ensured the eventual end of slavery in Upper Canada, although as it diminished the sale value of slaves within the province it also resulted in slaves being sold to the United States. In 1798 there was an attempt by lobby groups to rectify the legislation and import more slaves. Slaves discovered they could gain freedom by escaping to Ohio and Michigan in the United States.
By 1800, the other provinces of British North America had effectively limited slavery through court decisions requiring the strictest proof of ownership, which was rarely available. In 1819, John Robinson, Attorney General of Upper Canada, declared that by residing in Canada, black residents were set free, and that Canadian courts would protect their freedom.
Slavery remained legal, however, until the British Parliament's Slavery Abolition Act finally abolished slavery in most parts of the British Empire effective 1 August 1834.
Underground Railroad
During the early to mid-19th century, the Underground Railroad network was established in the United States to free slaves, by bringing them to locations where the slaves would be free from being re-captured. British North America, now known as Canada, was a major destination of the Underground Railroad. The Canadian public's awareness of slavery in Canada is typically limited to the Underground Railroad, which is the only education relating to the history of slavery that school children typically receive.
In Nova Scotia, former slave Richard Preston established the African Abolition Society in the fight to end slavery in America. Preston was trained as a minister in England and met many of the leading voices in the abolitionist movement that helped to get the Slavery Abolition Act passed by the British Parliament in 1833. When Preston returned to Nova Scotia, he became the president of the Abolitionist movement in Halifax.
Preston stated:
There are slave cemeteries in parts of Canada, in various states of condition, some neglected and abandoned. They include cemeteries in St-Armand, Quebec; Shelburne, Nova Scotia; and Priceville and Dresden in Ontario.
Modern slavery
The ratifying of the Slavery Convention by Canada in 1953 began the country's international commitments to address modern slavery. Human trafficking in Canada is a legal and political issue, and Canadian legislators have been criticized for having failed to deal with the problem in a more systematic way. British Columbia's Office to Combat Trafficking in Persons formed in 2007, making British Columbia the first province of Canada to address human trafficking in a formal manner. The biggest human trafficking case in Canadian history surrounded the dismantling of the Domotor-Kolompar criminal organization. On June 6, 2012, the Government of Canada established the National Action Plan to Combat Human Trafficking in order to oppose human trafficking. The Human Trafficking Taskforce was established in June 2012 to replace the Interdepartmental Working Group on Trafficking in Persons as the body responsible for the development of public policy related to human trafficking in Canada.
One current and highly publicized instance is the vast disappearances of Aboriginal women which has been linked to human trafficking by some sources. Former Prime Minister Stephen Harper had been reluctant to tackle the issue on the grounds that it is not a "sociological issue" and declined to create a national inquiry into the issue counter to United Nations and Inter-American Commission on Human Rights' opinions that the issue is significant and in need of higher inquiry.
See also
Marie-Joseph Angélique
Marguerite Duplessis
Sophia Pooley
History of slavery
Human rights in Canada
History of slavery in Louisiana
Turner Chapel, Oakville's Black church
R v Jones (New Brunswick)
References
Further reading
Clarke, George Elliott."'This Is No Hearsay': Reading the Canadian Slave Narratives," Papers of the Bibliographical Society of Canada / Cahiers De La Société Bibliographique du Canada 2005 43(1): 7–32, original narratives written by Canadian slaves
. Winner, 2007 Governor General's Literary Award for Nonfiction; Nominee (Nonfiction), National Books Critics Circle Award 2007. See, Governor General's Award for English language non-fiction.
Hajda, Yvonne P. "Slavery in the Greater Lower Columbia Region," Ethnohistory 2005 52(3): 563–588,
Henry, Natasha, Emancipation Day: Celebrating Freedom in Canada
in JSTOR
Whitfield, Harvey. "Black Loyalists and Black Slaves in Maritime Canada," History Compass 2007 5(6): 1980-1997,
Nelson, Charmaine A. Slavery, Geography and Empire in Nineteenth-Century Marine Landscapes of Montreal and Jamaica. N.p., Taylor & Francis, 2017.
Nova Scotia Historical Society
External links
Black Canada and the Journey to Freedom
Runaway Slave advertisement 1772, Nova Scotia
Slavery in Canada, (C) 1899, AcrossCan.com
History of Slavery in Canada Portal
Economic history of Canada
Legal history of Canada
History of Black people in Canada
History of human rights in Canada
Slavery in the British Empire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/III%20Armored%20Corps
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III Armored Corps
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III Corps is a corps of the United States Army headquartered at Fort Cavazos, Texas. It is a major formation of the United States Army Forces Command.
Activated in World War I in France, III Corps oversaw US Army divisions as they repelled several major German offensives and led them into Germany. The corps was deactivated following the end of the war.
Reactivated in the interwar years, III Corps trained US Army formations for combat before and during World War II, before itself being deployed to the European Theater where it participated in several key engagements, including the Battle of the Bulge where it relieved the surrounded 101st Airborne Division.
For the next 50 years, the corps was a key training element for the US Army as it sent troops overseas in support of the Cold War, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War. The corps saw no combat deployments, however, until Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2003. , III Corps includes some of the oldest formations of their type in the US Army: 1st Infantry Division, 1st Cavalry Division, 1st Armored Division and 1st Medical Brigade.
History
World War I
III Corps was first organized on 16 May 1917 in France. It was designed as three of the four newly activated corps of the American Expeditionary Force, which at that time numbered over one million men in 23 divisions. The corps took command of US forces training with the French Seventh Army at the same time that IV Corps took command of US forces training with the French Eighth Army.
Aisne-Marne campaign
In July, the corps was rushed to the Villers-Cotterêts area in preparation for the Third Battle of the Aisne, the first major Allied counteroffensive of the year. There, it was put under the French Tenth Army and given administrative command of the 1st Division and the 2nd Division which were previously under command of the French XX Corps. However, the command group arrived in the area too late to exercise tactical command, and it was instead attached to the French XX Corps. On 18 July, the attack was launched, with the force spearheading the French Tenth Army's assault on the high ground south of Soissons. During this attack, the Corps also cut rail lines supplying the German Army.
The first day of the attack was a success, but on the second day, the Germans were reinforced with heavier weapons and were able to blunt the attack, inflicting high casualties. The force was successful despite heavy casualties, and German forces were forced to retreat. On 1 August, the corps arrived in the Vesle area near the Marne River, where it assumed command of the 3rd Division, 28th Division, and 32nd Division from the French XXXVIII Corps, placing side by side with the U.S. I Corps for a few days. Troops continued to advance until September when they withdrew to form the new First United States Army.
Meuse-Argonne campaign
First Army formed up in preparation to advance in the Meuse-Argonne campaign. It consisted of over 600,000 men in I Corps, III Corps, and V Corps. III Corps took the Army's east flank, protecting it as the Army advanced to Montfaucon, then Cunel and Romagne-sous-Montfaucon. The offensive was slow and hampered by inexperience of many of the divisions under the Army's command, though III Corps was effective in protecting its sector. They advanced through September and October, taking a few weeks for rest after the formation of Second United States Army. On 1 November, the First Army went on a general offensive, pushing north to the Meuse River and the Barricourt Ridge. It was successful, pushing German forces back and advancing to the river until the end of the war. Around that time, III Corps received its shoulder sleeve insignia, approved it by telegram, though the insignia would not be officially authorized until 1922.
The corps was demobilized in Neuwied, Germany at the close of hostilities. Following the end of World War I, III Corps remained in Europe for several months before it returned to the United States. It was demobilized at Camp Sherman, Ohio.
Interwar period
On 15 August 1927 the XXII Corps was activated in the United States. On 13 October of that year XXII Corps was redesignated as III Corps. It was formally activated on 18 December 1927. Throughout much of the next decade, the corps was directed primarily with training and equipping smaller units, as the US military began slowly building in strength in response to international conflicts. In 1940, III Corps was tasked specifically with training newly formed US Army combat divisions in preparation for deployment. It was moved to Camp Hood, Texas for this mission.
World War II
Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor bringing America into World War II, III Corps remained in the United States, where it was assigned to organize defenses of the West Coast, specifically California, against the threat of attack from Japan. During this time III Corps operated at Monterey, California.
The corps was moved to Fort McPherson, Georgia in early 1942 for training. After a short period, the corps returned to Monterey and on 19 August 1942, it was designated a separate corps, capable of deployment. During the next two years, III Corps would train thousands of troops for combat, including 33 division-sized units, and participate in four corps-level maneuvers, including the Louisiana Maneuvers.
Europe
On 23 August 1944, the corps headquarters departed California for Camp Myles Standish in Massachusetts. It deployed for the European Theater of Operations (ETO) on 5 September 1944. Upon arrival at Cherbourg, France, III Corps, under the command of Major General John Millikin, was assigned to the Ninth Army, part of Lieutenant General Omar Bradley's U.S. 12th Army Group, and given the code name "CENTURY" which it retained throughout the war. The corps headquarters was established at Carteret, in Normandy, and for six weeks, the corps received and processed all the troops of the 12th Army Group arriving over the Normandy beaches during that period. The corps also participated in the "Red Ball Express" by organizing 45 provisional truck companies to carry fuel and ammunition for the units on the front lines.
The corps was assigned to Lieutenant General George S. Patton's Third Army on 10 October 1944, and moved to Etain, near Verdun, and into combat. The corps' first fighting was for the Metz region, as it was moved to attack Fort Jeanne d'Arc, one of the last forts holding out in the region. That fort fell on 13 December 1944.
Later that month on 16 December came the last German counteroffensive in the Battle of the Bulge, as over 250,000 German troops, supported by over 1,000 tanks and assault guns assaulted the lines of VIII Corps, some 40 miles to the north of III Corps. The next day Patton, the Third Army commander, warned III Corps that it would likely be ordered to assist. At that time the corps consisted of the 26th and 80th Infantry Divisions and the 4th Armored Division. III Corps was moved north to assist in the relief of Bastogne, Belgium, with the attack commencing at 04:00 on 22 December 1944. The corps advanced north, catching the German forces by surprise on their south flank, cutting them off. The 4th Armored Division was eventually able to reach Bastogne, where the 101st Airborne Division had been surrounded by German forces, and relieve it. During the first 10 days of this action, III Corps liberated more than 100 towns, including Bastogne. This operation was key in halting the German offensive and the eventual drive to the Rhine River.
During the first four months of 1945, III Corps moved quickly to the offensive. On 25 February, the corps, now as part of the First Army, established a bridgehead over the Roer River, which, in turn, led to the capture of the Ludendorff Bridge at Remagen, on the Rhine River, on 7 March. On 30 March, the Edersee Dam was captured intact by Task Force Wolfe of the 7th Armored Division, and the corps, now commanded by Major General James Van Fleet after Millikin's relief, continued the attack to seize the Ruhr Pocket on 5 April 1945. In late April, III Corps reformed and launched a drive through Bavaria towards Austria. On 2 May 1945, III Corps was ordered to halt at the Inn River on the Austrian border, just days before V-E Day, when the German forces surrendered, bringing an end of World War II in Europe.
Post-war
At the end of the war, III Corps had added campaign streamers for Northern France, Rhineland, Ardennes-Alsace, and Central Europe, had taken more than 226,102 prisoners and had seized more than of German territory. The corps had also participated in most of the critical actions from Normandy to the German-Austrian border. Its wartime commanders included Major General John Millikin and Major General James A. Van Fleet. After 13 months of occupation duty in Germany, the corps returned to Camp Polk, Louisiana, where it was inactivated on 10 October 1946.
Cold War era
On 15 March 1951, during the height of the Korean War, III Corps was again called to active duty at Camp Roberts, California. In April 1954, III Corps moved to Fort Hood, Texas, where it participated in a number of important exercises, either as director headquarters or as a player unit. It took command of the 1st Armored Division and the 4th Armored Division. The main purpose of these operations was the testing of new doctrines, organizations, and equipment. On 5 May 1959, the corps was again inactivated.
The Berlin crisis brought III Corps back to active duty for the fourth time on 1 September 1961. Units participated in an intensive training program and were operationally ready by December 1961. In February 1962, the Department of the Army designated III Corps as a unit of the U.S. Strategic Army Corps and in September 1965, assigned III Corps to the U.S. Strategic Army Forces. Throughout much of the 1960s, III Corps and its subordinate units trained for rapid deployment to Europe in the event of an outbreak of war there.
During the Vietnam War era, the corps supervised the training and deployment of more than 137 units and detachments to Southeast Asia, including the I and II Field Force staffs. The corps also trained more than 40,000 individual replacements for units in Vietnam, for a total of over 100,000 soldiers trained. As the war in Southeast Asia ended, the corps received many units and individual soldiers for reassignment or inactivation. It was also during this period that III Corps units participated in a number of key tests and evaluations that would help determine Army organization and equipment for the next 30 years. During this era, the corps also received its distinctive unit insignia.
In July 1973, III Corps became part of the newly established Forces Command and its training, testing, and evaluation mission began to grow. For the remainder of the decade, III Corps would take part in a number of Training and Doctrine Command tests of organizations and tactical concepts, and play a key role in the fielding of new equipment. III Corps units would also participate in major exercises such as Exercise REFORGER (Return of Forces to Germany) and disaster relief operations in the United States and Central America.
In the summer of 1974, the Army decided to implement one of the recommendations of the Howze Board and created an air cavalry combat brigade. The assets of the 2d Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division were used to create the 6th Cavalry Brigade (Air Combat). The new brigade was assigned to the III Corps as a corps asset. 1st Squadron, 6th Cavalry Regiment, was transferred to the new brigade on 21 February 1975. The brigade served as a test bed for new concepts involving the employment of attack helicopters on the modern battlefield. In 1985–85, the brigade consisted of 1st Squadron, 6th Cavalry; 4th Squadron, 9th Cavalry Regiment (4-9 CAV); and 5th and 7th Squadrons, 17th Cavalry Regiment (5-17 CAV and 7-17 CAV), all flying attack helicopters.
As part of the Army's modernization effort in the 1980s corps units introduced new organizations and equipment including the M1 Abrams tank, M2 Bradley Fighting Vehicle, AH-64 Apache helicopter, Multiple Launch Rocket System, and Mobile Subscriber Equipment. In 1987, III Corps also conducted the largest deployment of forces to Germany since the Second World War, Exercise Reforger '87. During this time, the corps began assisting in the training and support of active and reserve component units. This support involves training guidance, resources, and the maintenance of relationships that extend to wartime affiliations.
Organization 1972
During the Cold War in 1972 III Corps consisted of the following formations and units:
III Corps, Fort Hood, Texas
1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood, Texas (Operation Reforger formation)
2nd Armored Division, Fort Hood, Texas (Operation Reforger formation)
2nd Armored Division (Forward), Garlstedt, West Germany (as of 1978)
5th Infantry Division (Mechanized), Fort Polk, Louisiana (Operation Reforger formation)
101st Airborne Division, Fort Campbell, Kentucky
III Corps Artillery, Fort Sill, Oklahoma
75th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma
212th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma (Operation Reforger unit)
214th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma
3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment, Fort Bliss, Texas (Operation Reforger unit)
6th Cavalry Brigade (Air Combat), Fort Hood, Texas
31st Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Hood, Texas
89th Military Police Brigade, Fort Hood, Texas
3rd Signal Brigade (Corps), Fort Hood, Texas
504th Military Intelligence Brigade, Fort Hood, Texas
13th Corps Support Command, Fort Hood, Texas
1990s
Following the end of the Cold War, III Corps headquarters itself saw no major contingencies; however, it saw numerous units under its command deploy to contingencies around the world. III Corps units were sent to Grenada, Panama, Honduras, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Iraq. In the fall of 1990, two 6th Cavalry Brigade (Air Combat) units deployed to Iraq during Operation Desert Shield. One of those units was 2nd Battalion, 158th Aviation Regiment, a Chinook battalion from Fort Hood. Other corps units also provided humanitarian support for Operation Restore Hope in Somalia. III Corps elements supported Operation Joint Endeavor in Bosnia and Herzegovina as well.
It was after the Cold War that III Corps was acclimated to the role of primary counteroffensive force for the US Army. With the downsizing of other major Army formations, III Corps gained command of heavier units, including the 1st Cavalry Division, that were organized for large, conventional offensive actions, while the XVIII Airborne Corps took charge of rapid deployment for emergency contingencies, including the 101st Airborne Division and 82nd Airborne Division.
21st century
In 2001, the corps was composed of the 1st Cavalry Division and the 4th Infantry Division as well as the 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment and the 13th Corps Support Command. However, with realignment of the US Army and the return of several formations from Europe, the corps took command of the 1st Infantry Division and the 1st Armored Division as well, both of these units having been transferred from V Corps in Germany.
The corps headquarters saw its first combat deployment since the Second World War in 2004, when it deployed to Iraq for Operation Iraqi Freedom. There, III Corps headquarters assumed duties as Headquarters Multi-National Corps – Iraq, relieving V Corps. III Corps served as the administrative command for 2,500 soldiers of the Multi-National Force – Iraq command element, providing operational direction into 2005, when it was returned to Fort Hood, relieved by XVIII Airborne Corps. III Corps has for many years participated in an exchange program which sees a Canadian Army officer appointed as a deputy commanding general. Notably, Peter Devlin deployed with the corps to Iraq in 2005.
III Corps Artillery was inactivated on 8 September 2006. Henceforth the field artillery brigades, soon to become Fires Brigades, would be assigned to the corps and division headquarters directly.
In December 2006, the corps returned to Iraq for a second time to serve as commanding headquarters for Multi-National Corps Iraq. During this 15-month deployment, the corps took command of the force at its largest with Iraq War troop surge. The corps conducted a similar mission to its first deployment, focusing on providing personnel management, training, communications, convoy escort, and other duties to support the commanding elements of Multi-National Force Iraq. III Corps fulfilled this mission until February 2008, when it returned home, again relieved by XVIII Airborne Corps.
In 2009, the corps began a number of training initiatives with the Republic of Korea Army. These included Operation Key Resolve, a command post exercise simulating major, high intensity combat operations. The exercises were held in Yongin, South Korea. These operations were designed to keep the corps familiar with commanding during large-scale conventional warfare, as opposed to counter-insurgency tactics it employed during its two tours in Iraq. Upon return to the United States, the corps conducted similar exercises at Fort Cavazos.
On 5 November 2009, a gunman opened fire in the Soldier Readiness Center of Fort Hood, killing 13 people and wounding 30 others. Nidal Hasan, a Muslim U.S. Army major and psychiatrist, was alleged to be the gunman. He was felled and then arrested by civilian police officers Sergeant Mark Todd and Sergeant Kimberly Munley. Much of the subsequent investigation was handled by III Corps, as the soldiers killed were under the corps' chain of command.
III Corps, commanded by LTG Robert W. Cone, assumed its final Iraq mission from I Corps from Joint Base Lewis–McChord, Washington in February 2010. As the core element of United States Forces – Iraq headquarters, III Corps oversaw a theater-wide transition from full-spectrum operations to stability operations. The corps changed the counterinsurgency (COIN) fight dynamic from partnered combat operations, led by brigade combat teams, to training, advising, and assisting operations, led by brigades organized as advise and assist brigades. The corps also completed the transition to complete Iraqi lead for security operations. During the deployment, III Corps reduced the amount of aviation assets in Iraq, resulting in one enhanced combat aviation brigade with six maneuver battalions having responsibility for the entire joint operations area. III Corps also oversaw the reduction of the force in Iraq from 110,000 to 50,000 U.S. personnel by 1 Sept. 2010, which established the conditions for the end of Operation Iraqi Freedom and the transition to Operation New Dawn. XVIII Airborne Corps from Fort Liberty, North Carolina, assumed the Iraq follow-on mission from III Corps in February 2011.
The corps saw its first action in Afghanistan when it deployed to Kabul in early April 2013. The corps, under the command of LTG Mark A. Milley, replaced the U.S. V Corps from Stuttgart, Germany, in May 2013 and assumed the mission of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) Joint Command, or IJC, which was responsible for day-to-day operations throughout Afghanistan. During the corps' deployment, IJC oversaw Milestone 13/Tranche 5 ceremony on 18 June 2013, which marked the official transition of full responsibility for nationwide security operations from ISAF to the Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. After the Milestone 13 ceremony, IJC transitioned from Coalition-led combat operations to Afghan-led combat operations and Coalition forces providing training, advice, and assistance. The ANSF, officially less than three years old, reached its peak of more than 350,000 members and conducted more than 70 major operations in more than 22 provinces. In November 2013, IJC forces provided technical support to the ANSF as it secured the Loya Jirga, a country-wide gathering of Afghan local leaders and officials, in Kabul. The Loya Jirga successfully laid the groundwork for a U.S.-Afghanistan Bilateral Security Agreement. During the deployment, III Corps also oversaw the drawdown of U.S. forces from more than 80,000 to 34,000 by 1 Feb. 2014. XVIII Airborne Corps from Fort Liberty, North Carolina, assumed the ISAF Joint Command mission from III Corps in March 2014.
On 22 September 2015, III Corps assumed command of CJTF-OIR from United States Army Central.
On 13 October 2020, the III Corps commander launched Operation People First at Fort Cavazos, Fort Bliss, Fort Carson, Fort Riley, and other III Corps units.
Organization
III Corps, Fort Cavazos, Texas
III Corps Headquarters and Headquarters Battalion, Fort Cavazos, Texas
1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, Kansas
1st Cavalry Division, Fort Cavazos, Texas
1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss. Texas
4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado
75th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma
36th Engineer Brigade, Fort Cavazos, Texas
3rd Cavalry Regiment, Fort Cavazos, Texas
11th Signal Brigade, Fort Cavazos, Texas
504th Military Intelligence Brigade, Fort Cavazos, Texas
89th Military Police Brigade, Fort Cavazos, Texas
13th Sustainment Command, Fort Cavazos, Texas
1st Medical Brigade, Fort Cavazos, Texas
List of Commanding Generals
William M. Wright June 1916 – July 1918
Robert Lee Bullard July 1918 – October 1918
John L. Hines October 1918 – July 1919
Walter K. Wilson December 1940 – July 1941
Joseph W. Stilwell July 1941 – December 1941
Walter K. Wilson December 1941 – April 1942
John P. Lucas April 1942 – May 1943
Harold R. Bull June 1943 – October 1943
John Millikin October 1943 – 17 March 1945
James A. Van Fleet March 1945 – February 1946
Ira T. Wyche February 1946 – May 1946
Leland S. Hobbs May 1946 – October 1946
William B. Kean March 1951 – July 1952
Ira P. Swift August 1952 – April 1953
William S. Biddle October 1953 – April 1954
Hobart R. Gay April 1954 – October 1954
Thomas L. Harrold October 1954 – June 1956
William N. Gillmorre June 1956 - August 1958
Earle G. Wheeler March 1959 – March 1960
John A. Beall Jr. September 1961 – April 1962
Thomas W. Dunn April 1962 – October 1963
Harvey J. Jablonsky November 1963 – January 1964
Harvey H. Fischer January 1964 – February 1965
Ralph E. Haines Jr. March 1965 – April 1967
George R. Mather June 1967 – July 1968
Beverley E. Powell September 1968 – July 1971
George P. Seneff Jr. July 1971 – September 1973
Allen M. Burdett Jr. September 1973 – March 1975
Robert M. Shoemaker March 1975 – November 1977
Marvin D. Fuller November 1977 – January 1980
Richard E. Cavazos January 1980 – February 1982
Walter F. Ulmer Jr. February 1982 – June 1985
Crosbie E. Saint June 1985 – June 1988
Richard G. Graves June 1988 – June 1991
Horace G. Taylor June 1991 – October 1993
Paul E. Funk October 1993 – December 1995
Thomas A. Schwartz December 1995 – August 1998
Leon J. LaPorte August 1998 – August 2001
Burwell B. Bell III August 2001 – November 2002
Thomas F. Metz February 2003 – May 2006
Raymond T. Odierno May 2006 – July 2008
Rick Lynch July 2008 – September 2009
Robert W. Cone September 2009 – April 2011
Donald M. Campbell Jr. April 2011 – 2012
Mark A. Milley 2012 – 2014
Sean B. MacFarland 2014 – 2017
Paul E. Funk II 2017 – 2019
Robert P. White 2019 – 2022
Sean C. Bernabe 2022 – Present
Honors
The corps received five campaign streamers in World War I and four campaign streamers in World War II. It also received two campaign streamers and two unit awards during the War on Terrorism.
Unit decorations
Campaign streamers
References
Sources
External links
III Armored Corps Home Page – official site
United States Army Center of Military History
GlobalSecurity.org page on III Corps
Gen. Saint Chosen to Command Army in Europe
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Military units and formations established in 1918
1918 establishments in France
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/En%C5%ABma%20Eli%C5%A1
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Enūma Eliš
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(Akkadian Cuneiform: , also spelled "Enuma Elish") Babylonian creation myth (named after its opening words). It was recovered by English archaeologist Austen Henry Layard in 1849 (in fragmentary form) in the ruined Library of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh (Mosul, Iraq). A form of the myth was first published by English Assyriologist George Smith in 1876; active research and further excavations led to near completion of the texts and improved translation.
Enūma Eliš has about a thousand lines and is recorded in Akkadian on seven clay tablets, each holding between 115 and 170 lines of Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform script. Most of Tablet V has never been recovered, but, aside from this lacuna, the text is almost complete.
Over the seven tablets, it describes the creation of the world, a battle between gods focused on the supremacy of Marduk, the creation of man destined for the service of the Mesopotamian deities, and it ends with a long passage praising Marduk. The rise of Marduk is generally viewed to have started from the Second Dynasty of Isin, triggered by the return of the statue of Marduk from Elam by Nebuchadnezzar II, although a late Kassite date is also sometimes proposed. It may have been recited during the Akitu festival.
Some late Assyrian versions replace Marduk with Ashur.
Background and discovery
Before the tablets were discovered, substantial elements of the myth had survived via the writings of Berossus, a 3rd-century BCE Babylonian writer and priest of Bel (Marduk). These were preserved in Alexander Polyhistor's book on Chaldean History, which was reproduced by Eusebius in Book 1 of his Chronicon. In it are described the primeval state of an abyssal darkness and water, the two primeval beings existing therein, said to be of a twofold principle. The description then relates the creation of further beings, partly human but with variants of wings, animal heads and bodies, and some with both sex organs. (Berossus states images of these are to be found at the temple of Bel in Babylon.) The text also describes a female being leading over them, named as Omoroca, called Thalatth in Babylonian (derived from Greek,) and her slaying by Bel, who cut her in half, forming Heaven of one part and Earth of the other – this, Berossus claims to have been an allegory. The text also describes the beheading of a god, and the mixing of the god's blood with the Earth's soil, leading to the creation of men (people). Finally, there is also reference to Bel's creation of the stars, Sun, Moon, and planets. Berossus also gave an account of the sage Oannes, a sort of fish-man hybrid, who appeared from the sea and taught people all manner of knowledge, including writing, lawmaking, construction, mathematics, and agriculture; Berossus presented the account of creation in the form of a speech given by the Oannes. The neo-platonist Damascius also gave a short version of the Babylonian cosmological view, which closely matches Enūma Eliš.
Clay tablets containing inscriptions relating to analogues of biblical stories were discovered by A.H. Layard, Hormuzd Rassam, and George Smith in the ruins of the Palace and Library of Ashurbanipal (668626 BCE) during excavations at the mound of Kuyunjik, Nineveh (near Mosul) between 1848 and 1876. Smith worked through Rassam's find of ~20,000 fragments from 1852, and identified references to the kings Shalmaneser II, Tiglath-Pileser III, Sargon II, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and other rulers mentioned in the Bible – furthermore he discovered versions of a Babylonian deluge myth (see Gilgamesh flood myth), as well as creation myths.
On examination it became clear that the Assyrian myths were drawn from or similar to the Babylonian ones. Additionally Sir Henry Rawlinson had noted similarities between Biblical accounts of creation and the geography of Babylonia; he suggested that biblical creation stories might have their origin in that area. A link was found on a tablet labelled K 63 at the British Museum's collection by Smith, as well as similar text on other tablets. Smith then began searching the collection for textual similarities between the two myths, and found several references to a deluge myth with an 'Izdubar' (literal translation of cuneiform for Gilgamesh). Smith's publication of his work led to an expedition to Assyria funded by The Daily Telegraph – there he found further tablets describing the deluge as well as fragmentary accounts of creation, a text on a war between good and evil 'gods', and a Fall of man myth. A second expedition by Smith brought back further creation legend fragments. By 1875 he had returned and began publishing accounts of these discoveries in the Daily Telegraph from 4 March 1875.
Smith speculated that the creation myth, including a part describing the fall of man, might originally have spanned at least nine or ten tablets. He also identified tablets the themes of which were, in part, closer to the account given by Berossus. Some of Smith's early correspondences, such as references to the stories of the temptation of Eve, to the Tower of Babel, and to instructions given from God (Yahweh) to Adam and Eve, were later held to be erroneous.
The connection with the Bible stories brought a great deal of additional attention to the tablets – in addition to Smith's early scholarship on the tablets, early translation work included that done by E. Schrader, A.H. Sayce, and Jules Oppert. In 1890 P. Jensen published a translation and commentary Die Kosmologie der Babylonier , followed by an updated translation in his 1900 "Mythen und Epen" ; in 1895 Prof. Zimmern of Leipzig gave a translation of all known fragments, , shortly followed by a translation by Friedrich Delitzsch, as well as contributions by several other authors.
In 1898, the trustees of the British Museum ordered publication of a collection of all the Assyrian and Babylonian creation texts held by them, a work which was undertaken by L.W. King. King concluded that the creation myth as known in Nineveh was originally contained on seven tablets. This collection was published 1901 as "Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets in the British Museum" (Part XIII) . King published his own translations and notes in two volumes with additional material 1902 as The Seven Tablets of Creation, or the Babylonian and Assyrian Legends concerning the creation of the world and of mankind . By then additional fragments of tablet six had been found, concerning the creation of man – here Marduk was found to have made man from his blood combined with bone, which brought comparison with Genesis 2:23 ("This is now bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh; she shall be called 'woman,' for she was taken out of man") where the creation of woman required the use of a man's bone.
New material contributing to the fourth and sixth tablets also further corroborated other elements of Berossus' account. The seventh tablet added by King was a praise of Marduk, using around fifty titles over more than one hundred lines of cuneiform. Thus King's composition of Enūma Eliš consisted of five parts – the birth of gods, legend of Ea and Apsu, Tiamat primeval serpent myth, account of creation, and finally a hymn to Marduk using his many titles. Importantly, tablets, both Assyrian and Babylonian, when possessing colophons had the number of the tablet inscribed.
Further expeditions by German researchers uncovered further tablet fragments (specifically tablet 1, 6, and 7) during the period 1902–1914 – these works replaced Marduk with the Assyrian god Ashur; additional important sources for tablets 1 and 6, and tablet 7 were discovered by expeditions in 1924–25, and 1928–29 respectively. The Ashur texts uncovered by the Germans necessitated some corrections – it was Kingu not Marduk who was killed and whose blood made men. These discoveries were further supplemented by purchases from antiquity dealers – as a result by the mid 20th century most of the text of the work was known, with the exception of tablet 5. These further discoveries were complemented by a stream of publications and translations in the early 20th century.
In the 21st century, the text remains a subject of active research, analysis, and discussion. Significant publications include: The Standard Babylonian Creation Myth Enūma Eliš ; Das Babylonische Weltschöpfungsepos Enuma Elis ; Babylonian Creation Myths ; enūma eliš: Weg zu einer globalen Weltordnung ; and other works still.
Dating of the myth
The earliest manuscript of the myth was excavated from Assur and dated to the 9th Century BCE.
While it used to be viewed that Enuma Elish was composed in the reign of Hammurabi, most scholars now believe it is unlikely and accept a dating to the second dynasty of Isin. During the Old Babylonian period, Marduk was not the pantheon head, appearing instead as the mediator between the great gods and Hammurabi, and there is no evidence that Hammurabi or his successors promoted Marduk at the expense of the other gods. It was during the second dynasty of Isin that Marduk started to be referred to as the king of the gods, with the return of the statue of Marduk from Elam by Nebuchadnezzar I. Sommerfield's suggestion that Enuma Elish should be dated instead to the Kassite period, was countered by Lambert, but the god list An = Anum does give the number 50, which traditionally belongs to Enlil, to Marduk. Dalley still proposes that Enuma Elish was written during the Old Babylonian Period, but other scholars find her proposal unlikely.
Variants
Numerous copies of the tablets exist – even by 1902 fragments of four copies of the first tablet were known, as well as extracts, possibly examples of 'handwriting practice'. Tablets from the library of Ashur-bani-pal tended to be well written on fine clay, whereas the Neo-Babylonian tablets were often less well written and made, though fine examples existed. All tablets, both Assyrian and Babylonian had the text in lines, not columns, and the form of the text was generally identical between both.
A tablet at the British Museum (No 93014.), known as the "bilingual" version of the creation legend describes the creation of man, and animals (by Marduk with the aid of Aruru), as well as the creation of the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, of land and plants, as well as the first houses and cities.
Other variants of the creation myth can be found described in and
Text
The epic itself does not rhyme, and has no meter – it is composed of couplets, usually written on the same line, occasionally forming quatrains. The title Enūma Eliš, meaning "when on high", is the incipit.
The following per-tablet summary is based on the translation in Akkadian Myths and Epics (E.A. Speiser), in Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament
Tablet 1
The tale begins before creation, when only the primordial entities Apsu and Tiamat existed, co-mingled together. There were no other things or gods, nor had any destinies been foretold. Then from the mixture of Apsu and Tiamat two gods issued – Lahmu and Lahamu; next Anshar and Kishar were created. From Anshar came firstly the god Anu, and from Anu, came Nudimmud (also known as Ea).
The commotion of these new gods disturbed and disgusted Tiamat, and Apsu could not calm them. Apsu called Mummu to speak with Tiamat, and he proposed to destroy the new gods, but Tiamat was reluctant to destroy what they had made. Mummu advised Apsu to destroy them, and he embraced Mummu. The new gods heard of this and were worried – Ea however crafted a spell to lull Apsu to sleep.
Mummu sought to wake Apsu but could not – Ea took Apsu's halo and wore it himself, slew Apsu, and chained Mummu. Apsu became the dwelling place of Ea, together with his wife Damkina. Within the heart of Apsu, Ea and Damkina created Marduk. The splendor of Marduk exceeded Ea and the other gods, and Ea called him "My son, the Sun!". Anu created the four winds.
Other gods taunted Tiamat: 'When your consort (Apsu) was slain you did nothing', and complained of the wearisome wind. Tiamat then made monsters to battle the other gods, eleven chimeric creatures with weapons, with the god Kingu chief of the war party and her new consort. She gave Kingu the 'Tablet of Destinies', making his command unchallengeable.
Tablet 2
Ea heard of Tiamat's plan to fight and avenge Apsu. He spoke to his grandfather Anshar, telling that many gods had gone to Tiamat's cause, and that she had created eleven monstrous creatures fit for war, and made Kingu their leader, wielding the 'Tablet of Destinies'. Anshar was troubled and told Anu to go to appease Tiamat, but he was too weak to face her and turned back. Anshar became more worried, thinking no god could resist Tiamat.
Finally, Anshar proposed Marduk as their champion. Marduk was brought forth, and asked what god he must fightto which Anshar replied that it was not a god but the goddess Tiamat. Marduk confidently predicted his victory, but exacted their promise to proclaim him supreme god, with authority over even Anshar.
Tablet 3
Anshar spoke to Gaga, who advised him to fetch Lahmu and Lahamu and tell them of Tiamat's war plans, and of Marduk's demand for overlordship if he defeats her. Lahmu and Lahamu and other Igigi (heavenly gods) were distressed, but drank together, becoming drowsy, and finally approving the compact with Marduk.
Tablet 4
Marduk was given a throne, and sat over the other gods, who honored him.
Marduk was also given a sceptre and vestments, as well as weapons to fight Tiamat – bow, quiver, mace, and bolts of lightning, together with the four winds – his body was aflame.
Using the four winds Marduk trapped Tiamat. Adding a whirlwind, a cyclone, and Imhullu ("the Evil Wind"), together the seven winds stirred up Tiamat. In his war chariot drawn by four creatures he advanced. He challenged Tiamat, stating she had unrightfully made Kingu her consort, accusing her of being the source of the trouble. Enraged, Tiamat joined Marduk in single combat.
Marduk used a net, a gift from Anu, to entangle Tiamat; Tiamat attempted to swallow Marduk, but 'the Evil Wind' filled her mouth. With the winds swirling within her she became distended – Marduk then shot his arrow, hitting her heart – she was slain. The other gods attempted to flee but, Marduk captured them, broke their weapons, and netted them. Her eleven monsters were also captured and chained; whilst Kingu was taken to Uggae (the Angel of Death), the 'Tablet of Destinies' taken from him. Marduk then smashed Tiamat's head with the mace, while her blood was carried off by the North Wind.
Marduk then split Tiamat's remains in two – from one half he made the sky – in it he made places for Anu, Enlil, and Ea.
Tablet 5
Marduk made likenesses of the gods in the constellations, and defined the days of the year from them. He created night and day, and the moon also. He created clouds and rain, and their water made the Tigris and Euphrates. He gave the 'Tablet of Destinies' to Anu.
Statues of the eleven monsters of Tiamat were made and installed at the gate of Apsu.
Tablet 6
Marduk then spoke to Ea – saying he would use his own blood to create man – and that man would serve the gods. Ea advised one of the gods be chosen as a sacrifice – the Igigi advised that Kingu be chosen – his blood was then used to create man.
Marduk then divided the gods into "above" and "below" – three hundred in the heavens, six hundred on earth. The gods then proposed to build a throne or shrine for him – Marduk told them to construct Babylon. The gods then spent a year making bricks – they built the Esagila (Temple to Marduk) to a great height, making it a place for Marduk, Ea, and Enlil.
A banquet was then held, with fifty of the great gods taking seats. Anu praising Enlil's bow and then Marduk.
The first nine names or titles of Marduk were given.
Tablet 7
The remainder of Marduk's fifty names or titles were read.
Colophon
Tablets Smith examined also contained attributions on the rear of the tablet – the first tablet contained eight lines of a colophon – Smith's reconstruction and translation of this states :
Significance, interpretation, and ritual use
Due to the nature of Enuma Elish, it is generally advised to be wary of simply taking the text as a representative of Mesopotamian creation myths. Enuma Elish references multiple myths and other texts, and epithets usually attested in royal inscriptions were given to Marduk. Similarities with the Anzu myth are commonly observed, such as both myths using the Tablet of Destinies as a key object and the similarities between the weapons used by Ninurta and Marduk, and lines from the Anzu myth were adapted to fit the story of Enuma Elish, such as Anzu’s feathers being blown off by the wind being adjusted to having Tiamat’s blood being blown off by the wind. Marduk using floods and storms as a weapon and using a net to capture Tiamat (the personified sea) does not make logical sense, but they were weapons that Ninurta used in the Anzu myth and in Lugal-e, and usage of a net would make sense against Anzu. Other traditions related to Ninurta were also applied to Marduk in Enuma Elish, such as the name of one of Ninurta’s weapons (long wood) being given to Marduk’s bow. While it would make sense to simply write this off as Marduk using Ninurta’s model simply because it was the closest match, the traditions involving Ninurta were already used to allude to heroism in the epic of Gilgamesh, and imageries of Ninurta played an important part of Neo-Assyrian ideology.
Outside of the Anzu myth, similarities between Enuma Elish and the Atrahasis epic were also pointed out. Both Apsu and Enlil wanted to destroy a source of noise which prevented them from falling asleep (for Enlil, this was humanity and for Apsu, this was his offspring.) Both Nintu and Tiamat then laments their fate. Wisnom further suggests that the similarities between the beginning of Enuma Elish and Atrahasis was to have Apsu remind people of Enlil, thus the overthrowing of Apsu symbolically represents the dethronement of Enlil, the old head of the pantheon. Enlil is conspicuously missing in most of Enuma Elish, only appearing to offer his title to Marduk, and Marduk receives fifty names, the number of Enlil.
Other comparisons were also drawn, such as the description of Marduk’s awe with the description in Marduk’s Address to the Demons, and the creation of the universe at the beginning of Tablet X with Tablet XXII of the astronomical series Enuma Anu Enlil. In Enuma Anu Enlil, the creation of the universe was credited to Anu, Enlil and Ea, while in Enuma Elish the creation of the universe was credited to Marduk while Enlil and Ea were assigned a position.
The myth of a god (usually a storm god) fighting the sea is well known in the Ancient Near East, including myths such as the Song of Hedammu, the Baal cycle, the Illuyanka myth, and the Astarte papyrus. In the Song of Hedammu and the Illuyanka Myth the sea acts as a sort of breeding ground for the god’s enemies, as both Hedammu and Illuyanka were sea monsters. The Song of the Sea, suggested to belong to the Kumarbi Cycle, likely narrates the story of the storm god Teshub fighting the sea god, although the text is damaged and fragmentary. The Astarte Papyrus also mentioned a struggle with the sea, and the Ugaritic Baal Cycle had Baal Hadad fight for his position from Yam.
A ritual text from the Seleucid period states that Enūma Eliš was recited during the Akitu festival. There is scholarly debate as to whether this reading occurred, its purpose, and even the identity of the text referred to. Most analysts consider that the festival concerned and included some form of re-enactment of Tiamat's defeat by Marduk, representing a renewal cycle and triumph over chaos. However a more detailed analysis by Jonathan Z. Smith led him to argue that the ritual should be understood in terms of its post-Assyrian and post-Babylonian imperial context, and may include elements of psychological and political theater legitimizing the non-native Seleucid rulers; he also questions whether Enūma Eliš read during that period was the same as that known to the ancient Assyrians. Whether Enūma Eliš creation myth was created for the Akitu ritual, or vice versa, or neither, is unclear; nevertheless there are definite connections in subject matter between the myth and festival, and there is also evidence of the festival as celebrated during the neo-Babylonian period that correlates well with Enūma Eliš myth. A version of Enūma Eliš is also thought to have been read during the month of Kislimu.
It has been suggested that ritual reading of the poem coincided with spring flooding of the Tigris or Euphrates following the melting of snow in mountainous regions upstream – this interpretation is supported by the defeat of the (watery being) Tiamat by Marduk.
Influence on biblical research
Enūma Eliš contains numerous parallels with passages of the Old Testament, which has led some researchers to conclude that these were based on the Mesopotamian work. Overarching similarities include: reference to a watery chaos before creation; a separation of the chaos into heaven and earth; different types of waters and their separation; as well as the numerical similarity between the seven tablets of the epic and the seven days of creation. However, another analysis notes many differences, including polytheism vs. monotheism, and personification of forces and qualities in the Babylonian myth vs. imperative creation by God in the biblical stories; permanence of matter vs. creation out of nothing; and the lack of any real parallel for Marduk's long battles with monsters. He also notes some broad commonalities of both texts with other religions, such as a watery chaos found in Egyptian, Phoenician, and Vedic works; and that both texts were written in languages with a common Semitic root. Regarding the creation of man, there are similarities in the use of dust or clay, but man's purpose is inverted in the two texts: in Enūma Eliš man is created as a servant of gods, whereas in Genesis man is given more agency. Nevertheless in both, the dust is infused with "godhood", either through a god's blood in Enūma Eliš, or by being made in God's image in Genesis. As to the seven tablets and seven days of each system, the numbered itineraries in general do not closely match, but there are some commonalities in order of the creation events: first darkness, then light, the firmament, dry land, and finally man, followed by a period of rest.
Different theories have been proposed to explain the parallels. Based on an analysis of proper names in the texts, A.T. Clay proposed that Enūma Eliš was a combination of a Semitic myth from Amurru and a Sumerian myth from Eridu; this theory is thought to lack historical or archaeological evidence. An alternative theory posits a westward spread of the Mesopotamian myth to other cultures such as the Hebrews; additionally, the Hebrews would have been influenced by Mesopotamian culture during their Babylonian captivity. A third explanation supposes a common ancestor for both religious systems.
Conrad Hyers of the Princeton Theological Seminary suggests that Genesis, rather than adopting earlier Babylonian and other creation myths, polemically addressed them to "repudiate the divinization of nature and the attendant myths of divine origins, divine conflict, and divine ascent." According to this theory, Enūma Eliš elaborated the interconnections between the divine and inert matter, while the aim of Genesis was to state the supremacy of the Hebrew God Yahweh Elohim over all creation (and all other deities).
The broken Enūma Eliš tablet seems to refer to a concept of sabbath. A contextual restoration contains the rarely attested Sapattum or Sabattum as the full moon, cognate or merged with Hebrew Shabbat (cf. ), but monthly rather than weekly; it is regarded as a form of Sumerian sa-bat ("mid-rest"), attested in Akkadian as um nuh libbi ("day of mid-repose"). The reconstructed text reads: "[Sa]bbath shalt thou then encounter, mid[month]ly."
The 'Ain Samiya goblet, found in a tomb near modern Ramallah, is believed to depict scenes similar to Enūma Eliš and illustrates a clear influence from Mesopotamia on Canaan during the Middle Bronze Age. The depictions of a double headed god and the creation of the world from a dragon provide the earliest evidence of the epic's composition.
See also
Mesopotamian pantheon
Religions of the ancient Near East
Sumerian creation myth
References
Sources
, alt link
, alt link
Further reading
External links
I.2 Poem of Creation (Enūma eliš) critical edition and translation of the text (electronic Babylonian Library).
Enuma Elish – The Babylonian Epic of Creation on Ancient History Encyclopedia (includes the original text)
, extract of English translation by W.G. Lambert reproduced at etana.org
A cuneiform text of Tablet I with translation and explanation in detail
18th-century BC literature
17th-century BC literature
16th-century BC literature
1849 archaeological discoveries
Creation myths
First Babylonian Empire
Mesopotamian myths
Akkadian literature
Tiamat
Library of Ashurbanipal
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordhausen%2C%20Thuringia
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Nordhausen, Thuringia
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Nordhausen () is a city in Thuringia, Germany. It is the capital of the Nordhausen district and the urban centre of northern Thuringia and the southern Harz region; its population is 42,000. Nordhausen is located approximately north of Erfurt, west of Halle, south of Braunschweig and east of Göttingen.
Nordhausen was first mentioned in records in the year 927 and became one of the most important cities in central Germany during the later Middle Ages. The city is situated on the Zorge river, a tributary of the Helme within the fertile region of Goldene Aue (golden floodplain) at the southern edge of the Harz mountains. In the early 13th century, it became a free imperial city, so that it was an independent and republican self-ruled member of the Holy Roman Empire. Due to its long-distance trade, Nordhausen was prosperous and influential, with a population of 8,000 around 1500. It was the third-largest city in Thuringia after Erfurt, today's capital, and Mühlhausen, the other free imperial city in the land.
Nordhausen was once known for its tobacco industry and is still known for its distilled spirit, . Industrialization accompanied railway construction that linked the cities to major markets in the mid-19th century. In the late 19th century, narrow-gauge railways were constructed in this region through the Harz mountains. In December 1898 the Nordhausen-Wernigerode Railway Company (Nordhausen-Wernigeroder Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft) or NWE added a line, with the full network operating by 1899. The Harz Narrow Gauge Railways are maintained today by local authorities and frequented primarily by tourists.
In the early 20th century, this became a centre of the engineering and arms industries. During World War II, the Nazi German government established and operated the nearby KZ Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp, where 60,000 forced labourers had to work in the arms industry. They were prisoners of war and persons from occupied territories. Some 20,000 persons died because of the bad conditions. In April 1945, most of the city was destroyed by Royal Air Force bombings, resulting in 8,800 casualties (more than 20% of the population). Most of the historic buildings in the city were destroyed; it suffered the most damage during the war of any city in Thuringia. A week later the United States troops occupied the city, followed weeks later by the Soviet Red Army. The city was within the Soviet zone of occupation, and later the territory was known as East Germany. Hundreds of German scientists and their families from Nordhausen were among thousands deported to the Soviet Union after the war to work on advanced rocket and other arms engineering projects.
Nordhausen is the birthplace of the mathematician Oswald Teichmüller, known for his groundbreaking work on the Teichmüller spaces – which were named after him. It is the site of the Nordhausen University of Applied Sciences (Fachhochschule Nordhausen), founded in 1997 after the reunification of Germany. The university has 2,500 students.
History
Middle Ages
The Franks colonized the area around Nordhausen about 800, many place names here have a Frankish origin, discernible by the suffix -hausen (like Nordhausen itself, Sundhausen, Windehausen and the later abandoned settlement Stockhausen as well as the neighbouring cities of Mühlhausen, Sondershausen, Frankenhausen and Sangerhausen). Nordhausen itself is first mentioned in a 13 May 927 document of King Henry the Fowler. He built a castle here, which is traceable between 910 and 1277 and became a centre of the empire during the 10th century. Gerberga of Saxony, Henry's daughter is supposed to have been born there, as was Henry I, Duke of Bavaria. The first market was established in the 10th century, as was a chapter of nuns (961). During the 12th century, the old town was semi-planned and established around the new market place and St. Nicholas' Church.
Nordhausen was Reichsgut (estate of the German emperor) from the beginning, but in 1158, Frederick Barbarossa donated it to the local chapter of nuns, which was converted to a cathedral chapter by Frederick II in 1220, whereby the city came back to the empire and became an Imperial Free City. Nordhausen was granted the privileges of a town around 1200, in 1198 it was first mentioned as a villa and in 1206, there was a mayor, a Vogt and citizens. The municipal law of Nordhausen was similar to that of Mühlhausen, hence the Mühlhausen Book of Law was adopted in the mid-13th century. Today's city wall was established between 1290 and 1330 and cut the old town off from Altendorf in the north-west, the new town in the west and Altnordhausen in the south. Nevertheless, the new town was legally incorporated in 1365. Besides the parish churches, many monasteries were founded during the late Middle Ages in Nordhausen (Cistercians in Altnordhausen (Frauenberg, about 1200) and Altendorf (1294), Augustines where the Nordhäuser distillery is today (1312), Franciscans at Georgengasse (1230) and Dominicans at Predigerstraße (1287)). As distinct from Mühlhausen and many other free imperial cities, Nordhausen did not own any territories or villages in the surrounding area.
The city's independence was endangered by the ambitions of regional counts, especially by those of Hohnstein County (based in near Ilfeld), who extorted funds from Nordhausen during the 14th century. On the other hand, the debts of the Hohnstein Counts were gigantic: they owed 86 citizens of Nordhausen 5744 Mark silver in 1370. In 1306, Nordhausen allied with the two other major Thuringian cities Erfurt and Mühlhausen against the Wettins and the local counts (Hohnstein, Stolberg, Schwarzburg, Beichlingen etc.) and joined the Hanseatic League together with them in 1430. Further alliances were concluded with Goslar, Halberstadt, Quedlinburg and Aschersleben to represent urban interests against the landlords.
In 1349, during a plague epidemic, some number of Jewish residents were killed by the citizenry with support from Frederick II, Margrave of Meissen. According to legend, they danced on their way to the pyre.
Early modern period
In 1500 it became part of the Lower Saxon Circle, and from around the same year the city began producing fermented grain liquor, which became famous under the name Nordhäuser Doppelkorn. In 1523, a year in which Thomas Müntzer spent some time in the city, the Protestant Reformation came to Nordhausen, which was one of the first cities that adopted the new doctrine. The cathedral chapter stayed catholic, protected by the Habsburg emperors but the other monasteries got closed during the following decades and their heritage came to the city. During the 16th century, Nordhausen succeeded to push back the influence of the Wettins and the Hohnstein counts by buying back their privileges over the city. This marked the peak in pre-modern urban development, followed by some centuries of decline introduced by the Thirty Years' War. In 1551, the Jews were expelled from the city. They were not generally permitted to live there again until 1807.
After the war, the Electorate of Brandenburg tried to incorporate the free cities of Nordhausen, Mühlhausen and Goslar, because it already became large territories in the Harz region. The Electorate of Saxony, protecting power of Nordhausen gave hidden support to the Brandenburgs, so that Nordhausen tried to keep its independence through the protection by the Hanovers. After the Brandenburg-Prussians had occupied Nordhausen between 1703 and 1714, the city got protection of Hanover resp. England, which paid 50,000 Talers to the Prussians to leave Nordhausen, which was moreover destroyed by two town fires in 1710 and 1712. Under the protection of Hanover, the economy improved again and the production of tobacco since mid-18th century brought new wealth to Nordhausen.
During the Napoleonic Wars, Prussian troops occupied Nordhausen on 2 August 1802; the city lost its status as an Imperial Free City during the German Mediatisation. After Prussia's defeat against Napoleon, it became part of the Kingdom of Westphalia created in 1807.
Since 1815
Following the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte, Nordhausen was included in the Kingdom of Prussia's Province of Saxony created in 1816. During the mid-19th century, industrialisation started in Nordhausen with production of chewing tobacco, alcoholic beverages, paper and textiles. The breakthrough was reached as Nordhausen got connected to main railways in four directions between 1866 and 1869. In 1882 it became an urban district (until 1950). In the late 19th century, narrow-gauge railways were constructed linking Nordhausen and other cities through the Harz mountains, operating by 1899.
As the engineering industry developed after 1900, the city saw an economic heyday. Industry developed and expanded during the following decades.
1900 to present
In the 1930s the Nazi Party came to power in Germany. It imposed discrimination against Jews, with increasing restrictions and violence such as Kristallnacht in 1938, when businesses and synagogues were destroyed. It deported Jews to concentration and death camps. The Mittelbau-Dora Nazi concentration camp, also known as Dora-Nordhausen or Nordhausen, was established in 1943 during World War II after the destruction of Peenemünde, and located on the outskirts of Nordhausen to provide labor for the Mittelwerk V-2 rocket factory in the Kohnstein. Over its period of operation, around 60,000 inmates passed through Dora and its system of subcamps, of whom around 20,000 died from bad working conditions, starvation, and diseases, or were murdered. Around 10,000 forced labourers were deployed in several factories within the city; up to 6,000 of them were interned at Boelcke Kaserne, working for a Junkers factory.
On August 24, 1944, 11 B-17 Flying Fortresses of Mission 568 bombed the airfield at Nordhausen as a target of opportunity. From January 1945, sick and dying prisoners were interned at Boelcke Kaserne. On April 3 and 4, 1945 three-quarters of Nordhausen was destroyed by bombing raids of the Royal Air Force, resulting in the deaths of around 8,800 people, including 1,300-1,500 sick prisoners at the Boelcke Kaserne barracks within Nordhausen.
On 11 April 1945, United States troops occupied the town, and on 2 July the Red Army of the Soviet Union took over. A Special Mission V-2: US operation was undertaken by Maj. William Bromley, intended to recover V-2 rocket parts and equipment. Maj. James P. Hamill co-ordinated the rail transport of said equipment with the 144th Motor Vehicle Assembly Company, from Nordhausen to Erfurt (Operation Paperclip).
On 18 July the Soviet administration created the Institute Rabe to develop Soviet rocket technology on the basis of the substantially more sophisticated V-2 rockets. In May 1946 the Institute was subsumed into the new Institute Nordhausen, under an expanded programme of research across the Soviet occupation zone, including a new Institute Berlin. On 22 October 1946, under Operation Osoaviakhim, 10–15,000 German scientists, engineers and their families were deported to the Soviet Union, including around 300 from Nordhausen. Transplanted along with their equipment, many of the scientists and their families lived there until the early 1950s.
Nordhausen became part of East Germany in 1949. It was administered as part of Bezirk Erfurt from 1952. The reconstruction of Nordhausen took a long time during the 1950s and 1960s and was carried out in modern architectural style. Town hall, the cathedral and St. Blaise's Church were the only rebuilt historic monuments. The Uprising of 1953 in East Germany found a centre in Nordhausen, because the living conditions within the destroyed city were still bad, and the people were exceedingly dissatisfied. Only the Soviet army could defeat the uprising. Within the GDR, Nordhausen was the centre of tobacco and liqueur production.
After the German reunification of 1990, Nordhausen was made part of the recreated state of Thuringia. The 1990s brought an economic crisis with high unemployment rates, and many uncompetitive communist-era factories had to close. Nevertheless, local industry revived after the crisis. Since 2000 the economy has been growing again, with the unemployment rate decreasing and Nordhausen has established itself as the urban centre of northern Thuringia. The Nordhausen University of Applied Sciences was founded in 1997, attracting students to the town. The Landesgartenschau (Land's horticultural exhibition) in 2004 was an impetus to further urban development.
Geography and demographics
Topography
Nordhausen is situated at the border between the flat and fertile area of Goldene Aue in the south and the foothills of the Harz mountains in the north on a level of approx. 180 m of elevation. The Zorge river crosses the city from northwest to southeast and the bigger Helme river runs in west-eastern direction at the southern border of the municipality. Between them are some quarry ponds of former gravel mining near the Sundhausen and Bielen districts. To the north, the terrain is getting more hilly and part of a karst area south to the Harz mountains. The north-west of the territory is marked by the Kohnstein hill (335 m) and the north-east is the Rüdigsdorf Switzerland, a small area with a beautiful landscape up to 350 m of elevation around Rüdigsdorf district. South of Helme river, the terrain gets also hilly around the Windleite mountains between Nordhausen and Sondershausen. Most of the municipal territory is in agricultural use. The forests are located first between the city centre in the south and Rüdigsdorf in the north (with interruptions), second at Kohnstein hill and third in the east around Rodishain and Stempeda.
Administrative division
Nordhausen abuts the following municipalities: Ellrich, Harztor, Harzungen, Neustadt, Buchholz and Herrmannsacker in the north, Südharz and Urbach in the east, Heringen and Kleinfurra in the south and Werther in the west. Except of Südharz, which is part of Mansfeld-Südharz district in Saxony-Anhalt, all the neighbouring municipalities belong to the Nordhausen district in Thuringia.
The following villages belong to the Nordhausen municipality:
Demographics
Nordhausen had approx. 8,000 inhabitants during the late Middle Ages around 1500, which was the third-largest number within today's Thuringia, after Erfurt, the current capital and Mühlhausen. The early modern period brought stagnation to the city, so that the population was also 8,000 around 1800. Nordhausen fell back behind the new ducal residence cities like Weimar, Gotha or Altenburg in this ages and lost its former importance. Nevertheless, Industrialization started in the 1860s, as Nordhausen got connected to the railway and the population grew to 26,000 and 33,000 in 1910, which was a smaller growth than in other cities of comparable size during that period of rapid urbanisation in Germany. Until 1940, the population rose to 42,000, but decreased due to the destruction of the city in World War II to 32,000 in 1946. The old level was attained again in the early 1960s and the population peak was reached in 1988 with 48,000. The bad economic situation after the German reunification led to emigration during the 1990s and the population shrunk in that decade. Because of the various incorporations of neighbouring villages, the amount looks smaller than it was.
The average change of population within the last years (2009–2012) was approximately -0.35% p. a, whereas the population in bordering rural regions is shrinking with accelerating tendency and the 2011 EU census led to a statistical amendment of –2,000 persons. Suburbanization played only a small role in Nordhausen. It occurred after the reunification for a short time in the 1990s, but most of the suburban areas were situated within the administrative city borders.
The birth deficit was 266 in 2012, this is -6.3 per 1,000 inhabitants (Thuringian average: -4.5; national average: -2.4). The net migration rate was -0.5 per 1,000 inhabitants in 2012 (Thuringian average: -0.8; national average: +4.6), but is fluctuating relatively heavy for years. The most important regions of origin of Nordhausen migrants are rural areas of Thuringia and Saxony-Anhalt as well as foreign countries like Poland, Russia, Ukraine, Hungary, Serbia, Romania and Bulgaria.
Like other eastern German cities, Nordhausen has only a small number of foreigners: circa 2.3% are non-Germans by citizenship and overall 4.6% are migrants (according to 2011 EU census). During recent years, the economic situation of the city improved somewhat: the unemployment rate in Nordhausen district declined from 24% in 2005 to 10% in 2013 with higher rates in the city than in the bordering rural municipalities. Due to the official atheism in former GDR, most of the population is non-religious. 16.2% are members of the Evangelical Church in Central Germany and 4.5% are Catholics (according to 2011 EU census).
Historical Population
Data source since 1994: Thuringian state office for statistics
Culture, sights and cityscape
Museums
The Flohburg/Nordhausen-Museum at Barfüßerstraße is the municipal museum of Nordhausen hosting an exhibition about the city's history.
The Museum Tabakspeicher at Bäckerstraße is a trade history museum, showing some items of the last centuries economic history.
The Kunsthaus Meyenburg at Alexander-Puschkin-Straße is Nordhausen's arthistorical museum and shows temporary exhibitions of art.
The Mittelbau-Dora memorial north-west of the city hosts an exhibition about the history of this Nazi concentration camp and a memorial for its 20,000 victims.
The IFA-Museum at Montaniastraße shows an exhibition of automotive engineering within an old Industrieverband Fahrzeugbau factory.
Cityscape
Nordhausen's cityscape is marked by the near total destruction during the bombings in 1945, extinguishing most of the historic city centre. There were four historic city parts before: the old town within the city wall on a hill east of the Zorge valley, the new town within the valley between the river in the west, the city wall in the east, Hohensteinerstraße in the north and Vor dem Vogel street in the south, the Altendorf suburbium in the north-west around Altendorf and Am Alten Tor street and the Altnordhausen suburbium in the south-east around St. Mary's Church on the hill. Altnordhausen and the new town are completely vanished, the old town was destroyed up to 90%, only some buildings around Barfüßerstraße, Domstraße and Bäckerstraße on the western edge remained, whereas Altendorf preserved entirely. During the 19th and 20th century, the city enlarged to all directions, the worker's districts were built up in the west at Zorge valley and Salza and to the east around Förstemannstraße and Leimbacher Straße. The mansion district developed in the north around Stolberger Straße and in the south and west along the railways, the big industrial areas are located.
The reconstruction after the World War II was carried out in altered manner, changing the grid and the structure of Nordhausen, which can be clearly seen along the new main streets Rautenstraße and Töpferstraße. Some areas were never built up again, for example those north and south of Kranichstraße and around Georgengasse. Peripheral Plattenbau settlements were built during the later GDR period in the east at Leimbacher Straße and in the north around the hospital. The village Salza in the north-west is grown together with Nordhausen since the 20th century.
Sights and architectural heritage
Churches
The Nordhausen Holy Cross Cathedral is the catholic parish church of Nordhausen. It was never a bishop's seat but it's also called a cathedral because it is dating back to a cathedral chapter monastery. The building was established between 1180 and 1400 and shows both Romanesque and Gothic style elements.
The St. Blaise's Church is the evangelical main church of Nordhausen. It was built during the second half of the 15th century in Gothic style.
The St. Mary's Church in the valley at Altendorf (north-western historic city part) is an evangelical parish church today and was built as monastery around 1353 in Gothic style.
The St. Mary's Church on the hill at Frauenberg hill (south-eastern historic city part) is also an evangelical parish church arose from a monastery. It was built in the 12th century in Romanesque style and destroyed (about 80%) in 1945 during the bombings. Later, the ruins were involved in a modern reconstruction.
The Petri Tower is the remained steeple of the damaged St. Peter's Church within the city centre. It was built in 1362.
Furthermore, there were churches being destroyed by the 1945 bombings: the old main church St. Nicholas' and the new town's church St. Jacob's as well as the earlier abandoned monasteries of the Augustines, Franciscans and Dominicans.
Secular buildings
The city wall was built between 13th and 15th century and remained in big parts (in the north, south-west and south-east).
The town hall was built in Renaissance style between 1608 and 1610 and is one of only few buildings being rebuilt after the destruction by the bombings in 1945. The Nordhausen Roland is the city's landmark, it was established in 1717 as larger-than-life statue on the south-western corner of the town hall (wooden, today a copy, the original is shown in the museum).
The Stadttheater was built between 1913 and 1917 and is in use a theatre until today.
The Walkenrieder Hof is a former storage building at Waisenstraße, built in 1345 and now used as municipal archive.
Some old buildings in city centre that survived the bombings in 1945 are only remained along Barfüßerstraße, Domstraße and Bäckerstraße on the western edge of the city centre and in the former suburbium Altendorf in the north-west. An interesting mansion district preserved north of the city centre with late-19th and early-20th century mansions.
Economy and infrastructure
Agriculture, industry and services
Agriculture plays an important role to the present day. Approximately 57% of the municipal territory is in agricultural use. Cereals from the region are used in the making of a famous local spirit, the Nordhäuser Korn. Historically, sulfuric acid produced by the distillation of green vitriol (iron(II) sulfate) was known as Nordhausen oil of vitriol.
The primary industry of Nordhausen is in the production of heavy machinery. The region had a factory for the production of rail engines until 1942. Later the region's plants produced truck motors, augers and excavators. Today, engineering is still the most important industrial branch of Nordhausen, although many factories have had to close following the reunification of Germany in 1990. In 2012 there were 35 companies of 20 workers or more were present in the industrial sector, all together employing 4,000 persons and generating an annual turnover of €800 mio, making Nordhausen the industrial core of Thuringia today.
Nordhausen is the biggest city in a circuit of , making it an important regional service hub for retail, medicine, education, government and culture (theatre, cinema etc.). A major shopping centre is the Südharz Galerie at Bahnhofstraße, and the Südharz Klinikum is one of the biggest hospitals in Thuringia.
Transport
Nordhausen has been a railway node since the late 19th century. The Halle–Kassel railway was opened in 1866/67, the South Harz Railway in 1869 and the Nordhausen–Erfurt railway also in 1869. In 1897, the narrow-gauge Trans-Harz Railway followed as the last one. Today, there are regional express trains to Halle in the east and Kassel in the west as well as local trains to Halle, Heiligenstadt, Erfurt and Göttingen (via Northeim), running every one to two hours. Nordhausen station is the main station, a second one is Nordhausen-Salza on the South Harz line. The narrow-gauge Trans-Harz-Railway is linked with the tramway network in a Tram-train system with many stops within Nordhausen.
Nordhausen is located on the Bundesautobahn 38 from Göttingen in the west to Halle and Leipzig in the east, opened in the 2000s. Furthermore, there are two Bundesstraßen connecting Nordhausen: the Bundesstraße 4 is a link to Erfurt in the south and to Braunschweig through the Harz mountains in the north and the Bundesstraße 243 connects Nordhausen with Hildesheim in the north-west. The former Bundesstraße 80 was annulled after the opening of the parallel Bundesautobahn 38 and the Bundesstraße 81 as a connection to Magdeburg starts a few kilometres north of the city at B 4. The B 4 (southern branch) and the B 243 shall be enlarged because of their importance as connections to and between Erfurt and Lower Saxony. Furthermore, there are important secondary roads to Heringen in the south-east and to Buchholz in the north-east.
The nearest airports are the Erfurt-Weimar Airport, to the south, the Leipzig/Halle Airport, to the east and the Hannover Airport, to the north-west.
For cycling, the long-distance Südharzroute trail network offers 10 trails in the region around Nordhausen.
The Nordhausen tramway network forms an important part of the public transport system, established in 1900. Furthermore, there are inner-city and regional bus services.
Education
Nordhausen has a (University of Applied Sciences) with 2,500 students that offers Bachelor's and Master's degrees in business administration, public management, and business engineering, among others. Furthermore, there are two Gymnasiums in Nordhausen.
Politics
Mayor and city council
The first freely elected mayor after German reunification was Barbara Rinke of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), who served from 1994 to 2012. She was succeeded by Klaus Zeh of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) from 2012 until his resignation in 2017. Independent Kai Buchmann was elected in the resulting election. The most recent mayoral election was held on 10 September 2023, with a runoff held on 24 September, and the results were as follows:
! rowspan=2 colspan=2| Candidate
! rowspan=2| Party
! colspan=2| First round
! colspan=2| Second round
|-
! Votes
! %
! Votes
! %
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Jörg Prophet
| align=left| Alternative for Germany
| 7,750
| 42.1
|
| 45.1
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Kai Buchmann
| align=left| Independent
| 4,363
| 23.7
|
| 54.9
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Alexandra Rieger
| align=left| Social Democratic Party
| 3,414
| 18.6
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Inge Klaan
| align=left| Christian Democratic Union
| 2,051
| 11.2
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Stefan Marx
| align=left| Free Democratic Party
| 555
| 3.0
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Carsten Meyer
| align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens
| 258
| 1.4
|-
! colspan=3| Valid votes
! 18,585
! 98.9
!
!
|-
! colspan=3| Invalid votes
! 194
! 1.1
!
!
|-
! colspan=3| Total
! 18,391
! 100.0
!
! 100.0
|-
! colspan=3| Electorate/voter turnout
! 32,925
! 56.4
!
!
|-
| colspan=7| Source: Wahlen in Thüringen, Wahlen In Der Stadt Nordhausen
|}
The most recent city council election was held on 26 May 2019, and the results were as follows:
! colspan=2| Party
! Lead candidate
! Votes
! %
! +/-
! Seats
! +/-
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
| align=left| Steffen Iffland
| 11,942
| 22.2
| 9.3
| 8
| 3
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| The Left (Die Linke)
| align=left| Michael Mohr
| 11,734
| 21.8
| 1.4
| 8
| ±0
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Alternative for Germany (AfD)
| align=left| Jörg Prophet
| 11,299
| 21.0
| New
| 8
| New
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Social Democratic Party (SPD)
| align=left| Hans-Georg Müller
| 9,387
| 17.4
| 11.8
| 6
| 5
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne)
| align=left| Sylvia Spehr
| 4,912
| 9.1
| 2.2
| 3
| ±0
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Free Democratic Party (FDP)
| align=left| Manuel Thume
| 3,857
| 7.2
| 2.0
| 3
| 1
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| National Democratic Party (NPD)
| align=left| Ralf Friedrich
| 688
| 1.3
| 2.6
| 0
| 1
|-
! colspan=3| Valid votes
! 18,153
! 97.5
!
!
!
|-
! colspan=3| Invalid votes
! 467
! 2.5
!
!
!
|-
! colspan=3| Total
! 18,620
! 100.0
!
! 36
! ±0
|-
! colspan=3| Electorate/voter turnout
! 34,843
! 53.4
! 11.3
!
!
|-
| colspan=8| Source: Wahlen in Thüringen
|}
Twin towns – sister cities
Nordhausen is twinned with:
Charleville-Mézières, France (1978)
Ostrów Wielkopolski, Poland (1983)
Bochum, Germany (1990)
Beit Shemesh, Israel (1992)
Notable people
Eduard Baltzer (1814–1887), reformer and democrat
Julius Bergmann (1861–1940), painter
Rolf Kalmuczak (1938–2007), author
Volker Beck (born 1956), athlete
Gitta Escher (born 1957), devices gymnast
Ariane Friedrich (born 1984), high jumper
Maximilian Beyer (born 1993), racing cyclist
References
External links
NordhausenWiki
Free imperial cities
Towns in the Harz
Nordhausen (district)
Holocaust locations in Germany
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397216
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M1903%20Springfield
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M1903 Springfield
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The M1903 Springfield, officially the United States Rifle, Caliber .30-06, Model 1903, is an American five-round magazine-fed, bolt-action service repeating rifle, used primarily during the first half of the 20th century.
The M1903 was first used in combat during the Philippine–American War, and it was officially adopted by the United States as the standard infantry rifle on June 19, 1903, where it saw service in World War I, and was replaced by the faster-firing semi-automatic eight-round M1 Garand starting in 1936. However, the M1903 remained in service as a standard issue infantry rifle during World War II, since the U.S. entered the war without sufficient M1 rifles to arm all troops. It also remained in service as a sniper rifle during World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War. It remains popular as a civilian firearm, historical collector's piece, a competitive shooting rifle, and as a military drill rifle.
History
Background
During the 1898 war with Spain, the Mauser M1893 used by the Spanish Army gained a deadly reputation, particularly from the Battle of San Juan Hill, where 750 Spanish regulars significantly delayed the advance of 15,000 US troops armed with outclassed Springfield Krag–Jørgensen bolt-action rifles and older single-shot Springfield model 1873 trapdoor rifles. The Spanish soldiers inflicted 1,400 casualties on the US in a matter of minutes. Likewise, earlier in the day, a Spanish force of 540 regulars armed with the same Mauser rifles, under Spanish general Vara Del Rey, held off General Henry Ware Lawton's Second Division of 6,653 American soldiers and an independent brigade of 1,800 men for ten hours in the nearby town of El Caney, keeping that division from assisting in the attack on the San Juan Heights. A US Army board of investigation was commissioned as a direct result of both battles. They recommended replacement of the Krag.
The 1903 adoption of the M1903 was preceded by nearly 30 years of struggle and politics, using lessons learned from the recently adopted Krag–Jørgensen and contemporary German Mauser Gewehr 98 bolt-action rifles. The design itself is largely based on the Mauser M1893 and its successive models up to the Gewehr 98 rifle. The M1903's forward receiver ring diameter is , slightly over the ring diameter of the older "small ring" Mauser models and less than the "large ring" Gewehr 98s. The US military licensed many of the Mauser Company's and other German patents, including the spitzer bullet, later modified into the .30-06 Springfield. The M1903 not only replaced the various versions of the U.S. Army's Krag, but also the Lee M1895 and M1885 Remington–Lee used by the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps, as well as all remaining single-shot trapdoor rifles. While the Krag had been issued with barrel lengths of both 30-inch rifle and 22-inch carbine models, the Springfield was issued only as a short 24-inch-barrel rifle in keeping with current trends in Switzerland and Great Britain to eliminate the need for both long rifles and carbines.
The two main problems usually cited with the Krag were its slow-to-load magazine and its inability to handle higher chamber pressures for high-velocity rounds. The United States Army attempted to introduce a higher-velocity cartridge in 1899 for the existing Krags, but its single locking lug on the bolt could not withstand the extra chamber pressure. Though a stripper-clip or charger loading modification to the Krag was designed, it was clear to Army authorities that a new rifle was required. After the U.S. military's experience with the Mauser rifle in the 1898 Spanish–American War, authorities decided to adopt a stronger Mauser-derived bolt-action design equipped with a charger- or stripper clip-loaded box magazine.
Advances in small arms technology
In 1882, the bolt action Remington Lee rifle design of 1879, with its newly invented detachable box magazine, was purchased in limited numbers by the U.S. Navy. Several hundred M1882 Lee Navy models (M1882 Remington-Lee) were also subjected to trials by the U.S. Army during the 1880s, though the rifle was not formally adopted. The Navy adopted the M1885, and later different style Lee M1895 (a 6 mm straight pull bolt), which saw service in the Boxer Rebellion. In Army service, both the M1885 and M1895 6 mm Lee were used in the Spanish–American War, along with the .30-40 Krag and the .45-70. The Lee rifle's detachable box magazine was invented by James Paris Lee, and was very influential on later rifle designs. Other advancements had made it clear that the Army needed a replacement. In 1892, the U.S. military held a series of rifle trials, resulting in the adoption of the .30-40 Krag–Jørgensen rifle. The Krag officially entered U.S. service in 1894, only to be replaced nine years later by the M1903.
Development
Thousands of Spanish Mauser M1893 rifles, surrendered by Spanish troops in Cuba, were returned to the US and extensively studied at Springfield Armory, where it was decided that the Mauser was the superior design.
U.S. rifle Model 1900 .30 prototype
A prototype rifle was produced in 1900; it was very similar to rifle No. 5, the final Mauser M92 prototype in the U.S. Army rifle trials of 1892. This design was rejected, and a new design combining features of the M1898 Krag rifle and the Spanish Mauser M1893 was developed.
U.S. rifle Model 1901 .30 prototype
Springfield began work on creating a rifle that could handle higher loads around the turn of the 20th century. The Springfield Model 1901 prototype combined the Krag–Jørgensen's cock-on-opening bolt, 30-inch barrel, magazine cutoff, stock and sights with the Mauser M1893's dual locking lugs, external claw extractor, and staggered-column magazine. Taking a cue from the Mauser Gewehr 98, a large safety lug was added to the side of the bolt behind the extractor, which engaged the receiver bridge and prevented the bolt from moving rearwards. The bolt handle was also bent downwards, to make it faster to operate. The Model 1901 almost entered production. Springfield was sure enough that the Model 1901 prototype would be accepted that they began making some of the parts for it, but it was not accepted; further changes were asked for.
Adoption
Following then-current trends in service rifles, the barrel was shortened to 24 inches after it was discovered that a longer barrel offered no appreciable ballistic advantage, and the shorter barrel was lighter and easier to handle. This "short rifle" also eliminated the need of a shorter carbine for mounted troops or cavalry. A spike-type bayonet with storage in the forend of the stock was added to the design. This new design was accepted, type classified and officially adopted as the United States Rifle, Caliber .30, Model 1903 and entered production in 1903. The M1903 became commonly known among its users as the "ought-three" in reference to the year, 1903, of first production.
Despite Springfield Armory's use of a two-piece firing pin and other slight design alterations, the M1903 was, in fact, a Mauser design, and after that company brought suit, the U.S. government was judged to pay $250,000 in royalties to Mauser Werke.
By January 1905, over 80,000 of these rifles had been produced at the federally-owned Springfield Armory. However, President Theodore Roosevelt objected to the design of the sliding rod-type bayonet used as being too flimsy for combat. In a letter to the secretary of war, he said:
I must say that I think that ramrod bayonet is about as poor an invention as I ever saw. As you observed, it broke short off as soon as hit with even moderate violence. It would have no moral effect and mighty little physical effect.
All the rifles to that point consequently had to be re-tooled for a blade-type bayonet, called the "M1905". The sights were also an area of concern, so the new improved Model 1904 sight was also added.
The retooling was almost complete when it was decided another change would be made. It was to incorporate improvements discovered during experimentation in the interim, most notably the use of pointed ammunition, first adopted by the French in the 1890s and later other countries. The round itself was based on the .30-03, but rather than a 220-grain (14 g) round-tip bullet fired at , it had a 150-grain (9.7 g) pointed bullet fired at ; the case neck was a fraction of an inch shorter as well. The new American cartridge was designated Cartridge, Ball, Caliber .30, Model of 1906. The M1906 cartridge is better known as the .30-06 Springfield round, used in many rifles and machine guns, and is still a popular civilian cartridge to the present day. The rifle's sights were again re-tooled to compensate for the speed and trajectory of the new cartridge.
By the time of the 1916 Pancho Villa Expedition, the M1903 was the standard issue service rifle of US forces. Some rifles were fitted with both the Warner & Swasey Model 1913 and 1908 "musket sights" during the campaign, "musket sights" being the vernacular at the time for telescopic sights. Anecdotal evidence at the time indicates that some of the rifles were fitted with Maxim suppressors, which would make them the first suppressed rifles used by the US military. The Warner & Swasey Model 1913 musket sight continued to see service after the Pancho Villa Expedition and during World War I but was eventually deemed inadequate and was removed from the US Army's inventory by the 1920s.
World War I and interwar use
By the time of US entry into World War I, 843,239 M1903 rifles had been produced at Springfield Armory and Rock Island Arsenal. Pre-war production utilized questionable metallurgy. Some receivers constructed of single-heat-treated case-hardened steel were improperly subjected to excessive temperatures during the forging process. The carbon could be "burnt" out of the steel, producing a brittle receiver. Despite documented evidence indicating some early rifles were improperly forged, actual cases of failure were very rare. Although several cases of serious injury from receiver failure were documented, the U.S. Army never reported any fatalities. Many failures were attributed to use of incorrect cartridges, such as the 7.92×57mm Mauser. Evidence also seems to suggest that improperly forged brass cartridge cases could have exacerbated receiver failure.
Pyrometers were installed in December 1917 to accurately measure temperatures during the forging process. The change was made at approximately serial number 800,000 for rifles made at Springfield Armory and at serial number 285,507 at Rock Island Arsenal. Lower serial numbers are known as "low-number" M1903 rifles. Higher serial numbers are said to be "double-heat-treated".
Toward the end of the war, Springfield turned out the Model 1903 Mark I. The Mark I has a cut on the left hand side of the receiver meant to act as an ejection port for the Pedersen device, a modified sear and cutoff to operate the Pedersen device; a specialized insert that replaced the bolt and allowed the user to fire .30 caliber pistol cartridges semi-automatically from a 40-round detachable magazine. The stock was also slightly cut down on the left side to clear the ejection port. In all other respects, the Mark I is identical to the M1903. Temperature control during forging was improved prior to Mark I production. The receiver alloy was toughened by addition of nickel after Mark I production.
In 1926, after experiencing the effect of long-range German 7.92×57mm rifle and machine gun fire during the war, the U.S. Army adopted the heavy, 174-grain, boat-tail bullet for its .30-06 cartridge, standardized as Cartridge, Ball, caliber 30, M1. M1 ammunition, intended primarily for long-range machine gun use, soon became known by Army rifle competition teams and expert riflemen for its considerably greater accuracy over that of the M1906-round; the new M1 ammunition was issued to infantrymen with the Springfield rifle as well as to machine gun teams. However, during the late 1930s, it became apparent that, with the development of mortars, high-angle artillery, and the .50 caliber M2 Browning machine gun, the need for extreme long-range, rifle-caliber machine-gun fire was decreasing. In 1938, the US Army reverted to a .30-06 cartridge with a 152-grain flat-base bullet, now termed "M2 ball", for all rifles and machine guns.
In the 1920s and the 1930s, M1903s were delivered to US allies in Central America, such as Cuba, Costa Rica and Nicaragua. Costa Rica troops were equipped with Springfields during the Coto War and some rifles were captured by the opposing Panamanians. The Cuban Springfields were used by Batista forces after WW2 and later by the Revolutionary Armed Forces, for instance during the Bay of Pigs Invasion.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation acquired some M1903 rifles configured like National Rifle Association sporter models in response to the 1933 Kansas City Massacre.
In service, the Springfield was generally prized for its reliability and accuracy, though some problems remained. The precision rear aperture sight was located too far from the eye for efficient use, and the narrow, unprotected front sight was both difficult to see in poor light and easily damaged. The Marine Corps issued the Springfield with a sight hood to protect the front sight, along with a thicker front blade. The two-piece firing pin-striker also proved to be no improvement over the original one-piece Mauser design, and was a cause of numerous ordnance repairs, along with occasional reports of jammed magazine followers.
World War II
World War II saw new production of the Springfield at private manufacturers such as the Remington Arms and Smith-Corona Typewriter companies. Remington began production of the M1903 in September 1941, at serial number 3,000,000, using old tooling from the Rock Island Arsenal which had been in storage since 1919. The very early Remington-made rifles are almost indistinguishable from 1919-made Rock Island rifles. As the already worn tooling began to wear beyond use Remington began seeking Army approval for a continuously increasing number of changes and simplifications to both speed up manufacture and improve performance. The milled parts on the Remington M1903 were gradually replaced with stamped parts until, at about serial number 3,330,000, the Army and Remington recognized that a new model name was appropriate. Other features of the M1903, such as high-grade walnut stocks with finger grooves, were replaced with less expensive but serviceable substitutes. Most milled parts made by Remington were marked with an "R".
Production of the M1903 was discontinued in favor of the M1903A3. The most noticeable visual difference in the M1903A3 was the replacement of the barrel-mounted rear sight with a smaller, simpler aperture rear sight mounted on the rear of the receiver which was designed by Remington; it was primarily adopted in order to speed familiarization by soldiers already trained on the M1 Garand, which had a similar sighting system. However, the leaf spring providing tension to the elevation adjustment on the new aperture sight tended to weaken with continued use over time, causing the rifle to lose its preset range elevation setting. Other modifications included a new stamped cartridge follower; the rounded edges of the new design largely alleviated the "fourth-round jam" complaints of the earlier machined part. All stock furniture was also redesigned in stamped metal.
In late 1942, Smith-Corona Typewriter Company began production of the M1903A3 at its plant in Syracuse, New York. Smith-Corona parts are mostly identified by the absence of markings, except for occasions when time permitting during manufacture, on early to mid-production rifles, and also only on certain parts.
To speed up production output, two-groove rifled barrels were adopted, and steel alloy specifications were relaxed under "war emergency steel" criteria for both rifle actions and barrels. All M1903A3 rifles with two-groove "war emergency" barrels were shipped with a printed notation stating that the reduction in rifling grooves did not affect accuracy. As the war progressed, various machining and finishing operations were eliminated on the M1903A3 in order to increase production levels.
Original production rifles at Remington and Smith-Corona had a dark gray-black finish similar to the bluing of late World War I. Beginning in late 1943 a lighter gray-green parkerizing finish was used. This later finish was also used on arsenal repaired weapons.
It is somewhat unusual to find a World War I or early World War II M1903 with its original dated barrel. Most, if not all, World War II .30-06 ammunition used a corrosive primer which left corrosive salts in the barrel. If not removed by frequent and proper barrel cleaning, these residues could cause pitting and excessive wear. Cleaning was sometimes lax when fighting in the jungle on various Pacific islands, and the higher moisture levels compounded the corrosive action of the residue.
The M1903 and the M1903A3 rifles were used in combat alongside the M1 Garand by the US military during World War II and saw extensive use and action in the hands of US troops in Europe, North Africa, and the Pacific. The US Marines were initially armed with M1903 rifles in early battles in the Pacific, such as the Battle of Guadalcanal, but the jungle battle environment generally favored self-loading rifles; later Army units arriving to the island were armed with M1 Garands. The U.S. Army Rangers were also a major user of the M1903 and the M1903A3 during World War II with the Springfield being preferred over the M1 Garand for certain commando missions.
According to Bruce Canfield's U.S. Infantry Weapons of WW II, final variants of the M1903 (the A3 and A4) were delivered in February 1944. By then, most American combat troops had been re-equipped with the M1 Garand. However, some front-line infantry units in both the U.S. Army and Marine Corps retained M1903s as infantry rifles beyond that date and continued to use them alongside the M1 Garand until the end of the war in 1945. The Springfield remained in service for snipers (using the M1903A4), grenadiers (using a spigot type rifle 22 mm with the M1 grenade launcher] grenade launcher until the M7 grenade launcher was available for the M1 rifle in late 1943), and Marine scout sniper units.
Sniper rifle
The M1903A4 was the U.S. Army's sniper rifle of choice during the Second World War. The M1903A4 was a variation of the M1903A3. The only difference between receivers was that the model and serial number on the receiver were split on M1903A4 to make room for the Redfield scope mount. The Redfield scope mount removed the rear peep sight that was standard on the M1903A3. The scope used on the M1903A4 was a Weaver Model 330 or 330C, which was a 2.75x telescopic sight. The receivers were tested by Remington Arms and those that were deemed best, meaning those closest to design specifications were selected to become M1903A4's. The barrels were also selected specifically to be added to the M1903A4 rifle only if they were within almost exact specifications for the design. The front sight on the barrel was never installed on the A4 barrels, however, the notch for it was still in place. Barrel specifications were, in general, unchanged between the M1903A3 and M1903A4, however, the War Department did start installing barrels with 2 groove rifling instead of 4 groove, despite the lack of clear changes from the 4 groove rifling that was the standard up until 1942.
By some accounts, the M1903A4 was inadequate as a sniper rifle. The M1903A4 was a relatively accurate rifle with an effective range of about . These limitations on long-range targeting were due to the limited field of view present in both the Weaver scopes. From its adoption in 1943 until the end of the war it was used extensively in every theater of operation by both the US Army and the USMC. The Weaver scopes (later standardized as the M73 and M73B1) were not only low-powered in magnification, they were not waterproofed, and frequently fogged over or became waterlogged during humidity changes. In addition, the M81/82 optional scopes also had significant flaws. They most notably had less power (2.2x vs. 2.75x) and, like the other scopes on the M1903A4, had serious issues with the field of view. The USMC and the US Army would eventually switch to a large 8x scope that spanned the length of the rifle designed by John Unertl.
Foreign users
The US Army Military Police (MP) and the US Navy Shore Patrol also used M1903s and M1903A3s throughout the war. Various US allies and friendly irregular forces were also equipped with the weapon. The Brazilian Expeditionary Force (FEB), operating in the 5th Army in Italy was equipped with M1903 rifles. In August 1943, the Free French Forces of General Charles de Gaulle were re-equipped by the United States, primarily with M1903 Springfield and M1917 Enfield rifles. The M1903 became one of the primary rifles used by French forces until the end of the war, and was afterwards used in Indochina and by local militia and security forces in French Algeria. Large numbers of M1903 rifles were sent to China.
During the Korean War, South Korean Marines used the M1903A3.
The M1903 rifles captured by the Germans were designated Gewehr 249(a).
Post–Korean War service
After the Korean War, active service (as opposed to drill) use of the M1903 was rare. Still, some M1903A4s remained in sniper use as late as the Vietnam War; and technical manuals for them were printed as late as 1970. The U.S. Navy also continued to carry some stocks of M1903A3s on board ships for use as anti-mine rifles.
Today
Due to its balance, the M1903 is still popular with various military drill teams and color guards, most notably the U.S. Army Drill Team. M1903 rifles (along with the M1 Garand, M1917 Enfield and M14 rifles) are also common at high school Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps (JROTC) units to teach weapons handling and military drill procedures to the cadets. JROTC units use M1903s for regular and inter-school competition drills, including elaborate exhibition spinning routines. Exhibition teams often use fiberglass stocks in place of wooden stocks, which are heavier and more prone to breakage when dropped. JROTC Color Guards still favor wooden stocks over fiberglass because of their weight characteristics and appearance. The M1903 is the standard parade rifle of the Virginia Tech Corps of Cadets, which has over six hundred M1903s, a very small percentage of which are still fireable. The Summerall Guards of The Citadel also use the M1903 Springfield for their silent drill performances.
U.S. Naval Sea Cadet Corps color guard rifles bear many similarities to the Springfield.
In 1977, the U.S. Army located a rather large cache of unissued M1903A3 rifles which were demilitarized and then issued to JROTC units as a replacement for their previously issued M1 Garand and M14 rifles, which were then returned to Army custody due to concerns about potential break-ins at high school JROTC armories.
For safety reasons, the JROTC M1903s are made permanently unable to fire by plugging the barrel with a steel rod, or having it filled with lead, soldering the bolt and welding the magazine cutoff switch in the "on" position. To plug the barrel, a very cold steel rod was inserted; after it warmed up it was too tight to remove.
Specifications
The US rifle, Model of 1903 is long and weighs . A bayonet can be attached; the M1905 bayonet blade is long and weighs . From 1906, the rifle was chambered to fire the .30 caliber M1906 cartridge (.30-06 cartridge), later the M1 (1926) and M2 ball (1938) rounds. There were four standard types of cartridge:
Ball: consists of a brass case or shell, primer, a charge of smokeless powder, and the bullet. The bullet has a sharp point called a spitzer, and is composed of a lead core and a jacket of cupro-nickel (later gilding metal), and in the M1906 design, weighs 150 grains (9.7 g). The bullet of the M1906 cartridge, when fired from the rifle, has an initial velocity of .
Blank: contains a paper cup instead of a bullet. It is dangerous up to .
Guard: has a smaller charge of powder than the ball cartridge, and five cannelures encircle the body of the shell at about the middle to distinguish it from ball cartridges. It was intended for use on guard or in riot duty, and it gives good results up to . The range of requires a sight elevation of , and the range of requires an elevation of .
Dummy: this is tin-plated and the shell is provided with six longitudinal corrugations and three circular holes. The primer contains no percussion composition. It was intended for drill purposes to accustom the soldier to the operation of loading the rifle.
The rifle is a magazine-fed clip-loader and can fire at a rate of 20 shots per minute. Each stripper clip contains five cartridges, and standard issue consisted of 12 clips carried in a cloth bandoleer. When full the bandoleer weighs about . Bandoleers were packed 20 in a box, for a total of 1,200 rounds. The full box weighs .
The bore of the rifle is 0.30 inches (7.62 mm) in diameter. It was then rifled 0.004 in (0.1 mm) deep, making the diameter from the bottom of one groove to the bottom of the opposite groove 0.30787 in (7.82 mm) of the barrel.
The M1903 rifle included a rear sight leaf that can be used to adjust for elevation and windage. This type of rear sight was previously designed by Adelbert R. Buffington of the U.S. Army Ordnance Department. The M1905 rear sight was calibated to match the trajectory of M1906 service ammunition and offers several sighting options. When the leaf and slider are down, the battle sight notch appears on top. This was set for for the down position of the slide, and is not adjustable. When the leaf is raised its range slider can be adjusted to a maximum range of . The .30-06 Springfield M1906 service ammunition long-range performance was originally overstated. When the M1906 cartridge was developed, the range tests had been done to only ; distances beyond that were estimated, but the estimate for extreme range was wrong by almost 40 percent. The external ballistic discrepancy at long-ranges became evident during World War I. The M1905 rear sight can also be adjusted for windage.
The M1903A3 introduced a ramp-type rear aperture sight adjustable both for elevation and windage. It can be adjusted from . This new sightline also lengthened the sight radius.
A feature inherent to the M1903 and not found on the Mauser M98 is the cocking piece, a conspicuous knob at the rear of the bolt, allowing the rifle's striker to be released without dry firing, or to cock the rifle if necessary, for example to attempt a second strike on a round that failed to fire.
Variants
There were four main variants given official nomenclature, though there are a number of important sub-variants:
M1903 (1903): developed for the .30-03 (also known as the .30-45) cartridge. Used original Type S stock.
M1903 bullpup (1903): experimental bullpup conversion for the USMC.
M1903 (1905): changed from a rod type bayonet to the knife type Model 1905 bayonet and to the improved Model 1905 sight.
M1903 (1906): modified again to specifically fire the new M1906 .30-06 cartridge ("ball cartridge, caliber 30, Model of 1906").
M1903 NRA (1915–1917): sold to National Rifle Association members and stamped "NRA" on the forward tang of the trigger guard.
M1903 air service (1918): issued to aircrew with permanent 25-round magazine and modified Type S stock forend designed as backup if a plane's machine gun jammed in combat.
M1903 Mark I (1918–1920): modified with an ejection port on the left side of the receiver for specific use with the Pedersen device.
M1903 NM (1921–1940): selected rifles produced at Springfield Armory for National Match shooting competition. Production barrels were measured with star-gauges, and those meeting specified tolerances were stamped with an asterisk shaped star on the muzzle crown. These barrels were fitted to selected receivers with hand-fitted and polished parts. The bolt was left unblued while the receiver and barrel were finished with a black Parkerizing process. Some bolts have the safety direction reversed to prevent it from striking the nose of a right-handed shooter and those made from 1924 to 1929 have the knurled cocking piece removed to decrease lock time. Early rifles used the type S stock until the type C stock became standard in 1929. Rifles made for sale to NRA members (priced at $40.44) were drilled and tapped for a Lyman 48 receiver sight and had either a type B (or NB) stock with no grasping grooves and a noticeable drop at the heel for a long pistol grip, or a special National Match stock with a high comb and pistol grip. Total production was 28,907. Most were issued to service teams and 25,377 were reconditioned at Springfield Armory after one year of match use. Reconditioned rifles have a large gas-escape port drilled into the left side of the receiver.
M1903 Bushmaster carbine (1940s): the barrel and stock were cut down to for easier use in Panama; 4,725 such rifles were made. It was a training rifle and saw no action. After World War II most were dumped into the ocean and surviving pieces are rare.
M1903 with "scant" stock (1942): in late 1941, before the M1903A3 was standardized, Army ordnance wanted to standardize on a pistol-grip stock for all M1903 rifles. There were thousands of stock blanks that had been sized for the old straight stock. They were not deep enough for the full pistol grip of the Type C stock, so they were modified to allow a "scant" grip that was the largest grip they could form. These "scant" stocks would only fit on a M1903, and would not fit an 03A3. Springfield only rebuilt existing M1903 rifles using this stock in 1942 and marked the cut-off seat with a small "s".
M1903A1 (1929–1939): changed from a straight stock to a pistol grip type stock (Type C stock). The pistol grip stock was conducive to improved marksmanship and was fitted to National Match rifles until World War II. Pistol grip stocks became standard for later M1903 production and were subsequently fitted to older rifles. The Army considered any rifle with a pistol grip stock an M1903A1, but M1903 receiver markings were unchanged.
M1903A2 (1930s–1940s): basically a stripped A1 or A3 used as a subcaliber rifle with artillery pieces.
M1903A3 (1942–1944): sights were changed to an aperture (peep) system mounted on the receiver, and the rifle was modified for easier production with stamped metal parts and somewhat different grip and stock (late model Type S stock; no finger grooves).
M1903 (modified) (1941–1942): transition production of M1903 rifles by Remington Arms until the M1903A3 design was implemented involved modification of various parts creating a hybrid between the M1903 and M1903A3.
M1903A4 (1942): an M1903A3 modified to be a sniper rifle using an M73 or M73B1 2.5× Weaver telescopic sight and different stock, and omitting the iron sights. USMC versions instead used the 8x Unertl scope.
There are two main other types, various training types, and competition versions such as the National Match types. Aside from these there are some other civilian versions, experimental versions, and other miscellaneous types. Due to the duration of its service, there is also a range of smaller differences among ones from different periods and manufacturers.
In military use it was outnumbered by the M1917 Enfield for much of the war. Also, during World War II many remained in use early on, especially in the Pacific (generally replaced as M1s became available), in addition to service (along with other weapons) as a sniper rifle and to launch rifle grenades.
Bannerman Springfield: At the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the Scottish-born military surplus magnate, Francis Bannerman VI (1851–1918), assembled 1,000 M1903 rifles from surplus parts which were rebored to accept British .303 ammunition. These he presented to the British Army together with the associated bayonets, pouches and webbing, as a patriotic gesture. However, the conversion was not a success and it was found that rimmed .303 cartridges would not feed properly from the magazine. The rifles were stamped "DP," i.e., fit for "drill purposes" only, and presented to the City of London Volunteer Training Corps who were otherwise without any weapons.
In popular culture
Ernest Hemingway used an M1903 to shoot big game, including lions, on his first African safari in 1933. His experiences during the safari is the subject of Green Hills of Africa, published in 1935.
An M1903A4 is used by Private Daniel Jackson in the film Saving Private Ryan.
Users
: Received after World War II.
: Captured rifles from American soldiers designated the Gewehr 249(a). Captured rifles from Commonwealth soldiers designated the Gewehr 249(e).
:Issued to Gendarmerie
: Equipped with 2,083 M1903s in 1950.
Italian Partisans: Supplied to partisans operating in the vicinity of American troops.
: Captured during World War II. Used by National Police Reserve after the war.
: Used by the Netherlands Marine Corps during the Indonesian National Revolution.
: Equipped with 216 M1903A3s before the Korean War. The number in service peaked at 3,611 in 1951, and was reduced to 393 by the end of the war. The military also received 100 and 109 M1903A4s in 1952 and 1953, respectively.
: Still in use with Junior ROTC units for ceremonial purposes.
See also
Captured US firearms in Axis use in World War II
Lee–Enfield rifle – Contemporary British Army rifle
List of U.S. Army weapons by supply catalog designation
Springfield M1922 – A cadet rifle, designed to mimic the M1903 Springfield rifle for training purposes
Springfield rifle – For all other "Springfield" rifles
References
Citations
General sources
Ball, Robert W. D., Springfield Armory Shoulder Weapons 1795–1968. Norfolk, VA: Antique Trader Books, 1997.
Engineer Field Manual, War Department, Document No. 355, 1909.
Manual for Noncommissioned Officers and Privates of Infantry of the Army of the United States, War Department, Document No. 574, 1917.
"Bushmaster '03 Carbine", American Rifle magazine, April 2005, p. 40.
U.S. Infantry Weapons of World War II. Bruce N. Canfield, Andrew Mowbray Publishers, 1994.
''Operation Requirements for an Infantry Hand Weapon." Norman Hitchman, Operations Research Office, 1952
External links
M1903.com
FM 23-10 Basic Field Manual: U.S. Rifle Caliber .30, M1903, 20 September 1943
(1943) TM 9-270 U.S. Rifle, Cal. .30, M1903A4 (Sniper's) Characteristics and Operation and Use of Telescopic Sight
90th Infantry Division Preservation Group – Reference manual page including several M1903 manuals
Account of Theodore Roosevelt's Safari: Springfield
.30-06 Springfield rifles
7.62 mm rifles
Bolt-action rifles of the United States
Cold War firearms of the United States
Rifles of the Cold War
Sniper rifles of the United States
Springfield firearms
Weapons of the Philippine Army
World War I infantry weapons of the United States
World War II firearms of the United States
World War II rifles
Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1903
World War II infantry weapons of Brazil
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeracy
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Numeracy
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Numeracy is the ability to understand, reason with, and to apply simple numerical concepts. The charity National Numeracy states: "Numeracy means understanding how mathematics is used in the real world and being able to apply it to make the best possible decisions...It’s as much about thinking and reasoning as about 'doing sums'". Basic numeracy skills consist of comprehending fundamental arithmetical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. For example, if one can understand simple mathematical equations such as 2 + 2 = 4, then one would be considered to possess at least basic numeric knowledge. Substantial aspects of numeracy also include number sense, operation sense, computation, measurement, geometry, probability and statistics. A numerically literate person can manage and respond to the mathematical demands of life.
By contrast, innumeracy (the lack of numeracy) can have a negative impact. Numeracy has an influence on healthy behaviors, financial literacy, and career decisions. Therefore, innumeracy may negatively affect economic choices, financial outcomes, health outcomes, and life satisfaction. It also may distort risk perception in health decisions. Greater numeracy has been associated with reduced susceptibility to framing effects, less influence of nonnumerical information such as mood states, and greater sensitivity to different levels of numerical risk. Ellen Peters and her colleagues argue that achieving the benefits of numeric literacy, however, may depend on one's numeric self-efficacy or confidence in one's skills.
Representation of numbers
Humans have evolved to mentally represent numbers in two major ways from observation (not formal math). These representations are often thought to be innate (see Numerical cognition), to be shared across human cultures, to be common to multiple species, and not to be the result of individual learning or cultural transmission. They are:
Approximate representation of numerical magnitude, and
Precise representation of the quantity of individual items.
Approximate representations of numerical magnitude imply that one can relatively estimate and comprehend an amount if the number is large (see Approximate number system). For example, one experiment showed children and adults arrays of many dots. After briefly observing them, both groups could accurately estimate the approximate number of dots. However, distinguishing differences between large numbers of dots proved to be more challenging.
Precise representations of distinct items demonstrate that people are more accurate in estimating amounts and distinguishing differences when the numbers are relatively small (see Subitizing). For example, in one experiment, an experimenter presented an infant with two piles of crackers, one with two crackers the other with three. The experimenter then covered each pile with a cup. When allowed to choose a cup, the infant always chose the cup with more crackers because the infant could distinguish the difference.
Both systems—approximate representation of magnitude and precise representation quantity of individual items—have limited power. For example, neither allows representations of fractions or negative numbers. More complex representations require education. However, achievement in school mathematics correlates with an individual's unlearned approximate number sense.
Definitions and assessment
Fundamental (or rudimentary) numeracy skills include understanding of the real number line, time, measurement, and estimation. Fundamental skills include basic skills (the ability to identify and understand numbers) and computational skills (the ability to perform simple arithmetical operations and compare numerical magnitudes).
More sophisticated numeracy skills include understanding of ratio concepts (notably fractions, proportions, percentages, and probabilities), and knowing when and how to perform multistep operations. Two categories of skills are included at the higher levels: the analytical skills (the ability to understand numerical information, such as required to interpret graphs and charts) and the statistical skills (the ability to apply higher probabilistic and statistical computation, such as conditional probabilities).
A variety of tests have been developed for assessing numeracy and health numeracy. Different tests have been developed to evaluate health numeracy. Two of these tests that have been found to be “reliable and valid” are the GHNT-21 and GHNT-6.
Childhood influences
The first couple of years of childhood are considered to be a vital part of life for the development of numeracy and literacy. There are many components that play key roles in the development of numeracy at a young age, such as Socioeconomic Status (SES), parenting, Home Learning Environment (HLE), and age.
Socioeconomic status
Children who are brought up in families with high SES tend to be more engaged in developmentally enhancing activities. These children are more likely to develop the necessary abilities to learn and to become more motivated to learn. More specifically, a mother's education level is considered to have an effect on the child's ability to achieve in numeracy. That is, mothers with a high level of education will tend to have children who succeed more in numeracy.
A number of studies have, moreover, proved that the education level of the mother is strongly correlated with the average age of getting married. More precisely, females who entered the marriage later, tend to have greater autonomy, chances for skills premium and level of education (i.e. numeracy). Hence, they were more likely to share this experience with children.
Parenting
Parents are advised to collaborate with their child in simple learning exercises, such as reading a book, painting, drawing, and playing with numbers. On a more expressive note, the act of using complex language, being more responsive towards the child, and establishing warm interactions are recommended to parents with the confirmation of positive numeracy outcomes. When discussing beneficial parenting behaviors, a feedback loop is formed because pleased parents are more willing to interact with their child, which in essence promotes better development in the child.
Home-learning environment
Along with parenting and SES, a strong home-learning environment increases the likelihood of the child being prepared for comprehending complex mathematical schooling. For example, if a child is influenced by many learning activities in the household, such as puzzles, coloring books, mazes, or books with picture riddles, then they will be more prepared to face school activities.
Age
Age is accounted for when discussing the development of numeracy in children. Children under the age of 5 have the best opportunity to absorb basic numeracy skills. After the age of seven, achievement of basic numeracy skills become less influential. For example, a study was conducted to compare the reading and mathematical abilities between children of ages five and seven, each in three different mental capacity groups (underachieving, average, and overachieving). The differences in the amount of knowledge retained were greater between the three different groups aged five than between the groups aged seven. This reveals that those of younger ages have an opportunity to retain more information, like numeracy. According to Gelman and Gallistel in The Child’s Understanding of Number, ‘children as young as 2 years can accurately judge numerosity provided that the numerosity is not larger than two or three’. Children as young as three have been found to understand elementary mathematical concepts. Kilpatrick and his colleagues state ‘most preschoolers show that they can understand and perform simple addition and subtraction by at least 3 years of age’. Lastly, it has been observed that pre-school children benefit from their basic understanding of ‘counting, reading and writing of numbers, understanding of simple addition and subtraction, numerical reasoning, classifying of objects and shapes, estimating, measuring, [and the] reproduction of number patterns’.
Literacy
There seems to be a relationship between literacy and numeracy, which can be seen in young children. Depending on the level of literacy or numeracy at a young age, one can predict the growth of literacy and/ or numeracy skills in future development. There is some evidence that humans may have an inborn sense of number. In one study for example, five-month-old infants were shown two dolls, which were then hidden with a screen. The babies saw the experimenter pull one doll from behind the screen. Without the child's knowledge, a second experimenter could remove, or add dolls, unseen behind the screen. When the screen was removed, the infants showed more surprise at an unexpected number (for example, if there were still two dolls). Some researchers have concluded that the babies were able to count, although others doubt this and claim the infants noticed surface area rather than number.
Employment
Numeracy has a huge impact on employment. In a work environment, numeracy can be a controlling factor affecting career achievements and failures. Many professions require individuals to have well-developed numerical skills: for example, mathematician, physicist, accountant, actuary, Risk Analyst, financial analyst, engineer, and architect. This is why a major target of the Sustainable Development Goal 4 is to substantially increase the number of youths who have relevant skills for decent work and employment because, even outside these specialized areas, the lack of numeracy skills can reduce employment opportunities and promotions, resulting in unskilled manual careers, low-paying jobs, and even unemployment. For example, carpenters and interior designers need to be able to measure, use fractions, and handle budgets. Another example of numeracy influencing employment was demonstrated at the Poynter Institute. The Poynter Institute has recently included numeracy as one of the skills required by competent journalists. Max Frankel, former executive editor of The New York Times, argues that "deploying numbers skillfully is as important to communication as deploying verbs". Unfortunately, it is evident that journalists often show poor numeracy skills. In a study by the Society of Professional Journalists, 58% of job applicants interviewed by broadcast news directors lacked an adequate understanding of statistical materials.
To assess job applicants, psychometric numerical reasoning tests have been created by occupational psychologists, who are involved in the study of numeracy. These tests are used to assess ability to comprehend and apply numbers. They are sometimes administered with a time limit, so that the test-taker must think quickly and concisely. Research has shown that these tests are very useful in evaluating potential applicants because they do not allow the applicants to prepare for the test, unlike interview questions. This suggests that an applicant's results are reliable and accurate
These tests first became prevalent during the 1980s, following the pioneering work of psychologists, such as P. Kline, who published a book in 1986 entitled A handbook of test construction: Introduction to psychometric design, which explained that psychometric testing could provide reliable and objective results, which could be used to assess a candidate's numerical abilities.
Innumeracy and dyscalculia
The term innumeracy is a neologism, coined by analogy with illiteracy. Innumeracy refers to a lack of ability to reason with numbers. The term was coined by cognitive scientist Douglas Hofstadter; however, it was popularized in 1989 by mathematician John Allen Paulos in his book Innumeracy: Mathematical Illiteracy and its Consequences.
Developmental dyscalculia refers to a persistent and specific impairment of basic numerical-arithmetical skills learning in the context of normal intelligence.
Patterns and differences
The root causes of innumeracy vary. Innumeracy has been seen in those suffering from poor education and childhood deprivation of numeracy. Innumeracy is apparent in children during the transition between numerical skills obtained before schooling and the new skills taught in the education departments because of their memory capacity to comprehend the material. Patterns of innumeracy have also been observed depending on age, gender, and race. Older adults have been associated with lower numeracy skills than younger adults. Men have been identified to have higher numeracy skills than women. Some studies seem to indicate young people of African heritage tend to have lower numeracy skills. The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) in which children at fourth-grade (average 10 to 11 years) and eighth-grade (average 14 to 15 years) from 49 countries were tested on mathematical comprehension. The assessment included tests for number, algebra (also called patterns and relationships at fourth grade), measurement, geometry, and data. The latest study, in 2003, found that children from Singapore at both grade levels had the highest performance. Countries like Hong Kong SAR, Japan, and Taiwan also shared high levels of numeracy. The lowest scores were found in countries like South Africa, Ghana, and Saudi Arabia. Another finding showed a noticeable difference between boys and girls, with some exceptions. For example, girls performed significantly better in Singapore, and boys performed significantly better in the United States.
Theory
There is a theory that innumeracy is more common than illiteracy when dividing cognitive abilities into two separate categories. David C. Geary, a notable cognitive developmental and evolutionary psychologist from the University of Missouri, created the terms "biological primary abilities" and "biological secondary abilities". Biological primary abilities evolve over time and are necessary for survival. Such abilities include speaking a common language or knowledge of simple mathematics. Biological secondary abilities are attained through personal experiences and cultural customs, such as reading or high level mathematics learned through schooling. Literacy and numeracy are similar in the sense that they are both important skills used in life. However, they differ in the sorts of mental demands each makes. Literacy consists of acquiring vocabulary and grammatical sophistication, which seem to be more closely related to memorization, whereas numeracy involves manipulating concepts, such as in calculus or geometry, and builds from basic numeracy skills. This could be a potential explanation of the challenge of being numerate.
Innumeracy and risk perception in health decision-making
Health numeracy has been defined as "the degree to which individuals have the capacity to access, process, interpret, communicate, and act on numerical, quantitative, graphical, biostatistical, and probabilistic health information needed to make effective health decisions". The concept of health numeracy is a component of the concept of health literacy. Health numeracy and health literacy can be thought of as the combination of skills needed for understanding risk and making good choices in health-related behavior.
Health numeracy requires basic numeracy but also more advanced analytical and statistical skills. For instance, health numeracy also requires the ability to understand probabilities or relative frequencies in various numerical and graphical formats, and to engage in Bayesian inference, while avoiding errors sometimes associated with Bayesian reasoning (see Base rate fallacy, Conservatism (Bayesian)). Health numeracy also requires understanding terms with definitions that are specific to the medical context. For instance, although 'survival' and 'mortality' are complementary in common usage, these terms are not complementary in medicine (see five-year survival rate). Innumeracy is also a very common problem when dealing with risk perception in health-related behavior; it is associated with patients, physicians, journalists and policymakers. Those who lack or have limited health numeracy skills run the risk of making poor health-related decisions because of an inaccurate perception of information. For example, if a patient has been diagnosed with breast cancer, being innumerate may hinder her ability to comprehend her physician's recommendations, or even the severity of the health concern or even the likelihood of treatment benefits. One study found that people tended to overestimate their chances of survival or even to choose lower-quality hospitals. Innumeracy also makes it difficult or impossible for some patients to read medical graphs correctly. Some authors have distinguished graph literacy from numeracy. Indeed, many doctors exhibit innumeracy when attempting to explain a graph or statistics to a patient. A misunderstanding between a doctor and patient, due to either the doctor, patient, or both being unable to comprehend numbers effectively, could result in serious harm to health.
Different presentation formats of numerical information, for instance natural frequency icon arrays, have been evaluated to assist both low-numeracy and high-numeracy individuals. Other data formats provide more assistance to low-numeracy people.
Evolution of numeracy
In the field of economic history, numeracy is often used to assess human capital at times when there was no data on schooling or other educational measures. Using a method called age-heaping, researchers like Professor Jörg Baten study the development and inequalities of numeracy over time and throughout regions. For example, Baten and Hippe find a numeracy gap between regions in western and central Europe and the rest of Europe for the period 1790–1880. At the same time, their data analysis reveals that these differences as well as within country inequality decreased over time. Taking a similar approach, Baten and Fourie find overall high levels of numeracy for people in the Cape Colony (late 17th to early 19th century).
In contrast to these studies comparing numeracy over countries or regions, it is also possible to analyze numeracy within countries. For example, Baten, Crayen and Voth look at the effects of war on numeracy in England, and Baten and Priwitzer find a "military bias" in what is today western Hungary: people opting for a military career had - on average - better numeracy indicators (1 BCE to 3CE).
See also
Acalculia
Approximate number system
Bayesian inference
Dyscalculia
Graphicacy
Health literacy
Literacy
National Numeracy Network
Number sense
Numeracy bias
Numerical cognition
Numerosity adaptation effect
Oracy
QuickSmart
Subitizing
Notes
External links
The Berlin Numeracy Test
CDC Health Literacy Resources
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality Health Literacy Measurement tools
Australian blog post reviewing the increasing importance of teaching numeracy skills
Literacy
Mathematics education
Knowledge
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri%20Lanka%20national%20cricket%20team
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Sri Lanka national cricket team
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The Sri Lanka men's national cricket team, (; ) nicknamed The Lions, represents Sri Lanka in men's international cricket. It is a Full Member of the International Cricket Council (ICC) with Test, One-Day International (ODI) and T20 International (T20I) status. The team first played international cricket (as Ceylon) in 1926–27 and became an associate member of ICC in 1965. They were later awarded Test status in 1981, which made Sri Lanka the eighth Test cricket-playing nation. The team is administered by Sri Lanka Cricket.
Sri Lanka's national cricket team achieved considerable success beginning in the 1990s, rising from underdog status to winning the Cricket World Cup in 1996, under the captaincy of Arjuna Ranatunga. Since then, the team has continued to be a force in international cricket. The Sri Lankan cricket team reached the finals of the 2007 and 2011 Cricket World Cups consecutively. They ended up being runners-up on both occasions.
Sri Lanka won the Cricket World Cup in 1996 (vs Australia), the ICC Champions Trophy in 2002 (co-champions with India), and the ICC T20 World Cup in 2014 (vs India). They have been consecutive runners-up in the 2007 and 2011 Cricket World Cups, and have been runners-up in the ICC T20 World Cup in 2009 and 2012. The Sri Lankan cricket team currently holds several world records, including the world record for the highest team total in Test cricket.
History
Underdog era
Cricket was introduced to the island by the British as a result of the colonization and the first recorded match dates back to 1832 as reported in The Colombo Journal. By the 1880s a national team, the Ceylon national cricket team, was formed which began playing first-class cricket by the 1920s. The Ceylon national cricket team achieved Associate Member status of the International Cricket Council in 1965. Renamed Sri Lanka in 1972, the national team first competed in top-level international cricket in 1975, when they were defeated by nine wickets by the West Indies during the 1975 Cricket World Cup at Old Trafford, England.
Sri Lanka was awarded Test cricket status in 1981 by the International Cricket Conference. They played their first Test match against England at P. Saravanamuttu Stadium, Colombo, on 17 February 1982. Bandula Warnapura was the captain for Sri Lanka in that match, which England won by 7 wickets. After Sri Lanka was awarded Test status on 21 July 1981 as eighth Test playing nation, they had to wait until 6 September 1985, where Sri Lanka recorded their first Test win by beating India, in the second match of the series by 149 runs at the Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu Stadium, Colombo. They have also won the 2001-02 Asian Test Championship, defeating Pakistan in the final by an innings and 175 runs.
Sri Lanka won their first Test match under the leadership of Duleep Mendis on 11 September 1985 against India, winning by 149 runs at P. Saravanamuttu Stadium. Eventually they won the three-match Test series, 1–0. Sri Lanka had to wait more than seven years for their next series victory, which came against New Zealand in December 1992, when they won the two-match series 1–0. This was immediately followed by a one-wicket victory against England in a one-Test series.
Two years later, on 15 March 1995, Sri Lanka won their first overseas Test match under the leadership of Arjuna Ranatunga against New Zealand, when they beat them by 241 runs at Napier. This win also resulted in their first overseas Test series victory, 1–0. Their next series too was an overseas series, against Pakistan, and that one too resulted in Sri Lankan victory.
Sri Lanka registered their first ODI win against India at Old Trafford, England on 16 June 1979.
Modern era
After many years of underdog status, Sri Lanka finally entered the limelight of the cricketing world after winning the 1996 Cricket World Cup under the captaincy of Arjuna Ranatunga. Meanwhile, they revolutionized modern day batting strategies by rapid scoring during the first 15 overs. Sri Lanka later became the co-champions in 2002 ICC Champions Trophy and also became six times Asian champions in 1986, 1997, 2004, 2008, 2014 and 2022.
On 11 September 1999, under the leadership of Sanath Jayasuriya, Sri Lanka won their first Test match against Australia, when they beat them by six wickets at Asgiriya Stadium, Kandy. Eventually they won the three-match Test series, 1–0.
On 14 June 2000, Sri Lanka played their 100th Test match. It was against Pakistan, at SSC, Colombo, under the leadership of Sanath Jayasuriya. Pakistan won by 5 wickets.
On 4 August 2016, they played their 250th Test match when they played Australia in Galle. They won the match by 229 runs, and also won the Warne-Muralidharan trophy for the first time since its inception. On 17 August 2016, under the leadership of Angelo Mathews, Sri Lanka whitewashed Australia 3-0 for the first time in Test cricket.
Until 2017, Sri Lanka had whitewashed Zimbabwe three times, Bangladesh once and Australia once in Test cricket.
Sri Lanka played their first day-night Test match on 6 October 2017 against Pakistan at Dubai International Cricket Stadium. Under the captaincy of Dinesh Chandimal, Sri Lanka convincingly won the match by 68 runs and sweep the series 2–0. In the match, Dimuth Karunaratne became the first Sri Lankan to score a fifty, a century and a 150 in a day-night Test. Lahiru Gamage, who debut in the match became the first Sri Lankan to take a wicket in a day-night Test, whereas Dilruwan Perera became the first Sri Lankan to take five-wicket haul in a day-night Test.
Sri Lanka played their first Twenty20 International (T20I) match at the Rose Bowl, on 15 June 2006, against England, winning the match by 2 runs. In 2014, they won the 2014 ICC World Twenty20, defeating India by 6 wickets.
As of July 2018, Sri Lanka have faced nine teams in Test cricket, only recent Test nations Afghanistan and Ireland are missing from their list of opponents, with their most frequent opponent being Pakistan, playing 55 matches against them. Sri Lanka has registered more wins against Pakistan and Bangladesh than any other team, with 14. In ODI matches, Sri Lanka has played against 17 teams; they have played against India most frequently, with a winning percentage of 39.49 in 149 matches. Within usual major ODI nations, Sri Lanka have defeated England on 34 occasions, which is their best record in ODIs. The team have competed against 13 countries in T20Is, and have played 15 matches against New Zealand. Sri Lanka have defeated Australia and West Indies 6 occasions each. Sri Lanka was the best T20I team in the world, where they ranked number one in more than 32 months, and reached World Twenty20 final in three times.
As of 10 July 2018, Sri Lanka have played 272 Test matches; they have won 86 matches, lost 101 matches, and 85 matches were drawn. As of 10 July 2018, Sri Lanka have played 816 ODI matches, winning 376 matches and losing 399; they also tied 5 matches, whilst 36 had no result. As of 10 July 2018, Sri Lanka have played 108 T20I matches and won 54 of them; 52 were lost and 1 tied and 1 no result match as well.
From 8 July 2017 to 23 October 2017, Sri Lanka lost twelve consecutive ODI matches, which is their second longest losing run in ODIs. In the meantime, Sri Lanka involved 5-0 whitewash in three times against South Africa, India and Pakistan in 2017. And a 3-0 whitewash against the West Indies 3 years later (2020).
On 09 September 2019, Sri Lanka won the T20I series 3-0 against Pakistan in their home under Dasun Shanaka's captaincy. It was the first time that Sri Lanka whitewashed Pakistan in a T20I series. In July 2021, Sri Lanka won T20I series against India 2-1, recording their first ever bilateral T20I series win against India.
On 4 March 2022, Sri Lanka played their 300th Test match in Mohali against India. Sri Lanka lost the match by an innings and 222 runs. Amid political turmoil back home, Sri Lanka won the 2022 Asia Cup, defeating Pakistan in the final on 11 September 2022.
On 28 April 2023, Sri Lanka won their 100th Test match win against Ireland at Galle.They won the test series as 2-0. They became the 8th test nation to reach this milstone.
Governing body
Sri Lanka Cricket (formerly the Board for Cricket Control or BCCSL), is the governing body for cricket in Sri Lanka. It operates the Sri Lankan cricket team and first-class cricket within Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka Cricket oversees the progress and handling of the major domestic competitions: the First-class tournament Premier Trophy, the List A tournament Premier Limited Overs Tournament and the Twenty20 Tournament. Sri Lanka Cricket also organises and hosts the Inter-Provincial Cricket Tournament, a competition where five teams take part and represent four different provinces of Sri Lanka.
Most of the regions of Sri Lanka that are rural areas apart from the Capital could not produce the successful cricketers to the national and international side yet due to the lack of resources and opportunities while only a few major areas such as Galle, Matara, Kandy, Kurunegala usually produce successful cricketers to the national and international side instead of the capital. So the government is trying to distribute the game within the whole country organizing some programs such as 2017–18 Super Four Provincial Tournament.
International grounds
Note: Except abandoned and cancelled matches.
Updated 17 September 2023.
Team colours
Similar to other Sri Lankan sports teams, the Sri Lankan national cricket team bears blue and yellow as their colours. The bright blue represents the surrounding ocean, while the golden yellow represents the united island as a whole (depicting the sand).
In Test matches, the team wears cricket whites, with an optional sweater or sweater-vest with a dark blue and blue V-neck for use in cold weather, such as on Australia, England, and New Zealand tours. The Sri Lankan flag is found on the left side of the jersey's chest with the Test cap number usually below the flag; helmets are a deep blue and the fielder's hat (usually a baseball cap or a wide-brimmed sunhat) is coloured similar. The sponsor's logo is displayed on the right side of the chest and the sleeve with the Sri Lankan Cricket logo is deployed on the left in test cricket.
Sri Lanka's One Day and Twenty 20 kits vary from year to year with the team wearing its bright blue colour in various shades from kit to kit with yellow stripes on shoulders and waist. Historically, Sri Lanka's kits have had shades of bright blue and golden yellow. In the World Series Cup in 1984–85, Sri Lanka wore yellow uniforms with blue stripes.
For official ICC tournaments such as ICC Cricket World Cup, ICC World Twenty20 and Asia Cup, "SRI LANKA" is written on the front of the jersey in place of the sponsor logo, with the sponsor logo being placed on the sleeve. A remarkable change in the colour of the kit of Sri Lanka can be found during the 2007 ICC World Twenty20 edition in South Africa. The team-coloured with pale silver and the kit has never been seen since then in the team. Since then, the Sri Lankan kit has never changed from the usual brilliant blue colour and very fine yellow stripes. For 2016 ICC World Twenty20, orange and green colours in the flag are also included in the jersey. In 2017 ICC Champions Trophy pool game against India, the kit changed to the mostly yellow coloured shirt with stripes of blue and usual blue trousers.
At the top-right side of the jersey, instead of logo their can be seen Sri Lanka's flag.
In 2019 for the 2019 Cricket World Cup, the Sri Lankan jersey was made from recycled plastic sea waste from the Sri Lankan coast. On the side of the blue background, there is a drawing of a turtle on the shirt.
However, for non-ICC tournaments and bilateral and tri-nation matches, the sponsor logo features prominently on the front of the shirt.
Logo
Sri Lanka's cricket team's logo is a golden lion with a sword bearing on the right arm and the background is bright blue in colour. The name "Sri Lanka Cricket" is written below the lion. It's seen on practice jersey at the top-right side.
In Test cricket, the logo in the cap is slightly changed, where the lion with a sword is surrounded by petals of lotus and then a blue circle surrounds the crest and a yellow circle surrounds the blue circle, present in the coat of arms. This logo is seen on the front of the caps and helmets in ODIs and T20Is.
Tournament history
Honours
ICC
World Cup:
Champions (1): 1996
Runners-up (2): 2007, 2011
T20 World Cup:
Champions (1): 2014
Runners-up (2): 2009, 2012
Champions Trophy:
Champions (1): 2002
ACC
Asia Cup:
Champions (6): 1986, 1997, 2004, 2008, 2014, 2022
Runners-up (7): 1984, 1988, 1990–91, 1995, 2000, 2010, 2023
Asian Test Championship:
Champions (1): 2001–02
Runners-up (1): 1998–99
Others
Asian Games
Gold Medal (1): 2014
South Asian Games
Silver Medal (2): 2010, 2019
Current squad
This is a list of active players who are centrally contracted with SLC or has played for Sri Lanka in the past 12 months or has been named in the recent Test, ODI or T20I squad. Uncapped players are listed in italics. Updated on 26 October 2023.
Coaching staff
Selection Panel
Pramodya Wickramasinghe (Chairman)
Romesh Kaluwitharana
Hemantha Wickramaratne
Coaching history
1995–1996: Dav Whatmore
1997–1998: Bruce Yardley
1998–1999: Roy Dias
1999–2003: Dav Whatmore
2003–2005: John Dyson
2005–2007: Tom Moody
2007–2011: Trevor Bayliss
2011: Stuart Law (interim)
2011: Rumesh Ratnayake (interim)
2011–2012: Geoff Marsh
2012–2013: Graham Ford 1st stint
2013–2014: Paul Farbrace
2014–2015: Marvan Atapattu
2015–2016: Jerome Jayaratne (interim)
2016–2017: Graham Ford 2nd stint
2017: Nic Pothas (interim)
2017–2019: Chandika Hathurusingha
2019–2021: Mickey Arthur
2022: Rumesh Ratnayake (interim)
2022–present: Chris Silverwood
Sponsorship
The period between 2000 and 2010 saw the sponsorship pass between Ceylon tea, Reebok, Mobitel Sri Lanka and Dialog Axiata; Dilmah has remained a sponsor since the early 2000s, replacing Singer, which was the main sponsor in the 1990s. Former manufacturers were Reebok, AJ Sports, Asics, ISC, and Adidas.
Currently, the main sponsors for Sri Lanka cricket are Dialog Axiata, Jat Holdings and MAS Holdings.
Records and statistics
International match summary
Updated: 28 October 2023
Test matches
Team records
Highest team total: 952/6 dec. v. India at RPS, Colombo in 1997
Lowest team total: 71 v. Pakistan at Asgiriya in 1994
Sri Lanka holds the world record for the highest team score, 952/6
Individual records
Most matches: 149 Tests – Mahela Jayawardene
Longest-serving captain: 56 Tests – Arjuna Ranatunga
Batting records
Most runs: 12,400 – Kumar Sangakkara
Best average: 57.40 – Kumar Sangakkara
Highest individual score: 374 – Mahela Jayawardene v. South Africa at SSC, Colombo in 2006
Highest partnership: 624 – Kumar Sangakkara and Mahela Jayawardene v. South Africa at SSC, Colombo in 2006
Most centuries: 38 – Kumar Sangakkara
Bowling records
Most wickets: 800 – Muttiah Muralitharan
Best average: 22.67 – Muttiah Muralitharan
Best figures in an innings: 9/51 – Muttiah Muralitharan v. Zimbabwe at Asgiriya in 2002
Best figures in a match: 16/220 – Muttiah Muralitharan v. England at The Oval in 1998
Best strike rate: 51.5 – Lasith Malinga
Best economy rate: 2.33 – Don Anurasiri
Fielding records
Most catches by an outfielder: 205 – Mahela Jayawardene
Most dismissals as wicketkeeper: 156 – Prasanna Jayawardene
Most dismissals in an innings: 6 – Amal Silva v. India at SSC, Colombo in 1985 and Dinesh Chandimal v. Pakistan at PSS, Colombo in 2015
Most dismissals in a match: 9 – Amal Silva v. India at SSC, Colombo & PSS, Colombo in 1985 and Prasanna Jayawardene v. Pakistan at Dubai in 2014
Record versus other nations
One Day Internationals
ODI team records
Highest team total: 443/9 (50 overs) v. Netherlands at VRA Cricket Ground in 2006
Lowest team total: 43 (20.1 overs) v. South Africa at Boland Park in 2012
Sri Lanka holds the world record for maximum defeats in ODI history- 442.
ODI individual records
Most matches: 443 – Mahela Jayawardene
Longest-serving captain: 193 matches – Arjuna Ranatunga
ODI batting records
Most runs: 14,234 – Kumar Sangakkara
Best average: 42.40 –Charith Asalanka
Best strike rate: 112.59 – Thisara Perera
Highest individual score: 189 – Sanath Jayasuriya v. India at Sharjah Cricket Stadium in 2000
Highest partnership: 286* – Sanath Jayasuriya and Upul Tharanga v. England at Headingley in 2006
Most centuries: 28 – Sanath Jayasuriya
Most Sixes: 268 – Sanath Jayasuriya
ODI bowling records
Most wickets: 534 – Muttiah Muralitharan
Best average: 21.87 – Ajantha Mendis
Best figures in an innings: 8/19 – Chaminda Vaas v. Zimbabwe at Colombo (SSC) in 2001
Best strike rate: 27.3 – Ajantha Mendis
Best economy rate: 3.93 – Muttiah Muralitharan
ODI fielding records
Most catches by an outfielder: 212 – Mahela Jayawardene
Most dismissals as wicketkeeper: 473 – Kumar Sangakkara
Most dismissals in a match: 5 – Guy de Alwis v. Australia at Colombo (PSS) in 1983; Hashan Tillakaratne v. Pakistan at Sharjah Cricket Stadium in 1990; Romesh Kaluwitharana v. Pakistan at Sharjah Cricket Stadium in 1995; Kumar Sangakkara v. Netherlands at Colombo (RPS) in 2002
ODI record versus other nations
T20 Internationals
T20I team records
Highest team total: 260/6 v. Kenya at Johannesburg in 2007
Lowest team total: 79 v. India at Visakhapatnam in 2016
T20I individual records
Most matches: 88 – Dasun Shanaka
Longest-serving captain: 48 matches – Dasun Shanaka
T20I batting records
Most runs: 1,889 – Tillakaratne Dilshan
Best average: 31.77 – Mahela Jayawardene
Best strike rate: 147.67 – Thisara Perera
Highest individual score: 104* – Tillakaratne Dilshan v. Australia at Pallekele in 2011
Highest partnership: 166 – Mahela Jayawardene and Kumar Sangakkara v. West Indies at Kensington Oval in 2010
Most centuries: 1 – Tillakaratne Dilshan, Mahela Jayawardene
Most Sixes: 68 – Dasun Shanaka
T20I bowling records
Most wickets: 107 – Lasith Malinga
Best average: 14.42 – Ajantha Mendis
Best bowling: 6/8 – Ajantha Mendis v. Zimbabwe at Hambantota in 2012
Best strike rate: 13.4 – Ajantha Mendis
Best economy rate: 6.45 – Ajantha Mendis
T20I fielding records
Most catches by an outfielder: 30 – Dasun Shanaka
Most dismissals as wicketkeeper: 45 – Kumar Sangakkara
Most dismissals in an innings: 4 – Dinesh Chandimal v. South Africa at Johannesburg in 2017
T20I record versus other nations
See also
Cricket in Sri Lanka
List of Sri Lanka national cricket captains
List of Sri Lanka ODI cricketers
List of Sri Lanka Test cricketers
List of Sri Lanka Twenty20 International cricketers
Sri Lanka women's national cricket team
Lanka Premier League
References
External links
National cricket teams
Cricket
Sri Lanka in international cricket
Sri Lankan terrorism victims
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truss
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Truss
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A truss is an assembly of members such as beams, connected by nodes, that creates a rigid structure.
In engineering, a truss is a structure that "consists of two-force members only, where the members are organized so that the assemblage as a whole behaves as a single object". A "two-force member" is a structural component where force is applied to only two points. Although this rigorous definition allows the members to have any shape connected in any stable configuration, trusses typically comprise five or more triangular units constructed with straight members whose ends are connected at joints referred to as nodes.
In this typical context, external forces and reactions to those forces are considered to act only at the nodes and result in forces in the members that are either tensile or compressive. For straight members, moments (torques) are explicitly excluded because, and only because, all the joints in a truss are treated as revolutes, as is necessary for the links to be two-force members.
A planar truss is one where all members and nodes lie within a two-dimensional plane, while a space truss has members and nodes that extend into three dimensions. The top beams in a truss are called top chords and are typically in compression, the bottom beams are called bottom chords, and are typically in tension. The interior beams are called webs, and the areas inside the webs are called panels, or from graphic statics (see Cremona diagram) polygons.
Etymology
Truss derives from the Old French word trousse, from around 1200, which means "collection of things bound together". The term truss has often been used to describe any assembly of members such as a cruck frame or a couple of rafters. One engineering definition is: "A truss is a single plane framework of individual structural member [sic] connected at their ends of forms a series of triangle [sic] to span a large distance".
Characteristics
A truss consists of typically (but not necessarily) straight members connected at joints, traditionally termed panel points. Trusses are typically (but not necessarily) composed of triangles because of the structural stability of that shape and design. A triangle is the simplest geometric figure that will not change shape when the lengths of the sides are fixed. In comparison, both the angles and the lengths of a four-sided figure must be fixed for it to retain its shape. The joint at which a truss is designed to be supported is commonly referred to as the Munter Point.
Simple truss
The simplest form of a truss is one single triangle. This type of truss is seen in a framed roof consisting of rafters and a ceiling joist, and in other mechanical structures such as bicycles and aircraft. Because of the stability of this shape and the methods of analysis used to calculate the forces within it, a truss composed entirely of triangles is known as a simple truss. However, a simple truss is often defined more restrictively by demanding that it can be constructed through successive addition of pairs of members, each connected to two existing joints and to each other to form a new joint, and this definition does not require a simple truss to comprise only triangles. The traditional diamond-shape bicycle frame, which utilizes two conjoined triangles, is an example of a simple truss.
Planar truss
A planar truss lies in a single plane. Planar trusses are typically used in parallel to form roofs and bridges.
The depth of a truss, or the height between the upper and lower chords, is what makes it an efficient structural form. A solid girder or beam of equal strength would have substantial weight and material cost as compared to a truss. For a given span, a deeper truss will require less material in the chords and greater material in the verticals and diagonals. An optimum depth of the truss will maximize the efficiency.
Space frame truss
A space frame truss is a three-dimensional framework of members pinned at their ends. A tetrahedron shape is the simplest space truss, consisting of six members that meet at four joints. Large planar structures may be composed from tetrahedrons with common edges, and they are also employed in the base structures of large free-standing power line pylons.
Types
For more truss types, see truss types used in bridges.
There are two basic types of truss:
The pitched truss, or common truss, is characterized by its triangular shape. It is most often used for roof construction. Some common trusses are named according to their "web configuration". The chord size and web configuration are determined by span, load and spacing.
The parallel chord truss, or flat truss, gets its name from its parallel top and bottom chords. It is often used for floor construction.
A combination of the two is a truncated truss, used in hip roof construction. A metal plate-connected wood truss is a roof or floor truss whose wood members are connected with metal connector plates.
Warren truss
Truss members form a series of equilateral triangles, alternating up and down.
Octet truss
Truss members are made up of all equivalent equilateral triangles. The minimum composition is two regular tetrahedrons along with an octahedron. They fill up three dimensional space in a variety of configurations.
Pratt truss
The Pratt truss was patented in 1844 by two Boston railway engineers, Caleb Pratt and his son Thomas Willis Pratt. The design uses vertical members for compression and diagonal members to respond to tension. The Pratt truss design remained popular as bridge designers switched from wood to iron, and from iron to steel. This continued popularity of the Pratt truss is probably due to the fact that the configuration of the members means that longer diagonal members are only in tension for gravity load effects. This allows these members to be used more efficiently, as slenderness effects related to buckling under compression loads (which are compounded by the length of the member) will typically not control the design. Therefore, for given planar truss with a fixed depth, the Pratt configuration is usually the most efficient under static, vertical loading.
The Southern Pacific Railroad bridge in Tempe, Arizona is a 393 meter (1,291 foot) long truss bridge built in 1912. The structure is composed of nine Pratt truss spans of varying lengths. The bridge is still in use today.
The Wright Flyer used a Pratt truss in its wing construction, as the minimization of compression member lengths allowed for lower aerodynamic drag.
Bowstring truss
Named for their shape, bowstring trusses were first used for arched truss bridges, often confused with tied-arch bridges.
Thousands of bowstring trusses were used during World War II for holding up the curved roofs of aircraft hangars and other military buildings. Many variations exist in the arrangements of the members connecting the nodes of the upper arc with those of the lower, straight sequence of members, from nearly isosceles triangles to a variant of the Pratt truss.
King post truss
One of the simplest truss styles to implement, the king post consists of two angled supports leaning into a common vertical support.
The queen post truss, sometimes queenpost or queenspost, is similar to a king post truss in that the outer supports are angled towards the centre of the structure. The primary difference is the horizontal extension at the centre which relies on beam action to provide mechanical stability. This truss style is only suitable for relatively short spans.
Lenticular truss
Lenticular trusses, patented in 1878 by William Douglas (although the Gaunless Bridge of 1823 was the first of the type), have the top and bottom chords of the truss arched, forming a lens shape. A lenticular pony truss bridge is a bridge design that involves a lenticular truss extending above and below the roadbed.
Town's lattice truss
American architect Ithiel Town designed Town's Lattice Truss as an alternative to heavy-timber bridges. His design, patented in 1820 and 1835, uses easy-to-handle planks arranged diagonally with short spaces in between them, to form a lattice.
Vierendeel truss
The Vierendeel truss is a structure where the members are not triangulated but form rectangular openings, and is a frame with fixed joints that are capable of transferring and resisting bending moments. As such, it does not fit the strict definition of a truss (since it contains non-two-force members): regular trusses comprise members that are commonly assumed to have pinned joints, with the implication that no moments exist at the jointed ends. This style of structure was named after the Belgian engineer Arthur Vierendeel, who developed the design in 1896. Its use for bridges is rare due to higher costs compared to a triangulated truss.
The utility of this type of structure in buildings is that a large amount of the exterior envelope remains unobstructed and can be used for windows and door openings. In some applications this is preferable to a braced-frame system, which would leave some areas obstructed by the diagonal braces.
Statics
A truss that is assumed to comprise members that are connected by means of pin joints, and which is supported at both ends by means of hinged joints and rollers, is described as being statically determinate. Newton's Laws apply to the structure as a whole, as well as to each node or joint. In order for any node that may be subject to an external load or force to remain static in space, the following conditions must hold: the sums of all (horizontal and vertical) forces, as well as all moments acting about the node equal zero. Analysis of these conditions at each node yields the magnitude of the compression or tension forces.
Trusses that are supported at more than two positions are said to be statically indeterminate, and the application of Newton's Laws alone is not sufficient to determine the member forces.
In order for a truss with pin-connected members to be stable, it does not need to be entirely composed of triangles. In mathematical terms, we have the following necessary condition for stability of a simple truss:
where m is the total number of truss members, j is the total number of joints and r is the number of reactions (equal to 3 generally) in a 2-dimensional structure.
When , the truss is said to be statically determinate, because the (m+3) internal member forces and support reactions can then be completely determined by 2j equilibrium equations, once we know the external loads and the geometry of the truss. Given a certain number of joints, this is the minimum number of members, in the sense that if any member is taken out (or fails), then the truss as a whole fails. While the relation (a) is necessary, it is not sufficient for stability, which also depends on the truss geometry, support conditions and the load carrying capacity of the members.
Some structures are built with more than this minimum number of truss members. Those structures may survive even when some of the members fail. Their member forces depend on the relative stiffness of the members, in addition to the equilibrium condition described.
Analysis
Because the forces in each of its two main girders are essentially planar, a truss is usually modeled as a two-dimensional plane frame. However if there are significant out-of-plane forces, the structure must be modeled as a three-dimensional space.
The analysis of trusses often assumes that loads are applied to joints only and not at intermediate points along the members. The weight of the members is often insignificant compared to the applied loads and so is often omitted; alternatively, half of the weight of each member may be applied to its two end joints. Provided that the members are long and slender, the moments transmitted through the joints are negligible, and the junctions can be treated as "hinges" or "pin-joints".
Under these simplifying assumptions, every member of the truss is then subjected to pure compression or pure tension forces – shear, bending moment, and other more-complex stresses are all practically zero. Trusses are physically stronger than other ways of arranging structural elements, because nearly every material can resist a much larger load in tension or compression than in shear, bending, torsion, or other kinds of force.
These simplifications make trusses easier to analyze. Structural analysis of trusses of any type can readily be carried out using a matrix method such as the direct stiffness method, the flexibility method, or the finite element method.
Forces in members
Illustrated is a simple, statically determinate flat truss with 9 joints and (2 x 9) − 3 = 15 members. External loads are concentrated in the outer joints. Since this is a symmetrical truss with symmetrical vertical loads, the reactive forces at A and B are vertical, equal, and half the total load.
The internal forces in the members of the truss can be calculated in a variety of ways, including graphical methods:
Cremona diagram
Culmann diagram
Ritter analytical method (method of sections)
Design of members
A truss can be thought of as a beam where the web consists of a series of separate members instead of a continuous plate. In the truss, the lower horizontal member (the bottom chord) and the upper horizontal member (the top chord) carry tension and compression, fulfilling the same function as the flanges of an I-beam. Which chord carries tension and which carries compression depends on the overall direction of bending. In the truss pictured above right, the bottom chord is in tension, and the top chord in compression.
The diagonal and vertical members form the truss web, and carry the shear stress. Individually, they are also in tension and compression, the exact arrangement of forces is depending on the type of truss and again on the direction of bending. In the truss shown above right, the vertical members are in tension, and the diagonals are in compression.
In addition to carrying the static forces, the members serve additional functions of stabilizing each other, preventing buckling. In the adjacent picture, the top chord is prevented from buckling by the presence of bracing and by the stiffness of the web members.
The inclusion of the elements shown is largely an engineering decision based upon economics, being a balance between the costs of raw materials, off-site fabrication, component transportation, on-site erection, the availability of machinery and the cost of labor. In other cases the appearance of the structure may take on greater importance and so influence the design decisions beyond mere matters of economics. Modern materials such as prestressed concrete and fabrication methods, such as automated welding, have significantly influenced the design of modern bridges.
Once the force on each member is known, the next step is to determine the cross section of the individual truss members. For members under tension the cross-sectional area A can be found using A = F × γ / σy, where F is the force in the member, γ is a safety factor (typically 1.5 but depending on building codes) and σy is the yield tensile strength of the steel used.
The members under compression also have to be designed to be safe against buckling.
The weight of a truss member depends directly on its cross section—that weight partially determines how strong the other members of the truss need to be. Giving one member a larger cross section than on a previous iteration requires giving other members a larger cross section as well, to hold the greater weight of the first member—one needs to go through another iteration to find exactly how much greater the other members need to be. Sometimes the designer goes through several iterations of the design process to converge on the "right" cross section for each member. On the other hand, reducing the size of one member from the previous iteration merely makes the other members have a larger (and more expensive) safety factor than is technically necessary, but doesn't require another iteration to find a buildable truss.
The effect of the weight of the individual truss members in a large truss, such as a bridge, is usually insignificant compared to the force of the external loads.
Design of joints
After determining the minimum cross section of the members, the last step in the design of a truss would be detailing of the bolted joints, e.g., involving shear stress of the bolt connections used in the joints. Based on the needs of the project, truss internal connections (joints) can be designed as rigid, semi rigid, or hinged. Rigid connections can allow transfer of bending moments leading to development of secondary bending moments in the members.
Applications
Post frame structures
Component connections are critical to the structural integrity of a framing system. In buildings with large, clearspan wood trusses, the most critical connections are those between the truss and its supports. In addition to gravity-induced forces (a.k.a. bearing loads), these connections must resist shear forces acting perpendicular to the plane of the truss and uplift forces due to wind. Depending upon overall building design, the connections may also be required to transfer bending moment.
Wood posts enable the fabrication of strong, direct, yet inexpensive connections between large trusses and walls. Exact details for post-to-truss connections vary from designer to designer, and may be influenced by post type. Solid-sawn timber and glulam posts are generally notched to form a truss bearing surface. The truss is rested on the notches and bolted into place. A special plate/bracket may be added to increase connection load transfer capabilities. With mechanically-laminated posts, the truss may rest on a shortened outer-ply or on a shortened inner-ply. The later scenario places the bolts in double shear and is a very effective connection.
Gallery
See also
Lattice tower
Andreini tessellations, the only 28 ways to fill 3D space with trusses that have identical joints everywhere
Brown truss
Geodesic dome, a truss in the shape of a sphere
Structural mechanics
Serrurier truss, a truss form used for telescopes
Stress:
Compressive stress
Tensile stress
Structural steel
Tensegrity truss, a truss where no compression member touches any other compression member
Truss rod, a guitar part
References
External links
Truss Calculator
Airship technology
Architectural elements
Bridge components
Mechanics
Structural system
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanath%20Jayasuriya
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Sanath Jayasuriya
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Deshabandu Sanath Teran Jayasuriya (, ; born 30 June 1969), is a former Sri Lankan cricketer and captain, who is widely regarded as one of the greatest ever to play the game. A left arm opening batsman, an orthodox spinner and a dynamic fielder, Jayasuriya together with his opening partner Romesh Kaluwitharana is credited for having revolutionized one-day international cricket with his explosive batting in the mid-1990s, which initiated the hard-hitting modern-day batting strategy of all nations. He was a key member of the Sri Lankan team that won 1996 Cricket World Cup. Under his captaincy Sri Lanka become joint champions along with India in the 2002 Champions Trophy.
Considered one of the greatest attacking batsmen of all time, Jayasuriya is well known for his powerful striking and match-winning all-round performances in all formats of the game. Jayasuriya was an all-rounder, who had an international cricket career that spread over two decades. He is the only player to score over 10,000 runs and capture more than 300 wickets in One Day International cricket and is also regarded as one of the best all-rounders in the history of limited-overs cricket. Jayasuriya created many world records during his career.
He was named the Most Valuable Player of 1996 Cricket World Cup and Wisden Cricketers' Almanack broke an age-old tradition by naming him one of Five Cricketers' of the Year 1997 despite not playing the previous season in England. Jayasuriya was also the captain of the Sri Lankan cricket team from 1999 to 2003. He is affectionately known as the Master Blaster (making him the third batting legend of cricket's history to receive the Master Blaster nickname, after Sir Viv Richards of the West Indies and Sachin Tendulkar of India).
He was also a key member of the team that won the 1996 Cricket World Cup and was part of the team that made the finals of 2007 Cricket World Cup and 2009 ICC World Twenty20. He retired from Test cricket in December 2007 and from limited-overs cricket in June 2011. On 28 January 2013, Sri Lanka Cricket appointed him as the chairman of the cricket selection committee. Sri Lanka won the ICC World Twenty20 for the first time in 2014, during his tenure as the chief selector.
Jayasuriya ran for public office at the 2010 Sri Lankan general elections and was elected to the parliament from his native Matara District. He topped the UPFA parliamentary election list for Matara district by obtaining 74,352 preferential votes.
He served as the deputy minister of Postal services in the former UPFA government led by Mahinda Rajapaksa, and later as the Deputy Minister of Local Government & Rural Development under president Maithripala Sirisena. Jayasuriya did not contest for the 2015 Sri Lankan general election, though he won most votes from Matara district under UPFA in the 2010 Sri Lankan general election. He is currently not active in politics.
Early life and career
Sanath Jayasuriya was born in the Southern Sri Lankan city of Matara, to the family of Dunstan and Breeda Jayasuriya. He has an elder brother, Chandana Jayasuriya. He was educated at St. Servatius' College, Matara, where his cricketing talents were nourished by his school principal, G.L. Galappathy, and cricket coach, Lionel Wagasinghe. He excelled in cricket while at St. Servatius College, Matara and captained the college cricket team at the annual St. Thomas'–St. Servatius Cricket Encounter in 1988. Jayasuriya was picked as the 'Observer Schoolboy Cricketer of the Year' in the Outstation Segment in 1988. He also received the awards for the 'Best Batsman' and 'Best All-rounder' in the Outstation Segment at the Observer School Cricket Awards ceremony in the same year. Jayasuriya represented Sri Lanka in the inaugural ICC Under-19 Cricket World Cup which was held in Australia in 1988 and was subsequently selected for a tour in Pakistan a few months later with the Sri Lanka 'B' team, where he made two unbeaten double centuries. Shortly afterward he was drafted into the national side for the tour to Australia in 1989–90.
He made his One Day International debut against Australia at Melbourne on Boxing Day of 1989 and his Test debut against New Zealand at Hamilton in February 1991.
Style and international career
Batting style
Along with his opening partner Romesh Kaluwitharana, Jayasuriya revolutionized One Day International batting with his aggressive tactics during the 1996 Cricket World Cup, a strategy they first tried on the preceding tour of Australia. The tactic used was to take advantage of the early fielding restrictions by smashing the opening bowlers to all parts of the cricket ground, particularly by lofting their deliveries over the mandatory infielders, rather than the established tactic of building up momentum gradually. This was a novel but potentially match-winning tactic at that time, and Sri Lanka, who had previously never made it out of the preliminary rounds, went on to win the World Cup without a single defeat. Their new gameplan is now the standard opening batting strategy in limited-overs cricket for the modern era. Glenn McGrath cited Jayasuriya in his XI of toughest batsmen, noting "it is always a massive compliment to someone to say they changed the game, and his storming innings in the 1996 World Cup changed everyone's thinking about how to start innings."
Jayasuriya is known for both cuts and pulls along with his trademark shot, a lofted cut over point. He was one of the key players in Sri Lanka's victory in the 1996 Cricket World Cup, where he was adjudged Man of the Tournament in recognition of his all-around contributions.
His philosophy towards batting is summarized by an all-aggression approach and over the years he has dominated almost every one-day bowling combination that he has faced at one stage or another. This is because of his ability to make huge match-winning contributions at a rapid pace once he gets in, he holds the record for the second-highest number of one day centuries and has scored the 4th most 150+ scores (4 scores) jointly with Chris Gayle and Hashim Amla. Only Rohit Sharma, David Warner and Sachin Tendulkar have more 150+ scores than him, (Rohit Sharma has the most 150+ scores at 7). His devastating performances have ensured that Sri Lanka has won almost over 75% of the matches that he scored over 50 runs in limited-overs cricket. When asked in an interview who are the most challenging bowlers he had faced in the game, he named in the order Wasim Akram, Shane Warne, Glenn McGrath, Courtney Walsh, Curtly Ambrose.
Bowling style
Jayasuriya was a left-arm orthodox spin bowler known for quickly getting through his overs. Although a spinner, he was used to bowling faster balls and yorkers with quick arm action which gained him success as a bowler. He took 440 wickets altogether in international cricket with six 5 wicket hauls. His best bowling performance in an innings in international cricket is 6 for 29, which he took against England in an ODI in 1993. It was the best bowling performance by a Sri Lankan in ODIs until Muttiah Muralitharan broke the record in 2000. Jayasuriya's best match figures in test cricket came in 2001/2002 season when he took 9 for 74 against Zimbabwe.
One of Jayasuriya's memorable bowling performances came in the semi-final of 1996 Cricket World Cup, where he took three wickets for just 12 runs in seven overs. It was Jayasuriya who took the vital wicket of Sachin Tendulkar and broke his crucial partnership with Sanjay Manjrekar, which was taking the game away from Sri Lankans at one stage. Jayasuriya was the most successful bowler for Sri Lanka during the knockout stage of 1996 cricket World Cup where he took 6 wickets in three games. As an all-rounder, he took 27 wickets in Cricket world cups altogether including 10 wickets he took in 2003 edition.
Test career
Sanath Jayasuriya held the record for the highest Test score made by a Sri Lankan, 340 against India in 1997. This effort was part of a second-wicket partnership with Roshan Mahanama that set the then all-time record for any partnership in Test history, with 576 runs. Both records were surpassed in July 2006 when fellow Sri Lankan Mahela Jayawardene scored 374 as part of a 624-run partnership with Kumar Sangakkara against South Africa. On 20 September 2005, during the Second Test of the home series against Bangladesh, Jayasuriya became the first Sri Lankan to play 100 Tests, and the 33rd Test cricketer to achieve this feat.
Jayasuriya announced his intention to retire from Test cricket following the Pakistan tour of Sri Lanka in April 2006. He reversed his decision soon after, however, joining the Sri Lankan cricket team in England in May 2006. Missing the first two Tests, Jayasuriya returned in the Third Test at Trent Bridge.
After scoring 78 runs on day three of the first Test against England in Kandy in 2007, he announced he was to retire from Test cricket at the end of the match. In that innings he hit six fours in one over against James Anderson.
One Day International career
2009–2010
Jayasuriya held the records for the fastest fifty (against Pakistan 17 balls), fastest 100 for Sri Lanka (against Pakistan 48 balls) and fastest 150 (against England in 95 balls) in ODI cricket. His fastest 50 stayed 19 years, where his half-century is regarded as the best because he achieved this feat in an era where no fielding restrictions and power plays are available. It took 19 years to surpass the fastest 50 with all limited over new restrictions and other fielding restrictions. However, he subsequently lost the fastest fifty to AB de Villiers. Jayasuriya is the only player of the ODI history to have scored two consecutive 150+ scores.
Jayasuriya's highest ODI score is 189 runs, scored against India in Sharjah in 2000. It remains the highest ODI score by a Sri Lankan, and at the time of the innings it was the third-highest in ODI history. Currently the score is 11th highest ODI score of all time and highest by a Sri Lankan.
Jayasuriya was the previous record-holder for the fastest century (off 48 balls), before losing that to Shahid Afridi's 37 ball century. This is cited as the first ever fastest century scored in less than 50 balls in world cricket. The record was then broken by Corey Anderson of New Zealand (36 balls), which is currently held by AB de Villiers of South Africa with 31 ball century. He has also held the world record for most ODI sixes (270 in 445 ODIs), which was surpassed by Shahid Afridi during the 2010 Asia Cup match against Bangladesh. He became the fourth batsman to score more than 10,000 runs and the second batsman to score more than 12,000, and 13,000 runs in the history of ODIs. He also has 28 centuries, the fourth-highest in ODIs. He held the record of scoring most runs in an ODI over (30; he has achieved this twice), and the first batsman to score over 30 in an over. This record is now held by South Africa's Herschelle Gibbs (36 runs in an over).
During the one-day Natwest series in May 2006 in England, he scored two centuries, including scoring 152 off 99 balls in the final match. In that innings, he and Upul Tharanga (109) put on 286 runs for the first wicket, a new record. Jayasuriya's batting display earned him the Man of the Series award as Sri Lanka whitewashed England for the first time in their home soil by winning the series 5–0.
Following the Natwest Trophy, Sri Lanka travelled to the Netherlands for a two-match one-day series. In the first game, Jayasuriya scored 157 off 104 balls as Sri Lanka posted 443/9, beating the 438/9 South Africa scored against Australia in March 2006. Sri Lanka won the match by 195 runs. On a personal note, the innings was his 4th score of over 150 and was also his second successive score of 150 plus, only player to achieve the feat in ODI history.
He also scored 2 centuries and 2 half-centuries in the 2007 Cricket World Cup held in the West Indies. In 2008, his one-day career was all but over when he was omitted for the ODIs in the West Indies. However, a stirring performance in the IPL—finishing the third-highest run-getter with 514 runs—prompted his country's sports minister to intervene in his selection for the Asia Cup. He ultimately shaped Sri Lanka's title victory with a blistering hundred under pressure. His international career has been revived at the age of 41, after being recalled to the One-day and Twenty-20 squads for Sri Lanka's 2011 tour of England and Scotland.
During 2008 Asia Cup, Jayasuriya scored a century against Bangladesh on his 39th birthday. With this century, he became the third cricketer out of four overall, to score an ODI century on a birthday. The two others before Jayasuriya to score the century were two Indians Vinod Kambli and Sachin Tendulkar. The last one to score a century on his birthday is blackcap Ross Taylor. His knock of 125 in the finals was voted as the Best ODI Batting Performance of 2008 by ESPNCricinfo.
Twenty20 career
During the 2007 ICC World Twenty20, Jayasuriya appeared to break his tradition of using Kookaburra bats by wielding a normal Reebok sponsored bat. He achieved two half-centuries in the group stages against New Zealand and Kenya in this tournament. He also shares a dubious record with James Anderson for having the most expensive figures in a Twenty20 international, having been hit for 64 runs in the maximum of 4 overs.
After the Twenty20 World Cup, Jayasuriya played in Sri Lanka's 3–2 One Day International series defeat against England, achieving limited success and then in the 2–0 Test series defeat in Australia. In December 2007, Jayasuriya confirmed that he has signed for Warwickshire for the Twenty20 Cup.
In April 2008, he joined the Mumbai Indians to play in the Indian Premier League T20.
After scoring a devastating 114 not out off just 48 balls for the Mumbai Indians against Chennai, Jayasuriya regained his position in the one-day side after he had been dropped for the West Indies tour. For his performances in 2008, he was named in the Cricinfo IPL XI. He then followed up his century with a 17-ball 48 not out to surpass the Kolkata Knight Riders' score of 67 in just the 6th over, resulting in the biggest victory in Twenty20 history in terms of balls remaining. In 2010 has signed with Worcestershire for their Twenty20 campaign. At the age of 42, Jayasuriya played for the Ruhuna Rhinos in the qualifying round of the 2011 Champions League. In February 2012 Jayasuriya played for the Khulna Royal Bengals in the inaugural Bangladesh Premier League, later that year he played for Kandurata Warriors in the inaugural Sri Lanka Premier League.
Captaincy and all-round performances
Jayasuriya was chosen as the Wisden Leading Cricketer in the World in 1996 and was named as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1997. He served as the captain of the Sri Lankan cricket team in 38 test matches and 117 one day internationals from 1999 to 2003. Jayasuriya led Sri Lanka to the knock-out stage of the 2003 cricket world cup but stepped down from the captaincy after the loss to Australia in the semi-final. He was also a very useful all-rounder with a good batting average in both Test cricket and One Day Internationals, and had an excellent batting strike rate in One Day Internationals.
As a left-arm orthodox spin bowler, he had a reasonable bowling average and an economy rate. He regularly helped to decrease the workloads of contemporary Sri Lankan strike bowlers Muttiah Muralitharan and Chaminda Vaas. At the end of his career, Jayasuriya took more than 400 wickets in international cricket with over 300 wickets in One Day Internationals. Jayasuriya was also a skillful infielder, with a report prepared by Cricinfo in late 2005 showing that since the 1999 Cricket World Cup, he had effected the seventh highest number of run-outs in ODI cricket of any fieldsman, with the eleventh highest success rate.
Selection committee
Jayasuriya was appointed as the chairman of selectors of national cricket team on 28 January 2013 by sports minister Mahindananda Aluthgamage. The selection panel included Jayasuriya, Pramodya Wickramasinghe, Eric Upashantha, Chaminda Mendis and Hemantha Wickramaratne. But on 30 January 2013, Wickramaratne has been replaced by Hashan Tillakaratne. In 2013, he came under immense pressure and scrutiny for selecting state minister Keheliya Rambukwella's son Ramith Rambukwella to the national team for a series against Bangladesh.
Under his selection, Sri Lanka won 2014 ICC World Twenty20, 2014 Asia Cup and Sri Lanka's first ever full series win in England in all three formats of the game Tests, ODIs and T20s. His tenure was ended in 2015, after many failures apart from those wins, such as whitewash against India and 2015 World Cup failure.
After Jayasuriya's quit, Aravinda de Silva has appointed as the Chairman of selectors. On 11 April 2016, Jayasuriya was appointed back again to the post of chairman of selectors. This time, under his selection, many players got test, ODI and T20I caps and the team shuffled so many times due to many injuries to major players. During this period, Sri Lanka lost world No. 1 rankings in T20Is, lost many bilateral tours to New Zealand, England, India, Pakistan, South Africa. Despite them, Sri Lanka lost their first bilateral ODI series to Zimbabwe at home, Bangladesh drawn all formats in Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka quit very early from both 2016 World Twenty20, and 2017 ICC Champions Trophy.
Through all those defeats and failures, Sri Lanka had a silver line, where they first marked a whitewash against Australia in Warne-Murali Trophy and Zimbabwe Tri-series. Many questions about the rapid changes occurred in the squads and the continuous failures of the team. With that, on 29 August 2017, Jayasuriya with his panel Ranjith Madurasinghe, Romesh Kaluwitharana, Asanka Gurusinha and Eric Upashantha resigned from the selection committee after heavy loss to India in both tests and ODIs.
Coaching career
After serving international ban from cricket, Sanath took up his first coaching stint with Mulgrave Cricket Club, a third tier Australian cricket club in Melbourne which plays in Victoria's Eastern Cricket Association. It was revealed that his former opening partner Tillekaratne Dilshan had convinced him to join the Mulgrave cricket team during when both featured together for Sri Lanka Legends team in the second half of the 2020–21 Road Safety World Series.
Controversies
In an autobiography published by former Sri Lankan cricketer and match referee Roshan Mahanama in 2001, he claimed that former Australian fast bowler Glenn McGrath racially abused Sanath Jayasuriya by calling him a "black monkey" during an ODI match between Sri Lanka and Australia in 1996.
In 2010, he signed contracts with two different clubs simultaneously to participate at the Cricket Association of Bengal league and ultimately both the teams had to withdraw his name and he was unable to take part in the competition for signing with two teams at the same time. Following this incident, Cricket Association of Bengal barred foreign players to participate in the competition.
In 2017, Jayasuriya was involved in a leaked sex tape of his ex-girlfriend Maleeka Sirisena . The clips went viral in social media and Maleeka slammed Sanath for his indecent behaviour. At the end of the video he can be heard exclaiming "juice is coming!" It was revealed that he dated Maleeka in 2012 despite being married to another woman Sandra De Silva. The extramarital affair triggered divorce with Sandra.
In November 2018, he was accused of trafficking rotten betel nuts from Indonesia to India. In March 2018, he criticised the behaviour of Bangladeshi cricketers during the crucial virtual semi final between Sri Lanka and Bangladesh at the 2018 Nidahas Trophy and degraded the Bangladesh team as a third class team in a tweet. He later deleted the tweet.
In October 2018, Jayasuriya was charged by the International Cricket Council with two counts of breaching its anti-corruption code. The accusations related to "failure or refusal to co-operate" with an ongoing ICC investigation into alleged match-fixing and "concealing, tampering with or destroying any documentation or other information that may be relevant". The investigation was reported to relate to Jayasuriya's time as Sri Lanka's chairman of selectors, between April 2016 to August 2017, and the fourth ODI between Sri Lanka and Zimbabwe in July 2017. In February 2019, Jayasuriya was banned for two years in taking part in any cricket-related activity by the International Cricket Council's (ICC) anti-corruption unit, after he failed to co-operate in a corruption investigation. However, he reportedly attended a group stage match between Sri Lanka and India during the 2019 Cricket World Cup and watched the match in the pavilion despite serving a ban. ICC later pointed out that he could still watch matches in the pavilion as a casual fan and barred him from entering teams dressing rooms. His international ban was lifted by the ICC in November 2020 and was once again eligible to involve with cricket.
In May 2019, fake reports circulated in social media that Sanath had died due to a car accident in Canada and the reports also shocked Indian cricketer Ravichandran Ashwin. However, Sanath himself denied such reports and insisted that he is fine and has not visited Canada in recent times.
Personal life
Sanath is the first cricketer to be appointed as a UN Goodwill Ambassador (by UNAIDS, Geneva) for his commitment to the prevention of HIV/AIDS among young people in Sri Lanka.
He entered politics in February 2010 as a candidate for Matara District. His party is the United People's Freedom Alliance (UPFA) of the president Mahinda Rajapaksa. Jayasuriya continued to play cricket after he has secured the most preferential votes from the Matara District by obtaining 74,352 votes.
In October 2013, he was appointed as deputy minister of Postal services in the UPFA government.
When interviewed by Charles Colville in 2003, he claimed "actually we were on holiday" and found this very funny.
He resigned from Chief Selector post with his members on 3 April 2015.
On 10 June 2015, Jayasuriya with three other UPFA Parliamentarians took oaths from President Maithripala Sirisena as new deputy ministers. Jayasuriya was appointed as Deputy Minister of Local Government and Rural Development. He was in office until the Parliament dissolved on 26 June 2015. in the 2015 election Jayasuriya did not run for office, but joined the campaign of the United National Party that won the election. He was later appointed the chairman of selectors of Sri Lanka cricket.
Knee Injury
In January 2018, reports confirmed that Jayasuriya was known to suffer with a serious knee injury. According to news, he was unable to walk without the help of crutches. He flew to Melbourne for the surgery and remained under observation for about a month.
Player statistics
Career performance
Centuries
Jayasuriya has scored 14 Test and 28 ODI centuries.
Although Jayasuriya made his Test debut in 1991, it was not until 1996 that he scored his first century, when he had become a regular player in the Sri Lankan side. His career high of 340 against India in August 1997 was the highest score by a Sri Lankan cricketer until 2006, and is also part of the highest team total (952/6) made in Test cricket. He has also scored two double centuries; 213 against England and 253 against Pakistan. His 157 against Zimbabwe in 2004 is the second fastest century by a Sri Lankan player. Jayasuriya, having scored centuries against every Test playing nation except New Zealand and West Indies, retired from Test cricket in 2007 with 14 to his name.
Jayasuriya made his ODI debut in 1989 and started playing as an opening batsman in 1993. He went on to score his first century in 1994 against New Zealand. From then on, Jayasuriya has scored the highest number of ODI centuries for Sri Lanka with 28 to his name. He currently holds the fourth place for most centuries in a career, behind Sachin Tendulkar (with 49 ODI centuries), Virat Kohli (41 ODI centuries), Ricky Ponting (30 centuries) and Rohit Sharma (29 centuries). His second century, 134 against Pakistan in 1996, was scored at a strike rate of 206.15 and was the fastest century in ODI cricket at the time. This record was later broken by Pakistani cricketer Shahid Afridi. The 189 he made against India in 2000 is the sixth-highest ODI score in a single innings. Making his second-highest ODI score of 157 against the Netherlands in 2006, Jayasuriya paved the way for Sri Lanka to set the world record for the highest ODI team total of 443/9. With his 107 against India on 28 January 2009, Jayasuriya—39 years and 212 days old at the time—became the oldest player to score a century, which was surpassed by UAE batsman Khurram Khan and also became the second player to score more than 13,000 runs in a career. Sanath Jayasuriya also holds the record of fourth fastest 150 in one day internationals. he made 152 vs England at Leeds on 1 July 2006, off just 99 balls which were the fastest at that time, and now after AB de Villiers 63 balls 150, Shane Watson 93 balls 150, and Luke Ronchi 95 balls 150.
Records and career achievements
Bold ones are World Records.
Sanath Jayasuriya has scored 19,298 runs as an opener in international cricket, the most by any opener in cricket history.
Sanath Jayasuriya is the only cricketer in the history to achieve the all rounder double of scoring 10,000 runs and taking 300 wickets in a single format.
He is the first cricketer in international cricket to score a century in less than 50 balls. He scored a One Day International century in just 48 balls against Pakistan in 1996.
Sanath Jayasuriya is the most successful left arm spinner in the history of One Day International cricket. In his career he took 323 wickets at an average of 36.75, including 12 four wicket hauls.
Jayasuriya holds the record for the highest ODI innings by a Sri Lankan. He scored 189 runs against India at Sharjah in 2000. That innings of Jayasuriya has accounted for 64% of runs in the Sri Lankan total (299) and 54% of runs in the entire match (353). Indians were all out for just 54 runs which resulted Jayasuriya out scoring the opposition team by 135 runs.
28 centuries scored by Sanath Jayasuriya is the most by a Sri Lankan in One Day Internationals. He also scored 14 test centuries including two double centuries and one triple century.
He holds the record for most runs scored in a two-match test series. He scored 571 runs against India in a two-match series in 1997.
Jayasuriya scored 340 runs in a test match against India at the Premadasa Stadium Colombo in 1997. It is the highest test score by a batsman against India and the second-highest test score by a Sri Lankan. It is also the seventh-highest test score by a batsman in test cricket. He batted for 799 minutes during this innings, which is currently the fourth-longest innings in terms of time in test cricket and the longest test innings played by a batsman in the Indian subcontinent.
Jaysuriya and Roshan Mahanama holds the record for highest partnership for 2nd wicket in test cricket. The pair scored 576 runs together against India in 1997, which was the first time a partnership of over 500 runs was recorded in test cricket. It is currently the second-highest partnership for any wicket in test cricket.
Jayasuriya is the first Sri Lankan cricketer and the second from the Indian subcontinent after Hanif Mohammad of Pakistan, to score a test triple century. He is also the first Sri Lankan to score a triple century in first class cricket.
At some point of his career Sanath Jayasuriya held the world records for the fastest 50, fastest 100 and fastest 150 in One Day International cricket.
He is also the only all-rounder to score over 1,000 runs and capture more than 25 wickets in Cricket World Cup history. In addition to that, he has taken 18 catches the second most for any out-fielder after Ricky Ponting of Australia in world cup matches.
Jayasuriya is the first cricketer to score over 10,000 ODI runs with a career strike rate over 90.
Among the 12 cricketers who have managed to score over 20 000 runs across formats in international cricket, Sanath Jayasuriya has the highest strike rate.
He is the first and only batsman in history to score two consecutive ODI scores above 150.
Jayasuriya has 58 Man of the Match awards in combined international cricket. The second most for any player after Sachin Tendulkar.
He is the only all-rounder in list A cricket history to achieve the double distinction of scoring over 15 000 runs and capturing over 400 wickets in his career.
As an all-rounder Jayasuriya scored 21,032 runs and captured 440 wickets in his combined international cricket career. He also took 205 catches as an outfielder.
At the time of his retirement, he held the records for the most runs scored by a Sri Lankan player in test and ODI cricket.
In his combined professional cricket career across First-class, List A and T20 formats, Jayasuriya scored 31,576 runs and captured 695 wickets. He also took 336 catches.
Awards
Jayasuriya has won many international awards in his 20-year cricketing career. He is second only to Sachin Tendulkar by the number of Man of the match awards for ODIs, where Tendulkar has 62 Man of the Match awards and Jayasuriya has 47 of them. He also has 11 ODI Man of the Series awards. Besides ODI awards, he has 4 Test Man of the Match awards and single Test Man of the Series awards. He has 5 T20I Man of the Match awards as well.
See also
List of international cricket centuries by Sanath Jayasuriya
List of One Day International cricket records
Notes
2. Jayasuriya's innings of 189 could have been considered the equal-second highest, matching Viv Richards' innings of 189 not out from 1984. However, Richards' innings is generally ranked above Jayasuriya's in lists because he was not out.
References
External links
Sri Lankan sportsperson-politicians
Sri Lanka One Day International cricketers
Sri Lanka Test cricketers
Sri Lanka Twenty20 International cricketers
Sri Lanka Test cricket captains
Wisden Cricketers of the Year
Wisden Leading Cricketers in the World
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ACC Asian XI One Day International cricketers
Cricketers at the 1992 Cricket World Cup
Cricketers at the 1996 Cricket World Cup
Cricketers at the 1999 Cricket World Cup
Cricketers at the 2003 Cricket World Cup
1969 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Matara, Sri Lanka
Cricketers from Southern Province, Sri Lanka
Basnahira North cricketers
Bloomfield Cricket and Athletic Club cricketers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szeged
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Szeged
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Szeged ( , ; see also other alternative names) is the third largest city of Hungary, the largest city and regional centre of the Southern Great Plain and the county seat of Csongrád-Csanád county. The University of Szeged is one of the most distinguished universities in Hungary.
The Szeged Open Air (Theatre) Festival (first held in 1931) is one of the main attractions, held every summer and celebrated as the Day of the City on 21 May.
Etymology
It is possible that the name Szeged is a mutated and truncated form of the final syllables of Partiscum, the name of a Roman colony founded in the 2nd century, on or near the site of modern Szeged. In Latin language contexts, has long been assumed to be synonymous with Szeged. The Latin name is also the basis of the city's Greek name Partiskon.
However, Szeged might instead have originated (or been influenced by) an old Hungarian word for "corner" (), pointing to the turn of the river Tisza that flows through the city. Others say it derives from the Hungarian word which means "island". Others still contend that means "dark blond" () – a reference to the color of the water where the rivers Tisza and Maros merge.
Szeged has a variety of names in languages other than Hungarian. These are usually formed by the addition of a suffix -in to the Hungarian name: Romanian ; German or ; Serbo-Croatian /; Italian ; Latvian ; Lithuanian ; Polish ; Slovak and Czech ; Turkish .
History
Szeged and its area have been inhabited since ancient times. Ptolemy mentions the oldest known name of the city: Partiscum (Ancient Greek: Πάρτισκον). It is possible that Attila, king of the Huns had his seat somewhere in this area. The name Szeged was first mentioned in 1183, in a document of King Béla III.
In the second century AD there was a Roman trading post established on an island in the Tisza, and the foundations of the Szeged castle suggest that the structure may have been built over an even earlier fort. Today only one corner of the castle still remains standing.
During the Mongol invasion the town was destroyed and its inhabitants fled to the nearby swamps, but they soon returned and rebuilt their town. In the 14th century, during the reign of Louis the Great, Szeged became the most important town of Southern Hungary, and – as the Turkish armies got closer to Hungary – the strategic importance of Szeged grew. King Sigismund of Luxembourg had a wall built around the town. Szeged was raised to free royal town status in 1498.
Szeged was first pillaged by the Ottoman Army on 28 September 1526, but was occupied only in 1543, and became an administrative centre of the Ottomans (see Ottoman Hungary). The town was a sanjak centre first in Budin Eyaleti (1543–1596), after in Eğri Eyaleti. The town was freed from Turkish rule on 23 October 1686, and regained the free royal town status in 1715. In 1719, Szeged received its coat of arms (still used today) from Charles III. During the next several years, Szeged grew and prospered. Piarist monks arrived in Szeged in 1719 and opened a new grammar school in 1721. Szeged also held scientific lectures and theatrical plays. These years brought not only prosperity but also enlightenment. Between 1728 and 1744 witch trials were frequent in the town, with the Szeged witch trials of 1728–29 perhaps being the largest. The witch trials were instigated by the authorities, who decided on this measure to remove the problem of the public complaints about the drought and its consequences of famine and epidemics by laying the responsibility on people among them, which had fraternized with the Devil. In 1720, the ethnic Hungarian population of the town numbered about 13000 to 16000, while the number of the Serb inhabitants was 1300.
Szeged is known as the home of paprika, a spice made from dried, powdered capsicum fruits. Paprika arrived in Hungary in the second half of the 16th century as an ornamental plant. About 100 years later the plant was cultivated as an herb, and paprika as we know it. Szeged is also famous for their szekelygulyas, a goulash made with pork, sauerkraut and sour cream. And also famous for their halászlé, fish soup made of carp and catfish.
The citizens of Szeged played an important part in the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. Lajos Kossuth delivered his famous speech here. Szeged was the last seat of the revolutionary government in July 1849. The Habsburg rulers punished the leaders of the town, but later Szeged began to prosper again; the railway reached it in 1854, and the town got its free royal town status back in 1860. Mark Pick's shop – the predecessor of today's Pick Salami Factory – was opened in 1869.
Today the inner city of Szeged has wide avenues. This is mainly due to the great flood of 1879, which wiped away the whole town (only 265 of the 5723 houses remained and 165 people died). Emperor Franz Joseph visited the town and promised that "Szeged will be more beautiful than it used to be". He kept his promise, and during the next years a new, modern city emerged from the ruins, with palaces and wide streets.
During the 20th century
After the First World War Hungary lost its southern territories to Serbia, as a result Szeged became a city close to the border, and its importance lessened, but as it took over roles that formerly belonged to the now lost cities, it slowly recovered. Following the Loss of Transylvania to Romania, University of Kolozsvár (now Cluj-Napoca), moved to Szeged in 1921 (see University of Szeged). In 1923 Szeged took over the role of episcopal seat from Temesvár (now Timișoara, Romania). It was briefly occupied by the Romanian army during Hungarian-Romanian War in 1919. It also became a center for right-wing forces which would install Miklós Horthy as the country's new leader after the overthrow of the Hungarian Soviet Republic. During the 1920s the Jewish population of Szeged grew and reached its zenith.
Szeged suffered heavily during World War II. 6,000 inhabitants of the city were killed, In 1941, there were 4,161 Jews living in Szeged. After, March 19, 1944 German occupation, they were confined to a ghetto together with the Jews from surrounding villages. In June, 1944, the ghetto was liquidated. The Nazis murdered the larger part of the 8,500 and some were forced into forced labor in Strasshof Labor camp, Austria. Szeged was captured by Soviet troops of the 2nd Ukrainian Front on 11 October 1944 in the course of the Battle of Debrecen. During the communist era, Szeged became a centre of light industry and food industry. In 1965, oil was found near the city.
In 1962, Szeged became the county seat of Csongrád. Whole new districts were built, and many nearby villages (e.g. Tápé, Szőreg, Kiskundorozsma, Szentmihálytelek, Gyálarét) were annexed to the city in 1973 (as was a tendency during the Communist era).
Today's Szeged is an important university town and a tourist attraction.
The Szeged Symphony Orchestra (Szegedi Szimfonikus Zenekar) gives regular concerts at the Szegedi Nemzeti Színház.
Geography
Szeged is situated near the southern border of Hungary, just to the south of the mouth of the Maros River, on both banks of the Tisza River, nearly in the centre of the Carpathian Basin. The Hungarian frontier with Serbia is just outside the town.
Climate
Szeged's climate is transitional between humid subtropical (Köppen Cfa) and humid continental (Köppen Dfa), with cold winters, hot summers, and fairly low precipitation. Due to the high hours of sunlight reported annually, Szeged is often called City of Sunshine (). On 23 July 2022, a maximum temperature of was registered in Szeged.
Education
The city of Szeged has 62 kindergartens, 32 elementary schools and 18 high schools. The two most prominent high schools (Ságvári Endre Gyakorló Gimnázium and Radnóti Miklós Kísérleti Gimnázium) are in the top fifteen in the country.
Szeged is the higher education centre of the Southern Great Plain and has built quite a reputation for itself. Thousands of students study here, many of whom are foreigners. The University of Szeged is according to the number of students the second largest and the 4th oldest university of Hungary being established in 1581. Ranked as the top university of the country on Academic Ranking of World Universities – 2005, and in the top 100 in Europe, it offers several programs on different fields of study.
The Biological Research Centre of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, which was built with the help of UNESCO funds, has also been a considerable source of advanced research. Scientists at this laboratory were first in the world to produce artificial heredity material in the year 2000. The building has served as a home to many well known conferences and continues to make contributions to the world of science.
The Szent-Györgyi Albert Agóra is a cultural scientific centre of Szeged which gives home to laboratories of the Biological Research Centre and to exhibitions of the John von Neumann Computer Society especially their IT historical exposition.
In 2018 the new scientific institution, the ELI Attosecond Light Pulse Source (ELI-ALPS) opened in Szeged establishing a unique facility which provides light sources within an extremely broad frequency range in the form of ultrashort pulses with high repetition rate which is needed for different kinds of physical experiments especially in the field of attosecond physics.
It is also one of the main options for medical students who come from all around Europe to study Medicine in their recognized international campus.
Demographics
Ethnic groups (2001 census):
Hungarians – 93.5%
Romani – 0.7%
Germans – 0.5%
Serbs – 0.2%
Romanians – 0.2%
Croats – 0.1%
Slovaks – 0.1%
No answer (unknown) – 4.7%
Religions (2001 census):
Roman Catholic – 54.5%
Calvinist – 6.7%
Lutheran – 1.6%
Greek Catholic – 0.6%
Others (Christian) – 1.3%
Others (non-Christian) – 0.4%
Atheist – 21.8%
No answer (unknown) – 13.1%
Economy
Szeged is one of the centres of food industry in Hungary, especially known for its paprika and companies like Pick Szeged, Sole-Mizo, Bonafarm etc. Other notable companies having their headquarters in Szeged are AMSY International, RRE – Szeged, Optiwella, Generál Printing House, RotaPack, Sanex Pro, Agroplanta, Karotin, Florin, Quadrotex and Szeplast.
Others, like ContiTech, Duna-Dráva Cement, Szatmári Malom and Europe Match, are not based in the city, but have production facilities there.
The Hangár Expo and Conference Centre provides space for international exhibitions and conferences.
Largest employers
Transport
Szeged is the most important transportation hub in the Southern Great Plain. Two motorways, M5 and M43, lie along the city border. Through the M5 Motorway Szeged is connected to Kecskemét, Kiskunfélegyháza and Budapest to the north and to Subotica, Novi Sad and Belgrade in Serbia to the south. The M43 Motorway – which splits from the M5 Motorway near Szeged – connects the city via Makó to Arad and Timișoara in Romania. In addition, there are other roads running from the city to Makó and Nagylak (main road 43), to Röszke (main road 5), to Kiskunfélegyháza (main road 5), to Ásotthalom and Baja (main road 55) and to Hódmezővásárhely, Orosháza and Békéscsaba (main road 47).
The Budapest-Szeged-rail line is an important rail connection, as well as the railway lines 121 (to Makó), 135 (to Hódmezővásárhely), 136 (to Röszke) and 140 (to Kiskunfélegyháza).
A tram-train system was constructed and inaugurated in November 2021, connecting Szeged with the neighbouring Hódmezővásárhely, thus creating the second most populous urban agglomeration in the country, after the capital. There was a proposal for its extension, even through the Serbian border, to Subotica.
The city is also a common stop for national and international long-distance buses.
Motorways
M5
M43
Railways
121 (to Makó)
135 (to Hódmezővásárhely)
136 (to Röszke)
140 (to Kiskunfélegyháza).
Airport
Szeged Airport is the international airport of Szeged.
Public transport
As of May 2018 Szeged had 39 local bus lines – 15 in the city centre and 24 in the suburbs. There are also 5 tram lines.
Sport
The most popular sport in the city is handball. The city has one well-known club the 2013–14 EHF Cup-winner SC Pick Szeged playing in the Nemzeti Bajnokság I.
The second most popular sport is football in the city. Szeged had several clubs playing in the top level Hungarian league, the Nemzeti Bajnokság I. These are Szegedi AK, Szegedi Honvéd SE. The only currently operating club, Szeged 2011 play in the Nemzeti Bajnokság II.
Association football clubs
Szeged 2011, currently competing in the 2018–19 Nemzeti Bajnokság III
Szegedi Egységes Oktatási Labdarúgó SC, currently competing in the 2018–19 Nemzeti Bajnokság III
Szegedi VSE, currently competing in the Csongrád county championship
Szegedi EAC, defunct
Szegedi AK, defunct
Szegedi Honvéd SE, defunct
Main sights
Politics
The current mayor of Szeged is László Botka (Association for Szeged).
The local Municipal Assembly, elected at the 2019 local government elections, is made up of 33 members (1 Mayor, 23 Individual constituencies MEPs and 9 Compensation List MEPs) divided into this political parties and alliances:
List of mayors
List of City Mayors from 1990:
Media
The city offers a wide range of media – television and radio stations, and print and online newspapers.
TV stations
Szeged TV
Tarjáni Kábeltévé Stúdió
TiszapART TV
Telin Televízió
Radio stations
"Rádió 88" FM 95,4 MHz
All in Party Radio
Rádió Mi, 89,9 MHz
Lánchíd Rádió, FM 100,2 MHz
MR1 Kossuth Rádió, FM 90,3 MHz
MR2 Petőfi Rádió, 104,6 MHz
MR3 Bartók Rádió, 105,7 MHz
Dankó Rádió, 93,1 MHz
Rádió1, 87,9 MHz
Daily newspapers and news portals
Délmagyarország ()
Notable people
Born in Szeged
Adrián Annus (1975), hammer thrower
Gábor Agárdy (1922–2006), actor
Béla Balázs (1884–1949), writer, poet, film critic
Zsolt Becsey (1964), politician
Joseph Csaky (1888–1971) sculptor
Krisztián Cser (1977) opera singer, physicist
Attila Czene (1974), Olympic champion medley swimmer
János Csonka (1852–1939), engineer, co-inventor of the carburetor
Mihály Erdélyi (1895–1979), operetta composer
Sophie Evans (1976), adult movie star
Ivan Fellegi (1935), Chief Statistician of Canada
Rajmund Fodor (1976), Olympic champion water polo player
Jenő Huszka (1875–1960), composer
Éva Janikovszky (1926–2003), writer
Ferenc Joachim (1882–1964), painter
Gyula Juhász (1883–1937), poet
Esther Jungreis, Orthodox Jewish outreach speaker
Judith Karasz (1912–1977), photographer and Bauhaus graduate
Györgyi Lang (1957–2023) actress and singer, member of the Hungarian music duo Pa-Dö-Dő.
(1857?), architect
Géza Maróczy (1870–1951), chess grand master
Anita Márton (1989), shot putter
Tamás Molnár (1975), Olympic champion water polo player
Nickolas Muray (born Miklós Mandl; 1892–1965), Hungarian-born American photographer and Olympic fencer
Róbert Nagy (1967), speedway rider
László Paskai (1927–2015), Archbishop of Esztergom
Szilvia Peter Szabo (1982), singer
Willy Pogany (1882–1955), illustrator
György Sebők (1922–1999), pianist
Julius Stahel (1825–1912), American Civil War general and diplomat
Hanna Tetteh (1967), Foreign minister of the Republic of Ghana
(1983), singer
Attila Vajda (1983), Olympic champion canoer
Vilmos Zsigmond (1930), cinematographer
Lived in Szeged
Mihály Babits poet, writer
Lipót Fejér mathematician
Ferenc Fricsay conductor
Alfréd Haar mathematician
Attila József poet
László Kalmár mathematician
Katalin Karikó Nobel prize winner biochemist
Dezső Kosztolányi poet, novelist
Peter Leko chess grandmaster
Immanuel Löw rabbi, Judaic scholar, politician
Leopold Löw rabbi, historian and Judaic scholar
Kálmán Mikszáth writer
Ferenc Móra writer, archaeologist
Miklós Radnóti poet
Frigyes Riesz mathematician
Albert Szent-Györgyi Nobel prize winner chemist and biologist
Béla Szőkefalvi-Nagy mathematician
Philip Wodianer communal worker
Adele Zay (1848–1928), teacher and feminist
Twin towns – sister cities
Szeged is twinned with:
Cambridge, England, United Kingdom (1987)
Darmstadt, Germany (1990)
Kotor, Montenegro (2001)
Larnaca, Cyprus (1994)
Liège, Belgium (2001)
Łódź, Poland (2004)
Nice, France (1969)
Odesa, Ukraine (1957)
Parma, Italy (1988)
Pula, Croatia (2003)
Rakhiv, Ukraine (1939, renewed 1997)
Subotica, Serbia (1966, renewed 2004)
Târgu Mureș, Romania (1997)
Timișoara, Romania (1998)
Toledo, United States (1990)
Turku, Finland (1971)
Weinan, China (1999)
Gallery
See also
Public transport in Szeged
Szeged Symphony Orchestra
National Theatre of Szeged
Notes
References
External links
Official site with webcam
County seats in Hungary
Cities with county rights of Hungary
Populated places in Csongrád-Csanád County
Roman settlements in Hungary
Serb communities in Hungary
Tourism in Hungary
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas%20Baudin
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Nicolas Baudin
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Nicolas Thomas Baudin (; 17 February 175416 September 1803) was a French explorer, cartographer, naturalist and hydrographer, most notable for his explorations in Australia and the southern Pacific. He carried a few corms of Gros Michel banana from Southeast Asia, depositing them at a botanical garden on the Caribbean island of Martinique.
Biography
Early career
Born a commoner in Saint-Martin-de-Ré on the Île de Ré on 17 February 1754, Nicolas Baudin joined the merchant navy as an apprentice (pilotin) at the age of 15; he was then "of average height with brown hair". He then joined the French East India Company at the age of 20 on Flamand. He returned from India on L'Étoile and arrived at Lorient.
At the beginning of 1778, he was to set sail from Nantes on Lion as second lieutenant. It was a ship equipped by his uncle, Jean Peltier Dudoyer, at the request of the Americans, which would become a privateer and be renamed Deane. At first the Minister for the Navy was against it, but he finally changed his mind and authorised the departure, as France had signed a treaty with the United States on 6 February. Since the atmosphere between the French and American crews on Lion became unbearable, Baudin was assigned by Lamotte-Picquet to Duc de Choiseul, a ship equipped by Jean Peltier Dudoyer. Officially it was heading for Saint-Domingue, but in fact the destination was Nova Scotia. However the vessel was shipwrecked at Liverpool, Nova Scotia.
Baudin was wounded, taken prisoner by the British on 24 April 1778 and interned in Halifax, Canada. After one month, he escaped with 10 other prisoners and hid among the friendly communities of Acadia. Appointed captain of the transport vessel Amphitrite, he was sunk by the English 60 leagues out to sea, rescued in a rowing boat and made his way to Cape Cod and then Boston. As captain of Revanche, 400 tons, equipped by Jeange and sons of Bordeaux, with 30 men and 12 cannon, he was retaken by the English outside Cap-Français, heading for Boston. He was taken to Jamaica as a prisoner, then exchanged at the request of the Comte d'Argout, the Governor of Saint-Domingue. He returned to France on board the frigate Minerve, under the command of Captain de Grimouard, who was later guillotined at Rochefort under the Convention.
Back in France, he was appointed captain at the admiralty of La Rochelle on 2 March 1780 and was to sail in merchant ships. At the age of 27 he was named captain of Apollon, a civilian frigate of 1,100 tons and 42 cannon, fitted out by Jean Peltier Dudoyer. He was to form part of the convoy which took the Legion of Luxembourg to strengthen the defence of the Dutch Cape Colony at the Cape of Good Hope. However, during a stopover in Brest, the Comte d'Hector decided he would appoint a man with more experience, Felix de Saint-Hilaire. Having returned to Nantes, and to the annoyance of Beaumarchais, the owner of the vessel, Baudin's uncle entrusted him with the command of Aimable Eugenie, a ship of 600 tons, to go to Saint-Domingue and then to the US. He went back to Bordeaux and left the Gironde on 12 December 1782. He was part of a convoy of five merchant vessels attacked by an English ship, Mediator. After a hard battle, Baudin escaped, but the two other ships owned by Beaumarchais were captured.
Reaching Saint-Domingue, the boat sank on 23 March 1783 at Puerto Plata, but the freight was saved. He negotiated for it and set off once again for Nantes on 23 April on Prince Royal, which he had bought on the spot. On 30 August he resold the boat, which in the meantime had become Union des 6 Frères, to Robert Pitot, a shipbuilder from the Isle de France who had just been freed from an English prison, and established himself as a trader in Bordeaux. The insurance company reimbursed Beaumarchais through his shipbuilder Peltier Dudoyer.
On 16 April 1784, Baudin left once more for Saint-Domingue on Comte d'Angevillier , 1,000 tons with eight cannon, and built by Jean Peltier. He was still accompanied by his brother Alexandre Baudin as first mate. They were now 29 and 27 years old. Baudin had a 25% stake in the voyage and they returned to Nantes on 8 December 1784.
On 21 April 1785, he wrote to Benjamin Franklin requesting a recommendation to be accepted as a member of the Society of the Cincinnati. He signed his letter 'Commander of the private frigate Comte d'Angevilliers, Maison Peltier du Doyer quai de l'hôpital'.
On 22 July 1785, the Baudin brothers bought Caroline, a ship of 200 tons, built by the Thébaudière brothers. He was to take the last Acadians to Louisiana. He was a few months behind his brother Alexandre who was captain of Saint Remy, built by Jean Peltier Dudoyer. In La Nouvelle Orléans local merchants contracted him to take a cargo of wood, salted meat, cod and flour to Isle de France (now Mauritius), which he did in Josephine (also called Pepita), departing New Orleans on 14 July 1786 and arriving at Isle de France on 27 March 1787.
In the course of the voyage, Josephine had called at Cap‑Français in Haiti to make a contract to transport slaves there from Madagascar; while in Haiti he also encountered the Austrian botanist Franz Josef Maerter, who apparently informed him that another Austrian botanist, Franz Boos, was at the Cape of Good Hope awaiting a ship to take him to Mauritius. Josephine called at the Cape and took Boos on board. At Mauritius, Boos chartered Baudin to transport him and the collection of plant specimens he had gathered there and at the Cape back to Europe, which Baudin did, with Josephine arriving at Trieste on 18 June 1788. The Imperial government in Vienna was contemplating organizing another natural-history expedition, to which Boos would be appointed, in which two ships would be sent to the Malabar and Coromandel coasts of India, the Persian Gulf, Bengal, Ceylon, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Cochin China, Tongking, Japan, and China. Baudin had been given reason to hope that he would be given command of the ships of this expedition.
Austrian expeditions
Later in 1788, Baudin sailed on a commercial voyage from Trieste to Canton in Jardinière. He apparently arrived at Canton from Mauritius under the flag of the US, probably to avoid the possibility of having his ship seized by the Chinese for payment of the debts owed them by the Imperial Asiatic Company of Trieste. From there, he sent Jardinière under her second captain on a fur-trading venture to the north-west coast of America, but the ship foundered off Asuncion Island in the Northern Marianas Islands in late 1789.
Baudin made his way to Mauritius, where he purchased a replacement ship, Jardinière II, but this vessel was wrecked in a cyclone that struck Port Louis on 15 December 1789. Baudin embarked on the Spanish Royal Philippines Company ship, Placeres, which sailed from Port Louis for Cadiz in August 1790. Placeres called at the Cape of Good Hope where it took on board the large number of plant and animal specimens collected in South Africa for the Imperial palace at Schönbrunn by Georg Scholl, the assistant of Franz Boos. Because of the poor condition of the ship, Placeres had to put in at the island of Trinidad in the West Indies, where Scholl's collection of specimens was deposited.
Baudin proceeded to Martinique, from where he addressed an offer to the Imperial government in Vienna to conduct to Canton commissioners who would be empowered to negotiate with the Chinese merchants there a settlement of the debts incurred by the Imperial Asiatic Company, which would enable the company to renew its trade with China. On its return voyage from Canton, the proposed expedition would call at the Cape of Good Hope to pick up Scholl and the remainder of his natural-history collection for conveyance to Schönbrunn.
After returning to Vienna in September 1791, Baudin continued to press his case for an expedition under the Imperial flag to the Indian Ocean and China, and in January 1792 he was granted a commission of captain in the Imperial navy for this purpose. A ship, called Jardinière, was acquired and the botanists Franz Bredemeyer and Joseph van der Schot appointed to the expedition. After delays caused by the outbreak of war between France and Austria (April 1792), Jardinière departed from the Spanish port of Málaga on 1 October 1792. From the Cape of Good Hope Jardinière sailed across the Indian Ocean to the coast of New Holland (Australia), but two consecutive cyclones prevented the expedition from doing any work there and forced Baudin to take the ship to Bombay for repairs.
From Bombay the expedition proceeded to the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea and the east coast of Africa, where it gathered botanical and zoological collections. The expedition came to an abrupt end in June 1794 when Jardinière went aground in a storm while attempting to enter Table Bay at the Cape of Good Hope. Baudin survived the wreck and made his way to the US, from where he went to France. As the Cape had been occupied by the English in June 1795, Baudin went back to New England. On 23 November 1795, he set sail from New York as a passenger on board the American ship, Ocean, under the command of Captain Vredemburgh and also accompanied by General de Rochambeau, the Governor of Saint Lucia, the French Consul in Boston and a colonial trader from Saint-Domingue, Jean Baptiste Rivière de la Souchère (known as Souchère-Rivière). They arrived in Le Havre on 21 December 1795. Baudin believed that he was expected and offered his services and his talents. He wrote to the Minister to give notice of his imminent arrival in Paris. He would have been somewhat disappointed had he seen the little note at the top of the letter 'Could Bonneville please tell me if he knows Captain Baudin and for which mission he was responsible?' He managed to send Jardinières cargo of natural history specimens to the island of Trinidad.
Belle Angélique Expedition
In Paris, Baudin visited Antoine de Jussieu at the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris in March 1796 to suggest a botanical voyage to the Caribbean, during which he would recover the collection of specimens he had left in Trinidad. The museum and the French government accepted the proposal, and Baudin was appointed commander of an expedition in Belle Angélique, with four assigned botanists: René Maugé, André Pierre Ledru, Anselme Riedlé and Stanislas Levillain. Belle Angélique cleared Le Havre on 30 September 1796 for the Canary Islands, where the ship was condemned as unseaworthy. The expedition sailed from the Canaries in a replacement vessel, Fanny, and reached Trinidad in April 1797. The British, who had just captured the island from the Spanish in February 1797, refused to allow Baudin to recover the collection of natural-history specimens. Baudin took Fanny to St. Thomas and St. Croix, and then to Puerto Rico, specimens being collected in all three islands. At St Croix, Fanny was replaced by a newly purchased ship, renamed Belle Angelique. The expedition returned to France in June 1798 with a large collection of plants, birds and insects, which was incorporated into Bonaparte's triumphal procession, on 27 July, celebrating his recent Italian victories. On the recommendation of the Naval Minister to the Directory, Baudin was reinstated into the navy with the rank of Chief of Staff to Admiral Bruix, who at his request, granted to Marie-Etienne Peltier the command of a corsair, the Virginie. Baudin joined Bruix on Océan, on which Bruix was in charge of the squadron which resupplied Genoa.
New Holland Expedition
On 24 July 1798, at the suggestion of the Ministry of Marine, Baudin presented to the Assembly of Professors and Administrators of the National Museum of Natural History a plan for a hydrographic-survey expedition to the South Seas, which would include a search for fauna and flora that could be brought back for cultivation in France. The expedition would also have the aim of promoting the economic and commercial interests of France in the regions to be visited. The expedition would require two well-equipped ships, which would carry a team of astronomers, naturalists and scientific draughtsmen over whom Baudin as commander would have absolute authority. The first part of the voyage would be devoted to a thorough exploration of the coast of Chile and the collection of animal, bird and plant specimens suitable for acclimatization in France, followed by a survey of the coasts from Peru to Mexico. The expedition would then continue into the Pacific Ocean, including a visit to Tahiti and the Society Islands, and would be completed with a survey of the yet unexplored south-west coast of New Holland (Australia). After considering this extensive proposal, the French government decided to proceed with an expedition confined to a survey of western and southern New Holland.
In October 1800, Baudin was selected by Bonaparte to lead what has become known as the Baudin expedition to map the coast of New Holland. He had two ships, and captained by Hamelin, and a suite of nine zoologists and botanists, including Jean Baptiste Leschenault de la Tour. Baudin left Le Havre on 19 October 1800, stopped off in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, then sailed straight to the Ile de France arriving on 15 March 1801, 145 days later. The voyage, overlong with early rationing left sailors and scientists feeling discouraged, but the colony was happy to build up the crews in case of conflict and to make use of the new skills they brought with them. He reached Australia in May 1801, and would explore and map the western coast and a part of the little-known southern coast of the continent. The scientific expedition proved a great success, with more than 2,500 new species discovered. The French also met Aboriginal peoples and treated them with great respect.
In April 1802, Baudin met Matthew Flinders, also engaged in charting the coastline, in Encounter Bay in present-day South Australia. Baudin then stopped at the British colony at Sydney for supplies, and from there he sent home Naturaliste, carrying all of the specimens that had been collected by both ships up to that time. According to recent research by academics from the University of Adelaide, during Baudin's expedition, François Péron, who had become the chief zoologist and intellectual leader of the mission, wrote a report for Bonaparte on ways to invade and capture the colony.
Realising that Géographe could not venture into some of the shallow waters along the Australian coast that he was intending to survey, he bought a new ship, , named after the wood it was made from, and placed it under the command of Louis de Freycinet, who would 15 years later make his own circumnavigation of the world in the corvette l'Uranie. He then headed back to Tasmania, before continuing along the southern and western coasts of Australia to Timor, mapping as he went. In very poor health, he then turned for home.
Death
Baudin died of tuberculosis at Mauritius on 16 September 1803, at the age of 49, apparently in the home of Madame Alexandrine Kerivel. Baudin's exact resting place is not known, but the historian Auguste Toussaint believed that he was interred in the Kerivel family vault. However, the historian Edward Duyker likes to think that Baudin was buried in Le Cimetière de l’Ouest in the district of Port Louis, "just a few hundred metres from the explorer’s certain love: the sea".
These were his last wishes:"He gives and bequeaths to citizen Augustin Baudin, his brother, currently in India, his silver marine watch, his night telescope and an 'Oriental Neptune'. He gives and bequeaths to Citizen Ronsin, wife of Citizen Louis Peltier, his porcelain from Saxony and Chantilly, consisting of three services, one of twelve cups, one of six and one of two pieces plus his gold watch. He names as the Executor of his will Citizen Louis Peltier (brother of Jean Peltier Dudoyer), Judge of the Court of Appeal of this colony, to whom he entrusts the execution of the present document wishing and expecting that his goods be distrained in accordance with usual custom."
Legacy
Places and monuments
A number of monuments have been established around Australia, including eight at various locations around Western Australia.
In Western Australia, there are many places that bear names from the French ships, sponsors and crew of Baudin's 1801–04 voyage and Louis de Freycinet's voyage in 1802–3, including:
Cape Peron
Cape Naturaliste
Cape Freycinet
D'Entrecasteaux National Park
Cape Le Grand National Park
Carnac Island
Geographe Bay
Geographe (Busselton suburb)
Vasse (Busselton suburb)
Vasse River
Leschenault (Bunbury suburb)
Esperance
Hamelin Bay
In South Australia, the following places bear Baudin's name:
Baudin Beach on Kangaroo Island
Baudin Rocks on the south-east coast of the state
Nicolas Baudin Island, on the west coast of Eyre Peninsula
Animals
Six animals are named in his honour:
Calyptorhynchus baudinii – Baudin's black cockatoo
Smilisca baudinii – common Mexican tree frog (Hylidae)
Emoia baudini – Baudin's emo skink (Scincidae)
Pseudemoia baudini – Bight Coast skink (Scincidae)
Zanclea baudini – a jellyfish (Zancleidae)
Baudin pig – a once feral landrace on Kangaroo Island
Film award
The Nicholas Baudin Award, or Nicholas Baudin Prize, is awarded at the Antipodean Film Festival in Saint Tropez, France, each year.
See also
Baudin expedition to Australia
European and American voyages of scientific exploration
Freycinet Map of 1811
Notes
References
Further reading
Nicolas Baudin, Voyage aux Antilles de La Belle Angélique, édition établie et commentée par Michel Jangoux, préface du contre-amiral Georges Prud'homme, Paris, PUPS, coll. « Imago mundi-Textes », 2009.
Beck, Hanno. "Das Ziel der grossen Reise Alexander von Humboldts" (The Aim of Alexander von Humboldt's Great Expedition), Erdkunde, Bd. 12, H. 1 (Feb. 1958), pp. 42–50.
BERENGER, Jean. 'Joseph II et les Sciences naturelles', in Portés par l'air du temps: les voyages du Capitaine Baudin: Etudes sur le 18e siècle, vol.38, Bruxelles, Editions de l'Université de Bruxelles, 2010.
Bonnemains, J., Forsyth, E. and Smith, B. Baudin in Australian Waters: The Artwork of the French Voyage of Discovery to the Southern Lands 1800–1804 With a Descriptive Catalogue of Drawings and Paintings of Australian Subjects by C. –A. Lesueur and N.-M. Petit from the Lesueur Collection at the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, Le Havre, France Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1988.
Bonnemains, J., Argentin, J.-M. and Marin, M. (eds) Mon voyage aux Terres Australes: Journal personnel du commandant Baudin, Éditions Imprimerie Nationale, Paris, 2000.
Bouvier, R. & Maynial, E. Une Aventure dans les Mers Australes: L’Expédition du Commandant Baudin (1800–1803), Mercure de France, Paris, 1947.
Brown, A. J. Ill-starred Captains: Flinders and Baudin, Crawford House, Adelaide, 2000.
Cornel, C. (trans.) The Journal of Post Captain Nicolas Baudin, Adelaide, 1974.
De la Gironière, Muriel Proust. Nicolas Baudin, marin et explorateur ou le mirage de l'Australie: service historique de la Marine. Ministère de la défense, [Paris, France], 2001.
Duyker, E. In Search of Madame Kerivel and Baudin’s Last Resting Place, National Library of Australia News, vol. IX, no. 12, September 1999, pp. 8–10.
Duyker, E. François Péron: An Impetuous Life: Naturalist and Voyager, Miegunyah/Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 2006, .
Jean Fornasiero, Lindl Lawton and John West-Sooby, The art of science: Nicolas Baudin's voyagers 1800–1804. Wakefield Press, Kent Town, South Australia, 2016.
Jean Fornasiero, Peter Monteath and John West-Sooby, Encountering Terra Australis: the Australian voyages of Nicholas Baudin and Matthew Flinders, Kent Town, South Australia, Wakefield Press, 2004. .
Jean Fornasiero and John West-Sooby, "Naming and shaming: the Baudin expedition and the politics of nomenclature in the Terres Australes", in Anne M. Scott, Alfred Hiatt, Claire McIlroy and Christopher Wortham (eds.), European Perceptions of Terra Australis, Farnham, Ashgate, 2012, pp. 165–184.
Horner, F. The French Reconnaissance: Baudin in Australia 1801–1803, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 1987 .
Jangoux, Michel. Portés par l'air du temps: les voyages du Capitaine Baudin, Bruxelles, Editions de l'Université de Bruxelles, 2010.
Jangoux, Michel. 'Le voyage de la Belle Angélique : l’expédition aux Antilles de Nicolas Baudin (1796–1798)’ in Portés par l'air du temps: les voyages du Capitaine Baudin: Etudes sur le 18e siècle, vol.38, Bruxelles, Editions de l'Université de Bruxelles, 2010.
Jose, Arthur W., Nicolas Baudin. 1934.
R. Kingston, A not so Pacific voyage: the 'floating laboratory' of Nicolas Baudin, Endeavour, vol. XXXI, no. 4, December 2007, pp. 145–151.
Ly-Tio-Fane, Madeleine. "A reconnaissance of tropical resources during Revolutionary years: the role of the Paris Museum d'Histoire Naturelle", Archives of Natural History, vol.18, 1991, pp. 333–362.
Ly-Tio-Fane, Madeleine (1996). "Botanic gardens: connecting links in plant transfer between the Indo-Pacific and Caribbean regions", Harvard Papers in Botany, 8: 7–14.
Ly-Tio-Fane, Madeleine, Le Géographe et Le Naturaliste à L’Ile-de-France 1801, 1803, Ultime Escale du Captaine Baudin: Deuxième Partie, Le Voyage de Découvertes aux Terres australes, Collection Lesueur du Muséum d’histoire naturelle du Havre, Dossier 15: Catalogue établi Jacqueline Bonnemains commenté par Madeleine Ly-Tio-fane, MSM Limited, Port Louis [Mauritius], 2003.
Reynolds, Steve. Nicolas Baudin's Scientific Expedition to the Terres Australes, Marine Life Society of South Australia Inc.
Plomley, B. The Baudin Expedition and the Tasmanian Aborigines 1802, Blubber Head Press, Hobart, 1983
Rivas, Michèle. « Un navigateur-naturaliste d'origine poitevine célèbre en Australie, méconnu dans sa patrie: Nicolas Baudin (1754–1803)», Revue Historique du Centre-Ouest (Poitiers), tome V, 1er semestre 2006 pp. 73–112.
RIVAS, Michèle. 'Nicolas Baudin, M de Beaumarchais et la guerre d’indépendance des Etats-Unis d’Amérique', in Portés par l'air du temps: les voyages du Capitaine Baudin: Etudes sur le 18e siècle, vol.38, Bruxelles, Editions de l'Université de Bruxelles, 2010.
Starbuck, Nicole. Baudin, Napoleon and the Exploration of Australia, Routledge (London and New York), 2013.
de Langlais, Tugdual, Marie-Etienne Peltier, Capitaine corsaire de la République, Éd. Coiffard, 2017, 240 p. ().
Toft, Klaus. The Navigators – Flinders vs Baudin, Sydney, Duffy and Snellgrove, 2002.
1754 births
1803 deaths
Circumnavigators of the globe
19th-century deaths from tuberculosis
French explorers
Explorers of Australia
Explorers of Western Australia
Explorers of South Australia
French Navy officers
French sailors
French naturalists
Tuberculosis deaths in the French colonial empire
Maritime exploration of Australia
Articles containing video clips
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-operative%20Party
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Co-operative Party
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The Co-operative Party () is a centre-left political party in the United Kingdom, supporting co-operative values and principles. Established in 1917, the Co-operative Party was founded by co-operative societies to campaign politically for the fairer treatment of co-operative enterprise and to elect 'co-operators' to Parliament. The party's roots lie in the Parliamentary Committee of the Co-operative Union established in 1881.
Since 1927, the Co-operative Party has had an electoral pact with the Labour Party, with the parties agreeing not to stand candidates against each other. Candidates selected by members of both parties contest elections using the description of Labour and Co-operative Party. The Co-operative Party is a legally separate entity from the Labour Party, and is registered as a political party with the Electoral Commission. Co-operative Party members are not permitted to be members of any other political party in the UK apart from the Labour Party or Northern Ireland's Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP).
The Co-operative Party is de jure the fourth-largest party in the House of Commons with 25 Members of Parliament; however, as all of its MPs sit in the Parliamentary Labour Party, this distinction is seldom made. It also has representatives in the House of Lords, the Scottish Parliament, the Senedd, the London Assembly and local government.
In keeping with its co-operative values and principles, the Co-operative Party does not have a leader. Instead Joe Fortune serves as General Secretary, Preet Kaur Gill serves as Chair of the Co-operative Party Parliamentary Group, and Jim McMahon as Chair of the National Executive Committee.
History
The Co-operative Party was formed in 1917 after being approved by the May Congress of the British co-operative movement held in Swansea. Since an electoral pact established in 1927, the party has stood joint candidates with the Labour Party. In 1938, a written constitution was adopted by the Co-operative Party which formalised links between the two parties; further, in 1946, Co-operative candidates first stood in elections under the Labour Co-operative banner.
In its formative years, the Co-operative Party was almost exclusively concerned with the trading and commercial problems of the co-operative movement. Since the 1930s, it has widened its emphasis, using influence gained through strong links with the political and commercial left to spread what it sees as co-operative ethos and moral principles. The basic principles underpinning the party are to seek recognition for co-operative enterprises, recognition for the social economy, and to advance support for co-operatives and co-operation across Europe and the developing world. The party stands for a sustainable economy and society, a culture of citizenship and socially responsible business represented by the practice of retail and industrial co-operatives. The Co-operative Party seeks to advance its agenda through the Parliamentary Labour Party, with whom it shares common values.
Joint Parliamentary Committee
The Joint Parliamentary Committee was set up in 1881 by The Co-operative Union. It was primarily a watchdog on parliamentary activities. Issues and legislation could be raised in the House of Commons only by lobbying sympathetic – usually Labour – MPs. As it was somewhat unsatisfactory to have to lobby MPs on each individual issue, motions were passed at the Co-operative Union Annual Congress urging direct parliamentary representation. However, for much of this early period societies would not commit funds.
First World War and early years
At the start of the war, the many retail societies in the co-operative movement grew in both membership and trade; this was due, in part, because of their very public anti-profiteering stance. When conscription was introduced and food and fuel supplies restricted, these societies began to suffer. The movement was under-represented on the various governmental distribution committees and tribunals. Co-operatives received minimal supplies and even management were often drafted, whereas business opponents were able to have even clerks declared vital for the war effort. Societies were also required to pay excess profits tax, although their co-operative nature meant they made no profits.
A motion was tabled at the 1917 Congress held in Swansea by the Joint Parliamentary Committee and 104 retail societies, calling for direct representation at national and local government levels. The motion was passed by 1979 votes to 201.
At first, Co-operative Party candidates still stood separately from Labour in local elections. The Co-op Party’s Congress Reports listed the local authority candidates and their successes, listing them as (a) Co-operative, (b) Co-operative-Labour, or (c) Labour. Before 1946, there was no requirement that Co-operative Party candidates had also to be members of the Labour Party.
The Co-op Party presented itself as the representative of the members of its affiliated Co-operative Societies. Hence the Party claimed more than 11 million members in each of the six years 1962-67.
At times, the Party presented itself as non-political. In his 1932 election address, High Wycombe’s first-elected Co-operative Party councillor Tom Collings wrote, ‘The Chesham and Wycombe Co-operative Society, as one of the largest ratepayers in the town, claims the right of DIRECT REPRESENTATION ON THE COUNCIL. […] Our Co-operative Party is not affiliated to any Political Party, but like the [Co-operative] Society itself, is composed of members having divers political views'.
Central Co-operative Parliamentary Representation Committee
An Emergency Political Conference was held on 18 October 1917. As a result, the Central Co-operative Parliamentary Representation Committee was formed in 1917, with the objective of putting co-operators into the House of Commons. This was soon renamed the Co-operative Party. The first national secretary was Samuel Perry, later a Member of Parliament and the father of Fred Perry.
At first, the party put forward its own candidates. The first was H. J. May, later Secretary of the International Co-operative Alliance, who was unsuccessful at the January 1918 Prestwich by-election. Ten then stood in the 1918 general election. One candidate met with success, Alfred Waterson, who became a Member of Parliament for the Kettering seat. Waterson took the Labour whip in Parliament. In 1919, 151 Co-operative Party councillors were elected at local level. Waterson retired from Parliament in 1922, but four new Co-operative MPs were elected that same year, including A. V. Alexander, all of whom took the Labour whip. Six were elected in 1923 and five in 1924.
In the early years, Co-operative Party and Labour Party candidates stood against one another for election on at least one occasion, at Paisley in 1923, where a Labour candidate won enough votes to deny victory to J. M. Biggar of the Co-operative Party.
However, since the 1927 Cheltenham Agreement, the party has had an electoral agreement with the Labour Party, which allows for a limited number of Labour Co-operative candidates. This means that the parties involved do not oppose each other. The agreement has been amended several times, most recently in 2003, which was made in the name of the Co-operative Party rather than the Co-operative Union. After the formal agreement, nine Labour Co-operative MPs were elected at the 1929 general election, and Alexander was made a cabinet minister. However, only one was returned at the 1931 election against the backdrop of a massive defeat for Labour.
The rise of the sister party
Labour's recovery as a credible party of government during World War II and the formal links and local affiliations brought by the 1927 agreement saw benefits electorally for the Co-operative Party. In 1945, 23 Labour Co-operative MPs were elected and two held high office in the Labour government – Alexander and Alfred Barnes, who had been chair of the party.
But with Labour's fluctuating fortunes and the slow post-war decline of the co-operative movement, the party saw its influence and standing fall. By 1983, another nadir for Labour fortunes, only eight Labour Co-operative MPs were elected.
However, in 1997, all 23 candidates won seats in Parliament and, after Labour assumed power, the party gained its first members of the Cabinet since A. V. Alexander: Alun Michael 1998–99 (later First Minister for Wales) and Ed Balls 2007–2010. In 2001, only one candidate was defeated: Faye Tinnion, who had stood against the Leader of the Conservative Party, William Hague.
Organisation and structure
The Co-operative Party is a membership organisation consisting of individual members as well as local, regional and national Co-operative Parties and affiliated co-operative societies and trade unions. Unlike other parties with representatives elected to Parliament, the Co-operative Party does not receive state funding and gets most of its income from membership subscriptions and affiliation fees. The party organisation is itself a co-operative society, registered with the Financial Conduct Authority.
The Party's highest decision making body is the National Executive Committee (NEC), which is elected every three years by individual members, affiliated co-operatives and trade unions, the Co-operative Party Parliamentary Group, and Co-operatives UK.
An Annual Conference takes place each autumn to debate policy, discuss the Party's work and vote on motions, although its resolutions are only advisory on the NEC.
The Co-operative Party Parliamentary Group co-ordinates the work of the Party's MPs and Peers in Parliament.
Affiliates
Six of the UK's largest consumer co-operatives are affiliated to the Co-operative Party: the Co-operative Group, Midcounties Co-operative, Central England Co-operative, East of England Co-operative, Scotmid Co-operative and Chelmsford Star Co-operative.
The members of each co-operative society vote to approve affiliation to the Party at their annual general meeting. The largest society and funder of the Party is the Co-operative Group, which ballots its members each year on continued support for the Co-operative Party. At the May 2019 AGM, 79% of Co-operative Group members voted in favour of continued affiliation and that year donated £625,600 (2018: £625,600) to the Co-operative Party.
In 2016 Community became the first trade union to affiliate to the Co-operative Party, followed in 2018 by the Union of Shop, Distributive and Allied Workers (Usdaw).
Co-operatives UK, Co-operative Press and a number of worker co-operatives and housing co-operatives are also organisational members of the Party.
Local structure
The local structure of the Co-operative Party's is based on autonomous units known as Society Co-operative Parties, which operate in a similar way to Constituency Labour Parties (CLPs).
Co-operative societies sponsor Society Co-operative Parties in their traditional areas of operation, which will often take the name of the supporting society (i.e. East of England Co-operative Party and East of England Co-operative).
Society Co-operative Parties usually have a number of branches covering one or more local authority area, which are the main way that individual members interact with the Party to debate policy, select candidates for elections and liaise with Constituency Labour Parties. The Society Co-operative Party is overseen by a party council made up of delegates from branches and the supporting co-operative society.
Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland each have a single national Society Co-operative Party. In England a local party will cover one or more county, or in some cases a full region.
Labour and Co-operative Party
The Co-operative Party and the Labour Party have had an electoral alliance known as the 'National Agreement' since 1927, meaning they do not stand against each other in elections. Instead the parties agree joint candidates to stand as Labour and Co-operative Party.
Labour and Co-operative candidates can stand at elections at all levels in England, Scotland and Wales. Although both parties organise in Northern Ireland, they do not stand candidates for election.
As a sister party, the Co-operative Party has a unique relationship with the Labour Party meaning it does not affiliate at a UK level. Instead local Society Co-operative Parties affiliate to Constituency Labour Parties, which facilitates local co-operation and the selection of joint candidates.
Most candidates use the Labour and Co-operative Party description on their ballot paper, however some stand under another version, particularly for local government elections and elections in Scotland, Wales and London that use a list system. In this case only one description will be used to avoid voters thinking Labour and Co-operative candidates are standing against Labour candidates; however joint candidates are still recognised as part of the Labour and Co-operative Group if they are elected.
Although only the Labour Party emblem is used on the ballot paper, candidates and representatives can use a joint logo on their printed materials and websites.
Leadership
The Co-operative Party does not have a single leader, with the responsibilities shared between Jim McMahon as Chair of the National Executive Committee, Preet Kaur Gill as Chair of the Co-operative Party Parliamentary Group, and Joe Fortune as General Secretary, who oversees the day-to-day operations of the Party. For the purposes of the registration as a political party with the Electoral Commission, the General Secretary is registered as both the leader and the nominating officer.
Chairs of the Co-operative Party
1918–1924 William Henry Watkins
1924–1945 Alfred Barnes MP
1945–1955 William Coldrick MP
1955–1957 Albert Ballard
1957–1965 James Peddie
1965–1972 Herbert Kemp CSD, JP
1972–1978 John Parkinson
1978–1982 Tom Turvey JP
1982–1989 Brian Hellowell
1989–1995 Jessie Carnegie
1995–1996 Peter Nurse
1996–2001 Jim Lee
2001–2019 Gareth Thomas MP
2019–2019 Anna Turley MP (June–December)
2019–2020 Chris Herries
2020–present Jim McMahon MP
General Secretaries of the Co-operative Party
1917–1942 Samuel Perry
1942–1962 Jack Bailey
1962–1967 Harold Campbell
1967–1974 Ted Graham
1974–1992 David Wise
1992–1998 Peter Clarke
1998–2008 Peter Hunt
2008–2012 Michael Stephenson
2012–2015 Karin Christiansen
2015–2019 Claire McCarthy
2019–present Joe Fortune
Electoral representation
The modern party is the political arm of the wider British co-operative movement and membership of another co-operative enterprise is a requirement for candidates. Co-operative members who wish to stand for election must also be members of the Labour Party, and stand as Labour and Co-operative Party candidates.
Electoral performance
House of Commons
There are 26 Labour and Co-operative MPs in the House of Commons.
House of Lords
There are sixteen Labour and Co-operative peers in the House of Lords:
Lord Bassam of Brighton
Lord Coaker of Gedling
Lord Foulkes of Cumnock
Lord Hain
Baroness Hayter of Kentish Town
Lord Hunt of Kings Heath
Lord Kennedy of Southwark
Lord Knight of Weymouth
Lord McAvoy
Lord Monks
Baroness Royall of Blaisdon
Baroness Smith of Basildon
Baroness Thornton
Lord Tomlinson
Lord Touhig
Baroness Wilcox of Newport
Lord McFall of Alcluith currently sits as a non-affiliated peer following his election as Lord Speaker in May 2021.
Senedd
There are sixteen Labour and Co-operative Members of the Senedd:
Scottish Parliament
There are eleven Labour and Co-operative Members of the Scottish Parliament:
London Assembly
There are eleven Labour and Co-operative Members of the London Assembly:
Police and Crime Commissioners
There are seven Labour and Co-operative Police and Crime Commissioners:
Directly elected Mayors
There are five directly elected Labour and Co-operative metro mayors:
There are three directly elected Labour and Co-operative local authority mayors:
Local government
The Co-operative Party is represented in all tiers of local government by councillors who stand as Labour and Co-operative. In 2021 there were 938 Labour and Co-operative councillors across England, Scotland and Wales.
Northern Ireland Assembly
The Co-operative Party is affiliated with the Labour Party in Northern Ireland and in addition, Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) members are permitted to join the party. Neither the Co-operative or Labour parties currently have any representation in the Northern Ireland Assembly.
See also
List of Labour Co-operative Members of Parliament
Co-operative Party election results
Rochdale Principles
British co-operative movement
References
Further reading
Consumers in politics, a history and general review of the Co-operative Party (1969), Thomas F. Carbery, Manchester U.P.
Serving the People: Co-operative Party History from Fred Perry to Gordon Brown. (2007), Greg Rosen, London: Co-operative Party. .
External links
The National Co-operative Archive holds records relating to the Co-operative Party.
Co-operative Party Wales Papers at the National Library of Wales
Political parties established in 1917
Organisations associated with the Labour Party (UK)
Social democratic parties in the United Kingdom
Centre-left parties in the United Kingdom
1917 establishments in the United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogville
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Dogville
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Dogville is a 2003 avant-garde drama film written and directed by Lars von Trier, and starring an ensemble cast led by Nicole Kidman, Lauren Bacall, Paul Bettany, Chloë Sevigny, Stellan Skarsgård, Udo Kier, Ben Gazzara, Patricia Clarkson, Harriet Andersson, and James Caan with John Hurt narrating. It is a parable that uses an extremely minimal, stage-like set to tell the story of Grace Mulligan (Kidman), a woman hiding from mobsters, who arrives in the small mountain town of Dogville, Colorado, and is provided refuge in return for physical labor.
The film is the first in von Trier's incomplete USA – Land of Opportunities trilogy, which was followed by Manderlay (2005) and is projected to be completed with Washington. The film was in competition for the Palme d'Or at the 2003 Cannes Film Festival. It was screened at various film festivals before receiving a limited release in the US on March 26, 2004.
Dogville opened to polarized reviews from critics. Some considered it to be pretentious or exasperating; it was viewed by others as a masterpiece, and has widely grown in stature since its initial release. It was later included in the 2016 poll of the greatest films since 2000 conducted by BBC. Since then, filmmakers such as Quentin Tarantino and Denis Villeneuve have praised the film.
Plot structure
The story of Dogville is told in nine chapters and a prologue, with a one-sentence description of each chapter given in the film, in the vein of such chapter headings in many 19th-century novels. These descriptions are given below.
Prologue
Which introduces us to the town and its residents
Dogville is a very small American town by an abandoned silver mine in the Rocky Mountains, with a road leading up to it and nowhere else to go but the mountains. The film begins with a prologue in which a dozen or so of the fifteen citizens are introduced. They are portrayed as lovable, good people with small flaws which are easy to forgive.
The town is seen from the point of view of Tom Edison Jr., an aspiring writer and philosopher who procrastinates by trying to get his fellow citizens together for regular meetings on the subject of "moral rearmament". It is clear that Tom wants to succeed his aging father, a physician, as the moral and spiritual leader of the town.
Chapter 1
In which Tom hears gunfire and meets Grace
It is Tom who first meets Grace Mulligan, who is on the run from gangsters who presumably shot at her. Grace wishes to keep running, but Tom assures her that the mountains ahead are too difficult to pass. As they talk, the gangsters approach the town, and Tom quickly hides Grace in the nearby mine. One of the gangsters asks Tom if he has seen the woman, which he denies. The gangster then offers him a reward and hands him a card with a phone number to call in case Grace shows up.
Tom decides to use Grace as an "illustration" in his next meeting—a way for the townspeople to prove that they are indeed committed to community values, can receive a gift, and are willing to help the stranger. They remain skeptical, so Tom proposes that Grace should be given a chance to prove that she is a good person. Grace is accepted for two weeks in which, as Tom explains to her after the meeting, she must gain the friendship and trust of the townspeople.
Chapter 2
In which Grace follows Tom's plan and embarks upon physical labor
On Tom's suggestion, Grace offers to do chores for the citizens—talking to the lonely, blind Jack McKay, helping to run the small shop, looking after the children of Chuck and Vera, and so forth. After some initial reluctance, the people accept her help in doing those chores that "nobody really needs" but which nevertheless make their lives easier. As a result, she becomes an accepted part of the community.
Chapter 3
In which Grace indulges in a shady piece of provocation
In tacit agreement Grace is expected to continue her chores, which she does gladly, and is even paid small wages which she saves up to purchase a set of seven expensive porcelain figurines, one at a time, from Ma Ginger's shop. Grace begins to make friends, including Jack, who pretends that he is not blind. She earns his respect upon tricking him into admitting that he is blind. Once the two weeks are over, everyone votes at the town meeting that Grace should be allowed to stay.
Chapter 4
Happy times in Dogville
Things go well in Dogville until the police arrive to place a "Missing" poster featuring Grace's picture and name on the mission house. With the townspeople divided as to whether they should cooperate with the police, the mood of the community darkens somewhat.
Chapter 5
Fourth of July after all
Still, things continue as usual until the 4th of July celebrations. After Tom awkwardly admits his love to Grace which she reciprocates and the whole town expresses their agreement that it has become a better place thanks to her, the police arrive again to replace the "Missing" poster with a "Wanted" poster. Grace is now wanted for participation in a bank robbery. Everyone agrees that she must be innocent, since at the time the robbery took place, she was doing chores for the townspeople every day.
Nevertheless, Tom argues that because of the increased risk to the town now that they are harboring someone who is wanted as a criminal, Grace should provide a quid pro quo and do more chores for the townspeople within the same time, for less pay. At this point, what was previously a voluntary arrangement takes on a slightly coercive nature as Grace is clearly uncomfortable with the idea. Still, being very amenable and wanting to please Tom, Grace agrees.
Chapter 6
In which Dogville bares its teeth
At this point the situation worsens, as with her additional workload, Grace inevitably makes mistakes, and the people she works for seem to be equally irritated by the new schedule—and take it out on Grace. The situation slowly escalates, with the male citizens making small advances to Grace and the females becoming increasingly critical and abusive. Even the children are perverse: Jason, the 10-year-old son of Chuck and Vera, asks Grace to spank him, until she finally complies after much provocation (von Trier has noted that this is the first point in the film where it is clear how completely Grace's lack of social status and choices makes her vulnerable to other people manipulating her). The hostility towards Grace finally reaches a turning point as well when Chuck rapes her in his home.
Chapter 7
In which Grace finally gets enough of Dogville, leaves the town, and again sees the light of day
That evening, Grace tells Tom what happened and he starts to form a plan for her escape. The next day, Vera confronts Grace for spanking her son Jason and Liz informs her that a few people saw Tom leave her shack very late the night before, casting suspicions on her virtue. The next evening, she is confronted again by Vera, Liz and Martha in her shack. Martha witnessed a sexual encounter between Chuck and her in the apple orchard. Vera blames her for seducing her husband and decides to punish Grace by destroying the figurines. Grace begs her to spare them and tries to remind Vera of all the good things she has done for her including teaching her children the philosophy of stoicism. Vera cruelly uses it against her while destroying the figurines she worked hard for, claiming that she will stop smashing them if Grace refrains from crying. Grace goes to Tom that evening and they decide to bribe the freight truck driver Ben to smuggle her out of town in his truck. En route, she is raped by Ben, after which he returns Grace to Dogville.
The town agrees that they must not let her escape again. The money paid to Ben to help Grace escape had been stolen by Tom from his father—but when Grace is blamed for the theft, Tom refuses to admit he did it because, as he explains, this is the only way he can still protect Grace without people getting suspicious. So, Grace finally becomes a slave: she is chained, repeatedly raped, and abused by the people of the town. She is also humiliated by the children who ring the church bell every time she is violated, much to Tom's disgust.
Chapter 8
In which there is a meeting where the truth is told and Tom leaves (only to return later)
This culminates in a late-night general assembly in which Grace—following Tom's suggestion—relates calmly all that she has endured from everyone in town, then heads back to her shack. Embarrassed and in complete denial, the townspeople finally decide to turn her over to the mobsters—assuming that Grace will be executed. As Tom tells Grace this, declaring his allegiance to her over the town, he attempts to make love to her. Still chained, she responds to his advances by saying "it would be so beautiful, but from the point of view of our love so completely wrong. We were to meet in freedom." She questions if thoughts of using force against her are in fact why he is so upset, noting that he could have her if he wants—all he needs to do is threaten her to get his way, as the others have done. Tom defends his intentions as pure, but upon reflection realizes that what she says is true. Shaken by self-doubt, he decides it would jeopardize his career as a philosopher if this doubt were allowed to grow. To rid himself of its source, he decides to personally call the mobsters and turn Grace over.
Chapter 9 and ending
In which Dogville receives the long-awaited visit and the film ends
When the mobsters finally arrive, they are welcomed cordially by Tom and an impromptu committee of other townspeople. Grace is then freed by the indignant henchmen, and her true identity is revealed: she is the daughter of a powerful gang leader who ran away because she could not stand his dirty work. Her father motions her into his Cadillac and argues with her about issues of morality. After some introspection, Grace reverses herself and comes to the conclusion that Dogville's crimes cannot be excused due to the difficulty of their circumstances. Tom, who has become aware that the mobsters pose a threat to himself and the town, is momentarily remorseful, but rapidly descends into rationalization for his actions. Grace sadly returns to her father's car, accepts his power, and uses it to command that Dogville be removed from the earth.
Grace tells the gangsters to make Vera watch her children die, one by one, as punishment for destroying her figurines. She instructs them only to stop killing the children if Vera can refrain from crying, stating that she "owes her that". Dogville is burned to the ground and all of its inhabitants brutally massacred with the exception of Tom, whom she executes personally with a revolver right after he applauds the effectiveness of her use of illustration as an attempt to get her to spare him. After the massacre, the gangsters hear a barking sound from one of the houses. It is the dog Moses. A gangster aims a gun at the dog, but Grace commands that he should live: "He's just angry because I once took his bone." The chalk drawing of Moses becomes a real dog as his barks lead into the credits. The credits show a series of documentary photos of poverty-stricken Americans from Jacob Holdt's American Pictures (1984), accompanied by the song "Young Americans" by David Bowie.
Cast
Pilot
Dogville: The Pilot was shot during 2001 in the pre-production phase to test whether the concept of chalk lines and sparse scenery would work. The 15-minute pilot film starred Danish actors Sidse Babett Knudsen (as Grace) and Nikolaj Lie Kaas (as Tom). Eventually Lars von Trier was happy with the overall results. Thus, he and the producers decided to move forward with the production of the feature film. The test pilot was never shown in public, but is featured on the second disc of the Dogville (2003) DVD, released in November 2003.
Staging
The story of Dogville is narrated by John Hurt in nine chapters and takes place on a stage with minimalist scenery. Some walls and furniture are placed on the stage, but the rest of the scenery exists merely as white painted outlines which have big labels on them; for example, the outlines of gooseberry bushes have the text "Gooseberry Bushes" written next to them. While this form of staging is common in black box theaters, it has rarely been attempted on film before—the Western musical Red Garters (1954) and Vanya on 42nd Street (1994) being notable exceptions. The bare staging serves to focus the audience's attention on the acting and storytelling, and also reminds them of the film's artificiality. As such it is heavily influenced by the theatre of Bertolt Brecht. (There are also similarities between the song "Seeräuberjenny" ("Pirate Jenny") in Brecht and Kurt Weill's Die Dreigroschenoper (The Threepenny Opera) and the story of Dogville. Chico Buarque's version of this song, "Geni e o Zepelim" [Geni and the Zeppelin], deals with the more erotic aspects of abjection and bears striking similarity to von Trier's cinematic homage to the song.) The film used carefully designed lighting to suggest natural effects such as the moving shadows of clouds, and sound effects are used to create the presence of non-existent set pieces (e.g., there are no doors, but the doors can always be heard when an actor "opens" or "closes" one).
The film was shot on high-definition video using a Sony HDW-F900 camera in a studio in Trollhättan, Sweden.
Interpretations
According to von Trier, the point of the film is that "evil can arise anywhere, as long as the situation is right".
Film review show At the Movies with Ebert & Roeper criticized Dogville as having a strongly anti-American message, citing, for example, the closing credits sequence with images of poverty-stricken Americans which were taken from Jacob Holdt's documentary book American Pictures (1984), and accompanied by David Bowie's song "Young Americans".
Reception
Critical response
Dogville polarised critics upon its United States theatrical release, with Metacritic giving it a score of 60 ("Mixed or average reviews") and the Rotten Tomatoes critics' consensus for it stating simply, "A challenging piece of experimental filmmaking." 70% of critics gave the film a positive review, with an average score of 7/10, based on 168 reviews. Many hailed it as an innovative and powerful artistic statement, while others considered it to be an emotionally detached or even misanthropic work. In The Village Voice, J. Hoberman wrote, "For passion, originality, and sustained chutzpah, this austere allegory of failed Christian charity and Old Testament payback is von Trier's strongest movie—a masterpiece, in fact." Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film 3.5/4 stars, praising Kidman's performance and dubbing it "a movie that never met a cliche it didn't stomp on." Scott Foundas of LA Weekly described it as a work of "boldness, cutting insight, [and] intermittent hilarity", and interpreted it as "a potent parable of human suffering." In Empire, Alan Morrison wrote that "Dogville, in a didactic and politicised stage tradition, is a great play that shows a deep understanding of human beings as they really are."
In the Los Angeles Times, on the other hand, Manohla Dargis dismissed it as "three hours of tedious experimentation." Richard Corliss of Time argued that von Trier lacked humanity and wrote that the director "presumably wants us to attend to his characters' yearnings and prejudices without the distractions of period furnishings. It's a brilliant idea, for about 10 minutes. Then the bare set is elbowed out of a viewer's mind by the threadbare plot and characterizations." Roger Ebert, who gave it two out of four stars, felt that the film was so pedantic as to make von Trier comparable to a crank, and viewed it as "a demonstration of how a good idea can go wrong." In the Seattle Post-Intelligencer, Sean Axmaker said, "There's no denying von Trier is visually intriguing. ... But as an artist, his contempt for humanity is becoming harder to hide with stylistic flourish." Charles Taylor of Salon additionally responded to allegations of the film's anti-Americanism with the charge that it was "anti-human", and said that it was "as total a misanthropic vision as anything control freak Stanley Kubrick ever turned out"—while personally admitting that he felt von Trier was as deliberate a filmmaker as Kubrick.
Later, Dogville was named one of the greatest films of its decade in The Guardian, The List, and Paste. In 2016, it was ranked one of the 100 greatest motion pictures in a critics' poll conducted by BBC Culture. It was listed the 37th best film of the same time period by The Guardian critics. According to aggregator They Shoot Pictures, Don't They, it is the 15th most acclaimed film since 2000.
American director and screenwriter Quentin Tarantino has named the film as one of the 20 best to have been released during the time of his active career as a director; (which was between 1992 and 2009 when he was interviewed) he said that if it had been written for the stage, von Trier would have won a Pulitzer Prize.
Box office
The film grossed $1,535,286 in the US market and $15,145,550 from the rest of the world for a total gross of $16,680,836 worldwide. In the opening US weekend it did poorly, grossing only $88,855. The movie was released in only nine theaters, with an average of $9,872 per theater. In Denmark, the film grossed $1,231,984. The highest-grossing country was Italy, with $3,272,119.
"Best-of" lists
Dogville made many 2004 top-ten lists:
1st – Mark Kermode, BBC Radio Five Live
2nd – J. Hoberman, Village Voice
3rd – Overall, Village Voice
4th – Dennis Lim, Village Voice
5th – Jack Mathews, New York Daily News
8th – J. R. Jones, Chicago Reader
n/a – David Sterritt, The Christian Science Monitor
n/a – Ron Stringer, LA Weekly
The film received nine votes (with six from critics and three from directors) in the 2012 Sight & Sound polls.
Accolades
See also
The Visit (1964 film)
References
Sources
External links
Dogville at AboutFilm.com: analysis by Carlo Cavagna
On the Nature of Dogs, the Right of Grace, Forgiveness and Hospitality: Derrida, Kant, and Lars Von Trier's Dogville by Adam Atkinson
Newsweek review
BBC Collective review
Dogville, or, the Dirty Birth of Law theoretical essay
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic%20Party%20%28Hong%20Kong%29
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Democratic Party (Hong Kong)
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The Democratic Party (DP) is a centre-left liberal political party in Hong Kong. Chaired by Lo Kin-hei, it is the flagship party in the pro-democracy camp and currently has seven elected representatives in the District Councils.
The party was established in 1994 in a merger of the United Democrats of Hong Kong and Meeting Point in preparation for the 1995 Legislative Council election. The party won a landslide victory, received over 40 percent of the popular vote and became the largest party in the legislature in the final years of the British colonial era. It opposes the bloody crackdown on the Tiananmen protests of 1989 and called for the end of one-party rule of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP); the party has long been seen as hostile to the Beijing authorities.
Led by Martin Lee, the Democratic Party boycotted the Provisional Legislative Council (PLC) on the eve of the Hong Kong handover in 1997 in protest to Beijing's decision to dismantle the agreed transition, but reemerged as the largest party in the first SAR Legislative Council election of 1998. Due to the Beijing-installed proportional representation voting system, the Democrats embattled in bitter factional conflicts in the early post-handover era. Although the party's popularity briefly rebounded after the 2003 pro-democracy demonstration, its dominance was gradually eclipsed by the emergence of the new parties.
As a response to the electoral gains of the Civic Party and the League of Social Democrats (LSD), the Democratic Party merged with Emily Lau's The Frontier in 2008. The party made a surprising move by negotiating with the Beijing officials over the constitutional reform package in 2010. It resulted in a catastrophic split within the pro-democracy camp. Being ferociously attacked by the radical democrats, the party sharply lost support in the 2012 Legislative Council election, retaining only six seats. Afterwards, the Democrats underwent a rejuvenation process in which most veterans retired and made way for the new generation in the 2016 election.
Following the widespread anti-government movement in 2019, the party won a landslide victory in the 2019 District Council elections. After the imposition of the Hong Kong national security law in July 2020 and subsequent disqualifications of four pro-democracy camp legislators, every incumbent legislator of the party, along with the whole camp's, resigned in protest. It left the party with no representation for the first time since 1998. In January 2021, the resigned legislators were arrested under the national security law for participating in the July 2020 pro-democracy primaries. The government introduced a requirement that all district councillors had to swear an oath of allegiance to the HKSAR, upon which many pro-democracy councillors, fearful of retroactive disqualification and bankruptcy threats, chose to resign from their office.
Party beliefs
From the outset, the party supported the restoration of Chinese sovereignty over Hong Kong. However, since the handover it has consistently stressed the "two systems" part of the "one country, two systems" principle. The party's stance on Hong Kong's future development differs from that of pro-Beijing parties. It believes Hong Kong must develop more democratic institutions and preserve freedoms and human rights to achieve prosperity.
The party proposed policies on various areas of governance through designated spokespersons, including:
Amendment of the Basic Law to achieve more democracy and safeguard freedoms, while achieving closer economic co-operation with Mainland China.
Protection of human rights.
Maintain Hong Kong's status as an international finance and trade centre and improve its economic infrastructure (concrete details not given), as well as a more flexible way to control public expenditure.
Better monitoring of public services and utilities (i.e. more accountability), and strengthened measures to protect the environment.
More resources for education, with less vague policies.
Reasonable (i.e. larger) share of economic achievements by the employee for the employee, and increased involvement by the Government to protect labour laws in accordance with social needs.
Adopt measures to regulate property prices from fluctuation, and provide adequate public housing
Increase spending on social welfare.
Overall, the Democratic Party advocates economic policies pretty close to liberalism in the sense of John Rawls rather than of Robert Nozick or Friedrich Hayek, in sharp contrast with the traditional radical free-market capitalist orientation typical of Hong Kong. However, this point is rarely mentioned in the speeches held by party members during their trips abroad to seek political support.
The party's position on social or cultural issues is not well-defined but verges on the moderate, partly due to some support from centrist and Catholic supporters. In a way that may seem contradictory to traditional liberal ideology, the party generally opposes the legalisation of commercial sex or gambling operations. Although there is no official stance on same-sex marriage, the Democratic Party generally support to legalise laws which would prohibit discrimination against the LGBT community, despite part of the conservative wing of the party against it.
In recent years with the emergence of the pro-Hong Kong independence tide, the Democratic Party has been criticised by pro-independence voices for its perceived pro-China position. However the party has also been accused for years by pro-Beijing media of being anti-China, as many of the party leaders including Szeto Wah, Martin Lee and Albert Ho are self-proclaimed patriots who oppose only the one-party rule of the Chinese Communist Party but not the country in general and support the Chinese democracy movement. The party has also stated that it does not support Hong Kong being separated from China.
History
Founding
The Democratic Party was founded with the merger of the two major pro-democracy parties at the time, the United Democrats of Hong Kong (UDHK) and the Meeting Point (MP). The Meeting Point was formed in 1983 by a group of liberal intellectuals and people from middle class in the background of the Sino-British negotiations on the sovereignty of Hong Kong after 1997. The group favoured the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong to the People's Republic of China but called for a "free, democratic and autonomous Hong Kong government under Chinese sovereignty". Together with the Association for Democracy and People's Livelihood (ADPL) and the Hong Kong Affairs Society (HKAS), they were the three major pro-democracy organisations actively participated in the local and municipal elections in the 1980s.
The like-minded liberals also formed the Joint Committee on the Promotion of Democratic Government (JCPDG) and the Group of 190 to strive for the 1988 Legislative Council election and the faster democratisation the political structure towards 1997 and after 1997 during the drafting of the Hong Kong Basic Law, under the leadership of liberal drafters Martin Lee and Szeto Wah. During the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, the liberals stood firmly with the student protestors, formed the Hong Kong Alliance in Support of Patriotic Democratic Movements in China (HKASPDMC) and condemned the bloody suppression on 4 June.
In preparation for the first Legislative Council direct election in 1991, members of the three political groups and many liberal activists of the JCPDG joined together and formed the United Democrats of Hong Kong in April 1990. Chaired by the Martin Lee, the United Democrats of Hong Kong formed an alliance with Anthony Cheung Bing-leung's Meeting Point in the campaign. The liberal alliance won a landslide victory in the direct election, receiving over 52% of the vote and winning 14 of the 16 geographical constituency seats in September. The popularity of the pro-democratic alliance was principally rose from its position towards the Tiananmen Square protests and the widespread fear towards the Beijing government afterwards.
The United Democrats stood a firm anti-Beijing stances, criticising the Tiananmen crackdown and also the democratic situation. As a result, Lee and Szeto were deprived their posts in the Basic Law Drafting Committee and were accused of "treason". The United Democrats supported the last governor Chris Patten's democratic reform proposal, which allowed a much extended electorate for the first fully elected Legislative Council election in 1995 and was ferociously opposed by Beijing.
The United Democrats of Hong Kong and the Meeting Point further united by announcing the formation of the Democratic Party on 18 April 1994. They formally merged into the Democratic Party on 2 October 1994, in eve of the three-tier elections in 1994 and 1995. Martin Lee became the first Chairman of the party and Anthony Cheung and Yeung Sum became the Vice-Chairmen, elected on the first general meeting on the establishment day. The ADPL continued to keep its own identity, arguing that it represented grassroots' interest whereas the Democratic Party was more focused on the "middle class".
The founding manifesto of the Democratic Party said it would seek to further unite democratic forces, strive for a high degree of autonomy and an open, democratic government, and would promote welfare and equality in Hong Kong. The party also tried to appropriate the discourse of nationalism as it stated "We care for China and, as part of the Chinese citizenry, we have the rights and obligations to participate in and comment on the affairs of China." It also called for the condemnation of the 1989 Tiananmen Incident as well as an amendment of the Hong Kong Basic Law before 1997 to allow full election of the Chief Executive and the Legislative Council of Hong Kong.
1994/95 elections and Provisional Legislative Council (1994–1998)
The electorate base of the 1995 LegCo election was largely extended by the Governor Chris Patten's controversial electoral reform package supported by the pro-democrats. Facing the challenge from the newly formed business conservative Liberal Party and pro-Beijing loyalist Democratic Alliance for the Betterment of Hong Kong (DAB), the Democratic Party was able to win handsome victories in the three-tier elections in 1994 and 1995. In the LegCo election in September 1995, the party secured 42% of the vote and 19 of the 60 total seats, emerging as the largest party in the Legislative Council, compared to Liberal Party's 10 seats and DAB's 6 seats. Together with the ADPL and other pro-democracy independents, the democratic coalition was able to garner one- or two-vote majorities on certain anti-government issues during the last term of the legislature.
The party's stance conflicted with the PRC government's, which, for a while, earned the party more popularity and recognition both locally and overseas. The party chairman Martin Lee became well-known internationally in the run-up to reunification as a human rights and democracy fighter, and won a number of international human rights awards.
After Patten's reform package was passed, Beijing decided that the legislature elected in 1995 could not ride the "through train" beyond the handover of Hong Kong, as the first legislature of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (SAR). Instead, Beijing set up a highly controlled Provisional Legislative Council (PLC) in December 1996. The Democratic Party refused to join the Selection Committee as it opposed to Beijing's decision "to scrap Hong Kong's elected legislature and replace it with a hand-picked version." The party thus lost all 19 seats until the PLC was replaced by the first Legislative Council of the Hong Kong SAR in 1998.
At the midnight on 30 June just after the handover ceremony, the Democratic Party LegCo members protested against the abrupt termination of their tenure and call for the establishment of democratic government at the balcony of the Legislative Council Building, and vow to return to the legislature by means of election in 1998.
Return to Legislative Council and early crises (1998–2002)
Decided by the Provisional Legislative Council, the first-past-the-post voting system was replaced by the proportional representation system in the first LegCo election in 1998. The proportional representation gave an advantage to the weaker pro-Beijing DAB as it did not require a majority to win a seat. Thus in 1995 the Democratic Party won 12 seats in the geographical constituencies with 42.3% of the vote, but it got only 9 seat with 40.2% of the vote in 1998.
After the handover, the Right of Abode litigation was initiated immediately and reached its climax in the Court of Final Appeal's (CFA) decisions favouring the right of abode seekers in Ng Ka Ling and Chan Kam Nga lawsuits in January 1999. The Democratic Party supported the right of abode seekers and opposed strongly to the government's decision to refer the National People's Congress Standing Committee (NPCSC) to interpret the Basic Law. Party chairman Martin Lee condemned this move as "a dagger striking at the heart of the rule of law" and in symbolic protest walked out of the Legislative Council with 18 other members, all dressed in black. However, the party appeared to suffer from popular discontent with the party's position. The party was also criticised for failing to broaden its post-1997 agenda and develop a well-defined social base.
The party also appeared to suffer from the internal dissension. In December 1998, the "Young Turks" led by Andrew To staged a successful coup d'état in the party leadership election, which promptly brought the party into a phase of factional struggle. The Young Turks formed their own list of about ten candidates to run for the Central Committee and nominated Lau Chin-shek to run for vice-chairman against the former Meeting Point chairman Anthony Cheung. Some hoped to make Lau as their factional leader, to lead the party from the Meeting Point faction's pro-middle class, pro-laissez-faire and pro-Beijing positions to a more pro-grassroots and confrontational position.
Although Lau was elected vice-chairman, he resigned after the election. Lau was subsequently forced to leave the party in June 2000 after a one-year membership freeze, due to Lau's Democratic Party/Frontier dual membership.
In a general meeting in September 1999, the Young Turks also proposed to put the minimum wage legislation on the 2000 LegCo election platform of the party. The Mainstreamers which included the "triumvirate", Yeung Sum, Cheung Man-kwong and Lee Wing-tat, saw the minimum wage debate was a challenge to the party authority and decide to fight back by joining hands with the Meeting Point faction to defeat the Young Turks. Andrew To wrote a newspaper article accusing the Mainstreamers of suppressing intra-party dissent, "just like the butchers in the Tiananmen massacre." To's comment led to a backlash of opinion within the party and led to the defeat of the minimum wage motion. The debate, largely took place in the mass media, publicised the factional rivalries and created a bad image within the party.
The popular discontent and internal fragmentation appeared to have marked a turning point in the prospects of the Democratic Party and the DAB. In the 1999 District Council elections, the DAB more than doubled its representation, while Democratic Party performed less well than anticipated, winning 86 seats. In the second LegCo election in the following year, Tsang Kin-shing and Steve Chan Kwok-leung left the party and ran as independents after failing to be nominated on the candidates list by the Central Committee. The election results showed the party's share in the geographical constituencies dropped to 35%, and the party secured 9 out of the 24 directly elected seats. Its total number of seats in LegCo remained at 12.
In December 2002, Yeung Sum succeeded Martin Lee as Party chairman in the leadership change, legislator Albert Chan, belonging to the pro-grassroots relatively "radical" faction, left the party. By the end of 2002, more than 50 members of the party which had already formed a political group, Social Democratic Forum, defected to the Frontier, mostly Young Turks.
1 July 2003 march and rebound in popularity (2002–2004)
In 2002 and 2003 the party saw a rebound in popularity, largely due to the low popularity of the Tung Chee-hwa's administration, and more significantly the controversy over the Basic Law Article 23 legislation. The pro-democrats worried that the anti-subversion law would threaten the rights and freedom of the Hong Kong people and damaged the rule of law and "One Country, Two Systems." The Article 23 legislation turned into a territory-wide debate and led to a re-awakening of civil society, mobilising different sectors to join the opposition movement. The Democratic Party used many of their 94 district offices for community-level mobilisation. In the weeks before the 1 July march, the Democratic Party managed to collect phone numbers of about 40,000 supporters. The party's volunteers and staff called them one by one to call on them to join the demonstration. The demonstration resulted in a record-breaking number of people, more than 500,000 Hong Kong people joined the march. The SAR government had to back down and shelve the bill indefinitely.
In the following 2003 District Council elections in November, the pro-democracy camp turned the popular support into the demand of democratisation, universal suffrage of the Chief Executive and Legislative Council in 2007 and 2008, their primary goals for years. The Democratic Party received a great victory by claiming 95 seats out of the 120 candidates in the election.
The civil movement in 2003 also broadened the spectrum of the pro-democracy camp. A number of pro-democracy groups such as Article 45 Concern Group and individuals such as Leung Kwok-hung and Albert Cheng were elected in the 2004 LegCo election. Although the pan-democracy camp took 25 of 60 seats, the Democratic Party won only 9 seats, falling from the largest party in the Legislative Council to the third, behind DAB's 13 (including the FTU members) and pro-business Liberal Party's 10. Worried by pre-election surveys indicating that Martin Lee might be in danger, the Democratic Party sent out a last minute S.O.S. call to "save Martin Lee" who was listed second on the Democratic Party's list behind chairman Yeung Sum in the Hong Kong Island constituency. As a result, Yeung's and Lee's list absorbed too many votes at the expense of pro-democracy ally Cyd Ho losing by just 815 votes to DAB's Choy So-yuk. It caused some dissatisfaction among some supporters of the party and the camp generally. Yeung Sum announced he would not seek for re-election as chairman after the election as a result and subsequently replaced by Lee Wing-tat in the party leadership election in December.
Campaign for 2007/08 universal suffrage and merge with the Frontier (2004–2008)
Although lack of breakthrough in the legislative elections, the pan-democracy maintains its basic position of seeking universal suffrage in 2007 and 2008 for Chief Executive and Legislative Council respectively, even though the NPCSC's interpretation of the Basic Law in April 2004 rejected the demand. After Tung Chee-hwa's resigned as Chief Executive in March 2005, Party chairman Lee Wing-tat attempted to run for the post against Donald Tsang but failed to get enough nominations in the Election Committee. Donald Tsang was elected uncontestedly in the Chief Executive election.
In October 2005, Donald Tsang's administration issued a blueprint for the electoral reform. The proposal aimed to double to size of Election Committee to 1,600 and add 10 seats to the Legislative Council, half of which would be directly elected and the rest returned by District Councillors. The pro-democracy parties criticised the proposal as conservative as it did not move towards to universal suffrage. In December, the camp held a mass rally against the government's reform package and demanded a timetable and road-map to democracy be attached to the proposal. The reform package was at last vetoed by the pan-democracy camp. In December 2006, 114 of the 137 pro-democracy candidates filled by the Democratic Party and the newly established Civic Party won the Election Committee subsector elections which secured the threshold of 100 nominations to enter the next Chief Executive election.
Since early 2005, 24 members had quit the party, including district councillor Stephen Fong Chun-bong (who was forced out by the party) and Lau Tak-cheung. Twelve district councillors also left the party. Another district councillor died in a car accident. The number of district councillors decreased by 13 to 79. In March 2006, the Mainstreamer faction alleged that some senior members were involved in spying activities of China. The "suspects" were all Young Turks Reformist members including vice-chairman Chan King-ming and Gary Fan. The Young Turk members were all ousted in the following leadership election in December, with Mainstreamer Albert Ho defeating Chan King-ming as the new party chairman.
The democrats suffered a humiliating defeat in the District Council elections in November 2007. The Democratic Party took the heaviest loss of 36 seats as compared with 2003. 23 of the party's incumbent Councillors were ousted, with just over half of its candidates elected. The Democratic Party was by far outstripped by the Beijing loyalist DAB which won total of 115 seats, recapturing the loss in 2003 and also much expanding.
On 29 December 2007, the NPCSC unveiled a timetable for the universal suffrage of the Chief Executive in 2017 and for the entire Legislative Council by 2020 with a host of conditions. The NPCSC decision helped reducing the political pressure on Tsang while removing pan-democracy camp's key rallying cry in the following LegCo election, although the pro-democratic parties were still calling for the universal suffrage of the Chief Executive and Legislative Council in 2012.
In the 2008 LegCo election, the Democratic Party's share of vote further dropped to 20.6%, winning only 8 seats. The emerging pro-democratic parties professionals-formed Civic Party and left-wing League of Social Democrats (LSD) took the share of 13.7% and 10.1% and won 5 and 3 seats respectively. Facing the emerging new parties, the two old political parties the Democratic Party and the Frontier merged. At the time, the Democratic Party had 636 members, 8 legislators and 57 District Council members, while the Frontier had one legislator, Emily Lau, three District Councillors and around 110 members. In the following month, Albert Ho was re-elected chairman, and Emily Lau became a Vice-Chairman of the new combined party in the party leadership election.
2010 reform proposal breakthrough and 2012 elections (2008–2012)
In the following electoral reform for the 2012 Chief Executive and LegCo elections in 2009 and 2010, Donald Tsang proposed a reform package which had not much difference from the 2005 proposal. The pan-democracy camp were saying they were going to veto it again. The Civic Party and League of Social Democrats launched a de facto referendum by resigning and triggering territory-wide by-elections to let the voters voice out their demand on democracy. The Democratic Party refused to participate as it argued it was not an effective way. The party's heavyweight veteran Szeto Wah said the Democratic Party would not join in the resignations itself, but would support pan-democrats who stood for re-election. In December 2009, the Democratic Party members voted 229 voted against, 54 in favour and one abstention not to join the resignation plan after a four-hour debate at a general meeting.
Instead in May 2010, the party leaders met with the officials of the Central Government's Liaison Office in Hong Kong to negotiate on the reform package, which was the first meeting between Democratic Party leaders and senior officials from the central government since the Tiananmen massacre of 1989. The central government subsequently accepted the Democratic Party's revised proposal in the run-up to the LegCo vote, which allowed the five new functional constituency members of LegCo to be elected by popular vote. However, the Democratic Party failed to get any promises on the 2017 Chief Executive and 2020 Legco elections. The Democratic Party's move significantly divided the opinion within the pan-democracy camp but the bill was ultimately passed in June 2010 with the support of the Democratic Party. After the agreement with Beijing, 30 Young Turk Reformists (comprising 4% of the membership) left the party before the December Party leadership election, accusing their leaders of betraying the people and slowing the pace towards universal suffrage. LegCo member Andrew Cheng had also quit the party earlier at the LegCo voting in June.
The party's refusal of participating the by-election and the agreement with Beijing heavily damaged the solidarity of the pan-democracy camp. The "radical" League of Social Democrats accused the Democratic Party for "selling out" Hong Kong people. During the annual 1 July march in 2010, the Democratic Party leaders were verbally attacked by other democratic protestors, who chanted "Shame on you, Democratic Party, for selling out Hong Kong people." In the following District Council elections in November 2011, the newly formed People Power headed by Wong Yuk-man, who quit as the Chairman of the League of Social Democrats early the year, launched an anti-Democratic Party campaign and filled in candidates run against the Democratic Party members. The Democratic Party was able to retain 47 seats with an increase of the vote. The People Power failed to get any seat against the Democratic Party but one seat where there were no other democratic candidates.
In the Election Committee Subsector elections in December 2011, the pan-democracy camp was able to get more than 150 seats to secure the threshold of nominating a candidate in the 2012 Chief Executive election. Democratic Party chairman Albert Ho won over Frederick Fung of ADPL in the pan-democracy primary election and stood for the camp in the election. The election was dominated by the two candidates from the pro-Beijing camp, Henry Tang and Leung Chun-ying and marked by scandals, dirty tactics and smears from both sides. Albert Ho fell behind in the opinion poll throughout the campaign partly due to the impossibility of him being elected by the Beijing-controlled Election Committee. The pan-democracy camp called for casting blank votes on the election day. During the election 1,132 votes were cast, CY Leung received 689; Henry Tang received 285, and Albert Ho received 76.
In the LegCo election in the following September, the party successfully gained two of the five seats of the territory-wide based new District Council (Second) constituency which were created by its own proposal. However, the total seats of the party dropped from 8 to only 6 seats, the worst result in the party's history. The party could only gain 13.7% of the popular vote, even less than Civic Party's 14.1% and lost all its seats in the New Territories West. Chairman Albert Ho resigned after the election outcomes were announced; vice-chairwoman Emily Lau took over as acting chairman. Lau defeated Sin Chung-kai as the first chairwoman of the party in the December party leadership election. In December 2014, Emily Lau secured her chairwomanship against three challengers in the chairperson re-election, which was the most competitive leadership election in party's history.
Umbrella movement and aftermath (2012–2019)
In March 2013, the Democrats formed the Alliance for True Democracy with other pan democratic parties for pressing the government to give out a genuinely democratic reform proposal. The party supported Benny Tai's Occupy Central with Love and Peace proposal to launch a civil disobedience movement to further pressure the Beijing government. The party took a supporting role in the 2014 Hong Kong protests with many of its party figures arrested. In June 2015, the party voted against the government's proposal.
In the 2015 District Council election, the Democrats won total number of 43 seats with several second-tier figures, including vice-chairman Lo Kin-hei and chief executive Lam Cheuk-ting, scored victories, while others like former chairman Albert Ho and vice-chairman Andrew Wan lost.
For the 2016 Legislative Council election, the party proposed an unprecedented pre-election primary to hold public debates before selecting candidates for each constituency. 14 nominations were received on 31 December 2015, in which three incumbents, chairperson Emily Lau and veterans Albert Ho and Sin Chung-kai did not seek for re-election to hasten the party's rejuvenation. They chose to stand as second candidates behind young party colleagues, Lam Cheuk-ting, Andrew Wan and Hui Chi-fung respectively to boost the chances for them to get elected. Despite the decrease in their vote share, the Democrats gained seven seats, one more than the previous election, by retaking a seat in the New Territories West. Roy Kwong, a young progressive Democrat District Councillor also received most votes of nearly 500,000 in the District Council (Second) "super seat". By taking seven seats, the Democrats retook the status of flagship pro-democracy party.
In the December leadership election, legislator Wu Chi-wai was elected new chairman uncontestedly. The Democrats supported former Financial Secretary John Tsang, making the first time a pro-democracy party to support an establishment candidate, after the pro-democrats decided not to field their candidate to boost the chance of an alternative candidate against incumbent Leung Chun-ying. The Democrats opposed former Chief Secretary for Administration Carrie Lam, the eventual winner of the election. However, the party has developed a warmer relationship with Carrie Lam government, evident in the attendance and donation of the Chief Executive to the party's 2018 anniversary dinner.
The Democrats suffered a historic loss of headcount on 12 December 2018 when 59 members, including five District Councillors from New Territories East, resigned en masse, after a row over the 2019 District Council election, accusing Legislative Councillor Lam Cheuk-ting of despicable character, his lack of political ethics and conflict of interest.
The relations between the party and Carrie Lam turned sour as the administration was embattled numerous controversies including the raising of the age threshold for the Comprehensive Social Security Assistance and the dropping of Leung Chun-ying's UGL case. Lam was not invited to the party's 24th anniversary dinner in March 2019. The relations between Lam and the party completely fell out in May 2019 over the extradition law controversy in which the Democrats strongly opposed. Party chairman Wu Chi-wai even shouted at Lam "Why don't you die? You're a waste of life, bitch!" at a LegCo meeting after Lam dismissed the opposition views as "extreme" and "unnecessary fear" and called the claims that it was a deliberate decision by the colonial government to exclude the mainland from any rendition arrangements in the 1990s as "nonsense". On 29 May, Democrat Andrew Wan moved the first motion of no confidence against Lam since she took the office on the grounds that she "blatantly lied" about the extradition bill and misled the public and the international community. The motion was defeated by the pro-Beijing majority.
Anti-extradition protest and security law (2019–)
The Democratic Party quickly warned about the possibility that the 2019 Hong Kong extradition bill could be used by China to have political dissidents extradited, and was supportive to the protestors, subsequently became the largest party in the 2019 local elections. Democratic party member Lam Cheuk-ting was injured in the 2019 Yuen Long attack. In August 2020, he was arrested on charges of rioting during that attack, and again in December 2020 for allegedly disclosing the personal information of individuals connected to it.
The Hong Kong national security law was imposed by the Chinese Government in 2020, criticised as silencing the dissidents. The Party faced political pressure from the government and pro-Beijing camp. All LegCo members from the Party resigned later that year. Some party seniors, including former chairman Wu Chi-wai, ex-MP Lam Cheuk-ting, Andrew Wan, were arrested in early 2021 and remanded for collusion. Lo Kin-hei, the chairperson, along with three ex-chairs, Albert Ho, Martin Lee, Yeung Sum, each faced various charges. Majority of the district councillors resigned in July 2021 after reports of possible disqualification for not upholding the Basic Law.
The Democratic Party did not field a candidate for the 2021 legislative election, the first time since handover of Hong Kong in 1997, after a two-week application period to nominate party members ended without a candidate stepping forward. Beijing loyalists had warned the Party not to "boycott" the election. Party divisions were exposed as Fred Li, former Democratic MP, Edith Leung, vice-chairlady, and So Yat-hang, member of the Central Committee, supported non-establishment candidate without party's consent, of which the former two were expelled from the party.
Democrats re-elected Lo Kin-hei in December 2022 as chairman, days after Lo was acquitted of participating in an unlawful assembly close to 2019 Polytechnic University siege.
Organisation
The Democratic Party is governed by a Central Committee, originally 30-member large but reduced to 10 in 2022, including one chairmanship and two vice-chairmanships elected by the party congress. All public office holders, including the members of the Legislative Council and District Councils, are eligible to vote in the party congress. The electoral method changed since 2014, the eligibility of members electing a delegate who holds one vote in the congress from 30 members each delegate to only 5 members. Candidate for the chairmanship also needs a majority to claim victory. A 14-member Executive Committee including the secretary and treasurer posts is elected by the Central Committee members. The party is currently the second largest party in the Legislative Council, having seven legislators, 37 District Councillors and around 788 members.
Factions
Mainstreamers – led by the "triumvirate", Yeung Sum, Cheung Man-kwong and Lee Wing-tat and consisting of members including Albert Ho, Sin Chung-kai and In 1999, Lee asserted that the Democratic Party should strive to serve as representative of middle class interests, and take balance between parliamentary politics and street action. Yeung and Lee were the party chairmen from 2002 to 2004 and 2004 to 2006 respectively.
Meeting Point – consisting of former members of the Meeting Point, including Lo Chi-kin, Andrew Fung and led by the former Meeting Point chairman Anthony Cheung. The Meeting Point faction prefers a more pro-middle class, pro-market and moderate agenda. It also stresses dialogue with Beijing and Hong Kong governments over struggle, and parliamentary politics over street action. Anthony Cheung quit the party in 2004 and was appointed to the Secretary for Transport and Housing by Leung Chun-ying in 2012; Andrew Fung quit the party in 2012 in an unpleasant manner and was appointed government's information coordinator in 2013.
Young Turks – consisting of the relatively radical, left-wing and pro-grassroots activists and local-level party members including Steve Chan Kwok-leung, Tsang Kin-shing, Andrew Cheng, Albert Chan and Eric Wong Chung-ki. Led by Andrew To, the Young Turks believed that the party should take struggle over dialogue and mass movements over parliamentary politics as the party's strategy. They also suggested adopting more grassroots platform such as minimum wage. The Young Turks were more like a "factional clique" than an organised faction as they were a group of young politicians with poor discipline and only had some vague common ideas, without a clear leader, coherent ideologies or positions. The Young Turks attempted to challenge the party leadership by nominating Lau Chin-shek to run for vice-chairman against Anthony Cheung in the 1998 party leadership election. Lau was expelled from the party in 2000 and Andrew To, Tsang Kin-shing and Albert Chan left the party and subsequently formed the left-wing League of Social Democrats in 2006.
Reformists – as many original Young Turks left, a new Reformist group emerged as the main opposition faction against the Mainstreamers party leadership, which included Chan King-ming who contested for chairman in the 2004 election and 2006 election and Legislative Council member Andrew Cheng. New Territories East was the Reformists' stronghold; Chan King-ming was the Chairman of the New Territories East branch and Andrew Cheng was the legislator from the same constituency. The faction was involved in alleged spying activities of China which led to the intra-party investigation in 2006. Andrew Cheng and other Reformists quit after the party supported the controversial electoral reform package. Many of them became the backbone of the Neo Democrats formed in 2010.
Electoral performance
Chief Executive elections
Legislative Council elections
Municipal elections
District Council elections
Leadership
Chairpersons
Vice-Chairpersons
Secretaries
Law Chi-kwong, 1994–1998
Cheung Yin-tung, 1998–2006
Peggy Ha Ving-vung, 2006–08
Cheung Yin-tung, 2008–14, 2016–20
Li Wing-shing, 2014–16
Treasurers
Andrew Fung Wai-kwong, 1994–2000
Wong Bing-kuen, 2000–02
Tsui Hon-kwong, 2002–06
Cheung Yin-tung, 2006–08
Tsui Hon-kwong, 2008–12
Stanley Ng, 2012–14
Ramon Yuen, 2014–18
Sin Chung-kai, 2018–21
Vice-secretaries
Mark Li Kin-yin, 2014–2016
Representatives
District Councils
The Democratic Party won 91 seats in 15 District Councils (2020–2023) and currently holds seven seats:
See also
Democratic development in Hong Kong
Liberalism in Hong Kong
Liberal democracy
List of liberal parties
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Democratic Party official site
1994 establishments in Hong Kong
Liberal parties in Asia
Political parties established in 1994
Political parties in Hong Kong
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalton%20Gang
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Dalton Gang
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The Dalton Gang was a group of outlaws in the American Old West during 1890–1892. It was also known as The Dalton Brothers because four of its members were brothers. The gang specialized in bank and train robberies. During an attempted double bank robbery in Coffeyville, Kansas in 1892, two of the brothers and two other gang members were killed; Emmett Dalton survived, was captured, and later pleaded guilty to second-degree murder, although he later asserted that he never fired a shot during the robbery. He was paroled after serving 14 years in prison.
Brothers Bob, "Grat", and Emmett had first worked as lawmen for the federal court at Fort Smith, Arkansas and then for the Osage Nation. They started stealing horses to make more money, and then fled the area. They decided to form a gang and started robbing trains and banks. While their older brother "Bill" Dalton never joined any heists, he served as their spy and informant.
Due to the sensationalism that surrounded the Dalton Gang's exploits, they were accused of robberies all over the country but operated chiefly in California, Kansas, Oklahoma Territory, and Indian Territory. Numerous myths were published about the gang. After Bob and Grat were killed at Coffeyville, Bill Dalton formed another gang with Bill Doolin, known as the Wild Bunch or the Dalton-Doolin Gang.
Beginnings
James Lewis Dalton from Jackson County, Missouri and Kentucky was the father of all four boys. He was a saloon keeper in Kansas City, Missouri when he married Adeline Lee Younger. Through her half-brother, Adeline was an aunt of Cole and Jim Younger, of the famous James-Younger Gang. Although the Daltons may have been inspired by their famous cousins' exploits, the Youngers were ironically much older and were in prison at the time of the Dalton Gang's activities.
The Dalton children were:
Charles Benjamin "Ben" Dalton (1852–1936)
Henry Coleman "Cole" Dalton (1853–1920)
Littleton "Lit" Lee Dalton (1857–1942)
Franklin "Frank" Dalton (1859–1887)
Gratton Hanley "Grat" Dalton (1861–1892)
Mason Frakes "Bill" Dalton (1863–1894)
Eva May Dalton (1867–1939)
Robert Rennick "Bob" Dalton (1869–1892)
Emmett Dalton (1871–1937)
Leona Randolph Dalton (1875–1964)
Nancy May Dalton (1876–1901)
Simon Noel "Si" Dalton (1878–1928)
The brothers who were members of the Dalton Gang were Bob, Grat, Emmett, and Bill.
Lawmen
On November 27, 1887, Frank Dalton and another deputy marshal, Jim Cole, went across the river from Fort Smith to arrest three whiskey bootleggers. As they approached the camp the bootleggers began to fire on them. Frank shot and killed two, but his gun jammed and he was killed by the remaining bootlegger. His deputy abandoned him after being wounded. Frank is buried in Coffeyville, Kansas.
After Frank's death, Grat moved back from California and took over his brother's job as deputy marshal at Fort Smith. He also brought Bob along as a posse member. In August 1888, the two formed a posse to arrest a man named Charley Montgomery. Montgomery was alleged to be posing as a deputy marshal. Bob discovered his location in Timber Hills while Grat was away searching in Coffeyville and went ahead to lead the posse in making the arrest himself before Montgomery could escape the territory. The stakeout ended in Montgomery’s death.
In January 1889, Grat and Bob both became deputies first under Marshal Jones and later under Marshal R.L. Walker in Wichita. Looking to earn more money, Bob also became part of the Osage Nation police force in addition to his job as a deputy. Unlike the marshals office, the Osage Police paid a monthly salary. Bob also hired Emmett under him to guard prisoners.
Outlaws
Alila Robbery
On the night of February 6, 1891, two masked men carrying 44-calibre revolvers held up a Southern Pacific Railroad passenger train near the town of Alila (present day Earlimart, California). The outlaws had worn masks during the Alila robbery, concealing their identities. Some years later, Lit Dalton asserted that Bob and Emmett had told him many times that they had robbed the train.
Bob and Emmett were hiding out in a ranch barn a mile west of Malaga, and after arriving the brothers talked until morning. Lit noticed that Grat's horse was indeed limp and agreed to help Grat sell it. Since the horse was lame, they could only get $60 for it and Grat was unable to find another horse afterwards. Grat shipped his saddle and riding rig to Delano and took the train to Traver where he met Bob and Emmett. They played poker all night in Traver and then traveled to Tulare to do the same. They had been following the Southern Pacific pay car as it made its way down the valley from Oakland to Bakersfield to pay railroad employees. This train was always accompanied by a crowd of gamblers and prostitutes, and Grat and Bob had "followed the pay car" together several times before.
Pursuit Across the Southwest
In the two weeks following the robbery, Bob and Emmett hid out in the mountains near Bill's ranch. Bill left his brothers supplies and food and obtained horses to evade pursuit.
Despite these efforts, Bill was arrested in Paso Robles by Sheriff Kay and taken to Visalia. After a hearing, Bill was held for trial for the Alila robbery, but he secured bondsmen and was released.
Sheriff Kay decided to pursue Bob and Emmett with his deputy, Jim Ford.
Kay tracked the Daltons to their mother's home, and kept watch of the house for a few days before being forced to return to Kingfisher because of bad weather. When he returned the next day to watch the house, he discovered that Bob and Emmett had escaped. Kay talked to their mother for several hours and she even invited him in for breakfast. She denied any wrongdoing by her sons, stating that they were in fact lawmen, and told Kay they had gone to Guthrie if he wanted to talk with them.
Kay and Ford traveled the fifty miles to Guthrie, but soon came into problems when dealing with different tribal jurisdictions. At Guthrie, Kay and Ford noticed that there had been some sort of celebration the night before as they were greeted by three white men hanging from a large tree at the entrance to town and noticed the streets were lined with several groups of black men playing Craps on the sidewalks. Kay found out that, before they had arrived, Bob and Emmett had got into a fight at one of the saloons there and badly beat up two cowboys before leaving for Topeka.
Sheriff Kay was forced to give up the chase in order to return to California for Grat's trial. The Daltons had plenty of friends in the area willing to hide them and easily lost Kay once they were in familiar territory. After they realized they were no longer being pursued, Bob and Emmett began to form what would be known as the Dalton Gang.
Grat's Trial
For the four months that Bob and Emmett spent trying to lose Sheriff Kay in the desert, Grat sat in the Tulare County jail in Visalia awaiting his trial. After securing bondsmen, Bill immediately went to Merced and hired John W. Beckenridge, the best attorney in the San Joaquin Valley, to defend Grat. What Bill didn't know is that Beckenridge was also a consulting attorney for the Southern Pacific railroad. To help pay him the two thousand dollars he asked for, Bill sold almost all of his horses and mules. Their mother also came to California from Kingfisher to pay Beckenridge after she mortgaged her home and borrowed money from neighbors. She then traveled to Visalia with her two daughters, as well as her sons Ben, Cole, Lit and Bill, for Grat's trial.
Grat's trial didn't start until that June and it lasted three weeks. Though much of the evidence showed that Grat was in Fresno the night of the Alila robbery, including the testimony of several witnesses, the influence of the powerful Southern Pacific Railroad caused him to receive an unfair trial. Beckenridge showed up to the trial late and drunk, and neither the defense, nor the prosecution mentioned that the fireman had been accidentally killed by the expressman. This was unknown to Grat, since the Dalton brothers had all assumed that Emmett had killed the fireman. Almost all of Beckenridge's witnesses were bar keepers, gamblers, saloon hanger-ons, or pimps. Sheriff Kay even pointed out during the trial that Beckenridge had overlooked Grat's rights. Southern Pacific detective Will Smith visited Grat's cell almost every day during the trial trying to get a confession out of him and Grat began to despise Smith.
Kay knew that, besides Beckenridge's sabotage of the case, Grat would probably be found innocent and their case against Bob and Emmett would fall through.
Towards the end of the trial, Sheriff Kay, Detective Smith, and District Attorney Power talked to Grat while taking him back to his cell from the court room when Beckenridge wasn't present. Kay told Grat that he knew neither Bob or Emmett killed the fireman. He offered to admit this in court if Grat and Bill told the true story of the robbery. Detective Smith decided to chime in, but Grat said he wouldn't say a word while Smith was present. Smith was told to leave and both Bill and Grat agreed to tell their story, but only if they showed that there was no first degree murder in the robbery. The Daltons told their stories, but neither Kay or Beckenridge ever cleared up the murder point and ruined Grat's case.
Ceres Robbery
Grat was taken back to jail to await his sentence. While in jail, a train robbery occurred near Ceres, on September 3, 1891, but was unsuccessful with no money being taken. The only evidence found at the robbery was a coat made from a tailor from Visalia. Kay suspected that this was probably the work of some suspects he had from Visalia, but the railroad detectives demanded the arrest of the remaining Dalton brothers. Kay telegraphed his deputy George Witty and told him to check on Bill Dalton and to immediately notify him when he was found. Kay checked on his Visalia suspects, who at the time were running a livery stable in Modesto, and was convinced they were not involved with the Ceres robbery. He then went to Fresno to check on Lit and Cole Dalton, and was convinced of the same.
When Kay returned to Visalia, he immediately went with detective Smith to the tailor of the coat found at the Ceres robbery. The tailor remembered the coat, but he couldn't remember who had bought it, only that some girl had picked it up once it was clean. After Kay finished talking to the cleaner, Deputy George Witty reported to him that telegrams from the coast said Bill was not in Paso Robles or Estrella. Neither was he in Merced or Livingston. Witty did have a clue from another deputy that two strange men had been seen hanging around after dark on the open plain near Traver and at the abandoned Overland Stage station at Cross Creek. Kay suspected that Bob and Emmett might be back in California to free Grat from jail, and took Deputy Witty with him to the Cross Creek station in his buggy.
Late in the afternoon, Kay and Witty were about four hundred yards from the station when they saw two men crouching as they crossed the road from the old stage barn to the station. Kay's buggy was directly facing the setting sun, so they could not tell who the men were. The road curved behind some willow trees, and Kay told Witty to drive past the house, passing close to the door, and then to drive back. With his revolver in hand, Kay dropped to the ground as they passed the door and slowly entered the station. Maggie Rucker, the woman who once ran the Cross Creek Overland station, was sitting with another girl alone in the front room, silently making dresses. Kay asked Rucker if there was anyone else around and she replied that there wasn't. Right as she said this, Kay heard someone rush across the floor of an adjoining room and through the crack in the door he could see a man taking position at the window.
Kay moved quietly across the floor and pushed the door a little farther open with his revolver. Standing with his back towards him was Bill Dalton, watching the horses and buggy Kay had just left, while nervously working the lever of his winchester. Kay nudged the door open with his elbow, aimed his revolver at Bill and said, "Bill! Hello!". Bill, thrown off his guard, quickly turned around and mimicked the greeting, "Kay! Hello!". He then threw the butt of his winchester to the ground and the two nervously laughed at each other. Kay had Bill put his rifle down, backed him into the front room, and checked him for any other weapons. When they came back into the front room both Maggie Rucker and the girl remained quiet as they both expected Kay to have been killed.
Deputy Witty entered shortly after, and was told by Kay to go in the room and grab Bill's rifle. As Witty entered the room, he heard a noise come from somewhere inside. Thinking it might be Bob, Kay demanded that Bill tell him where he was. Bill told Kay that Bob was not in the country, that he had stopped at Rucker's place alone to spend the night. Kay knew this was untrue as he had seen two men cross the road. He soon discovered a worn place in the carpet and found a trap door hidden underneath. He had Bill lift the carpet and open the trap door and, instead of Bob, they discovered a man named Riley Dean, a saloon hanger-on from Visalia and Traver. It became apparent to Kay that Bill had been busy hiding Dean when he arrived, otherwise they would have heard him come in. Kay decided to place both men under arrest and took them to Visalia.
After Bill and Riley Dean were brought to the Visalia jail, Sheriff Pervis of Stanislaus County, S.P. detective Will Smith, and Wells Fargo detectives Hume and Thacker arrived to bring the two men to Modesto to stand trial for the Ceres robbery. When Bill and Dean were acquitted, Bill was rearrested by Kay after his bondsmen were convinced to withdraw by detective Hume. He was then taken back to Visalia to await his trial for the Alila robbery.
Bill was interviewed by the Fresno Expositor in September 1891 saying, "The truth is I am like Paddy Miles' boy --- no matter what goes wrong or what depredation is committed, Bill Dalton is always charged with the same."
Formation of the Gang
Bob and Emmett, meanwhile, had been busy in Oklahoma forming their gang. After their unsuccessful career in California, they decided they could do much better in their home country, and unlike their first attempts, they began carefully planning their robberies. As a former lawman, Bob knew the difficulty officers had enforcing laws in Indian and Oklahoma Territories. While the Indian Nations had their own tribal law enforcement, these agencies had no jurisdiction over non-Indians. The newly formed Oklahoma Territory had organized their own sheriff and city police departments, but there was so far very little cooperation between them. The only agency with jurisdiction over the whole territory was the U.S. Marshals Service, but it was quickly becoming fragmented due to power struggles between newly formed district courts and jealousy between marshals over their different jurisdictions. There was also little incentive among Deputy Marshals to search for potentially dangerous outlaws, their only pay being for fees and a set amount for each criminal they arrested. Unless there was a high enough reward being offered, they would instead choose to focus their attention on petty criminals.
With Bob as the leader, the boys recruited mostly men who had grown up with them in Oklahoma. First recruited were George "Bitter Creek" Newcomb and "Blackfaced" Charlie Bryant, who had received his nickname because of a gunpowder burn on one cheek. Even though Sheriff Kay had given up his pursuit of the boys, they still had a $3000 bounty on their heads posted by Wells Fargo and the Southern Pacific Railroad, encouraging lawmen in the area to pick up where Kay had left off. Leading the pursuit was Bob's old friend, Deputy Marshal Heck Thomas, whose renown skills as a deputy kept the gang constantly on the move and in hiding. Angered by the charges against Grat and Bill which he knew to be false, Bob decided that the best way to help his brothers would be to acquire enough money to pay for their bail and defense. This resulted in the first robbery at Whorton, May 1891, where the gang stole $1200.
Joining afterwards were Bill Doolin, Dick Broadwell, Bill Powers, and Charley Pierce. The gang was also assisted by Bob's lover Eugenia Moore, known by her aliases "Tom King" and "Miss Mundays", who acted as their informant, but was also a notorious horse thief and outlaw.
When not preying on the railroads, the gang spent their time digging out large rooms into the steep hills in the cedar brakes on the Northern Canadian River. This was on the property of a man named Jim Riley, about eight miles from the present-day town of Taloga, Oklahoma. The deep canyons of the area, covered with dwarf cedar and blackjack oaks, made it an ideal hiding place. Riley would feed the outlaws, and would do the same for any passing officers, but he would never reveal each other's whereabouts to either parties.
In August 1891, Charlie Bryant was spotted in Hennessey, Oklahoma, after leaving the gang's hideout to visit his brother in Mulhall. The locals who identified him notified a deputy marshal named Ed Short. He arrested Bryant and took him on a train to be committed to the jail at Wichita, Kansas, without notifying Marshal Grimes at Fort Smith. Ignoring the advice of the people in Hennessy, he also took the prisoner without a guard. After the train left Hennessey, and was approaching the stop at Waukomis, Oklahoma, Short noticed a group of mounted men who looked as if they were trying to beat the train, and feared it was the Dalton Gang coming to free Bryant. Short took the prisoner back and placed him in the baggage car. He then put the baggage man in charge of Bryant and gave him his revolver. Short then went to the rear platform with his rifle. The baggageman carelessly stuck the revolver into a pigeon-hole messagebox and went to work at the other end of the car. Without making any noise, Bryant went to the messagebox and secured the revolver. He then ordered the baggageman to ignore him and to go back to his work. Bryant opened the door to the rear platform, and, while Short had his attention on the mounted men, shot him in the back point blank. Short then turned and the two shot each other to death.
The second train robbery by the Dalton Gang in Oklahoma was at a small station called Lelietta on September 15, 1891, about four miles north of Wagoner, Oklahoma. Here, they secured more than $19,000. Many members of the gang, including Emmett, complained that the $3500 each was not enough to meet their needs. Bill Doolin complained that Bob was not dividing the money fairly, and accused Bob of squandering their money on women and gamblers. Doolin quit the gang, along with Newcomb and Pierce, due to the mismanagement of finances.
Grat's Escape
On September 21, Grat Dalton was brought into court to face sentencing, but this was instead postponed to October 6. This was a date that Grat had no intention on making. Rumors had circulated for months that Bob had planned to come and liberate Grat, so two of sheriff Kay's deputies, Jim Wagy and Bob Hockett, had been hired by Wells Fargo to guard Grat's cell until he was sentenced and sent to San Quentin. This was in addition to the jailer, J.M. Williams. One night, Jim Wagy heard a noise in the basement and upon investigation discovered that someone had tried to break the lock to the grated window. He decided to watch the outside of the place at night to see if he could catch in the act whoever was trying to open the grating. Wagy hid all night in a yard across the street but saw nothing. Instead he caught a cold from sitting in the fog all night. The next morning, Grat called Wagy over to his cell and asked him where he got such a cold. Wagy told him that he must've slept in a draft, to which Grat replied, "Yes, it must have been pretty cold in the yard over there last night." Grat could not see the yard Wagy had laid in from his cell and the deputy hadn't told anyone what he had done that night. Expecting there to be an escape, and because none of the other deputies would listen to him, Wagy decided to quit.
On the night of September 27, Grat and two cellmates, Arvil Beck and W.B. Smith, escaped from the Tulare County jail in Visalia while Sheriff Kay was in San Francisco. At first, it looked to Kay as if it had been an inside job as it was obvious Grat had simply unlocked the cell door with a key and broke through the basement window to get out. They did however find pieces of a file and a hack saw blade in the prisoner's toilet. Bill had been in a separate cell from Grat, located upstairs. When approached by Kay, Bill told him, "The boys were there when I went to sleep, and when I awakened they had unlocked and gone. Why in the world do you suppose they went away and left me behind?"
Jim Wagy also showed up after the break out to overlook the scene. By that time, Bill had been moved downstairs into what was Grat's cell. When Jim approached Bill said, "Jim, the birds have flown." When they entered the cell, Bill took out his guitar, sat on a soap box, leaned against the bars of the corridor and began to play a popular song he put his own words to and titled, "You'll Never Miss My Brother Till He's Gone". While Bill was playing his guitar, Wagy noticed that he was trying to cover up where the break had been made. One of the bars had been cut out and replaced with a broom handle blackened by soot. Wagy said, "Here is your hole", and kicked the broom handle onto the floor. Bill immediately threw his guitar on the bed and exclaimed, "Now what in the world do you know about that? How did they ever cut that bar out without my knowing it?"
Most officers believed that Grat immediately escaped the county, but Sheriff Kay thought otherwise. After spending a few weeks tracking and arresting Arvil Beck and W.B. Smith, Sheriff Kay learned from them that Grat had actually made the opening in the bars several days before the robbery after being slipped a saw from someone on the outside. The sawing was hid from the jailer by a large box that they would put a blanket over and use to play cards. The cellmates would sing and talk to drown out the sound of the saw. Each time they stopped sawing, they plugged the hole with soap and soot. After making the opening, they ran around the corridors, kitchen, and basement for several nights. This is why Grat was able to notice Deputy Wagy hiding in a yard across the street from the jail. The last night they dug a hole in the brickwall of the woodroom, but found heavy iron bars embedded in the wall that they couldn't get in between. They used the bar they had cut out to pry open the grating in the wood room window and, instead of risking going and putting it back, left the broom handle in its place.
After the escape, Beck separated from the others and went north, while Grat and Smith went to a friend of Grat's named Joe Middleton, who lived in Hanford. Grat and Middleton told Smith they planned to hide out in the Coast Range and invited him to come with them. Smith instead went north and several weeks later was arrested by Kay. Threatened with prison time, Smith told Kay that Middleton could be followed to Dalton's camp when he carried him supplies.
After having a deputy watch Middleton's place, he learned that Middleton was buying enough groceries to last three months and was seen driving east of Sanger. When Middleton returned, Kay arrested him at his home and threatened to send him to San Quentin if he didn't give up Grat's hideout. Middleton had been threatened by Dalton for not helping him escape the country fast enough and was afraid of him. He told Kay that Grat's camp was on a steep mountain in the Sierra Nevada, close to the Kings River and about fifteen miles northeast of Sanger, but that they would never find the place. The mountain was a natural fortress, rocky and heavily wooded, with a good view of the surrounding countryside. This mountain would later be known as Dalton Mountain. He also said that Grat was accompanied by Riley Dean, the man who had been arrested with Bill for the Ceres robbery, as well as a dog. Kay promised Middleton secrecy, and a horse and buggy, if he led him to within a half mile of Dalton's camp.
Since Grat's location was in Fresno County, Kay telegraphed Sheriff Hensley in Fresno, and the two made plans to assemble a posse in Centerville. After pointing out the location of the camp, Middleton left in a hurry and the two posses spent the night on the living room floor of the nearby Elwood ranch. The next day, Christmas Eve, 1891, the posse of both Sheriff Kay and Sheriff Hensley woke up at three in the morning and ascended the mountain to Dalton's camp. It had been raining for several days prior, and it was so cold the ground was covered in ice. The posse reached Dalton's camp at nine and split into two groups in order to surround the camp, Kay leading one and Hensley the other. Kay and his men made their way to a rock ledge that Middleton told them would bring them within a few feet above Dalton's camp.
From their position, Kay and his deputies were fifty yards from Dalton and Dean, who were both discussing their plan to hunt one of Elwood's hogs for Christmas dinner. Kay's deputies were carrying ten gauge, double-barrel shotguns, loaded with buckshot, and they leveled them at Dalton. There was a moment where Dalton could have been shot in cold blood, and some of Kay's deputies wanted to do it, but Kay and Hensley wouldn't allow it. Grat and Riley then made their way out of camp with their rifles on their backs and Kay decided they would set up an ambush and wait for their return. The men split into three groups to cover all approaches to the camp.
Sheriff Hensley and deputy Ed McCardle where guarding a trail that led to the summit of small and narrow ridge. Around eleven, they noticed Dalton and Dean returning from their hunt, so they sent deputy Perry Byrd to go and retrieve Kay. They hid behind some rocks and an oak tree and waited as one of the men approached them. They waited until the heavy bearded, two-hundred and thirty pound man was thirty feet from them. The lawmen aimed their rifles at the man and Hensley ordered him to drop his rifle and unbuckle his revolver belt. The man was Riley Dean and he did as he was told. Hensley grabbed Dean and took him over the ridge to Kay so they could handcuff him to an oak tree.
Right as Hensley left, deputy McCardle heard the sound of footsteps come from the same direction where they had spotted Dean. He then saw Grat begin to approach over the hill and planned to wait until he was thirty feet from him before making an arrest. Right before the deputy ordered Grat to drop his weapon, a dog appeared ten feet from Grat and began barking at the lawman. Grat and McCardle fired at each other almost simultaneously. Grat lowered his winchester, fired, and the jumped behind cover all in one quick motion. McCardle's bullet flew straight over Dalton, but Grat's bullet struck the tree within inches of McCardle's face and filled his eyes with bark. Grat dropped to the ground and rolled into a gulch about ten feet away. He then quickly charged down the mountainside tearing through the brush.
The posse tried firing at Grat through the brush, but he managed to run the mile back to Elwood's ranch. Judson Elwood was plowing his six-horse team when he heard the shots up the mountain. He began walking behind his plow when he felt a rifle poke him in the ribs. Grat ordered Elwood to unhitch one of his horses, which he did. Grat rode away from the house, jumped the horse over an old rock fence, and began yelling and firing his revolver in the air so that Dean would know that he had escaped. He then rode away with the dog running ahead of him.
Grat first rode to Charles Owen's ranch across from Clovis Cole where he stayed for a few days. Officers were watching Lit at Clovis Cole's, but didn't think to watch Owen's place. Grat then rode to a home seven miles south of Livingston, the home of his friend ex-supervisor W.W. Gray. The weather conditions during his escape led him to becoming sick with pneumonia, so he stayed near Livingston for several weeks, sleeping in Gray's cupola and watching the surrounding plains with an eyeglass for any sight of a posse. When Grat recovered, he was able to escape with the help of his brother Cole. They cut through Antelope Valley and skirted the desert down to San Diego County before taking the old trail to Yuma. The two left California in February 1892 and rode for a hundred and seven days before reaching Kingfisher. By the time Grat reached his mother's he had lost forty pounds. Cole had split up with Grat at Gila Bend, Arizona after the two got in argument in which Cole was trying to convince Grat not to join Bob and Emmett.
Oklahoma
Grat returned to Oklahoma in the spring of 1892 and shortly afterward joined his brothers gang. Some time later, the three dissatisfied members also returned and new plans began to form. Bill had returned to Oklahoma several months earlier, living at his mother's house near Kingsfisher. After being found innocent by a Visalia jury, Bill was acquitted and released on October 15. He then sold the lease to his ranch in San Luis Obispo County, moved his family to his wife's parents in Livingston, California, and left for Kingfisher. Though he did not participate in any of the hold-ups with his brothers, he acted as their spy and advisor.
On June 1, 1892, the gang robbed the Santa Fe train at a small station called Red Rock at 10pm. Here, the Santa Fe had found out about the Daltons' plans and attempted to set up a trap for the gang, filling the train with heavily armed officers. They made the mistake of leaving the train dark, though, which made Bob suspicious, and the gang allowed the train to go by. They then robbed the next train a few minutes later, securing about $50,000. The $50,000, however, came out to only $1800 after drafts and securities had been thrown out. After splitting the money among themselves, the gang soon realized they needed to rob another train.
The night before the robbery at Red Rock, Judge Burford, US District Attorney for Oklahoma Horace Speed, and deputy marshal George Yoes (son of Marshal Jacob Yoes, the Daltons former employer at Fort Smith) were sitting in a hotel lobby in Kingfisher, where they were talking about the cases that would be in court the next day. Bill Dalton came into the hotel lobby and began to speak to deputy Yoes in a loud voice, so everyone around them could hear. At 10pm he looked at his watch and announced to Yoes aloud that it was his bedtime, but that he would be back to have breakfast with him in the morning. After he left, the judge asked Yoes who the man was, as he seemed educated and well-informed. Yoes told the judge that he was Bill Dalton, the brother of the notorious train robbers, and the judge asked him to introduce them when he came to breakfast. Bill arrived for breakfast like he said, and the four of them took the same table. At about 8am, a telegraph messenger came into the room and handed the deputy marshal a telegram, reporting the robbery at Red Rock by the Daltons at 10pm the previous night. The deputy handed the message to Judge Burford, who read it aloud to the audience. As soon as the judge had finished, Bill announced, "Well, I can prove that I was not there, and not by accident either."
The next robbery was on July 14, at Adair, Oklahoma, near the Arkansas border. At the station, the gang took what they could find in the express and baggage rooms. They sat to wait for the next train on a bench on the platform, talking and smoking, with their Winchester rifles across their knees. When the train came in at 9:45 pm, they backed a wagon up to the express car and unloaded all the contents. The eight armed guards on the train all happened to be at the back of the train when it pulled in. They fired at the bandits through the car windows and from behind the train. In the gunfight, 200 shots were fired. None of the Dalton gang was hit. Doctors W. L. Goff and Youngblood were sitting on the porch of the drug store near the depot. Both men were hit several times by stray shots; Dr Goff was fatally wounded. Also wounded were captains Kinney and LaFlore, but they recovered. The gang secured about $18,000. They were also accused of robbing a bank in El Reno, Oklahoma, on July 28, but this was based on little evidence, as no one identified any members of the gang.
After the robbery at Adair, officials of the Missouri-Kansas-Texas Railroad offered a reward of $40,000 for anyone who could capture and convict the Dalton Gang, and a reward of $5,000 for the arrest of any of them.
Coffeyville bank robbery
Bob Dalton had ambitions. He would, he claimed, "beat anything Jesse James ever did—rob two banks at once, in broad daylight." On October 5, 1892, the Dalton gang attempted this feat when they set out to rob the C.M. Condon & Company's Bank and the First National Bank on opposite sides of the street in Coffeyville, Kansas. Bob had planned the entire robbery. Emmett, however, was against the idea. He had gone to school at Robbins Corners near Coffeyville, and knew several hundred people in town. He was afraid some of his friends would be hurt, but Bob assured him there would not be any shooting, and that it would all be over before anyone knew what happened. The plan was that Bob and Emmett were to rob the First National Bank while Grat, Broadwell, and Powers robbed the Condon Bank across the street. Emmett thought Grat would mess things up if he went alone with Powers and Broadwell, and thought they should trade places. This led to a heavy argument between Bob and Emmett and created bitterness between them on the way to the robbery.
Bob had planned for the gang to tie their horses to a post behind the Condon Bank, where it was protected from the center of town by brick walls. They had not been to the town for several years, though, and the hitching post had since been removed during street work. Bob would not allow Emmett to check out the town beforehand in fear that he would be recognized, so this was not factored into their plan. When they arrived, Bob had to think quickly, and decided instead to tie their horses in an alley across from the bank to the west, near the city jail, which offered them little protection. This is now known as Dalton Alley.
On the morning of October 5, the gang emerged from the alley onto the plaza of Coffeyville. A storekeeper who was sweeping the sidewalk a few feet away noticed Bob, Emmett, and even Grat, who was wearing a fake mustache, and ran inside his store. In close order, the five crossed Walnut Street from the alley to the Condon Bank, holding Winchester rifles close along their legs. Grat, Broadwell, and Powers entered the Condon Bank and Emmett and Bob hurried across Union Street to the First National Bank. Street work was being done at the time, and one of the workers noticed the men dog-trotting across the alley with rifles, and began to yell, "The Daltons are robbing the bank!" Very soon, half the businessmen around the plaza knew what was going on, and the message quickly passed throughout the town.
Grat entered the Condon Bank and pointed his Winchester at the cashier, ordering his hands up, while Powers and Broadwell took positions at the door. Grat went to the back office and ordered the manager into the front, he then handed the cashier a sack bag and ordered him to fill it with cash from the money drawer. Then, noticing the vault door was open, Grat ordered both of them into the vault, where the safe with the gold was. When told to open the safe, the manager lied, telling Grat it was a time lock and that it would not open for another 10 minutes. Grat believed him and decided he would wait until it opened. He then ordered the bags of silver on the vault floor into his bag, containing $1000 and weighing about 200 lb.
Meanwhile, Emmett and Bob had entered the First National Bank, covered the officers and two customers, and ordered the cashier, Thomas Ayres, to open the safe with gold and cash. They put the gold into the sack, forced Ayres in front of them as cover, and went out the front door. They had planned to meet with Grat and cross the plaza to the alley, where they could make their escape, but word of the robbery had spread through town. As they exited the door, an American Express agent opened fire with his revolver. Bob and Emmett returned fire and left Ayres on the sidewalk. They turned around, and went through the back door, carrying both rifles and sack bags, while taking two other bank employees as cover.
Grat heard the revolver shots from the Express agent. He then decided the sack bag was too heavy to carry, and ordered the silver taken out, then stashed what cash he could fit into his coat pockets. Two hardware stores in the town had, meanwhile, begun passing out guns to the local civilians, who began firing through the windows at the Condon Bank. The three returned fire and held out, waiting for the time lock to open. Several civilians were wounded in the fighting.
When Emmett and Bob went out the back door of the First National Bank, they were met by Lucius Baldwin, who had been watching the door with his pistol. Bob ordered him to drop the gun, and when he failed to answer, shot him with his Winchester, killing him. Bob and Emmett then made their way to the end of the back alley onto Eighth Street, where they could hear the townspeople shooting at the Condon Bank. Outside of a drug store across from the First National, George Cubine was standing with his Winchester aimed at the front door of the bank, awaiting the exit of Bob and Emmett. Bob shot him in the head, killing him. Cubine's partner, Charles Brown, was standing unarmed next to him and went to pick up his Winchester. As he lifted the rifle up, Bob shot and killed him.
After being left on the sidewalk by Bob and Emmett, Thomas Ayres had run into one of the hardware stores and grabbed a rifle. He spotted Bob just as he had killed Brown and aimed his rifle at him from behind the store window. Bob saw Ayres from about 200 ft away and quickly shot him in the head. Ayres was not killed, but he remained paralyzed for life.
In the midst of the shooting, Powers told Grat he had been hit in the arm. Grat ordered the employees to lay on the floor in the back office, and after receiving the signal from Bob, told Powers and Broadwell that it was time to leave. The three went out the side door crouching and dashing across Walnut Street to the alley where they had hitched their horses. Bob and Emmett met Grat and the others in the alley, the sacks of money still over their arms.
As the Daltons made their way west down the alley towards the horses, Town Marshal Charles T. Connelly came through the livery stable into the alley and ran east towards the plaza without noticing the bandits behind him. Grat then shot him in the head and killed him. Following behind Marshal Connelly was John Kloehr, still in the stable. Grat noticed him, but before he could aim, Kloehr shot him in the throat.
Taking fire from the hardware store, Bob was hit in the head and the heart, killing him instantly. Powers tried to mount his horse, but shots from the store also killed him. Emmett was able to mount his horse unwounded, and began riding away, but after noticing Bob was hit, turned around and attempted to lift Bob onto his horse. Emmett was then hit in the back with a load of buckshot. Broadwell was hit several times, but managed to ride away. He was found 2 miles away, dead.
Bill Dalton and Bill Doolin had been waiting several miles away with extra horses to aid the gang's escape. After getting tired of waiting, they left, only to learn later the fate of the gang.
Grat and Bob Dalton, Dick Broadwell, and Bill Powers were all killed. Emmett Dalton received 23 gunshot wounds and survived (he was shot through the right arm, below the shoulder, through the left – right, in some accounts – hip and groin, and received 18-23 buckshot in his back). He was given a life sentence in the Kansas State Penitentiary in Lansing, Kansas, of which he served 14 years before being pardoned. He moved to Hollywood, California, and became a real estate agent, author, and actor, and died in 1937 at age 66. Bill Doolin, "Bitter Creek" Newcomb, and Charlie Pierce, none of whom was at Coffeyville, were the only members left of the original Dalton Gang.
Years after the robberies and his release from prison, Emmett Dalton said that the relentless pressure put on them by Deputy US Marshal Heck Thomas as he hunted for them was a key factor in his gang's decision to commit the robberies. They hoped that a big haul from the banks would allow them to leave the territory and escape Thomas' heat.
Afterward
For a time, Bill Doolin and his partners operated under outlaw Henry Starr (Cherokee), hiding out about 75 miles northeast of Kingfisher, from where they made several raids. Doolin, Newcomb, and Pierce visited the Daltons' mother in Kingfisher to console her after her sons' deaths. Brothers Lit and Bill Dalton were also visiting their mother, and Doolin proposed that they join his group to avenge their brothers. Bill Dalton agreed to join them and soon took part in several robberies, but Lit refused in disgust. Henry Starr was arrested in 1893 and held for trial at Fort Smith.
As Doolin and Dalton were accepted as leaders of the gang, it became known as the Doolin-Dalton Gang, and also as the Wild Bunch. Dalton took part in several robberies with the Wild Bunch, including a gun battle on September 1, 1893, at Ingalls, Oklahoma Territory, where three deputy U. S. marshals were killed. Eventually, Bill Dalton left Doolin to form his own Dalton Gang. On May 23, 1894, Dalton and his new gang robbed the First National Bank at Longview, Texas. During the robbery, one member of the gang and four citizens were killed in a shootout. This was the gang's only job. After the gang separated with their share of the loot, Bill hid out with his family in a cabin near Elk, Indian Territory. A posse assembled by U.S. Marshal S.T. Lindsey in Ardmore, Oklahoma, tracked him to the cabin and surrounded it on June 8, 1894. Bill escaped through a window at the back of the house, but as he ran through a patch of corn he was shot and killed by the deputy marshals.
Lit, the last surviving Dalton brother, responded to a book written by his brother Emmett after the latter's death. Lit said that Emmett's book, When the Daltons Rode (1931), was largely fabrication. Emmett had denied accompanying Bob to California. On his death bed, Emmett told Frank Forrest Latta that he had robbed a train in California, and had used the alias William McElhanie. He asked Latta not to publish the information until after his death.
In her unpublished novella, Grat Dalton's Ride, Eva Evans, the daughter of the famous California outlaw Chris Evans, tells the story of Grat Dalton's escape from California after the Alila robbery. In it she implied that her father was the one who helped Grat Dalton escape from the Visalia Jail, lending credibility to an earlier claim made by Sheriff Gene Kay of this being true. Most of Sheriff Kay's information on Chris Evans came from his deputy Perry Byrd, who also happened to be Evans' brother-in-law, but Kay had other supporting information as well.
Chris Evans and Grat Dalton had become friends while working together in Tulare County during the summer of 1888, at the Grangers Bank of California's wheat warehouses in Tipton and Pixley. This would've been while Grat was on active duty as Deputy Marshal in Indian Territory, but Sheriff Kay claimed that Grat had told him that he had made two extended trips to California while serving as U.S. Marshal. This was also confirmed by Lit Dalton, who had owned a saloon in San Miguel from 1889 to 1890. He claimed that Bob, Grat, and Emmett had all made at least two trips to Bill's ranch in California during that time and that at least one of them would show up to his saloon to get a gallon demijohn full of whiskey to bring back to the rest.
Sometime before the Alila robbery, but after Grat, Bob and Emmett had all arrived at Bill's ranch in 1890, Grat had been rumored to have been in possession of rare two dollar bills. This was only a few months after $2,000 in rare two dollar bills had been stolen during a train robbery outside of Goshen (a robbery later attributed to Chris Evans and John Sontag). Grat had already been known in the San Joaquin Valley as a heavy drinker, fighter, and gambler, so when Kay passed Grat on the street while in Modesto his deputy George Witty was easily able to recognize him. Kay stopped Grat in the street and said, "Say, I hear you have some two-dollar bills. I haven't seen one since I left Missouri. Let me look at one." Kay noticed the bills were perfectly new and asked Grat where he got them. Grat began to say something about a horse, but then became suspicious. Knowing Grat must've sold or hired a horse, Kay sent Witty to investigate while he kept Grat in sight. Kay hung around Grat for a few hours and talked to him most of the time until Witty returned. Witty had gone to the livery stable in Modesto, at the time being jointly run by Chris Evans and John Sontag, and learned that Grat had sold the horse to Evans who in turn gave him the two dollar bills. Evans, however, claimed that he had received the bills from the Sol Sweet store after cashing a check there. Kay apologized to Grat and let him go, but upon visiting the Sol Sweet store Kay learned that Evans had received gold instead of two dollar bills when cashing his check. Kay did not think much of this until later, when Perry Byrd mentioned Chris breaking Grat out of jail. Kay believed Chris was either protecting himself by helping Grat break from jail or returning the favor for Grat protecting him. Chris was also reported by a Visalia newspaper to have attended every day of Grat's trial for the Alila robbery. This was also confirmed by Lit Dalton who had also attended the trial and claimed to have had several hour long conversations with Evans.
There has been much debate over the identity of the, "sixth man at Coffeyville" reported by witnesses who claimed was accompanying the gang as they arrived in town right before the robbery. The account given on October 7, 1892, by Coffeyville's The Journal is considered to be the most authentic on events the day of the robbery. The Journal acknowledged witnesses statements then and in a later article that there were two major unanswered questions: who was the sixth man seen riding into town with the gang, and what happened to him?
The Journal then went to state that, "The other dead body proved to be that of Tom Evans..." and marked number six on their map of the shooting area as "Where Tom Evans fell" and in three other references to him The Journal called him Tom. For some reason, however, the body was buried as Bill Powers. While six men were confirmed to had been seen riding into town, other witnesses that day were all in agreement that upon reaching town there were only five men in the group. After the attempted robbery, Emmett was taken upstairs above the drug store to be treated by Dr. Wells. In order to persuade the townsfolk not to hang him, he agreed to tell them everything they wanted to know. As Emmett reviewed the roles of the various participants, he concluded by saying, "Then there was Tom Evans down tending the horses." He then corrected himself, saying that he meant Bill Powers. No one then or later asked him about the horse tending remark, but it couldn't have referred to Bill Powers because his role as an active participant is well recorded. Many newspapers at the time assumed that an unknown member of the gang escaped. Since Emmett had originally attempted to convince his captors that he was Charles Dryden, until he realized that it was hopeless, his word is considered by many to be of questionable value. If someone in the gang had escaped, there would be nothing gained by Emmett for admitting it. It has been speculated by those seeking to answer the confusion that Bill Powers possibly escaped and it was Tom Evans who was killed, as originally reported, or that Tom Evans was just an alias of Bill Powers.
Bill Powers was somewhat of a man of mystery. The Journal reported that, "no one has yet been found who knows him or anything of his antecedents or history." Tom Evans, on the other hand, was reported to be the fraternal twin of outlaw Chris Evans, who at the time of the Coffeyville raid was a fugitive hiding out in the southern Sierra Nevada mountains. Chris Evans' family ridiculed reports of any such involvement or that Tom had been killed, but otherwise never disclosed his actual whereabouts. Chris had continually attested his innocence and any confirmation of his already rumored association with the Dalton Gang would have damaged his case. A later report in the Visalia Times-Delta, a major newspaper in Visalia, California, attributed to "a relative of Mrs. Evans" (most likely Chris Evans brother-in-law Perry Byrd, a deputy of Sheriff Gene Kay) stated, "Tom Evans killed at Coffeyville, Kansas, when the Dalton brothers made their famous raid on the banks of that town, was the twin brother of Chris."
There have been several other nominees suggested to be the sixth man seen riding into Coffeyville, including Bill Dalton, George Newcomb, and Bill Doolin, all of which have never been confirmed.
Gallery
In popular culture
A largely fictional film version of the Daltons' lives was adapted from Emmett's 1931 book, When the Daltons Rode. Released in 1940, it starred Randolph Scott, Broderick Crawford, and Brian Donlevy.
The Daltons were featured in Randolph Scott's Western, Badman's Territory (1946).
The Daltons were also featured in yet another Randolph Scott Western, Return of the Bad Men (1948), loosely based on Doolin's leadership of an outlaw gang in Oklahoma Territory, combining the remnants of the original Dalton gang with new members to become the Wild Bunch.
Randolph Scott himself plays Bill Doolin in the film The Doolins of Oklahoma (1949), in which he is depicted as a reluctant outlaw forced into a leadership role by circumstances after the Coffeyville raid.
The motion picture The Cimarron Kid (1952), about the Dalton Gang, starred Audie Murphy as Bill Doolin.
"The Dalton Gang" is a half-hour, 1954 episode of the American TV series Stories of the Century with Myron Healey as Bob Dalton, Fess Parker as Grat, Robert Bray as Emmett, and John Mooney as Bill Dalton.
The 1954 Franco-Belgian comic book Hors-la-loi, part of the Lucky Luke series, embroiders the Coffeyville events, with the gang made up only of Dalton brothers, all four of whom are killed in the end. Morris's comical depiction of the outlaws — as mustachioed and identically dressed quadruplets differing only in their height — having proved popular, a second fictional gang of Dalton brothers physically indistinguishable from the originals and presented as their (bungling) cousins became recurring villains in the Lucky Luke series, later written by René Goscinny. These were also depicted in several films including La Ballade des Dalton (animated feature, 1978), Lucky Luke (1991) and Les Dalton (2004).
The Dalton Girls (1957) is a fictional Western B-film in which Dalton sisters continue in the ways of their brothers.
In 1957, the CBS documentary anthology series episode called You Are There offered the episode "The End of the Dalton Gang (October 5, 1892)", with Tyler MacDuff in the role of Emmett Dalton.
The May 25, 1959, episode of Tales of Wells Fargo was called "The Daltons".
Three Minutes to Eternity is a half-hour, 1963 episode (season 12, episode 9, narrated by Stanley Andrews, known as "The Old Ranger") of the TV series Death Valley Days about their last robbery in Coffeyville, with Forrest Tucker as Bob Dalton, Jim Davis as Grat, and Tom Skerritt as Emmett.
In Charles Portis's novel True Grit (1968), the young heroine Mattie Ross refers to Bob and Grat Dalton as "upright men gone bad" and to Bill Doolin as "a cowboy gone wrong".
The 1973 song "Doolin-Dalton", by the Eagles, is a song about the Dalton Gang. The album from which the song came, Desperado, has a photograph on its back cover that shows the Eagles band members and songwriters re-enacting the image of the capture and death of the Dalton Gang.
Robert Conrad starred as Bob Dalton in The Last Day (1975), depicting the events leading up to the gang's attempted robbery of two banks in Coffeyville. The film has a documentary-style voice-over by Harry Morgan.
Randy Quaid starred in The Last Ride of the Dalton Gang (1979), a portrayal of the gang's attempted robbery of two banks simultaneously in Coffeyville. (The following year, the actor would co-star in The Long Riders, about Jesse James's bank robbery attempt in Northfield, Minnesota, which similarly led to destruction of his gang.)
The Ron Hansen novel Desperadoes (1979) is a fictional memoir purportedly written by 65-year-old Emmett Dalton in 1937.
The Dalton Brothers is the name of a parody country and western band briefly impersonated by U2 during their 1987 Joshua Tree U.S. tour.
The Max McCoy novel The Sixth Rider (1991) tells of the group's exploits from the vantage point of the possible sixth member involved in the Coffeyville bank holdups.
In the movie Reign of Fire (2002), Matthew McConaughey's character states he had killed a dragon in Coffeyville, Kansas, and refers to the historical shoot-out.
The video game Call of Juarez: Gunslinger (2013) contains an episode based on the Coffeyville shootout.
The Dalton Gang is referenced in the Morgan Kane book Killer Kane about the fictional gunslinger.
The Dalton Gang appears in the Italian comic book Tex, No. 8 and 9.
Joe Dassin wrote a song called "Les Dalton", inspired by the Lucky Luke characters.
Hanna-Barbera created various versions of the Dalton Gang in animated productions, most notably with Huckleberry Hound.
In Payday 2, one of the medic's lines is "You guys are going down like the Daltons", in reference to the gang.
The video game Red Dead Redemption has a gang called "Walton's gang", loosely based on the Dalton gang.
Death Alley (2021), a portrayal of the gang's attempted robbery of two banks simultaneously in Coffeyville. Filmed at Old Cowtown Museum in Wichita, Kansas, Flint Hills in Kansas, Sedgwick, Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, Broken Bow, Oklahoma, Southwest Missouri.
See also
Smith Gang
References
Further reading
Latta, Frank F. Dalton Gang Days. Santa Cruz, California: Bear State Books, 1976.
External links
Coffeyville, Kansas: The Town That Stopped the Dalton Gang, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan
Dalton Gang's Raid on Coffeyville, by Robert Barr Smith, History Net
Crime families
James–Younger Gang
Gangs in Kansas
Gangs in Oklahoma
Outlaw gangs in the United States
American outlaws
Pre-statehood history of Oklahoma
1890s in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottom%20bracket
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Bottom bracket
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The bottom bracket on a bicycle connects the crankset (chainset) to the bicycle and allows the crankset to rotate freely. It contains a spindle to which the crankset attaches, and the bearings that allow the spindle and crankset to rotate. The chainrings and pedals attach to the cranks. Bottom bracket bearings fit inside the bottom bracket shell, which connects the seat tube, down tube and chain stays as part of the bicycle frame.
The term "bracket" refers to the tube fittings that are used to hold frame tubes together in lugged steel frames which also form the shell that contains the spindle and bearings; the term is now used for all frames, bracketed or not.
There is some disagreement as to whether the word axle or spindle should be used in particular contexts. The distinction is based on whether the unit is stationary, as in a hub, or rotates, as in a bottom bracket. American bicycle mechanic and author Sheldon Brown uses axle once and spindle four times in his bottom bracket glossary entry. This article uses spindle throughout for consistency.
Bottom brackets are available in several types, and can be split into whether they are assembled and disassembled with screw threads or whether they are pressed into the bottom bracket shell. Since the 2000s and especially the 2010s, a lack of standardization, or rather the constant introduction of new standards that disappear after relatively short periods, has been described as a complex topic to deal with for those who want to buy bicycle components or maintain bicycles. Many bicycle brands have introduced their own dimensions for bottom bracket bearings, and the different use of terminology by the various manufacturers has been described as confusing.
An old American term for the bottom bracket is hanger. This is usually used in connection with Ashtabula cranks, alternatively termed one-piece cranks.
Bottom bracket types
Three-piece
In typical modern utility bikes, the bottom bracket spindle is separate from the cranks. This is known as a three-piece crankset (spindle, left crank-arm and right crank-arm). The cranks attach to the spindle via a common square taper, cotter or splined interface.
Loose bearing (adjustable cup and cone)
Earlier three-piece cranks consist of a spindle incorporating bearing cones (facing out), a fixed cup on the drive side (with a cone), an adjustable cup on the non-drive side (also with a cone), and loose bearing balls (or held by a cage). Overhauling requires removing at least one cup, cleaning the cups, cleaning or (more usually) replacing the bearing balls, reinstalling the spindle, and adjusting the cups. The design is nowadays mostly found on affordable bikes due to its simple and affordable design, and is also an easily serviceable design.
Bayliss Wiley unit bottom bracket
The Bayliss Wiley unit bottom bracket is a self-contained unit that fits into a plain, slightly larger-than-usual bottom bracket shell in a bicycle frame. It comprises a standard spindle and bearings in a steel cylinder with a slightly-modified bearing cup at each end. The cylinder, bearing and spindle are placed in the shell and held in place by the bearing cups, each of which has a narrow flange that bears against the edge of the shell.
The Bayliss-Wiley Unit Bottom Bracket was introduced in the mid-1940s. It was fitted to various English lightweights through the 1950s and was used by Royal Enfield on its 'Revelation' small wheeler in the mid-1960s. However, the unit bottom bracket was never popular and it had a reputation for being troublesome. A lack of positive location allowed it to rotate within the frame, loosening the bearing cups. Contemporary users overcome the problem by fixing the unit in the frame using adhesive or a screw.
Cartridge bearing
Many modern bicycles use what is called a "cartridge" bottom bracket instead. "Cartridge" here refers to the bottom bracket unit being a pre-mounted assembly containing the spindle (or axle) as well as its bearings, as opposed to them being separate parts which must be mounted separately. Cartridge hence refers to the functional assembly unit, and does not indicate what type of bearings the cartridge utilizes. Either loose ball bearings (adjustable cup and cones), sealed bearings or other types of bearings may be used in a cartridge assembly. Independent of the type of bearing used, the cartridge often has some sealing to protect the assembly from the environment.
Sealed cartridge bottom brackets are normally two pieces, a unit holding the spindle and bearings that screws into the bottom bracket shell from the drive side and a screw-in support cup (often made of light alloy or plastic) that supports the spindle and bearing assembly on the non-drive side. Other designs are three piece, the spindle is separate, but the bearing cups incorporate cheaply replaceable pairs of standard industrial sealed bearings. Either arrangement makes servicing the bottom bracket a simple matter of removing the old cartridge from the bottom bracket shell, and installing a new one in its place. Cartridge bottom brackets generally have seals to prevent the ingress of water and dirt. The early Shimano LP bottom brackets from the 1990s had the support cup on the drive side and used loose bearings inside; they could be dismantled and serviced much like adjustable cup and cone bearings.
In general use, the term 'three piece' refers to the former design, with sealed bottom brackets being seen as the 'standard'. Designs utilizing separate bearings are usually found on low end bikes, due to the low cost.
One-piece (Ashtabula)
With a one-piece (also called Ashtabula) crank and bottom bracket, the spindle and crank arms are a single piece. The bottom bracket shell is large to accommodate removal of this S-shaped crank. Bearing cups are pressed into the bottom bracket shell. The crank holds the cones, facing in; adjustment is made via the left-threaded non-drive side cone.
One-piece cranks are easily maintained and reliable, but heavy. They are found on BMX bikes as well as children's bicycles and low-end road and mountain bikes. They fit only frames with American sized (also known as "Pro size") bottom brackets.
The bearings are normally open to the elements and easily contaminated, although this rarely causes failure. Ball retainers (caged bearings) are used to facilitate assembly and to reduce the number of balls required.
Thompson
The Thompson bottom bracket uses adjustable spindle cones and cups pressed into the bottom bracket shell like the Ashtabula bottom bracket. Unlike the Ashtabula crank, the non-drive side crank is removable, allowing for a smaller bottom bracket shell. Frames with either Italian or English bottom bracket shell diameters (independent of threading) may be fitted with Thompson bottom brackets. Thompson bottom brackets are rare. The design is similar to a typical hub bearing and theoretically supports the load better but is hard to seal effectively against dirt and water.
External bearings
Since around the late 2000s, several designs with integrated bottom brackets with outboard bearings have emerged. The sales pitch of these systems have been to enable reduced weight and increased stiffness compared to internal bottom brackets. Because of the relatively small 1.37″ (34.9 mm for ISO, or 36 mm for shells threaded to the Italian standard) diameter shell, designs that place the bearings inside the shell can either have large bearings and a thinner spindle, which lacks stiffness, or smaller bearings and a thicker spindle (such as the original Shimano Octalink), which lacks durability. External bearings allow for a large diameter (hence stiff) and hollow (hence light) spindle. They also offer more distance between the two bearing surfaces, which contributes to stiffness while allowing lighter components (but also may increase the Q factor).
A different approach than to move to threaded external bearings could be to standardize on one of the larger diameter press-fit BMX shell standards for all bicycles, or the press-fit BB30 standard originally introduced by Cannondale.
Several implementations of external bearings have been brought to market.
X-type and Hollowtech II
In one design, the driveside (right) crankarm and the bottom bracket spindle are an integrated unit and the bearing cups are placed outside of the bottom bracket shell, threaded into the bottom bracket shell. There are a number of versions of this design available: Shimano's Hollowtech II, RaceFace's X-type, FSA's MegaExo. The terms 'X-Type' and 'Hollowtech II' are both used to refer to any design of this type, but are in fact trademarks of the corporations marketing the systems. These external bearings are compatible with those from other manufacturers. With this new standard have come several cranksets designed to use the external bearings of other manufacturers, such as DMR's "Ex type" and Charge Bikes "Regular" cranks.
In the early 1990s at Magic Motorcycle, a small USA component manufacturer later purchased by Cannondale, and re-formed into Cannondale's CODA brand (Coda Magic 900 cranks), made a proprietary external bearing bottom bracket, oversized spindle and crank system. The design resembles the external bottom bracket designs marketed by FSA, RaceFace and Shimano. The modern versions used the same sealed bearing size (6805-RS, 25 mm inner diameter, 37 mm outer diameter) and the original mounting tool fits. The crank had intricately CNC machined wide hollow crank arms made of two halves glued together. However, Cannondale moved on from that system and developed the SI cranks and the new BB30 unthreaded press-fit bottom bracket standard. BB30 requires special frames which have a 42 mm diameter unthreaded bottom bracket shell (which is larger than the 34.9 mm threaded ISO standard threads) allowing use of internal sealed bearings while their top level SI crankarms are still two machined aluminum halves glued together.
Another precursor of the current external bearings/through spindle design was developed by Sweet Parts, a micro-manufacturer of high end cranks and stems. Their Sweet Wings cranks from the early 1990s incorporated the through spindle concept by attaching the two half pipes coming off each crank arm and held together with a single bolt that resided within the cavity of the spindle itself. Their bottom bracket bearing arrangement was a hybrid internal/external bottom bracket, with the right-side bearing being internal inside the bottom bracket shell, and the left-side bearing being external (and having the 6805-RS sealed bearing, too).
Giga-X-Pipe
Giga-X-Pipe was Truvativ's (later bought by SRAM in 2004) approach, and is an evolution of the ISIS Drive bottom bracket, but with a longer spindle and the bearings outside the bottom bracket shell. The spindle is permanently pressed into the right crank. The left side spline interface looks similar, but is different so as to prevent installation of older ISIS Drive crankarms—which are no longer compatible because Q-factor and chain line cannot be maintained using these older cranks with an external bearing bottom bracket. Truvativ refer to this design as 'Giga-X-Pipe' or 'GXP.' They also make a heavier duty external bearing bottom bracket called 'Howitzer.' The Howitzer BB is more like a traditional bottom bracket in that the spindle is not permanently pressed into the right crank. Again, the Howitzer spline looks similar to the ISIS Drive standard spline but is actually different, so as to prevent the usage of ISIS Drive cranks on the external bearing bottom bracket, which would affect chainline and Q-factor.
Ultra-Torque
In late 2006, Campagnolo introduced an outboard bearing design called Ultra-Torque, which has both crank arms permanently attached to halves of the spindle (called semi-axles), which then join in the middle of the bottom bracket with a Hirth joint and a bolt.
Pressed bearing standards
Bicycle frames utilizing pressed bearing standards do not have any threads inside the bottom bracket shell. The bottom bracket is pressed directly into the frame. Using pressed in standards allows frame manufacturers greater flexibility in the frame design, and can offer greater stiffness and reduced mass.
A disadvantage is that assembly and disassembly of press-fit bottom bracket bearings require expensive special equipment. Some hobby-mechanics assemble and disassemble themselves using simple hand-tools, but there is a certain risk that the frame may become damaged. Another disadvantage is that many users report that they start to creak after a certain time. A third disadvantage is that there has become a wealth of competing and incompatible press-fit bottom bracket standards introduced by various bicycle manufacturers.
The current pressed-bearing standards (and the manufacturers who developed them) are:
BB30 (Cannondale)
PF30 (SRAM)
BB90 and BB95 (Trek)
BB86 and BB92 (Shimano)
BB79 (Cervelo's BBRight)
BB386EVO (FSA and BH Bicycles)
In the BB30 (Cannondale), BB90 and BB95 (Trek) systems, the bearings are pressed directly into the frame. For PF30 (SRAM), BB86 and BB92 (Shimano), BB79 (Cervelo), and BB386EVO (FSA) the bearing is housed in a nylon plastic cup that is pressed into the frame’s bottom bracket shell. Pressed-in standards usually require two-piece cranksets where the spindle is attached to one of the crankarms, or at least a spindle which can be threaded through after the bearings have been mounted. Due to fixed spindle length and diameter, cranksets designed for one pressed standard may not be compatible with another. For example, a crankset made specifically for BB30 will not fit in a BB86 bottom bracket and frame. There are other instances where third-party adapters can be used to fit a crankset made for one standard into another. For example, a Shimano (two-piece Hollowtech II 24 mm outer diameter spindle) road crankset can fit into a BB30 bottom bracket shell (42 mm inner diameter) using aftermarket adapters.
Other
Lightning Cycle Dynamics, Inc. offers a carbon crank bottom bracket assembly with semi-axles that connect in the middle via a hirth-like joint to form the spindle.
Schlumpf makes a bottom bracket that incorporates a two-speed epicyclic transmission.
Interface between spindle and crankset
As well as the different means to fit the bottom bracket into the frame, there are a number of ways of connecting the crank arms to the bottom bracket spindle. Shimano introduced a proprietary splined interface named "Octalink". Several other manufacturers (King Cycle Group, Truvativ, and Race Face) created an "open" standard called "ISIS Drive" or simply "ISIS", for International Splined Interface Standard.
Cottered
One of the earliest standards of crank interface, 'cottered cranks are now considered obsolete in developed countries, but are still in common use in developing nations. The spindle is a cylinder and has a flat region across it (a land). The crank has a hole through it to fit onto the spindle, with a transverse hole for the cotter pin. The cotter pin is cylindrical with one side flattened at an angle to form a wedge to match the spindle land. When tightened, this produces a simple and effective interface. The problem is that normally the interface cannot be tightened enough without a cotter pin press, a highly specialized type of clamping tool, though still produced and for sale. Cotters can also be installed with an improvised tool designed for another purpose, such as a ball joint splitter or hammer, with mixed results.
All the load is on one very small area of the cotter pin and the crank land, the cotter pin deforms plastically under normal use and must therefore be replaced regularly. If this is not done the crank and the spindle wear and must be replaced. The rider will get a warning through a characteristic creak sound that aging pins cause the cranks to make.
Square taper
Previously referred to as 'cotterless', since this was the design that was introduced after cottered spindles, square taper was once the most popular (and only) style 'cotterless' crank. This interface consists of a spindle with square tapered ends that fit into square tapered holes in each crank. It is still manufactured in great numbers for bicycles and maintains popularity for such applications as bicycles.
Not all square taper crank and bottom bracket combinations are compatible. Although nearly all spindles use a 2-degree taper, there are two competing standards, defined by the measurement across the flat at the end of the spindle. The JIS size is used by Shimano and most other Asian manufacturers. The ISO size is primarily used by Campagnolo and other European manufacturers, in addition to cranks that adhere to the Nihon Jitensha Shinkokai (NJS) keirin standards (Sugino 75). Some manufacturers make cranks and bottom brackets to both specifications.
Some square tapered bottom bracket axles are threaded at the ends and use nuts. Other square tapered bottom brackets are hollow, allowing for crank bolts to thread into the ends.
Titanium has been used in an effort to make bottom brackets lighter, but early attempts were not entirely successful. Several manufacturers have built bottom brackets with titanium spindles and alloy cups but their durability was lower than that of steel. Early Campagnolo Super Record titanium spindles (which were hollow) were replaced by a later version that used solid, nutted spindles for improved reliability.
In recent years Shimano has migrated much of their product line away from square taper to a spline attachment called Octalink and to external bearing types. In late 2006, Campagnolo announced that it was abandoning the square taper interface for double chainsets in favor of an outboard bearing design called Ultra-Torque, which uses a splined interface between spindle halves.
Splined
Several different competing standards for splined interfaces exist. The tool drive for installing and removing these bottom brackets is often also a spline, instead of drives for regular hand tools.
Octalink
The Octalink system uses a spindle with eight splines. The splines provide a contact area between crank and spindle for an interface. Octalink exists in the marketplace in two variants Octalink v1 and Octalink v2, and the two are not compatible with each other. The difference between the two can be seen by the depth of mounting grooves on the bottom bracket spindle. v1 spline grooves are 5 mm long, while v2 grooves are 9 mm long. Shimano 105, Ultegra 6500 and Dura Ace 7700 cranksets mate to v1 spindles, while later mountain bike designs use the deeper-grooved v2. The system is proprietary and protected by Shimano patents and license fees.
ISIS Drive
ISIS Drive, the International Splined Interface Standard, is a non-proprietary splined specification for the interface between a bicycle crankset and the bottom bracket spindle. It was created by King Cycle Group, Truvativ, and Race Face. ISIS Drive is open source and free to the public to be used as seen fit.
Other designs
BMX 3-Piece bottom brackets typically use a spindle either 19 mm or 19.05 mm (3/4″), 22 mm or 22.2 mm (7/8″), or 24 mm in diameter. The majority of newer or Asian parts are made to metric round numbers, and mixes of metric and non-metric (e.g. 19 mm and 19.05 mm) spindles and bearings may not be compatible, and can result in stuck parts. In some cases, the spindles are splined and the number of splines depends on the manufacturer/model of the crankset, or in other cases, the spindle is specific to the crankset.
There are other designs in use that have varying degrees of popularity. One is Truvativ's Power Spline interface. It is a 12-spline spindle proprietary to Truvativ offered as a lower cost alternative to other spline designs. It is essentially a beefed-up square taper spindle with splines instead of tapers.
Phil Wood uses a similar splined design to the Shimano bottom bracket. The difference is an 18-tooth versus a 20-tooth as per the Shimano design.
Bottom bracket shell sizes
Bottom brackets have several key size parameters: spindle length, shell width, and shell diameter.
Shell width and spindle length
There are a few standard shell widths (). Road bikes usually use ; Italian road bikes use ; Early model mountain bikes use . Later models (1995 and newer) use more commonly. Some downhill bikes even use an bottom bracket shell. Snow bikes use a shell.
Spindles come in a wider range of lengths (), and are sized to match not only the shell width but also the type of crankset it will support (longer for triple, shorter for single, etc.). Spindle length, along with the crank's shape, determines the Q factor or tread.
Shell diameters and threading
There are a few standard shell diameters () with associated thread pitches (24–28 TPI).
Most (except for Italian and French) designs use right-hand (normal) threading for the left side and left-hand (reverse) threading for the right (drive) side. This is opposite of most pedal threading and is done for the same reason: to keep the bottom bracket cup from backing out of the bottom bracket shell due to precession. These have become rare to encounter on newer bikes. As of 2015, bikes with French bottom brackets were very rare to encounter, but there was still some aftermarket support for components. According to an article by Parktool from 2019, the French threading standard is "considered obsolete". As of 2017, bikes with Italian bottom brackets were also rare to encounter, but aftermarket Italian bottom brackets were nonetheless still well-supported by many component manufacturers, including top-end kits from Shimano and Campagnolo.
With the development of external bearing designs, the standard shell diameter has become a considerable constraint, limiting both the diameter of the bottom bracket spindle and the size of the actual bearing balls in the races. Consequently, these external bearing designs can be less durable than older internal bearing designs. To address this problem several designers have promoted new standards for larger diameter bottom bracket shells, the best known of which is BB30 promoted by Cannondale. The name BB30 refers to the diameter of the spindle, not of the shell. Most of these larger diameter designs are using bearings that are pressed in. Since about 2015 there is now a T47 standard with a larger shell diameter and also threading. Some manufacturers (like Trek) are starting to implement this into their bicycles, while it is also possible to have threading cut into an existing 46 mm pressfit and have T47 cups fit in there.
Bottom bracket height
The bottom bracket height is the vertical distance from the center of the bottom bracket to the ground, and it expresses clearance of the frame over obstacles. The height of the bottom bracket is of concern when designing the frame. The height of the bottom bracket is the baseline for the rider's height while riding. Combined with the length of the cranks, it determines the bicycle's ground clearance.
A higher bottom bracket is useful for mountain bikes. In a fixed-gear bicycle, the bottom bracket should be high enough to prevent the pedals from coming in contact with the ground while cornering but is not always achieved.
A lower bottom bracket creates a lower center of gravity and allows for a larger frame without creating an uncomfortable standover height.
Eccentric bottom brackets
An eccentric is a cylindrical plug or bearing cup that fits into an enlarged bottom bracket shell. The plug is machined to accept a typical bottom bracket, but offset from the center of the plug, so that by rotating the plug, the location of the bottom bracket (and hence the chain tension) may be adjusted (fore and aft to tension the chain, the upper or lower eccentric position for a given chain length can be chosen to fine tune bottom bracket height). Once properly adjusted the plug is then fixed in place by a pair of set screws, a clamping bottom bracket shell, an expanding wedge in the plug, or the plug may be manufactured in left and right halves that clamp against the faces of the bottom bracket shell with screws that connect the two halves.
Eccentric bottom bracket shell inner diameters vary between manufacturers from 42mm-55mm (nominally).
Eccentrics are used in applications that require precise chain tension adjustment such as the timing chain of tandem bicycles, the chain that connects the stoker's and captain's cranks. They may also be employed on bicycles that do not have an adjustable rear wheel position, due to vertical dropouts or a rear disc brake, and that do not have an external rear derailleur such as single-speeds or bikes with an internal-geared hub.
Compatibility issues
The bottom bracket shell and bottom bracket assembly as a whole have changed drastically as bike frames and part manufacturing continues to evolve. While the progression in technology has led to many new standards which is great for the consumer, it has proven to play a challenging role in frame design and aftermarket parts, as well as servicing and changing of parts. Around 2001, Shimano was manufacturing proprietary bottom bracket components with patents. Bike frame manufacturers would then create bikes with the patented bottom brackets as a guiding light around the shell area. This caused aftermarket brands to struggle in creating a bottom bracket that would fit into bikes that came with OEM Shimano parts. Companies such as RaceFace, Chris King, and Truvativ (SRAM Corporation) sat down in 1998 and collaborated on a standard bottom bracket specification. In August 2001, the ISIS Drive Standard was published and made into open source for anyone to create products using the designated specifications. Frame manufacturers took to the idea and created bikes that accepted the standard, allowing for a broader market. This success would prove to be short-lived due to failures and need for the industry to continue progressing and creating better specifications. Now in 2019, Shimano creates non-proprietary as well as proprietary bottom bracket designs such as HollowTech II and BBR60. Many "non OEM" part manufacturers have created bottom bracket conversion kits, giving consumers the ability to install crank sets designed for one standard into another (Example BB/PF30 cranks into a 22/24mm spindle).
References
Standards
ISO 6695: Cycles – Pedal axle and crank assembly with square end fittings – Assembly dimensions. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, 1991. (also: British Standard BS 6102-14)
ISO 6696: Cycles – Screw threads used in bottom bracket assemblies. 1989. (also: British Standard BS 6102-9)
ISIS drive
External links
Bottom Bracket Size Database by Sheldon Brown
How to fit a bottom bracket by Ceramic Speed
Bicycle drivetrains
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Lord%20of%20the%20Rings%20Trading%20Card%20Game
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The Lord of the Rings Trading Card Game
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The Lord of the Rings Trading Card Game (a.k.a. LOTR TCG) is an out-of-print collectible card game produced by Decipher, Inc. Released November 2001, it is based on Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings film trilogy and the J. R. R. Tolkien novel on which the films were based. Decipher also had the rights to The Hobbit novel but did not release any cards based on it. In addition to images taken from the films, in 2004 Weta Workshop produced artwork depicting characters and items from the novel absent from the films for use on cards. In 2002, LOTR TCG won the Origins Awards for Best Trading Card Game of 2001 and Best Graphic Presentation of a Card Game 2001. Decipher's license to The Lord of the Rings expired on July 30, 2007, after which all official promotion and distribution of the game stopped.
The game also had an online version that maintained identical gameplay as well as a market economy. However, since the game's print run has ended, sales for online cards have been stopped and the servers closed in June 2010.
Game concept
The Lord of the Rings Trading Card Game is a game for two or more players, each of who uses his or her own deck consisting of equal numbers of Free Peoples and Shadow cards, with a minimum of 30 of each. On a player's turn they are considered to be the Free Peoples player and their Fellowship and Free Peoples cards both in their Support Area and on their characters are active. A player uses his Free Peoples cards to attempt to traverse the site-path and destroy the One Ring by reaching the ninth site. Each of his or her opponents, the Shadow Players, use their Shadow cards to prevent this by attempting to kill or corrupt the ring-bearer, or by forcing the Fellowship to slow down long enough for their Fellowship to race to victory. At the end of each turn the position of Free Peoples player rotates to the next player in turn. The game is won by the first Free Peoples player to survive to the ninth, and final, site or the last player whose Fellowship is left alive or when you corrupt the opposing fellowships ring-bearer.
An innovative mechanic called the twilight pool is used as a costing mechanism for cards. Each card has a numerical cost (which can be zero). When the Free Peoples player plays a card, tokens are added to the twilight pool equal to the cost of that card. The Shadow players, however, remove twilight tokens equal to the twilight cost of their cards in order to play their cards. Thus the more powerful cards the Fellowship the Free Peoples player plays, the greater the threat from the Shadow players. Each Free People and Shadow card belonged to a specific culture such as Gondor, Gollum or Isengard with cards within a culture complementing or even requiring one another, but players were free to construct their decks with a mix of cards from any culture.
Throughout a game, a player will play companions (or Free People characters) to help defend the ring-bearer. When it is his turn to play as the Shadow player, he then can play minions (or Shadow characters) to attack the opponent's companions. The Free People's player (the defender) has the opportunity to choose which of his companions will fight in one-to-one duels, called skirmishes, with the opponent's minions. This is called assignment. Since the Free Peoples player wants to defend his ring-bearer, the only way a Shadow player can attack the Free Peoples player is by playing more minions than the Free Peoples player has companions, thus allowing the Shadow player to assign extra minions to any companion he chooses, including the ring-bearer, or by using minions whose game text allows the Shadow player to assign them to the ring-bearer. The character in a skirmish with less strength takes a wound, but if the total difference in strength is double or higher, the losing character is killed immediately instead. Other types of cards are possessions that character can bear to gain additional bonuses, conditions that retain their effect until they are discarded and events, which are discarded immediately after being used.
However, the Ring-bearer does not only face minions on his journey to destroy the Ring. The Ring-bearer has to resist the temptation of the Ring. In the trading card game, when the ring-bearer succumbs to the temptation of the Ring, burdens are added and most versions of the One Ring enable the Ring-bearer to take burdens instead of impending wounds. Each companion has a given resistance stat, and whenever a burden is added, each companion's resistance is lowered by one. Once the ring-bearer's resistance reaches zero, he is corrupted by the power of the ring and the player is eliminated from the game.
Game sets and distribution
When the game's run had ended in mid-2007, nineteen sets in total had been released. Three of expansions (Expanded Middle-earth Deluxe Draft Box, The Wraith Collection, and Age's End) were not available in booster packs.
The movie years
For the first three years the game's releases followed the movies. A 365 "base set" was released each November containing material from the upcoming movie. These were followed by two 122 card expansions at four-month intervals. Each base set and the following two expansions formed a "block" named for that base set.
Cards were sold in eleven card booster packs consisting of one rare, three uncommon and seven common cards. In approximately one in six packs a common was replaced by a foiled version of a random card from that set. Each set also had two sixty-three card starter decks containing two copies of a promotional face card, three random rares and sixty fixed commons/uncommons (sets 5 and 6 had sixty card starters with three alternate image rares in place of the random rares).
Between the second and third expansions of The Return of the King block an extra set, Reflections, was released. This consisted of 52 new cards, all foiled, half of which were designated rare plus and half rare. The new cards took material from all three films and material produced by Weta specifically for the game and did not belong to any block. Reflections boosters contained two of the new cards (with one R+ every 2.4 packs) and sixteen repackaged random cards from the first six sets. One of these old cards was always non-English.
Shadows and beyond
In November 2004 the new base set, Shadows, marked an overhaul to the game. All sets would contain sixty rare, uncommon, and common cards each, in addition to a varying amount of fixed cards, only available in Starter Decks. Instead of foiling every card, each expansion would only have eighteen pre-selected rare foil cards that would be randomly inserted into one out of every seven booster packs. Shadows also had four, rather than two, different starter decks. The material used for the cards would also cover the entire trilogy instead of being tied to the films' releases.
Additionally, a system of rotation was announced to be introduced to the game. Starting in March 2005, the entire Fellowship block ceased to be legal for use in the Standard tournament format. Then, each November, the oldest block remaining would also be "rotated out". Decipher claimed this helped keep the card pool down to a manageable size and would keep established players buying new cards. Detractors claimed it was a money grab and did not like being forced to purchase what they felt were inferior cards.
Set list
Where two dates are listed, the first date refers to starter decks and the second to booster packs:
The Fellowship of the Ring (November 6, 2001) - The first base set that introduced the core mechanics of the game. The cards were divided between [Dwarves], [Elves], [Gandalf], [Gondor] and [Shire] cultures on the Free People sides and [Isengard], [Moria], [Ringwraith] and [Sauron] cultures on the Shadow side. The set is notable for having the largest number of Ally type of cards, characters who did not travel with the Fellowship and only provided aid through special abilities. Each subsequent set would see increasingly fewer Ally cards released, until they were completely phased out. It was sold in 50-card starter decks and 11-card booster packs.
Mines of Moria (March 6 & 13, 2002) - The first game expansion introduces the Artifact type of cards, which functioned similarly to possessions, but did not suffer penalties from cards directly targeting them. This expansion significantly boosted the [Dwarves] and [Moria] faction, most notably featuring the Balrog, which posed a significant danger to the Free People at the unavoidable "The Bridge of Khazad-dûm" site.
Realms of the Elf-lords (June 19 & July 3, 2002) - This set significantly boosted the [Elves] and [Isengard] cultures by adding a large number of Elven allies, introducing Isengard orcs in addition to the Uruk-hai and featuring the first playable versions of Saruman.
The Two Towers (November 6, 2002) - The second base set brought the first significant overhaul of the game scene. The set contained no cards of [Moria], [Ringwraith] and [Sauron] cultures; instead new Shadow cultures of [Dunland] and [Raiders] (which combined the Southrons and the Easterlings) were added along with the [Rohan] Free People culture, and each culture now contained cards which could contain a number of that culture's tokens. The site path from The Fellowship of the Ring was completely replaced with the new sites from The Two Towers, and sites could now be controlled by Shadow Players and liberated by the Free Peoples.
Battle of Helm's Deep (March 12, 2003) - This set brought back the [Sauron] culture and also introduced the new [Gollum] culture, which reflecting the character's duality consisted of both Free People and Shadow cards, which could alternatively reinforce or combat one another.
Ents of Fangorn (July 2, 2003) - This set brought back the [Ringwraith] culture and introduced new versions of the Ents which were more pro-active in combat than the previous versions, which had specific requirements to be allowed to skirmish. It also contained new cards of the [Moria] culture, including a version of the Balrog who could be played on sites other than Underground.
The Return of the King (November 5, 2003) - In addition to completely replacing the site path once again, the third base set added the new mechanics of threats (tokens that had to be assigned as wounds when a companion or ally was killed) and initiative, which either Free Peoples or Shadow player had based on the number of cards in their hands. This set contained no cards of [Dunland], [Isengard] and [Moria] cultures, but added Minas Morgul orcs to the previously Nazgûl-only [Ringwraith] culture.
Siege of Gondor (March 10, 2004) - This set significantly boosted the [Raiders] culture by enhancing it with the Corsairs of Umbar and added the Dead Men of Dunharrow to the [Gondor] culture. It also introduces Shelob as the only other minion for the [Gollum] culture and featured characters with the powerful keyword enduring, who increased in strength after gaining each subsequent wound.
Reflections (May 12, 2004) - Released in between two expansions of The Return of the King block, this special set was the most innovative at the time. Characters from the Prologue of The Fellowship of the Ring such as Elendil and Gil-Galad were introduced for the first time and characters from the books that were abscent from the movies such as Glorfindel and Tom Bombadil were added through the designs created by Weta Workshop specifically for the game. Most importantly, characters other than Frodo were allowed to be the Ringbearer for the first time, featuring versions of Galadriel, Boromir, Smeagol and others who could bear the One Ring instead. More alternative Ringbearers would be added in later sets.
Mount Doom (July 14, 2004) - The final set of the "movie" release era introduced new powerful versions of several characters such as Éowyn, Arwen and Sam that would remain the preferred choices for many of the deck strategies.
Shadows (November 3, 2004) - The release of the new "base set" saw the most significant overhaul of the game, which would remain to be seen unfavorably by many players. Existing faction-based Shadow cultures of [Dunland], [Isengard], [Moria], [Raiders] and [Sauron] were replaced with more generic [Orcs], [Uruk-Hai] and [Evil Men], leaving only [Ringwraith] and [Gollum] unchanged and making the majority of the old cards incompatible with the new cultures. Companions other than the Ring-Bearer now also had Resistance, which was affected by both Free People and Shadow cards. Most importantly, instead of a numbered site path based on an individual movie, the nine sites from all three films could now be played in any order and replaced continuously by both Free People and Shadow cards. While this allowed for new gameplay strategies, many felt that the core aspect of the game no longer made sense story-wise.
Black Rider (March 18, 2005) - The first post-"Shadows" expansion was notable for reprinting many prominent cards from The Fellowship of the Ring block, which because of the recently introduced block rotation were no longer legal in the Standard tournament format.
Bloodlines (August 12, 2005) - This set introduced the new Follower card type - minor characters who could provide their Aid to the Fellowship for a cost that must be paid each turn. It also included the only cards that could change their card type in the form of conditions that could turn into minions and back.
Expanded Middle-earth Deluxe Draft Box (February 17, 2006) - Similar to "Reflections", this 15-card set used artwork by Weta Workshop to represent characters from the books not included in the films, such as Halbarad, Grimbeorn and Dáin Ironfoot.
The Hunters (June 9, 2006) - Released after a significant delay due to the financial problems experienced by Decipher, Inc., this new base set introduced a new powerful keyword Hunter and doubled the amount of available Followers.
The Wraith Collection (August 26, 2006) - This Deluxe set had only six cards and consisted entirely of Minions of the [Ringwraith] culture, half of whom used artwork by Weta Workshop to represent the Barrow-wights.
Rise of Saruman (March 1, 2007) - Released after another long delay, this set featured the only Free People character to be represented by more than one culture by introducing the [Rohan] version of Aragorn. It also contained no less than five different versions of Saruman, one for each culture, including the only Shadow follower in the game.
Treachery and Deceit (May 2007) - Rushed to release before the impending expiration of the license, this set suffered from a lack of playtesting and contained the largest number of overpowered or "broken" cards, for which official errata had to be released almost immediately. This set also received the smallest printing of all and remains incredibly hard to find in circulation.
Age's End (June 2007) - Released mere weeks before Decipher's license expired, this final "farewell" set consisted of 40 Promo-rarity cards available in a single Deluxe box. It featured the final versions of many prominent characters, some of which have been noted to be more powerful than any of those that came before.
In addition, a number of boutique products have been released:
Oversized Cards (August 2001 - Summer 2003)
Promotional Cards (Spring 2002 - Summer 2007)
The Fellowship of the Ring Anthology (July 23, 2003)
The Two Towers Anthology (February 25, 2004)
The Return of the King Anthology (September 2004)
The War of the Ring Anthology (September 2005)
The seven-month delay of The Hunters expansion release (from November 2005 to June 2006) made the game suffer a significant drop in popularity amongst its players as well as eventually force Decipher Inc. to remove the expansions The Great Eye and Shelob's Lair from its intended expansion since Decipher's license for Lord of the Rings related material was scheduled to expire on June 30, 2007. Following the release of the final expansion Age's End in June 2007 the game was discontinued and Decipher was forced to stop all production, distribution, and advertising.
Deck strategies
As the game expanded beyond the first base set, several basic deck strategies were identified and developed. As decks are separated into Shadow and Free People sides, the two sides are to some extent interchangeable, but the best decks usually contain some synergy between both types of cards. Later sets have introduced multiple additional keywords and mechanics and greatly increased the pool of available cards, massively expanding the possibilities for unique strategies, often depending on a specific card.
For the Free Peoples side, the common basic strategies are tank, choke, minion wounding and mass healing.
Tank Tank decks try to play as many companions as possible to combat the opponent's Shadow side with force.
Choke Choke decks, the opposite of tank decks, try to put out as little twilight as possible, denying the opponent resources to play their minions, and clogging their hand with unplayable Shadow cards, thus hampering the set up of their Fellowship.
Archery/Wounding Minion wounding decks try to use "archery fire" and direct wounding to destroy the minions before they even have a chance to attack.
Mass Healing Mass healing decks rely on the cards that heal companions, with the expectation that if the Free People's removal of wounds can out-pace the Shadow player's placement of wounds, the Fellowship will be unkillable.
For the Shadow side, the common basic strategies are beat-down, swarm, bomb, companion wounding and corruption.
Beat-down Beat down decks focus on making one or two minions very powerful with big damage bonuses, with the intention of killing all of the companions one by one; eventually killing the ring-bearer.
Swarm Swarm decks have an opposite strategy of a beat-down: their goal is to play as many minions as possible as cheaply as possible. While one swarm minion might not be very powerful by itself, each minion is very cheap which allows many to be played, easily outnumbering the companions and assigning themselves to the Ring-bearer.
Bomb A bomb deck combines the strategies of both beat-down decks and swarm decks. Instead of focusing on one or two powerful minions, they play several minions of medium strength. The goal of a bomb deck is to destroy the weaker companions, and then swarm the Free Peoples player.
Archery/Wounding Archery and wounding decks rely on wounding companions outside of the skirmish so much that they die from their wounds. A variation of this strategy focuses on wounding the ring-bearer and killing him.
Corruption Corruption decks focus on adding enough burdens to corrupt the ring-bearer, or playing cards that require certain conditions to be met to corrupt the ring-bearer outright.
Discard Used by both Free People and Shadow sides, discard decks focus on discarding cards from either your opponent's hand or their draw deck, disrupting their strategy and eventually leaving them with no cards to oppose you in later turns.
Lord of the Rings Online TCG
In 2003 Worlds Apart partnered with Decipher to produce an online version of the Lord of the Rings TCG. The online game's rules matched the physical game's rules, but utilized tradeable virtual cards that could be purchased through the system via starter decks, booster packs, or in draft. In addition to casual play, the online LOTR TCG system supported tournament play, league play, and sealed play including draft. The online system introduced a number of cards and formats that were online-only (for example, King-block draft packs), and offered players exclusive physical promotional cards and online avatars and movement tokens for participating in online events. The LOTR Online TCG software included collection management and robust deckbuilding features. For this reason alone many players have used the software to construct decks and print decklists.
In 2005 Sony Online Entertainment (SOE) bought Worlds Apart, but continued to support LOTR Online TCG. On May 22, 2007 SOE-Decipher announced the closure of all support for the Online gaming system. The LOTR Online TCG software was available and the SOE servers ran until June 30, 2010 when they were shut down for good, though no new cards could be purchased after May 2007.
Though not sanctioned or approved by Decipher, various alternate ways to play the game online have at various points been developed by players.
Pro tour events
In July 2002, the first pro tour event was held at Origins Game Fair in Columbus, Ohio and it was won by John Lolli. 212 players participated in the event, and first place was $2,500. Christopher Schaut finished in 2nd place winning $1,000. Lolli used a unique deck designed to pass the ring from Frodo to Sam, and deny twilight to its opponent. Almost all of the top players were using later banned card called The Mirror of Galadriel, and Lolli used that strategy against his opponents designing a Minion half of the deck to counteract it.
Organized play
2007 World Championship controversy
There has been much debate as to the legitimacy of the 2007 World Champions (Vince Accetturo & Chris Thompson). Since the rights to produce the Lord of the Rings TCG was not renewed by Decipher, there was no legal way for the company to promote a World Championship, but they did still hold an unofficial event where the 2007 World Champions were crowned. The event was still held in Indianapolis, IN at GenCon on Friday, August 17, 2007 at 11:00 AM. The field was bested by Vince Accetturo and Chris Thompson, both members of the player group Team Bison Bucks. They decided to split the championship in the finals.
2010 World Championship
With no official governing body for the game existing after 2007, no official World Championships could be held. No group stepped up to attempt an unofficial World Championship event until 2010 when the Star Wars CCG Players Committee decided to run a de facto World Championship for Lord of the Rings at their annual Worlds Weekend event. Brian Fred was crowned champion as the only undefeated player at the event, in which close to 20 players participated.
Card database
A card database is maintained at lotrtcgwiki.com by a fan, who had announced a commitment to keep the site running.
Further reading
Strategy and Strategy in Scrye #52
Preview in Scrye #58
Overview in Scrye #68
Scrye Presents: The Lord of the Rings Player's Guide 2002
Scrye Presents: The Lord of the Rings Player's Guide 2003
See also
The Lord of the Rings: The Card Game (LCG)
References
External links
Official Company Website
LOTR MAP system variant
Complete card list
Card games introduced in 2001
Collectible card games
Games based on Middle-earth
Origins Award winners
Decipher, Inc. games
Fantasy games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanne%20Kyger
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Joanne Kyger
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Joanne Kyger (November 19, 1934 – March 22, 2017) was an American poet. The author of over 30 books of poetry and prose, Kyger was associated with the poets of the San Francisco Renaissance, the Beat Generation, Black Mountain, and the New York School.
Although Kyger is often characterized as a prominent female Beat poet in the predominately male inner circle of Beat Generation writers, she never considered herself as belonging to the Beat movement. Nor did she formally identify with any other movement; her work invokes various schools of poetry without belonging to any of them. In Reconstructing the Beats, Amy L. Friedman calls Kyger "an important link between several major axes of American poetry and writing in the twentieth century." Linda Russo, in the webzine Jacket's edition devoted to Kyger, notes that "there is no one way to talk about her work except as that of a singular individual."
Kyger's early poetry was influenced by Charles Olson's "projective verse" concept of letting breath and open construction, rather than rhyme and syntax, guide poetic composition. This influence continued to shape her mature work. In a 2010 interview Kyger says, "You want to make it so that someone could say it. I try to 'score' the lines for the page with that in mind, the breathing, the timing." Unlike Olson, notes Dale Smith in his essay "Joanne Kyger and the Narrative of Every Day," Kyger "focuses on events and happenings, moving herself out of the way as a kind of recording instrument . . . faithful to specific moments in time and attendant to the many spirits or moods of landscape." In a 2007 review of Kyger's book About Now: Collected Poems, Lewis MacAdams describes Kyger as from the "School of Backyard Poets, who look out their kitchen windows and see the universe."
Kyger's poems emerged from a daily literary practice of recording thoughts, events, and dreams. Most of the poems are dated, either in the title or at the end. Much like journals, they include everything from philosophical musings to the weather. Themes—arising from her practice of Zen Buddhism, study of consciousness, explorations of ancient Greek and Native American mythologies, frequent travels to Mexico, observations of the natural landscape, and daily life in a small coastal town—continue from book to book, like installments in an autobiography. In a 2011 interview, Kyger says, "I think of notebook writing like a practice—I try and do it whether I have anything good or bad or interesting to say. And the chronology becomes the narrative, a history of a writing 'self.'"
Biography
Early life and education
Joanne Elizabeth Kyger was born on November 19, 1934, in Vallejo, California, to Jacob Kyger, a Navy captain, and Anne (Lamont) Kyger, a Santa Barbara, California, city employee of Canadian descent. Kyger moved often, living in China, California, Illinois, and Pennsylvania, until the age of 14, when the family (including Kyger's two sisters) settled in Santa Barbara. Her parents separated permanently in 1949.
Kyger's first published poem appeared in her school's literary magazine when she was five. At Santa Barbara High School, Kyger co-edited the features column of the school newspaper with Leland Hickman. In 1952, she enrolled at Santa Barbara College (later University of California, Santa Barbara), where she studied philosophy and literature and started the school's first literary magazine. Renowned critic Hugh Kenner introduced her to the works of Modernist poets, such as W. B. Yeats and William Carlos Williams, while Paul Wienpahl introduced her to the works of Wittgenstein and Heidegger. In her 2015 notes from an earlier interview, Kyger recalls that the philosophers inspired her interest in Zen Buddhism: "Heidegger had come to the study of 'nothing.' Then I found D. T. Suzuki's book on Japanese Zen and I thought, Oh! this is where you go with this mind. This 'nothing' is really 'something.'" Kyger left the university in 1956, one freshman biology course short of a degree in philosophy and literature.
San Francisco Renaissance and the Beats
Kyger moved to San Francisco 1957 at the age of 22, where she met Richard Brautigan, who introduced her to City Lights Bookstore and the bohemian neighborhood of North Beach. Working in Brentano's bookstore in the City of Paris department store by day and sharing her poetry at The Place bar by night, Kyger became a part of the literary scene that included Allen Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac, Michael McClure, Kenneth Rexroth, John Wieners, and former Black Mountain students William McNeill, Ebbe Borregaard, and Michael Rumaker. San Francisco Renaissance poets Robert Duncan and Jack Spicer became Kyger's mentors, and she was invited to join the Sunday Meetings, presided over by Spicer, where she read her poems aloud.
In 1958, Kyger met Gary Snyder, whom she would marry in 1960. Snyder introduced Kyger to Philip Whalen, and they became lifelong friends, sharing the sensibilities that defined their similar poetic styles. Kyger's print debut, "Tapestry #3," appeared in Spicer's mimeographed magazine J No. 4 in 1959, and she gave her first public poetry reading on March 7, 1959, at the Beer and Wine Mission. During this period she moved to the East-West House, a communal center for those interested in Asian studies, and studied with Shunryu Suzuki Roshi at the Sokoji Temple in Japantown.
Japan and India
On January 30, 1960, Kyger left California by ship to join Snyder in Kyoto, Japan. Since Japanese customs frowned upon unmarried couples living together, they were married at the American Consulate in Kobe on February 23, three days after Kyger arrived in Japan, followed by a Zen marriage ceremony performed at Daitoku-ji in Kyoto five days later. While living in Japan, Kyger wrote poetry, studied Buddhism with Ruth Fuller Sasaki at Ryosen-an—the zendo of the First Zen Institute's Kyoto branch, learned flower arranging, taught English, and acted in small roles in Japanese B movies.
In December 1961, Kyger and Snyder traveled to India with Allen Ginsberg and Peter Orlovsky. They met with the Dalai Lama in March 1962. The following month, Kyger and Snyder continued their travels in Singapore, Vietnam, and Hong Kong.
During this period, in addition to writing poems that would be included in her first book, Kyger recorded her travels in diaries, which were published in 1981 as The Japan and India Journals 1960–1964. The autobiographical text—which chronicles, in part, her growing frustration with Snyder's expectations and Ginsberg's antics—is considered an important document of the Beat era, offering a rare female perspective on the male-centric movement. In the foreword of the 2000 reissue of the book, Anne Waldman calls it "one of the finest books ever in the genre of 'journal writing'" and "a surprisingly (surreptitiously) feminist tract as well: woman artist struggles for identity and independence in the 1960s."
Early successes
In January 1964, Kyger left Snyder to his studies in Japan and returned alone, her marriage disintegrated, to San Francisco. She met painter and student of Buddhism Jack Boyce and married him in 1965 after divorcing Snyder. The same year, she participated in the Berkeley Poetry Conference, meeting poets Charles Olson and Ted Berrigan. She edited an edition of Wild Dog magazine, and The Tapestry and the Web, her first book of poems—with drawings by Boyce—was published.
The following year, Kyger and Boyce visited Europe. They settled in New York City for a year, befriending poets Anne Waldman and Lewis Warsh. There, Kyger associated with New York School poets including Michael Brownstein, Larry Fagin, Tom Clark, and Berrigan. She was briefly associated with the Yippie movement.
In 1967, Kyger received a residency at the National Center for Experiments in Television in San Francisco. Drawing on Descartes's Discourse on the Method, she translated the philosopher's work into a poem-video titled "Descartes and the Splendor of. A Real Drama of Everyday Life. In Six Parts." The video, Kyger's only one, aired in November 1968. During this period, she met Carlos Castaneda and Michael Harner and discussed the illusions of a peyote vision she had in 1959.
The Bolinas years
At the end of the '60s, Kyger joined other poets following the back-to-the-land movement. In 1969 she settled in the small coastal town of Bolinas, California, with Jack Boyce. The community and the landscape of Bolinas would feature prominently in her work from that point on. Among her friends, neighbors, and collaborators attracted to the liberal, arts-based community were poets Robert Creeley, Bill Berkson, Jim Carroll, Bobbie Louise Hawkins, Alice Notley, Lewis MacAdams, Duncan McNaughton, and Aram Saroyan, as well as artists Ken Botto, Joe Brainard, Tom Field, and Arthur Okamura.
In 1970, she separated from Jack Boyce, and the following year, she bought a house on the Bolinas Mesa, which she shared with Peter Warshall. In 1971, she accompanied Warshall and a group of Harvard students to Puerto Rico to study a colony of rhesus monkeys, and embarked on a Carl Jung–inspired study of dreams that became Desecheo Notebook, published the same year. Kyger and Warshall also traveled to Chiapas, Mexico. Kyger's All This Every Day, was written at that time and published in 1975, the year her relationship with Warshall ended.
In the mid-70s, she began teaching occasionally at the New College of California, an activity she continued until 2001. In 1977, she also became a regular teacher in the summer writing program at the Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics at Naropa University in Boulder, Colorado. There she met Canadian-American writer, artist, and naturalist Donald Guravich, who would become her lifelong partner and collaborator. He joined her permanently in Bolinas in 1978 and they were married in 2013. They lived in Bolinas until her death in 2017.
Mexico
Beginning in the mid-80s and continuing for almost three decades, Kyger and Guravich frequently traveled to Mexico, often to Oaxaca, but also to Quintana Roo, Yucatán, Chiapis, Patzcuaro, Michoacan and Veracruz. These trips provided inspiration for several volumes of Kyger's poetry, including Phenomenological, an edition in the series A Curriculum of the Soul that explores the nature of consciousness.
Later life and death
Kyger became the Wednesday editor of the Bolinas Hearsay News in 1984, a post she held for over 20 years. During this period, she continued teaching occasionally at Naropa University and the New College, as well as teaching at Mills College and offering writing classes in Bolinas. In 2000, her 1981 collection of autobiographical writings was reissued as Strange Big Moon: Japan and India Journals, 1960–1964. More recent poetry collections include Again: Poems 1989–2000, As Ever: Selected Poems, The Distressed Look, and God Never Dies. In 2006 she was awarded a grant from the Foundation for Contemporary Arts Grants to Artists Award. About Now: Collected Poems was published in 2007 by the National Poetry Foundation and received the 2008 PEN Oakland Josephine Miles National Literary Award for Poetry. On Time: Poems 2005–2014, one of her last book of poems, was published by City Lights in 2015. Kyger describes her work in her 2005 artist statement:
Buddhism Without A Book
Well, you had to find it some
where another person passed simplicity
on to you, the practice of some syllables
the position of a seated body and you believe
a lineage of recognition of 'mind'
not perfect, but intimate
with suffering
and the futility of maintaining
those troublesome states
of fear and hate
"Try this
Lift the corners of your mouth slightly
and take three breaths
this is known as mouth yoga" ( * Yvonne Rand)
It has nothing to do with smiling
It has nothing to do with happiness
MARCH 7, 2003
Joanne Kyger was not just a student of Zen Buddhism, but an advocate for the simpler, calmer way of life it practiced. Though she often took hallucinogenic medication to achieve such a state, she only encouraged others to search for serenity of mind, body, and soul. Per definition, "Zen meditation, is a way of vigilance and self-discovery which is practiced while sitting on a meditation cushion. It is the experience of living from moment to moment, in the here and now." She embraced this lifestyle completely as shown throughout her poetry, even in her later works. In "Buddhism Without A Book," the speaker highlights how Buddhism is not just a religion but a state of being, which one can partake in even if they do not possess an instruction manual. As the speaker states, "another person passed simplicity on to you," which suggests it is a lifestyle to be shared in hopes of helping those with "fear and hate" (2-3, 11). For those who are fearful of the proper way to meditate, she calms them with the reassurance that it is "not perfect, but intimate;" therefore, one does not need to have all the right yoga positions because all one needs is his/her "mind" (6,5). She does not want to pressure people into a philosophy, but rather a release from "the futility of maintaining/ those troublesome states" (8-9). This way of life is an antidote to a world of violence, hate, and hostility. All it takes is a moment to "lift the corners of your mouth slightly/ and take three breaths" to achieve a state of calm in a world in constant turmoil (12-3).
Kyger died at age 82 on March 22, 2017, at her home in Bolinas, California, from lung cancer, in the company of her husband, Donald Guravich. Kyger had been working on a new book, There You Are: Interviews, Journals, and Ephemera. It was published in September 2017 by Wave Books.
Bibliography
The Tapestry and the Web (San Francisco: Four Seasons Foundation, 1965)
Joanne (Bolinas: Angel Hair, 1970)
Places To Go (Los Angeles: Black Sparrow Press, 1970). Illustrations by Jack Boyce
Desecheo Notebook (Berkeley: Arif Press, 1971)
Trip Out and Fall Back (Berkeley: Arif Press, 1974). Illustrations by Gordon Baldwin
Trucks: Tracks (Bolinas: MesaPress. 1974). With Franco Beltrametti; illustrations by Piero Resta
All This Every Day (Bolinas: Big Sky, 1975)
Lettre de Paris (Berkeley: Poltroon Press, 1977). With Larry Fagin
The Wonderful Focus of You (Calais: Z Press, 1980).
Mexico Blondé (Bolinas: Evergreen, 1981). Illustrations by Donald Guravich
The Japan and India Journals 1960–1964 (Bolinas: Tombouctou, 1981). Cover illustration by Ken Botto. . Reissued as Strange Big Moon: The Japan and India Journals, 1960–1964 (Berkeley: North Atlantic Books, 2000).
Up My Coast (Point Reyes Station: Floating Island Publications, 1981). Illustrations by Inez Storer.
Going On: Selected Poems, 1958–1980 (New York: Dutton, 1983). (hardcover); (paperback)
The Dharma Committee (Bolinas: Smithereens Press, 1986). Cover illustration by Donald Guravich
Man & Women (Berkeley: Two Windows Press, 1987). With Michael Rothenberg; illustrations by Nancy Davis
Phenomenological (Canton: Grove Publications for Institute of Further Studies Curriculum of the Soul Series, 1989). Illustrations by Donald Guravich.
Just Space: Poems 1979–1989 (Santa Rosa: Black Sparrow Press, 1991). Illustrations by Arthur Okamura.
Some Sketches from the Life of Helena Petrovna Blavatsky (Boulder: Rodent Press and Erudite Fangs, 1996).
Pátzcuaro : December 17, 1997–January 26, 1998 (Bolinas: Blue Millennium Press, 1999).
Some Life (Sausalito: Post-Apollo Press, 2000).
Again: Poems 1989–2000 (Albuquerque: La Alameda Press, 2001).
As Ever: Selected Poems (New York: Penguin Poets, 2002).
Ten Shines (N.p.: Nijinsky Suicide Health Club, 2002). Cover illustration by Nemi Frost
The Distressed Look (Brunswick: Coyote Books, 2004)
God Never Dies (Santa Cruz: Blue Press, 2004)
Detektivgeschichten der Leidenschaft (Berlin: Stadtlichter Presse, 2005).
About Now: Collected Poems (Orono: National Poetry Foundation, 2007). (hardcover); (paperback)
Not Veracruz (New York: Libellum, 2007).
Lo & Behold: Household and Threshold on California's North Coast (Taos: Voices from the American Land, 2009). Illustrations by Donald Guravich
2012 (Santa Cruz: Blue Press, 2013)
On Time: Poems 2005–2014 (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 2015).
Amsterdam Souvenirs (Santa Cruz: Blue Press, 2016). With Bill Berkson
There You Are: Interviews, Journals, and Ephemera (Seattle: Wave Books, 2017).
Notes
See also
Bolinas, California
References
Stirling, Isabel. "Zen Pioneer: The Life & Works of Ruth Fuller Sasaki" (2006) Shoemaker & Hoard.
External links
Joanne Kyger at the EPC
"to be Jack Spicer in a dream": Joanne Kyger and the San Francisco Renaissance, 1957-65 essay by Linda Russo at Jacket Magazine website
"Add-Verse" a poetry-photo-video project Joanne Kyger participated in
Joanne Kyger Papers MSS 0730. Special Collections & Archives, UC San Diego Library.
Joanne Kyger Correspondence, 1957-1975 MSS 0008. Special Collections & Archives, UC San Diego Library.
Link to her masterpiece Descartes made in The National Center for Experiments in Television (NCET) in 68
1934 births
2017 deaths
Beat Generation writers
Modernist women writers
American Buddhists
American women poets
Modernist writers
PEN Oakland/Josephine Miles Literary Award winners
21st-century American women
Writers from Vallejo, California
Writers from Santa Barbara, California
People from Bolinas, California
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Hellenic%20Educational%20Progressive%20Association
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American Hellenic Educational Progressive Association
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The American Hellenic Educational Progressive Association (AHEPA, usually referred to as the Order of AHEPA) is a fraternal organization founded on July 26, 1922, in Atlanta, Georgia. AHEPA was founded to fight for civil rights and against discrimination, bigotry, and hatred felt at the hands of the Ku Klux Klan. It is the largest and oldest grassroots association of American citizens of Greek heritage and Philhellenes with more than 400 chapters across the United States, Canada, Australia, and Europe.
The mission of AHEPA is to promote the ancient Hellenic ideals of education, philanthropy, civic responsibility, family and individual excellence through community service and volunteerism.
History
The AHEPA was founded as a fraternity in Atlanta, Georgia, on July 26, 1922. Its initial mission was to promote the image of Greeks in America, assist them with citizenship and assimilation into American culture, and combat prejudice. During that inaugural meeting, it was decided that AHEPA's purposes would be:
(a) To advance and promote pure and undefiled Americanism among the Greeks of the United States, its Territories and Colonial possessions;
(b) To educate the Greeks in the matter of democracy, and in the matter of the government of the United States;
(c) To instill the deepest loyalty to the United States;
(d) To promote fraternal sociability;
(e) To practice benevolent aid among this nationality.
With the full assimilation of Greek Americans, its mission evolved toward philanthropy, education, and promoting and preserving the Hellenic identity of the Greek Americans and the ethnic Greeks of other countries where AHEPA is present, such as Australia, Canada, the Bahamas as well as Greece and Cyprus. In recent years, AHEPA has also expanded to other countries in Europe, besides Greece and Cyprus, including Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Netherlands and UK.
The founders of the fraternity were eight men, all residents of Atlanta, who conceived the idea of the establishment of an association of mainly citizens of Greek descent, although not limited only to such members. The eight founders of the Order of AHEPA, who were also the members of the first Supreme Lodge of the organization, were Nicholas D. Chotas, James Campbell, Spiro J. Stamos, Harry Angelopoulos, George A. Polos, John Angelopoulos, George Campbell, James Vlass.
Franklin D. Roosevelt was initiated into the Delphi Chapter on March 11, 1931, and was an active dues-paying member for 14 years, to the time of his death.
The office of Supreme President is the highest office in the Order of AHEPA. There have been 71 Supreme Presidents since the founding of the organization on July 26, 1922.
Past Supreme Presidents
Organization
Originally AHEPA was organized on a lodge system like that of the Masons or Oddfellows. Local units were called "Subordinate Lodges" and state or territory structures were called "Superior Lodges". Now local groups are called "Chapters" and regional organizations are called "Districts". The national structure is still called the "Supreme Lodge", however, and all of its officers have "Supreme" in their title such as Supreme President, Supreme Treasurer etc.
The Order of AHEPA has over 400 chapters across the United States, Canada, and Europe. In addition, the chapters report to 28 different districts. Those 28 districts report to the Supreme Lodge and Headquarters located in Washington, DC.
Membership
Originally, membership was restricted to only Greeks. At its third meeting, the Order decided to change this, allowing non-Greeks to join. In 1979, AHEPA had over 25,000 members in 400 chapters. By 1989, the number climbed to 60,000, despite an overall decline in memberships of fraternal groups during this period.
There have been 540 chapters chartered in the United States, 16 chartered in Canada, 30 chartered in Greece, 5 chartered in Cyprus, and 10 chartered in Europe. There are "sister" chapters in AHEPA Australasia (Australia and New Zealand). An estimated 500,000 men have been inducted into the Order of AHEPA over its 90-year history.
Supreme Convention
"In accordance with the provisions of the AHEPA Constitution, the Supreme Convention of the Order of AHEPA shall be the highest constituted body of the entire AHEPA; it shall remain in session until it is adjourned by a majority of its members; its powers over the entire Order shall be limited only by the AHEPA Constitution and the AHEPA BYLAWS, over which it shall have the exclusive power to alter; and it shall consist, in its composite whole, of the Voting Members of the Convention.
The Supreme Convention has the authority to overturn, overrule, reject or rescind decisions of the Supreme Counselor, Board of Trustees or Supreme Lodge, including the authority to reject, rescind or terminate contracts after the consequences of such action is explained to them. Any such decision of the Supreme Convention to overturn, overrule, reject or rescind any decision of Supreme Counselor, Board of Trustees or Supreme Lodge can be made by a majority vote of the registered Voting Members of the Convention then present and voting at the time as long as those voting in favor represent at least a majority of the Voting Members of the Convention duly registered at such Convention."
Politics
AHEPA has taken a stand on the Cyprus issue since 1955 when it formed the "Justice for Cyprus" committee to support Cyprus' independence. Through the decades, the organization has continued advocate on issues relating to Greece and Cyprus in Washington, while also educating the public about these topics.
Congressional scorecard
For each Congress, AHEPA compiles a Congressional scorecard on issues of importance to the American Hellenic community and to the organization. The purpose of the scorecard is to educate AHEPA's membership and the community on how engaged members of Congress are on these issues, or at the least, their level of awareness.
Awards
AHEPA recognizes distinguished achievements in various categories such as Public Service, Government, Law, Business, Journalism, Science, the Arts, Military Service, Humanitarian. Below is a list of AHEPA awards and recipients over the years.
Socrates Awards
The Socrates Award recognizes prominent men and women who have emulated ancient Hellenic ideals. This is the most prestigious award AHEPA awards.
AHEPA's premier social event, the AHEPA National Banquet, was held for the first time on February 26, 1929, at the Willard Hotel in Washington, DC. In 1948, the name of the event was changed to the "AHEPA Congressional Banquet" and for the first time, a United States President, Harry Truman, attended. In 2000 AHEPA reverted to a more appropriate name of this event, The AHEPA Biennial Banquet.
Since 1964, the AHEPA National Banquet has also featured presentations of the organization's most coveted honor, the Socrates Award.
A list of past recipients of the Socrates Award:
Henry R. Luce – 1964 – Publisher of Time and Life magazines
Lyndon B. Johnson – 1966 – President of the United States of America
Everett Dirksen – 1968 – Senator from Illinois
Spiro T. Agnew – 1970 – Vice-president of the United States of America
Richard M. Nixon – 1971 – President of the United States of America
Holiness Athenagoras I Ecumenical Patriarch – 1972
The U.S. Senate and U.S. House of Representatives – 1976
Hubert H. Humphrey – 1978 – Vice-president of the United States of America
Claiborne Pell – 1982 – Senator from Connecticut
Bob Hope – 1984 – Entertainer
Ronald Reagan – 1986 – President of the United States of America
Archbishop Iakovos – 1988 – Primate of the Greek Orthodox Church of North and South America
George H. W. Bush – 1990 – President of the United States of America
William "Gus" Pagonis – 1992 – Lt. General
Mary Matthews – 1992 – Philanthropist
Paul Sarbanes – 1993 – Senator from Maryland
William Clinton – 1996 – President of the United States of America
Patriarch Bartholomew – 1997 – His All Holiness, Bartholomew I, Archbishop of Constantinople, New Rome, and Ecumenical Patriarch
George W. Bush – 2002 – President of the United States of America
Tassos Papadopoulos – 2007 – President of Cyprus
Costas Karamanlis – 2007 – Prime Minister of Greece
George A. Kalogridis – 2014 – President Walt Disney World Resort
Joe Biden – 2015 – Vice-president of the United States of America
John Boehner – 2015 – Speaker of the House of Representatives
Philip Christopher – 2019 – President of the International Co-ordinating Committee "Justice for Cyprus"
Michael Psaros - 2019 - Co-founder and Managing Partner of KPS Capital Partners
Nicos Anastasiades - 2021 - President of the Republic of Cyprus
Kyriakos Mitsotakis - 2021 - Prime Minister of the Hellenic Republic
Panos Costa Panay - 2022 - Chief product officer of Microsoft,
George Tsunis - 2023 - U.S. Ambassador to Greece
George E. Paraskevaides O.B.E. Philanthropic Award
Past recipients include:
George Paraskevaides (2006)
Pericles Award
The Order of AHEPA developed the Pericles award on both the National and District level to honor those individuals in Government.
Past national recipients include:
Senator Paul Tsongas
Senator Paul Sarbanes
Senator John Glenn
Congressman Mike Bilirakis
Congressman Gus Bilirakis
Congressman Gus Yatron
Congressman George Gekas
Efthimios E. Mitropoulos
Congressman John Lewis – 2015
Congressman Peter J. Visclosky – 2016
Panos Kammenos – Minister of Defense of the Hellenic Republic – 2017
Vasilios Matarangas - President Hellenic American National Council (HANC) - 2023
Also several United States Governors have been honored with this award as have many local government officials.
Solon Award
This national award is given to a member of the bar for excellence in the field of law.
Honorable Charles P. Kocoras – 2016
Homer Award
This is a special award to be presented only by the Supreme Lodge at their discretion to any outstanding individual.
Past recipients:
Dr. Mary Lefkowitz, Andrew Mellon Professor of Humanities, Wellesley College
Nicholas Gage – Author
Thea Halo – Author
Aristotle Award
This award is to be presented by the Supreme Lodge at the Grand Banquet of the Supreme Convention to an Outstanding Hellene who has distinguished himself in his respective profession or field of endeavor.
Yiannakis Matsis (2012) – Member of the European Parliament
Robert W. Peck (2015) – Canadian Ambassador to Greece
Theofanis Economidis (2015)
John P. Calamos (2016)
Michael Zampelas (2016) - Founder and CEO of Coopers & Lybrand in Cyprus and Athens, Greece
Timothy P. Tassopoulos (2017) – President and Chief Operating Officer of Chick-fil-A
Public Service Award
An award developed for recognition of members both national and local for their devotion and hard work in the field of public service.
Academy of Achievement Awards
These awards were funded by the Educational Foundation to honor individuals who excel in various areas of expertise. Awards can be given in the fields of business, journalism, the arts, science, and other liberal sciences.
Efthyvoulos Paraskevaides – Academy of Achievement in Business (2010)
Photos Photiades – Academy of Achievement in Business (2011)
Rev. Dn. Chris Avramopolos – Academy of Achievement in Community Service (2016)
Eleni Bousis – Academy of Achievement in Philanthropy (2016)
Basile Katsikis – Academy of Achievement in Arts (2016)
Gerry and Jeannie Ranglas - Academy of Achievement in Philanthropy (2023)
Archbishop Iakovos Humanitarian Award
This award was developed to honor the Archbishop of North and South America who was an active and vocal member of the AHEPA. Archbishop Iakovos helped define a generation of Orthodox faithful in the Americas. His vision and support of Human rights and compassion are a testament to his being a unique life force for all. This award is given to those individuals who surpass any standard of giving in support of Human rights and freedom.
List of recipients:
Andrew A. Athens – Global Hellenic Diaspora Leader
Eugene Rossides – American Hellenic Institute Founder
Andrew S. Natsios – Former USAID Administrator
George Behrakis – Businessmen/Philanthropists
George Marcus – Businessmen/Philanthropists
B'nai B'rith International – First organization to receive the award (2014)
Stavros Niarchos Foundation (2015)
Medal of Freedom/Military Medal of Honor
Awarded to active and retired members of the military in honor of their service to their country.
This award was developed to honor those individuals who sacrifice their lives or put their lives in harm's way in executing their duty. After the tragic events of 9/11 this award was created and awarded to the brave first responders. Additionally, this award is also reserved for any individual who sacrifices his or her own safety for those of others.
Col. Alan C. Macaulay (2015)
Lt General Ilias Leontaris (2019) - Chief Cyprus National Guard
Demosthenes Award
An award developed exclusively for those individuals who excel in the area of broadcasting or reporting the news, in any form. Television and or radio news personalities and other such journalists are eligible for this award.
Hellenism Award
This award is bestowed in recognition of an individual's lifetime outstanding support and promotion of Hellenism.
Dr. Spiro Spireas, Ph.D. (2018)
Demosthenes Vasiliou (2018)
Defender of Hellenism Award
This award is bestowed in recognition of an individual's outstanding support of and global impact on Hellenic issues of concern.
George G. Horiates, AHEPA Past Supreme President (2021)
Lifetime Achievement Award
This award is bestowed exclusively by the Supreme President of the Order of AHEPA on a member of the Order for a lifetime of achievement in the Order of AHEPA.
Gus J. James II – AHEPA Past Supreme President (2015)
James S. Scofield – AHEPA Past Supreme President (2016)
George Rigos – Founder of the Odyssey Charter School (OCS)(2018)
Craig S. Clawson - AHEPA Board of Auditors, Parliamentarian (2021)
Lee J. Millas - AHEPA Board of Trustees Past Chair (2022)
Anthony Kouzounis - AHEPA Past Supreme President (2022)
Philip T. Frangos - AHEPA Past Supreme President (2023)
AHEPAN of the Year
The AHEPAN of the Year award is in recognition of outstanding leadership, devoted services, and unselfish contributions toward the advancement of the programs and progress of the Order of AHEPA over an AHEPA fiscal year.
All National AHEPA awards are awarded by the AHEPA Supreme Lodge and are reviewed and the criterion is always changing as dictated by the times by the AHEPA Supreme Lodge.
Athletics
In 1970, the AHEPA athletic program took form. AHEPA athletics include: softball, golf, bowling, basketball, with regional and national tournaments held annually. Each year, at the Supreme Convention, inductions are made into the AHEPA Hellenic Athletic Hall of Fame.
In 1975, the Order of AHEPA, at the suggestion of Past Supreme President, Louis Manesiotis and through the leadership of Supreme Athletic Director Dr. Monthe N. Kofos, established the AHEPA Athletic Hall of Fame to honor outstanding Hellenic athletes and sports personages. As of 2013, 130 members have been inducted. Annually, a representative and diverse of Ahepans appointed by the Supreme Athletic Director select worthy and eligible candidates for induction, after a nomination process pursuant to established written guidelines for both nomination and selection. The hallmarks of said process are objectivity, transparency and accountability.
Categories of selection
There are two categories of selection;
ATHLETES who have excelled in their particular field of play, being eligible after the passage of three (3) years from the end of their playing days (retirement); and
CONTRIBUTORS, being individuals who have contributed in some fashion to the field of athletics; for example, athletic directors, Coaches, Supporters and Media Personalities.
Formal induction into the AHEPA Athletic Hall of Fame is accomplished annually at the annual AHEPA Supreme National Convention during the Athletic Awards Luncheon.
AHEPA is honored to recognize Hellenes of outstanding athletic accomplishment. The AHEPA ATHLETIC HALL OF FAME serves to memorialize these individuals and recognize their outstanding achievements.
Eligibility and nomination process
A nominated candidate must be of Hellenic descent.
Nominated candidate was considered exemplary in their particular sport or athletic field. (Criteria as set forth in the guidelines includes both accomplishments and good character)
Nominated candidate needs to be nominated by an AHEPAN, supported by his chapter, and accompanied by the completion of the appropriate nomination forms attached hereto.
A current photograph (head shot) of the candidate, as well as an action shot (if applicable), is requested.
Once the nomination application is received, it is reviewed by the selection committee, and determined is thereafter included on the selection ballot.
AHEPA Athletic Hall of Fame
AHEPA athletics recognizes outstanding athletic achievements in many ways. AHEPA athletics department award scholarships to deserving scholar-athletes who have demonstrated outstanding achievements both in the classroom and the athletic fields. The funds are available through the athletic booster trust fund established through the donations of individuals.
AHEPA hosts many regional and national tournaments in sports such as golf, bowling, basketball, and softball. Winners of the tournaments are awarded in many cases free travel to the national tournament during the Supreme convention.
The most prestigious AHEPA athletic award is the Harry Agganis Hellenic Athlete Award, which is awarded annually to the outstanding Hellene in the field of athletics professional or amateur of college level and above.
Harry Agganis Award winners
Structure
The AHEPA Family consists of four organizations, the AHEPA (men), Daughters of Penelope (women), Sons of Pericles (young men) and Maids of Athena (young women). AHEPA publishes The AHEPAN, which is the second largest Greek American publication in circulation. The American Hellenic Educational Progressive Association also maintains ties with the similar Australasian Hellenic Educational Progressive Association.
The order of AHEPA consists of Chapters, Districts, and the Supreme Lodge.
Chapters
Any organization of men, but no fewer than ten, which individually and collectively, shall have duly petitioned for and received a Charter from the Supreme Lodge and which, thus Chartered and authorized, is functioning under the name and style of AHEPA, or its corporate name, shall be deemed to be a Chapter of the Order of AHEPA, and subject to its jurisdiction.
At the chapter level, the main officer positions are:
President
Vice-president
Secretary
Treasurer
Chaplain
Warden
Captain of the Guard
In addition, a chapter may also have the following officer positions:
Vice-president/Director of Hellenism
Vice-president/Director of Education
Vice-president/Director of Philanthropy
Vice-president/Director of Civic Responsibility
Vice-president/Director of Family and Individual Excellence
Inside Sentinel
Outside Sentinel
Athletic Director
The chapter also has a Board of Governors composed of a chairman and a number of Governors selected in accordance with the number of members for whom per capita assessment has been paid to AHEPA Headquarters.
Number of Governors Based on Chapter Size:
10-25 Members 2 Governors
26-100 Members 4 Governors
101-200 Members 6 Governors
201-300 Members 8 Governors
301-400 Members 10 Governors
401-500 Members 12 Governors
501 and up Members 14 Governors
The Officers of a Chapter shall serve for a term of twelve (12) months, or until their successors are elected and
qualified.
All AHEPA Chapters report to a specific District.
Districts
The Chapters within the jurisdiction of this Order may be organized by the Supreme Lodge into twenty-eight (28) Districts. Each District shall bear an individual name and number. Each District shall have a minimum of three (3) active Chapters. The Chapters in a District with less than three (3) active Chapters will be assigned by the Supreme Lodge to another District or Districts. The Supreme Lodge shall fix the boundaries of each District.
At the District level, the main officer positions are:
District Governor
Lieutenant Governor
District Secretary
District Treasurer
District Marshal
District Warden
District Athletic Director
In addition, a District may also have the following officer positions:
Vice-president/Director of Hellenism
Vice-president/Director of Education
Vice-president/Director of Philanthropy
Vice-president/Director of Civic Responsibility
Vice-president/Director of Family and Individual Excellence
Each and every District of the Order shall hold a District Convention annually during the months of May, June, or July. The specific time, date and place for succeeding District Conventions may be chosen by the District Convention not more than two (2) years in advance. The Order of AHEPA in Canada may hold the District Conventions not later than the first week in August.
The Conventions of each District shall be composed of duly elected Delegates of the respective Chapters composing the District and the District Officers thereof, and the immediate retiring District Governor. All Past District Governors of any District in the AHEPA Domain may vote and have a sovereign vote provided that they are members in good standing of a Chapter of that District.
The District Conventions of the Order of AHEPA shall have power and authority to:
ALL MATTERS: Consider and discuss all matters affecting the affairs of the Order in the District;
LEGISLATION: Adopt such legislation as the Delegates may deem necessary and proper for the welfare of the District, provided that such legislation does not in any way conflict with the AHEPA CONSTITUTION and AHEPA BYLAWS and decrees of the Supreme Convention of the Order;
DECISIONS: Decide any and all things necessary and proper for the advancement of the District;
RESOLUTIONS: Pass resolutions and transmit them to the Supreme Convention through the District Governor; and
APPROPRIATE FUNDS: To appropriate monies had or to be had in the District Treasury, prescribe the manner and purposes of and for which such appropriations shall be used and designate the Officer or Officers who are to disburse the same.
List of districts
MOTHER LODGE DISTRICT NO. 1: All Chapters within the states of Georgia, Alabama, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Mississippi.
CITRUS DISTRICT NO. 2: All Chapters within the state of Florida, Puerto Rico and in Nassau, Bahamas.
CAPITAL DISTRICT NO. 3: All Chapters within the states of North Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, District of Columbia and the Chapter of Bluefield, West Virginia.
POWER DISTRICT NO. 4: All Chapters within the state of Pennsylvania, excepting Sharon-Farrell.
GARDEN DISTRICT NO. 5: All Chapters within the state of New Jersey and Wilmington, Delaware.
EMPIRE DISTRICT NO. 6: All Chapters within the State of New York.
YANKEE DISTRICT NO. 7: All Chapters within the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island, and the Chapter of Pittsfield, Massachusetts.
BAY STATE DISTRICT NO. 8: All Chapters within the State of Massachusetts, excepting the Chapter at Pittsfield.
NORTHERN NEW ENGLAND DISTRICT NO. 9: All Chapters within the states of Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont.
AUTOMOTIVE DISTRICT NO. 10: All Chapters within the state of Michigan.
BUCKEYE DISTRICT NO. 11: All Chapters within the states of Ohio, Kentucky, and the Chapters at Weirton, Huntington, Wheeling, Clarksburg and Charleston, West Virginia, and Sharon-Farrell, Pennsylvania.
HOOSIER DISTRICT NO. 12: All Chapters within the state of Indiana.
BLUE RIBBON DISTRICT NO. 13: All Chapters within the states of Illinois, Wisconsin.
GRAINFIELDS DISTRICT NO. 14: All Chapters within the states of Iowa, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, all of Nebraska (excepting Bridgeport, Nebraska), and the St. Louis, Missouri Chapter No. 53.
DELTA DISTRICT NO. 16: All Chapters within the states of Louisiana, Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, and all the Chapters in Kansas City, Missouri.
SILVER DISTRICT NO. 17: All Chapters within the states of New Mexico, Wyoming, Montana, Utah, and Colorado, the Chapters in Ely, Nevada, and Bridgeport, Nebraska.
EL CAMINO REAL DISTRICT NO. 20: All Chapters within the state of Arizona, Hawaii, and in the city and south of Bakersfield, California; and Chapters in Henderson and Las Vegas, Nevada.
GOLDEN GATE DISTRICT NO. 21: All Chapters north and exclusive of Bakersfield in California, and the Chapter at Reno, Nevada.
FIREWOOD DISTRICT NO. 22: All Chapters in the states of Oregon and Washington, and Alaska.
BEAVER DISTRICT NO. 23: All Chapters in the Provinces of Quebec, Ontario, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Islands, and New Brunswick, Canada.
ROYAL CANADIAN DISTRICT NO. 24: All Chapters in Provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba, Canada.
HELLAS DISTRICT NO. 25: All Chapters situated within Greece.
CANADIAN DISTRICT NO. 26: All Chapters in the Province of British Columbia, Canada.
CYPRUS DISTRICT NO. 27: All Chapters situated within Cyprus.
EUROPEAN DISTRICT NO. 28: All Chapters situated in Europe except for Cyprus and Greece.
Regions
AHEPA also has Regions. There are ten Regions defined by the Order of AHEPA. Each Region is divided into a set of active districts. Each Region also has an elected Supreme Governor who makes up part of the Supreme lodge.
The ten Regions are:
Region 1 – Districts 1 and 2. Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, South Carolina, Tennessee
Region 2 – Districts 3 and 4. West Virginia, DC, Maryland, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Virginia
Region 3 = Districts 5 and 6. Delaware, New Jersey, New York
Region 4 = Districts 7, 8 and 9. Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont
Region 5 = Districts 10 and 11. Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio, West Virginia, except Bloomfield WV
Region 6 = Districts 12, 13 and 14. Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wisconsin, E. Nebraska, E. Missouri
Region 7 = Districts 15, 16 and 17. Arkansas, Colorado, Kansas, Louisiana, W. Missouri, W. Nebraska, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas, Wyoming, Idaho, Montana, Utah, except Salt Lake City
Region 8 = Districts 20, 21 and 22. Idaho, Montana, Alaska, Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada, Oregon, Washington, Utah
Region 9 = Districts 23, 24 and 26. Canada: Maritimes, Quebec Ontario (23) Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta (24) British Columbia (26)
Region 10 = Districts 25, 27 and 28. Greece, Cyprus and the rest of Europe
Supreme Lodge
The "Supreme Lodge" of this Order shall be composed of the following Supreme Officers:
Supreme President
Supreme Vice President
Canadian President
Supreme Secretary
Supreme Treasurer
Supreme Counselor
Supreme Athletic Director
National Sons of Pericles Advisor
Nine Supreme/Regional Governors
See also
AHEPA University Hospital
References
External links
History of the Order of AHEPA
Leber, George J. History of the Order of AHEPA 1922 - 1972. Washington DC, Order of AHEPA, 1972
Daughters of Penelope Website
Sons of Pericles Website
Maids of Athena Website
American Hellenic Educational Progressive Association (AHEPA), National Office records at the Immigration History Research Center Archives, University of Minnesota Libraries
Dupont Circle
Foreign policy political advocacy groups in the United States
Organizations based in Washington, D.C.
Organizations established in 1922
Greece–United States relations
Greek-American culture
Ethnic fraternal orders in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel%20Zangwill
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Israel Zangwill
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Israel Zangwill (14 February 18641 August 1926; birth date sometimes given as 21 January 1864) was a British author at the forefront of cultural Zionism during the 19th century, and was a close associate of Theodor Herzl. He later rejected the search for a Jewish homeland in Palestine and became the prime thinker behind the territorial movement.
Early life and education
Zangwill was born in Whitechapel, London on 21 January 1864, in a family of Jewish immigrants from Lithuania, then part of the Russian Empire. His father, Moses Zangwill, was from what is now Latvia, and his mother, Ellen Hannah Marks Zangwill, was from what is now Poland. He dedicated his life to championing the cause of people he considered oppressed, becoming involved with topics such as Jewish emancipation, Jewish assimilation, territorialism, Zionism, and women's suffrage. His brother was novelist Louis Zangwill.
Zangwill received his early schooling in Plymouth and Bristol. When he was eight years old, his parents moved to Spitalfields, East London and he was enrolled in the Jews' Free School there, a school for Jewish immigrant children. The school offered a strict course of both secular and religious studies while supplying clothing, food, and health care for the scholars; presently one of its four houses is named Zangwill in his honour. At this school he excelled and even taught part-time, eventually becoming a full-fledged teacher.
While teaching, he studied for his degree from the University of London, earning a BA with triple honours in 1884.
Career
Writings
Zangwill published some of his works under the pen-names J. Freeman Bell (for works written in collaboration), and Countess von S. and Marshallik.
He had already written a tale entitled The Premier and the Painter in collaboration with Louis Cowen, when he resigned his position as a teacher at the Jews' Free School owing to differences with the school managers and ventured into journalism. He initiated and edited Ariel, The London Puck, and did miscellaneous work for the London press.
Zangwill's work earned him the nickname "the Dickens of the Ghetto". He wrote a very influential novel Children of the Ghetto: A Study of a Peculiar People (1892), which the late 19th-century English novelist George Gissing called "a powerful book".
The use of the metaphorical phrase "melting pot" to describe American absorption of immigrants was popularised by Zangwill's play The Melting Pot, a success in the United States in 1909–10. The theatrical work explored the themes of ethnic tensions and the idea of cultural assimilation in early 20th-century America.
When The Melting Pot opened in Washington, D.C., on 5 October 1908, former President Theodore Roosevelt leaned over the edge of his box and shouted "That's a great play, Mr. Zangwill. That's a great play." In 1912, Zangwill received a letter from Roosevelt in which Roosevelt wrote of The Melting Pot "That particular play I shall always count among the very strong and real influences upon my thought and my life."
The protagonist of the play is David Quixano, a Russian Jewish immigrant who arrives in New York City after the Kishinev pogrom, in which his entire family is killed. He writes a great symphony named "The Crucible" expressing his hope for a world in which all ethnicity has melted away, and becomes enamored of a beautiful Russian Christian immigrant named Vera. The dramatic climax of the play is the moment when David meets Vera's father, who turns out to be the Russian officer responsible for the annihilation of David's family. Vera's father admits guilt, the symphony is performed to accolades, and David and Vera agree to wed and kiss as the curtain falls.
"Melting Pot celebrated America's capacity to absorb and grow from the contributions of its immigrants." Zangwill was writing as "a Jew who no longer wanted to be a Jew. His real hope was for a world in which the entire lexicon of racial and religious difference is thrown away."
However, the play also addresses the challenges and conflicts that arise when different ethnic groups collide. It portrays the tensions between the Jewish and Christian communities, as well as the struggles of immigrants to find their place in a new society while preserving their cultural heritage.
"The Melting Pot" resonated with audiences during its time, as it captured the spirit of the American immigrant experience and explored issues of assimilation, identity, and the potential for a unified nation. The play contributed to the discourse on multiculturalism and the American identity, and it remains a significant work in the context of American theater and the portrayal of ethnic tensions on stage.
Zangwill wrote many other plays, including, on Broadway, Children of the Ghetto (1899), a dramatization of his own novel, directed by James A. Herne and starring Blanche Bates, Ada Dwyer, and Wilton Lackaye; Merely Mary Ann (1903) and Nurse Marjorie (1906), both of which were directed by Charles Cartwright and starred Eleanor Robson. Liebler & Co. produced all three plays as well as The Melting Pot. Daniel Frohman produced Zangwill's 1904 play The Serio-Comic Governess, featuring Cecilia Loftus, Kate Pattison-Selten, and Julia Dean. In 1931, Jules Furthman adapted Merely Mary Ann for a movie with Janet Gaynor.
Zangwill's simulation of Yiddish sentence structure in English aroused great interest. He also wrote mystery works, such as The Big Bow Mystery (1892), and social satire, such as The King of Schnorrers (1894), a picaresque novel (which became a short-lived musical comedy in 1979). His Dreamers of the Ghetto (1898) includes essays on famous Jews such as Baruch Spinoza, Heinrich Heine and Ferdinand Lassalle.
The Big Bow Mystery was one of the first locked room mystery novels. It has been almost continuously in print since 1891 and has been used as the basis for three movies.
Another much produced play was The Lens Grinder, based on the life of Spinoza.
Politics
Zangwill endorsed feminism and pacifism, but his greatest effect may have been as a writer who popularised the idea of the combination of ethnicities into a single, American nation. The hero of his widely produced play The Melting Pot proclaims: "America is God's Crucible, the great Melting-Pot where all the races of Europe are melting and reforming...Germans and Frenchmen, Irishmen and Englishmen, Jews and Russians – into the Crucible with you all! God is making the American."
Jewish politics
Zangwill was also involved with specifically Jewish issues as an assimilationist, an early Zionist, and a territorialist. Jewish territorialism was a political movement that emerged as a response to the rise of anti-Semitism in Europe during the early 20th century. It proposed the establishment of a Jewish homeland outside of Palestine, offering alternative solutions to the ongoing debate about Jewish self-determination and Zionism. After having for a time endorsed Theodor Herzl, including presiding over a meeting at the Maccabean Club, London, addressed by Herzl on 24 November 1895, and endorsing the main Palestine-oriented Zionist movement. Zangwill changed his mind and founded his own organization, named the Jewish Territorialist Organization in 1905, advocating a Jewish homeland in whatever land might be available in the world which could be found for them, with speculations including Canada, Australia, Mesopotamia, Uganda and Cyrenaica.
Zangwill is inaccurately known for creating the slogan "A land without a people for a people without a land" describing Zionist aspirations in the Biblical land of Israel. He did not invent the phrase; he acknowledged borrowing it from Lord Shaftesbury. In 1853, during the preparation for the Crimean War, Shaftesbury wrote to Foreign Secretary Aberdeen that Greater Syria was "a country without a nation" in need of "a nation without a country.... Is there such a thing? To be sure there is, the ancient and rightful lords of the soil, the Jews!" In his diary that year he wrote "these vast and fertile regions will soon be without a ruler, without a known and acknowledged power to claim dominion. The territory must be assigned to some one or other.... There is a country without a nation; and God now in his wisdom and mercy, directs us to a nation without a country." Shaftesbury himself was echoing the sentiments of Alexander Keith, D.D.
In 1901, in the New Liberal Review, Zangwill wrote that "Palestine is a country without a people; the Jews are a people without a country".
Theodor Herzl fared best with Israel Zangwill, and Max Nordau. They were both writers or 'men of letters' - imagination that engendered understanding. Baron Albert Rothschild had little to do with the Jews. On Herzl's visits to London, they co-operated closely. In a debate at the Article Club in November 1901 Zangwill was still misreading the situation: "Palestine has but a small population of Arabs and fellahin and wandering, lawless, blackmailing Bedouin tribes." Then, in the dramatic voice of the Wandering Jew, "restore the country without a people to the people without a country. (Hear, hear.) For we have something to give as well as to get. We can sweep away the blackmailer—be he Pasha or Bedouin—we can make the wilderness blossom as the rose, and build up in the heart of the world a civilization that may be a mediator and interpreter between the East and the West."
In 1902, Zangwill wrote that Palestine "remains at this moment an almost uninhabited, forsaken and ruined Turkish territory". However, within a few years, Zangwill had "become fully aware of the Arab peril", telling an audience in New York, "Palestine proper has already its inhabitants. The pashalik of Jerusalem is already twice as thickly populated as the United States" leaving Zionists the choice of driving the Arabs out or dealing with a "large alien population". He moved his support to the Uganda scheme, leading to a break with the mainstream Zionist movement by 1905. In 1908, Zangwill told a London court that he had been naive when he made his 1901 speech and had since "realized what is the density of the Arab population", namely twice that of the United States. In 1913 he criticized those who insisted on repeating that Palestine was "empty and derelict" and who called him a traitor for reporting otherwise.
According to Ze'ev Jabotinsky, Zangwill told him in 1916 that, "If you wish to give a country to a people without a country, it is utter foolishness to allow it to be the country of two peoples. This can only cause trouble. The Jews will suffer and so will their neighbours. One of the two: a different place must be found either for the Jews or for their neighbours".
In 1917, he wrote "'Give the country without a people,' magnanimously pleaded Lord Shaftesbury, 'to the people without a country.' Alas, it was a misleading mistake. The country holds 600,000 Arabs."In 1921, Zangwill suggested Lord Shaftesbury "was literally inexact in describing Palestine as a country without a people, he was essentially correct, for there is no Arab people living in intimate fusion with the country, utilizing its resources and stamping it with a characteristic impress: there is at best an Arab encampment, the break-up of which would throw upon the Jews the actual manual labor of regeneration and prevent them from exploiting the fellahin, whose numbers and lower wages are moreover a considerable obstacle to the proposed immigration from Poland and other suffering centers".
Quotes
Zangwill listed the following as his more striking passages:
What is, is right. If aught seem wrong below,/Then wrong it is – of thee to leave it so – Without Prejudice
Art is truth seen as beauty – The Master
Hunted from shore to shore through the ages they had found the national aspiration – peace – in a country where Passover came without menace of blood – Children of the Ghetto
The Jewish mission will never be over till the Christians are converted to the religion of Christ – Dreamers of the Ghetto
Each poor man is a rung in the Jacob's ladder by which the rich man may, if he is charitable, mount to heaven – The King of Schnorrers
Views
In his writings, Zangwill expressed mixed sentiments about the then-territory of Palestine, parts of which became the modern State of Israel in 1948, two decades after his death. After the establishment of the state, Philip Rubin speculated that the new state might have met his aspirations.
He was an early suffragist.
During World War I, he advocated the formation of a Jewish foreign legion to the central powers.
"The League of Damnations" is a term associated with Zangwill's critique of the anti-Semitic sentiment prevalent in Europe during his time. He used this phrase to describe the collective hostility and discrimination faced by Jewish people in various countries. Zangwill was an ardent opponent of anti-Semitism and used his writings to expose and challenge the prejudices and injustices faced by Jews.
Personal life
Zangwill married Edith Ayrton in 1903. She was a feminist and author, and the daughter of cousins William Edward Ayrton and Matilda Chaplin Ayrton. Ayrton's stepmother was Hertha Ayrton, who, like Zangwill, was Jewish.
The Zangwill family lived for many years in East Preston, West Sussex in a house named Far End. The couple had three children, two sons and a daughter. The younger of their two sons was the British psychologist Oliver Zangwill.
Zangwill died of pneumonia on 1 August 1926 at a nursing home in Midhurst, West Sussex. He had spent two months at the nursing home.
Other works
Chosen Peoples, (1919)
The Big Bow Mystery (1892)
The King of Schnorrers (1894)
The Mantle of Elijah (London : Heinemann)
The Master (1895) (based on the life of friend and illustrator George Wylie Hutchinson)
The Melting Pot (1909)
The Old Maid’s Club (1892)
The Bachelors' Club (London : Henry, 1891)
The Serio-Comic Governess (1904)
Without Prejudice (1896)
Merely Mary Ann (1904)
The Grey Wig: Stories and Novelettes (1903) which include The Grey Wig; Chasse-Croise; The Woman Beater; The Eternal Feminine; The Silent Sisters
Italian Fantasies (1910)
As translator:
Selected Religious Poems of Solomon ibn Gabirol; pub. The Jewish Publication Society of America (1923)
The "of the Ghetto" books:
Children of the Ghetto: A Study of a Peculiar People (1892)
Grandchildren of the Ghetto (1892)
Dreamers of the Ghetto (1898)
Ghetto Tragedies, (1899)
Ghetto Comedies, (1907)
Filmography
Children of the Ghetto (film), directed by Frank Powell (1915, based on the play Children of the Ghetto)
The Melting Pot, directed by Oliver D. Bailey and James Vincent (1915, based on the play The Melting Pot)
Merely Mary Ann, directed by John G. Adolfi (1916, based on the play Merely Mary Ann)
The Moment Before, directed by Robert G. Vignola (1916, based on the play The Moment of Death)
Mary Ann, directed by Alexander Korda (Hungary, 1918, based on the play Merely Mary Ann)
Nurse Marjorie, directed by William Desmond Taylor (1920, based on the play Nurse Marjorie)
Merely Mary Ann, directed by Edward LeSaint (1920, based on the play Merely Mary Ann)
The Bachelor's Club, directed by A. V. Bramble (1921, based on the novel We Moderns)
We Moderns, directed by John Francis Dillon (1925, based on the play We Moderns)
Too Much Money, directed by John Francis Dillon (1926, based on the play Too Much Money)
, directed by Bert Glennon (1928, based on the novel The Big Bow Mystery)
Merely Mary Ann, directed by Henry King (1931, based on the play Merely Mary Ann)
The Crime Doctor, directed by John S. Robertson (1934, based on the novel The Big Bow Mystery)
The Verdict, directed by Don Siegel (1946, based on the novel The Big Bow Mystery)
Bibliography
References
Own writing
"The Return to Palestine", New Liberal Review, Dec. 1901
"Providence, Palestine and the Rothschilds", The Speaker, vol. 4, no. 125 (22 February 1902).
The War For The World. New York: Macmillan, 1916.
Hands Off Russia: Speech by Mr. Israel Zangwill at the Albert Hall, February 8th, 1919. London: Workers' Socialist Federation, n.d. [1919].
The Voice of Jerusalem. New York: Macmillan, 1921.
Bibliography
External links
The personal papers of Israel Zangwill are kept at the Central Zionist Archives in Jerusalem. The notation of the record group is A120.
Israel Zangwill, The Principle of Nationalities (1917)
Israel Zangwill and Children of the Ghetto
The Zionist Exposition
Jewish Virtual Library
Jewish Museum in London
Plays by Israel Zangwill written during World War 1 on Great War Theatre
1864 births
1926 deaths
Writers from London
19th-century English novelists
Alumni of the University of London
British Jewish writers
British Zionists
English male novelists
19th-century English dramatists and playwrights
English Jews
British people of Russian-Jewish descent
Jewish novelists
Jewish pacifists
English male dramatists and playwrights
People educated at JFS (school)
Territorialism
19th-century English male writers
20th-century English novelists
20th-century English dramatists and playwrights
20th-century English male writers
Ayrton family
People from East Preston, West Sussex
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science%20and%20technology%20in%20Israel
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Science and technology in Israel
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Science and technology in Israel is one of the country's most developed sectors. Israel spent 4.3% of its gross domestic product (GDP) on civil research and development in 2015, the highest ratio in the world. In 2019, Israel was ranked the world's fifth most innovative country by the Bloomberg Innovation Index. It ranks thirteenth in the world for scientific output as measured by the number of scientific publications per million citizens. In 2014, Israel's share of scientific articles published worldwide (0.9%) was nine times higher than its share of the global population (0.1%).
Israel counts 140 scientists and technicians per 10,000 employees, one of the highest ratios in the world. In comparison, there are 85 per 10,000 in the United States and 83 per 10,000 in Japan. In 2012, Israel counted 8,337 full-time equivalent researchers per million inhabitants. This compares with 3,984 in the US, 6,533 in the Republic of South Korea and 5,195 in Japan. Israel's high technology industry has benefited from both the country's highly educated and technologically skilled workforce coupled with the strong presence of foreign high-tech firms and sophisticated research centres.
Israel is home to major companies in the high-tech industry and has one of the world's most technologically literate populations. In 1998, Tel Aviv was named by Newsweek as one of the ten most technologically influential cities in the world. Since 2000, Israel has been a member of EUREKA, the pan-European research and development funding and coordination organization, and held the rotating chairmanship of the organization for 2010–2011. In 2010, American journalist David Kaufman wrote that the high-tech area of Yokneam, Israel, has the "world's largest concentration of aesthetics-technology companies". Google Chairman Eric Schmidt complimented the country during a visit there, saying that “Israel has the most important high-tech center in the world after the US.” Israel was ranked 16th in the Global Innovation Index in 2022, down from 10th in 2019.
History
Jewish settlement in Mandate Palestine was motivated by both ideology and flight from persecution. Return to the homeland was an important aspect of Jewish immigration and was perceived by many as a return to the soil. To establish the rural villages that formed the core of Zionist ideology and produce self-supporting Jewish farmers, agronomic experiments were conducted. The foundations of agricultural research in Israel were laid by the teachers and graduates of the Mikveh Yisrael School, the country's first agricultural school, established by the Alliance Israelite Universelle in 1870. On a field trip to Mount Hermon in 1906, the agronomist Aaron Aaronsohn discovered Triticum dicoccoides, or emmer wheat, believed to be the "mother of all wheat." In 1909, he founded an agricultural research station in Atlit where he built up an extensive library and collected geological and botanical samples. The Agricultural Station, founded in Rehovot in 1921, engaged in soil research and other aspects of farming in the country's difficult climatic conditions. This station, which became the Agricultural Research Organization (ARO), is now Israel's major institution of agricultural research and development.
In 1912, the first cornerstone of the Technion - Israel Institute of Technology was laid at a festive ceremony in Haifa, which was then occupied by the Ottoman Empire. The Technion would become a unique university worldwide in its claim to precede and create a nation. As Jews were often barred from technical education in Europe, the Technion claims to have brought the skills needed to build a modern state.
Established before World War I, the Hebrew Health Station in Jerusalem, founded by Nathan Straus engaged in medical and public health research, operating departments for public hygiene, eye diseases and bacteriology. The station manufactured vaccines against typhus and cholera, and developed methods of pest control to eliminate field mice. The Pasteur Institute affiliated with the station developed a rabies vaccine. Departments for microbiology, biochemistry, bacteriology, and hygiene were opened at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, founded on Mount Scopus in 1925. In 1936, Jewish workers in the center of the country donated two-days' pay toward the establishment of the "Hospital of Judea and Sharon," later renamed Beilinson Hospital. In 1938, Beilinson established the country's first blood bank. The Rothschild-Hadassah University Hospital on Mount Scopus opened in 1939 and was the first teaching hospital and medical center in the country. Since renamed the Hadassah Medical Center, it has become a leader in medical research.
Industrial research began at the Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, was also initiated at the Daniel Sieff Research Center (later the Weizmann Institute of Science), established in 1934 in Rehovot. The Dead Sea Laboratories opened in the 1930s. The first modern electronic computer in Israel and the Middle East, and one of the first large-scale, stored-program, electronic computers in the world, called WEIZAC, was built at the Weizmann Institute during 1954–1955, based on the Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) architecture developed by John von Neumann. WEIZAC has been recognized by the IEEE as a milestone in the history of electrical engineering and computing. IBM Israel, registered on June 8, 1950, was the country's first high-tech firm. The company, located on Allenby Street in Tel Aviv, assembled and repaired punch card machines, sorting machines and tabulators. In 1956, a local plant was opened to produce punch cards, and a year later, the first service center opened, offering computerized data processing services.
Scientific and technological research in Israel was boosted by the appointment of a chief scientist for the Industry and Trade Ministry at the recommendation of a committee headed by Ephraim Katzir, later president of Israel. The Israeli government provided grants that covered 50–80 percent of the outlay for new start-ups, with no conditions, no shareholding and no participation in management. In the early 1980s, Control Data Corporation, a partner in Elron Electronic Industries, formed the country's first venture capital firm.
Origins of Israeli high-tech industry
Israel's high-technology industries are a spin-off of the rapid development of computer science and technology in the 1980s in such places as Silicon Valley and Massachusetts Route 128 in the US, which ushered in the current high-tech era. Up until that point, Israel's economy had been essentially based on agriculture, mining and secondary sectors such as diamond polishing and manufacturing in textiles, fertilizers and plastics.
The key factor which enabled high-tech industries based on information and communication technologies to take root and flourish in Israel was investment by the defense and aerospace industries, which spawned new technologies and know-how. Israel devoted 17.1% of its GDP to military expenditure in 1988. Even though this share had dropped to 5.8% of GDP by 2016, Israel military spending remains among the highest in the world. For the purposes of comparison, the United States devoted 5.7% of its GDP to military expenditure in 1988 and 3.3% in 2016. This heavy investment in defense and aerospace formed the basis for Israel's high-tech industries in medical devices, electronics, telecommunications, computer software and hardware.
The massive Russian immigration of the 1990s reinforced this phenomenon, doubling the number of engineers and scientists in Israel overnight. Between 1989 and 2006, about 979,000 Russian Jews and their relatives migrated to Israel, which had a population of just 4.5 million in 1989.
The purchase of Mirabilis in 1998 marked the first big exit of high technology in Israel and caused a rush of Israeli companies as part of the Dot-com bubble.
Contemporary high-tech industry in Israel
Currently, Israel has the world's most research-intensive business sector. In 2018, 4.95% of its GDP was invested in research and technology. Meanwhile, Israel's technology sector plays a crucial role in the country's economy. In 2021, the Israeli high-technology sector accounted for around 12% of the country's economic output and 10% of its national labour force.
Competitive grants and tax incentives are the two main public policy instruments in supporting business research and development. Thanks to generous government incentives and the availability of highly trained human capital, Israel has become an attractive location for the research and development centers of leading multinational corporations around the world. The country's national innovation ecosystem relies on both foreign multinationals and large corporate investors in research and development, as well as on start-ups.
As of 2019, some 530 foreign research centres were currently active in Israel. Many of these centers are owned by large multinational firms that have acquired Israeli companies, technology and know-how and transformed them through mergers and acquisitions into their own local research facilities. The activity of some research centers even spans more than three decades, such as those of Intel, Applied Materials, Motorola and IBM.
The high level of technological innovation and number of successful startup companies in Israel has led to the country commonly being referred to as the "Startup Nation", a term coined by Dan Senor and Saul Singer and the title of their 2019 book Start-up Nation: The Story of Israel's Economic Miracle.
In the late 2010s, Israel saw a sharp increase in the number of high-technology startups that achieved 'unicorn status' (a financing round at a valuation of $1 billion or more): in 2016, Israel had 10 such startups. By 2019, the number had risen to 19. Be the end of 2021, 74 tech unicorns had emerged from Israel's tech sector - 33 in 2021 alone. The growth in the number of unicorn startups in Israel, together with tech startups maturing to become public companies rather being acquired earlier in their lifecycle, has led to the suggestion that Israel has transitioned from 'Startup Nation' to 'Scale-up Nation'.
Higher education policy
Sixth Higher Education Plan
Israel's higher education system is regulated by the Council for Higher Education and its Planning and Budgeting Committee. The Israeli higher education system operates under a multi-year plan agreed upon by the Planning and Budgeting Committee (PBC) and the Ministry of Finance. Each plan determines policy objectives and, accordingly, the budgets to be allocated in order to achieve these objectives.
The annual government allocation to universities totalled about US$1.75 billion in 2015, providing 50–75% of their operating budgets. Much of the remainder of their operating budget (15–20%) comes from annual student tuition fees, which are uniform at about US$2,750 per year. The Sixth Higher Education Plan (2011–2016) makes provision for a 30% rise in the Council for Higher Education's budget. The Sixth Plan changes the budgeting model of the PBC by placing greater emphasis on excellence in research, along with quantitative measures for the number of students. Under this model, 75% of the committee's budget (NIS 7 billion over six years) is being allocated to institutions offering higher education. The Sixth Higher Education Plan launched the Israeli Centres of Research Excellence (I-CORE) programme in October 2011. This reflects a renewed interest in funding academic research and constitutes a strong indication of a reversal in government policy.
Israeli Centres of Research Excellence
The Israeli Centres of Research Excellence (I-CORE) programme, which dates from 2011, envisions the establishment of cross-institutional clusters of top researchers in specific fields and returning young Israeli scientists from abroad, with each centre being endowed with state-of-the-art research infrastructure. The Sixth Higher Education Plan invests NIS 300 million over six years in upgrading and renovating academic infrastructure and research facilities.
I-CORE is run jointly by the Council for Higher Education's Planning and Budgeting Committee and the Israel Science Foundation. By 2015, 16 centres had been established in two waves across a wide spectrum of research areas: six specialize in life sciences and medicine, five in the exact sciences and engineering, three in social sciences and law and two in humanities. Each centre of excellence has been selected via a peer review process conducted by the Israel Science Foundation. By May 2014, around 60 young researchers had been absorbed into these centres, many of whom had previously worked abroad.
The research topics of each centre are selected through a broad bottom-up process consisting of consultations with the Israeli academic community, in order to ensure that they reflect the genuine priorities and scientific interests of Israeli researchers.
I-CORE is funded by the Council for Higher Education, the host institutions and strategic business partners, with a total budget of NIS 1.35 billion (US$365 million). The original goal was to set up 30 centres of research excellence in Israel by 2016. However, the establishment of the remaining 14 centres has provisionally been shelved, for lack of sufficient external capital.
In 2013–2014, the Planning and Budgeting Committee's budget for the entire I-CORE programme amounted to NIS 87.9 million, equivalent to about 1% of the total for higher education that year. This budget appears to be insufficient to create the critical mass of researchers in various academic fields and thus falls short of the programme's objective. The level of government support for the centres of excellence has grown each year since 2011 as new centres have been established and is expected to reach NIS 93.6 million by 2015–2016 before dropping to 33.7 million in 2017–2018. According to the funding model, government support should represent one-third of all funding, another third being funded by the participating universities and the remaining third by donors or investors.
University recruitment targets
In the 2012–2013 academic year, there were 4,066 faculty members. The targets fixed by the Planning and Budgeting Committee for faculty recruitment are ambitious: universities are to recruit another 1 600 senior faculty within the six-year period – about half of whom will occupy new positions and half will replace faculty expected to retire. This will constitute a net increase of more than 15% in university faculty. In colleges, another 400 new positions are to be created, entailing a 25% net increase. The new faculty will be hired via the institutions’ regular recruitment channels, some in specific research areas, through the Israeli Centers of Research Excellence program.
The increase in faculty numbers will also reduce the student-to-faculty ratio, the target being to achieve a ratio of 21.5 university students to every faculty member, compared to 24.3 at present, and 35 students for every faculty member in colleges, compared to 38 at present. This increase in the number of faculty positions, alongside the upgrading of research and teaching infrastructure and the increase in competitive research funds, should help Israel to staunch brain drain by enabling the best Israeli researchers at home and abroad to conduct their academic work in Israel, if they so wish, at institutions offering the highest academic standards.
The new budgeting scheme described above is mainly concerned with the human and research infrastructure in universities. Most of the physical development (e.g. buildings) and scientific infrastructure (e.g. laboratories and expensive equipment) of universities comes from philanthropic donations, primarily from the American Jewish community (CHE, 2014). This latter source of funding has greatly compensated for the lack of sufficient government funding for universities up until now but it is expected to diminish significantly in the years to come. Unless the government invests more in research infrastructure, Israel's universities will be ill-equipped and insufficiently funded to meet the challenges of the 21st century.
Expanding access to higher education
Israel has offered virtually universal access to its universities and academic colleges since the wave of Jewish immigration from the former Soviet Union in the 1990s prompted the establishment of numerous tertiary institutions to absorb the additional demand. However, the Arab and ultra-orthodox minorities still attend university in insufficient numbers. The Sixth Higher Education Plan places emphasis on encouraging minority groups to enroll in higher education. Two years after the Mahar program was implemented in late 2012 for the ultra-orthodox population, student enrollment had grown by 1400. Twelve new programs for ultra-orthodox students have since been established, three of them on university campuses. Meanwhile, the Pluralism and Equal Opportunity in Higher Education program addresses the barriers to integration of the Arab minority in the higher education system. Its scope ranges from providing secondary-school guidance through preparation for academic studies to offering students comprehensive support in their first year of study, a stage normally characterized by a high drop-out rate. The program renews the Ma’of fund supporting outstanding young Arab faculty members. Since the introduction of this program in 1995, the Ma’of fund has opened tenure track opportunities for nearly 100 Arab lecturers, who act as role models for younger Arab students embarking on their own academic careers.
Science, technology and innovation policy
Policy framework
Although Israel does not have an ‘umbrella type’ policy for science, technology and innovation optimizing priorities and allocating resources, it does implement, de facto, an undeclared set of best practices combining bottom-up and top-down processes via government offices, such as those of the Chief Scientist or the Minister of Science, Technology and Space, as well as ad hoc organizations like the Telem forum. The procedure for selecting research projects for the Israeli centers for research excellence is one example of this bottom-up process.
Israel has no specific legislation regulating the transfer of knowledge from the academic sector to the general public and industry. Nevertheless, the Israeli government influences policy formulation by universities and technology transfer by providing incentives and subsidies through programmes such as Magnet and Magneton, as well as through regulation. There were attempts in 2004 and 2005 to introduce bills encouraging the transfer of knowledge and technology for the public benefit but, as these attempts failed, each university has since defined its own policy.
The Israeli economy is driven by industries based on electronics, computers and communication technologies, the result of over 50 years of investment in the country's defence infrastructure. Israeli defence industries have traditionally focused on electronics, avionics and related systems. The development of these systems has given Israeli high-tech industries a qualitative edge in civilian spin-offs in the software, communications and Internet sectors. However, the next waves of high technologies are expected to emanate from other disciplines, including molecular biology, biotechnology and pharmaceuticals, nanotechnology, material sciences and chemistry, in intimate synergy with information and communication technologies. These disciplines are rooted in the basic research laboratories of universities rather than the defence industries. This poses a dilemma. In the absence of a national policy for universities, let alone for the higher education system as a whole, it is not clear how these institutions will manage to supply the knowledge, skills and human resources needed for these new science-based industries.
Evaluation of science policy instruments
The country's various policy instruments are evaluated by the Council for Higher Education, the National Council for Research and Development, the Office of the Chief Scientist, the Academy of Sciences and Humanities and the Ministry of Finance. In recent years, the Magnet administration in the Office of the Chief Scientist has initiated several evaluations of its own policy instruments, most of which have been carried out by independent research institutions. One such evaluation was carried out in 2010 by the Samuel Neaman Institute; it concerned the Nofar programme within the Magnet directorate. Nofar tries to bridge basic and applied research, before the commercial potential of a project has caught the eye of industry. The main recommendation was for Nofar to extend programme funding to emerging technological domains beyond biotechnology and nanotechnology. The Office of the Chief Scientist accepted this recommendation and, consequently, decided to fund projects in the fields of medical devices, water and energy technology and multidisciplinary research.
An additional evaluation was carried out in 2008 by Applied Economics, an economic and management research-based consultancy, on the contribution of the high-tech sector to economic productivity in Israel. It found that the output per worker in companies that received support from the Office of the Chief Scientist was 19% higher than in ‘twin’ companies that had not received this support. The same year, a committee headed by Israel Makov examined the Office of the Chief Scientist's support for research and development in large companies. The committee found economic justification for providing incentives for these companies.
Research funding programmes
The Israeli Science Foundation is the main source of research funding in Israel and receives administrative support from the Academy of Sciences and Humanities. The foundation provides competitive grants in three areas: exact sciences and technology; life sciences and medicine; and humanities and social sciences. Complementary funding is provided by binational foundations, such as the USA–Israel Binational Science Foundation (est. 1972) and the German–Israeli Foundation for Scientific Research and Development (est. 1986).
The Ministry of Science, Technology and Space funds thematic research centres and is responsible for international scientific co-operation. The Ministry's National Infrastructure Programme aims to create a critical mass of knowledge in national priority fields and to nurture the younger generation of scientists. Investment in the programme mainly takes the form of research grants, scholarships and knowledge centres. Over 80% of the ministry's budget is channelled towards research in academic institutions and research institutes, as well as towards revamping scientific infrastructure by upgrading existing research facilities and establishing new ones. In 2012, the ministry resolved to invest NIS 120 million over three years in four designated priority areas for research: brain science; supercomputing and cybersecurity; oceanography; and alternative transportation fuels. An expert panel headed by the Chief Scientist in the Ministry of Science, Technology and Space chose these four broad disciplines in the belief that they would be likely to exert the greatest practical impact on Israeli life in the near future.
The main ongoing programmes managed by the Israel Innovation Authority, Previously known as the Office of the Chief Scientist within the Ministry of the Economy are: the R&D (Research and Development) Fund; Magnet Tracks (est. 1994; Tnufa (est. 2001) and the Technological Incubator Programme (est.1991). Between 2010 and 2014, the Office of the Chief Scientist initiated several new programmes:
Grand Challenges Israel (since 2014): an Israeli contribution to the Grand Challenges in Global Health programme, which is dedicated to tackling global health and food security challenges in developing countries; Grand Challenges Israel is offering grants of up to NIS 500 000 at the proof of concept/feasibility study stage.
Research and development in the field of space technology (2012): encourages research to find technological solutions in various fields.
Technological Entrepreneurship Incubators (2014): encourages entrepreneurial technology and supports start-up technology companies.
Magnet – Kamin programme (2014) provides direct support for applied research in academia that has potential for commercial application.
Cyber – Kidma programme (2014): promotes Israel's cybersecurity industry.
Cleantech – Renewable Energy Technology Centre (2012): supports research through projects involving private–public partnerships in the field of renewable energy.
Life Sciences Fund (2010): finances the projects of Israeli companies, with emphasis on biopharmaceuticals, established together with the Ministry of Finance and the private sector.
Biotechnology – Tzatam programme (2011): provides equipment to support research and development in life sciences. The Chief Scientist supports industrial organizations and the PBC provides research institutions with assistance.
Investment in high-tech industries (2011): encourages financial institutions to invest in knowledge-based industries, through a collaboration between the Office of the Chief Scientist and the Ministry of Finance.
Another source of public research funding is the Forum for National Research and Development Infrastructure (Telem). This voluntary partnership involves the Office of the Chief Scientist of the Ministry of the Economy and the Ministry of Science, Technology and Space, the Planning and Budgeting Committee and the Ministry of Finance. Telem projects focus on establishing infrastructure for research and development in areas that are of common interest to most Telem partners. These projects are financed by the Telem members’ own resources.
Trends in research funding
In 2014, Israel topped the world for research intensity, reflecting the importance of research and innovation for the economy. Since 2008, however, Israel's research intensity has weakened somewhat (4.21% of GDP in 2013), even as this ratio has experienced impressive growth in the Republic of Korea (4.15% in 2014), Denmark (3.06% in 2013) and Germany (2.94% in 2013). The OECD average was 2.40% of GDP in 2014. Business expenditure on research and development (BERD) continues to account for ~84% of GERD, or 3.49% of GDP.
The share of higher education in gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD) has decreased since 2003 from 0.69% of GDP to 0.59% of GDP (2013). Despite this drop, Israel ranks 8th among OECD countries for this indicator. The lion's share of GERD (45.6%) in Israel is financed by foreign companies, reflecting the large scale of activity by foreign multinational companies and research centres in the country.
The share of foreign funding in university-performed research is also quite significant (21.8%). By the end of 2014, Israel had received €875.6 million from the European Union's (EU's) Seventh Framework Programme for Research and Innovation (2007–2013), 70% of which had gone to universities. Its successor, Horizon 2020 (2014–2020), has been endowed with nearly €80 billion in funding, making it the EU's most ambitious research and innovation programme ever. As of February 2015, Israel had received €119.8 million from the Horizon 2020 programme.
In 2013, more than half (51.5%) of government spending was allocated to university research and an additional 29.9% to the development of industrial technologies. Research expenditure on health and the environment has doubled in absolute terms in the past decade but still accounts for less than 1% of total government GERD. Israel is unique among OECD countries in its distribution of government support by objective. Israel ranks at the bottom in government support of research in health care, environmental quality and infrastructure development.
There has been insufficient government funding for universities in recent years. University research in Israel is largely grounded in basic research, even though it also engages in applied research and partnerships with industry. Basic research in Israel only accounted for 13% of research expenditure in 2013, compared to 16% in 2006. There has since been an increase in General University Funds and those destined for non-oriented research.
Trends in human resources
In 2012, there were 77 282 full-time equivalent researchers in Israel, 82% of whom had acquired an academic education, 10% of whom were practical engineers and technicians and 8% of whom held other qualifications. Eight out of ten (83.8%) were employed in the business sector, 1.1% in the government sector, 14.4% in the higher education sector and 0.7% in non-profit institutions.
In 2011, 28% of senior academic staff were women, up by 5% over the previous decade (from 25% in 2005). Although the representation of women has increased, it remains very low in engineering (14%), physical sciences (11%), mathematics and computer sciences (10%) relative to education (52%) and paramedical occupations (63%).
There is a visible ageing of scientists and engineers in some fields. For instance, about three-quarters of researchers in the physical sciences are over the age of 50 and the proportion is even higher for practical engineers and technicians. The shortage of professional staff will be a major handicap for the national innovation system in the coming years, as the growing demand for engineers and technical professionals begins to outpace supply.
During the 2012/2013 academic year, 34% of bachelor's degrees were obtained in fields related to science and engineering in Israel. This compares well with the proportion in the Republic of Korea (40%) and most Western countries (about 30% on average). The proportion of Israeli graduates in scientific disciplines and engineering was slightly lower at the master's level (27%) but dominated at PhD level (56%).
Recent statistics support the assertion that Israel may be living on the ‘fruits of the past’, that is to say, on the heavy investment made in primary, secondary and tertiary education during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. Between 2007 and 2013, the number of graduates in physical sciences, biological sciences and agriculture dropped, even though the total number of university graduates progressed by 19% (to 39 654). Recent data reveal that Israeli educational achievements in the core curricular subjects of mathematics and science are low in comparison to other OECD countries, as revealed by the exam results of Israeli 15-year-olds in the OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment. Public spending on primary education has also fallen below the OECD average. The public education budget accounted for 6.9% of GDP in 2002 but only 5.6% in 2011. The share of this budget going to tertiary education has remained stable at 16–18% but, as a share of GDP, has passed under the bar of 1%. There is concern at the deteriorating quality of teachers at all levels of education and the lack of stringent demands on students to strive for excellence.
In recent years, Israel encountered the problem of shortage of specialists in the high-tech industry. Now high technology sector is rapidly growing and demand for tech talent increasing as well - the further growth of the industry depends on it. The shortage also generates a significant and disproportionate increase in salaries, which causes companies to look for new employees abroad. To solve the problem Israel's Council for Higher Education has already launched a five-years program to increase the number of graduates from computer science and engineering programs by 40%.
Digital technologies
Israel is investing heavily in technologies such as AI and data science, smart mobility, digital health and e-governance through Digital Israel, a series of national programmes that include the Fuel Choices and Smart Mobility Initiative.
Digital Israel is the concrete expression of the government’s Digital Policy for 2017–2022. This NIS 1.5 billion (about US$ 425 million) initiative aims to make Israel a global leader in this domain. The programme plans to leverage Israeli expertise in information and communication technologies (ICTs) to accelerate economic growth, reduce socio-economic disparities and make governance smarter, faster and citizen-friendlier.
The programme is led by the Headquarters for the National Digital Israel Initiative, placed under the Ministry of Social Equality; this body collaborates with ministries, local authorities, companies and non-profit organizations.
In 2018, Israel embarked on a five-year National Programme for Digital Health. The stated aims are to create a new national economic growth engine, advance Israel’s clinical and academic research and create a local digital health care system that is among the best in the world. The programme is backed by an investment of NIS 898 million (ca US$ 256 million) and implemented by multiple governmental bodies, including the Ministry of Health, the Ministry for Social Equality (Digital Israel), the Ministry of the Economy and Industry, the Israeli Innovation Authority and the Council for Higher Education.
Research universities
Israel has seven research universities: Bar-Ilan University, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, the University of Haifa, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, Tel Aviv University and the Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot. Other scientific research institutions include the Volcani Institute of Agricultural Research in Beit Dagan, the Israel Institute for Biological Research and the Soreq Nuclear Research Center. The Ben-Gurion National Solar Energy Center at Sde Boker is an alternative energy research institute established in 1987 by the Ministry of National Infrastructures to study alternative and clean energy technologies.
Israeli universities are ranked among the top 50 academic institutions in the world in the following scientific disciplines: in chemistry (Technion); in computer science (Weizmann Institute of Science, Technion, Hebrew University, Tel Aviv University); in mathematics and natural sciences (Hebrew University, Technion) and in engineering (Technion).
In 2009, Mor Tzaban, an Israeli high school student from Netivot, won first prize in the First Step to Nobel Prize in Physics competition. In 2012, Yuval Katzenelson of Kiryat Gat won first prize with a paper entitled "Kinetic energy of inert gas in a regenerative system of activated carbon." The Israeli delegation won 14 more prizes in the competition: 9 Israelis students won second prize, one won third prize and one won fourth prize.
Research and Development center
Except universities, Israel has seven R&D centers in the periphery. These centers were established by the Ministry of Science and Technology, and include Migal and the Dead Sea and Arava science center. Their orientation is based on applied science and the dissemination of scientific knowledge to the general population. To date, seven centers are working with significant academic impact and relevance to the region.
Scientific output
The number of Israeli publications stagnated between 2005 and 2014, according to Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded). Consequently, the number of Israeli publications per million inhabitants also declined: between 2008 and 2013, it dropped from 1 488 to 1 431; this trend reflects a relative constancy in scholarly output in the face of relatively high population growth (1.1% in 2014) for a developed country and near-zero growth in the number of full-time equivalent researchers in universities. Between 2005 and 2014, Israeli scientific output was particularly high in life sciences. Israeli universities do particularly well in computer science but publications in this field tend to appear mostly in conference proceedings, which are not included in the Web of Science.
Israeli publications have a high citation rate and a high share of papers count among the 10 percent most-cited. The share of papers with foreign co-authors is almost twice the OECD average, which is typical of small countries with a developed scientific and technological ecosystem. A team of 50 Israeli scientists work full-time at CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research, which operates the Large Hadron Collider in Switzerland. Israel was granted observer status in 1991 before becoming a fully fledged member in 2014. An Israeli delegation headed by President Shimon Peres visited the particle accelerator in 2011.
Israeli scientists collaborate mostly with Western countries such as the European Union and the United States but there has been strong growth in recent years in collaboration with East Asian countries such as China, Japan, and South Korea, India, and the Southeast Asian city state of Singapore.
Technology transfer
History
Research conducted at Israeli universities and institutes is shared with the private sector through technology transfer (TT) units. Israel's first university TT unit, Yeda, was established by the Weizmann Institute of Science in the 1950s. Research in such fields as arid and semi-arid zone agricultural engineering was transferred to kibbutzim and private farmers on a gratis basis and agricultural knowledge was shared with developing countries.
In 1964, Yissum, the technology transfer company of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, was founded.
Since the 1990s, the traditional dual mission of universities of teaching and research has broadened to include a third mission: engagement with society and industry. This evolution has been a corollary of the rise of the electronics industry and information technology services, along with a surge in the number of research personnel following the wave of immigration from the former Soviet Union.
Israel has no specific legislation regulating the transfer of knowledge from the academic sector to the general public and industry. There were attempts in 2004 and 2005 to introduce bills encouraging the transfer of knowledge and technology for the public benefit but, as these attempts failed, each university has since defined its own policy.
University-industry collaboration
All Israeli research universities have technology transfer offices. Recent research conducted by the Samuel Neaman Institute has revealed that, between 2004 and 2013, the universities’ share of patent applications constituted 10–12% of the total inventive activity of Israeli applicants. This is one of the highest shares in the world and is largely due to the intensive activity of the universities’ technology transfer offices. The Weizmann Institute's technology transfer office, Yeda, has been ranked the third-most profitable in the world. Through exemplary university–industry collaboration, the Weizmann Institute of Science and Teva Pharmaceutical Industries have discovered and developed the Copaxone drug for the treatment of multiple sclerosis. Copaxone is Teva's biggest-selling drug, with US$1.68 billion in sales in the first half of 2011. Since the drug's approval by the US Food and Drug Administration in 1996, it is estimated that the Weizmann Institute of Science has earned nearly US$2 billion in royalties from the commercialization of its intellectual property.
International technology transfer
In 2007, the United Nations General Assembly's Economic and Financial Committee adopted an Israeli-sponsored draft resolution on agricultural technology transfer to developing countries. The resolution called on developed countries to make their knowledge and know-how accessible to the developing world as part of the UN campaign to eradicate hunger and dire poverty by 2015. The initiative is an outgrowth of Israel's many years of contributing its know-how to developing nations, especially Africa, in the spheres of agriculture, fighting desertification, rural development, irrigation, medical development, computers and the empowerment of women.
Venture capital
As new technology companies require money and seed capital to grow and thrive, Israel's science and technology sector is backed by a strong venture capital industry. Between 2004 and 2013, the Israeli venture capital industry played a fundamental role in funding the development of Israel's high-tech sector. In 2013, Israeli companies had raised more venture capital as a share of GDP than companies in any other country as it attracted US$2 346 million alone during that year. Today, Israel is considered one of the biggest venture capital centers in the world outside the United States of America. Several factors have contributed to this growth. These include tax exemptions on Israeli venture capital, funds established in conjunction with large international banks and financial companies and the involvement of major organizations desirous to capitalize on the strengths of Israeli high-tech companies. These organizations include some of the world's largest multinational technology companies, including Apple, Cisco, Google, IBM, Intel, Microsoft, Oracle, Siemens and Samsung. In recent years, the share of venture capital invested in the growth stages of enterprises has flourished at the expense of early stage investments. Nowadays, Israeli companies are considered to be more popular than their American peers. For comparison, investments volume in Israeli startups grew by 140% during 2014-2018 and investments in technological startups from the U.S. grew by 64%.
Israel's venture capital market backed deals worth US$ 4 759 million in 2018. About half of venture capital-backed deals involved an Israeli venture capitalist, either working solo or with others. According to the IVC database, 480 Israeli venture capital companies invested in Israeli high-tech firms in 2018 and 2019.
For most OECD countries, venture capital constitutes less than 0.05% of GDP. Israel and the USA are the exception; their venture capital industry accounts for more than 0.35% of GDP.
Intellectual property rights
Intellectual property rights in Israel protect copyright and performers’ rights, trademarks, geographical indicators, patents, industrial designs, topographies of integrated circuits, plant breeds and undisclosed business secrets. Both contemporary Israeli legislation and case law are influenced by laws and practices in modern countries, particularly Anglo-American law, the emerging body of EU law and proposals by international organizations.
Israel has made a concerted effort to improve the economy's ability to benefit from an enhanced system of intellectual property rights. This includes increasing the resources of the Israel Patent Office, upgrading enforcement activities and implementing programmes to bring ideas funded by government research to the market. Between 2002 and 2012, foreigners accounted for nearly 80% of the patent applications filed with the Israel Patent Office. A sizeable share of foreign applicants seeking protection from the Israel Patent Office are pharmaceutical companies such as F. Hoffmann-La Roche, Janssen, Novartis, Merck, Bayer-Schering, Sanofi-Aventis and Pfizer, which happen to be the main business competitors of Israel's own Teva Pharmaceutical Industries.
Israel ranks tenth in the world for the number of patent applications filed with the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) by country of residence of the first-named inventor. Israeli inventors file far more applications with USPTO (5 436 in 2011) than with the European Patent Office (EPO). Moreover, the number of Israeli filings with EPO dropped from 1400 to 1063 between 2006 and 2011. This preference for USPTO is largely because foreign research centres implanted in Israel are primarily owned by US firms such as IBM, Intel, Sandisk, Microsoft, Applied Materials, Qualcomm, Motorola, Google or Hewlett–Packard. The inventions of these companies are attributed to Israel as the inventor of the patent but not as the owner (applicant or assignee). The loss of intellectual property into the hands of multinationals occurs mainly through the recruitment of the best Israeli talent by the local research centres of multinational firms. Although the Israeli economy benefits from the activity of the multinationals’ subsidiaries through job creation and other means, the advantages are relatively small compared to the potential economic gains that might have been achieved, had this intellectual property been utilized to support and foster the expansion of mature Israeli companies of a considerable size.
Applied science and engineering
Energy
Solar power
As of 2014, Israel leads the 2014 Global Cleantech Innovation Index.
The country's lack of conventional energy sources has spurred extensive research and development of alternative energy sources and Israel has developed innovative technologies in the solar energy field. Israel has become the world's largest per capita user of solar water heaters in the home. A new, high-efficiency receiver to collect concentrated sunlight has been developed, which will enhance the use of solar energy in industry as well.
In a 2009 report by the CleanTech Group, Israel ranked number 5 clean tech country in the world. The Arrow Ecology company has developed the ArrowBio process a patented system which takes trash directly from collection trucks and separates organic and inorganic materials through gravitational settling, screening, and hydro-mechanical shredding. The system is capable of sorting huge volumes of solid waste, salvaging recyclables, and turning the rest into biogas and rich agricultural compost. The system is used in California, Australia, Greece, Mexico, the United Kingdom and in Israel. For example, an ArrowBio plant that has been operational at the Hiriya landfill site since December 2003 serves the Tel Aviv area, and processes up to 150 tons of garbage a day.
In 2010, Technion – the Israel Institute of Technology – established the Grand Technion Energy Program (GTEP). This multidisciplinary task-force brings together Technion's top researchers in energy science and technology from over nine different faculties. GTEP's 4-point strategy targets research and development of alternative fuels; renewable energy sources; energy storage and conversion; and energy conservation. GTEP is presently the only center in Israel offering graduate studies in energy science and technology to bring the energy skills and know-how to address the energy challenges of the future.
Natural gas
Since 1999, large reserves of natural gas have been discovered off Israel's coast. This fossil fuel has become the primary fuel for electricity generation in Israel and is gradually replacing oil and coal. In 2010, 37% of electricity in Israel was generated from natural gas, leading to savings of US$1.4 billion for the economy. In 2015, this rate is expected to surpass 55%.
In addition, the usage of natural gas in industry – both as a source of energy and as a raw material – is rapidly expanding, alongside the requisite infrastructure. This is giving companies a competitive advantage by reducing their energy costs and lowering national emissions. Since early 2013, almost the entire natural gas consumption of Israel has been supplied by the Tamar field, an Israeli–American private partnership. The estimated reserves amount to about 1 000 BCM, securing Israel's energy needs for many decades to come and making Israel a potentially major regional exporter of natural gas. In 2014, initial export agreements were signed with the Palestinian Authority, Jordan and Egypt; there are also plans to export natural gas to Turkey and the EU via Greece.
In 2011, the government asked the Academy of Sciences and Humanities to convene a panel of experts to consider the full range of implications of the most recent discoveries of natural gas. The panel recommended encouraging research into fossil fuels, training engineers and focusing research efforts on the impact of gas production on the Mediterranean Sea's ecosystem. The Mediterranean Sea Research Centre of Israel was established in 2012 with an initial budget of NIS 70 million; new study programmes have since been launched at the centre to train engineers and other professionals for the oil and gas industry. Meanwhile, the Office of the Chief Scientist, among others, plans to use Israel's fledgling natural gas industry as a stepping stone to building capacity in advanced technology and opening up opportunities for Israeli innovation targeting the global oil and gas markets.
Space science and technology
During the 1970s and 1980s Israel began developing the infrastructure needed for research and development in space exploration and related sciences. In November 1982, the Minister of Science and Technology, Yuval Ne'eman, established the Israel Space Agency (ISA), to coordinate and supervise a national space program as well as to conduct space, planetary, and aviation research. Because of geographical constraints, as well as safety considerations, the Israeli space program focuses on very small satellites loaded with payloads of a high degree of sophistication, and cooperation with other national space agencies. The Technion Asher Space Research Institute plays a central role in educating the aerospace engineers of the next generation. In 2009 Israel was ranked 2nd among 20 top countries in space sciences by Thomson Reuters agency.
Israel became the eighth nation in the world to have an orbital launch capability when it deployed its first satellite, Ofeq-1, using the locally built Shavit launch vehicle on September 19, 1988, and has made important contributions in a number of areas in space research, including laser communication, research into embryo development and osteoporosis in space, pollution monitoring, and mapping geology, soil and vegetation in semi-arid environments.
Key projects include the TAUVEX telescope, the Tel Aviv University Ultra Violet Experiment, a UV telescope for astronomical observations which was developed in the 1990s to be accommodated on an Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) geo-synchronous satellite GSAT-4, for joint operation and use by Indian and Israeli scientists; the VENUS microsatellite, developed in collaboration with the French space agency, CNES, which will use an Israeli-developed space camera, electric space engine and algorithms; and MEIDEX (Mediterranean – Israel Dust Experiment), in collaboration with NASA.
Ilan Ramon was Israel's first astronaut. Ramon was the Space Shuttle payload specialist on board the fatal STS-107 mission of Space Shuttle Columbia, in which he and the six other crew members were killed in a re-entry accident over the southern United States. Ramon had been selected as a payload specialist in 1997 and trained at the Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, from 1998 until 2003. Among other experiments, Ramon was responsible for the MEIDEX project in which he was required to take pictures of atmospheric aerosol (dust) in the Mediterranean area using a multispectral camera designed to provide scientific information about atmospheric aerosols and the influence of global changes on the climate, and data for the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) and Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) instruments. Researchers from Tel Aviv University (TAU) were responsible for the scientific aspect of the experiment. The TAU team also worked with a US company, Orbital Sciences Corporation, to construct and test special flight instruments for the project.
Aerospace engineering
Aerospace engineering related to the country's defense needs has generated technological development with consequent civilian spin-offs. The Arava short take-off and landing (STOL) plane manufactured by Israel Aerospace Industries was
the first aircraft to be produced in Israel, in the late 1960s, for both military and civilian uses. This was followed by the production of the Westwind business jet from 1965 to 1987, and later variants, the Astra and the Gulfstream G100, which are still in active service.
Israel is among the few countries capable of launching satellites into orbit and locally designed and manufactured satellites have been produced and launched by Israel Aerospace Industries(IAI), Israel's largest military engineering company, in cooperation with the Israel Space Agency. The AMOS-1 geostationary satellite began operations in 1996 as Israel's first commercial communications satellite. It was built primarily for direct-to-home television broadcasting, TV distribution and VSAT services. AMOS-2 was launched in December 2003 and a further series of AMOS communications satellites (AMOS 2 – 5i) are operated or in development by the Spacecom Satellite Communications company, headquartered in Ramat-Gan, Israel. Spacecom provides satellite telecommunications services to countries in Europe, the Middle East and Africa. Another satellite, the Gurwin-II TechSAT, designed and manufactured by the Technion, was launched in July 1998 to provide communications, remote sensing and research services. EROS, launched in 2000, is a non-geostationary orbit satellite for commercial photography and surveillance services.
Israel also develops, manufactures, and exports a large number of related aerospace products, including rockets and satellites, display systems, aeronautical computers, instrumentation systems, drones and flight simulators. Israel's second largest defense company is Elbit Systems, which makes electro-optical systems for air, sea and ground forces; drones; control and monitoring systems; communications systems and more. The Technion - Israel Institute of Technology is home to the Asher Space Research Institute, which is unique in Israel as a university-based center of space research. At ASRI, Israeli students designed, built and launched their own satellite: Gurwin TechSat.
Agricultural engineering
Israel's agricultural sector is characterized by an intensive system of production stemming from the need to overcome the scarcity in natural resource, particularly water and arable land, in a country where more than half of its area is desert. The growth in agricultural production is based on close cooperation of scientists, farmers and agriculture-related industries and has resulted in the development of advanced agricultural technology, water-conserving irrigation methods, anaerobic digestion, greenhouse technology, desert agriculture and salinity research. Israeli companies also supply irrigation, water conservation and greenhouse technologies and know-how to other countries.
The modern technology of drip irrigation was invented in Israel by Simcha Blass and his son Yeshayahu. Instead of releasing water through tiny holes, blocked easily by tiny particles, water was released through larger and longer passageways by using velocity to slow water inside a plastic emitter. The first experimental system of this type was established in 1959 when Blass partnered with Kibbutz Hatzerim to create an irrigation company called Netafim. Together they developed and patented the first practical surface drip irrigation emitter. This method was very successful and had spread to Australia, North America and South America by the late 1960s.
Israeli farmers rely heavily on greenhouse technology to ensure a constant, year-round supply of high quality produce, while overcoming the obstacles posed by adverse climatic conditions, and water and land shortages. Technologies include computerized greenhouse climate control, greenhouse shading, irrigation, fertigation, greenhouse water recycling and biological control of plant disease and insects, allow farmers to control most production parameters. As a result, Israeli farmers successfully grow 3 million roses per hectare in season and an average of 300 tons of tomatoes per hectare, four times the amount harvested in open fields.
Computer engineering
Israeli companies excel in computer software and hardware development, particularly computer security technologies, semiconductors and communications. Israeli firms include Check Point, the creators of the first commercial firewall; Amdocs, which makes business and operations support systems for telecoms; Comverse, a voice-mail company; and Mercury Interactive, which measures software performance. A high concentration of high-tech industries in the coastal plain of Israel has led to the nickname Silicon Wadi (lit: "Silicon Valley"). Both Israeli and international companies are based there. Intel, Microsoft, and Apple built their first overseas research and development centers in Israel, and other high-tech multi-national corporations, such as IBM, Cisco Systems, and Motorola, have opened facilities in the country. Intel developed its dual-core Core Duo processor at its Israel Development Center in Haifa. More than 3,850 start-ups have been established in Israel, making it second only to the US in this sector and has the largest number of NASDAQ-listed companies outside North America.
Optics, electro-optics, and lasers are significant fields and Israel produces fiber-optics, electro-optic inspection systems for printed circuit boards, thermal imaging night-vision systems, and electro-optics-based robotic manufacturing systems. Research into robotics first began in the late 1970s, has resulted in the production of robots designed to perform a wide variety of computer aided manufacturing tasks, including diamond polishing, welding, packing, and building. Research is also conducted in the application of artificial intelligence to robots.
Israel's Weizmann Institute of Science and Technion – Israel Institute of Technology are ranked among the top 20 academic institutions in the world in computer science. An Israeli, CEO and president of M-Systems, Dov Moran, invented the first flash drive in 1998.
Cybersecurity
In November 2010, the Israeli prime minister entrusted a task force with responsibility for formulating national plans to place Israel among the top five countries in the world for cybersecurity. On 7 August 2011, the government approved the establishment of the National Cyber Bureau to promote the Israeli cyberdefence industry. The bureau is based in the Prime Minister's Office. The National Cyber Bureau allocated NIS 180 million (circa US$50 million) over 2012–2014 to encourage cyber research and dual military–civilian R&D; the funding is also being used to develop human capital, including through the creation of cybersecurity centres at Israeli universities that are funded jointly by the National Cyber Bureau and the universities themselves.
In January 2014, the prime minister launched CyberSpark, Israel's cyber innovation park, as part of plans to turn Israel into a global cyber hub. Located in the city of Beer-Sheva to foster economic development in southern Israel, CyberSpark is a geographical cluster of leading cyber companies, multinational corporations and universities, involving Ben Gurion University of the Negev, technology defence units, specialized educational platforms and the national Cyber Event Readiness Team.
About half of the firms in CyberSpark are Israeli, mostly small to medium-sized. Multinational companies operating in CyberSpark include EMC2, IBM, Lockheed Martin and Deutsche Telekom. PayPal recently acquired the Israeli start-up CyActive and has since announced plans to set up its second Israeli research centre in CyberSpark, with a focus on cybersecurity. This acquisition is just one of the many Israeli cybersecurity start-ups acquired by multinational companies in the past few years. Major acquisitions of Israeli start-ups in 2014 include Intellinx, purchased by Bottomline Technologies, and Cyvera, purchased by Palo Alto Networks.
The National Cyber Bureau has estimated that the number of Israeli cyberdefence companies had doubled in the past five years to about 300 by 2014. Israeli companies account for an estimated 10% of global sales, which currently total an estimated US$60 billion. Total research spending on cyberdefence in Israel quadrupled between 2010 and 2014 from US$50 million to US$200 million, bringing Israel's spending to about 15% of global research spending on cyberdefence in 2014. Cybersecurity technologies are exported by Israel in accordance with the Wassenaar Arrangement, a multilateral agreement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies.
The Israeli cyberarms firm, NSO Group Technologies had reportedly been selling its Pegasus spyware to the UAE, Saudi Arabia and other repressive Gulf states, with official mediation of the Israeli government. The software permits law enforcement authorities to hack into cellphones, copy their contents and sometimes even to control their camera and audio recording capabilities. In 2018, a lawsuit was filed against NSO accusing it of secretly helping Saudi Arabia to spy Jamal Khashoggi, a Washington Post columnist, later murdered in the Saudi Arabian consulate in Istanbul. In 2019, WhatsApp sued NSO accusing it of helping government spies in a hacking spree, where they broke into the phones of roughly 1,400 users across 20 countries, targeting diplomats, political dissidents, journalists and senior government officials.
Hydraulic engineering
Since rain falls only in the winter, and largely in the northern part of the country, irrigation and water engineering is vital to the country's economic survival and growth. Large-scale projects to direct water from rivers and reservoirs in the north, to make optimal use of groundwater, and to reclaim flood overflow and sewage have been undertaken. The largest such project was a national water distribution system called the National Carrier, completed in 1964, flowing from the country's biggest freshwater lake, the Sea of Galilee, to the northern Negev desert, through huge channels, pipes and tunnels. The Ashkelon seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination plant was the largest in the world at the time it was built. The project was developed as a BOT (build-operate-transfer) by a consortium of three international companies: Veolia water, IDE Technologies and Elran.
By 2019, desalination provided 70% of domestic and municipal water. The growing volume of desalinated water is creating challenges of its own. Lack of magnesium in the daily diet is associated with heart disease and this condition is becoming more prevalent in Israel in areas where desalinated water is the only source of drinking water, spurring discussion about whether to add magnesium to the water.
Water-saving technologies
According to water experts, pipe leakage is one of the major problems confronting the global water supply today. For Israel, which is two-thirds desert, water-saving technologies are of critical importance. The International Water Association has cited Israel as one of the leaders in innovative methods to reduce "non-revenue water," i.e., water lost in the system before reaching the customer.
Military engineering
Rejection of requests for weapons and technologies, arms sanctions and massive rearmament of the Arab countries prodded Israel into the development of a broad-based indigenous arms industry. The Israel Defense Forces relies heavily on local military technology and high-tech weapons systems designed and manufactured in Israel. Israeli-developed military equipment includes small arms, anti-tank rockets and missiles, boats and submarines, tanks, armored vehicles, artillery, unmanned surface vehicles, aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), air-defense systems, weapon stations and radar. An impetus for the development of the industry was the embargo on arms sales to Israel during the Six-Day War which prompted Israel Aircraft Industries (IAI), founded as a maintenance facility in 1953, to begin developing and assembling its own aircraft, including the Kfir, the Arava and the Nesher.
Notable technology includes the Uzi submachine gun, introduced in 1954, the country's main battle tank, the Merkava, and the jointly designed Israeli and U.S. Arrow missile, one of the world's only operational, advanced anti-ballistic missile systems. The Iron Dome mobile air defense system developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems is designed to intercept short-range rockets and artillery shells. The system was created as a defensive countermeasure to the rocket threat against Israel's civilian population on its northern and southern borders, and was declared operational and initially deployed in the first quarter of 2011. It is designed to intercept very short-range threats up to 70 kilometers in all-weather situations. On April 7, 2011, the system successfully intercepted a Grad rocket launched from Gaza, marking the first time in history a short-range rocket was ever intercepted.
Israel has also developed a network of reconnaissance satellites. The Ofeq (lit. Horizon) series (Ofeq 1 – Ofeq 7) were launched between 1988 and 2007. The satellites were carried by Shavit rockets launched from Palmachim Airbase. Both the satellites and the launchers were designed and manufactured by Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI), with Elbit Systems' El-Op division supplying the optical payload.
Israel also has the first all-around operational active defense system for tanks named Trophy, successfully intercepting anti tank missiles fired at Merkava tanks.
Life sciences
Israel has an advanced infrastructure of medical and paramedical research and bioengineering capabilities. Biotechnology, biomedical, and clinical research account for over half of the country's scientific publications, and the industrial sector has used this extensive knowledge to develop pharmaceuticals, medical equipment and treatment therapies.
Biotechnology
Israel has over 900 biotechnology and life sciences companies in operation throughout the country with nearly 50 to 60 formed each year. Many multinational corporations such as J&J, Perrigo, GE Healthcare and Phillips Medical have all established branches in Israel.
Genetics and cancer research
Israeli scientists have developed methods for producing a human growth hormone and interferon, a group of proteins effective against viral infections. Copaxone, a medicine effective in the treatment of multiple sclerosis, was developed in Israel from basic research to industrial production. Genetic engineering has resulted in a wide range of diagnostic kits based on monoclonal antibodies, with other microbiological products.
Advanced stem cell research takes place in Israel. The first steps in the development of stem cell studies occurred in Israel, with research in this field dating back to studies of bone marrow stem cells in the early 1960s. By 2006, Israeli scientists were leaders on a per capita basis in the number of articles published in scientific journals related to stem cell research. In 2011, Israeli scientist Inbar Friedrich Ben-Nun led a team which produced the first stem cells from endangered species, a breakthrough that could save animals in danger of extinction. In 2012, Israel was one of the world leaders in stem cell research, with the largest number of articles, patents and research studies per capita.
Solomon Wasser, a professor from Haifa University, has found that Cyathus striatus is effective in treating pancreatic cancer based on early animal trials.
Biomedical engineering
Sophisticated medical equipment for both diagnostic and treatment purposes has been developed and marketed worldwide, such as computer tomography (CT) scanners, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) systems, ultrasound scanners, nuclear medical cameras, and surgical lasers. Other innovations include a controlled-release liquid polymer to prevent accumulation of tooth plaque, a device to reduce both benign and malignant swellings of the prostate gland, the use of botulin to correct eye squint, and a miniature camera encased in a swallowable capsule used to diagnose gastrointestinal disease, developed by Given Imaging. MeMic Medical LTD. founded in 2012 received its FDA approval in 2021 for its robotic platform for natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) for myomectomy through the vagina.
In 2009, scientists from several European countries and Israel developed a robotic prosthetic hand, called SmartHand, which functions like a real one, allowing patients to write with it, type on a keyboard, play piano and perform other fine movements. The prosthesis has sensors which enable the patient to sense real feeling in its fingertips. A new MRI system for identifying and diagnosing tumors developed at the Weizmann Institute has received approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and is already being used in diagnosing breast and testicular cancer. The new system will replace invasive procedures and eliminate waiting time for the results.
In 2017, the Israeli company ENvizion Medical developed its flagship product the ENvue System, an advanced electromagnetic navigation system for enteral feeding tube placement. To avoid placing the tube into the lungs and ensure placement is executed correctly, the ENvue System combines highly accurate body map, smart feeding tubes with built in sensors and continuous visual guidance. ENvue is FDA 510(k) cleared and used in hospitals and medical centers in the US.
Pharmaceutical sciences
Teva Pharmaceutical Industries, headquartered in Petah Tikva, Israel, is the largest generic drug manufacturer in the world and one of the 20 largest pharmaceutical companies worldwide. It specializes in generic drugs and active pharmaceutical ingredients and has developed proprietary pharmaceuticals such as Copaxone and Laquinimod for the treatment of multiple sclerosis, and Rasagiline for the treatment of Parkinson's disease.
Nobel Prize laureates
Six Israelis have won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry. In 2004, biologists Avram Hershko and Aaron Ciechanover of the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology were two of the three winners of the prize, for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation. In 2009, Ada Yonath was a co-winner of the prize for her studies of the structure and function of the ribosome. She is the first Israeli woman to win a Nobel Prize. Michael Levitt and Arieh Warshel received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2013 for the development of multiscale models for complex chemical systems.
Additionally, 1958 Medicine laureate Joshua Lederberg was born to Israeli Jewish parents, and 2004 Physics laureate David Gross grew up partly in Israel, where he obtained his undergraduate degree. In the social sciences, the Nobel Prize for Economics was awarded to Daniel Kahneman in 2002, and to Robert Aumann of the Hebrew University in 2005.
Notable companies
Automotive
Better Place
Ituran
Mobileye
Robomow
Chemicals
Adama
Ahava
Israel Chemicals
Clean technology
BrightSource Energy
Netafim
Ormat Industries
Plastro Irrigation Systems
SolarEdge
Solel
Medicine
BioLineRx
Compugen
D. Medical Industries
Given Imaging
Insightec
Kite Pharma
Perrigo
Pluristem Therapeutics
Rosetta Genomics
Syneron Medical
Taro Pharmaceuticals
Teva Pharmaceutical Industries
Defense contracting
Elbit Systems
Elisra
Elta
Israel Aerospace Industries
Israel Military Industries
Israel Shipyards
Israel Weapon Industries
Plasan
Rafael Advanced Defense Systems
Soltam Systems
Semiconductors
Anobit
Altair Semiconductor
CEVA, Inc.
EZchip Semiconductor
Mellanox Technologies
Nova Measuring Instruments
Orbotech
Tower Semiconductor
Wilocity
Zoran Corporation
Software and IT
Aladdin Knowledge Systems
Amdocs
Babylon
Boxee
Check Point
ClickSoftware Technologies
Commtouch
CTERA Networks
Magic Software Enterprises
Marvell Software Solutions Israel
Mirabilis
Moovit
M-Systems
Ness Technologies
NICE Systems
Onavo
Panorama Software
Plarium
Retalix
Sapiens International Corporation
Scitex Vision
Secure Islands
Shopping.com
Wanova
Waze
Wix
Zend Technologies
Telecommunicationsand computing
Allot Communications
Alvarion
ASOCS
AudioCodes
Bezeq
Ceragon
Comverse
ECI Telecom
Humavox
Gilat Satellite Networks
Mellanox Technologies
RAD Data Communications
Radcom Ltd
Radvision
Radware
Radwin
Tadiran Telecom
See also
Economy of Israel
History of IBM research in Israel
Israel National Museum of Science, Technology, and Space
Israel Patent Office
List of Israeli companies quoted on the Nasdaq
List of Israeli inventions and discoveries
List of multinationals with research and development centres in Israel
Science and technology in Asia
Science and Technology Minister of Israel
Silicon Wadi
Start-up Nation
Telecommunications in Israel
Venture capital in Israel
Sources
References
Further reading
Levav, Amos (1998). The Birth of Israel's High-Tech. Zmora Bitan (in Hebrew).
Gewirtz, Jason (2016). Israel's Edge: The Story of The IDF's Most Elite Unit - Talpiot. Gefen Publishing House.
Siegel, Seth M. (2017) Let There Be Water: Israel's Solution for a Water-Starved World. A Thomas Dunne Book for St. Martin's Griffin.
Katz, Yaakov; Bohbot, Amir (2017). The Weapon Wizards: How Israel Became a High-Tech Military Superpower. St. Martin's Press.
Kainan, Noga; Reuter, Adam (2018). Israel - Island of Success
Hemi, Galit; Shulman, Sophie (2018). The Israeli Mind: the story of the Israeli innovation. Yedioth Books (in Hebrew).
Jorisch, Avi (2018). Thou Shalt Innovate: How Israeli Ingenuity Repairs the World. Gefen Publishing House.
External links
Official website of the Israeli Ministry of Science, Technology and Space
Science and Technology at the Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs
How Israel turned itself into a high-tech hub, BBC
Science & Technology in Israel at the Jewish Virtual Library
Israel Advanced Technology Industries, umbrella organization for high tech and life science sectors
Official website of the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology
ISRAEL21c
NoCamels.com - news website covering breakthrough innovation from Israel, startups and research in the fields of technology, medicine and the environment.
Startup Village Yokneam web site
Doing Business in Israel: Overview by Ariella Dreyfuss, Netta Bromberg, Dr. Zvi Gabbay, Anat Even-Chen, Ilan Blumenfeld, Harel Perlmutter and Ron Shuhatovich, Barnea Jaffa Lande.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pride%20Fighting%20Championships
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Pride Fighting Championships
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PRIDE Fighting Championships (Pride or Pride FC, founded as KRS-Pride) was a Japanese mixed martial arts promotion company. Its inaugural event was held at the Tokyo Dome on October 11, 1997. Pride held more than sixty mixed martial arts events, broadcast to about 40 countries worldwide. PRIDE was owned by the holding company Dream Stage Entertainment (DSE).
For the ten years of its existence, PRIDE was one of the most popular MMA organizations in the world. Pride broadcast its event on Japanese pay-per-view and free-to-air television for millions of spectators in Japan, holding large events in sports stadiums, including the largest live MMA event audience record of 91,107 people at the Pride and K-1 co-production, Shockwave/Dynamite, held in August 2002, as well as the audience record of over 67,450 people at the Pride Final Conflict 2003.
With its origins in Japanese professional wrestling, PRIDE was known for its focus on spectacle and entertainment. Events were proceeded with opening ceremonies and fighters had elaborate entrances. There was no formal weight classes—except for championship belt bouts and the Grand Prix tournaments—and fighters would often matched with opponents from wildly different weights. Including the frequent promotion of "technique vs size" freakshow fights. Pride also had the Grand Prix, one-night single-elimination tournaments with multiple fighters. The PRIDE ruleset was also more permissive then the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts, permitting soccer kicks, stomps and knees to downed opponents, body slams directly in the head ("spiking"), and allowed more fighting outfits, including wrestling shoes and keikogis. Matches were done in a boxing-style roped ring and went for an opening ten minute round followed by two rounds of five minutes.
In 2006, DSE started to have financial issues, as a scandal revealing ties between the company and yakuza resulted in the end of multiple lucrative contracts with Japanese broadcasters. In March 2007, DSE sold Pride to Lorenzo Fertitta and Frank Fertitta III, co-owners of Zuffa, which, at the time, owned the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). While remaining as legally separate entities with separate managements, the two promotions were set to cooperate in a manner akin to the AFL-NFL merger. However, such an arrangement did not materialize, and in October 2007, Pride Worldwide's Japanese staff was laid off, marking the end of the organization as an active fight promoter, while the top and most popular fighters were brought to the UFC. As a result, many of the Pride staff left to form a new organization alongside K-1 parent company Fighting and Entertainment Group. That new organization, founded in February 2008, was named DREAM.
In 2015, Pride's co-founder and former president Nobuyuki Sakakibara established Rizin Fighting Federation in Japan with the same philosophy and ambition as for the defunct Pride organization.
History
The Rise
Pride has its roots on Japanese Professional wrestling (Puroresu). In the 1970s, Antonio Inoki rose to pronominance in Japan by founding New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) and introducing his own style of wrestling he dubbed "Strong-style", derived from training in Karate and Catch-As-Catch-Can, an earlier style of legit Professional wrestling and submission grappling, taught by Karl Gotch. This style was more realistic, using full contact strikes and a lot of kicks, as well as realistic grappling moves from his Catch Wrestling training. Inoki promoted professional wrestling as a legit and real combat sport and the "strongest" fighting style, and to prove it he fought worked (i.e. predetermined) matches against fighters from other martial arts and combat sports, such as judo, kickboxing, sumo and karate, known as "heterogeneous combat sports bouts" (Ishu Kakutōgi Sen; 異種格闘技戦). In 1976 Inoki fought a match against boxing world-champion Muhammad Ali, since neither fighter could agree on who would be the loser, the match evolved into a shoot (i.e. real) fight between the two contestants, eventually resulting in a draw.
The match against Muhammad Ali, as well the other heterogeneous style bouts inspired a lot of Inoki's students. They left NJPW and founded a new company named Universal Wrestling Federation (UWF), which promoted a realistic style of pro-wrestling that eschewed the most theatrical elements of wrestling and resembled closer to an actual fight, but it was still predetermined. This style would become known as "Shoot Wrestling". The UWF closed in 1990 and was succeeded in 1991 by the UWFi, which became one of the top professional wrestling promotions in Japan, as their brand of shoot wrestling proved to be exceedingly popular with the Japanese public. The main attraction and most popular star of the UWFi was Nobuhiko Takada. The other precursors of Pride were the Japanese mixed martial arts competitions and shoot style pro wrestling promotions Shooto, a self-styled hybrid martial art organization founded in 1985 by former shoot wrestler "Tiger Mask" Satoru Sayama, Pancrase founded in 1993 by wrestlers Masakatsu Funaki and Minoru Suzuki attempting to create a non-scripted shoot wrestling promotion, Vale Tudo Japan, a Vale Tudo tournament organized in 1994 by Satoru Sayama based on the Ultimate Fighting Championship and Brazilian Vale Tudo and Kingdom, founded in 1997 as a successor to the UWFi. Pride was also influenced by the wild rise of K-1, a kickboxing promotion founded in 1993 which became very popular in Japan for its huge and action-packed tournaments.
Pride Fighting Championships was initially conceived of in 1997, to match popular Japanese pro-wrestler Nobuhiko Takada with Rickson Gracie, the purported champion of the Gracie family of Brazilian jiu-jitsu practitioners, who gained popularity in Japan after winning the 1994 and 1995 Vale Tudo Japan tournaments and brutally defeating UWFi pro wrestler Yoji Anjo in a dojo storm at Rickson's gym in Los Angeles. The event, held at the Tokyo Dome on October 11, 1997, and organised by Hiromichi Momose, Naoto Morishita and Nobuyuki Sakakibara from KRS (Kakutougi Revolutionary Spirits) promotion, attracted 47,000 fans, as well as Japanese mass media attention. The success of the first event enabled its promoters to hold a regular series of mixed martial arts events, and a year later in 1998, to promote a rematch between Takada and Gracie. With K-1 enjoying popularity in Japan, Pride began to compete with monthly showings on Fuji Television, as well as pay per view on the newly formed satellite television channel SKY PerfecTV. Following the fourth event, the series was taken over by the Dream Stage Entertainment, formed by the members of the dissolved KRS, and it was accordingly renamed as the Pride Fighting Championships, with Morishita as its first chairman.
In 2000, Pride hosted the first Pride Grand Prix, a two-part openweight tournament held to find the "world's best fighter". The tournament was held over the course of two events, with sixteen fighters competing in an opening round and the eight winners returning three months later for the final round. The second round of the tournament marked the first time Pride was broadcast in the United States and featured American fighter Mark Coleman winning the tournament by defeating Igor Vovchanchyn in the final round. Pride would gain a fervent fanbase in the US, boosted by a highlights deal with Fox Sports Networks and regular DVD releases of Pride shows including older cards that were not initially screened outside of Japan. English-language commentary for Pride was provided by Stephen Quadros or Mauro Ranallo, with Bas Rutten or Frank Trigg providing analysis.
In August 2002, Pride teamed up with Japan's leading kickboxing and fight promotion, K-1, and held the world's biggest fight event, Shockwave (known as Pride/K-1 Dynamite!! in Japan), which attracted over 71,000 fans.
On January 13, 2003, the Pride MMA production was thrown into turmoil when DSE president Naoto Morishita was found dead hanging by his neck in his hotel room, apparently after his mistress told him she wanted to end their affair. One of the stories go that Fedor Emelianenko was held at gunpoint to resign with Pride Nobuyuki Sakakibara later assumed the presidency, later joined by Takada as a general manager.
In 2003 Pride introduced the Bushido series of events, which focused mainly, but not exclusively, on the lighter weight classes of lightweights and welterweights. The Bushido series also stressed a faster pace, with bouts consisting of only one ten-minute round and one five-minute round, as well as quicker referee intervention of stalling tactics, using the new "yellow card" system of purse deduction.
Also in 2003, Pride returned to the tournament format, with a middleweight grand prix spanning two events, Pride Total Elimination 2003 and Final Conflict 2003. The format was expanded to three events in 2004, adding Critical Countdown 2004 as the second round. Pride would go on to hold annual tournaments, a heavyweight tournament in 2004, a middleweight in 2005, and an openweight in 2006.
In 2006 DSE announced it would showcase Pride alongside the Ultimate Fighting Championship, North America's largest MMA event, and would be integrating their fighters, including Wanderlei Silva and Kazuyuki Fujita, at a UFC MMA show in November. However, Dana White, speaking on behalf of Zuffa then commented that the announced bout between Chuck Liddell and Wanderlei Silva was unlikely to happen because "the Japanese are very hard to do business with". This statement was likely due to the failure of previous attempts between Zuffa and DSE to organize a fighter exchange agreement. Specifically after entering Liddell in Pride's 2003 middleweight tournament, which was also with the intention of Liddell eventually fighting Silva, which fell through when Liddell lost in the semi-finals to Quinton Jackson (Jackson subsequently lost to Silva by technical knockout in the finals.)
Pride continued to enjoy success, holding roughly ten events per year, and even out-drawing rival K-1 at the annual New Year's Eve show Pride Shockwave 2005. On October 21, 2006, Pride held its first MMA event in US, Pride 32: The Real Deal took place in front of an audience of 11,727 at the Thomas & Mack Center in Paradise, Nevada, and was the first Pride event to be held outside Japan.
On June 5, 2006, the Fuji Network announced that they were terminating their television contract with Pride Fighting Championships effective immediately due to a breach of contract by DSE. This left Pride with only SKY PerfecTV, a pay-per-view carrier, as a television outlet in Japan, and the loss of the substantial revenues from the Fuji deal threatened its sustainability. Dream was surrounded by speculation in the Japanese media, especially in the Japanese tabloid Shukan Gendai, that it may be a front for the notorious yakuza crime organization. Dream responded to the loss by stating they will continue with their schedule as currently planned, including an event in Las Vegas, Pride 33: Second Coming which took place on February 24, 2007, Pride's second event outside Japan.
In late 2006, DSE hinted at plans for Mike Tyson to fight in the organization's New Year's Eve show. Tyson was to face a Pride fighter under boxing rules. Since Tyson is not allowed to fight in Japan because of his criminal record, Pride wanted to stage the fight in an alternate country, possibly Macau, China. The fight would be broadcast live on large television screens in the Saitama Super Arena, where the regular mixed martial arts bouts were held. The fight did not occur, however.
On November 29, 2006, Pride announced the discontinuation of its Bushido events, with the intention of integrating the matches from lighter weight classes, mainly featured in Bushido, into regular Pride events. Pride also announced that future Grand Prix tournaments would take place on a four-year weight class cycle, with one Grand Prix per year. The first expected one, a lightweight Grand Prix, ended up being cancelled.
The Fall
On Tuesday, March 27, 2007, Pride executives Nobuyuki Sakakibara and Nobuhiko Takada announced that Station Casinos Inc. magnate Lorenzo Fertitta, co-owner of Zuffa and its subsidiary MMA production Ultimate Fighting Championship, had made a deal to acquire all assets of Pride Fighting Championships from Dream Stage Entertainment after Pride 34: Kamikaze in a deal reportedly worth USD$65 million, though the figure was not publicly disclosed. Managing the assets under the newly created Pride FC Worldwide Holdings, LLC, including their video library and the contracts of the fighters currently on the Pride roster, the new management company had originally planned to continue to promote Pride events in Japan and keep to its previously announced schedule. Lorenzo Fertitta announced they planned to operate Pride separately from Zuffa's two MMA brands, the UFC and WEC, planned on having occasional crossover shows and matches, pitting fighters from Pride against fighters "from the UFC," using the metaphor of the AFL-NFL merger to compare the situation.
Subsequent remarks by Zuffa spokesperson Dana White however cast doubt as to what the new owners would actually do with Pride. After the sale officially closed on May 25, 2007, White remarked that he planned on bringing Pride's biggest names into UFC competition instead of keeping them in Pride and that they were still deciding on what to do with Pride itself. In later comments made in August 2007, White expressed doubt that Zuffa can resurrect Pride in Japan, claiming, "I've [or, we] pulled everything out of the trick box that I can and I can't get a TV deal over there with Pride. I don't think they want us there. I don't think they want me there."
On October 4, 2007, Pride Worldwide closed its Japanese office, laying off 20 people who were working there since the closing of DSE.
Multimedia
Video
The final Pride events have been released on DVD under the Pride Worldwide label.
Past fights from Pride are shown on Best of Pride Fighting Championships. The program premiered January 15, 2010, on Spike TV. The program's host is Kenda Perez.
Video games
Pride Fighting Championships released two licensed video games during its time in business, as well as being featured in an Ultimate Fighting Championship game in 2012.
The first game, Pride FC: Fighting Championships was developed by Anchor Inc. and released by THQ for the PlayStation 2 in February 2003 in Japan and North America and April 2003 in Europe. The game received an aggregate score of 73/100 on Metacritic, based on 19 critic reviews.
The second game, PrideGP Grand Prix 2003 was developed and released by Capcom also for the PlayStation 2 in November 2003, but was only released in Japan.
Pride Fighting Championships was also featured in the video game UFC Undisputed 3. Featuring main Pride event rules and 33 Pride fighters (not counting the Pride alumni on the UFC roster to date), the mode also has commentary provided by Bas Rutten and Stephen Quadros, with Lenne Hardt as the English Ring Announcer and Kei Grant as the Japanese Ring Announcer.
Rules
Pride's rules differed between main Pride events and Bushido events. It was announced on November 29, 2006, that Bushido events would be discontinued.
Match length
Pride matches consisted of three rounds; the first lasted ten minutes and the second and third each lasted five minutes. Intermissions between each round were two minutes long. In Pride events held in the United States, NSAC Unified MMA rules were used: non-title matches consisted of three five-minute rounds and title matches consisted of five five-minute rounds, both with 60-second intermissions between rounds.
When two rounds of a Grand Prix took place on the same night, Grand Prix bouts consisted of two rounds, the first lasting ten minutes and the second lasting five. Intermissions between each round remained two minutes long.
Weight classes
Pride Fighting Championships did not divide their fighters based on weight divisions per se. A fighter could be booked to fight an opponent of any weight. Weight divisions were used for championship bouts and for Grands Prix to decide a best fighter at a given weight class.
Ring
Pride used a five-roped square ring with sides 7 m in length (approximately 23 ft). The same was used at Pride: Bushido events.
Attire
Pride allowed fighters latitude in their choice of attire, but open finger gloves, a mouthguard and a protective cup were mandatory. Fighters were allowed to use tape on parts of their body or to wear a gi top, gi pants, wrestling shoes, kneepads, elbow pads, or ankle supports, and masks at their own discretion, though each was checked by the referee before the fight.
Victory
Matches could be won via:
Submission
A fighter taps either his opponent or the mat three times
A fighter verbally submits
Technical submission
A fighter goes unconscious from a choke
An arm, or any other body part, is broken by the submission
Knockout
A fighter falls from a legal blow and is either unconscious or unable to immediately continue
Technical knockout
Referee stoppage (the referee stops the match after seeing that one fighter is completely dominant to the point of endangering his opponent)
Doctor stoppage (the referee stops the match in the event that a fighter is injured via a legal blow and the ring doctor determines that he cannot continue)
Forfeited match (a fighter's corner throws in the towel)
Decision
If the match reaches its time limit then the outcome of the bout is determined by the three judges. The fight is scored in its entirety and not round-by-round. (In Pride events staged in the United States, however, the fights were scored round by round.) After the third round, each judge must decide a winner. Matches cannot end in a draw. A decision is made according to the following criteria in this order of priority:
The effort made to finish the fight via KO or submission
Damage given to the opponent
Standing combinations and ground control
Takedowns and takedown defense
Aggressiveness
Weight (in the case that the weight difference is 10 kg/22 lb or more)
If a fight was stopped on advice of the ring doctor after an accidental but illegal action, e.g. a clash of heads, and the contest is in its second or third round, the match was decided by the judges using the same criteria.
Disqualification
A "warning" was given in the form of a yellow card or a green card (The green card gave a 10% deduction of a fighter's purse) when a fighter committed an illegal action or did not follow the referee's instruction. Three warnings resulted in a disqualification
A fighter was disqualified if a match was stopped, on the advice of the ring doctor, as a result of his deliberate illegal actions.
The application of oil, ointment, spray, Vaseline, massaging cream, hair cream, or any other substances to any part of the fighter's body before and during the fights was prohibited. The discovery of any of these substances resulted in a disqualification.
No contest
In the event that both sides committed a violation of the rules, the bout would be declared a "no contest."
If a fight was stopped on the advice of the ring doctor after an accidental but illegal action, i.e. a clash of heads, the match would be declared a no contest in the first round only
Fouls
Pride Fighting Championships considered the following to be fouls:
Head butting
Eye gouging
Hair pulling
Biting
Fish hooking
Any attacks to the groin
Purposely striking the back of the head (if a punch was thrown and the fighter turned away letting it land on the back of his head it was okay), which included the occipital region and the spine. The sides of the head and the area around the ears were not considered to be the back of the head. (see Rabbit punch)
Small joint manipulation (control of four or more fingers or toes was necessary)
Elbow strikes to the head and face
Intentionally throwing the opponent out of the ring
Running out of the ring
Purposely holding the ropes. Fighters were not permitted to purposely hang an arm or leg on the ropes and it would result in an immediate warning.
Stomps to a grounded fighter along with kicks and knees to the head of a grounded fighter, only in events in the US
In the event that a fighter was injured by illegal actions, then at the discretion of the referee and ring doctor, the round would attempt to be resumed after enough time had been given to the fighter to recover. Once the fight started again the fighters would be placed in the exact position when the referee called the time out. If the match could not be continued due to the severity of the injury then the fighter who perpetrated the action was disqualified.
Match conduct
If both fighters were on the verge of falling out of the ring or became entangled in the ropes, the referee would stop the action. The fighters were required to immediately stop their movements and then would be repositioned in the center of the ring in the same relative position. Once they were comfortably repositioned, they would resume at the referee's instruction.
Referees could give a fighter a penalty card for lack of activity. Every card, including warning cards, were a 10% deduction of a fighter's purse, this method was aimed to prevent inaction.
Matches between fighters of different weight classes
Pride made special provisions for fights between fighters of different weight classes or fighters with a large weight difference in the same weight class. The lighter fighter was given a choice of whether or not to permit knees or kicks to the face when in the "four points" position in the following cases:
If both fighters were in the middleweight class and there was a weight difference of 10 kg/22 lb or more between the fighters.
If the match was between a middleweight and heavyweight and there was a weight difference of 10 kg/22 lb or more between the fighters.
If both fighters were in the heavyweight class and there was a weight difference of 15 kg/33 lb or more between the fighters.
Pride Bushido
PRIDE BUSHIDO were a series of PRIDE events with a special rulest. The word BUSHIDO translates from the Japanese language as "the way of the warrior." More specifically, the term refers to the principals and moral code that developed among the samurai (military) class of Japan. BUSHIDO provided flexibility for more experimental fight card formats, such as "team" competitions pitting country versus country, or fight team versus fight team. BUSHIDO also gave an opportunity to up and coming fighters to prove themselves through matches with a special ruleset, known as "Challenge Matches."
There were a few minor differences from main Pride events:
Bouts on Pride Bushido events consisted of two rounds; the first lasting ten minutes and the second lasting five. Intermissions between each round were two minutes in length.
Bushido "Challenge Matches" consisted of two rounds lasting five minutes each. Intermissions between each round were two minutes in length.
In Bushido, red cards were issued in a similar way that yellow cards were used in Pride FC. A red card resulted in a 10% deduction of the fighter's fight purse. Red cards could be given out in an unlimited number without disqualification. If fighters committed the following actions, they were to be given a red card by officials:
stalling or failure to initiate any offensive attack
making no attempt to finalize the match or damage the opponent
holding the opponent's body with the arms and legs to produce a stalemate
Differences from the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts
Some states' athletic commissions require mixed martial arts events to modify rules to match the Mixed Martial Arts Unified Rules of Combat, as introduced by the New Jersey State Athletic Control Board, and adopted by the Nevada State Athletic Commission in order to receive state sanctioning.
Pride's rules differed from the Unified Rules of Combat in the following ways:
Pride allowed kicking and kneeing the head of a downed opponent. This is considered a foul in the unified rules, which only allows kicks and knees to the head of a standing opponent.
Pride allowed a fighter to stomp the head of a downed opponent. This is considered a foul in the unified rules.
Pride allowed a fighter to spike (piledrive) an opponent onto the canvas on his head or neck. This is considered a foul in the unified rules.
Pride did not allow elbow strikes to the head of an opponent. The unified rules allow elbows provided they are not striking directly down with the point of the elbow (12 o'clock to 6 o'clock).
Pride's matches included a ten-minute first round, with two-minute rest periods. The unified rules allow rounds no longer than five minutes, with rest periods not exceeding one minute.
Pride's matches were not judged on the ten-point must system, rather judges scored the whole fight. The unified rules call for all matches to be judged using the ten-point must system.
At the announcement on March 27, 2007, that the Fertittas were purchasing Pride, it was stated that all future Pride events (after Pride 34) would be held under unified rules, eliminating 10-minute opening rounds, ground knees, stomps and more, though there were no more Pride events held to use these rules.
Pride events
Events typically begin with the theme music entitled PRIDE, composed by Yasuharu Takanashi, with each fight ending with the music entitled Victory, also composed by Takanashi. In addition to their main, "numbered" events, Pride have staged other series of events for different purposes.
Pride Grand Prix
The Pride GP (Grand Prix) is the name of a series of tournaments held by Pride. In addition to a money prize, a championship belt was given to the winner of each tournament, though this belt only denoted the tournament winner and would never be defended. However, Pride's Shockwave 2005 event crowned not only the welterweight and lightweight tournament champions, but also Pride's inaugural welterweight and lightweight champions. Of note is the amount of past and future champions that would participate in these tournaments.
In 2000, Pride held their first Grand Prix. With no weight limits, it is now considered to be their first openweight grand prix. Held across two events, Pride Grand Prix 2000 Opening Round featured first round bouts and Pride Grand Prix 2000 Finals featured the quarter-finals, semi finals and final.
The concept was brought back in 2003, with a middleweight grand prix. Held across two cards, Pride Total Elimination 2003 featured the first round of the Grand Prix and Final Conflict 2003 featured the semi-finals and final. Subsequent middleweight, heavyweight and openweight grands prix had taken place across three events when, in 2004, Critical Countdown was introduced for second round bouts. Both Critical Countdown and Final Conflict had a mix of Grand Prix and non-Grand Prix matches.
In 2007, it was announced that Pride would hold only one Grand Prix a year and it would rotate between each of their four established weight classes.
Format
Except for the inaugural 2000 Grand Prix, tournament dates with only one round would adhere to normal Pride or Pride Bushido rules. For tournament dates that held two rounds, a fight had a 10-minute first round, followed by a two-minute rest period for the fighters, and then a five-minute last round.
Exceptions
The 2000 Finals held a 90-minute contest between Kazushi Sakuraba and Royce Gracie. Gracie had requested that there be no judging and no limit to the number of rounds. Sakuraba agreed to fight under these rules, and the contest went to a total of 90 minutes of fighting, after which Gracie's corner threw in the towel due to damage to Gracie's legs. Sakuraba advanced to the next round, fighting a fifteen-minute first round against eventual runner up Igor Vovchanchyn, after which Sakuraba's corner threw in the towel citing his exhaustion.
List of events
Pride Bushido
With Pride's numbered shows and Grands Prix focused on heavier fighters, in October 2003, Pride started a series of events entitled "Bushido". With the focus on lighter combatants, two weight classes, lightweight and welterweight, were formed at 73 and 83 kg respectively. After Pride Bushido 13, it was announced that the series would end and these weight classes would transfer to main Pride shows.
In 2005, Pride Bushido staged welterweight and lightweight Grands Prix. Two eight-man brackets were set up and the quarter-finals and semi finals were held at Pride Bushido 9, along with an alternate bout in each bracket. The finals were held at Pride Shockwave 2005, with the winners subsequently being crowned as champions for their division. A sixteen-man welterweight grand prix was held in 2006.
Pride The Best
In 2002, Pride launched The Best, a series of shows featuring up-and-coming fighters, using an eight-sided roped ring. However, after the third show in October 2002, the series was discontinued. The concept was later refined into the Pride Bushido events.
Final champions
When Zuffa LLC bought Pride, it moved to unify the Pride middleweight and welterweight titles with its own light-heavyweight (205 lbs) and middleweight (185 lbs) titles. Dan Henderson, who held both the Pride middleweight and welterweight belts at the time of the Zuffa buy-out, was beaten in two unification bouts, first to Quinton 'Rampage' Jackson in September 2007 and then to middleweight Anderson Silva in March 2008.
The titleholders below were those who held the titles on April 8, 2007, the date of the last Pride FC promoted show.
Weight divisions
Tournaments
An asterisk (*) indicates that the tournament was also a title fight.
Notable fighters
The following fighters have won a tournament or championship titles or were high contenders in Pride. Some have competed in different weight classes.
Heavyweight
Fedor Emelianenko (last Pride FC Heavyweight Champion, Pride FC 2004 Heavyweight Grand Prix Champion, undefeated in Pride)
Antônio Rodrigo Nogueira (first Pride FC Heavyweight Champion, Pride FC Heavyweight Interim Champion, Pride FC 2004 Heavyweight Grand Prix runner-up, former UFC Interim Heavyweight Champion)
Mirko Filipović (Pride FC 2006 Openweight Grand Prix Champion, Pride FC 2005 Heavyweight title challenger, K-1 World Grand Prix 2012 Champion, former IGF Heavyweight Champion, Rizin FF 2016 Openweight Grand Prix Champion)
Mark Coleman (Pride FC 2000 Openweight Grand Prix Champion, former UFC Heavyweight Champion)
Josh Barnett (Pride FC 2006 Openweight Grand Prix runner-up, former UFC Heavyweight Champion)
Igor Vovchanchyn (Pride FC 2000 Openweight Grand Prix runner-up)
Ken Shamrock (Pride FC 2000 Superfight winner, former UFC Superfight Champion)
Kevin Randleman (former UFC Heavyweight Champion)
Sergei Kharitonov (Pride FC 2004 Heavyweight Grand Prix semi-finalist)
Mark Hunt (Pride FC 2006 Heavyweight Title challenger, K-1 World Grand Prix 2001 Champion)
Semmy Schilt (four-time K-1 World Grand Prix Champion, former K-1 Super Heavyweight Champion, current Glory Heavyweight Champion, Glory Heavyweight Grand Slam 2012 Champion)
Don Frye (UFC 8 and Ultimate Ultimate 1996 Tournament Champion)
Kazuyuki Fujita (Pride FC 2000 Openweight Grand Prix Semi-finalist)
Fabrício Werdum (Former UFC Heavyweight Champion)
Middleweight
Wanderlei Silva (first Pride FC Middleweight Champion and Pride FC 2003 Middleweight Grand Prix Champion, most wins, title defenses, fights, and knockouts in Pride history)
Mauricio "Shogun" Rua (Pride FC 2005 Middleweight Grand Prix Champion and former UFC Light Heavyweight Champion)
Quinton "Rampage" Jackson (Pride FC 2003 Middleweight Grand Prix runner-up, Pride FC 2004 Middleweight Title challenger, and former UFC Light Heavyweight Champion)
Kazushi Sakuraba (Pride FC 2000 Openweight Grand Prix semi-finalist, Pride FC 2001 Middleweight Title challenger, and UFC Japan Heavyweight Tournament Champion)
Ricardo Arona (Pride FC 2005 Middleweight Grand Prix runner-up)
Kiyoshi Tamura (Pride FC 2002 Middleweight Title challenger)
Royce Gracie (UFC One, Two and Four champion)
Alistair Overeem (Pride FC 2005 Middleweight Grand Prix semi-finalist, former Dream and Strikeforce heavyweight champion, 2010 K-1 World Grand Prix Champion)
Hidehiko Yoshida (1992 Summer Olympics 78 kg Judo gold medalist and Pride FC 2003 Middleweight Grand Prix semi-finalist)
Anderson Silva (former Shooto Middleweight Champion, former and final Cage Rage Middleweight Champion, and former UFC Middleweight Champion)
Murilo Rua (former Elite XC Middleweight Champion)
Chuck Liddell (2003 Pride FC Middleweight Grand Prix semi-finalist and former UFC Light Heavyweight Champion)
Hiromitsu Kanehara (Pride FC 2002 Middleweight Title challenger)
Kazuhiro Nakamura (2005 PRIDE FC Middleweight Grand Prix quarter-finalist)
Vitor Belfort (2005 PRIDE FC Middleweight Grand Prix participant and former UFC Light Heavyweight Champion)
Welterweight
Dan Henderson (Pride FC 2005 Welterweight Grand Prix Champion, last Pride FC Welterweight Champion and Middleweight Champion, last Strikeforce Light Heavyweight Champion)
Carlos Newton (former UFC Welterweight Champion)
Kazuo Misaki (Pride FC 2006 Welterweight Grand Prix Champion)
Murilo Bustamante (Pride FC 2005 Welterweight Grand Prix runner-up and former UFC Middleweight Champion)
Denis Kang (Pride FC 2006 Welterweight Grand Prix runner-up)
Paulo Filho (former WEC Middleweight Champion and Pride FC 2006 Welterweight Grand Prix finalist: replaced due to injury by Kazuo Misaki)
Ikuhisa Minowa (Pride FC 2005 Welterweight Grand Prix semi-finalist)
Akihiro Gono (Pride FC 2005 and 2006 Welterweight Grand Prix semi-finalist)
Gegard Mousasi (Bellator middleweight champion, former Strikeforce Light Heavyweight Champion, former Dream Light Heavyweight and Middleweight Champion, 2010 DREAM Light Heavyweight Grand Prix Champion and 2008 Dream Middleweight Grand Prix Champion)
Hector Lombard (former Bellator Middleweight Champion)
Lightweight
Takanori Gomi (only Pride FC Lightweight Champion and Pride FC 2005 Lightweight Grand Prix Champion)
Hayato Sakurai (Pride FC 2005 Lightweight Grand Prix runner-up and former Shooto Middleweight Champion)
Marcus Aurélio (Pride FC 2006 Lightweight Title challenger)
Joachim Hansen (Pride FC 2005 Lightweight Grand Prix semi-finalist, former Shooto Welterweight Champion and former Dream Lightweight Champion)
Luiz Azeredo (Pride FC 2005 Lightweight Grand Prix semi-finalist)
Shinya Aoki (former One Fighting Championship Lightweight Champion, former Dream Lightweight Champion and former Shooto Welterweight Champion)
Jens Pulver (former UFC Lightweight Champion)
Tatsuya Kawajiri (former Shooto Welterweight Champion)
Gilbert Melendez (former Strikeforce Lightweight Champion and Former WEC Lightweight Champion)
Daisuke Nakamura (former Deep Lightweight Champion)
Nick Diaz (former Strikeforce Welterweight Champion)
See also
Mixed martial arts
List of Pride events
List of Pride champions
List of Pride FC fighters
List of male mixed martial artists
Yarennoka
References
External links
Pride FC's official English website
Pride FC's official Japanese website
Pride FC's official Korean website
PRIDE Title Histories
Extract on Pride Yakuza Background from Toshiro Igari Book - "Gekkitotsu"
Article in "The Australian" newspaper on Pride Yakuza background
Endeavor
Mixed martial arts organizations
Mixed martial arts in Japan
Sports organizations of Japan
Sports organizations established in 1997
Organizations disestablished in 2007
1997 establishments in Japan
2007 disestablishments in Japan
Defunct brands
Defunct companies
Yakuza
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baku%E2%80%93Tbilisi%E2%80%93Ceyhan%20pipeline
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Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline
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The Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan (BTC) pipeline is a long crude oil pipeline from the Azeri–Chirag–Gunashli oil field in the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. It connects Baku, the capital of Azerbaijan and Ceyhan, a port on the south-eastern Mediterranean coast of Turkey, via Tbilisi, the capital of Georgia. It is the second-longest oil pipeline in the former Soviet Union, after the Druzhba pipeline. The first oil that was pumped from the Baku end of the pipeline reached Ceyhan on 28 May 2006.
History
Planning
The Caspian Sea lies above one of the world's largest collections of oil and gas fields. As the sea is landlocked, transporting oil to Western markets is complicated. During Soviet times, all transportation routes from the Caspian region were through Russia. The collapse of the Soviet Union inspired a search for new routes. Russia first insisted that the new pipeline should pass through its territory, then declined to participate.
In the spring of 1992, the Turkish Prime Minister Süleyman Demirel proposed to Central Asian countries including Azerbaijan that the pipeline run through Turkey. The first document on the construction of the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline was signed between Azerbaijan and Turkey on 9 March 1993 in Ankara. The Turkish route meant a pipeline from Azerbaijan would run through Georgia or Armenia, but the route through Armenia was politically impossible due to the unresolved war between Armenia and Azerbaijan over the status of Nagorno-Karabakh. This left the circuitous Azerbaijan-Georgia-Turkey route, longer and more expensive to build than the other option.
The project gained momentum following the Ankara Declaration, adopted on 29 October 1998 by President of Azerbaijan Heydar Aliyev, President of Georgia Eduard Shevardnadze, President of Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbayev, President of Turkey Süleyman Demirel, and President of Uzbekistan Islam Karimov. The declaration was witnessed by the United States Secretary of Energy Bill Richardson, who expressed strong support for the pipeline. The intergovernmental agreement in support of the pipeline was signed by Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Turkey on 18 November 1999, during a meeting of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) in Istanbul, Turkey.
Construction
The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Pipeline Company (BTC Co.) was established in London on 1 August 2002. The ceremony launching construction of the pipeline was held on 18 September 2002. Construction began in April 2003 and was completed in 2005. The Azerbaijan section was constructed by Consolidated Contractors International of Greece, and Georgia's section was constructed by a joint venture of France's Spie Capag and UK Petrofac International. The Turkish section was constructed by BOTAŞ Petroleum Pipeline Corporation. Bechtel was the main contractor for engineering, procurement and construction. Detailed design and engineering contractor was ILF Consulting Engineers for the Turkish section of pipeline, which is approximately over 1000km
Inauguration
On 25 May 2005, the pipeline was inaugurated at the Sangachal Terminal by President Ilham Aliyev of the Azerbaijan Republic, President Mikhail Saakashvili of Georgia and President Ahmet Sezer of Turkey, joined by President Nursultan Nazarbayev of Kazakhstan and United States Secretary of Energy Samuel Bodman. The inauguration of the Georgian section was hosted by President Mikheil Saakashvili at the pumping station near Gardabani on 12 October 2005. The inauguration ceremony at Ceyhan terminal was held on 13 July 2006.
The pipeline was gradually filled with 10 million barrels of oil flowing from Baku and reaching Ceyhan on 28 May 2006. The first oil was loaded at the Ceyhan Marine Terminal (Haydar Aliyev Terminal) onto a tanker named British Hawthorn. The tanker sailed on 4 June 2006 with about of crude oil.
Description
Route
The long pipeline starts at the Sangachal Terminal near Baku in Azerbaijan, crosses Georgia and terminates at the Ceyhan Marine Terminal (Haydar Aliyev Terminal) on the south-eastern Mediterranean coast of Turkey. of the pipeline lie in Azerbaijan, in Georgia and in Turkey. It crosses several mountain ranges at altitudes to . It also traverses 3,000 roads, railways, and utility lines—both overground and underground—and 1,500 watercourses up to wide (in the case of the Ceyhan River in Turkey). The pipeline occupies a corridor eight meters wide, and is buried to a depth of at least one meter. The pipeline runs parallel to the South Caucasus Gas Pipeline, which transports natural gas from the Sangachal Terminal to Erzurum in Turkey.
Technical features
The pipeline has a projected lifespan of 40 years, and at normal capacity it transports . It needs of oil to fill the pipeline. Oil flows at per second. There are eight pump stations, two in Azerbaijan, two in Georgia, four in Turkey. The project includes also the Ceyhan Marine Terminal (officially the Haydar Aliyev Terminal, named after the Azerbaijani late president Heydar Aliyev), three intermediate pigging stations, one pressure reduction station, and 101 small block valves. It was constructed from 150,000 individual joints of line pipe, each measuring in length. This corresponds to a total weight of . The pipeline is diameter for most of its length, narrowing to diameter as it nears Ceyhan.
Cost and financing
The pipeline cost US$3.9 billion. The construction created 10,000 short-term jobs and the operation of the pipeline requires 1,000 long-term employees across a 40-year period. 70% of the costs are funded by third parties, including the World Bank's International Finance Corporation, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, export credit agencies of seven countries and a syndicate of 15 commercial banks.
Source of supply
The pipeline is supplied by oil from Azerbaijan's Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli oil field in the Caspian Sea via the Sangachal Terminal. This pipeline may also transport oil from Kazakhstan's Kashagan oil field and other oil fields in Central Asia. The government of Kazakhstan announced that it would build a trans-Caspian oil pipeline from the Kazakhstani port of Aktau to Baku, but because of the opposition from both Russia and Iran it started to transport oil to the BTC pipeline by tankers across the Caspian Sea.
Not only Kazakh, but also Turkmen oil have transported via Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline. Thus, in 2015, 5,2 million Kazakh and Turkmen oil were transported via this pipeline to the world markets.
Possible transhipment via Israel
It has been proposed that oil from the pipeline be transported to eastern Asia via the Israeli oil terminals at Ashkelon and Eilat, the overland trans-Israel sector being bridged by the Trans-Israel pipeline owned by the Eilat Ashkelon Pipeline Company (EAPC).
Ownership
The pipeline is owned and operated by BTC Co, a consortium of 11 energy companies. The consortium is managed by BP. Shareholders are:
BP (United Kingdom): 30.1%
State Oil Company of Azerbaijan (SOCAR) (Azerbaijan): 25.00%
MOL Group (Hungary): 8.90%
Equinor (Norway): 8.71%
Türkiye Petrolleri Anonim Ortaklığı (TPAO) (Turkey): 6.53%
Eni (Italy): 5.00%
TotalEnergies (France): 5.00%
Itochu (Japan): 3.40%
Inpex (Japan): 2.50%
ExxonMobil (USA): 2.50%
ONGC Videsh (India) 2.36%
Archaeology
Azerbaijani, Georgian, Turkish, British, and American archaeologists began archaeological surveys 2000, sponsored by BP. Several cultural artifacts were uncovered during the construction, resulting in a coordinated research of the archaeological sites such as Dashbulaq, Hasansu, Zayamchai, and Tovuzchai in Azerbaijan; Klde, Orchosani, and Saphar-Kharaba in Georgia; and Güllüdere, Yüceören, and Ziyaretsuyu in Turkey.
Controversial aspects
Politics
Even before its completion, the pipeline was having an effect on the world's petroleum politics. The South Caucasus, previously seen as Russia's backyard, is now a region of great strategic significance. The U.S. and other Western nations have become much more involved in the affairs of the three nations through which oil will flow. The countries have been trying to use the involvement as a counterbalance to Russian and Iranian economic and military dominance in the region. Russian specialists claim that the pipeline will weaken the Russian influence in the Caucasus. The Russian Parliament Foreign Affairs Committee chairman stated that the United States and other Western countries are planning to station soldiers in the Caucasus on the pretext of instability in regions through which the pipeline passes.
The project has been criticised due to bypassing and regional isolation of Armenia, as well as for human rights and safety concerns. Ilham Aliev, the president of Azerbaijan, which is in conflict with Armenia, was cited as saying, "If we succeed with this project, the Armenians will end in complete isolation, which would create an additional problem for their future, their already bleak future".
The project also constitutes an important leg of the East–West energy corridor, gaining Turkey greater geopolitical importance. The pipeline supports Georgia's independence from Russian influence. Former President Eduard Shevardnadze, one of the architects and initiators of the project, saw construction through Georgia as a guarantee for the country's future economic and political security and stability. President Mikhail Saakashvili shares this view. "All strategic contracts in Georgia, especially the contract for the Caspian pipeline are a matter of survival for the Georgian state," he told reporters on 26 November 2003.
Economics
Although some have touted the pipeline as easing the dependence of the US and other Western nations on oil from the Middle East, it supplies only 1% of global demand during its first stage.
The pipeline diversifies the global oil supply and so insures, to an extent, against a failure in supply elsewhere. Critics of the pipeline—particularly Russia—are skeptical about its economic prospects.
Construction of the pipeline has contributed to the economies of the host countries. In the first half of 2007, a year after the launch of the pipeline as the main export route for Azerbaijani oil, the real GDP growth of Azerbaijan hit a record of 35%. Substantial transit fees accrue to Georgia and Turkey. For Georgia, the transit fees are expected to produce an average of US$62.5 million per year. Turkey is expected to receive approximately US$200 million in transit fees per year in the initial years of operation, with the possibility that the fees increase to US$290 million per year from year 17 to year 40. Turkey also benefits from an increase of commerce in the port of Ceyhan and other parts of eastern Anatolia, the region which had experienced significant decrease in economic activities since the Gulf War in 1991. The reduction of oil tanker traffic on the Bosphorus will contribute to greater security for Istanbul.
To counter concerns that oil money would be siphoned off by corrupt officials, Azerbaijan set up a state oil fund (SOFAZ), mandated with using revenue from natural resources to benefit future generations, bolster support from key international lenders, and improve transparency and accountability. Azerbaijan became the first oil-producing country to join EITI, the British-led Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative.
Security
Concerns have been addressed about the security of the pipeline. It bypasses Armenia, which has an unresolved conflict with Azerbaijan over the status of Nagorno-Karabakh, crosses through Georgia, which has two unresolved separatist conflicts, and goes through the edges of the Kurdish region of Turkey, which has seen a prolonged and bitter conflict with Kurdish separatists. It will require constant guarding to prevent sabotage, though the fact that almost all of the pipeline is buried will make it harder to attack. Georgia formed a special purpose battalion that would guard the pipeline while the US watched over the area with Unmanned Arial Vehicles (UAVs).
On 5 August 2008, a major explosion and fire in Refahiye (eastern Turkey Erzincan Province) closed the pipeline. The Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) claimed responsibility. The pipeline was restarted on 25 August 2008.
There is circumstantial evidence that it was instead a sophisticated cyber attack on the line's control and safety systems that led to increased pressure and an explosion. The attack might have been related to the Russo-Georgian War, which started two days later. However, the cyber attack theory has been largely criticized due to a lack of evidence, and was publicly debunked by ICS cyber security expert Robert M. Lee.
In September 2015, unrecognized Nagorno-Karabakh's defense minister, Levon Mnatsakanyan, was cited as saying: "This is a very serious financial resource for Azerbaijan and we need to deprive them of these means". In October 2020, Azerbaijan claimed that pipeline was targeted during the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War. Armenia rejected the accusations.
Environment
Critics of the pipeline have pointed out it should be properly earthquake engineered because it travels through three active faults in Azerbaijan, four in Georgia and seven in Turkey. Environmental activists fiercely opposed the crossing of the watershed of the Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park in Georgia, an area known for mineral water springs and natural beauty, although the pipeline itself does not enter the park. The construction of the pipeline left a highly visible scar across the landscape. The Oxford-based "Baku Ceyhan Campaign" stated that "public money should not be used to subsidize social and environmental problems, purely in the interests of the private sector, but must be conditional on a positive contribution to the economic and social development of people in the region." As Borjomi mineral water is a major export commodity of Georgia, any oil spills there would have a catastrophic effect on the economy.
The field joint coating of the pipeline has been controversial over the claim that SPC 2888, the sealant used, was not properly tested. BP and its contractors interrupted work until the problem was eliminated.
The pipeline eliminates 350 tanker cargoes per year through the sensitive congested Bosphorus and Dardanelles.
Human rights
Human rights activists criticized Western governments for the pipeline, due to reported human and civil rights abuses by the Aliyev regime in Azerbaijan. A Czech documentary film Zdroj (Source) underscores these human rights abuses, such as eminent domain violations in appropriating land for the pipeline's route, and criticism of the government leading to arrest.
In fiction
The pipeline was a central plot point in the James Bond film The World Is Not Enough (1999). One of the central characters, Elektra King, is responsible for the construction of an oil pipeline through the Caucasus, from the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean coast of Turkey. Named the "King pipeline" in the film, it is a thinly disguised version of the BTC.
See also
Baku–Novorossiysk pipeline
Baku–Supsa Pipeline
Dutch disease
Economy of Azerbaijan
Foreign relations of Azerbaijan
Foreign relations of Georgia (country)
Foreign relations of Turkey
Geostrategy in Central Asia
Nabucco pipeline
Energy in Georgia (country)
South Caucasus Pipeline
Trans-Anatolian gas pipeline
Notes
‘ The Encyclopaedia of the successful land acquisition processes of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan and South Caucasus Pipelines projects in Azerbaijan’.
References
Rasizade, Alec. The mythology of munificent Caspian bonanza and its concomitant pipeline geopolitics. = Central Asia and the Caucasus (Eastview Press, Sweden), number 4 (10) 2001, pages 16–28.
External links
Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan / South Caucasus pipelines environmental and community investments website
Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline (BP website)
BTC project (IFC website)
BTC project (EBRD website)
Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (BTC) Caspian Pipeline, HydrocarbonsTechnology.com
Engineering the BTC Pipeline, the former head of BP, Lord Browne FREng, reflects on the engineering challenges of constructing the BTC pipeline, Ingenia magazine, June 2008
P.M. Taylor and D. Maynard 2011 'Archaeological Excavations on the BTC Pipeline, Azerbaijan', Internet Archaeology 29.
Applying Advanced Technology for Threat Assessment: A Case Study of the BTC Pipeline
Azerbaijan–Georgia (country) relations
Azerbaijan–Turkey relations
Caspian Sea
Caucasus
BP buildings and structures
Ceyhan
Chevron Corporation
ConocoPhillips
Economy of Baku
Economy of Tbilisi
Energy infrastructure completed in 2006
Georgia (country)–Turkey relations
Oil pipelines in Azerbaijan
Oil pipelines in Georgia (country)
Oil pipelines in Turkey
2006 establishments in Georgia (country)
2006 establishments in Azerbaijan
2006 establishments in Turkey
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remember%20the%20Titans
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Remember the Titans
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Remember the Titans is a 2000 American biographical sports film produced by Jerry Bruckheimer and directed by Boaz Yakin. The screenplay, written by Gregory Allen Howard, is based on the true story of coach Herman Boone, portrayed by Denzel Washington, and his attempt to integrate the T. C. Williams High School (now Alexandria City High School) football team in Alexandria, Virginia, in 1971. Will Patton portrays Bill Yoast, Boone's assistant coach. Real-life athletes Gerry Bertier and Julius Campbell are portrayed by Ryan Hurst and Wood Harris, respectively.
The film was co-produced by Walt Disney Pictures and Jerry Bruckheimer Films and released by Buena Vista Pictures. On September 19, 2000, the film's soundtrack was released by Walt Disney Records. It features songs by several recording artists including Creedence Clearwater Revival, Bob Dylan, The Hollies, Marvin Gaye, James Taylor, The Temptations, Cat Stevens, and Steam.
Remember the Titans had a budget of $30 million and premiered in theaters nationwide in the United States on September 29, 2000. It grossed an estimated $115.6 million in the U.S., and $136.8 million worldwide. The film is often listed among the best football films.
Plot
In 1981, a group of former football coaches and players attend a funeral for an unnamed person.
Nearly ten years earlier in the summer of 1971, head coach Bill Yoast of the newly integrated T. C. Williams High School in Alexandria, Virginia, is leading his white players in summer workouts. He is informed that Herman Boone, a black head coach originally hired to coach the city's black high school football team, has been assigned to his coaching staff instead. Then, in an attempt to placate rising racial tensions and the fact that, despite the abolition of racial segregation in public schools, (all other high schools are "white only") the school district decides to name Boone the head coach. He refuses, believing it is unfair to Yoast, a successful coach who is nominated to the Virginia High School Hall of Fame, but relents after seeing what it means to the black community. When Yoast tells his white players that he will accept a head coach position elsewhere, they pledge to boycott the team if he is not their coach. Dismayed at the prospect of the students losing their chances at scholarships, Yoast changes his mind and accepts Boone's offer to serve as his defensive coordinator.
Boone holds his first team meeting with mostly black students in the school gymnasium but is interrupted by the arrival of Yoast and several white students. Yoast accepts Boone's offer to work under him, but Boone warns Yoast that it is his team and he will not tolerate Yoast undermining him. On August 15, the players journey to Gettysburg College for training camp. Early on, the black and white team members frequently clash in racially-motivated conflicts, including that between captains Gerry Bertier and Julius Campbell. However, through forceful coaching, rigorous training, and a motivational early-morning run to the Gettysburg National Cemetery followed by an emotional speech by Boone, the team comes together and returns as a united group. Before their first game, Boone is told by a member of the school board that if he loses even a single game, he will be dismissed. Subsequently, the Titans go through the season undefeated while battling racial prejudice and slowly gaining support from the community.
Just before the state semi-finals, Yoast is told by the chairman of the school board that they have arranged for the Titans to lose so that Boone will be dismissed and Yoast reinstated as head coach. During the game, the referees make several biased calls against the Titans. Upon seeing the chairman and other board members in the audience looking on with satisfaction, Yoast marches onto the field to warn the head referee that if the game is not officiated fairly, he will expose the scandal to the press. After this, the Titans shut out their opponents and advance to the state championship, but Yoast is told by the infuriated chairman that his actions in saving Boone's job have resulted in the loss of his Hall of Fame nomination.
That night, while celebrating the victory, Gerry is severely injured in a car accident and is paralyzed from the waist down. Despite the loss of the All-American linebacker, the team mounts a comeback in the fourth quarter of the state championship and wins the title.
Ten years later, Gerry dies in another car crash caused by a drunk driver after having won the gold medal in shot put in the Paralympic Games. It is his funeral the former football coaches and players were attending in the opening scene. Julius, holding the hand of Bertier's mother, leads the team in a mournful rendition of "Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye".
In the epilogue, descriptions show the players' and coaches' activities after the events in 1971. Coach Boone coached the Titans for five more seasons before retirement, while Coach Yoast assisted Boone for four more years, retiring from coaching in 1990; the two coaches became good friends. After Gerry's death, the gymnasium at T.C. Williams High was renamed after him. Julius would work for the city of Alexandria and remain friends with Gerry until his death.
Cast
Production
Filming
Filming locations for the motion picture included the campus of Dallas, Georgia at Paulding County High School, where the home games were filmed. Berry College in Rome, Georgia, Etowah High School in Woodstock, and in Atlanta, Georgia including Henry Grady High School and Druid Hills High School which both filled in for T.C. Williams High School. Practice scenes were filmed at Clarkston High School in Clarkston Georgia. Additionally, some of the championship game scenes were filmed at the Sprayberry High School football stadium in East Marietta, Georgia.
Historical accuracy
As with any movie that is not a documentary film but is rather "based on a true story", it has strayed from the actual events that had occurred on many occasions to add new dramatic elements of teamwork, commitment, and friendship to the film.
Alexandria City Schools were desegregated in 1959 and T.C. Williams was created by merging three racially integrated schools.
The Titans were ranked second in the nation at the end of the 1971 season, finishing 13–0. However, despite the movie showing multiple close games, most games were actually blowouts, with 9 of their thirteen wins being shutouts.
In the movie, Coach Boone states, "We are not like all the other schools in this conference, they're all white. They don't have to worry about race. We do." This is false as well; all the schools the Titans faced were integrated years before.
While the team is at camp, it shows Coach Boone waking them up at three in the morning to go for a run. This did not occur; neither did his speech at Gettysburg. The team did go on a tour of Gettysburg, although it was not as dramatic as portrayed in the film. In the film on the tour of Gettysburg, Coach Boone said it was the scene where 50,000 men died. There were approximately 46,000 casualties and 8,000 deaths in this battle.
Ronnie "Sunshine" Bass was far from being the only one with long hair at the time. Even Gerry Bertier had long hair. But in interviews Bass said "I'll say for the record my hair was never that long." He also says the kiss with Gerry never happened.
The climax of the movie is a fictionalized 1971 AAA state championship football game between T. C. Williams and George C. Marshall High School. The dramatic license taken in the movie was to convert what was actually a mid-season match-up between T. C. Williams and Marshall into a made-for-Hollywood state championship. In reality, the Marshall game was the toughest game T. C. Williams played all year. As depicted in the movie, the real Titans won the Marshall game on a fourth down come-from-behind play at the very end of the game. The actual state championship (against Andrew Lewis High School of Salem) was a 27–0 blowout, played at Victory Stadium in Roanoke.
Bertier's car accident took place on December 11, 1971, after (rather than a few days before) the season-ending State Championship game. Bertier had been at a banquet honoring the team for their undefeated season. After the banquet, Bertier borrowed his mother's new 1971 Chevrolet Camaro. Bertier lost control of the Camaro and crashed (the movie shows him getting broadsided). The cause of the accident was determined to be a mechanical failure in the engine mounts.
The "where are they now", shown during the film's closing credits, omits the fact that Sheryl Yoast died in 1996 of an undetected heart condition at the age of 34, and that she was not an only child as she had three sisters. Her oldest sister Bonnie was in college, her second oldest Angela went to a different high school, and her younger sister Deidre was only three years old in 1971.
The "where are they now" also omits that in 1979, Boone was relieved of his coaching duties by the Principal who felt "a change was needed. " The principal denied it was related to any allegations of player abuse which were never subtsantiated. Boone continued to work as the Head of the school's Physical Education department.
Music
On September 19, 2000, the soundtrack was released by Walt Disney Records. The film score was orchestrated by musician Trevor Rabin and features music composed by various artists. From the instrumental score, Rabin's track "Titans Spirit", was the only cue (of the 12 composed) added to the soundtrack. It is also the only piece of music on the soundtrack album not to have been previously released.
"Titans Spirit" is a seven-minute instrumental. It has been used on numerous sports telecasts, particularly those on NBC, which has utilized the score during its closing credits for each Olympic Games since 2002, as well as the final closing credits montage ending their 12-year run of NBA coverage in 2002. The song was also played as veteran New York Mets players crossed home plate during the closing ceremonies at Shea Stadium, and as the New York Yankees were awarded their rings from their 2009 World Series championship. The New Jersey Devils also used this song during the jersey number retirement ceremonies for Scott Stevens, Ken Daneyko, Scott Niedermayer, Martin Brodeur and Patrik Eliáš. In 2018, at the conclusion of the Stanley Cup playoffs, the song was used during the Washington Capitals' Stanley Cup celebration as captain Alexander Ovechkin lifted the Cup in Las Vegas.
It was also used during the 2008 Democratic National Convention to accompany the celebration and fireworks at Invesco Field after future president Barack Obama gave his nomination acceptance speech, and was also used immediately following his victory speech upon winning the 2008 Presidential Election.
Although not included on the soundtrack, "Them Changes" by Buddy Miles is heard playing early on in the film.
Soundtrack
Certifications
Release
Following its release in theaters, the Region 1 widescreen and Pan and scan edition of the motion picture was released on VHS and DVD in the United States on March 20, 2001. A Special Edition widescreen format of the film was released on March 20, 2001, along with a widescreen Director's cut on March 14, 2006.
A restored widescreen hi-definition Blu-ray version was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on September 4, 2007. Special features include backstage feature audio commentary with director Boaz Yakin, producer Jerry Bruckheimer and writer Gregory Allen Howard, feature audio commentary with real-life coaches Herman Boone and Bill Yoast, "Remember The Titans: An inspirational journey behind the scenes" hosted by Lynn Swann, "Denzel Becomes Boone," "Beating The Odds"; Deleted scenes; Movie Showcase and seamless menus.
Reception
Box office
Remember the Titans opened strongly at the U.S. box office, grossing $26,654,715 in its first weekend and staying within the top five for six weeks. The film debuted at the number one spot, but was quickly overtaken by Meet the Parents a week later. It eventually went on to gross an estimated $115,654,751 in the U.S., and $136,706,684 worldwide.
Critical response
Among mainstream critics in the U.S., Remember the Titans received generally positive reviews. Rotten Tomatoes reported that 72% of 137 sampled critics gave the film a positive review, with an average score of 6.3/10. The site's consensus states: "An inspirational crowd-pleaser with a healthy dose of social commentary, Remember the Titans may be predictable, but it's also well-crafted and features terrific performances." At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to critics' reviews, the film received a score of 48 based on 32 reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a rare "A+" grade.
James Berardinelli writing for ReelViews, called the film "relentlessly manipulative and hopelessly predictable" but noted that it was "a notch above the average entry in part because its social message (even if it is soft-) creates a richer fabric than the usual cloth from which this kind of movie is cut." Describing some pitfalls, Robert Wilonsky of the Dallas Observer said that "beneath its rah-rah rhetoric and pigskin proselytizing, it's no more provocative or thoughtful than a Hallmark Hall of Fame film or, for that matter, a Hallmark greeting card. Its heart is in the right place, but it has no soul." Wilonsky however was quick to admit "The film's intentions are noble, but its delivery is ham-fisted and pretentious; you can't deny the message, but you can loathe the messenger without feeling too guilty about it."
Todd McCarthy, writing in Variety, said, "As simplistic and drained of complexity as the picture is, it may well appeal to mainstream audiences as an 'if only it could be like this' fantasy, as well as on the elemental level of a boot camp training film, albeit a PG-rated one with all the cuss words removed." Roger Ebert, in the Chicago Sun-Times, viewed the film as "a parable about racial harmony, yoked to the formula of a sports movie," adding, "Victories over racism and victories over opposing teams alternate so quickly that sometimes we're not sure if we're cheering for tolerance or touchdowns. Real life is never this simple, but then that's what the movies are for".
In the San Francisco Chronicle, Mick LaSalle wrote that the film reminds the viewer that "it's possible to make a sentimental drama that isn't sickening — and a sports movie that transcends cliches." Columnist Bob Grimm of the Sacramento News & Review, somewhat praised the film, writing, "The film is quite lightweight for the subject matter, but Washington and company make it watchable." Some detractors like Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote, "Denzel Washington should have held out for a better script before he signed on to star in Remember the Titans, but you can see why he wanted to do the movie: He gets to play Martin Luther King Jr. and Vince Lombardi rolled into one nostalgically omnipotent tough-love saint." Jeff Vice of the Deseret News admitted that although the film contained dialogue that was "corny, clichéd, and downright cheesy at times," as well as how it relayed its message in one of the "most predictable, heavy-handed manners we've seen in a movie in years", the film "serves as a reminder of how much goodness there is inside people, just waiting for the right person to bring it out." He also viewed the casting as top-notch, saying that it helped to have a "rock-solid foundation in the form of leading-man Denzel Washington" at the helm.
Accolades
The film was nominated and won several awards in 2000–2001.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
2006: AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Cheers – Nominated
See also
List of American football films
References
External links
2000 films
2000 biographical drama films
2000s sports drama films
African-American biographical dramas
African-American films
Films about racism in the United States
Films set in the 1970s
Films set in 1971
Films set in 1981
Films directed by Boaz Yakin
Films set in Virginia
Films shot in Georgia (U.S. state)
Films shot in Rome, Georgia
Films produced by Jerry Bruckheimer
Films scored by Trevor Rabin
Films about race and ethnicity
High school football films
American sports drama films
Sports films based on actual events
Walt Disney Pictures films
2000s high school films
2000 drama films
2000s English-language films
2000s American films
Tall tales
Films about high school sports
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397586
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Blatchford
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Robert Blatchford
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Robert Peel Glanville Blatchford (17 March 1851 – 17 December 1943) was an English socialist campaigner, journalist, and author in the United Kingdom. He was also noted as a prominent atheist, nationalist and opponent of eugenics. In the early 1920s, after the death of his wife, he turned towards spiritualism.
Early life
Blatchford was born 17 March 1851 in Maidstone, Kent. His parents, John Glanville Blatchford, a strolling comedian, and Georgina Louisa Corri (maiden; 1821–1890), an actress – named him after the Conservative Prime Minister Robert Peel who died the year before. His great-grandfather, by way of his mother, Domenico Corri (1746–1825), was an Italian musician and publisher who, in the late 18th century, moved from Rome to Edinburgh to teach music. One of his grandnieces, Christine Glanville (1924–1999), was an acclaimed English puppeteer.
Blatchford's father died in 1853, leaving him in the care of his mother. She continued her acting career for nine years, and Blatchford spent much of his early life close to the stage. To help support the family, Blatchford and his brother Montagu would perform with their mother, doing comedic renditions and dances for extra income. In 1862 the family moved to Halifax, where it was hoped that Blatchford and his brother could learn a trade. Blatchford was first employed as an odd job boy in a lithographic printing works, for which he earned a salary of eighteen pence a week. As a child he attended school only occasionally, firstly in Halifax and later in Portsmouth. In spite of the brevity of his educational experience, he called the education system a "cram" method.
Though lacking a formal education, Blatchford taught himself from the age of eight, reading the Bible, Pilgrim's Progress, and the works of Charles Dickens. Throughout his childhood he was frail and sickly, and doctors suggested that he would not reach adulthood. This illness gave Blatchford time to read, something he would not have been able to pursue as thoroughly if employed. Around 1864, Georgina secured full-time employment as a dressmaker and immediately apprenticed both her sons, sending Montagu to a lithographic printer and Robert to a brush maker. At the brush maker factory, Blatchford met Sarah Crossley, whom he would marry in 1880.
By 1871 Blatchford left Halifax, though his reason for doing so has been the cause of debate. Laurence Thompson argues that the departure was due to a quarrel with his mother, but Blatchford's daughter Dorothea maintains that his decision to leave was caused by the difficulty of his life in Halifax. On May Day 1871, Blatchford walked to Hull, then continued on to London via Yarmouth.
Military and early journalistic career
After leaving Halifax, Blatchford joined the Army and rose to become a sergeant major by 1874. By the time of his promotion, he had also achieved the Army's second class certificate of education. Blatchford served with the Irish regiment 103rd Dublin Fusiliers and the 96th Regiment of Foot. The pleasures of army life stimulated some of Blatchford's best writing, but in 1877 he left the army to become a clerk in the Weaver Navigation Company. While employed as a clerk, he carefully used his spare time to learn grammar, syntax, and shorthand. In 1880 he married Sarah Crossley, whom he met in Halifax, at the Zion Chapel in Halifax; they then settled in Norwich. Sarah was the daughter of a domestic servant and a mechanic. Around this time Blatchford became frustrated with his job and decided that he wished to become an artist. Because employment opportunities for artists in Norwich were scarce, however, he instead decided to become a writer. Blatchford's writing career began in 1882 at the Yorkshireman newspaper, where he had a sketch published. He obtained his first full-time writing job through his friend Alexander Muttock Thompson, who worked for the Manchester Sporting Chronicle. Thompson recommended Blatchford to a friend who ran the newspaper Bell's Life in London. A year later, Blatchford moved his family to South London to write for Bell's Life and the Leeds Toby.
In 1885, Blatchford began to write for the Manchester Sunday Chronicle. When Bell's Life failed two years later, he moved to a full-time position at the Sunday Chronicle. Before beginning at the Sunday Chronicle, Blatchford took a short holiday on the Isle of Wight after the death of his two children. At this time he had not begun to espouse socialist views, but the societal reactions to the competitiveness of industrial society in Northern England began affecting his sentiments. The largest political influence on Blatchford was the South Salford Social Democratic Federation. This change is seen in a series of 1889 articles he wrote for the Sunday Chronicle which denounced the housing conditions in Manchester and organised two working men's Sanitary Organisations in the area.
Reflecting back on this period, Blatchford stated in the Fortnightly Review in 1907 that "Dr. Cozier is mistaken if he thinks I took my Socialism from Marx, or that it depends upon the Marxian theory of value. I have never read a page of Marx. I got the idea of collective ownership from H. M. Hyndman; the rest of my Socialism I thought out myself. English Socialism is not German: it is English. English Socialism is not Marxian; it is humanitarian. It does not depend upon any theory of 'economic justice' but upon humanity and common sense."
The Clarion
In 1890, while based in Manchester, Blatchford became actively involved in the Labour Movement. He founded the Manchester branch of the Fabian Society, and launched a weekly socialist newspaper, The Clarion, in 1891. Later that year, he used his column to announce that he had accepted the invitation of the Bradford Labour Union to become the Independent Labour candidate in Bradford East. However, his socialist stance forced him to leave the Sunday Chronicle, which in turn left him with a severe reduction in income.
Having left the newspaper on 12 December 1891, Blatchford set up The Clarion, but a printing error made its first edition was almost completely illegible. Nevertheless, it still sold at least 40,000 copies. It continued to sell this number and more during the following years. By 1910 it was selling about 80,000 copies of each issue. Bernard Semmel described it as "the most successful socialist publication in Great Britain during the period before the war of 1914".
By 1892 Blatchford had removed himself from the candidature in Bradford East and began siding with the Social Democratic Federation (SDF) against the Fabians' policy of "permeation." The joining of The Clarion and SDF resulted in the formation in 1892 of the Manchester Independent Labour Party, which soon devised the Manchester Fourth Clause. By 1893 Blatchford was the leader of his own clique within the newly founded national Independent Labour Party, the Clarionettes, whose extraordinary dynamism was expressed in its numerous choral societies, Clarion cycling clubs, Socialist Scouts, and glee clubs.
Central to the Clarion movement were the Clarion cycling clubs, whose members, frequently accompanied by the "Clarion Van", travelled the country distributing socialist literature and holding mass meetings. Robert Tressell's socialist novel The Ragged Trousered Philanthropists contains a detailed account based on a meeting organised by the Clarion scouts.
The Clarion movement also supported many industrial disputes at this time, including the three-year lockout of the slateworkers of the Penrhyn slate quarry in North Wales. The Clarion collected £1,500 to support the people of Bethesda.
There was a revolt in the county federation created by the ILP in 1894, as Blatchford urged the formation of a united socialist party. In the same year he resigned from the editorship of The Clarion due to ill health and developed depression. He started to edit it again in 1896. He supported the Boer War, which lost him support from some sections of the labour movement. Blatchford denounced his "cosmopolitan friends, who are so cosmopolitan that they can admire every country but their own, and love all men except Englishmen". He criticised the "smug, self-righteous prigs" in the labour movement who, while "despising military glory, are yet so eloquent over the marksmanship and courage of the Boers". He wrote that his "whole heart is with the British troops ... When England is at war, I'm English. I have no politics and no party. I am English." Responding to claims from the right-wing press that he wanted to ‘turn people against their country’, he retorted that he wanted ‘to make people so fond of their country that they shall desire to possess it’.
After the war Blatchford continued to agitate for a united socialist party and supported the London Progressive Party. He was critical of the Labour Party, which was founded in 1900, for what he perceived as its complete subservience to Liberalism, especially in its Cobdenite internationalist views on foreign policy. Blatchford said of himself and his colleagues at The Clarion: "We were out for Socialism and nothing but Socialism, and we were Britons first and Socialists next."
Blatchford criticised free trade from an economic nationalist perspective. Free trade had made it impossible for Britain to feed herself and had destroyed British agriculture. This was especially serious in wartime because Britain could be starved into submission due to the dependence for her food on foreign nations. When Joseph Chamberlain launched his crusade for Tariff Reform in 1903, Blatchford's response was ambiguous. He did not formally endorse Chamberlain's campaign, but The Clarion praised his aims—the revival of British agriculture, a self-sufficient Empire, and producer-focused instead of consumer-focused economic system. Blatchford said he did not believe in tariff reform as applied by Conservatives, but that a socialist government would find it a necessary instrument.
A further development in Blatchford's thinking cost him further readers, when he began denouncing organised religion in such works as God and My Neighbour (1903) and Not Guilty: A Defence of the Bottom Dog (1905). Again, to antagonise the ILP, the Clarion raised funds for Victor Grayson, whom the ILP had declined to support. He justified his attacks as being because Labour was too close to the Liberals.
Merrie England
A series of articles on socialism in The Clarion were published in book form in 1893 as Merrie England. The first edition sold 30,000 copies. The year after, a pocket-sized edition was published, which sold 25,000 copies. A penny edition was published in 1894, with 250,000 copies being ordered before publication and within a year 750,000 copies had been despatched across the English speaking world. In Britain and America, the book sold over two million copies. In the opinion of Robert Ensor, the book "helped to make socialism really well known in England for the first time...It was Blatchford's highest flight as a propagandist; he never surpassed it, and through it mainly he left his mark upon history". The book was translated into Welsh, Hebrew, Dutch, Italian, Spanish and German.
William Thomas Stead picked the book as the Review of Reviews book of the month and called Blatchford "the poor man's Plato". Dr Horton the Congregationalist minister compared Blatchford to Isaiah, Amos and Micah and said that "if Jesus Christ were a man on earth today, He would read the book not only with interest but with approval, and He would say to any officious disciples who took exception to parts of it, “Forbid him not; he that is not against Me is for Me"." C. P. Scott of the Manchester Guardian wrote to Blatchford, saying: "I have been reading Merrie England and (pace the reviewers) find a great deal in it!" The Manchester Guardian said that for every British convert to socialism made by Das Kapital there were a hundred made by Merrie England.
At the Oxford Union a motion was approved by 103 to 54 that stated that "the aims of the Socialist tract, Merrie England, are but the baseless fabric of a vision". The motion was seconded by Hilaire Belloc.
Blatchford was a vegetarian and in Merrie England he mentioned the economic, health and humanitarian benefits of a vegetarian diet.
War scare of 1909
At the end of the second week of December 1909, Blatchford wrote ten daily articles for the Daily Mail warning of the German menace:
I write these articles because I believe that Germany is deliberately preparing to destroy the British Empire; and because I know that we are not ready or able to defend ourselves against a sudden and formidable attack...At the present moment the whole country is in a ferment about the Budget and the Peers and the Election. It seems sheer criminal lunacy to waste time and strength in chasing such political bubble when the existence of the Empire is threatened.
The articles received considerable attention in Britain and Germany, and when published as a pamphlet sold over one and a half million copies. The King "lamented Blatchford's violence" and the Kaiser read Blatchford's articles with care and denounced them as "very mischievous and singularly ill-timed". Sir Charles Ottley, the Secretary to the Committee of Imperial Defence, wrote to Lord Esher that Blatchford's appeal was not based on a partisan, political basis as he had said that the country did not want a Liberal or Unionist government but a MAN: "His strength is that he knows what he wants and is not afraid to ask for it in plain language...The burthen of the song is—compulsory service, a strong navy and a general raising of the standard of education and living of the masses of the British people". Lord Cromer publicly declared that he shared Blatchford's patriotism. The articles ensured that defence was a major issue in the ensuing general election of January 1910. After the election the Liberal MP Reginald McKenna boasted that Blatchford had not cost the Liberals a single vote. Keir Hardie said that "the whole Socialist movement was rocking with suppressed laughter".
The Daily Mail′s Berlin correspondent told Lord Northcliffe: "In a long experience...I do not recall a foreign journalistic event which so focused the attention of the German press and public". There was universal condemnation in German newspapers, including Social Democratic, Catholic and Pan-German organs. When the German Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg complained to Edward Goschen, the British ambassador in Berlin, the Foreign Secretary Sir Edward Grey advised Goschen to explain the articles as "not really anti-German but alarmist...to create a scare".
Shortly before the general election of December 1910, the Daily Mail published Blatchford's series of articles on ‘The Greatest Issue of All’, the German threat. However these were nowhere near as influential as his previous ones and defence was not an issue in the election.
In 1909 he began advocating conscription but in 1912 troops were used for strike breaking and Blatchford turned against it: "Universal military service under the (present) ruling classes would result in slavery. I regard invasion as the lesser evil". However, he supported conscription again in 1915 and proclaimed it should be implemented along with the "conscription of wealth". Before the war, Blatchford toured Germany and after he returned to England he wrote:
I am convinced that...they will be plunged into war without their will. I like Germany; I like German cities; and I like the German people. But I believe that the rulers of the German people are deliberately and cynically preparing to hurl them into a wicked and a desperate war of conquest...The Germans cannot prevent that war, because they do not believe it is coming. The British could prevent that war if, before it is too late, they could be really convinced that it is coming. That is why I want to convince them that war is coming, because I want to prevent that horrible war.
Blatchford was impressed by the cleanliness and efficiency in Germany: "You don't see anything like that in Germany. I thought to myself, is this how we are preparing to fight for the existence of our Empire? What use will these ragged, famished spectres be when we have our backs to the wall?"
Later life
On 4 August 1914, Blatchford wrote to his friend Alexander Thompson: "I shall write today a cautious article counselling peace and suggesting that Sir E. Grey should ask Russia and Germany to suspend hostilities pending a friendly mediation by America, England and Italy, or any one of those powers. But I do not think really that European peace is possible until Germany has been defeated and humiliated. And I realise the great possibility that we shall be at war with Germany before the Clarion comes out. And I hope we are". The Clarion Movement was split when Blatchford swung his paper in support of the British participation in the First World War. The circulation for The Clarion fell by 10,000 in a week but when in September 1914 Blatchford wrote a page of The Weekly Dispatch every Sunday its circulation rose by 50,000. In his first article for that paper, Blatchford correctly predicted that the German Army would not reach Paris and of General Joffre's flank along the Marne.
Blatchford visited France in October 1914 and was shocked by the conduct of the Germans in waging war. Initially warning his readers of fake atrocity stories, Blatchford was shocked by the ruined villages in France and the stories he heard, "too horrible and too unclean to be revealed in print". He wrote to Thompson in 1933: "In the early days of the war the movement howled with indignation about the lying charges brought against the German General Staff and troops. The noble Germans were incapable of such crimes. British and Belgian and American witnesses were all liars. Today the same intelligent comrades are denouncing the atrocities committed by the Nazi 'storm troops' upon innocent and helpless Jews. Well, old pal, may I suggest that if the Germans of today are guilty perhaps the Huns of 1914 were not quite innocent".
In his articles during the war, Blatchford campaigned for better pay for the soldiers and considerable pensions for disabled soldiers, soldiers' widows and children. When a soldier wrote to him, claiming his opinions would not be accepted by the Army but those of Philip Snowden and Ramsay MacDonald would, Blatchford replied: "I am sorry. I cannot help it. You want peace. But you cannot have peace without victory...The struggle with Germany will not end with the present war, and we may some day have to fight Germany single-handed".
In 1915, Blatchford formed the National Democratic and Labour Party (NDP) as a splinter from the right wing of the British Socialist Party and for the 1918 General Election, the NDP stood in eighteen constituencies and returned nine Members of Parliament with 156,834 votes. It thereby became the first party formed by a right-wing split from the Labour Party in Britain to win seats in Parliament at a general election.
Blatchford's wife died in 1921, and later he took an interest in Spiritualism. In 1923 he wrote in response to claims in the press that he had been converted away from socialism by reading Henry Ford's autobiography:
I have never been converted from Socialism. But careful observation of the facts of for the last twelve years or so has convinced me that Socialism will not work, and a study of Mr. Ford's methods has provided what seems to me as good a substitute as we may hope in this imperfect world. Socialism as I knew it in past years was an excellent, almost a perfect, theory...The golden rule will not work in international politics, because the nations are not good enough to live up to it. Real Socialism strongly resembles real Christianity. It is a counsel of perfection and cannot be adopted and adhered to by our imperfect humanity. There is nothing the matter with Socialism, but the people are neither wise enough nor good enough to make it a success. Socialism implies the self-abnegation of the individual for the good of the community.
When the first Labour government, led by Ramsay MacDonald, took office in 1924, Blatchford responded to Thompson's enthusiasm: "I don't like their policy and I don't trust them. They are in no sense Socialists. At present they are Liberals and we shall have a blend of Liberal shibboleths and communist insanity". When Sir Edward Hulton sold most of his newspapers to Lord Rothermere, Blatchford wrote a letter to The Morning Post:
As a protest against the attempt of the syndicated newspapers to muzzle the press and dictate to the Government, I have resigned my position on The Sunday Chronicle and The Sunday Herald...the public should be helped to realise that the political judgments of the syndicated newspapers are not sincere and considered opinions of trained, independent thinkers, but the broadcast railings of one rich man in a panic over the Capital Levy. It is important that this should be said, and that the country should understand that the voice of Lord Rothermere is not the voice of public opinion. His standardised newspapers are journalistic tied houses, where proprietorial dope is sold as honest beer.
Blatchford voted Conservative in 1924. However, his later books indicate a continued faith in his own English version of socialism. Moreover, the Clarion Movement carried on as a socialist popular movement, taking its cue from Blatchford, into the 1930s and beyond, as indicated by the continued existence of the Clarion rambling and cycling clubs and the founding of the newspaper The New Clarion in 1932. In a 1931 letter to Alexander Thompson, Blatchford proclaimed his last political credo, his language remaining fiery and eloquent:
I have always been a Tory Democrat...You remember that from the first the Clarion crowd and the Hardie crowd were out of harmony ... I loathe the "top-hatted, frock-coated magnolia-scented" snobocracy as much as you do; but I cannot away with the Keir Hardies and Arthur Hendersons and Ramsay MacDonalds and Bernard Shaws and Maxtons. Not long ago you told me in a letter of some trade union delegates who were smoking cigars and drinking whisky at the House of Commons at the expense of their unions. You liked them not. Nor do I like the Trade Union bigots who have cheated J. H. Thomas of his pension...I am glad the Labour Party is defeated because I believe they would have disrupted the British Empire. I dreaded their childish cosmopolitanism; their foolish faith that we could abolish crime by reducing the police force. All the other nations are out for their own ends. American enthusiasm for Naval Disarmament is not dictated by a love of peace. It is an expression of naval rivalry. All the nations hated our naval supremacy. Do the Americans love us? Do the French love us? Is France, America, Italy, devoted to an unselfish and human peace? Can we dispel the bellicose sentiments of Russia and China and Japan by sending an old pantaloon to talk platitudes at Geneva, or by disbanding the Horse Guards and scrapping a few submarines?...The England of my affection and devotion is not a country nor a people: it is a tradition, the finest tradition the world has ever produced. The Labour Party do not subscribe to that tradition; do not know it; could not feel it. And if that tradition is to survive, the policy of scuttle and surrender must be abandoned. You agree with all this I feel sure. You always upheld the Pax Britannica. We have not drifted apart, old pal: our separation is only geographical.
After Adolf Hitler became German Chancellor in 1933, Blatchford "began to smell brimstone", in the words of his biographer Laurence Thompson. Blatchford said: "The people ought to know; but who will let me say what ought to be said?" Blatchford feared that people would say: "Oh, Blatchford. He has Germany on the brain." When Winston Churchill began warning of the dangers of Nazi Germany, Blatchford remarked: "Ha! He's learning! Now watch him get it in the neck". Later on, Blatchford believed Churchill's conduct redeemed what he considered his past political errors.
On 17 December 1943, Blatchford died in Horsham, Sussex at the age of 92.
Legacy
Blatchford's "love of country" themes were not a late aberration but can be found throughout his output. His combination of libertarianism, socialism and conservatism mark him out as one of the more original activists in English political history. The first Labour Chancellor of the Exchequer, Philip Snowden, said of Blatchford in his autobiography:
In these years Mr. Blatchford gave invaluable help to Socialist propaganda. No man did more than he to make Socialism understood by the ordinary working man. His writings in them had nothing of economic abstruseness. He based his appeal on the principles of human justice. He preached Socialism as a system of industrial co-operation for the common good. His arguments and illustrations were drawn from facts and experiences within the knowledge of the common people. Socialism as he taught it was not a cold, materialistic theory, but the promise of a new life as full, sweet and noble as the world can give...Mr. Blatchford is still living, hale and hearty, his mental powers undiminished aged 83. I saw him recently, and we talked of those grand and inspiring times of forty years ago. Only the men who were in the Socialist movement in those days can know the great part Robert Blatchford took in making it popular, and of the personal devotion he inspired by his writings.
The General Secretary of the Trade Union Congress from 1925 to 1946, Sir Walter Citrine, was influenced by Blatchford's writings. He said of Britain for the British: "I found it a cogent and reasoned argument for Socialism. It was written with a clearness and bite which were unusual". Clement Attlee also spoke of Blatchford's influence on his beliefs. A. J. P. Taylor said that Blatchford was "the greatest popular journalist since Cobbett".
Writings
The Nunquam Papers (from the Sunday Chronicle) Edward Hulton and Co., 1891.
Fantasias John Heywood, Manchester, 1892.
Merrie England Clarion Office, Walter Scott, 1893.
The Nunquam Papers (from The Clarion) Clarion Newspaper, 1895).
A Bohemian Girl (McGinnis, P., pseudonym), London, 1898, Clarion Newspapers Co., Walter Scott, Ltd.
Dismal England, London, Clarion Press, May 1899.
My Favourite Books The Clarion Office, (also Chesworth, 1900)
My Favourite Books, London, Clarion Press, 1901.
Tales for the Marines, London, Clarion Newspaper Co., Ltd., 1901.
Britain for the British, London, Clarion Press, 1902.
A Book About Books, London, Clarion Press, 1903.
God and My Neighbour Clarion Press, 1903.
Not Guilty: A Defense of the Bottom Dog Clarion Press, 1906.
The Sorcery Shop: An Impossible Romance, London, Clarion Press, 1907.
The Dolly Ballads (Illustrated by Frank Chesworth) Clarion Press, 1907.
The War That Was Foretold: Germany and England, Reprinted from “The Daily Mail” of 1909.
My Life in the Army, London, Clarion Press, 1910.
More Things in Heaven and Earth: Adventures in the Quest for a Soul, London, Methuen & Co., 1925.
As I Lay A-Thinking: Some Memories and Reflections of an Ancient and Quiet Watchman Hodder & Stoughton, London, 1926.
Essays of To-Day and Yesterday, London, George G. Harrap & Co., Ltd., 1927.
Saki’s Bowl, London, Hodder & Stoughton Publishers, 1928.
Where Are the Dead, London, Cassell and Company, Ltd., 1928 [Contains a chapter by Blatchford, “Secrets of Life and Love.”]
My Eighty Years, Great Britain, Cassell & Company Limited. 1931.
What's All This?, London, George Routledge & Sons, Ltd., 1940.
General Von Sneak, London, Hodder & Stoughton, Publishers, n.d.
Julie A Study of a Girl by a Man, London, Clarion Press, 1904
Stunts, London, Clarion Press, n.d.
Notes
References
Robert Blatchford, My Eighty Years (London: Cassell, 1931).
Lord Citrine, Men and Work. An Autobiography (London: Hutchinson, 1964).
R. C. K. Ensor, ‘Blatchford, Robert Peel Glanville (1851–1943)’, rev. H. C. G. Matthew, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, May 2006, accessed 13 January 2014.
A. J. A. Morris, The Scaremongers. The Advocacy of War and Rearmament 1896–1914 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984).
Bernard Semmel, Imperialism and Social Reform. English Social-Imperial Thought 1895–1914 (New York: Anchor, 1968).
Philip, Viscount Snowden, An Autobiography. Volume One. 1864–1919 (London: Ivor Nicholson and Watson, 1934).
Laurence Thompson, Robert Blatchford. Portrait of an Englishman (London: Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1951).
Further reading
Anon., The Clarion Van at Norton: Willie Wright's report to Julia Dawson reprinted from The Clarion, Sheffield, 1898.
Chesterton, Gilbert Keith The Blatchford Controversies _ ca. 1905.
Lyons, Neil Robert Blatchford Clarion Press, 1910.
Jones, Leslie S. A. Robert Blatchford and the Clarion Hyde Park Pamphlets Number Nine, 1986.
Judge, Tony Tory Socialist: Robert Blatchford and Merrie England Mentor Books, 2013
Judge, Tony, Tory Socialism in English Culture Politics and Society 1870–1940, 2019
Peacock, Arthur Yours Fraternally Pendulum Publications, 1945.
Suthers R. B. and Beswick H. The Clarion Birthday Book Clarion Press, 1951.
Thompson, Alex M. Here I Lie George Routledge & Sons, 1937.
Thompson, Laurence Robert Blatchford: Portrait of an Englishman Victor Gollancz, London, 1951.
Williamson, Robert Robert Blatchford Calendar Frank Palmer 1912.
External links
Spartacus on Blatchford
The Clarion Movement 1891–1914 at WCML.org.uk (archived 2005-10-26)
A slightly reworked version of the WCML article which includes the lyrics for the anthem of the Clarion cyclists 'The song of the Clarion Scouts.'
'The good old summer time.' Tressell's account of a meeting held by The Clarion Cycling Scouts
Robert Blatchford: Neglected Socialist at Rutgers University Libraries
1851 births
1943 deaths
Military personnel from Kent
British male essayists
English atheists
English essayists
English male journalists
English male non-fiction writers
English nationalists
English politicians
English socialists
English spiritualists
Manchester Regiment soldiers
People from Maidstone
Royal Dublin Fusiliers soldiers
Vegetarianism activists
War scare
19th-century British Army personnel
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred%20Richard%20Orage
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Alfred Richard Orage
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Alfred Richard Orage (22 January 1873 – 6 November 1934) was a British influential figure in socialist politics and modernist culture, now best known for editing the magazine The New Age before the First World War. While he was working as a schoolteacher in Leeds he pursued various interests, including Plato, the Independent Labour Party and theosophy. In 1900 he met Holbrook Jackson and three years later they co-founded the Leeds Arts Club, which became a centre of modernist culture in Britain. After 1924, Orage went to France to work with George Gurdjieff and was then sent to the United States by Gurdjieff to raise funds and lecture. He translated several of Gurdjieff's works.
Early life
James Alfred Orage was born in Dacre, near Harrogate in the West Riding of Yorkshire, into a Nonconformist family, with one sister. He was generally known as Dickie, and he eventually dropped the name James and adopted the middle name Alfred as his first name, and Richard as his second. His father, William, died when Alfred was one years old, and his mother, Sarah Anne, who had little financial means, returned to the family village of Fenstanton, Huntingdonshire. Alfred excelled at school and was sent to Culham training college in Oxfordshire where he also taught himself editorial skills and obtained a teaching post in Leeds, returning to Yorkshire in autumn 1893.
Leeds: socialism, theosophy and the Leeds Arts Club
In 1894 he became a schoolteacher in an elementary school in Leeds and helped to found the Leeds branch of the Independent Labour Party (ILP). He wrote a weekly literary column for the ILP's paper, the Labour Leader, from 1895 to 1897. He brought a philosophical outlook to the paper, including in particular the thought of Plato and the theosophist Edward Carpenter who was Orage's mentor for a time. Orage devoted seven years of study to Plato, from 1893 to 1900. He set up a philosophical discussion circle called the Plato Group, including the architect Thomas Butler Wilson who was a friend of Alfred's wife Jean.
By the late 1890s Orage was disillusioned with conventional socialism and turned for a while to theosophy. In 1896, Orage married Jean Walker, an art student at the Royal College of Art who was a passionate member of the Theosophical Society. The couple frequented the Northern Federation headquarters in Harrogate where Orage first met Annie Besant and other leading theosophists and began to lecture on mysticism, occultism and idealism in Manchester and Leeds as well as publishing material in the Theosophical Review. Orage was influenced by Edward Carpenter's belief that women were behind the new force that would bring change to society. Alfred and Jean opened a theosophist branch in Leeds called the Alpha Centre, even though a regular lodge already existed in the city, and Jean represented it in Harrogate until 1900 when the Leeds lodge was re-founded by the Orages as well as Jean's cousin Miss A. K. Kennedy. Jean lectured at the Northern Federation Conference in 1904. Jean also helped Alfred with the council meetings of the Leeds lodge. Jean was an excellent needlewoman and sharp debater; she finally left Alfred to pursue her textile career in Haslemere and later working on the looms for William Morris's firm in Oxford Street, London.
In 1900 he met Holbrook Jackson in a Leeds bookshop and lent him a copy of the Bhagavad-Gita. In return Jackson lent him Friedrich Nietzsche's Thus Spoke Zarathustra, which led Orage to study Nietzsche's work in depth. Orage devoted seven years of his life to the study of Nietzsche's philosophy, from 1900 to 1907, and from 1907 to 1914 he was a student of the Mahabharata.
In 1903 Orage, Jackson and the architect Arthur J. Penty helped to found the Leeds Arts Club with the intention of promoting the work of radical thinkers including G. B. Shaw, whom Orage had met in 1898, Henrik Ibsen and Nietzsche. During this period Orage returned to socialist platforms, but by 1906 he was determined to combine Carpenter's socialism with Nietzsche's thought and theosophy.
In 1906 Beatrice Hastings, whose real name was Emily Alice Haigh and who hailed from Port Elizabeth, became a regular contributor to the New Age. By 1907 she and Orage had developed an intimate relationship. As Beatrice Hastings herself later put it, ″Aphrodite amused herself at our expense.″ Orage appears to have had a magnetic effect on many women who frequented his lectures and both Mary Gawthorpe and Millie Price have left accounts of their sexual relationships with him.
Orage explored his new ideas in several books. He saw Nietzsche's Übermensch as a metaphor for the "higher state of consciousness" sought by mystics and attempted to define a route to this higher state, insisting that it must involve a rejection of civilisation and conventional morality. He moved through a celebration of Dionysus to declare that he was in favour, not of an ordered socialism, but of an anarchic movement.
In 1906 and 1907 Orage published three books: Consciousness: Animal, Human and Superhuman, based on his experience with theosophy; Friedrich Nietzsche: The Dionysian Spirit of the Age; and Nietzsche in Outline and Aphorism. Orage's rational critique of theosophy evoked an editorial rebuttal from The Theosophical Review and in 1907 he terminated his association with the Theosophical Society. The two books on Nietzsche were the first systematic introductions to Nietzschean thought to be published in Britain.
Editor in London
In 1906 Orage resigned his teaching post and moved to London, following Arthur Penty, another friend from the Leeds Art Club. In London Orage attempted to form a league for the restoration of the guild system, in the spirit of the decentralised socialism of William Morris. The failure of this project spurred him to buy the weekly magazine The New Age in 1907, in partnership with Holbrook Jackson and with the support of George Bernard Shaw. Orage transformed the magazine to fit with his conception of a forum for politics, literature and the arts. Although many contributors were Fabians, he distanced himself from their politics to some extent and sought to have the magazine represent a wide range of political views. He used the magazine to launch attacks on parliamentary politics and argued the need for utopianism. He also attacked the trade union leadership, while offering some support to syndicalism, and tried to combine syndicalism with his ideal of a revived guild system. Combining these two ideas resulted in guild socialism, the political philosophy Orage began to argue for from about 1910, though the specific term "guild socialism" seems not to have been mentioned in print until Bertrand Russell referred to it in his book Political Ideals (1917).
Between 1908 and 1914 The New Age was the premier little magazine in Britain. It was instrumental in pioneering the British avant-garde, from vorticism to imagism, and its contributors included T.E. Hulme, Wyndham Lewis, Katherine Mansfield, Ezra Pound and Herbert Read. Orage's success as an editor was connected with his talent as a conversationalist and a ″bringer together″ of people. The modernists of London had been scattered between 1905 and 1910, but largely thanks to Orage a sense of a modernist ″movement″ was created from 1910 onwards.
Politics
Orage declared himself a socialist and followed Georges Sorel in arguing that trade unions should pursue an increasingly aggressive policy on wage deals and working conditions. He approved of the increasing militancy of the unions in the era before the First World War and seems to have shared Sorel's belief in the necessity of a union-led general strike leading to a revolutionary situation. However, for Orage, economic power precedes political power, and political reform is useless without economic reform.
In the early issues of The New Age, Orage supported the women's suffrage movement, but he became increasingly hostile to it as the Women's Social and Political Union became more prominent and more militant. Pro-suffragette articles were not published after 1910, but heated debate on the subject took place in the correspondence columns.
During the First World War, Orage defended what he saw as the interests of the working class. On 6 August 1914, he wrote in Notes of the Week in The New Age, ″We believe that England is necessary to Socialism, as Socialism is necessary to the world.″ On 14 November 1918, Orage wrote of the coming peace settlement (embodied in the Treaty of Versailles): "The next world war, if unhappily there should be another, will in all probability be contained within the clauses and conditions attaching to the present peace settlement."
By then, Orage was convinced that the hardships of the working class were the result of the monetary policies of banks and governments. If Britain could remove the pound from the gold standard during the war and re-establish the gold standard after the war, the gold standard was not as necessary as the monetary oligarchs wanted the proletariat to believe that it was. On 15 July 1920, Orage wrote: ″We should be the first to admit that the subject of Money is difficult to understand. It is 'intended' to be, by the minute oligarchy that governs the world by means of it."
After the First World War, Orage was influenced by C. H. Douglas and became a supporter of the social credit movement. On 2 January 1919, Orage published the first article by Douglas to appear in The New Age, "A Mechanical View of Economics″.
With Gurdjieff
Orage had met P. D. Ouspensky for the first time in 1914. Ouspensky's ideas had left a lasting impression and when he moved to London in 1921 Orage began attending his lectures on "Fragments of an Unknown Teaching", the basis of his book In Search of the Miraculous. From this time onwards Orage became less and less interested in literature and art, and instead focused most of his attention on mysticism. His correspondence with Harry Houdini on this subject moved him to explore ideas of the afterlife. He returned to the idea that there are absolute truths and concluded that they are embodied in the Mahabharata.
In February 1922 Ouspensky introduced Orage to G. I. Gurdjieff. Orage sold The New Age and moved to Paris to study at the Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man. In 1924 Gurdjieff appointed him to lead study groups in the United States, which he did for seven years. Soon after Gurdjieff arrived in New York from France, on 13 November 1930, he deposed Orage and disbanded his study groups, believing that Orage had been teaching them incorrectly: they had been working under the misconception that self-observation could be practised in the absence of self-remembering or in the presence of negative emotions. Members were allowed to continue their studies with Gurdjieff himself, after taking an oath not to communicate with Orage. Upon hearing that Orage had also signed the oath Gurdjieff wept. Gurdjieff had once considered Orage as a friend and brother, and thought of Jessie as a bad choice for a mate. Orage was a chain smoker and Jessie was a heavy drinker. In the privately published Third Series of his writings Gurdjieff wrote of Orage and his wife Jessie: ″his romance had ended in his marrying the saleswoman of 'Sunwise Turn,' a young American pampered out of all proportion to her position...″
Orage, Ouspensky and C. Daly King emphasised certain aspects of the Gurdjieff System while ignoring others. According to Gurdjieff, Orage emphasised self-observation. In Harlem, New York City, Jean Toomer, one of Orage's students at Greenwich Village used Gurdjieff's work to confront the problem of racism.
In 1927 Orage's first wife, Jean, granted him a divorce and in September he married Jessie Richards Dwight (1901–1985), the co-owner of the Sunwise Turn bookshop where Orage first lectured on the Gurdjieff System. Orage and Jessie had two children, Richard and Ann. While they were in New York Orage and Jessie often catered to celebrities such as Paul Robeson, fresh from his London tour. In 1930 Orage returned to England and in 1931 he began publishing the New English Weekly. He remained in London until his death on 6 November 1934.
The Orages sailed back to New York from England on the S.S. Washington on 29 December 1930, and arrived on Thursday 8 January 1931. The next day, while they were staying at the Irving Hotel, Orage wrote a letter to Gurdjieff unveiling a plan for the publication of All and Everything before the end of the year and promising a substantial amount of money. At lunch in New York City on 21 February 1931 Achmed Abdulla, a.k.a. Nadir Kahn, told the Orages that he had met Gurdjieff in Tibet and that Gurdjieff had been known there as Lama Dordjieff, a Tsarist agent and tutor to the Dalai Lama. Orage also helped Gurdjieff to translate Meetings with Remarkable Men from Russian to English, but it was not published in their lifetimes.
Last years
In London Orage became involved in politics again through the social credit movement. He returned to New York on 8 January 1931 in an attempt to meet Gurdjieff's new demands, but he told his wife that he would not be teaching the Gurdjieff System to any group past the end of the Spring. Orage was on the pier on 13 March 1931 to bid Gurdjieff farewell on his way back to France and the Orages sailed back to England on 3 July.
In April 1932 Orage founded a new journal, The New English Weekly. Dylan Thomas's first published poem, And Death Shall Have No Dominion, appeared in its issue dated 18 May 1933, but by then the magazine was not selling well and Orage was experiencing financial difficulties.
In September 1933 Jessie gave birth to a daughter, Ann. In January 1934 Senator Bronson M. Cutting presented Orage's Social Credit Plan to the United States Senate, proposing that it become one of the tools of Roosevelt's economic policy.
At the beginning of August 1934 Gurdjieff asked Orage to prepare a new edition of The Herald of Coming Good. On 20 August Orage wrote his last letter to Gurdjieff: "Dear Mr Gurdjieff, I've found very little to revise ..."
Towards the end of his life Orage was attacked by severe pain below the heart. This ailment had been diagnosed a couple of years before as simply functional and he did not again seek medical advice. While he was broadcasting a speech as part of the BBC series, "Poverty in Plenty", once again expounding the doctrine of social credit, he experienced excruciating pain, but he continued as if nothing was happening. After leaving the studio he spent the evening with his wife and friends, and made plans to see the doctor next day, but he died in his sleep that night. Orage's former students of the Gurdjieff System arranged for the enneagram to be inscribed on his tombstone.
Works
Friedrich Nietzsche: The Dionysian Spirit of the Age (1906)
Nietzsche in Outline & Aphorism (1907)
National Guilds: An Inquiry into the Wage System and the Way Out (1914) editor; a collection of articles from The New Age
An Alphabet of Economics (1918)
Readers and Writers (1917–1921) (1922) as RHC
Psychological Exercises and Essays (1930)
The Art of Reading (1930)
The 1931 Manuscript of Beelzebub's Tales to His Grandson (1931); translated and edited by Alfred Richard Orage
On Love: Freely Adapted form the Tibetan (Unicorn Press 1932)
Selected Essays and Critical Writings (1935) edited by Herbert Read and Denis Saurat
Political and Economic Writings from 'The New English Weekly', 1932-34, with a Preliminary Section from 'The New Age' 1912 (1936), edited by Montgomery Butchart, with the advice of Maurice Colbourne, T. S. Eliot, Philip Mairet, Will Dyson and others
Essays and Aphorisms (1954)
The Active Mind: Adventures in Awareness (1954)
Orage as Critic (1974), edited by Wallace Martin
Consciousness: Animal, Human and Superman (1978)
A. R. Orage's Commentaries on Gurdjieff's "All and Everything", edited by C. S. Nott
Notes
His family name was pronounced locally as if written "Orridge" (). The man himself preferred a French-like pronunciation: . The British may prefer the former variant; Americans, the latter.
References
Further reading
A. R. Orage: A Memoir (1936) Philip Mairet
Alfred Orage and the Leeds Arts Club (1893–1923) (Scolar Press 1990) Tom Steele
Gurdjieff and Orage: Brothers in Elysium (2001) Paul Beekman Taylor
External links
"Orage and the History of the New Age Periodical," Brown University, Modernist Journals Project
Archival Material at
1873 births
1934 deaths
People from Nidderdale
English male journalists
English socialists
Independent Labour Party politicians
British social crediters
Fourth Way
Students of George Gurdjieff
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral%20reasoning
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Moral reasoning
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Moral reasoning is the study of how people think about right and wrong and how they acquire and apply moral rules. It is a subdiscipline of moral psychology that overlaps with moral philosophy, and is the foundation of descriptive ethics.
Description
Starting from a young age, people can make moral decisions about what is right and wrong. Moral reasoning, however, is a part of morality that occurs both within and between individuals. Prominent contributors to this theory include Lawrence Kohlberg and Elliot Turiel. The term is sometimes used in a different sense: reasoning under conditions of uncertainty, such as those commonly obtained in a court of law. It is this sense that gave rise to the phrase, "To a moral certainty;" however, this idea is now seldom used outside of charges to juries.
Moral reasoning is an important and often daily process that people use when trying to do the right thing. For instance, every day people are faced with the dilemma of whether to lie in a given situation or not. People make this decision by reasoning the morality of their potential actions, and through weighing their actions against potential consequences.
A moral choice can be a personal, economic, or ethical one; as described by some ethical code, or regulated by ethical relationships with others. This branch of psychology is concerned with how these issues are perceived by ordinary people, and so is the foundation of descriptive ethics. There are many different forms of moral reasoning which often are dictated by culture. Cultural differences in the high-levels of cognitive function associated with moral reasoning can be observed through the association of brain networks from various cultures and their moral decision making. These cultural differences demonstrate the neural basis that cultural influences can have on an individual's moral reasoning and decision making.
Distinctions between theories of moral reasoning can be accounted for by evaluating inferences (which tend to be either deductive or inductive) based on a given set of premises. Deductive inference reaches a conclusion that is true based on whether a given set of premises preceding the conclusion are also true, whereas, inductive inference goes beyond information given in a set of premises to base the conclusion on provoked reflection.
In philosophy
Philosopher David Hume claims that morality is based more on perceptions than on logical reasoning. This means that people's morality is based more on their emotions and feelings than on a logical analysis of any given situation. Hume regards morals as linked to passion, love, happiness, and other emotions and therefore not based on reason. Jonathan Haidt agrees, arguing in his social intuitionist model that reasoning concerning a moral situation or idea follows an initial intuition. Haidt's fundamental stance on moral reasoning is that "moral intuitions (including moral emotions) come first and directly cause moral judgments"; he characterizes moral intuition as "the sudden appearance in consciousness of a moral judgment, including an affective valence (good-bad, like-dislike), without any conscious awareness of having gone through steps of searching, weighing evidence, or inferring a conclusion".
Immanuel Kant had a radically different view of morality. In his view, there are universal laws of morality that one should never break regardless of emotions. He proposes a four-step system to determine whether or not a given action was moral based on logic and reason. The first step of this method involves formulating "a maxim capturing your reason for an action". In the second step, one "frame[s] it as a universal principle for all rational agents". The third step is assessing "whether a world based on this universal principle is conceivable". If it is, then the fourth step is asking oneself "whether [one] would will the maxim to be a principle in this world". In essence, an action is moral if the maxim by which it is justified is one which could be universalized. For instance, when deciding whether or not to lie to someone for one's own advantage, one is meant to imagine what the world would be like if everyone always lied, and successfully so. In such a world, there would be no purpose in lying, for everybody would expect deceit, rendering the universal maxim of lying whenever it is to your advantage absurd. Thus, Kant argues that one should not lie under any circumstance. Another example would be if trying to decide whether suicide is moral or immoral; imagine if everyone committed suicide. Since mass international suicide would not be a good thing, the act of suicide is immoral. Kant's moral framework, however, operates under the overarching maxim that you should treat each person as an end in themselves, not as a means to an end. This overarching maxim must be considered when applying the four aforementioned steps.
Reasoning based on analogy is one form of moral reasoning. When using this form of moral reasoning the morality of one situation can be applied to another based on whether this situation is relevantly similar: similar enough that the same moral reasoning applies. A similar type of reasoning is used in common law when arguing based upon legal precedent.
In consequentialism (often distinguished from deontology) actions are based as right on wrong based upon the consequences of action as opposed to a property intrinsic to the action itself.
In developmental psychology
Moral reasoning first attracted a broad attention from developmental psychologists in the mid-to-late 20th century. Their main theorization involved elucidating the stages of development of moral reasoning capacity.
Jean Piaget
Jean Piaget developed two phases of moral development, one common among children and the other common among adults. The first is known as the Heteronomous Phase. This phase, more common among children, is characterized by the idea that rules come from authority figures in one's life such as parents, teachers, and God. It also involves the idea that rules are permanent no matter what. Thirdly, this phase of moral development includes the belief that "naughty" behavior must always be punished and that the punishment will be proportional.
The second phase in Piaget's theory of moral development is referred to as the Autonomous Phase. This phase is more common after one has matured and is no longer a child. In this phase people begin to view the intentions behind actions as more important than their consequences. For instance, if a person who is driving swerves in order to not hit a dog and then knocks over a road sign, adults are likely to be less angry at the person than if he or she had done it on purpose just for fun. Even though the outcome is the same, people are more forgiving because of the good intention of saving the dog. This phase also includes the idea that people have different morals and that morality is not necessarily universal. People in the Autonomous Phase also believe rules may be broken under certain circumstances. For instance, Rosa Parks broke the law by refusing to give up her seat on a bus, which was against the law but something many people consider moral nonetheless. In this phase people also stop believing in the idea of immanent justice.
Lawrence Kohlberg
Inspired by Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg made significant contributions to the field of moral reasoning by creating a theory of moral development. His theory is a "widely accepted theory that provides the basis for empirical evidence on the influence of human decision making on ethical behavior." In Lawrence Kohlberg's view, moral development consists of the growth of less egocentric and more impartial modes of reasoning on more complicated matters. He believed that the objective of moral education is the reinforcement of children to grow from one stage to an upper stage. Dilemma was a critical tool that he emphasized that children should be presented with; yet also, the knowledge for children to cooperate. According to his theory, people pass through three main stages of moral development as they grow from early childhood to adulthood. These are pre-conventional morality, conventional morality, and post-conventional morality. Each of these is subdivided into two levels.
The stages that are presented by Lawrence Kohlberg can be varied into three which are pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional where each contains two stages varying in ages. The first stage in the pre-conventional level is obedience and punishment. In this stage people, usually young children where they age from 5 to 7 years old, avoid certain behaviors only because of the fear of punishment, not because they see them as wrong. They believe that the rules are mandatory, and they like avoiding harms. The second stage in the pre-conventional level is called individualism and exchange: in this stage people make moral decisions based on what best serves their needs. It happens usually during ages of 8 to 10 years old where they have some understandings that some rules are arbitrary but not consistent.
The third stage is part of the conventional morality level and is called interpersonal relationships. This stage ages from 10 to 12 years old where they concern about living up to expectations and reciprocity. For example, their actings are mostly motivated by their parent's praises or reactions. In this stage one tries to conform to what is considered moral by the society that they live in, attempting to be seen by peers as a good person. The fourth stage is also in the conventional morality level and is called maintaining social order. Kids around this stage age between 12 and 14 where they believe conventions are arbitrary social expectations. Also, they believe moral decisions are based on fairness not rules. This stage focuses on a view of society as a whole and following the laws and rules of that society.
The fifth stage is a part of the post-conventional level and is called social contract and individual rights. People in this age vary from 17 to 20 which not much people are in it. They believe morality is relative to systems of laws, and they don't think any system is necessarily superior. In this stage people begin to consider differing ideas about morality in other people and feel that rules and laws should be agreed on by the members of a society. The sixth and final stage of moral development, the second in the post-conventional level, is called universal principles. They usually age between 21 or older where they think what is moral are values and rights that exist prior to social attachment and contracts. At this stage people begin to develop their ideas of universal moral principles and will consider them the right thing to do regardless of what the laws of a society are.
James Rest
In 1983, James Rest developed the four component Model of Morality, which addresses the ways that moral motivation and behavior occurs. The first of these is moral sensitivity, which is "the ability to see an ethical dilemma, including how our actions will affect others". The second is moral judgment, which is "the ability to reason correctly about what 'ought' to be done in a specific situation". The third is moral motivation, which is "a personal commitment to moral action, accepting responsibility for the outcome". The fourth and final component of moral behavior is moral character, which is a "courageous persistence in spite of fatigue or temptations to take the easy way out".
In social cognition
Based on empirical results from behavioral and neuroscientific studies, social and cognitive psychologists attempted to develop a more accurate descriptive (rather than normative) theory of moral reasoning. That is, the emphasis of research was on how real-world individuals made moral judgments, inferences, decisions, and actions, rather than what should be considered as moral.
Dual-process theory and social intuitionism
Developmental theories of moral reasoning were critiqued as prioritizing on the maturation of cognitive aspect of moral reasoning. From Kohlberg's perspective, one is considered as more advanced in moral reasoning as she is more efficient in using deductive reasoning and abstract moral principles to make moral judgments about particular instances. For instance, an advanced reasoner may reason syllogistically with the Kantian principle of 'treat individuals as ends and never merely as means' and a situation where kidnappers are demanding a ransom for a hostage, to conclude that the kidnappers have violated a moral principle and should be condemned. In this process, reasoners are assumed to be rational and have conscious control over how they arrive at judgments and decisions.
In contrast with such view, however, Joshua Greene and colleagues argued that laypeople's moral judgments are significantly influenced, if not shaped, by intuition and emotion as opposed to rational application of rules. In their fMRI studies in the early 2000s, participants were shown three types of decision scenarios: one type included moral dilemmas that elicited emotional reaction (moral-personal condition), the second type included moral dilemmas that did not elicit emotional reaction (moral-impersonal condition), and the third type had no moral content (non-moral condition). Brain regions such as posterior cingulate gyrus and angular gyrus, whose activation is known to correlate with experience of emotion, showed activations in moral-personal condition but not in moral-impersonal condition. Meanwhile, regions known to correlate with working memory, including right middle frontal gyrus and bilateral parietal lobe, were less active in moral-personal condition than in moral-impersonal condition. Moreover, participants' neural activity in response to moral-impersonal scenarios was similar to their activity in response to non-moral decision scenarios.
Another study used variants of trolley problem that differed in the 'personal/impersonal' dimension and surveyed people's permissibility judgment (Scenarios 1 and 2). Across scenarios, participants were presented with the option of sacrificing a person to save five people. However, depending on the scenario, the sacrifice involved pushing a person off a footbridge to block the trolley (footbridge dilemma condition; personal) or simply throwing a switch to redirect the trolley (trolley dilemma condition; impersonal). The proportions of participants who judged the sacrifice as permissible differed drastically: 11% (footbridge dilemma) vs. 89% (trolley dilemma). This difference was attributed to the emotional reaction evoked from having to apply personal force on the victim, rather than simply throwing a switch without physical contact with the victim. Focusing on participants who judged the sacrifice in trolley dilemma as permissible but the sacrifice in footbridge dilemma as impermissible, the majority of them failed to provide a plausible justification for their differing judgments. Several philosophers have written critical responses on this matter to Joshua Greene and colleagues.
Based on these results, social psychologists proposed the dual process theory of morality. They suggested that our emotional intuition and deliberate reasoning are not only qualitatively distinctive, but they also compete in making moral judgments and decisions. When making an emotionally-salient moral judgment, automatic, unconscious, and immediate response is produced by our intuition first. More careful, deliberate, and formal reasoning then follows to produce a response that is either consistent or inconsistent with the earlier response produced by intuition, in parallel with more general form of dual process theory of thinking. But in contrast with the previous rational view on moral reasoning, the dominance of the emotional process over the rational process was proposed. Haidt highlighted the aspect of morality not directly accessible by our conscious search in memory, weighing of evidence, or inference. He describes moral judgment as akin to aesthetic judgment, where an instant approval or disapproval of an event or object is produced upon perception. Hence, once produced, the immediate intuitive response toward a situation or person cannot easily be overridden by the rational consideration that follows. The theory explained that in many cases, people resolve inconsistency between the intuitive and rational processes by using the latter for post-hoc justification of the former. Haidt, using the metaphor "the emotional dog and its rational tail", applied such nature of our reasoning to the contexts ranging from person perception to politics.
A notable illustration of the influence of intuition involved feeling of disgust. According to Haidt's moral foundations theory, political liberals rely on two dimensions (harm/care and fairness/reciprocity) of evaluation to make moral judgments, but conservatives utilize three additional dimensions (ingroup/loyalty, authority/respect, and purity/sanctity). Among these, studies have revealed the link between moral evaluations based on purity/sanctity dimension and reasoner's experience of disgust. That is, people with higher sensitivity to disgust were more likely to be conservative toward political issues such as gay marriage and abortion. Moreover, when the researchers reminded participants of keeping the lab clean and washing their hands with antiseptics (thereby priming the purity/sanctity dimension), participants' attitudes were more conservative than in the control condition. In turn, Helzer and Pizarro's findings have been rebutted by two failed attempts of replications.
Other studies raised criticism toward Haidt's interpretation of his data. Augusto Blasi also rebuts the theories of Jonathan Haidt on moral intuition and reasoning. He agrees with Haidt that moral intuition plays a significant role in the way humans operate. However, Blasi suggests that people use moral reasoning more than Haidt and other cognitive scientists claim. Blasi advocates moral reasoning and reflection as the foundation of moral functioning. Reasoning and reflection play a key role in the growth of an individual and the progress of societies.
Alternatives to these dual-process/intuitionist models have been proposed, with several theorists proposing that moral judgment and moral reasoning involves domain general cognitive processes, e.g., mental models, social learning or categorization processes.
Motivated reasoning
A theorization of moral reasoning similar to dual-process theory was put forward with emphasis on our motivations to arrive at certain conclusions. Ditto and colleagues likened moral reasoners in everyday situations to lay attorneys than lay judges; people do not reason in the direction from assessment of individual evidence to moral conclusion (bottom-up), but from a preferred moral conclusion to assessment of evidence (top-down). The former resembles the thought process of a judge who is motivated to be accurate, unbiased, and impartial in her decisions; the latter resembles that of an attorney whose goal is to win a dispute using partial and selective arguments.
Kunda proposed motivated reasoning as a general framework for understanding human reasoning. She emphasized the broad influence of physiological arousal, affect, and preference (which constitute the essence of motivation and cherished beliefs) on our general cognitive processes including memory search and belief construction. Importantly, biases in memory search, hypothesis formation and evaluation result in confirmation bias, making it difficult for reasoners to critically assess their beliefs and conclusions. It is reasonable to state that individuals and groups will manipulate and confuse reasoning for belief depending on the lack of self control to allow for their confirmation bias to be the driving force of their reasoning. This tactic is used by media, government, extremist groups, cults, etc. Those with a hold on information may dull out certain variables that propagate their agenda and then leave out specific context to push an opinion into the form of something reasonable to control individual, groups, and entire populations. This allows the use of alternative specific context with fringe content to further veer from any form of dependability in their reasoning. Leaving a fictional narrative in the place of real evidence for a logical outlook to form a proper, honest, and logical assessment .
Applied to moral domain, our strong motivation to favor people we like leads us to recollect beliefs and interpret facts in ways that favor them. In Alicke (1992, Study 1), participants made responsibility judgments about an agent who drove over the speed limit and caused an accident. When the motive for speeding was described as moral (to hide a gift for his parents' anniversary), participants assigned less responsibility to the agent than when the motive was immoral (to hide a vial of cocaine). Even though the causal attribution of the accident may technically fall under the domain of objective, factual understanding of the event, it was nevertheless significantly affected by the perceived intention of the agent (which was presumed to have determined the participants' motivation to praise or blame him).
Another paper by Simon, Stenstrom, and Read (2015, Studies 3 and 4) used a more comprehensive paradigm that measures various aspects of participants' interpretation of a moral event, including factual inferences, emotional attitude toward agents, and motivations toward the outcome of decision. Participants read about a case involving a purported academic misconduct and were asked to role-play as a judicial officer who must provide a verdict. A student named Debbie had been accused of cheating in an exam, but the overall situation of the incident was kept ambiguous to allow participants to reason in a desired direction. Then, the researchers attempted to manipulate participants' motivation to support either the university (conclude that she cheated) or Debbie (she did not cheat) in the case. In one condition, the scenario stressed that through previous incidents of cheating, the efforts of honest students have not been honored and the reputation of the university suffered (Study 4, Pro-University condition); in another condition, the scenario stated that Debbie's brother died from a tragic accident a few months ago, eliciting participants' motivation to support and sympathize with Debbie (Study 3, Pro-Debbie condition). Behavioral and computer simulation results showed an overall shift in reasoning—factual inference, emotional attitude, and moral decision—depending on the manipulated motivation. That is, when the motivation to favor the university/Debbie was elicited, participants' holistic understanding and interpretation of the incident shifted in the way that favored the university/Debbie. In these reasoning processes, situational ambiguity was shown to be critical for reasoners to arrive at their preferred conclusion.
From a broader perspective, Holyoak and Powell interpreted motivated reasoning in the moral domain as a special pattern of reasoning predicted by coherence-based reasoning framework. This general framework of cognition, initially theorized by the philosopher Paul Thagard, argues that many complex, higher-order cognitive functions are made possible by computing the coherence (or satisfying the constraints) between psychological representations such as concepts, beliefs, and emotions. Coherence-based reasoning framework draws symmetrical links between consistent (things that co-occur) and inconsistent (things that do not co-occur) psychological representations and use them as constraints, thereby providing a natural way to represent conflicts between irreconcilable motivations, observations, behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes, as well as moral obligations. Importantly, Thagard's framework was highly comprehensive in that it provided a computational basis for modeling reasoning processes using moral and non-moral facts and beliefs as well as variables related to both 'hot' and 'cold' cognitions.
Causality and intentionality
Classical theories of social perception had been offered by psychologists including Fritz Heider (model of intentional action) and Harold Kelley (attribution theory). These theories highlighted how laypeople understand another person's action based on their causal knowledge of internal (intention and ability of actor) and external (environment) factors surrounding that action. That is, people assume a causal relationship between an actor's disposition or mental states (personality, intention, desire, belief, ability; internal cause), environment (external cause), and the resulting action (effect). In later studies, psychologists discovered that moral judgment toward an action or actor is critically linked with these causal understanding and knowledge about the mental state of the actor.
Bertram Malle and Joshua Knobe conducted survey studies to investigate laypeople's understanding and use (the folk concept) of the word 'intentionality' and its relation to action. His data suggested that people think of intentionality of an action in terms of several psychological constituents: desire for outcome, belief about the expected outcome, intention to act (combination of desire and belief), skill to bring about the outcome, and awareness of action while performing that action. Consistent with this view as well as with our moral intuitions, studies found significant effects of the agent's intention, desire, and beliefs on various types of moral judgments, Using factorial designs to manipulate the content in the scenarios, Cushman showed that the agent's belief and desire regarding a harmful action significantly influenced judgments of wrongness, permissibility, punishment, and blame. However, whether the action actually brought about negative consequence or not only affected blame and punishment judgments, but not wrongness and permissibility judgments. Another study also provided neuroscientific evidence for the interplay between theory of mind and moral judgment.
Through another set of studies, Knobe showed a significant effect in the opposite direction: Intentionality judgments are significantly affected by the reasoner's moral evaluation of the actor and action. In one of his scenarios, a CEO of a corporation hears about a new programme designed to increase profit. However, the program is also expected to benefit or harm the environment as a side effect, to which he responds by saying 'I don't care'. The side effect was judged as intentional by the majority of participants in the harm condition, but the response pattern was reversed in the benefit condition.
Many studies on moral reasoning have used fictitious scenarios involving anonymous strangers (e.g., trolley problem) so that external factors irrelevant to researcher's hypothesis can be ruled out. However, criticisms have been raised about the external validity of the experiments in which the reasoners (participants) and the agent (target of judgment) are not associated in any way. As opposed to the previous emphasis on evaluation of acts, Pizarro and Tannenbaum stressed our inherent motivation to evaluate the moral characters of agents (e.g., whether an actor is good or bad), citing the Aristotelian virtue ethics. According to their view, learning the moral character of agents around us must have been a primary concern for primates and humans beginning from their early stages of evolution, because the ability to decide whom to cooperate with in a group was crucial to survival. Furthermore, observed acts are no longer interpreted separately from the context, as reasoners are now viewed as simultaneously engaging in two tasks: evaluation (inference) of moral character of agent and evaluation of her moral act. The person-centered approach to moral judgment seems to be consistent with results from some of the previous studies that involved implicit character judgment. For instance, in Alicke's (1992) study, participants may have immediately judged the moral character of the driver who sped home to hide cocaine as negative, and such inference led the participants to assess the causality surrounding the incident in a nuanced way (e.g., a person as immoral as him could have been speeding as well).
In order to account for laypeople's understanding and use of causal relations between psychological variables, Sloman, Fernbach, and Ewing proposed a causal model of intentionality judgment based on Bayesian network. Their model formally postulates that character of agent is a cause for the agent's desire for outcome and belief that action will result in consequence, desire and belief are causes for intention toward action, and the agent's action is caused by both that intention and the skill to produce consequence. Combining computational modeling with the ideas from theory of mind research, this model can provide predictions for inferences in bottom-up direction (from action to intentionality, desire, and character) as well as in top-down direction (from character, desire, and intentionality to action).
Notes
Gender difference
At one time psychologists believed that men and women have different moral values and reasoning. This was based on the idea that men and women often think differently and would react to moral dilemmas in different ways. Some researchers hypothesized that women would favor care reasoning, meaning that they would consider issues of need and sacrifice, while men would be more inclined to favor fairness and rights, which is known as justice reasoning. However, some also knew that men and women simply face different moral dilemmas on a day-to-day basis and that might be the reason for the perceived difference in their moral reasoning. With these two ideas in mind, researchers decided to do their experiments based on moral dilemmas that both men and women face regularly. To reduce situational differences and discern how both genders use reason in their moral judgments, they therefore ran the tests on parenting situations, since both genders can be involved in child rearing. The research showed that women and men use the same form of moral reasoning as one another and the only difference is the moral dilemmas they find themselves in on a day-to-day basis. When it came to moral decisions both men and women would be faced with, they often chose the same solution as being the moral choice. At least this research shows that a division in terms of morality does not actually exist, and that reasoning between genders is the same in moral decisions.
References
Further reading
Haidt, J. (2001) The Emotional Dog and its Rational Tail: A Social Intuitionist Approach to Moral Judgement, Psychological Review, 108, pp. 814–34
Roberto Andorno, "Do our moral judgements need to be guided by principles?" Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 2012, 21(4):457-465.
External links
WikEd Moral Reasoning
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Moral Reasoning
Educational psychology
Moral psychology
Reasoning
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darts
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Darts
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Darts or dart-throwing is a competitive sport in which two or more players bare-handedly throw small sharp-pointed missiles known as darts at a round target known as a dartboard.
Points can be scored by hitting specific marked areas of the board, though unlike in sports such as archery, these areas are distributed all across the board and do not follow a principle of points increasing toward the board's bullseye. Though a number of similar games using various boards and rules exist, the term "darts" usually now refers to a standardised game involving a specific board design and set of rules.
Darts is both a professional shooting sport and a traditional pub game. Darts is commonly played in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, and recreationally enjoyed around the world.
History
Dartboard
The original target in the game is likely to have been a section of a tree trunk, its circular shape and concentric rings giving rise to the standard dartboard pattern in use today. An older name for a dartboard is "butt"; the word comes from the French word , meaning "target" or "goal".
The standard numbered point system is attributed to Lancashire carpenter Brian Gamlin, who devised it in 1896 to penalise inaccuracy, though this is disputed. Many configurations have been used, varying by time and location. In particular, the Yorkshire and Manchester Log End boards differ from the standard board in that they have no triple, only double and bullseye. The Manchester board is smaller than the standard, with a playing area of only across, with double and bull areas measuring just . The London Fives board is another variation, with only 12 equal segments, with the doubles and trebles being a quarter of an inch (6.35 mm) wide.
Mathematically, removing the rotational symmetry by placing the "20" at the top, there are 19 factorial, or 121,645,100,408,832,000 possible dartboards. Many different layouts would penalise a player more than the current setup; however, the current setup actually does the job rather efficiently. There have been several mathematical papers published that consider the "optimal" dartboard.
Before World War I, pubs in the United Kingdom had dartboards made from solid blocks of wood, usually elm. But darts pocked the surface of elm such that it was common for a hole to develop around the treble twenty. The other problem was that elm wood needed periodic soaking to keep the wood soft.
In 1935, chemist Ted Leggatt and pub owner Frank Dabbs began using the century plant, a type of agave, to make dartboards. Small bundles of sisal fibres of the same length were bundled together. The bundles were then compressed into a disk and bound with a metal ring. This new dartboard was an instant success. It was more durable and required little maintenance. Furthermore, darts did little or no damage to the board; they simply parted the packed fibres when they entered the board.
Darts
The earliest darts were stubs of arrows or crossbow bolts. The first purpose-made darts were manufactured from solid wood, wrapped with a strip of lead for weight and fitted with flights made from split turkey feathers. These darts were mainly produced in France and became known as French darts. Metal barrels were patented in 1906, but wood continued to be used into the 1950s.
The first metal barrels were made from brass which was relatively cheap and easy to work. The wooden shafts, threaded to fit the tapped barrel, were either fletched as before or designed to take a paper flight. This type of dart continued to be used into the 1970s. With the widespread use of plastic, the shaft and flight came to be manufactured separately, although one-piece moulded plastic shaft and flight darts were also available.
Equipment
Dartboard
According to the Darts Regulation Authority, a regulation board is in diameter and is divided into 20 radial sections. Each section is separated with metal wire or a thin band of sheet metal.
Quality dartboards are still made of sisal fibres from Eastern Africa, Brazil, and China; less expensive boards are sometimes made of cork or coiled paper.
Darts
Modern darts are made up of four components: the points, the barrels, the shafts and the flights.
The points come in two common lengths, and are sometimes knurled or coated to improve players' grip. Others are designed to retract slightly on impact to lessen the chance of the dart bouncing out.
The barrels come in a variety of weights and are usually constructed from brass, silver-nickel, or a tungsten alloy. Brass is cheap but light and therefore brass barrels tend to be very bulky. Tungsten, on the other hand, is twice as dense as brass; thus a tungsten barrel of equivalent weight could be thirty percent smaller in diameter than a brass one. Pure tungsten is very brittle, however, so an alloy is commonly used, with between 80 and 95 percent tungsten and the remainder usually nickel, iron, or copper. Silver-nickel darts offer a compromise between density and cost. Barrels come in three basic shapes: cylindrical, ton, or torpedo.
Cylindrical barrels are the same diameter along their entire length and so tend to be long and thin. Their slenderness makes them better for grouping, but because they are long, the centre of gravity is further back.
Ton-shaped barrels are thin at either end and bulge in the middle. This makes them fatter than a cylindrical barrel of equivalent weight but the centre of gravity is further forward and so theoretically easier to throw.
Torpedo-shaped barrels are widest at the pointed end and taper towards the rear. This shape keeps the bulk of the weight as far forward as possible but, like the ton, gives it a larger diameter than the cylinder.
The shafts are manufactured in various lengths, and some are designed to be cut to length. Shafts are generally made from plastics, nylon polymers, or metals such as aluminium and titanium; and can be rigid or flexible. Longer shafts provide greater stability and allow a reduction in flight size which in turn can lead to closer grouping; but, they also shift the weight towards the rear causing the dart to tilt backwards during flight, requiring a harder, faster throw.
The flight stabilizes the dart by producing drag, thus preventing the rear of the dart from overtaking the point. Modern flights are generally made from plastic, nylon, or foil and are available in a range of shapes and sizes. The three most common shapes in order of size are the standard, the kite, and the smaller pear shape. The less surface area, the less stability but larger flights hamper close grouping. Some manufacturers have sought to solve this by making a flight long and thin but this, in turn, creates other problems such as changing the dart's centre of gravity. Generally speaking, a heavier dart will require a larger flight.
The choice of barrel, shaft, and flight will depend a great deal on the individual player's throwing style. For competitive purposes, a dart cannot weigh more than including the shaft and flight and cannot exceed a total length of .
Playing dimensions
The World Darts Federation uses the following standards for play:
Height: the dartboard is hung so that the centre of the bull's eye is from the floor. This is considered eye-level for a tall person.
Distance: the oche (line behind which the thrower must stand) should be from the face of the board. If the face projects outward from the wall, owing to the thickness of the board and/or a cabinet in which it is mounted, the oche must be moved back appropriately to maintain the required distance.
The regulations came about owing to the United Kingdom and the rest of the world playing at different lengths, with being the compromise length.
Scoring
The standard dartboard is divided into 20 numbered sections, scoring from 1 to 20 points, by wires running from the small central circle to the outer circular wire. Circular wires within the outer wire subdivide each section into single, double and treble areas. The dartboard featured on The Indoor League television show of the 1970s did not feature a treble section, and according to host Fred Trueman during the first episode, this is the traditional Yorkshire board.
Various games are played using the standard dartboard. However, in the official game, any dart landing inside the outer wire scores as follows:
Hitting one of the large portions of each of the numbered sections, traditionally alternately coloured black and white, scores the point value of that section.
Hitting the thin inner portions of these sections, roughly halfway between the outer wire and the central circle coloured red or green, scores triple the point value of that section.
Hitting the thin outer portions of these sections, again coloured red or green, scores double the point value of that section. The double-20 is often referred to as double-top, reflecting the 20's position on the dartboard.
The central circle is divided into a green outer ring worth 25 points (known as "outer", "outer bull", or "single bull") and a red or black inner circle (usually known as "bull", "inner bull" or "double bull"), worth 50 points. The term "bullseye" can mean either the whole central part of the board or just the inner red/black section. The term "bull's ring" usually means just the green outer ring. The inner bull counts as a double when doubling in or out.
Hitting outside the outer wire scores nothing.
A dart only scores if its point is embedded in or is touching the playing surface. This rule applies to any dart that lands in such a way as to be partially or totally supported by others that have already hit the board.
When a standard board is used, any dart whose point does not remain in contact with the playing surface until being collected by the player does not score. This includes darts that bounce off the board for any reason, that fall off on their own, or that are dislodged by the impact of later throws. However, when an electronic board is used, fallen/dislodged darts do score as long as their impacts have registered on the board first.
The highest score possible with three darts is 180, commonly known as a "ton 80" (100 points is called a ton), obtained when all three darts land in the triple 20. In the televised game, the referee frequently announces a score of 180 in exuberant style.
Finishing and check outs
Once a player reaches a low enough score, they are considered to be "on a finish", meaning they can win the game with their remaining darts. In professional matches, the match referee will usually tell the player which score they require once on a finish. As the winning dart in a game must be a double or bullseye, the highest possible finish with three darts is 170 (T20, T20, inner bull). Finishes are also known as "check outs". Regular players become familiar with the combinations needed to check out a particular number. For instance, a player on 138 could hit T20, T18, D12. Most numbers can be checked out with more than one combination (for 138, a player could also hit T19, T19, D12).
Good arithmetic is helpful, as in the event of missing a target number players need to quickly recalculate their new score and which number they now need to hit. For instance, if a player on 93 (T19, D18) hits single-19 with their first dart, they can still finish, but will now need to check out 74 (T14, D16). Checkout charts detailing which numbers are required for each particular finish are widely used.
The Quadro board
In the 1990s, a board with a "quad" ring between the triple ring and the bullseye appeared, which gave quadruple points, meaning a 240 maximum (three quad-20s), a 210 maximum checkout (Q20-Q20-Bull) and a seven-dart finish (five quad-20s, triple-17, bullseye) were possible. One make of this board was the Harrows Quadro 240.
The board was used during the short-lived WDC UK Matchplay. Although no seven dart finish was ever scored on the board, John Lowe did come close to a 9 dart finish in the 1993 PDC UK Matchplay. He scored 200 (T20-T20-Q20), then 160 (20-T20-Q20), and got his final T20 and T15, only to miss D18 on his final throw. Several players did score a 240 maximum during the event and Phil Taylor hit a 188 checkout (Q20-Q20-D14). The tournament was discontinued in 1996 and the board has not been used in a professional event since.
Skill level and aiming
Assuming standard scoring, the optimal area to aim for on the dartboard to maximize the player's score varies significantly based on the player's skill. The skilled player should aim for the centre of the T20, and as the player's skill decreases, their aim moves slightly up and to the left of the T20. At σ= 16.4mm the best place to aim jumps to the T19. As the player's skill decreases further, the best place to aim curls into the centre of the board, stopping a bit lower than and to the left of the bullseye at σ= 100mm.
Games
Many games can be played on a dartboard, but the term "darts" generally refers to a game in which one player at a time throws three darts per turn. The throwing player must stand so that no portion of their feet extends past the leading edge of the oche, but may stand on any other portion and/or lean forward over it if desired.
A game of darts is generally contested between two players, who take turns. The most common objective is to reduce a fixed score, commonly 301 or 501, to zero ("checking out") with the final dart landing in either the bullseye or a double segment to win. Not all three darts need to be thrown on the final turn; the game can be finished on any of the three darts. When two teams play, the starting score is sometimes increased to 701 or even 1001; the rules remain the same.
A throw that reduces a player's score below zero, to exactly one, or to zero but not ending with a double or bullseye is known as "going bust". The player's score is reset to its value at the start of that turn, and any remaining throws in the turn are forfeited.
In some variants, a player who busts has their score reset to its value before the individual dart that caused the bust. This rule (referred to as a "Northern Bust" in London) is considered by some players to be a purer version of the game. Under the standard rules above, a player left with a difficult finish (e.g. 5 and one dart remaining) might deliberately bust in order to revert to an earlier score that would allow an easier finish. Under Northern Bust rules, though, doing so would leave them on 5.
A darts match is played over a fixed number of games, known as legs. A match may be divided into sets, with each set being contested as over a fixed number of legs.
Although playing straight down from 501 is standard in darts, sometimes a double must be hit to begin scoring, known as "doubling in", with all darts thrown before hitting a double not being counted. The PDC's World Grand Prix uses this format.
The minimum number of thrown darts required to complete a leg of 501 is nine. The most common nine-dart finish consists of two 180 maximums followed by a 141 checkout (T20-T19-D12), but there are many other possible ways of achieving the feat. Three 167s (T20-T19-Bull) is considered a pure or perfect nine-dart finish by some players.
Other games and variants
There are several regional variations on the standard rules and scoring systems.
American darts
American darts is a regional U.S. variant of the game (most U.S. dart players play the traditional games described above). This style of dartboard is most often found in eastern Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and parts of New York state.
Beer darts
Beer darts is a drinking game that involves throwing darts at opponents' beer cans. The resulting drinking actions depend on how and where the beer can was hit with the dart.
Belgian darts
The original name of this sport was called Vogelpik. Vogelpik is the early version of the modern game of Belgian darts. Belgian darts has remained a very popular game in the Belgian community since the 18th century. It is not only relaxing but also helps to develop coordination skills, precision and self-control. Each player has a set of four darts. Four thrown darts equals a turn. Five turns by each player constitutes a game. The dart board score starting from the outside ring are: 5 - 10 - 15 - 20 - 25 - bullseye 50. Ref.: https://www.belgiandarts.com/index.html
Cricket
Cricket is a widely played darts game involving a race to control and score on numbers between 20 and 15 and the bullseye, by hitting each of these targets for three marks to open or own it for scoring. A hit on the target counts as one mark, while hits in the doubles ring of the target count as two marks in one throw, and on the triples ring as three. Once opened in this manner, until the opponent closes that number with three marks on it of their own, each additional hit by the owner/opener scores points equal to the number of the target (which may also be doubled and tripled, e.g. a triple-20 is worth 60 points). The outer bullseye counts as 25 points and the inner as 50.
Dartball
Dartball is a darts game based on the sport of baseball. It is played on a diamond-shaped board and has similar scoring to baseball.
Dart golf
Dart golf is a darts game based on the sport of golf and is regulated by the World Dolf Federation (WDFF). It is played on both special golf dartboards and traditional dartboards. Scoring is similar to golf.
Fives
This is a regional variant still played in some parts of the East End of London. The board has fewer, larger segments, all numbered either 5, 10, 15 or 20. Players play down from 505 rather than 501, and stand the farthest away from the board of any mainstream variation.
Halve it
"Halve it" is a darts game popular in the United Kingdom and parts of North America where competitors try to hit previously agreed targets on a standard dart board.
Failure to do so within a single throw (3 darts) results in the player losing half their accumulated score. Any number of players can take part and the game can vary in length depending on the number of targets selected.
The game can be tailored to the skill level of the players by selecting easy or difficult targets.
Killer
"Killer" is a 'knock-out' game for two or more players (at its best at 4–6 players). Initially, each player throws a dart at the board with their non-dominant hand to obtain their 'number'. No two players can have the same number. Once everyone has a number, each player takes it in turn to get their number five times with their three darts (doubles count twice, and triples three times). Once a person has reached 5, they become a 'killer'. This means they can aim for other peoples numbers, taking a point off for each time they hit (doubles ×2, triples ×3). If a person gets to zero they are out. A killer can aim for anyone's numbers, even another killer's. Players cannot get more than 5 points. The winner is 'the last man standing'.
Another version of "Killer" is a "knock-out" game for three or more players (the more the better). To start, everyone has a pre-determined number of lives, (usually 5) and a randomly chosen player throws a single dart at the board to set a target (i.e. single 18) and does not play until that target is hit. The next player up has 3 darts to try and hit the target (single 18), if they fail, they lose a life and the following player tries. Once a player succeeds at hitting the target, they then become the target setter and throw a dart to set a new target. The initial target setter swaps places with the new target setter. The games carry on until every players' lives have been used, the last man standing is the target setter whose target was not hit. For less experienced players, doubles and trebles as part of the same number can be counted, i.e. a target of treble 20 can still be counted as a success if the double or single 20 is hit and vice versa.
Lawn darts
Lawn darts (also called Jarts or yard darts) is a lawn game based on darts. The gameplay and objective are similar to both horseshoes and darts. The darts are similar to the ancient Roman .
Round the Clock
Round the Clock (also called Around the World, 20 to 1, and Jumpers) is a game involving any number of players where the objective is to hit each section sequentially from 1 to 20 starting after a starting double.
Shanghai
Shanghai is played with at least two players. The standard version is played in seven rounds. In round one players throw their darts aiming for the 1 section, round 2, the 2 sections, and so on until round 7. Standard scoring is used, and doubles and triples are counted. Only hits on the wedge for that round are counted. The winner is the person who has the most points at the end of seven rounds (1–7); or who scores a Shanghai, which wins instantly, a Shanghai being throws that hit a triple, a double and single (in any order) of the number that is in play.
Shanghai can also be played for 20 rounds to use all numbers. A Fairer Start for Shanghai: To prevent players from becoming too practised at shooting for the 1, the number sequence can begin at the number of the dart that lost the throw for the bullseye to determine the starting thrower. For example; Thrower A shoots for the bullseye and hits the 17. Thrower B shoots for the bullseye and hits it. Thrower B then begins the game, starting on the number 17, then 18, 19, 20, 1, 2, 3, etc. through 16 (if no player hits Shanghai). Shanghai is one of the disciplines in the British Pentathlon tournament.
Rugby
The game is played across a pitch consisting of the top and bottom three segments (ideally on a Wide 5's dartboard). Players can move only one square at a time, including those diagonally, the central square (ring & bull) representing midfield, as well as those of the triple area (representing the opponent's defensive wall or the 22 m line) so as to finally attain a square of the opponent's double section (the try-scoring area), its central square representing the opponent's goal, i.e. for points scored between the posts ; during the game players seek to regather possession by hitting the last square occupied by their opponent.
Kick-off
- the player (via a single throw) looks to send the ball deep into the opponent's half... whom then tries to gather it by hitting the very same square
Line-out
- is conceded by a player having hit a neighbouring square and adjacent to the pitch ; alternatively by a player inside his own 22 m having hit a square adjacent to the pitch and up to two rows* forward (*regardless of the central square and treble zones)
- is won by hitting the inner portion of the lateral segment of the board (i.e. 11 or 6 left or right, according to which side the ball went out) – the player without the throw-in required to attain the treble section players aim in turn, one dart at a time
Scrum
- is conceded after a knock-on (i.e. having hit a square located directly two rows forward – usually after missing a treble square)
- is won by hitting the central zone (ring or bull) – the player without the put-in required to attain the bullseye players aim in turn, one dart at a time
Bomb
- is achieved by a player located behind any of the two treble zones (representing the defensive wall) ... by aiming for the central square of the board ; if they fail they lose possession, if they manage they move two squares forward (if they hit the bullseye they also achieve a breakaway and earn three extra shots)
Penalty
- is obtained after having grounded the opponent so as preventing them from releasing the ball (i.e. either by attaining a square of a treble zone on which the opponent was located or by attaining the bullseye if they were located in midfield)
- is achieved (via a single throw) either by hitting the opposing goal square (if located in the opponent's half), by hand play or – to obtain a line-out – by aiming for a square adjacent to the pitch and up to two rows forward
Drop-goal
- is achieved (whilst located in the opponent's half) by saying drop (to signal one's intention) and (via a single throw) aiming for the opponent's goal square
Try
- is scored by finally attaining a square located inside the opponent's double section
Conversion
- is achieved (via a single throw) by hitting the opponent's goal square
Any dart landing other than on a neighbouring square or one relevant to the above cases is a void dart.
Darts organisations
Professional organisations
Of the two professional steel-tip organisations, the British Darts Organisation (BDO), founded in 1973, was the older. Its tournaments were often shown on the BBC in the UK. The BDO was a member of the World Darts Federation (WDF) (founded 1976), along with organisations in some 60 other countries worldwide. The BDO originally organised a number of the more prestigious British tournaments with a few notable exceptions such as the News of the World Championship and the national events run under the auspices of the National Darts Association of Great Britain. However, many sponsors were lost and British TV coverage became much reduced by the early 1990s.
In 1992, a group of darts players broke off from the BDO and, in pursuit of higher prize money, formed the Professional Darts Corporation (PDC). The PDC organises their tournaments as well as their world championship.
In soft-tip, the World Soft Darts Association serves as a governing body of the sport, with events that feature players that play also steel-tip in PDC events and other players that compete exclusively in soft-tip events.
Amateur league organisations
The American Darts Organization (ADO) promulgates rules and standards for amateur league darts and sanctions tournaments in the United States. The ADO began operation January 1, 1976, with 30 charter member clubs and a membership of 7,500 players. In 2014, the ADO had a membership that averaged 250 clubs yearly representing roughly 50,000 members.
Professional play
Since the end of the News of the World Darts Championship and other past major tournaments, the BDO and PDC both organised a televised World Professional Championship, however, since the financial collapse of the BDO, their edition of the world championship has not been held since 2020. The PDC championship is held annually over the Christmas/New Year period, as was the BDO event, with the PDC version finishing slightly earlier than the BDO tournament did. The BDO World Championship had been running since 1978; the PDC World Championship started in 1994.
The PDC's major tournaments are the World Championship, Premier League, UK Open, World Matchplay, World Grand Prix, European Championship, Players Championship Finals, World Cup of Darts, Masters and the Grand Slam of Darts. All of these are broadcast live on Sky Sports and ITV television in the UK. They also hold PDC Pro Tour events and smaller category events around the UK.
The WDF World Cup for national teams and a singles tournament has been played biennially since 1977. The WDF also organise the Europe Cup. The PDC has their world cup competition, the PDC World Cup of Darts.
For soft-tip darts, WSDA and DARTSLIVE run "THE WORLD", an international tour which serves as the Soft Darts World Championship, with the final tournament referred to as the Grand Final, with the circuit first taking place in 2011. Stages take place mostly in East Asia, with some rounds held in the United States and Europe. Matches during WSDA events are played with both 701 and Cricket during a set, usually with the same number of games of each, giving both players throws during both formats, and the final round determined by player choice.
Two Dutch independently organised major tournaments, the International Darts League and the World Darts Trophy introduced a mix of BDO and PDC players in 2006 and 2007. Both organisations allocated rankings to the tournaments, but these two events are now discontinued.
Professional darts players
World Champions
Multiple-Time World Champions
16 Phil Taylor The Power (2 BDO, 14 PDC)
10 Trina Gulliver The Golden Girl
5 Eric Bristow The Crafty Cockney
5 Raymond van Barneveld Barney (4 BDO, 1 PDC)
4 Lisa Ashton The Lancashire Rose
3 Martin Adams Wolfie
3 Anastasia Dobromyslova From Russia With Love
3 Glen Durrant Duzza
3 John Lowe Old Stoneface
3 John Part Darth Maple (1 BDO, 2 PDC)
3 Michael van Gerwen Mighty Mike
2 Gary Anderson The Flying Scotsman
2 Ted Hankey The Count
2 Adrian Lewis Jackpot
2 Dennis Priestley The Menace (1 BDO, 1 PDC)
2 Mikuru Suzuki Miracle
2 Scott Waites Scotty 2 Hotty
2 Jocky Wilson Jocky
2 Peter Wright Snakebite
One-Time World Champions
Bob Anderson The Limestone Cowboy
Steve Beaton The Bronzed Adonis
Stacy Bromberg The Wish Granter
Stephen Bunting The Bullet
Richie Burnett The Prince of Wales
Rob Cross Voltage
Tony David The Deadly Boomerang
Keith Deller The Fella
Neil Duff Duffman
Andy Fordham The Viking
Beau Greaves Beau 'n' Arrow
Francis Hoenselaar The Crown
Christian Kist The Lipstick
Jelle Klaasen The Cobra
Scott Mitchell Scotty Dog
Gerwyn Price The Iceman
Leighton Rees Marathon Man
Michael Smith Bully Boy
Les Wallace McDanger
John Walton John Boy
Wayne Warren Yank
Mark Webster The Spider
World rankings
The WDF, BDO and PDC each maintain their own rankings lists. These lists are commonly used to determine seedings for various tournaments. The WDF rankings are based on the preceding 12 months performances, the BDO resets all ranking points to zero after the seedings for their world championship have been determined, and the PDC Order of Merit is based on prize money earned over two years.
See also
Darts world rankings—current ranking lists for BDO and PDC
Darts tournaments—previous winners, history and information
Darts players profiles
Nine dart finish—the "perfect" game in darts
High dart average—average score achieved with all three darts thrown
Glossary of darts
Pub games
Bullseye—a British game show based on darts
References
Further reading
. Scholarly history showing how darts figured in publicans' efforts to improve their establishments, and how the sport moved from a working-class pursuit to gain middle- and upper-class players.
External links
Professional Darts Corporation
World Darts Federation
English inventions
Throwing sports
Precision sports
Individual sports
Indoor sports
Pub games
Throwing games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Texas%20Chainsaw%20Massacre%202
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The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2
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The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2 (also known as The Texas Chainsaw Massacre Part 2) is a 1986 American black comedy slasher film co-composed and directed by Tobe Hooper and written by L. M. Kit Carson. It is the sequel to The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974) and the second installment in The Texas Chainsaw Massacre film series. The film stars Dennis Hopper, Caroline Williams, Bill Johnson, Bill Moseley, and Jim Siedow. The plot follows Vanita "Stretch" Brock, a radio host who is victimized and abducted by Leatherface and his cannibalistic family; meanwhile, Lt. Boude "Lefty" Enright, the uncle of Sally and Franklin Hardestyboth prior victims of the familyhunts them down.
Development of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2 began following the 1981 theatrical re-release of the original film, which proved to be a financial success. After several delays, Hooper hired collaborator Carson to write the screenplay for the film in early 1986, with an emphasis on dark comedy, an element Hooper felt was present in the first film but went unacknowledged by audiences and critics. The Cannon Group served as the production company and distributor as part of a three-film deal the studio had struck with Hooper, having produced his previous two films, Lifeforce (1985) and Invaders from Mars (1986). Principal photography occurred in Austin, Texas in the spring of 1986.
The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2 was released in the United States on August 22, 1986, and earned over half of its $4.5 million budget during its opening weekend before going on to gross $8 million domestically. It received mixed reception from film critics and audiences, largely due to its emphasis on black comedy and gore, which departed from the first film's approach that featured minimal violence, low-budget vérité style, and atmosphere to build tension and fear. The film's promotional materials featured a satirical bent, with its theatrical one-sheet parodying the poster art for John Hughes's popular teen comedy film The Breakfast Club (1985).
Despite its mixed reception, the film eventually gained a cult following. It was followed by Leatherface: The Texas Chainsaw Massacre III in 1990.
Plot
Two high school seniors, Buzz and Rick, race along a desolate stretch of Texas highway, en route to the Texas-OU football game at the Dallas Cotton Bowl and harass a pickup truck along the way. Heavily intoxicated, they use their car phone to call and harass on-air radio DJ Vanita "Stretch" Brock. Unable to convince them to hang up, Stretch is forced to keep the line open. As the two pass the same pickup truck, Leatherface emerges from the back of the truck and rips up the roof using his chainsaw. Rick tries shooting Leatherface with his revolver, but Leatherface kills Buzz. The car crashes, killing Rick.
The following morning, Lieutenant Boude "Lefty" Enright, former Texas Ranger, and uncle of Sally and Franklin Hardesty, who were victims of Leatherface and his family years earlier, arrives at the scene of the crime to help solve Buzz and Rick's murders. Lefty has spent the last thirteen years looking into his nephew's disappearance, investigating reports of mysterious chainsaw killings across Texas. He is contacted by Stretch, who brings him a copy of the audio tape that recorded the attack. He sends her away, leaving Stretch and her coworker L. G. Peters to reluctantly cover a Texas/Oklahoma Chili Cookoff for their radio show. The winner of the cookoff happens to be Drayton Sawyer, the current patriarch of the cannibalistic Sawyer family, who declares that his secret is having an eye for "prime meat."
Meanwhile, Lefty shops for chainsaws at a local hardware store. He at first unnerves, then amuses the shop's owner with his brutal testing of the saws on a log. Lefty then drives to Stretch's radio station and asks her to play the tape on her nightly radio show so that the public, which had previously mocked his case, will have to listen to him.
Driving home from his chili cookoff victory with his family, Drayton is called by Chop Top about the tape being broadcast, so he sends him and Leatherface to the radio station. While she is about to leave for the night, Stretch is confronted by Chop Top before being attacked by Leatherface. Chop Top brutally bludgeons L. G. with a hammer. Meanwhile, Leatherface corners Stretch and is about to kill her, but she charms him into sparing her. Leatherface returns to Chop Top and leads him to believe that he has killed Stretch. As they take L. G. to their home, they are followed by Stretch, who ends up trapped inside the Sawyers' subterranean lair, located in an abandoned amusement park and decorated with human bones, multi-colored lights, and carnival remnants.
Lefty, who has been following their car all along, arrives equipped with chainsaws and proceeds to vandalize the lair before finding Franklin's remains. Meanwhile, Stretch is found by Leatherface, who puts L. G.'s skinned face and hat on her before tying her arms and leaving. Later, a still alive L.G. frees Stretch before dying. Leatherface finds Stretch and the family capture her. Drayton scolds Leatherface when he finds out that Stretch was not killed. They torture her at the dinner table, but Lefty arrives and saves her. Stretch flees the grounds, with Chop Top chasing after her. Lefty wounds Drayton, then he and Leatherface get into a chainsaw fight, in which Leatherface is fatally wounded. The dying Drayton, accepting that he and his family have lost, takes a grenade from Nubbins's corpse and frags himself, Lefty, Leatherface and Grandpa.
Chop Top chases Stretch to the top of a stone tower in the amusement park. Stretch grabs a chainsaw from the corpse of the family's grandmother in a shrine and fatally wounds Chop Top, causing him to fall off the tower to his death. Stretch shouts in triumph and swings the chainsaw in the air.
Cast
Kinky Friedman appears in a cameo as Sports Anchorman, as does Dan Jenkins as T.V. Commentator and Joe Bob Briggs as Gonzo Moviegoer; Hooper also cameos.
Production
Development
Following New Line Cinema's profitable 1981 theatrical re-release of The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974), director Tobe Hooper began developing a sequel to his original film. The project did not culminate until several years later, when The Hollywood Reporter announced the project in a November 2, 1983 trade advertisement.
The film was financed by Cannon Films as part of a three-picture deal the studio had struck with Hooper, having previously produced and distributed his films Lifeforce (1985) and Invaders from Mars (1986). Hooper initially planned to serve only as a producer, but was enlisted as director when he could not find a director that the producers could afford.
According to the documentary Electric Boogaloo: The Wild, Untold Story of Cannon Films, Cannon Films anticipated a straightforward horror film, while Hooper sought to make the sequel a black comedy. Hooper enlisted L. M. Kit Carson to write the screenplay, which he began in January 1986.
Casting
Gunnar Hansen was initially approached to reprise his role as Leatherface, but he claimed to have been offered "scale, plus ten percent" with the ten percent going to his agent. When he replied that he had no agent, they offered scale without the additional ten percent. Hansen found the offer too low. Unit publicist Scott Holton offered an alternate story claiming Hansen vacillated about the part and the offer was rescinded. Holton didn't believe the average viewer was even aware of who the original actors were, claiming "who are Neal, Hansen or Burns?"
Bill Moseley created a short film parody entitled The Texas Chainsaw Manicure, where he played a small role as the Hitchhiker and showed it to a screenwriter who was able to show it to Tobe Hooper. Hooper loved it and kept Moseley in mind for a part should he ever make a sequel. When the time came to cast Chainsaw 2, Moseley was contacted for the role of Chop Top, the Hitchhiker's twin brother.
Filming
Principal photography of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2 began on May 5, 1986, in Austin, Texas metropolitan area. Shooting locations in the city included the Cut Rite chainsaw store, as well as the interiors of the former Austin American-Statesman building. The majority of the shoot occurred in and around the shuttered Matterhorn Amusement Park in Prairie Dell, which stood in for the fictional Texas Battle Land amusement park where the Sawyer family's lair is located.
Post-production
Several scenes were deleted by director Tobe Hooper due to pacing issues as mentioned on the 2000 Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Shocking Truth documentary. One lengthy scene that was cut from the film involves the Sawyer Clan heading out at night to collect prime meat for their chili by slaughtering patrons exiting a movie theater and a group of rowdy, rioting fans in a parking garage. The deleted slaughtering scene featured several elaborate Tom Savini special effects. The deleted scene at the movie theater also includes a cameo by American film critic Joe Bob Briggs.
Soundtrack
The Lords of the New Church: "Good to Be Bad" – 4:42
The Cramps: "Goo Goo Muck" – 3:02
Concrete Blonde: "Haunted Head" – 2:48
Timbuk3: "Life Is Hard" – 4:06
Torch Song: "White Night" – 3:42
Stewart Copeland: "Strange Things Happen" – 2:58
Concrete Blonde: "Over Your Shoulder" – 3:20
Timbuk3: "Shame on You" – 4:48
The Lords of the New Church: "Mind Warp" – 3:42
Oingo Boingo: "No One Lives Forever" – 4:08
"Crazy Crazy Mama" by Roky Erickson was used in the film but not included on the soundtrack album.
Release
Marketing
The final poster design, featuring the family sitting together, is a parody of the poster for the 1985 teen comedy-drama film The Breakfast Club.
Box office
The film was released theatrically in the United States by Cannon Films on August 22, 1986. It earned over half of its budget back during its opening weekend, and went on to gross a total of $8,025,872 at the domestic box office.
Critical response
At the time of its release, The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2 was met with mixed reviews from film critics. Roger Ebert awarded the film one star out of four, lambasting the film because it "goes flat-out from one end to the other, never spending any time on pacing, on timing, on the anticipation of horror. It doesn't even pause to establish the characters; Dennis Hopper has the most thankless task, playing a man who spends the first half of the movie looking distracted and vague, and the second half screaming during chainsaw duels." He also commented that it "has a lot of blood and disembowelment, to be sure, but it doesn't have the terror of the original, the desire to be taken seriously. It's a geek show." TV Guides review was similarly negative, stating that "the film feels as if Hooper himself has nothing but contempt for the original and went out of his way to tear it down." The New York Times criticized the film, saying, "Hooper's direction is a little sloppy," and that the film "is not first-grade chopped steak."
AllMovie's review was favorable, writing, "much-hated at the time of its release, Tobe Hooper's The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2 has aged remarkably well, now playing as a strangely effective if none-too-subtle satire of several facets of '80s excess."
The Texas Chain Saw Massacre 2 holds a 50% approval rating on film review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 32 reviews with an average rating of 5.1/10. Its consensus reads, "Without the tense atmosphere of its predecessor, the stakes feel lower, but The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2 still shocks with a gonzo blend of over-the-top humor and gore." On Metacritic, the film holds a score of 42 out of 100 based on reviews from 13 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". It has since become a cult film.
Censorship
Similarly to the first film, The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2 faced significant censorship in numerous countries. In the United States, the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) refused to grant the film an R rating for theatrical release, despite it undergoing numerous cuts to tone down its violence. "I told [executive producers Menachem Golan and Yoram Globus], going in, that there was no way we could get an R rating on that picture," said Hooper, "but they kept chopping away at it." When the MPAA refused to grant the film anything less than an X rating, Cannon Films opted to release it without a rating.
The film was banned in Germany and Singapore, though the Freiwillige Selbstkontrolle der Filmwirtschaft in Germany later gave the uncut version an 18 rating, and Singapore gave it an R21 (Restricted to under 21) rating after an appeal. When the film was submitted in the United Kingdom to the BBFC for a certificate, the BBFC notified Cannon, the distributor, that at least 20 to 25 minutes of footage would have to be trimmed in order for the film to be given an 18 rating. Cannon attempted to cut the film, but eventually gave up after numerous re-edited versions failed to pass the BBFC. The uncut version of the film was eventually given an 18 rating in 2001. When released in Ontario, Canada the film had 11 minutes cut after being rejected three times by Ontario censors.
The film was banned in Australia for 20 years. An uncut version was released on VHS by Warner Home Video in New Zealand in 1987, but could also be found (illegally, as the box proudly stated) in some Australian video stores at the time. The New Zealand VHS cassette has become very rare. In 2000, an unofficial VHS release was issued to retailers throughout Australia. This was done so illegally by a duplicating house, and without the knowledge of the OFLC. When news of the illegal copies leaked, a number of retailers were raided for possessing infringing copies. The duplicating house was similarly raided by Federal Customs. The film was finally passed for official release in Australia on November 30, 2006. The Uncut "Gruesome Edition" DVD was released on January 24 the next year.
Home media
In 1995, a bootleg VHS edition of the film circulated among video dealers and collectors, surfacing at a Fangoria convention in New York City. Hooper himself stated that this version resembled an early rough cut of the film, assembled prior to its submission to the MPAA.
On September 1, 1998, the film was released on VHS by MGM Home Entertainment as part of the MGM Movie Time collection (which was available exclusively through Warner Home Video). On August 1, 2000, the film was released on a region 1 DVD by MGM Home Entertainment. On October 10, 2006, the film received a second DVD treatment from MGM, entitled "The Gruesome Edition", which featured an audio commentary by director Tobe Hooper and David Gregory, director of Texas Chain Saw Massacre: The Shocking Truth, as well as an audio commentary by actors Bill Moseley, Caroline Williams and special effects makeup creator Tom Savini. The special features also included deleted scenes, a feature-length documentary entitled It Runs in the Family, six still galleries and a trailer. A Blu-ray edition of the film was released on September 11, 2012 which featured all of the special features from the "Gruesome Edition" DVD.
Scream Factory released a Collector's Edition Blu-ray on April 19, 2016, which went out of print on August 6, 2020. On October 25, 2022, Vinegar Syndrome released a three-disc 4K UHD Blu-ray edition of the film with archival and newly-commissioned bonus features.
Sequel
The official sequel to the film was Leatherface: The Texas Chainsaw Massacre III, though the events of this movie are retconned. In 1998, Tobe Hooper's son William Hooper, began work on All American Massacre, a short film that would be both a sequel and a prequel to The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2. Hooper ran out of funds for post-production in 2000 and the film was never completed and released although the trailer leaked online in the early 2000s.
References
Sources
External links
1986 black comedy films
1986 comedy horror films
1986 films
1980s American films
1980s English-language films
1980s serial killer films
1980s slasher films
American comedy horror films
American films about revenge
American sequel films
American serial killer films
American splatter films
Films about radio people
Films directed by Tobe Hooper
Films produced by Menahem Golan
Films produced by Yoram Globus
Films set in 1986
Films set in Texas
Films shot in Austin, Texas
Golan-Globus films
Slasher comedy films
The Texas Chainsaw Massacre (franchise) films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-field%20communication
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Near-field communication
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Near-field communication (NFC) is a set of communication protocols that enables communication between two electronic devices over a distance of 4 cm (1.57 in) or less. NFC offers a low-speed connection through a simple setup that can be used to bootstrap more capable wireless connections. Like other "proximity card" technologies, NFC is based on inductive coupling between two antennas present on NFC-enabled devices—for example a smartphone and a printer—communicating in one or both directions, using a frequency of 13.56 MHz in the globally available unlicensed radio frequency ISM band using the ISO/IEC 18000-3 air interface standard at data rates ranging from 106 to 848 kbit/s.
The NFC Forum has helped define and promote the technology, setting standards for certifying device compliance. Secure communications are available by applying encryption algorithms as is done for credit cards and if they fit the criteria for being considered a personal area network.
NFC standards cover communications protocols and data exchange formats and are based on existing radio-frequency identification (RFID) standards including ISO/IEC 14443 and FeliCa. The standards include ISO/IEC 18092 and those defined by the NFC Forum. In addition to the NFC Forum, the GSMA group defined a platform for the deployment of GSMA NFC Standards within mobile handsets. GSMA's efforts include Trusted Services Manager, Single Wire Protocol, testing/certification and secure element. NFC-enabled portable devices can be provided with application software, for example to read electronic tags or make payments when connected to an NFC-compliant system. These are standardized to NFC protocols, replacing proprietary technologies used by earlier systems.
A patent licensing program for NFC is under deployment by France Brevets, a patent fund created in 2011. This program was under development by Via Licensing Corporation, an independent subsidiary of Dolby Laboratories, and was terminated in May 2012. A platform-independent free and open source NFC library, , is available under the GNU Lesser General Public License.
Present and anticipated applications include contactless transactions, data exchange and simplified setup of more complex communications such as Wi-Fi. In addition, when one of the connected devices has Internet connectivity, the other can exchange data with online services.
History
NFC is rooted in radio-frequency identification technology (known as RFID) which allows compatible hardware to both supply power to and communicate with an otherwise unpowered and passive electronic tag using radio waves. This is used for identification, authentication and tracking. Similar ideas in advertising and industrial applications were not generally successful commercially, outpaced by technologies such as QR codes, barcodes and UHF RFID tags.
May 17, 1983: The first patent to be associated with the abbreviation "RFID" was granted to Charles Walton.
1997: Early form patented and first used in Star Wars character toys for Hasbro. The patent was originally held by Andrew White and Marc Borrett at Innovision Research and Technology. The device allowed data communication between two units in close proximity.
March 25, 2002: Philips and Sony agreed to establish a technology specification and created a technical outline. Philips Semiconductors applied for the six fundamental patents of NFC, invented by the Austrian and French engineers Franz Amtmann and Philippe Maugars who received the European Inventor Award in 2015.
December 8, 2003: NFC was approved as an ISO/IEC standard and later as an ECMA standard.
2004: Nokia, Philips and Sony established the NFC Forum
2004: Nokia launched NFC shell add-on for Nokia 5140 and later Nokia 3220 models, to be shipped in 2005.
2005: Mobile phone experimentations in transports, with payment in May in Hanau (Nokia) and as well validation aboard in October in Nice with Orange and payment in shops in October in Caen (Samsung) with first reception of "Fly Tag" informations
2006: Initial specifications for NFC Tags
2006: Specification for "SmartPoster" records
2007: Innovision’s NFC tags used in the first consumer trial in the UK, in the Nokia 6131 handset.
2008: AirTag launched what it called the first NFC SDK.
2009: In January, NFC Forum released Peer-to-Peer standards to transfer contacts, URLs, initiate Bluetooth, etc.
2009: NFC first used in transports by China Unicom and Yucheng Transportation Card in the tramways and bus of Chongqing on 19 January 2009, then implemented for the first time in a metro network, by China Unicom in Beijing on 31 December 2010.
2010: Innovision released a suite of designs and patents for low cost, mass-market mobile phones and other devices.
2010: Nokia C7: First NFC-capable smartphone released. NFC feature was enabled by software update in early 2011.
2010: Samsung Nexus S: First Android NFC phone shown
May 21, 2010: Nice, France, launches, with "Cityzi", the "Nice City of contactless mobile" project, the first in Europe to provide inhabitants with NFC bank cards and mobile phones (like Samsung Player One S5230), and a "bouquet of services" covering transportation (tramways and bus), tourism and student's services
2011: Google I/O "How to NFC" demonstrates NFC to initiate a game and to share a contact, URL, app or video.
2011: NFC support becomes part of the Symbian mobile operating system with the release of Symbian Anna version.
2011: Research In Motion devices are the first ones certified by MasterCard Worldwide for their PayPass service
2012: UK restaurant chain EAT. and Everything Everywhere (Orange Mobile Network Operator), partner on the UK's first nationwide NFC-enabled smartposter campaign. A dedicated mobile phone app is triggered when the NFC-enabled mobile phone comes into contact with the smartposter.
2012: Sony introduced NFC "Smart Tags" to change modes and profiles on a Sony smartphone at close range, included with the Sony Xperia P Smartphone released the same year.
2013: Samsung and VISA announce their partnership to develop mobile payments.
2013: IBM scientists, in an effort to curb fraud and security breaches, develop an NFC-based mobile authentication security technology. This technology works on similar principles to dual-factor authentication security.
October 2014: Dinube becomes the first non-card payment network to introduce NFC contactless payments natively on a mobile device, i.e. no need for an external case attached or NFC 'sticker' nor for a card. Based on Host card emulation with its own application identifier (AID), contactless payment was available on Android KitKat upwards and commercial release commenced in June 2015.
2014: AT&T, Verizon and T-Mobile released Softcard (formerly ISIS mobile wallet). It runs on NFC-enabled Android phones and iPhone 4 and iPhone 5 when an external NFC case is attached. The technology was purchased by Google and the service ended on March 31, 2015.
September 2015: Google’s Android Pay function was launched, a direct rival to Apple Pay, and its roll-out across the US commenced.
November 2015: Swatch and Visa Inc. announced a partnership to enable NFC financial transactions using the "Swatch Bellamy" wristwatch. The system is currently online in Asia, through a partnership with China UnionPay and Bank of Communications. The partnership will bring the technology to the US, Brazil, and Switzerland.
Ultra-wideband (UWB) another radio technology has been hailed as a future possible alternatives to NFC technology due to further distances of data transmission, as well as Bluetooth and wireless technology.
Design
NFC is a set of short-range wireless technologies, typically requiring a separation of 10 cm or less. NFC operates at 13.56 MHz on ISO/IEC 18000-3 air interface and at rates ranging from 106 kbit/s to 424 kbit/s. NFC always involves an initiator and a target; the initiator actively generates an RF field that can power a passive target. This enables NFC targets to take very simple form factors such as unpowered tags, stickers, key fobs, or cards. NFC peer-to-peer communication is possible, provided both devices are powered.
NFC tags contain data and are typically read-only, but may be writable. They can be custom-encoded by their manufacturers or use NFC Forum specifications. The tags can securely store personal data such as debit and credit card information, loyalty program data, PINs and networking contacts, among other information. The NFC Forum defines four types of tags that provide different communication speeds and capabilities in terms of configurability, memory, security, data retention and write endurance.
As with proximity card technology, NFC uses inductive coupling between two nearby loop antennas effectively forming an air-core transformer. Because the distances involved are tiny compared to the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation (radio waves) of that frequency (about 22 metres), the interaction is described as near field. An alternating magnetic field is the main coupling factor and almost no power is radiated in the form of radio waves (which are electromagnetic waves, also involving an oscillating electric field); that minimises interference between such devices and any radio communications at the same frequency or with other NFC devices much beyond its intended range. NFC operates within the globally available and unlicensed radio frequency ISM band of 13.56 MHz. Most of the RF energy is concentrated in the ±7 kHz bandwidth allocated for that band, but the emission's spectral width can be as wide as 1.8 MHz in order to support high data rates.
Working distance with compact standard antennas and realistic power levels could be up to about 20 cm (but practically speaking, working distances never exceed 10 cm). Note that because the pickup antenna may be quenched in an eddy current by nearby metallic surfaces, the tags may require a minimum separation from such surfaces.
The ISO/IEC 18092 standard supports data rates of 106, 212 or 424 kbit/s.
The communication takes place between an active "initiator" device and a target device which may either be:
Passive The initiator device provides a carrier field and the target device, acting as a transponder, communicates by modulating the incident field. In this mode, the target device may draw its operating power from the initiator-provided magnetic field.
Active Both initiator and target device communicate by alternately generating their own fields. A device stops transmitting in order to receive data from the other. This mode requires that both devices include power supplies.
NFC employs two different codings to transfer data. If an active device transfers data at 106 kbit/s, a modified Miller coding with 100% modulation is used. In all other cases Manchester coding is used with a modulation ratio of 10%.
Every active NFC device can work in one or more of three modes:
NFC card emulation Enables NFC-enabled devices such as smartphones to act like smart cards, allowing users to perform transactions such as payment or ticketing. See Host card emulation
NFC reader/writer Enables NFC-enabled devices to read information stored on inexpensive NFC tags embedded in labels or smart posters.
NFC peer-to-peerEnables two NFC-enabled devices to communicate with each other to exchange information in an ad hoc fashion.
NFC tags are passive data stores which can be read, and under some circumstances written to, by an NFC device. They typically contain data ( between 96 and 8,192 bytes) and are read-only in normal use, but may be rewritable. Applications include secure personal data storage (e.g. debit or credit card information, loyalty program data, personal identification numbers (PINs), contacts). NFC tags can be custom-encoded by their manufacturers or use the industry specifications.
Security
Although the range of NFC is limited to a few centimeters, standard plain NFC is not protected against eavesdropping and can be vulnerable to data modifications. Applications may use higher-layer cryptographic protocols to establish a secure channel.
The RF signal for the wireless data transfer can be picked up with antennas. The distance from which an attacker is able to eavesdrop the RF signal depends on multiple parameters, but is typically less than 10 meters. Also, eavesdropping is highly affected by the communication mode. A passive device that doesn't generate its own RF field is much harder to eavesdrop on than an active device. An attacker can typically eavesdrop within 10 m of an active device and 1 m for passive devices.
Because NFC devices usually include ISO/IEC 14443 protocols, relay attacks are feasible. For this attack the adversary forwards the request of the reader to the victim and relays its answer to the reader in real time, pretending to be the owner of the victim's smart card. This is similar to a man-in-the-middle attack. One code example demonstrates a relay attack using two stock commercial NFC devices. This attack can be implemented using only two NFC-enabled mobile phones.
Standards
NFC standards cover communications protocols and data exchange formats, and are based on existing RFID standards including ISO/IEC 14443 and FeliCa. The standards include ISO/IEC 18092 and those defined by the NFC Forum.
ISO/IEC
NFC is standardized in ECMA-340 and ISO/IEC 18092. These standards specify the modulation schemes, coding, transfer speeds and frame format of the RF interface of NFC devices, as well as initialization schemes and conditions required for data collision-control during initialization for both passive and active NFC modes. They also define the transport protocol, including protocol activation and data-exchange methods. The air interface for NFC is standardized in:
ISO/IEC 18092 / ECMA-340—Near Field Communication Interface and Protocol-1 (NFCIP-1)
ISO/IEC 21481 / ECMA-352—Near Field Communication Interface and Protocol-2 (NFCIP-2)
NFC incorporates a variety of existing standards including ISO/IEC 14443 Type A and Type B, and FeliCa (also simply named F or NFC-F). NFC-enabled phones work at a basic level with existing readers. In "card emulation mode" an NFC device should transmit, at a minimum, a unique ID number to a reader. In addition, NFC Forum defined a common data format called NFC Data Exchange Format (NDEF) that can store and transport items ranging from any MIME-typed object to ultra-short RTD-documents, such as URLs. The NFC Forum added the Simple NDEF Exchange Protocol (SNEP) to the spec that allows sending and receiving messages between two NFC devices.
GSMA
The GSM Association (GSMA) is a trade association representing nearly 800 mobile telephony operators and more than 200 product and service companies across 219 countries. Many of its members have led NFC trials and are preparing services for commercial launch.
GSM is involved with several initiatives:
Standards: GSMA is developing certification and testing standards to ensure global interoperability of NFC services.
Pay-Buy-Mobile initiative: Seeks to define a common global approach to using NFC technology to link mobile devices with payment and contactless systems.
On November 17, 2010, after two years of discussions, AT&T, Verizon and T-Mobile launched a joint venture to develop a platform through which point of sale payments could be made using NFC in cell phones. Initially known as Isis Mobile Wallet and later as Softcard, the venture was designed to usher in broad deployment of NFC technology, allowing their customers' NFC-enabled cell phones to function similarly to credit cards throughout the US. Following an agreement with—and IP purchase by—Google, the Softcard payment system was shuttered in March, 2015, with an endorsement for its earlier rival, Google Wallet.
StoLPaN
StoLPaN (Store Logistics and Payment with NFC) is a pan-European consortium supported by the European Commission's Information Society Technologies program. StoLPaN will examine the potential for NFC local wireless mobile communication.
NFC Forum
NFC Forum is a non-profit industry association formed on March 18, 2004, by NXP Semiconductors, Sony and Nokia to advance the use of NFC wireless interaction in consumer electronics, mobile devices and PCs. It's specifications include the four distinct tag types that provide different communication speeds and capabilities covering flexibility, memory, security, data retention and write endurance. NFC Forum promotes implementation and standardization of NFC technology to ensure interoperability between devices and services. As of January 2020, the NFC Forum had over 120 member companies.
NFC Forum promotes NFC and certifies device compliance and whether it fits in a personal area network.
Other standardization bodies
GSMA defined a platform for the deployment of GSMA NFC Standards within mobile handsets. GSMA's efforts include, Single Wire Protocol, testing and certification and secure element. The GSMA standards surrounding the deployment of NFC protocols (governed by NFC Forum) on mobile handsets are neither exclusive nor universally accepted. For example, Google's deployment of Host Card Emulation on Android KitKat provides for software control of a universal radio. In this HCE Deployment the NFC protocol is leveraged without the GSMA standards.
Other standardization bodies involved in NFC include:
ETSI / SCP (Smart Card Platform) to specify the interface between the SIM card and the NFC chipset.
EMVCo for the impacts on the EMV payment applications
Applications
NFC allows one- and two-way communication between endpoints, suitable for many applications.
NFC devices can act as electronic identity documents and keycards. They are used in contactless payment systems and allow mobile payment replacing or supplementing systems such as credit cards and electronic ticket smart cards. These are sometimes called NFC/CTLS or CTLS NFC, with contactless abbreviated as CTLS. NFC can be used to share small files such as contacts and for bootstrapping fast connections to share larger media such as photos, videos, and other files.
Commerce
NFC devices can be used in contactless payment systems, similar to those used in credit cards and electronic ticket smart cards and allow mobile payment to replace/supplement these systems.
In Android 4.4, Google introduced platform support for secure NFC-based transactions through Host Card Emulation (HCE), for payments, loyalty programs, card access, transit passes and other custom services. HCE allows any Android 4.4 app to emulate an NFC smart card, letting users initiate transactions with their device. Apps can use a new Reader Mode to act as readers for HCE cards and other NFC-based transactions.
On September 9, 2014, Apple announced support for NFC-powered transactions as part of Apple Pay. With the introduction of iOS 11, Apple devices allow third-party developers to read data from NFC tags.
As of 2022, there are five major NFC apps available in the UK: Apple Pay, Google Pay, Samsung Pay, Barclays Contactless Mobile and Fitbit Pay. The UK Finance's UK Payment Markets Summary 2021 looked at Apple Pay, Google Pay and Samsung Pay and found 17.3 million UK adults had registered for mobile payment (up 75% from the year before) and of those, 84% had made a mobile payment.
Bootstrapping other connections
NFC offers a low-speed connection with simple setup that can be used to bootstrap more capable wireless connections. For example, Android Beam software uses NFC to enable pairing and establish a Bluetooth connection when doing a file transfer and then disabling Bluetooth on both devices upon completion. Nokia, Samsung, BlackBerry and Sony have used NFC technology to pair Bluetooth headsets, media players and speakers with one tap. The same principle can be applied to the configuration of Wi-Fi networks. Samsung Galaxy devices have a feature named S-Beam—an extension of Android Beam that uses NFC (to share MAC address and IP addresses) and then uses Wi-Fi Direct to share files and documents. The advantage of using Wi-Fi Direct over Bluetooth is that it permits much faster data transfers, running up to 300 Mbit/s.
Social networking
NFC can be used for social networking, for sharing contacts, text messages and forums, links to photos, videos or files and entering multiplayer mobile games.
Identity and access tokens
NFC-enabled devices can act as electronic identity documents found in passports and ID cards, and keycards for the use in fare cards, transit passes, login cards, car keys and access badges . NFC's short range and encryption support make it more suitable than less private RFID systems.
Smartphone automation and NFC tags
NFC-equipped smartphones can be paired with NFC Tags or stickers that can be programmed by NFC apps. These programs can allow a change of phone settings, texting, app launching, or command execution.
Such apps do not rely on a company or manufacturer, but can be utilized immediately with an NFC-equipped smartphone and an NFC tag.
The NFC Forum published the Signature Record Type Definition (RTD) 2.0 in 2015 to add integrity and authenticity for NFC Tags. This specification allows an NFC device to verify tag data and identify the tag author.
Gaming
NFC has been used in video games starting with Skylanders: Spyro's Adventure. These are customizable figurines which contain personal data with each figure, so no two figures are exactly alike. Nintendo's Wii U GamePad was the first console system to include NFC technology out of the box. It was later included in the Nintendo 3DS range (being built into the New Nintendo 3DS/XL and in a separately sold reader which uses Infrared to communicate to older 3DS family consoles). The amiibo range of accessories utilize NFC technology to unlock features.
Sports
Adidas Telstar 18 is a soccer ball that contains an NFC chip within. The chip enables users to interact with the ball using a smartphone.
Bluetooth comparison
NFC and Bluetooth are both relatively short-range communication technologies available on mobile phones. NFC operates at slower speeds than Bluetooth and has a much shorter range, but consumes far less power and doesn't require pairing.
NFC sets up more quickly than standard Bluetooth, but has a lower transfer rate than Bluetooth low energy. With NFC, instead of performing manual configurations to identify devices, the connection between two NFC devices is automatically established in less than .1 second. The maximum data transfer rate of NFC (424 kbit/s) is slower than that of Bluetooth V2.1 (2.1 Mbit/s).
NFC's maximum working distance of less than 20 cm reduces the likelihood of unwanted interception, making it particularly suitable for crowded areas that complicate correlating a signal with its transmitting physical device (and by extension, its user).
NFC is compatible with existing passive RFID (13.56 MHz ISO/IEC 18000-3) infrastructures. It requires comparatively low power, similar to the Bluetooth V4.0 low-energy protocol. However, when NFC works with an unpowered device (e.g. on a phone that may be turned off, a contactless smart credit card, a smart poster), the NFC power consumption is greater than that of Bluetooth V4.0 Low Energy, since illuminating the passive tag needs extra power.
Devices
In 2011, handset vendors released more than 40 NFC-enabled handsets with the Android mobile operating system. BlackBerry devices support NFC using BlackBerry Tag on devices running BlackBerry OS 7.0 and greater.
MasterCard added further NFC support for PayPass for the Android and BlackBerry platforms, enabling PayPass users to make payments using their Android or BlackBerry smartphones. A partnership between Samsung and Visa added a 'payWave' application on the Galaxy S4 smartphone.
In 2012, Microsoft added native NFC functionality in their mobile OS with Windows Phone 8, as well as the Windows 8 operating system. Microsoft provides the "Wallet hub" in Windows Phone 8 for NFC payment, and can integrate multiple NFC payment services within a single application.
In 2014, iPhone 6 was released from Apple to support NFC. and since September 2019 in iOS 13 Apple now allows NFC tags to be read out as well as labeled using an NFC app.
Deployments
, hundreds of NFC trials had been conducted. Some firms moved to full-scale service deployments, spanning one or more countries. Multi-country deployments include Orange's rollout of NFC technology to banks, retailers, transport, and service providers in multiple European countries, and Airtel Africa and Oberthur Technologies deploying to 15 countries throughout Africa.
China Telecom (China's 3rd largest mobile operator) made its NFC rollout in November 2013. The company signed up multiple banks to make their payment apps available on its SIM Cards. China telecom stated that the wallet would support coupons, membership cards, fuel cards and boarding passes. The company planned to achieve targets of rolling out 40 NFC phone models and 30 Mn NFC SIMs by 2014.
Softcard (formerly Isis Mobile Wallet), a joint venture from Verizon Wireless, AT&T and T-Mobile, focuses on in-store payments making use of NFC technology. After doing pilots in some regions, they launched across the US.
Vodafone launched the NFC-based Vodafone SmartPass mobile payment service in Spain in partnership with Visa. It enables consumers with an NFC-enabled SIM card in a mobile device to make contactless payments via their SmartPass credit balance at any POS.
OTI, an Israeli company that designs and develops contactless microprocessor-based smart card technology, contracted to supply NFC-readers to one of its channel partners in the US. The partner was required to buy $10MM worth of OTI NFC readers over 3 years.
Rogers Communications launched virtual wallet Suretap to enable users to make payments with their phone in Canada in April 2014. Suretap users can load up gift cards and prepaid MasterCards from national retailers.
Sri Lanka's first workforce smart card uses NFC.
As of December 13, 2013 Tim Hortons TimmyME BlackBerry 10 Application allowed users to link their prepaid Tim Card to the app, allowing payment by tapping the NFC-enabled device to a standard contactless terminal.
Google Wallet allows consumers to store credit card and store loyalty card information in a virtual wallet and then use an NFC-enabled device at terminals that also accept MasterCard PayPass transactions.
Germany, Austria, Finland, New Zealand, Italy, Iran, Turkey and Greece trialed NFC ticketing systems for public transport. The Lithuanian capital of Vilnius fully replaced paper tickets for public transportation with ISO/IEC 14443 Type A cards on July 1, 2013.
NFC sticker-based payments in Australia's Bankmecu and card issuer Cuscal completed an NFC payment sticker trial, enabling consumers to make contactless payments at Visa payWave terminals using a smart sticker stuck to their phone.
India was implementing NFC-based transactions in box offices for ticketing purposes.
A partnership of Google and Equity Bank in Kenya introduced NFC payment systems for public transport in the Capital city Nairobi under the branding BebaPay.
January 2019 saw the start of trial using NFC-enabled Android mobile phones to pay public transport fares in Victoria, Australia.
See also
Campus card
CIPURSE
Device-to-device
EZ-link
FeliCa
Indoor positioning system (IPS)
Object hyperlinking
Poken
RuBee
Smart keychain
TecTiles
TransferJet
Notes
References
External links
A summary video of near-field communication
Articles containing video clips
Bandplans
Ecma standards
ISO standards
Mobile telecommunications
Wireless
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon%20%28surname%29
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Gordon (surname)
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Gordon is a surname with numerous origins. The masculine given name Gordon is derived from the surname.
Origin of the surname
The Scottish surname Gordon may be derived from several locations. One possibility is from Gordon, in Berwickshire. Another possibility is from a similarly named place in Normandy. The English surname Gordon is derived from the placename of Gourdon, in Saône-et-Loire, France. This location is derived from the Gallo-Roman personal name Gordus. In Ireland, the surname Gordon is of several origins. One origin of the surname is from the Scottish surname, which spread into Ireland in the 17th century during the plantation era; in the Irish language this name is spelt de Górdún. Also, the surname Gordon is an Anglicised form of the Irish language Mag Mhuirneacháin, which is a patronymic form of the personal name Muirneachán. This personal name is derived from the Irish language word muirneach, meaning "beloved". Another origin of the Irish name Gordon is as an Anglicised form of the Irish language surname Mórbhoirneach.
Gordon ( ) is also a Jewish surname, likely derived from the city of Grodno, in Belarus—thus, of an origin completely unrelated to the British surname though spelled the same in English.
The Spanish, and Galician surname Gordón is derived from places like-named in the Spanish and Galician languages. The Basque language Gordon is also derived from a like-named placename. Another origin for the Spanish surname is from the nickname Gordo, which is derived from the Spanish language word gordo, meaning "fat".
Gordon is also a British Romany surname with origins on the Scottish-English Border; during the 17th and 18th century fearing persecution many Gypsy folk in the North of England and the South of Scotland chose to change their surnames to blend into the local societies they were living within. These Gordons are completely unrelated to other ancestral sources of the name.
List of people
A. D. Gordon (1856–1922), Russian Zionist
Aaron Gordon (born 1995), American basketball player
Adam Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Adi Gordon (born 1966), Israeli basketball player
Adoniram Judson Gordon (1836–1895), pastor in Boston, Massachusetts, and founder of Gordon College
Agnes Gordon (1906–1967), American bridge player
Al Gordon (born 1953), comic book creator
Alan Gordon (1917–2011), Australian politician known as Lin Gordon
Alan Gordon (actor), British actor
Alan Gordon (author) (born 1959), American author
Alan Gordon (historian) (born 1968), Canadian historian
Alan Gordon (Scottish footballer) (1944–2010), Scottish footballer
Alan Gordon (soccer), (born 1981), American soccer player
Alan Lee Gordon (1944–2008), American songwriter
Alastair Gordon (born 1976), Australian rower, 2000 Sydney Olympics silver medalist
Albert L. Gordon (1915–2009), American gay rights legal activist
Alexander Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Aleksandr Gordon (1931–2020), Russian-Soviet director, screenwriter and actor
Amelia Elizabeth Roe Gordon (1852-1932), British-born Canadian social reformer
Anita Gordon (1929-2015), American singer
Ann Gordon (born 1956), First Lady of North Carolina
Ann D. Gordon, research professor in the department of history at Rutgers University
Anna Gordon (1747-1810), ballad collector
Anna Adams Gordon (1853–1931), American social reformer, songwriter, president of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union
Anne Gordon (born 1941), Australian cricketer
Ann Lee (singer) (born 1967), singer and songwriter
Anthony Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Archibald Ronald McDonald Gordon (1927–2015), Bishop of Portsmouth
Audrey Gordon, Canadian politician
Bart Gordon (born 1949), American congressman
Ben Gordon (born 1983), British-born American basketball player
B. Frank Gordon (1826–1866), Confederate States Army colonel, acting brigadier general
Bernard Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Bert I. Gordon (1922–2023), American film director and screenwriter
Bob Gordon (Canadian intelligence), former Canadian Security Intelligence Service agent
Bob Gordon (saxophonist) (1928–1955), American jazz saxophonist
Bobby Gordon (1923–2001), Scottish footballer
Bobby Gordon (American football) (1935–1990), American football player
Boyd Gordon (born 1983), Canadian ice hockey player
Brian Gordon (baseball) (born 1978), American professional baseball pitcher
Brian Gordon, cartoonist, creator of web comics Fowl Language and Chuck & Beans
Bridgette Gordon (born 1967), American basketball player
Bruce Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
C. Henry Gordon (1883–1940), American actor
Cecil Gordon (1941–2012), American NASCAR driver
Charles George Gordon (1833–1885), British general known as "Chinese Gordon" and "Gordon of Khartoum"
Charles Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Christopher Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Clarence Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Clemente Gordon (born 1967), American football player
Colin Gordon (1911–1972), British actor
Colin Gordon (athlete) (1907–1980), high jumper from British Guiana
Colton Gordon (born 1998), American baseball pitcher
Cyrus H. Gordon (1908–2001), American linguist-semitologist
Daniel Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
David Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Dexter Gordon (1923–1990), American jazz tenor saxophonist and actor
Dmitry Gordon, Ukrainian journalist and TV presenter
Donald Gordon (cricketer) (born 1990), English cricketer
Douglas Gordon (born 1966), Scottish artist
Douglas C. Gordon (1956–1998), whitewater kayaker
Douglas Peel Gordon (1892–1948), South Australian politician
Drew Gordon (born 1990), American basketball player
Duke Gordon (1739–1800), 18th-century Scottish librarian
Ed Gordon (athlete) (1908–1971), American long jumper
Ed Gordon (journalist) (born 1960), American television journalist
Edward Gordon (politician) (1885–1964), New Zealand politician
Edythe Mae Gordon (c. 1897 – 1980), American short story writer and poet
Rabbi Eliezer Gordon (1841–1910), Lithuanian Rosh Yeshiva
Elizabeth Putnam Gordon (1851-1933), American temperance advocate, author
Elye Gordon (1907–1989), Soviet Yiddish writer
Eric Gordon (born 1988), American basketball player
Eric Valentine Gordon (1896–1938), Canadian philologist
Esmé Gordon (1910–1993), Scottish architect
F. C. Gordon (1856–1924), Canadian illustrator
Ferenc Gordon (1893–1971), Hungarian economist and politician
Francis Gordon (1808–1857), English amateur cricketer
Frank Gordon Jr. (1929–2020), American lawyer and judge
Fritzi Gordon, Austrian-British bridge player
Gary Gordon (1960–1993), American soldier and Medal of Honor recipient
Gavin Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Geoffrey Gordon (composer) (born 1968), American composer
George Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Gordon Gordon (1906–2002), half of a team of American crime fiction writers: The Gordons (writers)
Hannah Gordon (born 1941), Scottish actress
Harry Gordon (entertainer) (1893–1957), Scottish entertainer, comedian and impressionist
Harry Gordon (footballer) (1931–2014), Scottish footballer
Harry L. Gordon (1860–1921), American politician in Ohio
Heather Gordon (born 1967), American contemporary visual artist
Henry Gordon (preacher) (1816–1898), American
C. Henry Gordon (1883–1940), American actor
Henry Charles Gordon (1925–1996), American astronaut
Henry Gordon (magician) (1920–2009), Canadian magician and writer
Herbert Gordon (1898−1965), English cricketer
Herbert Gordon (footballer) (1952–2013), Jamaican footballer
Hilda May Gordon (1874–1972), British painter
Honi Gordon, vocalist
Ian Gordon (footballer) (born 1933), former Australian rules footballer
Ian Gordon (general) (born 1952), Deputy Chief of Army and Commander of UNTSO
Ian Gordon (historian) (born 1964), professor of US history at the National University of Singapore
Ian Gordon (ice hockey) (born 1975), German hockey player
Ida Gordon, English philologist, wife of E. V. Gordon
Isabella Gordon (1901–1988), British biological scientist
James Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Janet Hill Gordon (1915–1990), New York politician
Jay Gordon (born 1967), musician
Jeff Gordon (born 1971), American NASCAR driver
Jeffrey D. Gordon, Pentagon spokesman
Jimmie Gordon, American blues pianist, singer, and songwriter
Joe Gordon (1915–1978), American baseball player and manager
John Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Josephine Gordon (born 1993), British jockey
Joyce Gordon (1929–2020), American actress and union representative
Judah Leib Gordon (1830–1892), Hebrew poet
Judy Gordon (1948–2020), Canadian politician
Julia Gordon, Canadian mathematician
Juliette Gordon Low (1860–1927), founder of the Girl Scouts of the USA
Karl Gordon, British DJ and producer
Ken Gordon (born in 1930), Trinidadian businessman and former politician
Kim Gordon, American musician, member of Sonic Youth
Kyler Gordon (born 1999), American football player
L. C. Gordon (born 1937), American basketball player and coach
Larry Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Lawrence Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Lee Gordon (1902–1946), American musician
Lee Gordon (promoter) (1923–1963), American businessman and rock and roll promoter
Lennox Gordon (born 1978), American football player
Leo Gordon (1922–2000), American film and television character actor
Leon Gordon (1889–1943), Russian-born poet
Leonard A. Gordon is a historian of South Asia, especially of Bengal
Lewis Gordon (born 1962), American philosopher
Lewis Gordon, 3rd Marquess of Huntly (c. 1626 – 1653)
Lewis Gordon (civil engineer) (1815–1876)
Lewis Gordon (Jacobite) (1724–1754)
Lincoln Gordon (1913–2009), president of Johns Hopkins University, and U.S. Ambassador to Brazil
Lindsay Gordon (1892–1940), Canadian air marshal
Lucy Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
M. G. Gordon (1915–1969), American businessman, inventor and social theorist
Manya Gordon (1882–1945), American historian
Margaret Gordon (illustrator) (1939–1989), British artist
Marina Gordon (1917–2013), American singer
Marjory Gordon (1931–2015), American nurse
Marc Gordon (1935–2010), American record producer and music executive
Mark Gordon (producer) (born 1956), American film and television producer
Mark Gordon (Wyoming politician) (born 1957), American politician
Mary Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Maxine Gordon, British actress
Melvin Gordon (born 1993), American football player
Merritt J. Gordon (1859–1925), associate justice of the Washington Supreme Court
Michael Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Mikalah Gordon, (born 1988), American Idol 4 contestant
Mildred Gordon (1912–1979), half of a team of American crime fiction writers: The Gordons (writers)
Mildred Gordon (politician) (1923–2016), British politician
Nancy Gordon, American economist and statistician
Nathan Gordon (footballer) (born 1990), Australian rules footballer
Nathan Green Gordon (1916–2008), American lawyer, politician, and naval aviator
Nathan H. Gordon (1872–1938), motion picture executive
Nathaniel Gordon (1826–1862), American slave trader
Nick Gordon (born 1995), American baseball player
Noah Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Norman Gordon (1911–2014), South African cricketer
Oliver Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Paige Gordon (born 1973), Canadian diver
Pamela Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Patrick Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Paul-Gordon Chandler (born 1964), musician, composer and producer
Peter Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Phil Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Philip Gordon (born 1962), American diplomat
Powhatan Gordon (1802–1879), American politician
Richard Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
R. H. Gordon (1844–1917), American politician
Ricky Ian Gordon (born 1956), US composer
Robby Gordon (born 1969), NASCAR driver
Robert Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Roderick Gordon (born 1960), children's book author
Rodney Gordon (1933–2008), British architect
Ron Gordon, American entrepreneur and former president of Atari.
Rosco Gordon (1928–2002), American blues singer and pianist
Rupert Montgomery Gordon (1898–1961), British parasitologist
Ruth Gordon (1896–1985), actress
Samuel Y. Gordon (1861–1940), Minnesota legislator and the Lieutenant Governor of Minnesota
Sandy Grant Gordon (1933–2020), Scottish distiller
Shahar Gordon (born 1980), Israeli basketball player
Shaul Gordon (born 1994), Canadian-Israeli Olympic sabre fencer
Sheila Gordon (1927–2013), American writer
Sid Gordon (1917–1975), American major league baseball All Star player
Sidney Gordon (businessman) (1917–2007), Scottish businessman
Stuart Gordon (1947–2020), American director
Stuart Gordon (musician), musician with The Korgis
Stephen J. Gordon (born 1986), English chess grandmaster
Steve Gordon (cricketer) (born 1967), Cayman Islands cricketer
Steve Gordon (director) (1938–1982), American film and television director
Steve Gordon (rugby league) (born 1986), rugby league footballer
Steven E. Gordon (born 1960), director, character designer and animator
Stomp Gordon (1926–1958), American jump blues pianist and singer
Sue Gordon (born 1943), magistrate
Susan Gordon (1949–2011), child actress
Thomas Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Tom Gordon (born 1967), American baseball player
Trevor Gordon (1948–2013), British Australian singer, songwriter and musician
Veronica Lucy Gordon, a South Sudanese journalist
Walter Gordon (1942–2012), African-American filmmaker known as Jamaa Fanaka
Walter Gordon (physicist) (1893–1939), physicist active in the 1920s
Walter Gordon (soldier, born 1920) (1920–1997), American World War II veteran
Walter A. Gordon (1894–1976), African-American political figure and American football player for the University of California
Walter Henry Gordon (1863–1924), United States Army General
Walter L. Gordon (1906–1987), Canadian politician and cabinet minister
Wayne Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
William Gordon (disambiguation), multiple people
Willy Gordon (1918–2003), Swedish sculptor
Yekutiel Gordon, disciple of Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzatto
Zachary Gordon (born 1998), American child actor
List of people with a related name
Sir Alexander Cumming-Gordon, 1st Baronet (1749–1806), Scottish politician
Catherine Rose Gordon-Cumming (born 1952), Katie Fforde, British romance novelist
Constance Gordon-Cumming (1837–1924), Scottish travel writer and painter
Roualeyn George Gordon-Cumming (1820–1866), Scottish traveller and sportsman, known as the "lion hunter"
Sir William Gordon-Cumming, 2nd Baronet (1787–1854), Scottish Member of Parliament for Elgin Burghs 1831–1832
Sir William Gordon-Cumming, 4th Baronet (1848–1930), Scottish soldier and adventurer, central figure in the Royal Baccarat Scandal
Sir Alexander Gordon-Lennox (Royal Navy officer) (1911–1987), admiral of the Royal Navy
Lord Alexander Gordon-Lennox (1825–1892), British Conservative politician
Major Lord Bernard Charles Gordon-Lennox (1878–1914), British soldier
Major-General Bernard Charles Gordon-Lennox (1932–2017), commandant of the British Sector in Berlin
Lord George Charles Gordon-Lennox (1829–1877), British Conservative politician
Lieutenant-General Sir George Charles Gordon-Lennox (1908–1988), British soldier
Hilda Madeline Gordon-Lennox, Duchess of Richmond (1872–1971), first chairman of the National Gardens Scheme
Ivy Gordon-Lennox (1887–1982), Ivy Cavendish-Bentinck, Duchess of Portland
Lord Nicholas Gordon-Lennox (1931–2004), British diplomat
Lord Walter Charles Gordon-Lennox (1865–1922), British Conservative Party politician
Joseph Gordon-Levitt (born 1981), American actor
List of nobility
Duke of Gordon, created once in the Peerage of Scotland, and again in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
Dukes of Aubigny
Charles Gordon-Lennox, 5th Duke of Richmond, 5th Duke of Lennox, Duke of Aubigny (1791–1860)
Charles Henry Gordon-Lennox, 6th Duke of Richmond, 6th Duke of Lennox, Duke of Aubigny, 1st Duke of Gordon (1818–1903)
Charles Henry Gordon-Lennox, 7th Duke of Richmond, 7th Duke of Lennox, Duke of Aubigny, 2nd Duke of Gordon (1845–1928)
Charles Henry Gordon-Lennox, 8th Duke of Richmond, 8th Duke of Lennox, Duke of Aubigny, 3rd Duke of Gordon (1870–1935)
Frederick Charles Gordon-Lennox, 9th Duke of Richmond, 9th Duke of Lennox, Duke of Aubigny, 4th Duke of Gordon (1904–1989)
Charles Henry Gordon-Lennox, 10th Duke of Richmond, 10th Duke of Lennox, Duke of Aubigny, 5th Duke of Gordon (1929–2017)
Earls and Marquesses of Huntly
Alexander Gordon, 1st Earl of Huntly
George Gordon, 2nd Earl of Huntly
Alexander Gordon, 3rd Earl of Huntly
George Gordon, 4th Earl of Huntly (1514–1562)
George Gordon, 5th Earl of Huntly
George Gordon, 1st Marquess and 6th Earl of Huntly (1562–1636)
George Gordon, 2nd Marquess of Huntly (1592–1649)
Lewis Gordon, 3rd Marquess of Huntly (c. 1626 – 1653)
George Gordon, 4th Marquess of Huntly (1649–1716) (1st Duke of Gordon)
George Gordon, 9th Marquess of Huntly (1761–1853)
Charles Gordon, 10th Marquess of Huntly (1792–1863)
Charles Gordon, 11th Marquess of Huntly (1847–1937)
Douglas Gordon, 12th Marquess of Huntly (1908–1987)
Granville Charles Gomer Gordon, 13th Marquess of Huntly (born 1944)
Earls and Marquesses of Aberdeen
George Gordon, 1st Earl of Aberdeen (1637–1720)
William Gordon, 2nd Earl of Aberdeen (1679–1745)
George Gordon, 3rd Earl of Aberdeen (1722–1801)
George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen (1784–1860)
George Hamilton-Gordon, 5th Earl of Aberdeen (1816–1864)
George Hamilton-Gordon, 6th Earl of Aberdeen (1841–1870)
John Campbell Hamilton-Gordon, 7th Earl of Aberdeen (1847–1934), 1st Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (1847–1934)
George Gordon, 2nd Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (1879–1965)
Dudley Gladstone Gordon, 3rd Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (1883–1972)
David George Ian Alexander Gordon, 4th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (1908–1974)
Archibald Victor Dudley Gordon, 5th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (1913–1984)
Alastair Ninian John Gordon, 6th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (1920–2002)
Alexander George Gordon, 7th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (1955–2020)
Earls of Aboyne
Charles Gordon, 1st Earl of Aboyne (died 1681)
Charles Gordon, 2nd Earl of Aboyne (died 1702)
John Gordon, 3rd Earl of Aboyne (died 1732)
Charles Gordon, 4th Earl of Aboyne (1728–1795)
George Gordon, 5th Earl of Aboyne (1761–1853) (succeeded as 9th Marquess of Huntly in 1836)
Viscounts of Kenmure
John Gordon, 1st Viscount of Kenmure (1599–1634)
John Gordon, 2nd Viscount of Kenmure (died 1639)
John Gordon, 3rd Viscount of Kenmure (died 1643)
Robert Gordon, 4th Viscount of Kenmure (died 1663)
Alexander Gordon, 5th Viscount of Kenmure (died 1698)
William Gordon, 6th Viscount of Kenmure (died 1715) (attainted 1715)
Descent of titles during attainder:
Robert Gordon, 7th Viscount of Kenmure (1714–1741)
John Gordon, 8th Viscount of Kenmure (1713–1769)
William Gordon, 9th Viscount of Kenmure (c. 1748 – 1772)
John Gordon, 10th Viscount of Kenmure (1750–1840) (restored 1824)
Adam Gordon, 11th Viscount of Kenmure (died 1847)
Viscount of Melgum
John Gordon, 1st Viscount of Melgum (died 1630)
Viscount Gordon
Spanish Gordons
Mauricio González-Gordon y Diez (1923–2013), Spanish sherry maker and conservationist, descendant of Scottish Gordons
Fictional characters
Adrian Gordon, protagonist of the horror adventure games The Black Mirror 2 and 3
Allan Gordon, protagonist of The Surpassing Adventures of Allan Gordon by James Hogg
Artemus Gordon, United States Secret Service agent in "The Wild Wild West" TV series
Audrey Gordon, is a host of Australian satirical television cooking show Audrey's Kitchen
James Gordon, commissioner of Gotham City in Batman
Barbara Gordon, first Batgirl, now the information broker known as Oracle
Dr. Bruce Gordon, the original alter-ego of Eclipso
David "Gordo" Gordon in Lizzie McGuire
Flash Gordon, lead character of the Alex Raymond comic strip of the same name, and the movie, television, and comic books based on the comic strip
Sir Frank Gordon character in the 1980s British sitcom Yes Minister
Lawrence Gordon, fictional character in the first of the Saw franchise
Maggie Gordon, character in The Last Starfighter
Melinda Gordon, the title character of Ghost Whisperer
Meredith Gordon, biological mother of Claire Bennet, and Flint Gordon, Meredith's brother, from Heroes
Patrick Gordon, fictional character on the second season of the television series Downton Abbey
Samuel Gordon, protagonist of the award-winning 2001 adventure game The Black Mirror
Tony Gordon, fictional character on the television series Coronation Street
References
English-language surnames
Anglicised Irish-language surnames
Surnames of Jewish origin
Scottish surnames
Surnames of Scottish origin
Spanish-language surnames
Yiddish-language surnames
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20McQueen
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Alexander McQueen
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Lee Alexander McQueen (17 March 1969 – 11 February 2010) was a British fashion designer and couturier. He founded his own Alexander McQueen label in 1992, and was chief designer at Givenchy from 1996 to 2001. His achievements in fashion earned him four British Designer of the Year awards (1996, 1997, 2001 and 2003), as well as the CFDA's International Designer of the Year award in 2003. McQueen died by suicide in 2010 at the age of 40, at his home in Mayfair, London, shortly after the death of his mother.
McQueen had a background in tailoring before he studied fashion and embarked on a career as a designer. His MA graduation collection caught the attention of fashion editor Isabella Blow, who became his patron. McQueen's early designs, particularly the radically low-cut "bumster" trousers, gained him recognition as an enfant terrible in British fashion. In 2000, McQueen sold 51% of his company to the Gucci Group, which established boutiques for his label worldwide and expanded its product range. During his career, he designed a total of 36 collections for his brand, including his graduation collection and unfinished final collection. Following his death, longtime collaborator Sarah Burton took over as creative director of his label.
As a designer, McQueen was known for sharp tailoring, historicism, and imaginative designs that often verged into the controversial. He explored themes such as romanticism, sexuality, and death, and many collections had autobiographical elements. Among his best-known individual designs are the bumsters, the skull scarf, and the armadillo shoes. McQueen's catwalk shows were noted for their drama and theatricality, and they often ended with elements of performance art, such as a model being spray painted by robots (No. 13, Spring/Summer 1999), or a life-size illusion of Kate Moss (The Widows of Culloden, Autumn/Winter 2006).
McQueen's legacy in fashion and culture is extensive. His designs were showcased in two retrospective exhibitions: Alexander McQueen: Savage Beauty (2011 and 2015) and Lee Alexander McQueen: Mind, Mythos, Muse (2022). He remains the subject of journalistic and academic analysis, including the book Gods and Kings (2015) by fashion journalist Dana Thomas and the documentary film McQueen (2018).
Early life and education
Lee Alexander McQueen was born on 17 March 1969 at University Hospital Lewisham in Lewisham, London,
to Ronald and Joyce McQueen, the youngest of six children. His Scottish father worked as a taxi driver, and his mother a social science teacher. It was reported that he grew up in a council flat, but, in fact, the McQueens moved to a terraced house in Stratford in his first year. McQueen attended Carpenters Road Primary School, before going to Rokeby School.
He was interested in clothes from a young age. As the youngest of six children, McQueen began experimenting with fashion by making dresses for his three sisters. His earliest fashion memory reaches back to when he was just three years old, drawing a dress on the wall of his East London family home. He was also fascinated by birds and was a member of the Young Ornithologists' Club; later, in his professional career, he often used birds as motifs in his designs.
Early career
McQueen left school aged 16 in 1985 with only one O-level in art and took a course in tailoring at Newham College. He went on to serve a two-year apprenticeship on coat-making with Savile Row tailors Anderson & Sheppard before joining Gieves & Hawkes as a pattern cutter for a short time . The skills he learned as an apprentice on Savile Row helped earn him a reputation in the fashion world as an expert in creating an impeccably tailored look. McQueen later claimed that he had sewed obscenities into the lining of suits made for Prince Charles, although a recall of suits made by Anderson & Sheppard to check found no evidence of this.
After Saville Row, he worked briefly for the theatrical costumiers Angels and Bermans, making costumes for shows such as Les Misérables. In 1989, at the age of 20, he was hired by experimental Mayfair-based designer Koji Tatsuno. He first worked as a pattern cutter before moving into clothing production. Shortly after, he moved to fashion label Red or Dead, working under designer John McKitterick; here he gained experience with fetishwear. When McKitterick left Red or Dead in early 1990 to launch his own label, he hired McQueen. By this time, McQueen was interested in becoming a designer himself, and McKitterick recommended he try for an apprenticeship in Italy, then the center of the fashion world.
In spring 1990, McQueen left for Milan, Italy. He had no standing job offer, but secured a position with Romeo Gigli on the basis of his portfolio and tailoring experience. He resigned from Gigli's studio in July 1990, and had returned to London – and McKitterick's label – by August that year.
Central Saint Martins
McQueen was still hungry to learn more about designing clothes, so McKitterick suggested he see Bobby Hillson, the Head of the Masters course in fashion at London art school Central Saint Martins (CSM). McQueen turned up at CSM with a pile of sample clothing and no appointment, seeking a job teaching pattern cutting. Hillson considered him too young for this, but based on the strength of his portfolio, and despite his lack of formal qualifications, accepted McQueen into the eighteen-month masters-level fashion design course. Unable to afford the tuition, he borrowed £4000 from his aunt Renee to cover it.
McQueen started at CSM in October 1990. He met a number of his future collaborators there, including Simon Ungless, a friend and later roommate, and Fleet Bigwood, a print tutor at the school. McQueen received his master's degree in fashion design after presenting his graduation collection at London Fashion Week in March 1992. The collection, titled Jack the Ripper Stalks His Victims, was bought in its entirety by magazine editor Isabella Blow. Through the early days of McQueen's career, Isabella Blow helped pave the way using her unique style and contacts to help McQueen. She was in many ways his mentor, which grew into a close friendship.
Blow was said to have persuaded McQueen to use his middle name Alexander when he subsequently launched his fashion career. Another suggestion was that he used his middle name so as not to lose his unemployment benefits for which he was registered while still a struggling young designer under the name of Lee McQueen. McQueen had said that he refused to be photographed in his early career because he did not want to be recognised in the dole office. In the 2018 documentary McQueen, his boyfriend and assistant designer in the early days, Andrew Groves, said that McQueen dictated that they could only show him from behind to avoid being identified and losing his unemployment benefitshis only significant means of income at that time.
Career
In 1992, McQueen started his own label, and for a time he lived in the basement of Blow's house in Belgravia while it was under renovation. In 1993, he relocated to Hoxton Square, an area that also housed other new designers including Hussein Chalayan and Pauric Sweeney. His first post-graduation collection, Taxi Driver (Autumn/Winter 1993), was inspired by the 1976 Martin Scorsese film of the same name. It was presented during London Fashion Week in March 1993 on a clothes rack in a small room at the Ritz Hotel. McQueen was one of six young designers sponsored by the British Fashion Council that season. Taxi Driver saw the introduction of the "bumster", an extreme low-rise trouser which McQueen returned to again and again. With this collection, McQueen began his early practice of sewing locks of his own hair in perspex onto the clothes to serve as his label. When the exhibit closed, McQueen packed the items into bin bags and headed out clubbing. He stashed the bags behind one club, started drinking, and promptly forgot about them. When he returned the next day, the entire collection was gone. Nothing remains of the collection.
Early runway shows
McQueen's first professional runway show in 1993, the Spring/Summer 1994's Nihilism collection, was held at the Bluebird Garage in Chelsea. His early runway collections developed his reputation for controversy and shock tactics, earning him nicknames like "L'enfant terrible" and "the hooligan of English fashion". McQueen's Nihilism collection, with some models looking bruised and bloodied in see-through clothes and extremely low-cut bumster trousers, was described by journalist Marion Hume of The Independent as "theatre of cruelty" and "a horror show".
McQueen's second runway show was for the Banshee collection. Shortly after creating this collection. McQueen met Katy England, his soon to be "right hand woman", outside of a "high profile fashion show" trying to "blag her way in". He promptly asked her to join him for his following collection, The Birds, as "creative director"; thereafter she continued to work with McQueen, serving as his "second opinion". The Birds, which was named after Alfred Hitchcock's 1963 film and held at Kings Cross, had a roadkill theme featuring clothes with tyre marks and the corsetier Mr Pearl in an 18-inch waist corset.
McQueen's "bumsters" were a common feature of his early shows. Although derided by some and attracted many comments and debate, it spawned a trend in low-rise jeans, especially after Madonna wore one in an MTV advert in 1994. Michael Oliveira-Salac, the director of Blow PR and a friend of McQueen's said, "The bumster for me is what defined McQueen."
Highland Rape
McQueen's fourth runway show for his Autumn/Winter collection of 1995 brought McQueen to the world's attention. The collection, titled Highland Rape, referring to the Highland Clearances of Scotland, was controversial. Some models on the runway wore clothes that were slashed and torn, and in tatters of lace with spatters of fake blood. Reviewers have interpreted it as being about women who were raped and criticised what they saw as misogyny and the glamorisation of rape. McQueen objected to such interpretation, arguing that it referred to "England's rape of Scotland", and was intended to counter other designers' romantic depiction of Scottish culture. As for the charge of misogyny, he said he aimed to empower women and for people to be afraid of the women he dressed.
McQueen followed Highland Rape with The Hunger (Spring/Summer 1996) and Dante (Autumn/Winter 1996). Dante further raised his international profile, and the collection was shown twice; first in Christ Church, Spitalfields, London, later in a disused synagogue in New York, both attended by large enthusiastic crowds. McQueen won his first British Designer of the Year award in 1996.
McQueen's increasing prominence led to a number of projects for music artists. In 1996, he designed the wardrobe for David Bowie's tour of 1997, such as the Union Jack coat worn by Bowie on the cover of his album Earthling. Icelandic singer Björk sought McQueen's work for the cover of her album Homogenic in 1997. McQueen also directed the music video for her song "Alarm Call" from the same album and later contributed the iconic topless dress to her video for "Pagan Poetry".
McQueen continued to attract criticisms of misogyny in some of his later shows for designs that some considered degrading to women. In Bellmer La Poupée (Spring/Summer 1997), inspired by Hans Bellmer's The Doll, McQueen placed models including the black model Debra Shaw in metal restraints, which observers interpreted as a reference to slavery, while the silver mouthpiece in Eshu (Autumn/Winter 2000) forced the wearer to bare her teeth. Similarly the sex-doll lips makeup of the models in The Horn of Plenty (Autumn/Winter 2009–10) was also criticised as being ugly and misogynistic. The fashion writer of the Daily Mail called McQueen "the designer who hates women".
Givenchy appointment
McQueen was appointed head designer of Givenchy in 1996 to succeed John Galliano who had moved to Dior. Hubert de Givenchy, founder of the label known for its elegant couture, criticised McQueen's appointment, describing it as a "total disaster". In turn, upon his arrival at Givenchy, McQueen insulted the founder by calling him "irrelevant". McQueen's debut show for Givenchy, Spring Summer 1997, featured Greek mythology-inspired gold and white designs. Although beautiful, the collection was considered a failure by some critics in contrast to the praise lavished on John Galliano's debut collection for Dior. McQueen himself said to Vogue in October 1997 that the collection was "crap". McQueen had toned down his designs at Givenchy, although he continued to indulge his rebellious streak. Givenchy designs released by Vogue Patterns during this period may be credited to the late designer.
McQueen's relationship with Givenchy was fraught, and he left in March 2001 after his contract ended, with McQueen arguing that Givenchy had started to 'constrain' his creativity.
It's a Jungle out There
Five weeks after his criticised debut for Givenchy, McQueen staged his own show titled It's a Jungle out There, which was inspired by nature. The title was a response to the criticism he received; according to McQueen, after he watched a nature documentary about gazelles being hunted by lions: 'That's me!' Someone's chasing me all the time, and, if I'm caught, they'll pull me down. Fashion is a jungle full of nasty, bitchy hyenas." Model wore eye makeup to resemble gazelles and clothes with horns in the show. This collection, presented at London's Borough Market, was judged a triumph, Amy Spindler of New York Times, who had criticised his Givenchy debut, wrote that McQueen was "fashion's closest thing to a rock star. He isn't just part of the London scene; he is the scene.". The London show restored his reputation and he went on to produce a number of well-received collections for Givenchy.
McQueen staged many of his shows in an unusual or dramatic fashion. His Spring/Summer 1998 Untitled collection (originally titled "Golden Shower" until the sponsor objected) was presented on a catwalk showered with water in yellow light, while the following Joan (after Joan of Arc) ended with a masked model standing in a ring of fire.
No. 13
A catwalk show that received widespread media attention was the Spring/Summer 99 collection No. 13 (it was his 13th collection), which was held in a warehouse in London on 27 September 1998. It took inspiration from William Morris and the Arts and Crafts movement, with its concern for handcraft. Some of the dresses incorporated Morris-inspired embroidery, and the show featured double amputee Aimee Mullins in a pair of prosthetic legs intricately hand-carved in ash. The finale of the show, however, provided a counter-point to the anti-industrial ethic of the Arts and Crafts movement. It featured Shalom Harlow in a white dress spray-painted in yellow and black by two robotic arms from a car manufacturing plant. It is considered one of the most memorable finales in fashion history.
The following Autumn/Winter 99 collection, The Overlook (titled after the Overlook Hotel from Stanley Kubrick's film The Shining) featured winter snowy scene with ice-skaters and presented clothes mostly in white and grey. A notable creation in show was the Coil Corset made in collaboration with jeweller Shaun Leane, who also crafted many other pieces for McQueen, including a Spine Corset (Untitled Spring/Summer 1998) and a yashmak in aluminium and crystal (Eye, Spring/Summer 2000). The Coil Corset, an expansion of the idea of a coiled neck-piece made by Leane for It's a Jungle Out There, was made out of aluminium rings. It was sold in 2017 for $807,000.
McQueen held his first runway show in New York in 1999, titled Eye (Spring/Summer 2000). The theme was on the West's relation to Islam and featured designs that were sexualised version of traditional Islamic dress, which was poorly-received by the critics. The show ended with models in niqāb and burqa floating above spikes that had appeared out of water.
Voss
One of McQueen's most celebrated and dramatic catwalk shows was his 2001 Spring/Summer collection, named Voss after a Norwegian town known for its wildlife habitat. Nature was reflected in the natural material used in some of his clothes such as ostrich feathers, but more unusual were outfits made out of razor clam and mussel shells.
The centre piece tableau that dominated the show was an enormous dark glass box within a larger glass box. Inside the inner dark glass case was an interior filled with moths and, at the centre, a naked model on a chaise lounge with her face obscured by a gas mask. The tableau was revealed when the glass walls of the inner box fell away towards the end of the show and smashed onto the ground. McQueen said that the tableau was based on the Joel Peter Witkin image Sanitarium. The model chosen by McQueen to be the centre of the show was the British writer Michelle Olley. The British fashion photographer Nick Knight said of the VOSS show on his SHOWstudio.com blog: "It was probably one of the best pieces of Fashion Theatre I have ever witnessed."
Because the room outside the box was lit and the inside of the box was unlit before the show started, the glass walls appeared as large mirrors, so that the seated audience saw only their own reflection. Alexander McQueen later described his thoughts on the idea used during VOSS of forcing his audience to stare at their own reflection in the mirrored walls for over an hour before the show started:
Gucci partnership
Before his contract with Givenchy had finished, McQueen signed a deal with Givenchy's rival Gucci in 2000, daring Givenchy to fire him. Gucci bought 51% of McQueen's company with McQueen remaining its creative director, and the deal allowed McQueen to expand his own Alexander McQueen label. In the following years a number of Alexander McQueen boutiques opened in cities around the world, and the label also extended into perfume, eyewear and accessories, trainers, as well as a menswear line.
McQueen continued to present his runway shows in the unconventional manner for which he had become known. The Autumn 2001 show, his last show in London before moving to Paris, featured a merry-go-round with models in clown make-ups dragging along a golden skeleton; the Autumn/Winter 2002 Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious collection was shown with live caged wolves and a black parachute cape inspired by Tim Burton; the Autumn/Winter 2003 Scanners was presented in a snowy wasteland setting with models walking along a wind tunnel; and the Autumn 2004 show was a re-enactment of dance scenes from the Sydney Pollack's film They Shoot Horses, Don't They?, choreographed for the show by Michael Clark. For the spring 2005 It's Only a Game collection, he presented a human chess game, and his autumn 2006 show The Widows of Culloden, featured a life-sized illusion of Kate Moss, an English supermodel, dressed in yards of rippling fabric.
McQueen also became known for using skulls in his designs. A scarf bearing the skull motif, which first appeared in the Irere Spring/Summer collection of 2003, became a celebrity must-have and was copied around the world.
Although McQueen had incorporated menswear into many of his previous catwalk shows, for example Spring/Summer 98, it was only in 2004 that a separate menswear collection was introduced with his first menswear runway show in Milan's menswear event. He was named GQ magazine's Designer of the Year in 2004.
In 2007, McQueen dedicated his Spring 2008 collection, La Dame Bleue, to Isabella Blow, who had died from suicide earlier that year. The show included works by his long-time collaborator Philip Treacy, another of Blow's protégé. The collection had a bird theme and featured brightly coloured clothes with feathers.
McQueen produced a well-received collection, The Girl Who Lived in the Tree, for Autumn/Winter 2008. It was based on a story McQueen created about a feral girl who lived in a tree but transformed into a princess and marry a prince to become a queen. He took inspiration from the Queens of England and the British Raj and Empire to create a romantic and regal collection. The first half of the show focused on dark decorative dresses over petticoats, which became lighter and more lavish in the second half.
The Spring/Summer 2009 collection, Natural Dis-tinction Un-natural Selection, was inspired by Charles Darwin who was the creator of the theory of natural selection, and the impact of industrial revolution on nature. It was presented on a runway filled with taxidermied animals. The show presented structured clothes that featured prints with images of natural materials, as well as crystal-encrusted bodysuits and bell jar-shaped dresses.
In 2009, McQueen also collaborated with dancer Sylvie Guillem, director Robert Lepage and choreographer Russell Maliphant, designing wardrobe for a theater show "Eonnagata", which premiered at Sadler's Wells theatre in London.
Plato's Atlantis
Alexander McQueen's last appearance on a fashion show was in Plato's Atlantis, presented during Paris Fashion Week on 6 October 2009. This Spring/Summer 2010 collection was inspired by nature and the post-human manifesto featuring 46 full looks depicted with sea creature and reptile prints. McQueen installed two large cameras on the runway, both of which moved back and forth, documenting and broadcasting the entire show live on SHOWstudio. Plato's Atlantis was the first fashion show by any designer to be streamed live over the internet, although the website streaming it crashed after Lady Gaga tweeted about the show before it started.
The show began with a video of Raquel Zimmerman lying naked on sand with snakes on her body. The fashion show and the collection addresses Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. as well as current global warming issues. The fantasy collection, named after Plato's island that sunk in the sea, envisaged a future where humans are forced to evolve from living on land to living in water in order to survive. The color scheme changed during the show from green and brown (land) to blue and acqua (ocean). The models exhibited an androgynous look (which represents McQueen's evolutionary themes), as well as possessing post-human characteristics. The prints shifted from reptilian to prints of water creatures such as jellyfish and stingrays. The collection's final silhouettes gave the models marine features while the McQueen's signature armadillo shoe also transformed the appearance of the models' anatomic foot. Plato's Atlantis was yet another way in which McQueen fused fashion with technology. The finale of the show was accompanied by the debut of Lady Gaga's single "Bad Romance".
Final show
At the time of Alexander McQueen's death, he had 16 pieces that were eighty-percent finished for his Autumn/Winter collection. These outfits were completed by his design team and shown in seven presentations to small groups of specially invited audience. This collection, unofficially titled Angels and Demons, was first shown during Paris Fashion Week on 8 March 2010, to a select handful of fashion editors in a mirrored, gilded salon at the 18th-century Hôtel de Clermont-Tonnerre. Some fashion editors said the show was hard to watch because it showed how McQueen was obsessed with the afterlife.
The clothes presented had a medieval and religious look. Basic colours that were repetitively used were red, gold and silver with detailed embroidery. The last outfit presented has a coat made of gold feathers (shown left). His models were accessorised to show his love for theatrical imagery. "Each piece is unique, as was he", McQueen's fashion house said in a statement that was released with the collection.
After company owner Gucci confirmed that the brand would continue, McQueen's long-term assistant Sarah Burton was named as the new creative director of Alexander McQueen in May 2010. In September 2010, Burton presented her first womenswear collection in Paris.
Accomplishments
Some of McQueen's accomplishments included being one of the youngest designers to achieve the title "British Designer of the Year", which he won four times between 1996 and 2003; he was also appointed a CBE and named International Designer of the Year by the Council of Fashion Designers in 2003.
McQueen has been credited with bringing drama and extravagance to the catwalk. He used new technology and innovation to add a different twist to his shows and often shocked and surprised audiences. The silhouettes that he created have been credited for adding a sense of fantasy and rebellion to fashion.
Company
December 2000 saw a new partnership for McQueen, with the Gucci Group's acquiring 51% of his company and McQueen's serving as Creative Director. Plans for expansion included the opening of stores in London, Milan, and New York, and the launch of his perfumes Kingdom and, most recently, My Queen. In 2005, McQueen collaborated with Puma to create a special line of trainers for the shoe brand. In 2006, he launched McQ, a younger, more renegade lower-priced line for men and women. Among his most popular design is the skull scarf first created in 2003.
By the end of 2007, Alexander McQueen had boutiques in London, New York, Los Angeles, Milan, and Las Vegas. Celebrity patrons, including Nicole Kidman, Penélope Cruz, Sarah Jessica Parker, and Rihanna, Monica Brown and J-pop queens, such as Ayumi Hamasaki, Namie Amuro, and Koda Kumi, have frequently been spotted wearing Alexander McQueen clothing to events. The number of McQueen stores worldwide had increased to 100 by the end of 2020, with revenues estimated to be €500m in 2020.
McQueen became one of several designers to participate in MAC's promotion of cosmetic releases created by fashion designers. The collection was released on 11 October 2007 and reflected the looks used on the Autumn/Winter McQueen catwalk created by makeup artist Charlotte Tilbury. The inspiration for the collection was the 1963 Elizabeth Taylor movie Cleopatra, and thus the models sported intense blue, green, and teal eyes with strong black liner extended Egyptian-style. McQueen handpicked the makeup.
Collections
During his career, McQueen designed 36 womenswear collections under his eponymous fashion label, including his graduate school collection and his unfinished final collection. In his earlier collections, he sometimes presented menswear or had male models walk in the shows, but his label did not have a regular menswear line until 2004.
Womenswear mainline catwalk collections:
1992 Graduate Collection – Jack the Ripper Stalks His Victims
Autumn/Winter 1993 – Taxi Driver
Spring/Summer 1994 – Nihilism
Autumn/Winter 1994 – Banshee
Spring/Summer 1995 – The Birds
Autumn/Winter 1995 – Highland Rape
Spring/Summer 1996 – The Hunger
Autumn/Winter 1996 – Dante
Spring/Summer 1997 – Bellmer La Poupee
Autumn/Winter 1997 – It's A Jungle Out There
Spring/Summer 1998 – Untitled (Originally The Golden Shower)
Autumn/Winter 1998 – Joan
Spring/Summer 1999 – No. 13
Autumn/Winter 1999 – The Overlook
Spring/Summer 2000 – Eye
Autumn/Winter 2000 – Eshu
Spring/Summer 2001 – Voss
Autumn/Winter 2001 – What A Merry-Go-Round
Spring/Summer 2002 – The Dance of the Twisted Bull
Autumn/Winter 2002 – Supercalifragilistic
Spring/Summer 2003 – Irere
Autumn/Winter 2003 – Scanners
Spring/Summer 2004 – Deliverance
Autumn/Winter 2004 – Pantheon ad Lucem"
Spring/Summer 2005 – It's Only a Game Autumn/Winter 2005 – The Man Who Knew Too Much Spring/Summer 2006 – Neptune Autumn/Winter 2006 – The Widows of Culloden Spring/Summer 2007 – Sarabande Autumn/Winter 2007 – In Memory of Elizabeth Howe, Salem, 1692 Spring/Summer 2008 – La Dame Bleue Autumn/Winter 2008 – The Girl Who Lived in the Tree Spring/Summer 2009 – Natural Dis-tinction Un-natural Selection Autumn/Winter 2009 – The Horn of Plenty Spring/Summer 2010 – Plato's Atlantis Autumn/Winter 2010 – Angels & Demons
Popular culture
McQueen created custom designs for music artists David Bowie and Björk, which were used in their album covers and tours. Lady Gaga wore several McQueen designs, including the final outfit from Plato's Atlantis, in her video for "Bad Romance".
A leather costume designed by McQueen was worn by Janet Jackson in her halftime show at Super Bowl XXXVIII in 2004, which created a controversy when her breast was briefly exposed in an incident described by Justin Timberlake as a "wardrobe malfunction".
Personal life
McQueen was openly gay and said he realized his sexual orientation when he was six years old. He told his family when he was 18 and, after a rocky period, they accepted it. He described coming out at a young age by saying, "I was sure of myself and my sexuality and I've got nothing to hide. I went straight from my mother's womb onto the gay parade". Later in life, he revealed to his family that he had been sexually abused by his brother-in-law when he was young.
In 2000, McQueen had a marriage ceremony with his partner George Forsyth, a documentary filmmaker, on a yacht in Ibiza. Kate Moss and Annabelle Neilson were bridesmaids. The marriage was not official, as same-sex marriage in Spain was not legal at that time. The relationship ended a year later, with the two maintaining a close friendship.
McQueen was HIV positive.
McQueen was an avid scuba diver and used his passion as a source of inspiration in his designs, including spring 2010's "Plato's Atlantis". Much of his diving was done around the Maldives.
McQueen received press attention after the May 2007 suicide of magazine editor Isabella Blow. Rumours were published that there was a rift between McQueen and Blow at the time of her death, focusing on McQueen's under-appreciation of Blow. McQueen denied these rumours.
Death and memorial
On 3 February 2010, McQueen wrote on his Twitter page that his mother had died the day before, adding: "RIP mumxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx." Four days later, he wrote that he had an "awful week" but said "friends have been great", adding "now I have to somehow pull myself together".
On the morning of 11 February 2010, his housekeeper found McQueen had hanged himself at his home in Green Street, London W1. Paramedics were called and they pronounced him dead at the scene. He was 40 years old.
His family was notified, and his company released a statement announcing his death:
McQueen left a note saying, "Look after my dogs, sorry, I love you, Lee." The Metropolitan Police stated that the note was not suspicious, but did not confirm that the death was a suicide. On 17 February 2010, Westminster Coroner's Court was told that a post-mortem examination found that McQueen's death was due to asphyxiation and hanging. The inquest was adjourned until 28 April 2010, where his death was officially recorded as suicide. The coroner, Paul Knapman, reported finding "a significant level of cocaine, sleeping pills, and tranquillizers in the blood samples taken after the designer's death."
David LaChapelle, a friend of the designer, said that McQueen "was doing a lot of drugs and was very unhappy" at the time of his death. Stephen Pereira, McQueen's psychiatrist, said he had mixed anxiety and depressive disorder for at least three years and had twice taken drug overdoses as "cries for help". He had taken drug overdoses in May and July 2009. Pereira also said that McQueen had repeatedly missed psychiatric sessions, adding that there had been "enormous difficulty in getting him to personally, physically come to appointments."
On 18 February 2010, Robert Polet, the president and chief executive of the Gucci Group, announced that the Alexander McQueen business would carry on without its founder and creative director. McQueen's funeral took place on 25 February 2010 at St. Paul's Church, Knightsbridge, West London. His ashes were later scattered in Skye at Kilmuir. His Skye ancestry had been a strong influence in his life and work.
A memorial was held for McQueen at St. Paul's Cathedral on 20 September 2010. It was attended by 2,500 invited guests, including Björk, Kate Moss, Sarah Jessica Parker, Naomi Campbell, Stella McCartney, Daphne Guinness, Sam Taylor-Johnson, Aaron Taylor-Johnson, Lady Gaga and Anna Wintour. Björk, a close friend of McQueen's, performed a version of "Gloomy Sunday" while dressed in a gown he had designed.
Legacy and tributes
The BBC reported that McQueen had reserved £50,000 of his wealth for his pet dogs so they could live in luxury for the rest of their lives. He also bequeathed £100,000 each to four charities; these include the Battersea Dogs and Cats Home in South London, and the Blue Cross animal welfare charity in Burford, Oxfordshire.
On 16 February 2010, pop musician and friend Lady Gaga performed an acoustic, jazz rendition of her hit single "Telephone" and segued into "Dance in the Dark" at the 2010 Brit Awards. During the performance, Gaga paid tribute to McQueen, by dedicating a song to him. She also commemorated McQueen after accepting her award for Best International Artist, Best International Female, and Best International Album. Gaga dedicated a song to him, titled "Fashion of His Love", on the special edition of her third album, Born This Way. R&B singer Monica dedicated her 2010 music video "Everything To Me" to McQueen. Various other musicians, who were friends and collaborators with McQueen, paid tribute following his death, including Kanye West, Courtney Love, and Katy Perry.
In March 2010, celebrities including Naomi Campbell, Kate Moss and Annabelle Neilson paid visual tribute to McQueen by wearing his distinctive 'manta' dresses. The 'manta' dresses, inspired by a scuba-diving holiday McQueen took to the Maldives in 2009, came from McQueen's 'Plato's Atlantis' collection of Spring-Summer 2010 which was at the time currently available to purchase. 'Manta' dresses had been worn by celebrities such as Daphne Guinness, Noot Seear, Anna Paquin, and Lily Cole prior to his death, and following the announcement that he had died, remaining stocks sold out despite prices starting at £2,800.
In 2012, McQueen was among the British cultural icons selected by artist Sir Peter Blake to appear in a new version of his most famous artwork—the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band album cover—to celebrate the British cultural figures of his life that he most admires. McQueen is also given homage in the popular MMO World of Warcraft. There is an NPC dedicated to Alexander McQueen that is a Tailoring Trainer named Alexandra McQueen. This trainer is also the only one on the horde side that gives a special quest Cloth Scavenging. A dress designed by McQueen featured on a commemorative UK postage stamp issued by the Royal Mail in 2012 celebrating Great British Fashion.
In 2016, a conceptual art piece made by Tina Gorjanc highlighted the possibility for corporations to copyright another human's DNA. She created a series out of pig leather tanned and tattooed to appear similar to McQueen's skin. She filed patents for her method of replicating McQueen's skin in the lab, and displayed these patents along with the leather collection. McQueen's family stated that they did not condone the use of his DNA for fashion projects but acknowledged that this project is exactly the sort of fashion experimentation he would have enjoyed.
Museum exhibitions
The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City hosted a posthumous exhibition of McQueen's work in 2011 titled Savage Beauty. The exhibition's elaborate staging includes unique architectural finishes and soundtracks for each room. Despite being open for only three months, it was one of the most popular exhibitions in the museum's history. The exhibition was so successful that Alexander McQueen fans and industry professionals worldwide began rallying at Change.org to "Please Make Alexander McQueen's Savage Beauty a Traveling Exhibition" to bring honour to McQueen and see his vision become a reality: to share his work with the entire world. The exhibition then appeared in London's Victoria & Albert Museum between 14 March and 2 August 2015. It sold over 480,000 tickets, making it the most popular show ever staged at that museum.
A second exhibition, Lee Alexander McQueen: Mind, Mythos, Muse, was staged at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art and the National Gallery of Victoria in 2022. A version of this exhibition was also produced at the Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec in 2023 under the name Lee Alexander McQueen: l'art rencontre la mode. It juxtaposed McQueen's designs with art and objects from the museum's collection to explore how McQueen's body of work drew from diverse sources across art history.
In media
McQueen has been the subject of several books, both biographical and photographic. The first major biography was Blood Beneath the Skin (2015) by author Andrew Wilson. Gods and Kings (2015) by fashion journalist Dana Thomas discusses his life and work in conjunction with John Galliano, another controversial British designer of the 1990s.
In February 2015, on the fifth anniversary of McQueen's death, the James Phillips play McQueen premiered. The play is set over one night in London and follows a girl who breaks into the designer's home to steal a dress and is caught by McQueen. The production takes inspiration from his imaginative runway shows and was directed by John Caird. It has been described by McQueen's sister Janet as "true to his spirit". Stephen Wight and Dianna Agron played the leading roles.
In 2016, it was announced that Jack O'Connell would play McQueen in a biographical film based on Blood Beneath the Skin. English filmmaker Andrew Haigh was slated to direct. In 2017, both O'Connell and Haigh stated that they were no longer involved in the project.
On 8 June 2018, the documentary McQueen, written and directed by Ian Bonhôte and Peter Ettedgui, was released in the UK. It was described by Harper's Bazaar as "among the most accurate, sensitive, and moving. Using his collections as cornerstones, the documentary features candid interviews with colleagues, friends and even family of McQueen, who was known as Lee to the people he loved." The film was favourably reviewed, earning a score of 84 on the critical aggregator website Metacritic, indicating "universal acclaim", as well as a 99% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, with a Critics Consensus reading, "McQueen offers an intimate, well-sourced, and overall moving look at a young life and brilliant career that were tragically cut short."
References
Works cited
Further reading
Deniau, Anne (2012), Love Looks Not with the Eyes: Thirteen Years with Lee Alexander McQueen, Harry N. Abrams,
Frankel, Susannah; and Waplington, Nick (2013), Alexander McQueen: Working Process, Damiani,
Knox, Kristin (2010), Alexander Mcqueen: Genius of a Generation'', A & C Black Publishers Ltd,
External links
Alexander McQueen – Daily Telegraph obituary
In pictures:Alexander McQueen exhibition – The BBC – Entertainment and Arts
Metropolitan Museum of Art retrospective
1969 births
2010 deaths
2010 suicides
20th-century English businesspeople
Alumni of Central Saint Martins
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
English fashion designers
English people of Scottish descent
Gay businessmen
LGBT fashion designers
English gay artists
English LGBT businesspeople
LGBT-related suicides
People from Stratford, London
People with HIV/AIDS
Kering people
Suicides by hanging in England
Suicides in Westminster
21st-century English LGBT people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maned%20wolf
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Maned wolf
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The maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus) is a large canine of South America. It is found in Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, and Paraguay, and is almost extinct in Uruguay. Its markings resemble those of foxes, but it is neither a fox nor a wolf. It is the only species in the genus Chrysocyon (meaning "golden dog").
It is the largest canine in South America, weighing and up to at the withers. Its long, thin legs and dense reddish coat give it a distinct appearance. The maned wolf is a crepuscular and omnivorous animal adapted to the open environments of the South American savanna, with an important role in the seed dispersal of fruits, especially the wolf apple (Solanum lycocarpum). The maned wolf is a solitary animal. It communicates primarily by scent marking, but also gives a loud call known as "roar-barking".
This mammal lives in open and semi-open habitats, especially grasslands with scattered bushes and trees, in the Cerrado of south, central-west, and southeastern Brazil; Paraguay; northern Argentina; and Bolivia east and north of the Andes, and far southeastern Peru (Pampas del Heath only). It is very rare in Uruguay, possibly being displaced completely through loss of habitat. The International Union for Conservation of Nature lists it as near threatened, while it is considered a vulnerable species by the Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources. In 2011, a female maned wolf, run over by a truck, underwent stem cell treatment at the , this being the first recorded case of the use of stem cells to heal injuries in a wild animal.
Etymology
The term maned wolf is an allusion to the mane of the nape. It is known locally as (meaning "large fox") in the Guarani language, or kalak in the Toba Qom language, , , or in Spanish, and in Portuguese. The term lobo, "wolf", originates from the Latin . Guará and aguará originated from tupi-guarani agoa'rá, "by the fuzz". It also is called borochi in Bolivia.
Taxonomy
Although the maned wolf displays many fox-like characteristics, it is not closely related to foxes. It lacks the elliptical pupils found distinctively in foxes. The maned wolf's evolutionary relationship to the other members of the canid family makes it a unique animal.
Electrophoretic studies did not link Chrysocyon with any of the other living canids studied. One conclusion of this study is that the maned wolf is the only species among the large South American canids that survived the late Pleistocene extinction. Fossils of the maned wolf from the Holocene and the late Pleistocene have been excavated from the Brazilian Highlands.
A 2003 study on the brain anatomy of several canids placed the maned wolf together with the Falkland Islands wolf and with pseudo-foxes of the genus Pseudalopex. One study based on DNA evidence showed that the extinct genus Dusicyon, comprising the Falkland Islands wolf and its mainland relative, was the most closely related species to the maned wolf in historical times, and that about seven million years ago it shared a common ancestor with that genus. A 2015 study reported genetic signatures in maned wolves that are indicative of population expansion followed by contraction that took place during Pleistocene interglaciations about 24,000 years before present.
The maned wolf is not closely related to canids found outside South America. It is not a fox, wolf, coyote or jackal, but a distinct canid; though, based only on morphological similarities, it previously had been placed in the Canis and Vulpes genera. Its closest living relative is the bush dog (genus Speothos), and it has a more distant relationship to other South American canines (the short-eared dog, the crab-eating fox, and the zorros or Lycalopex).
Description
The species was described in 1815 by Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger, initially as Canis brachyurus. Lorenz Oken classified it as Vulpes cancosa, and only in 1839 did Charles Hamilton Smith describe the genus Chrysocyon. Other authors later considered it as a member of the Canis genus. Fossils of Chrysocyon dated from the Late Pleistocene and Holocene epochs were collected in one of Peter Wilheim Lund expeditions to Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais (Brazil). The specimen is kept in the South American Collection of the Zoologisk Museum in Denmark. Since no other record exists of fossils in other areas, the species is suggested to have evolved in this geographic region.
The maned wolf bears minor similarities to the red fox, although it belongs to a different genus. The average adult weighs and stands up to tall at the shoulder, and has a head-body length of , with the tail adding another . Its ears are large and long .
The maned wolf is the tallest of the wild canids; its long legs are likely an adaptation to the tall grasslands of its native habitat. Fur of the maned wolf may be reddish-brown to golden orange on the sides with long, black legs, and a distinctive black mane. The coat is marked further with a whitish tuft at the tip of the tail and a white "bib" beneath the throat. The mane is erectile and typically is used to enlarge the wolf's profile when threatened or when displaying aggression. Melanistic maned wolves do exist, but are rare. The first photograph of a black adult maned wolf was taken by a camera trap in northern Minas Gerais in Brazil in 2013.
The skull can be identified by its reduced carnassials, small upper incisors, and long canine teeth. Like other canids, it has 42 teeth with the dental formula . The maned wolf's rhinarium extends to the upper lip, similar to the bush dog, but its vibrissae are longer. The skull also features a prominent sagittal crest.
The maned wolf's footprints are similar to those of the dog, but have disproportionately small plantar pads when compared to the well-opened digit marks. The dog has pads up to 3 times larger than the maned wolf's footprint. These pillows have a triangular shape. The front footprints are long and wide, and those of the hind feet are long and wide. One feature that differentiates the maned wolf's footprint from those of other South American canids is the proximal union of the third and fourth digits.
The maned wolf also is known for the distinctive cannabis-like odor of its territory markings, which has earned it the nickname "skunk wolf".
Genetics
Genetically, the maned wolf has 37 pairs of autosomes within diploid genes, with a karyotype similar to that of other canids. It has 76 chromosomes, so cannot interbreed with other canids. Evidence suggests that 15,000 years ago, the species suffered a reduction in its genetic diversity, called the bottleneck effect. However, its diversity is still greater than that of other canids.
Ecology and behavior
Hunting and territoriality
The maned wolf is a twilight animal, but its activity pattern is more related to the relative humidity and temperature, similar to that observed with the bush dog (Speothos venaticus). Peak activity occurs between 8 and 10 am, and 8 and 10 pm. On cold or cloudy days, they can be active all day. The species is likely to use open fields for foraging and more closed areas, such as riparian forests, to rest, especially on warmer days.
Unlike most large canids (such as the gray wolf, the African hunting dog, or the dhole), the maned wolf is a solitary animal and does not form packs. It typically hunts alone, usually between sundown and midnight, rotating its large ears to listen for prey animals in the grass. It taps the ground with a front foot to flush out the prey and pounce to catch it. It kills prey by biting on the neck or back, and shaking the prey violently if necessary.
Monogamous pairs may defend a shared territory around , although outside of mating, the individuals may meet only rarely. The territory is crisscrossed by paths that they create as they patrol at night. Several adults may congregate in the presence of a plentiful food source, for example, a fire-cleared patch of grassland that would leave small vertebrate prey exposed while foraging.
Both female and male maned wolves use their urine to communicate, e.g. to mark their hunting paths or the places where they have buried hunted prey. The urine has a very distinctive odor, which some people liken to hops or cannabis. The responsible substance very likely is a pyrazine, which also occurs in both plants. At the Rotterdam Zoo, this smell once set the police on a hunt for cannabis smokers. The preferred habitat of the maned wolf includes grasslands, scrub prairies, and forests.
Reproduction and lifecycle
Their mating season ranges from November to April. Gestation lasts 60 to 65 days, and a litter may have from two to six black-furred pups, each weighing roughly . Pups are fully grown when one year old. During that first year, the pups rely on their parents for food.
Data on the maned wolf's estrus and reproductive cycle mainly come from captive animals, particularly about breeding endocrinology. Hormonal changes of maned wolves in the wild follow the same variation pattern of those in captivity. Females ovulate spontaneously, but some authors suggest that the presence of a male is important for estrus induction.
Captive animals in the Northern Hemisphere breed between October and February and in the Southern Hemisphere between August and October. This indicates that photoperiod plays an important role in maned wolf reproduction, mainly due to the production of semen. Generally, one estrus occurs per year. The amount of sperm produced by the maned wolf is lower compared to those of other canids.
Copulation occurs during the four-day estrus period, and is followed by up to 15 minutes of sexual intercourse. Courtship is similar to that of other canids, characterized by frequent approaches and anogenital investigation.
Gestation lasts 60 to 65 days and a litter may have from two to six pups. One litter of seven has been recorded. Birthing has been observed in May in the Canastra Mountains, but data from captive animals suggest that births are concentrated between June and September. The maned wolf reproduces with difficulty in the wild, with a high rate of infant mortality. Females can go up to two years without breeding. Breeding in captivity is even more difficult, especially in temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere.
Pups are born weighing between 340 and 430 grams. They begin their lives with black fur, becoming red after 10 weeks. The eyes open at about 9 days of age. They are nursed up to 4 months. Afterwards, they are fed by their parents by regurgitation, starting on the third week of age and lasting up to 10 months. Three-month-old pups begin to accompany their mother while she forages. Males and females both engage in parental care, but it is primarily done by the females. Data on male parental care have been collected from captive animals, and little is known whether this occurs frequently in the wild. Maned wolves reach sexual maturity at 1 year of age, when they leave their birth territory.
The maned wolf's longevity in the wild is unknown, but estimates in captivity are between 12 and 15 years. A report was made of an individual at the São Paulo Zoo that lived to be 22 years old.
Diet
The maned wolf is omnivorous. It specialises in preying on small and medium-sized animals, including small mammals (typically rodents and rabbits), birds and their eggs, reptiles, and even fish, gastropods, other terrestrial molluscs, and insects, but a large portion of its diet (more than 50%, according to some studies) is vegetable matter, including sugarcane, tubers, bulbs, roots and fruit. Up to 301 food items have been recorded in the maned wolf's diet, including 116 plants and 178 animal species.
The maned wolf hunts by chasing its prey, digging holes, and jumping to catch birds in flight. About 21% of hunts are successful. Some authors have recorded active pursuits of the Pampas deer. They were also observed feeding on carcasses of run down animals. Fecal analysis has shown consumption of the giant anteater, bush dog, and collared peccary, but whether these animals are actively hunted or scavenged is not known. Armadillos are also commonly consumed. Animals are more often consumed in the dry season.
The wolf apple (Solanum lycocarpum), a tomato-like fruit, is the maned wolf's most common food item. With some exceptions, these fruits make up between 40 and 90% of the maned wolf's diet. The wolf apple is actively sought by the maned wolf, and is consumed throughout the year, unlike other fruits that can only be eaten in abundance during the rainy season. It can consume several fruits at a time and disperse intact seeds by defecating, making it an excellent disperser of the wolf apple plant.
Despite their preferred habitat, maned wolves are ecologically flexible and can survive in disturbed habitats, from burned areas to places with high human influences. Burned areas have some small mammals, such as hairy-tailed bolo mouse (Necromys lasiurus) and vesper mouse (Calomys spp.) that they can hunt and survive on.
Historically, captive maned wolves were fed meat-heavy diets, but that caused them to develop bladder stones. Zoo diets for them now feature fruits and vegetables, as well as meat and specialized extruded diet formulated for maned wolves to be low in stone-causing compounds (i.e. cystine).
Relations with other species
The maned wolf participates in symbiotic relationships. It contributes to the propagation and dissemination of the plants on which it feeds, through excretion. Often, maned wolves defecate on the nests of leafcutter ants. The ants then use the dung to fertilize their fungus gardens, but they discard the seeds contained in the dung onto refuse piles just outside their nests. This process significantly increases the germination rate of the seeds.
Maned wolves suffer from ticks, mainly of the genus Amblyomma, and by flies such as Cochliomyia hominivorax usually on the ears. Interestingly, the maned wolf is poorly parasitized by fleas. The sharing of territory with domestic dogs results in a number of diseases, such as rabies virus, parvovirus, distemper virus, canine adenovirus, protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, bacterium Leptospira interrogans, and nematode Dirofilaria immitis. The maned wolf is particularly susceptible to potentially fatal infection by the giant kidney worm. Ingestion of the wolf apple could prevent maned wolves from contracting this nematode, but such a hypothesis has been questioned by several authors.
Its predators are mainly large cats, such as the puma (Puma concolor) and the jaguar (Panthera onca), but it is most often preyed upon by the jaguar.
Humans
Generally, the maned wolf is shy and flees when alarmed, so it poses little direct threat to humans. Popularly, the maned wolf is thought to have the potential of being a chicken thief. It once was considered a similar threat to cattle, sheep, and pigs, although this now is known to be false.
Historically, in a few parts of Brazil, these animals were hunted for some body parts, notably the eyes, that were believed to be good-luck charms.
Since its classification as a vulnerable species by the Brazilian government, it has received greater consideration and protection.
They are threatened by habitat loss and being run over by automobiles. Feral and domestic dogs pass on diseases to them, and have been known to attack them.
The species occurs in several protected areas, including the national parks of Caraça and Emas in Brazil. The maned wolf is well represented in captivity, and has been bred successfully at many zoos, particularly in Argentina, North America (part of a Species Survival Plan) and Europe (part of a European Endangered Species Programme). In 2012, a total of 3,288 maned wolves were kept at more than 300 institutions worldwide. The Smithsonian National Zoo Park has been working to protect maned wolves for nearly 30 years, and coordinates the collaborative, interzoo maned wolf Species Survival Plan of North America, which includes breeding maned wolves, studying them in the wild, protecting their habitat, and educating people about them.
Conservation
The maned wolf is not considered an endangered species by the IUCN because of its wide geographical distribution and adaptability to man-made environments. However, due to declining populations, it is classified as a near-threatened species. This decline is mostly due to human activities such as deforestation, increasing traffic in highways resulting in roadkill, and urban growth. Due to the decrease in their habitat, the wolves often migrate to urban regions looking for easier access to food. This increases their contact with domestic animals, as well as the risk of infectious and parasitic diseases amongst the wolves which can lead to death.
Until 1996 the maned wolf was a vulnerable species by the IUCN. It is also listed in CITES Appendix II, which regulates international trade in the species. The ICMBio list in Brazil that follows the same IUCN criteria considers the wolf to be a vulnerable species. By these same criteria, the Brazilian state lists also consider it more problematic: it is a vulnerable species in the lists of São Paulo and Minas Gerais, while in the lists of Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul the maned wolf is considered as "endangered" and "critically endangered" respectively. In Uruguay, although there is no such list as Brazil and IUCN, it is regarded as a species with "priority" for conservation. In Argentina it is not considered to be in critical danger, but it is recognized that its populations are declining and fragmented. The situation of the maned wolf in Bolivia and Paraguay is uncertain. Even with these uncertainties the maned wolf is protected against hunting in all countries.
In Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay it is forbidden by law to hunt the maned wolf. Conservationists are also taking other steps to ensure its survival, especially as urbanization continues to spread in its natural habitat.
In human cultures
Human attitudes and opinions about the maned wolf vary across populations, ranging from fear and tolerance to aversion. In some regions of Brazil, parts of the animal's body are believed to help cure bronchitis, kidney disease, and even snake bites. It is also believed to bring good luck. These parts can be teeth, the heart, ears, and even dry stools. In Bolivia, mounting a saddle made of maned wolf leather is believed to protect from bad luck. Despite these superstitions, no large-scale use of parts of this animal occurs.
In urban societies in Brazil, people tend to be sympathetic to the maned wolf, seeing no value in it as a hunting animal or pest. They often consider its preservation to be important, and although these societies associate it with force and ferocity, they do not consider it a dangerous animal. Although popular in some places and common in many zoos, it can go unnoticed. Studies in zoos in Brazil showed that up to 30% of respondents were either unaware or unable to recognize a maned wolf.
It was considered a common animal by the Guarani people, and the first names used by Europeans, such as the Spanish Jesuit missionary Joseph of Anchieta, were the same used by the native peoples (yaguaraçú). Spanish naturalist Felix de Azara also used the Guarani name to refer to it and was one of the first to describe the biology of the species and consider it an important part of Paraguay's fauna. Much of the negative view of the maned wolf as a poultry predator stems from European ethnocentrism, where peasants often had problems with wolves and foxes.
The maned wolf rarely causes antipathy in the human populations of the places in which it lives, so it has been used as a flag species for the preservation of the Brazilian cerrado. It is represented on the 200-reais banknote, released in September 2020. It has also been represented on the 100-cruzeiros reais coin, which circulated in Brazil between 1993 and 1994.
The urine smell of cannabis
Many individuals argue that specific varieties of cannabis possess a scent remarkably similar to the urine of animals like cats. However, the resemblance in the odor of maned wolf urine is even more pronounced. The intense smell of their urine could serve as an adaptation for territorial maintenance, designed to be potent enough for detection from a considerable distance. This resemblance is so striking that in 2006, authorities at Rotterdam Zoo were alerted to investigate complaints about a visitor allegedly smoking cannabis while observing the animals./
Drawing from knowledge about the organic compounds found in the urine of cats and dogs, it is conceivable that the source of the maned wolf's pungent urine could be a sulphur-based compound. For instance, cats feature a sulphur-containing amino acid known as felinin in their urine, contributing to olfactory communication. It is plausible that maned wolves possess a similar substance.
Gallery
References
Further reading
Bandeira de Melo, L. F., M. A. Lima Sábato, E. M. Vaz Magni, R. J. Young, C. M. Coelho (January 2007). "Secret lives of maned wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus Illiger 1815): as revealed by GPS tracking collars". Journal of Zoology, 271(1). pp. 27–36. .
Garcia, D., Estrela, G. C., Soares, R. T. G., Paulino, D., Jorge, A. T., Rodrigues, M. A., Sasahara, T. H., & Honsho, C. (2020). "A study on the morphoquantitative and cytological characteristics of the bulbar conjunctiva of the maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus; Illiger, 1815)". Anatomia Histologia Embryologia, 1. .
Vergara-Wilson, V., Hidalgo-Hermoso, E., Sanchez, C. R., Abarca, M. J., Navarro, C., Celis-Diez, S., Soto-Guerrero, P., Diaz-Ayala, N., Zordan, M., Cifuentes-Ramos, F., & Cabello-Stom, J. (2021). "Canine Distemper Outbreak by Natural Infection in a Group of Vaccinated Maned Wolves in Captivity". Pathogens, 10(1), 51. .
Articles containing video clips
Cerdocyonina
Carnivorans of South America
Fauna of the Cerrado
Extant Late Pleistocene first appearances
Mammals described in 1815
Pleistocene carnivorans
Pleistocene mammals of South America
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propaganda%20model
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Propaganda model
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The propaganda model is a conceptual model in political economy advanced by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky to explain how propaganda and systemic biases function in corporate mass media. The model seeks to explain how populations are manipulated and how consent for economic, social, and political policies, both foreign and domestic, is "manufactured" in the public mind due to this propaganda. The theory posits that the way in which corporate media is structured (e.g. through advertising, concentration of media ownership or government sourcing) creates an inherent conflict of interest and therefore acts as propaganda for anti-democratic elements.
First presented in their 1988 book Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media, the propaganda model views corporate media as businesses interested in the sale of a product—readers and audiences—to other businesses (advertisers) rather than the pursuit of quality journalism in service of the public. Describing the media's "societal purpose", Chomsky writes, "... the study of institutions and how they function must be scrupulously ignored, apart from fringe elements or a relatively obscure scholarly literature". The theory postulates five general classes of "filters" that determine the type of news that is presented in news media. These five classes are: ownership of the medium, the medium's funding sources, sourcing, flak, and anti-communism or "fear ideology".
The first three are generally regarded by the authors as being the most important. In versions published after the 9/11 attacks on the United States in 2001, Chomsky and Herman updated the fifth prong to instead refer to the "War on Terror" and "counter-terrorism", which they state operates in much the same manner.
Although the model was based mainly on the media of the United States, Chomsky and Herman believe the theory is equally applicable to any country that shares the basic economic structure and organizing principles that the model postulates as the cause of media biases. Their assessment has been supported by a number of scholars and the propaganda role of the media has since been empirically assessed in Western Europe and Latin America.
Filters
Ownership
The size and profit-seeking imperative of dominant media corporations create a bias. The authors point to how in the early nineteenth century, a radical British press had emerged that addressed the concerns of workers, but excessive stamp duties, designed to restrict newspaper ownership to the 'respectable' wealthy, began to change the face of the press. Nevertheless, there remained a degree of diversity. In post World War II Britain, radical or worker-friendly newspapers such as the Daily Herald, News Chronicle, Sunday Citizen (all since failed or absorbed into other publications), and the Daily Mirror (at least until the late 1970s) regularly published articles questioning the capitalist system. The authors posit that these earlier radical papers were not constrained by corporate ownership and therefore, were free to criticize the capitalist system.
Herman and Chomsky argue that since mainstream media outlets are currently either large corporations or part of conglomerates (e.g. Westinghouse or General Electric), the information presented to the public will be biased with respect to these interests. Such conglomerates frequently extend beyond traditional media fields and thus have extensive financial interests that may be endangered when certain information is publicized. According to this reasoning, news items that most endanger the corporate financial interests of those who own the media will face the greatest bias and censorship.
It then follows that if to maximize profit means sacrificing news objectivity, then the news sources that ultimately survive must be fundamentally biased, with regard to news in which they have a conflict of interest.
Advertising
The second filter of the propaganda model is funding generated through advertising. Most newspapers have to attract advertising in order to cover the costs of production; without it, they would have to increase the price of their newspaper. There is fierce competition throughout the media to attract advertisers; a newspaper which gets less advertising than its competitors is at a serious disadvantage. Lack of success in raising advertising revenue was another factor in the demise of the 'people's newspapers' of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
The product is composed of the affluent readers who buy the newspaper—who also comprise the educated decision-making sector of the population—while the actual clientele served by the newspaper includes the businesses that pay to advertise their goods. According to this filter, the news is "filler" to get privileged readers to see the advertisements which makes up the content and will thus take whatever form is most conducive to attracting educated decision-makers. Stories that conflict with their "buying mood", it is argued, will tend to be marginalized or excluded, along with information that presents a picture of the world that collides with advertisers' interests. The theory argues that the people buying the newspaper are the product which is sold to the businesses that buy advertising space; the news has only a marginal role as the product.
Sourcing
The third of Herman and Chomsky's five filters relates to the sourcing of mass media news: "The mass media are drawn into a symbiotic relationship with powerful sources of information by economic necessity and reciprocity of interest." Even large media corporations such as the BBC cannot afford to place reporters everywhere. They concentrate their resources where news stories are likely to happen: the White House, the Pentagon, 10 Downing Street and other central news "terminals". Although British newspapers may occasionally complain about the "spin-doctoring" of New Labour, for example, they are dependent upon the pronouncements of "the Prime Minister's personal spokesperson" for government news. Business corporations and trade organizations are also trusted sources of stories considered newsworthy. Editors and journalists who offend these powerful news sources, perhaps by questioning the veracity or bias of the furnished material, can be threatened with the denial of access to their media life-blood - fresh news. Thus, the media has become reluctant to run articles that will harm corporate interests that provide them with the resources that they depend upon.
This relationship also gives rise to a "moral division of labor", in which "officials have and give the facts" and "reporters merely get them". Journalists are then supposed to adopt an uncritical attitude that makes it possible for them to accept corporate values without experiencing cognitive dissonance.
Flak
The fourth filter is 'flak' (not to be confused with flack which means promoters or publicity agents), described by Herman and Chomsky as 'negative responses to a media statement or [TV or radio] program. It may take the form of letters, telegrams, phone calls, petitions, lawsuits, speeches and Bills before Congress and other modes of complaint, threat and punitive action'. Business organizations regularly come together to form flak machines. An example is the US-based Global Climate Coalition (GCC), comprising fossil fuel and automobile companies such as Exxon, Texaco and Ford. The GCC was conceived by Burson-Marsteller, one of the world's largest public relations companies, to attack the credibility of climate scientists and 'scare stories' about global warming.
For Chomsky and Herman "flak" refers to negative responses to a media statement or program. The term "flak" has been used to describe what Chomsky and Herman see as efforts to discredit organizations or individuals who disagree with or cast doubt on the prevailing assumptions which Chomsky and Herman view as favorable to established power (e.g., "The Establishment"). Unlike the first three "filtering" mechanisms—which are derived from analysis of market mechanisms—flak is characterized by concerted efforts to manage public information.
Anti-Communism and fear
The fifth and final news filter that Herman and Chomsky identified was 'anti-communism'. Manufacturing Consent was written during the Cold War. Chomsky updated the model as "fear", often as 'the enemy' or an 'evil dictator' such as Colonel Gaddafi, Paul Biya, Saddam Hussein, Slobodan Milosevic, or Vladimir Putin. This is exemplified in British tabloid headlines of 'Smash Saddam!' and 'Clobba Slobba!'. The same is said to extend to mainstream reporting of environmentalists as 'eco-terrorists'. The Sunday Times ran a series of articles in 1999 accusing activists from the non-violent direct action group Reclaim The Streets of stocking up on CS gas and stun guns.
Anti-ideologies exploit public fear and hatred of groups that pose a potential threat, either real, exaggerated or imagined. Communism once posed the primary threat according to the model. Communism and socialism were portrayed by their detractors as endangering freedoms of speech, movement, the press and so forth. They argue that such a portrayal was often used as a means to silence voices critical of elite interests. Chomsky argues that since the end of the Cold War (1991), anticommunism was replaced by the "War on Terror", as the major social control mechanism: "Anti-communism has receded as an ideological factor in the Western media, but it is not dead... The 'war on terror' has provided a useful substitute for the Soviet Menace." Following the events of September 11, 2001, some scholars agree that Islamophobia is replacing anti-communism as a new source of public fear. Herman and Chomsky noted, in an interview given in 2009, that the popularity of 'anti-communism' as a news filter is slowly decreasing in favor of other more contemporary ideologies such as 'anti-terrorism'.
Case examples
Following the theoretical exposition of the propaganda model, Manufacturing Consent contains a large section where the authors seek to test their hypotheses. If the propaganda model is right and the filters do influence media content, a particular form of bias would be expected—one that systematically favors corporate interests.
They also looked at what they perceived as naturally occurring "historical control groups" where two events, similar in their properties but differing in the expected media attitude towards them, are contrasted using objective measures such as coverage of key events (measured in column inches) or editorials favoring a particular issue (measured in number).
Coverage of "enemy" countries
Examples of bias given by the authors include the failure of the media to question the legality of the Vietnam War while greatly emphasizing the Soviet–Afghan War as an act of aggression.
Other biases include a propensity to emphasize violent acts such as genocide more in enemy or unfriendly countries such as Kosovo while ignoring greater genocide in allied countries such as the Indonesian occupation of East Timor. This bias is also said to exist in foreign elections, giving favorable media coverage to fraudulent elections in allied countries such as El Salvador and Guatemala, while unfavorable coverage is given to legitimate elections in enemy countries such as Nicaragua.
Chomsky also asserts that the media accurately covered events such as the Battle of Fallujah but because of an ideological bias, it acted as pro-government propaganda. In describing coverage of raid on Fallujah General Hospital he stated that The New York Times, "accurately recorded the battle of Fallujah but it was celebrated... it was a celebration of ongoing war crimes". The article in question was "Early Target of Offensive Is a Hospital".
Scandals of leaks
The authors point to biases that are based on only reporting scandals which benefit a section of power, while ignoring scandals that hurt the powerless. The biggest example of this was how the US media greatly covered the Watergate Scandal but ignored the COINTELPRO exposures. While the Watergate break-in was a political threat to powerful people (Democrats), COINTELPRO harmed average citizens and went as far as political assassination. Other examples include coverage of the Iran–Contra affair by only focusing on people in power such as Oliver North but omitting coverage of the civilians killed in Nicaragua as the result of aid to the contras.
In a 2010 interview, Chomsky compared media coverage of the Afghan War Diaries released by WikiLeaks and lack of media coverage to a study of severe health problems in Fallujah. While there was ample coverage of WikiLeaks there was no American coverage of the Fallujah study, in which the health situation in Fallujah was described by the British media as "worse than Hiroshima".
Applications
Since the publication of Manufacturing Consent, Herman and Chomsky have adopted the theory and have given it a prominent role in their writings, lectures and theoretical frameworks. Chomsky has made extensive use of its explanative power to lend support to his interpretations of mainstream media attitudes towards a wide array of events, including the following:
Gulf War (1990), the media's failure to report on Saddam's peace offers.
Iraq invasion (2003), the media's failure to report on the legality of the war despite overwhelming public opinion in favor of only invading Iraq with UN authorization. According to the liberal watchdog group Fairness and Accuracy In Reporting, there was a disproportionate focus on pro-war sources while total anti-war sources only made up 10% of the media (with only 3% of US sources being anti-war).
Global warming, a 2004 study found that the media gives near equal balance to people who deny climate change despite only "about one percent" of climate scientists taking this view. Chomsky commented that there are "three sides" on climate change (deniers, those who follow the scientific consensus, and people who think that the consensus underestimates the threat from global warming), but in framing the debate the media usually ignore people who say that the scientific consensus is unduly optimistic.
Reception
On the rare occasions the propaganda model is discussed in the mainstream media there is usually a large reaction. In 1988, when Chomsky was interviewed by Bill Moyers, there were 1,000 letters in response, one of the biggest written reactions in the show's history. When he was interviewed by TV Ontario, the show generated 31,321 call-ins, which was a new record for the station.
In 1996, when Chomsky was interviewed by Andrew Marr the producer commented that the response was "astonishing". He commented that "[t]he audience reaction was astonishing... I have never worked on a programme which elicited so many letters and calls".
In May 2007, Chomsky and Herman spoke at the University of Windsor in Canada summarizing developments and responding to criticisms related to the model. Both authors stated they felt the propaganda model is still applicable (Herman said even more so than when it was introduced), although they did suggest a few areas where they believe it falls short and needs to be extended in light of recent developments.
Chomsky has insisted that while the propaganda role of the media "is intensified by ownership and advertising" the problem mostly lies with "ideological-doctrinal commitments that are part of intellectual life" or intellectual culture of the people in power. He compares the media to scholarly literature which he says has the same problems even without the constraints of the propaganda model.
At the Windsor talk, Chomsky pointed out that Edward S. Herman was primarily responsible for creating the theory although Chomsky supported it. According to Chomsky, he insisted Herman's name appear first on the cover of Manufacturing Consent because of his primary role researching and developing the theory.
Harvard media torture study
In April 2010, a study conducted by the Harvard Kennedy School showed that media outlets such as The New York Times and Los Angeles Times stopped using the term "torture" for waterboarding when the US government committed it, from 2002 to 2008. It also noted that the press was "much more likely to call waterboarding torture if a country other than the United States is the perpetrator." The study was similar to media studies done in Manufacturing Consent for topics such as comparing how the term "genocide" is used in the media when referring to allied and enemy countries. Glenn Greenwald said that "We don't need a state-run media because our media outlets volunteer for the task..." and commented that the media often act as propaganda for the government without coercion.
Studies of media outside the United States
Chomsky has commented in the "ChomskyChat Forum" on the applicability of the Propaganda Model to the media environment of other countries:
That's only rarely been done in any systematic way. There is work on the British media, by a good U[niversity] of Glasgow media group. And interesting work on British Central America coverage by Mark Curtis in his book Ambiguities of Power. There is work on France, done in Belgium mostly, also a recent book by Serge Halimi (editor of Le Monde diplomatique). There is one very careful study by a Dutch graduate student, applying the methods Ed Herman used in studying US media reaction to elections (El Salvador, Nicaragua) to 14 major European newspapers. ... Interesting results. Discussed a bit (along with some others) in a footnote in chapter 5 of my book Deterring Democracy, if you happen to have that around.
For more than a decade, a British-based website Media Lens has examined their domestic broadcasters and liberal press. Its criticisms are featured in the books Guardians of Power (2006) and Newspeak in the 21st Century (2009).
Studies have also expanded the propaganda model to examine news media in the People's Republic of China and for film production in Hollywood.
News of the World
In July 2011, the journalist Paul Mason, then working for the BBC, pointed out that the News International phone hacking scandal threw light on close links between the press and politicians. However, he argued that the closure of the mass-circulation newspaper News of the World, which took place after the scandal broke, conformed only partly to the propaganda model. He drew attention to the role of social media, saying that "large corporations pulled their advertising" because of the "scale of the social media response" (a response which was mainly to do with the newspaper's behaviour towards Milly Dowler, although Mason did not go into this level of detail).
Mason praised The Guardian for having told the truth about the phone-hacking, but expressed doubt about the financial viability of the newspaper.
One part of the Chomsky doctrine has been proven by exception. He stated that newspapers that told the truth could not make money. The Guardian...is indeed burning money and may run out of it in three years' time.
Criticism
The Anti-Chomsky Reader
Eli Lehrer of the American Enterprise Institute criticized the theory in The Anti-Chomsky Reader. According to Lehrer, the fact that papers like The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal have disagreements is evidence that the media is not a monolithic entity. Lehrer also believes that the media cannot have a corporate bias because it reports on and exposes corporate corruption. Lehrer asserts that the model amounts to a Marxist conception of right-wing false consciousness.
Herman and Chomsky have asserted that the media "is not a solid monolith" but that it represents a debate between powerful interests while ignoring perspectives that challenge the "fundamental premises" of all these interests. For instance, during the Vietnam War there was disagreement among the media over tactics, but the broader issue of the legality and legitimacy of the war was ignored (see Coverage of "enemy" countries). Chomsky has said that while the media are against corruption, they are not against society legally empowering corporate interests which is a reflection of the powerful interests that the model would predict. The authors have also said that the model does not seek to address "the effects of the media on the public" which might be ineffective at shaping public opinion. Edward Herman has said "critics failed to comprehend that the propaganda model is about how the media work, not how effective they are".
Inroads: A Journal of Opinion
Gareth Morley argues in an article in Inroads: A Journal of Opinion that widespread coverage of Israeli mistreatment of protesters as compared with little coverage of similar (or much worse) events in sub-Saharan Africa is poorly explained. This was in response to Chomsky's assertion that in testing the Model, examples should be carefully paired to control reasons for discrepancies not related to political bias. Chomsky himself cites the examples of government mis-treatment of protesters and points out that general coverage of the two areas compared should be similar, raising the point that they are not: news from Israel (in any form) is far more common than news from sub-Saharan Africa. Morley considers this approach dubiously empirical.
The New York Times review
Writing for The New York Times, the historian Walter LaFeber criticized the book Manufacturing Consent for overstating its case, in particular with regards to reporting on Nicaragua and not adequately explaining how a powerful propaganda system would let military aid to the Contra rebels be blocked. Herman responded in a letter by stating that the system was not "all powerful" and that LaFeber did not address their main point regarding Nicaragua. LaFeber replied that:
Mr. Herman wants to have it both ways: to claim that leading American journals "mobilize bias" but object when I cite crucial examples that weaken the book's thesis. If the news media are so unqualifiedly bad, the book should at least explain why so many publications (including my own) can cite their stories to attack President Reagan's Central American policy.
Chomsky responds to LaFeber's reply in Necessary Illusions:
What is more, a propaganda model is not weakened by the discovery that with careful and critical reading, material could be unearthed in the media that could be used by those that objected to "President Reagan's Central American policy" on grounds of principle, opposing not its failures but its successes: the near destruction of Nicaragua and the blunting of the popular forces that threatened to bring democracy and social reform to El Salvador, among other achievements.
See also
Concentration of media ownership
Corporate censorship
Crowd manipulation
Edward Bernays
Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting
Gatekeeping (communication)
Mass psychology
Politico-media complex
Propaganda
Propaganda in the United States
Spin (public relations)
References
Notes
Bibliography
(2013 edition )
External links
The Propaganda Model Revisited by Edward S. Herman, 1996
The Propaganda Model: An Overview by David Cromwell, 2002
As PDF
The Propaganda Model: A Retrospective by Edward S. Herman, 2003
Media, Power and the Origins of the Propaganda Model: An Interview with Edward S. Herman by Jeffery Klaehn, 2008
Part II
Propaganda Model Resource List at Source Watch
Online videos
Manufacturing Consent, The Propaganda Model, 1992
"Noam Chomsky - The Political Economy of the Mass Media - Part 1"
"The Myth of the Liberal Media: The Propaganda Model of News"
Chomsky "Media" interview by Andrew Marr, The Big Idea, 1996
Noam Chomsky in conversation with Jonathan Freedland. British Library exhibition: Propaganda, Power and Persuasion. March 19, 2003.
Noam Chomsky: The 5 Filters of the Mass Media Machine
1988 introductions
Noam Chomsky
Media bias
Model
Political economy
Political theories
Political science theories
Self-censorship
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expulsion%20of%20the%20Acadians
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Expulsion of the Acadians
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The Expulsion of the Acadians, also known as the Great Upheaval, the Great Expulsion, the Great Deportation, and the Deportation of the Acadians ( or ), was the forced removal, by the British, of inhabitants of parts of a Canadian-American region historically known as Acadia, between 1755 and 1764. The area included the present-day Canadian Maritime provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island, and the present-day U.S. state of Maine. The Expulsion, which caused the deaths of thousands of people, occurred during the French and Indian War (the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War) and was part of the British military campaign against New France.
The British first deported Acadians to the Thirteen Colonies, and after 1758, transported additional Acadians to Britain and France. In all, of the 14,100 Acadians in the region, approximately 11,500 were deported, at least 5,000 Acadians died of disease, starvation or shipwrecks. Men, women and children were forcibly removed from their homes and their land, which they had farmed for a century. Their houses were burned and their land given to settlers loyal to Britain, mostly immigrants from New England and then Scotland. The event is largely regarded as a crime against humanity, though modern-day use of the term "genocide" is debated by scholars. A census of 1764 indicates that 2,600 Acadians remained in the colony having eluded capture.
In 1710, during the War of the Spanish Succession, the British captured Port Royal, the capital of Acadia, in a siege. The 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, which concluded the larger conflict, ceded the colony to Great Britain while allowing the Acadians to keep their lands. However, the Acadians were reluctant to sign an unconditional oath of allegiance to Britain. Over the following decades, some participated in French military operations against the British and maintained supply lines to the French fortresses of Louisbourg and Fort Beauséjour. As a result, the British sought to eliminate any future military threat posed by the Acadians and to permanently cut the supply lines they provided to Louisbourg by removing them from the area.
Without making any distinction between the Acadians who had been neutral and those who had resisted the occupation of Acadia, the British governor Charles Lawrence and the Nova Scotia Council ordered them to be expelled. In the first wave of the expulsion, Acadians were deported to other British North American colonies. During the second wave, they were deported to Britain and France, and from there a significant number migrated to Spanish Louisiana, where "Acadians" eventually became "Cajuns". Acadians fled initially to Francophone colonies such as Canada, the uncolonized northern part of Acadia, Île Saint-Jean (now Prince Edward Island), and Île Royale (now Cape Breton Island). During the second wave of the expulsion, these Acadians were either imprisoned or deported.
Along with the British achieving their military goals of destroying the fortress of Louisbourg and weakening the Mi'kmaq and Acadian militias, the result of the Expulsion was the devastation of both a primarily civilian population and the economy of the region. Thousands of Acadians died in the expulsions, mainly from diseases and drowning when ships were lost. On July 11, 1764, the British government passed an order-in-council to permit Acadians to return to British territories in small isolated groups, provided that they take an unqualified oath of allegiance. Today the Acadians live primarily in eastern New Brunswick and in some regions of Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, Quebec and Northern Maine. American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow memorialized the expulsion in the popular 1847 poem, Evangeline, about the plight of a fictional character, which spread awareness of the expulsion.
Historical context
After the British gained control of Acadia in 1713, the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath of loyalty to become British subjects. Instead, they negotiated a conditional oath that promised neutrality. They also worried that signing the oath might commit male Acadians to fight against France during wartime and that it would be perceived by their Mi'kmaq neighbours and allies as an acknowledgement of the British claim to Acadia, putting villages at risk of attack from the Miꞌkmaq.
Other Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath because they were anti-British. Various historians have observed that some Acadians were labelled "neutral" when they were not. By the time of the Expulsion of the Acadians, there was already a long history of political and military resistance by Acadians and the Wabanaki Confederacy to the British occupation of Acadia. The Miꞌkmaq and the Acadians were allies through numerous inter-marriages during the previous century. While the Acadians were the largest population, the Wabanaki Confederacy, particularly the Miꞌkmaq, held the military strength in Acadia even after the British conquest. They resisted the British occupation and were joined on numerous occasions by Acadians. These efforts were often supported and led by French priests in the region. The Wabanaki Confederacy and Acadians fought against the British Empire in six wars, including the French and Indian Wars, Father Rale's War and Father Le Loutre's War, over a period of 75 years.
Seven Years' War
In 1753, French troops from Canada marched south and seized and fortified the Ohio Valley. Britain protested the invasion and claimed Ohio for itself. On May 28, 1754, the war began with the Battle of Jumonville Glen. French Officer Ensign de Jumonville and a third of his escort were killed by a British patrol led by George Washington. In retaliation the French and the Native Americans defeated the British at Fort Necessity. Washington lost a third of his force and surrendered. Major General Edward Braddock's troops were defeated in the Battle of the Monongahela, and Major General William Johnson's troops stopped the French advance at Lake George.
In Acadia, the primary British objective was to defeat the French fortifications at Beauséjour and Louisbourg and to prevent future attacks from the Wabanaki Confederacy, French and Acadians on the northern New England border. (There was a long history of these attacks from Acadia – see the Northeast Coast Campaigns 1688, 1703, 1723, 1724, 1745, 1746, 1747.) The British saw the Acadians' allegiance to the French and the Wabanaki Confederacy as a military threat. Father Le Loutre's War had created the conditions for total war; British civilians had not been spared and, as Governor Charles Lawrence and the Nova Scotia Council saw it, Acadian civilians had provided intelligence, sanctuary, and logistical support while others had fought against the British. During Le Loutre's war, to protect the British settlers from attacks along the former border of New England and Acadia, the Kennebec River, the British built Fort Halifax (Winslow), Fort Shirley (Dresden, formerly Frankfurt) and Fort Western (Augusta).
After the British capture of Beauséjour, the plan to capture Louisbourg included cutting trade to the Fortress in order to weaken the Fortress and, in turn, weaken the French ability to supply the Miꞌkmaq in their warfare against the British. According to historian Stephen Patterson, more than any other single factor – including the massive assault that eventually forced the surrender of Louisbourg – the supply problem brought an end to French power in the region. Lawrence realized he could reduce the military threat and weaken Fortress Louisbourg by deporting the Acadians, thus cutting off supplies to the fort. During the expulsion, French Officer Charles Deschamps de Boishébert led the Miꞌkmaq and the Acadians in a guerrilla war against the British. According to Louisbourg's account books, by late 1756 the French had regularly dispensed supplies to 700 natives. From 1756 to the fall of Louisbourg in 1758, the French made regular payments to Chief Jean-Baptiste Cope and other natives for British scalps.
British deportation campaigns
Once the Acadians refused to sign an oath of allegiance to Britain, which would make them loyal to the crown, the British Lieutenant Governor, Charles Lawrence, as well as the Nova Scotia Council on July 28, 1755, made the decision to deport the Acadians. The British deportation campaigns began on August 11, 1755. Throughout the expulsion, Acadians and the Wabanaki Confederacy continued a guerrilla war against the British in response to British aggression which had been continuous since 1744 (see King George's War and Father Le Loutre's War).
Bay of Fundy (1755)
The first wave of the expulsion began on August 10, 1755, with the Bay of Fundy Campaign during the French and Indian War. The British ordered the expulsion of the Acadians after the Battle of Beausejour (1755). The campaign started at Chignecto and then quickly moved to Grand-Pré, Piziquid (Falmouth/Windsor, Nova Scotia) and finally Annapolis Royal.
On November 17, 1755, George Scott took 700 troops, attacked twenty houses at Memramcook, arrested the remaining Acadians and killed two hundred head of livestock to deprive the French of supplies. Acadians tried to escape the expulsion by retreating to the St. John and Petitcodiac rivers, and the Miramichi in New Brunswick. The British cleared the Acadians from these areas in the later campaigns of Petitcodiac River, Saint John River, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence in 1758.
The Acadians and Miꞌkmaq resisted in the Chignecto region and were victorious in the Battle of Petitcodiac (1755). In the spring of 1756, a wood-gathering party from Fort Monckton (former Fort Gaspareaux) was ambushed and nine were scalped. In April 1757, the same band of Acadian and Miꞌkmaw partisans raided Fort Edward and Fort Cumberland near present-day Jolicure, New Brunswick, killing and scalping two men and taking two prisoners. July 20, 1757, some Miꞌkmaq killed 23 and captured two of Gorham's rangers outside Fort Cumberland. In March 1758, forty Acadians and Miꞌkmaq attacked a schooner at Fort Cumberland and killed its master and two sailors. In the winter of 1759, the Miꞌkmaq ambushed five British soldiers on patrol while they were crossing a bridge near Fort Cumberland. They were ritually scalped and their bodies mutilated as was common in frontier warfare. During the night of April 4, 1759, a force of Acadians and French in canoes captured the transport. At dawn they attacked the ship Moncton and chased it for five hours down the Bay of Fundy. Although Moncton escaped, one of its crew was killed and two were wounded.
In September 1756, a group of 100 Acadians ambushed a party of thirteen soldiers who were working outside Fort Edward at Piziquid. Seven were taken prisoner and six escaped back to the fort. In April 1757, a band of Acadian and Miꞌkmaw partisans raided a warehouse near Fort Edward, killed thirteen British soldiers, took what provisions they could carry and set fire to the building. Days later, the same partisans raided Fort Cumberland. By November 1756, French Officer Lotbinière wrote about the difficulty of recapturing Fort Beausejour: "The English have deprived us of a great advantage by removing the French families that were settled there on their different plantations; thus we would have to make new settlements."
The Acadians and Mi'kmaq fought in the Annapolis region. They were victorious in the Battle of Bloody Creek (1757). Acadians being deported from Annapolis Royal on the ship Pembroke rebelled against the British crew, took over the ship and sailed to land. In December 1757, while cutting firewood near Fort Anne, John Weatherspoon was captured by Natives—presumably Miꞌkmaq— and was carried away to the mouth of the Miramichi River, from where he was sold or traded to the French, taken to Quebec and was held until late in 1759 and the Battle of the Plains of Abraham, when General Wolfe's forces prevailed.
Approximately 55 Acadians, who escaped the initial deportation at Annapolis Royal, are reported to have made their way to the Cape Sable region—which included south western Nova Scotia—from where they participated in numerous raids on Lunenburg, Nova Scotia. The Acadians and Miꞌkmaq raided the Lunenburg settlement nine times over a three-year period during the war. Boishebert ordered the first Raid on Lunenburg (1756). In 1757, the second raid on Lunenburg occurred, in which six people from the Brisson family were killed. The following year, March 1758, there was a raid on the Lunenburg Peninsula at the Northwest Range (present-day Blockhouse, Nova Scotia) when five people from the Ochs and Roder families were killed. By the end of May 1758, most of those on the Lunenburg Peninsula had abandoned their farms and retreated to the protection of the fortifications around the town of Lunenburg, losing the season for sowing their grain.
For those who did not leave their farms, the number of raids intensified. During the summer of 1758, there were four raids on the Lunenburg Peninsula. On July 13, 1758, one person on the LaHave River at Dayspring was killed and another seriously wounded by a member of the Labrador family. The next raid happened at Mahone Bay, Nova Scotia on August 24, 1758, when eight Miꞌkmaq attacked the family homes of Lay and Brant. They killed three people in the raid, but were unsuccessful in taking their scalps, a common practice for payment from the French. Two days later, two soldiers were killed in a raid on the blockhouse at LaHave, Nova Scotia. On September 11, a child was killed in a raid on the Northwest Range. Another raid happened on March 27, 1759, in which three members of the Oxner family were killed. The last raid happened on April 20, 1759, at Lunenburg, when the Miꞌkmaq killed four settlers who were members of the Trippeau and Crighton families.
Cape Sable
The Cape Sable campaign involved the British removing Acadians from present-day Shelburne County and Yarmouth County. In April 1756, Major Jedidiah Preble and his New England troops, on their return to Boston, raided a settlement near Port La Tour and captured 72 men, women and children. In the late summer of 1758, Major Henry Fletcher led the 35th regiment and a company of Gorham's Rangers to Cape Sable. He cordoned off the cape and sent his men through it. One hundred Acadians and Father Jean Baptistee de Gray surrendered, while about 130 Acadians and seven Miꞌkmaq escaped. The Acadian prisoners were taken to Georges Island in Halifax Harbour.
En route to the St. John River Campaign in September 1758, Monckton sent Major Roger Morris of the 35th Regiment, in command of two men-of-war and transport ships with 325 soldiers, to deport more Acadians. On October 28, Monckton's troops sent the women and children to Georges Island. The men were kept behind and forced to work with troops to destroy their village. On October 31, they were also sent to Halifax. In the spring of 1759, Joseph Gorham and his rangers arrived to take prisoner the remaining 151 Acadians. They reached Georges Island with them on June 29. November 1759 saw the deportation to Britain of 151 Acadians from Cape Sable who had been prisoners on George's Island since June. In July 1759 on Cape Sable, Captain Cobb arrived and was fired upon by 100 Acadians and Miꞌkmaq.
Île Saint-Jean and Île Royale
The second wave of the expulsion began with the French defeat at the Siege of Louisbourg (1758). Thousands of Acadians were deported from Île Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island) and Île Royale (Cape Breton Island). The Île Saint-Jean Campaign resulted in the largest percentage of deaths of the deported Acadians. The sinking of the ships (with about 280 persons aboard) and (with over 360 persons aboard) marked the highest numbers of fatalities during the expulsion. By the time the second wave of the expulsion had begun, the British had discarded their policy of relocating the Acadians to the Thirteen Colonies, and had begun deporting them directly to France. In 1758, hundreds of Île Royale Acadians fled to one of Boishebert's refugee camps south of Baie des Chaleurs.
Petitcodiac River Campaign
The Petitcodiac River Campaign was a series of British military operations that occurred from June to November 1758 to deport the Acadians who either lived along the river or had taken refuge there from earlier deportations. Benoni Danks and Gorham's Rangers carried out the operation. Contrary to Governor Lawrence's direction, New England Ranger Danks engaged in frontier warfare against the Acadians. On July 1, 1758, Danks began to pursue the Acadians on the Petiticodiac. They arrived at present-day Moncton and Danks' Rangers ambushed about 30 Acadians who were led by Joseph Broussard dit Beausoleil. The Acadians were driven into the river where three of them were killed and scalped, and the others were captured. Broussard was seriously wounded. Danks reported that the scalps were Miꞌkmaq and received payment for them. Thereafter, he went down in local lore as "one of the most reckless and brutal" of the Rangers.
St. John River Campaign
Colonel Robert Monckton led a force of 1,150 British soldiers to destroy the Acadian settlements along the banks of the Saint John River until they reached the largest village of Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas (Fredericton, New Brunswick) in February 1759. Monckton was accompanied by New England Rangers led by Joseph Goreham, Captain Benoni Danks, Moses Hazen and George Scott. The British started at the bottom of the river, raiding Kennebecais and Managoueche (City of Saint John), where they built Fort Frederick. Then they moved up the river and raided Grimross (Arcadia, New Brunswick), Jemseg, and finally reached Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas.
Contrary to Governor Lawrence's direction, New England Ranger Lieutenant Hazen engaged in frontier warfare against the Acadians in what has become known as the "Ste Anne's Massacre". On February 18, 1759, Hazen and about fifteen men arrived at Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas. The Rangers pillaged and burned the village of 147 buildings, two Catholic churches and various barns and stables. The Rangers burned a large store-house, containing a large quantity of hay, wheat, peas, oats and other foodstuffs, and killed 212 horses, about five head of cattle and a large number of hogs. They also burned the church located just west of Old Government House, Fredericton. The leader of the Acadian militia on the St. John river, Joseph Godin-Bellefontaine, refused to swear an oath despite the Rangers torturing and killing his daughter and three of his grandchildren in front of him. The Rangers also took six prisoners.
Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign
In the Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign, also known as the Gaspee Expedition, British forces raided French villages along present-day New Brunswick and the Gaspé Peninsula coast of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. Sir Charles Hardy and Brigadier-General James Wolfe commanded the naval and military forces, respectively. After the Siege of Louisbourg (1758), Wolfe and Hardy led a force of 1500 troops in nine vessels to Gaspé Bay, arriving there on September 5. From there they dispatched troops to Miramichi Bay on September 12, Grande-Rivière, Quebec and Pabos on September 13, and Mont-Louis, Quebec on September 14. Over the following weeks, Hardy took four sloops or schooners, destroyed about 200 fishing vessels, and took about 200 prisoners.
Restigouche
The Acadians took refuge along the Baie des Chaleurs and the Restigouche River. Boishébert had a refugee camp at Petit-Rochelle, which was probably located near present-day Pointe-à-la-Croix, Quebec. The year after the Battle of Restigouche, in late 1761, Captain Roderick Mackenzie and his force captured over 330 Acadians at Boishebert's camp.
Halifax
After the French conquered St. John's, Newfoundland on June 14, 1762, the success galvanized both the Acadians and the natives, who gathered in large numbers at various points throughout the province and behaved in a confident and, according to the British, "insolent fashion". Officials were especially alarmed when natives gathered close to the two principal towns in the province, Halifax and Lunenburg, where there were also large groups of Acadians. The government organized an expulsion of 1,300 people and shipped them to Boston. The government of Massachusetts refused the Acadians permission to land and sent them back to Halifax.
Miꞌkmaw and Acadian resistance was evident in the Halifax region. On April 2, 1756, Miꞌkmaq received payment from the Governor of Quebec for twelve British scalps taken at Halifax. Acadian Pierre Gautier, son of Joseph-Nicolas Gautier, led Miꞌkmaw warriors from Louisbourg on three raids against Halifax Peninsula in 1757. In each raid, Gautier took prisoners, scalps or both. Their last raid happened in September and Gautier went with four Miꞌkmaq, and killed and scalped two British men at the foot of Citadel Hill. Pierre went on to participate in the Battle of Restigouche.
Arriving on the provincial vessel King George, four companies of Rogers Rangers (500 rangers) were at Dartmouth April 8 until May 28 awaiting the Siege of Louisbourg (1758). While there they scoured the woods to stop raids on Dartmouth.
In July 1759, Miꞌkmaq and Acadians killed five British in Dartmouth, opposite McNabb's Island. By June 1757, the settlers had to be completely withdrawn from Lawrencetown (established 1754) because the number of Indian raids prevented settlers from leaving their houses. In nearby Dartmouth, in the spring of 1759, another Miꞌkmaw attack was launched on Fort Clarence, located at the present-day Dartmouth Refinery, in which five soldiers were killed. Before the deportation, the Acadian population was estimated at 14,000. Most were deported, but some Acadians escaped to Quebec, or hid among the Miꞌkmaq or in the countryside, to avoid deportation until the situation settled down.
Maine
In present-day Maine, the Miꞌkmaq and the Maliseet raided numerous New England villages. At the end of April 1755, they raided Gorham, killing two men and a family. Next they appeared in New Boston (Gray) and went through the neighbouring towns destroying the plantations. On May 13, they raided Frankfort (Dresden), where two men were killed and a house burned. The same day they raided Sheepscot (Newcastle) and took five prisoners. Two people were killed in North Yarmouth on May 29 and one taken captive. The natives shot one person at Teconnet, now Waterville, took prisoners at Fort Halifax and two prisoners at Fort Shirley (Dresden). They also captured two workers at the fort at New Gloucester. During this period, the Maliseet and Miꞌkmaq were the only tribes of the Wabanaki Confederacy who were able to fight.
On August 13, 1758, Boishebert left Miramichi, New Brunswick with 400 soldiers, including Acadians whom he led from Port Toulouse. They marched to Fort St. George (Thomaston) and unsuccessfully laid siege to the town, and raided Munduncook (Friendship) where they wounded eight British settlers and killed others. This was Boishébert's last Acadian expedition; from there he and the Acadians went to Quebec and fought in the Battle of Quebec (1759).
Deportation destinations
In the first wave of the expulsion, most Acadian exiles were assigned to rural communities in Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland and South Carolina. In general, they refused to stay where they were put and large numbers migrated to the colonial port cities where they gathered in isolated, impoverished French-speaking Catholic neighbourhoods, the sort of communities Britain's colonial officials tried to discourage. More worryingly for the British authorities, some Acadians threatened to migrate north to French-controlled regions, including the Saint John River, Île Royale (Cape Breton Island), the coasts of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Canada. Because the British believed their policy of sending the Acadians to the Thirteen Colonies had failed, they deported the Acadians to France during the second wave of the expulsion.
Maryland
Approximately 1,000 Acadians went to the Colony of Maryland, where they lived in a section of Baltimore that became known as French Town. The Irish Catholics were reported to have shown charity to the Acadians by taking orphaned children into their homes.
Massachusetts
Approximately 2,000 Acadians disembarked at the Colony of Massachusetts. There were several families deported to the Province of Maine, a large, but sparsely populated exclave of the colony of Massachusetts. For four long winter months, William Shirley, who had ordered their deportation, had not allowed them to disembark and as a result, half died of cold and starvation aboard the ships. Some men and women were forced into servitude or forced labor, children were taken away from their parents and were distributed to various families throughout Massachusetts. The government also arranged the adoption of orphaned children and provided subsidies for housing and food for a year.
Connecticut
The Colony of Connecticut prepared for the arrival of 700 Acadians. Like Maryland, the Connecticut legislature declared that "[the Acadians] be made welcome, helped and settled under the most advantageous conditions, or if they have to be sent away, measures be taken for their transfer."
Pennsylvania and Virginia
The Colony of Pennsylvania accommodated 500 Acadians. Because they arrived unexpectedly, the Acadians had to remain in port on their vessels for months. The Colony of Virginia refused to accept the Acadians on grounds that no notice was given of their arrival.They were detained at Williamsburg, where hundreds died from disease and malnutrition. They were then sent to Britain where they were held as prisoners until the Treaty of Paris in 1763.
Carolinas and Georgia
The Acadians who had offered the most resistance to the British—particularly those who had been at Chignecto—were reported to have been sent to the southernmost colonies (the Carolinas and the Colony of Georgia), where about 1,400 Acadians settled and were "subsidized" and put to work on plantations.
Under the leadership of Jacques Maurice Vigneau of Baie Verte, the majority of the Acadians in Georgia received a passport from the governor, John Reynolds. These passports gave the Acadians the legal right to leave Georgia and enter other colonies. South Carolina followed Georgia's example and expediated passports to Acadian exiles in hopes they would move on to other territories. Along with these papers, South Carolina authorities provided the Acadians with two vessels. After running aground numerous times in the ships, some of these Acadians returned to the Bay of Fundy. Along the way, they were captured and imprisoned. Only 900 managed to return to Acadia, less than half of those who had begun the voyage. Others also tried to return home. The South Carolina Gazette reported that in February, about 30 Acadians fled the island to which they were confined and escaped their pursuers. Alexandre Broussard, brother of the famed resistance leader Joseph Broussard, dit Beausoleil, was among them. About a dozen are recorded to have returned to Acadia after an overland journey of 1,400 leagues ().
France and Britain
After the siege of Louisbourg, the British began to deport the Acadians directly to France rather than to the British colonies. Some Acadians deported to France never reached their destination. Almost 1,000 died when the transport ships Duke William, Violet, and sank in 1758 en route from Île Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island) to France. About 3,000 Acadian refugees eventually gathered in France's port cities and went to Nantes. Many Acadians who were sent to Britain were housed in crowded warehouses and subject to plagues due to the close conditions, while others were allowed to join communities and live normal lives. In France, 78 Acadian families were repatriated to Belle-Île-en-Mer off the western coast of Brittany after the Treaty of Paris. The most serious resettlement attempt was made by Louis XV, who offered of land in the Poitou province to 626 Acadian families each, where they lived close together in a region they called La Grande Ligne ("The Great Road", also known as "the King's Highway"). About 1,500 Acadians accepted the offer, but the land turned out to be infertile, and by the end of 1775, most of them abandoned the province.
Fate of the Acadians
Louisiana
The British did not directly deport Acadians to Louisiana. Following the expulsion by the British from their home, Acadians found their way to many friendly locales, including France. Acadians left France, under the influence of Henri Peyroux de la Coudreniere, to settle in Louisiana, which was then a colony of Spain.
Louisiana was transferred to the Spanish government in 1762. Because of the good relations which existed between France and Spain, and because of their common Catholic religion, some Acadians chose to take oaths of allegiance to the Spanish government. Soon the Acadians comprised the largest ethnic group in Louisiana. First, they settled in areas along the Mississippi River and later, they settled in the Atchafalaya Basin, as well as in the prairie lands to the west—a region which was later renamed Acadiana.
Some Acadians were sent to colonize places in the Caribbean, such as French Guiana, or the Falkland Islands under the direction of Louis Antoine de Bougainville; these latter efforts at colonization were unsuccessful. Other Acadians migrated to places like Saint-Domingue, but they fled to New Orleans after the Haitian Revolution. Louisiana's population contributed to the founding of the modern Cajun population. (The French word "Acadien" evolved into the word "Cadien", which was later anglicized as the word "Cajun").
Nova Scotia
On July 11, 1764, the British government passed an order-in-council to permit Acadians to legally return to British territories in small isolated groups, provided that they take an unqualified oath of allegiance. Some Acadians returned to Nova Scotia (which included present-day New Brunswick). Under the deportation orders, Acadian land tenure had been forfeited to the British crown and the returning Acadians no longer owned land. Beginning in 1760 much of their former land was distributed under grant to the New England Planters. The lack of available farmland compelled many Acadians to seek out a new livelihood as fishermen on the west coast of Nova Scotia, known as the French Shore. The British authorities scattered other Acadians in groups along the shores of eastern New-Brunswick and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. It was not until the 1930s, with the advent of the Acadian co-operative movements, that the Acadians became less economically disadvantaged.
Historical comparisons
According to historian John Mack Faragher, the religious and ethnic dimensions of the Expulsion of Acadians are in addition to, and deeply connected with, the military exigencies cited as causes for the Removals. There is significant evidence in the correspondence of military and civil leaders for Anti-Catholicism. Faragher writes, "The first session of the Nova Scotia Assembly ... passed a series of laws intended to institutionalize Acadian dispossession" including an act titled "An Act for the Quieting of Possessions to Protestant Grantees of land formerly occupied by the French." In it and two subsequent acts, the Church of England was made the official religion. These acts granted certain political rights to Protestants while the new laws excluded Catholics from public office and the franchise and forbade Catholics from owning land in the province. It also empowered British authorities to seize all "popish" property (Church lands) for the crown and barred Catholic clergy from entering or residing in the province, as they wanted no repeat of Le Loutre and his type of war. In addition to other anti-Catholic measures, Faragher concludes "These laws—passed by a popular assembly, not enacted by military fiat—laid the foundation for the migration of Protestant settlers."
In the 1740s, William Shirley had hoped to assimilate Acadians into the Protestant fold. He did so by trying to encourage (or force) Acadian women to marry English Protestants and statutes were passed which required the offspring of such unions to be sent to English schools and raised as "English Protestants" (quote from a letter by Shirley). This was linked to larger anxieties in the realm over the loyalty of Catholics in general—as Charles Stuart's Jacobite Rebellion was a Catholic-led rebellion as was Le Loutre's rebellion in Nova Scotia. Shirley, who in part was responsible for the Removals, according to historian Geoffery Plank, "recommended using military force to expel the most 'obnoxious' Acadians and replace them with Protestant immigrants. In time the Protestants would come to dominate their new communities." Shirley wanted "peaceable [loyal] subjects" and specifically, in his own words, "good Protestant ones."
Faragher compared the expulsion of the Acadians to contemporary acts of ethnic cleansing. In contrast, some leading historians have objected to this characterization of the expulsion. Historian John Grenier asserts that Faragher overstates the religious motivation for the expulsion and obscures the fact that the British accommodated Acadians by providing Catholic priests for forty years prior to the Expulsion. Grenier writes that Faragher "overstates his case; his focus on the grand dérangement as an early example of ethnic cleansing carries too much present-day emotional weight and in turn overshadows much of the accommodation that Acadians and Anglo-Americans reached." As well, the British were clearly not concerned that the Acadians were French, given the fact that they were recruiting French "foreign Protestants" to settle in the region. Further, the New Englanders of Boston were not banishing Acadians from the Atlantic region; instead, they were actually deporting them to live in the heart of New England: Boston and elsewhere in the British colonies.
While there was clear animosity between Catholics and Protestants during this time period, many historians point to the overwhelming evidence which suggests that the motivation for the expulsion was military. The British wanted to cut off supply lines to the Miꞌkmaq, Louisbourg and Quebec. They also wanted to end any military threat which the Acadians posed (See Military history of the Acadians). A. J. B. Johnston wrote that the evidence for the removal of the Acadians indicates that the decision makers thought the Acadians were a military threat, therefore the deportation of 1755 does not qualify as an act of ethnic cleansing. Geoffery Plank argues that the British continued the expulsion after 1758 for military reasons: present-day New Brunswick remained contested territory and the New Englanders wanted to make sure that British negotiators would be unlikely to return the region to the French as they had done after King George's War.
Other historians have observed that it was not uncommon for empires to move their subjects and populations during this time period. For Naomi E. S. Griffiths and A.J.B. Johnston, the event is comparable to other deportations in history, and it should not be considered an act of ethnic cleansing. In From Migrant to Acadian, Griffiths writes that "the Acadian deportation, as a government action, was a pattern with other contemporary happenings." The Expulsion of the Acadians has been compared to similar military operations during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The French carried out expulsions in Newfoundland in 1697 when they occupied the British portion of Newfoundland during Pierre d'Iberville's Avalon Peninsula Campaign, burning every British settlement and exiling over 500 inhabitants. A.J.B. Johnston notes that in 1767, French authorities forcibly removed nearly 800 Acadian and French inhabitants from Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, transporting them against their will to France and compares the expulsions to the fate of the United Empire Loyalists, who were expelled from the United States to present-day Canada after the American Revolution. Another deportation was the Highland Clearances in Scotland between 1762 and 1886. Another North American expulsion was the Indian Removal of the 1830s, in which the Cherokee and other Native Americans from the South-East United States were removed from their traditional homelands.
Further, other historians have noted that civilian populations are often devastated during wartime. For example, five wars were fought along the New England and Acadia border during the 70 years prior to the expulsion (See French and Indian Wars, Father Rale's War and Father Le Loutre's War). During these wars, the French and Wabanaki Confederacy conducted numerous military campaigns in which they killed and captured British civilians. (See the Northeast Coast Campaigns 1688, 1703, 1723, 1724, 1745, 1746, 1747, 1750.)
Acadian historian Maurice Basque writes that the term genocide'... does not apply at all to the Grand Derangement. Acadie was not Armenia, and to compare Grand-Pré with Auschwitz and the killing fields of Cambodia is a complete and utter trivialization of the many genocidal horrors of contemporary history." Concerning the use of 20th century terms such as "ethnic cleansing" and "genocide" to understand the past, historian John G. Reid states, "I'm not sure that it's the best way to understand 18th century realities... What happened in the 18th century is a process of imperial expansion that was ruthless at times, that cost lives.... But to my mind, you can't just transfer concepts between centuries."
Commemorations
In 1847, the American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow published a long, narrative poem about the expulsion of the Acadians titled Evangeline, in which he depicts the plight of the fictional character Evangeline. The poem became popular and made the expulsion well known. The Evangeline Oak is a tourist attraction in Louisiana. The song "Acadian Driftwood", recorded in 1975 by The Band, portrays the Great Upheaval and the displacement of the Acadian people. Antonine Maillet wrote a novel, called Pélagie-la-Charrette, about the aftermath of the Great Upheaval. It was awarded the Prix Goncourt in 1979. Grand-Pré Park is a National Historic Site of Canada situated in Grand-Pré, Nova Scotia, and preserved as a living monument to the expulsion. It contains a memorial church and a statue of Evangeline, the subject of Longfellow's poem. The song "1755" was composed by American Cajun fiddler and singer Dewey Balfa and performed on his 1987 album Souvenirs, and later covered by Steve Riley and the Mamou Playboys on their 1994 live album. According to Acadian historian Maurice Basque, the story of Evangeline continues to influence historic accounts of the deportation, emphasising neutral Acadians and de-emphasising those who resisted the British Empire. In 2018, Canadian historian and novelist A. J. B. Johnston published a YA novel entitled The Hat, inspired by what happened at Grand-Pré in 1755.
In December 2003, Governor General Adrienne Clarkson, representing Queen Elizabeth II (Canada's head of state), acknowledged the expulsion but did not apologize for it. She designated July 28 as "A Day of Commemoration of the Great Upheaval". This proclamation, officially the Royal Proclamation of 2003, closed one of the longest cases in the history of the British courts, initiated in 1760 when the Acadian representatives first presented their grievances of forced dispossession of land, property and livestock. December 13, the date on which the Duke William sank, is commemorated as Acadian Remembrance Day. There is a museum dedicated to Acadian history and culture, with a detailed reconstruction of the Great Uprising, in Bonaventure, Quebec.
See also
France in the Seven Years' War
Grand-Pré National Historic Site
Great Britain in the Seven Years' War
Indian removal
List of ethnic cleansing campaigns
Michel Bastarache dit Basque
Military history of Nova Scotia
Persecution of Roman Catholics
Notes
References
General references
English
and online at Nova Scotia Archives
and online at Nova Scotia Archives
Text of Charles Lawrence's orders to Captain John Handfield – Halifax August 11, 1755
and online at Nova Scotia Archives
and online at Nova Scotia Archives
French
Sauvageau, Robert (1987). Acadie : La guerre de Cent Ans des français d'Amérique aux Maritimes et en Louisiane 1670–1769. Paris: Berger-Levrault.
Gaudet, Placide (1922). Le Grand Dérangement : sur qui retombe la responsabilité de l'expulsion des Acadiens, Ottawa: Impr. de l'Ottawa Printing Co.
d'Arles, Henri (1918). La déportation des Acadiens, Québec: Imprimerie de l'Action sociale
External links
Deportation Transports/ Ships – Departures and Arrivals
Grand-Pré National Historic Site of Canada
Acadian Ancestral Home – a repository for Acadian History & Genealogy
French and Indian War: Expulsion of the Acadians
"Episode 007: Acadia, Lake George, and Loudoun's Arrival"—American Revolution Podcast: Podcast episode discussing the Removal of the Acadians
1750s in Canada
1755 in New France
1755 in North America
1755 in the Thirteen Colonies
Acadian history
British colonization of the Americas
Conflicts in New Brunswick
Conflicts in Nova Scotia
Conflicts in Prince Edward Island
Deportation
Ethnic cleansing in North America
Events in New France
Events of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Forced migration
French and Indian War
French colonization of the Americas
Historical migrations
Seven Years' War
Racially motivated violence in Canada
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wye%20%28rail%29
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Wye (rail)
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In railroad structures, and rail terminology, a wye (like the 'Y' glyph) or triangular junction (often shortened to just triangle) is a triangular joining arrangement of three rail lines with a railroad switch (set of points) at each corner connecting to the incoming lines. A turning wye is a specific case.
Where two rail lines join, or where a spur diverges from a railroad's mainline, wyes can be used at a mainline rail junction to allow incoming trains to travel in either direction.
Wyes can also be used for turning railway equipment, and generally cover less area than a balloon loop doing the same job, but at the cost of two additional sets of points to construct and then maintain. These turnings are accomplished by performing the railway equivalent of a three-point turn through successive junctions of the wye. The direction of travel and the relative orientation of a locomotive or railway vehicle thus can be reversed. Where a wye is built specifically for equipment reversing purposes, one or more of the tracks making up the junction will typically be a stub siding.
Tram or streetcar tracks also make use of triangular junctions and sometimes have a short triangle or wye stubs to turn the car at the end of the line.
Considerations
At junctions
The use of triangular junctions allows flexibility in routing trains from any line to either of the two other paths, without the need to reverse the train. For this reason they are common across most rail networks. A slower train may be signaled to temporarily enter a wye (as a refuge siding in lieu of a passing loop) for a meet with an oncoming train, or to allow a faster one to overtake, and then reverse out to continue in the original direction.
Where one or more of the lines forming the junction are multi-track, the presence of a triangular junction does introduce a number of potential conflicting moves. For this reason, where traffic is heavy the triangle may incorporate flying junctions on some of the legs.
For turning equipment
From time to time it is necessary to turn both individual pieces of railroad equipment or whole trains. This may be because the piece of equipment is not directionally symmetrical, for example, most steam locomotives and some diesel locomotives, or where the consist has a dedicated tail end car such as an observation car. Even where equipment is symmetrical, periodic turning may still be necessary in order to equalize wear (e.g., on the London Underground's Circle Line).
Several different techniques can be used to achieve such turning. Turntables require the least space, but can generally only deal with a single piece of equipment at a time. Balloon or turning loops can turn trains of any length — up to the total length of the loop — in a single operation, but require far more space than wyes. Rail wyes can be constructed on sites where a loop would not be possible, and can turn trains up to the length of the stub tracks at the end of the wye.
Railroad systems in North America and Australia have tended to have more wyes than railroads elsewhere. North American locomotives and cars (such as observation cars) are more likely to be directional than those found on other continents. In Canada and the United States, the railroad often was built before other structures, and railway builders had much more freedom to lay down tracks where they wished. Similarly, when not constrained by space limitations many early Australian railways made use of wyes (particularly in rural locations) for their lower installation and maintenance costs; however, their necessity and use diminished from the 1960s onwards with the major trend in most states toward bidirectional locomotives and railcars.
In Europe, although some use was made of bi-directional tank locomotives and push–pull trains, most steam locomotives were uni-directional. Because of land usage considerations, turntables were normally used to turn such locomotives, and most terminal stations and locomotive depots were so equipped. Over time, most diesel and electric locomotives ordered in Europe have been designed to be fully bi-directional and normally with two driving cabs. Thus most rail wyes, where they existed, and turntables have been taken out of use.
Streetcar or tram systems
Similar considerations as for mainline rail systems apply to the use of triangular junctions and reversing wyes on streetcar and tram systems. Many, although by no means all, streetcar and tram systems use single ended vehicles that have doors on one side only, and that must be turned at each end of the route.
However, the vehicles used on such systems tend to have much smaller minimum curvature requirements than heavy rail equipment. This renders the use of a balloon loop more practical in a small amount of space, and with street-running vehicles such a loop may be able to use side streets or street squares. However, although turning loops are the most common way of turning such vehicles, wye tracks are also sometimes used.
Disadvantages
A triangle may have a situational disadvantage in train operations when space constraints of the local geography cause one leg of triangle to bypass a main station. In tight city environments, this can happen easily, as it did, for example, at Cootamundra West, Australia and Tecuci, Romania, where extra passenger stations had to be built to serve trains taking the shortcut.
In contrast, the engineering of a terminus station such as Woodville Railway Station, New Zealand avoided this problem by building a balloon loop (reversing loop) so that trains can serve the main station in either direction without the need to reverse. In a midline station where it is desired to reverse a consist or locomotive, a double-track and turning wye arrangement is far more common.
Land usage
The land within a triangle is cut off from the adjacent area (and normally fenced off) and has marginal commercial value, so will be purposed mainly for the railway's exclusive use – generally being used for maintenance depots, storage, or vehicle parking. On electrified lines substations tend to be located inside triangles, in part because the land is cheap, and also because it provides the most convenient and flexible sectioning arrangements.
Earliest examples
The earliest British (and possibly worldwide) example is the double-tracked triangle within Earlestown railway station on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, which was completed by the Grand Junction Railway in 1837. The triangle has two passenger platform faces on each of its three sides and five of the six platforms are in frequent (half-hourly, etc.) use by passenger trains. When steam engines were in regular use the triangle (which is of course also traversed by freight trains) was also used to turn locomotives, and can still be so used.
An earlier example may be on the Cromford and High Peak Railway, which had been opened in 1831 as a horse-drawn railway. This appears to have been used for reversing trains of wagons with end doors that have just come up the rope-hauled inclines to the highest level of the railway before they proceeded down the remaining inclines. The site of this can still be seen near Hindlow, in Derbyshire. (National Grid location .).
Examples by country
Australia
Sefton railway station in Sydney lies on one corner of a triangular junction, which allows trains to branch off in either direction without the need to terminate or change ends. One train a day from Birrong to Sefton does terminate and reverse at Regents Park station (in order to clean the rust off the crossover rails). There is a goods branch from Chullora and, in the future, the possibility of a separate single track freight line. The three passenger stations at the vertices of the triangle have island platforms making it convenient to change trains. The sharp curves of the triangle, and especially the turnouts on those sharp curves, restrict train speeds to between .
Near Hamilton station on the Central Coast and Newcastle line there is a wye for freight trains and regional trains. This puts them directly on the main northern line
A number of triangular junctions were built on the Victorian Railways network, both at major junctions, and for turning locomotives and train consists in places where the provision of a turntable was impractical or unnecessarily expensive. These included:
Wodonga – Built on the junction of the Cudgewa Line and used to turn the consists of the Sydney Limited and Spirit of Progress trains.
Ararat
North Geelong – built to allow trains to travel directly between Geelong, Ballarat or Melbourne without using a run-around or turntable. It was also used to turn trains, such as during the demonstration run of the Spirit of Progress in 1937.
A triangular junction is used to turn tramcars on the Portland Cable Tram line in Portland, Victoria.
Ireland
In the Republic of Ireland two triangular junctions are in use. One is at Limerick Junction, and the other at Lavistown, near Kilkenny. The former allows direct Limerick–Dublin passenger trains to bypass the Limerick Junction station, and is also occasionally used to turn steam locomotives on railtours, whilst the latter is used primarily by freight trains running between the Port of Waterford and County Mayo to avoid having to run around in Kilkenny station.
In Belfast, Northern Ireland, a triangular junction exists at Great Victoria Street station. It is rarely used to turn locomotives, save the occasional steam engine. It is usually used by Enterprise express trains to bypass Great Victoria Street and continue on to terminate at Belfast Central. Commuter trains enter the junction from one direction (e.g., the Portadown line), stop at Great Victoria Street, and then continue out on the other direction towards Bangor station. Commuter trains on NI Railways are all diesel multiple unit railcars, so they do not need to use the junction as a turning method.
The only other operational triangular junction in Ireland is Downpatrick Loop on the Downpatrick and County Down Railway. Originally constructed to allow direct Belfast–Newcastle trains to bypass Downpatrick station, the triangle forms the basis of a heritage railway, the only heritage railway of this type in the British Isles. There is one station at each end of the triangle and another in the southernmost corner.
Historical triangular junctions in Ireland include Moyasta Junction on the West Clare line, the Monkstown/Greenisland/Bleach Green triangle on the Northern Counties Committee and Bundoran Junction on the Great Northern Railway. Though two sides of the former are still in mainline use, the "back line" between Monkstown and Greenisland has been removed, whilst the latter was closed altogether in 1957. Additionally, the Great Northern's largest locomotive yard at Adelaide never had a turntable, using a dedicated turning triangle instead.
The Luas tram system has a triangular junction on the Red Line between the stations of Busáras, Connolly and George's Dock. The line that goes between George's Dock and Connolly is never used, as no trams operate between The Point Luas stop & Connolly
Italy
Railways in Italy used a number of for turning locomotives. This uses a pentagram layout, requiring four movements and five turnouts to reverse. It allows a smaller layout, without excessively tight curve radii, compared to a triangle.
Some of these still survive, such as at of Carbonia in Sardinia and at Mals or Malles Venosta in Val Venosta in the South Tyrol.
In addition to small terminal stations such as Carbonia and Malles Venosta, inversion stars were also installed at some principal stations such as Verona Porta Nuova and Brenner at the summit of the Brenner Pass.
Namibia
Tsumeb railway station in Namibia has two triangles. The first and smaller one is for turning engines and is near the station. The second and larger one is to bypass the dead-end station at Tsumeb for trains travelling directly between the new extension towards Angola and Windhoek. This direct bypass line can save an hour of shunting time, particularly if the train is longer than the loops in the station.
Switzerland
There is a turning triangle partly tunnelled into the mountain at Kleine Scheidegg at the summit of the 800mm gauge Wengernalpbahn in the Bernese Oberland, Switzerland. Kleine Scheidegg is reached from two lower termini, Lauterbrunnen and Grindelwald, located on opposite sides of the col. Trains normally descend in the direction they have arrived from and are designed accordingly with the power unit at the lower end and seating angled to compensate for the gradient. They therefore have to be turned at the summit should it be necessary to make a through journey. Whilst limitations of space dictated that the triangle had to be partly constructed in tunnels it also ensures that in winter it is snow-free and thus readily available in emergencies.
United Kingdom
In Britain triangular layouts that could be used for turning locomotives were usually the result of junctions of two or more lines. There are many examples, including the one known as the Maindee triangle in Newport, South Wales. Here the ex-GWR South Wales mainline from London to Swansea is joined by another GWR line from Shrewsbury via Hereford. The significance of it is that steam-hauled trains can run to Newport and their engines be turned using the triangle. Its National Grid location is . Shrewsbury also has a triangular route formation that was used to turn steam locomotives, and is still available. A triangle, , was provided in 1989 adjacent to the transfer sidings for Wylfa Nuclear Power Station, near to Valley on Anglesey in Wales. This enables the North Wales Coast Line to be used by steam hauled excursions. The turntable at Holyhead has long been removed and the area re-developed; the sidings at Valley some 4 miles (6.4 km) from the terminus are the nearest suitable site.
An unusual arrangement, unique in Britain, was constructed at Grantham. Its location was and it is shown on the 1963 edition of OS 1 inch to 1 mile sheet 113. It was built in the 1950s after the turntable at the locomotive shed failed and expenditure on a replacement was no longer justified. Locomotives requiring to be turned had to travel to Barkston Junction to traverse the triangular layout there (this was where Mallard with a dynamometer car attached was turned before starting out south on its record-breaking run on 3 July 1938). The journey to Barkston Junction and back was a time-consuming business involving a round trip of some along the busy East Coast Main Line. Eventually authority was given to construct a turning arrangement on a strip of spare land to the west of the main line, just south of Grantham station. There was insufficient space for a conventional triangle but this was overcome by constructing an "inside-out" triangle whereby the approach tracks intersected in a scissors crossing.
United States
Many North American passenger terminals in large cities had wye tracks to allow the turning and backing of directional passenger trains onto a main line. Freight traffic could bypass the terminal through the wye. Notable examples include the Los Angeles Union Station, which has a double wye, the Saint Paul Union Depot, and the Memphis Union Station.
A typical use for a stub-end passenger station would be as follows: A wye was incorporated at the "throat" where the rows of tracks converged from the station to facilitate the turning of trains. An arriving train came to a stop on the main line after passing the wye. Once the switches on the wye are aligned, the train reversed, with the brakeman at the rear of the last car regulating the speed with the brake lever upon approach to the platform. After coming to a complete stop at the end of the track, passengers were allowed to disembark safely.
Meanwhile, the locomotives could be uncoupled from the train and sent to the engine terminal to be serviced for their next assignment. Then, the head-end cars could be uncoupled from the rest of the train and spotted by a station switcher at the parcel facility where mail and express packages were handled. The departing train was reassembled, freshly cleaned and serviced for the next journey. A steam pipe from the station's steam generator could have been attached to the train's steam line from the rear to supply heat until the locomotives were coupled up front to supply steam.
The train was announced for boarding with a list of destinations. With switches aligned, the train slowly departed to the main line, continuing on its journey or returning toward the direction from which it arrived by rounding the opposite leg from the one it reversed on upon arrival.
The Keddie Wye in Keddie, California, was built by the Western Pacific Railroad and is a remarkable engineering feat. Two sides of the wye are built on tall trestles and one side is in a tunnel bored through solid rock.
The town of Wyeville, Wisconsin, is named after the Union Pacific Railway, formerly the Chicago and North Western Transportation Company wye and crossover nearby.
A primary feature of the Bay Area Rapid Transit system is the Oakland Wye. Located beneath Downtown Oakland, California, the vast majority of the system's trains run through the wye primarily to and from San Francisco with some services running north and south along the East Bay. This section of track is considered a bottleneck for system-wide capacity based on speed restrictions and timing difficulties from distant branch lines.
The southern terminus of the Amtrak Auto Train in Sanford, Florida, uses a wye to turn the locomotives around for the return trip north. A road that crosses the eastern side of the wye allows access to the inner part of the wye where there is a rock supply company.
In Arizona, the Grand Canyon Railway (GCRY) has a wye at both the Williams and South Rim/Grand Canyon Village termini of its line. The train is turned around at the South Rim/Grand Canyon Village wye with the passengers on board. At the Williams end, the train is turned around after the passengers disembark.
The Chowchilla Wye is a primary feature of the planned California High-Speed Rail System. It will allow for transfers from feeder services on the third leg and facilitate more routing options as future phases are completed.
Convoluted wye
Convoluted wye, turning star or reversing star () is a special wye layout used in places where the space is tight. It has a pentagram-like form and consists of five turnouts (versus three for a wye) and three, four or five diamond crossings. Because of this, a reversing star is more expensive to build and service.
It takes four changes of direction of movement to turn a piece of rolling stock on a reversing star.
There was a "star" layout at the summit of the Brenner Pass, on the Austrian–Italian border. It was still there in 1991, covered over with gravel so that market-stalls could function on top.
See also
Balloon loop
Control car
Double junction
Flying junction
Level junction
Railway turntable
References
Rail junction types
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397982
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/369th%20Infantry%20Regiment%20%28United%20States%29
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369th Infantry Regiment (United States)
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The 369th Infantry Regiment, originally formed as the 15th New York National Guard Regiment before being re-organized as the 369th upon federalization and commonly referred to as the Harlem Hellfighters, was an infantry regiment of the New York Army National Guard during World War I and World War II. The regiment consisted mainly of African Americans, though it also included men from Puerto Rico, Cuba, Guyana, Liberia, Portugal, Canada, the West Indies, as well as American white officers. With the 370th Infantry Regiment, it was known for being one of the first African-American regiments to serve with the American Expeditionary Forces during World War I.
The regiment was named the Black Rattlers after arriving in France by its commander COL William Hayward. The nickname Men of Bronze () was given to the regiment by the French after they had witnessed the gallantry of the Americans fighting in the trenches. Legend has it that they were called the Hellfighters () by the German enemy, although there is no documentation of this and the moniker may have been a creation of the American press. During World War I, the 369th spent 191 days in front line trenches, more than any other American unit. They also suffered the most losses of any American regiment, with 1,500 casualties. The regiment was also the first of the Allied forces to cross the Rhine into Germany.
Background
On 5 October 1917, Emmett Jay Scott, long-time secretary to Booker T. Washington, was appointed Special Assistant to Newton D. Baker, the Secretary of War. Scott was to serve as a confidential advisor in situations that involved the well-being of ten million African Americans and their roles in the war. While many African Americans who served in the Great War believed racial discrimination would dissipate once they returned home, that did not happen. Racism in the United States is considered to have been at its worst between the First and Second World Wars.
Although many African Americans were eager to fight in the war, they were often turned away from military service. When the United States realized that it did not have close to enough soldiers, it decided to pass the Selective Service Act of 1917 which required all men from the ages of 21 to 30 to register for the draft; this included African Americans. Many African Americans enlisted believing that their military service would give them the opportunity to change the way they were perceived by white Americans.
The 369th Regiment was reformed from the National Guard's 15th Regiment in New York. The 15th New York National Guard was a state militia regiment which served to help suppress the 1863 New York City draft riots and was mustered into federal service for 30 days in June, 1864, providing manpower for Army posts in the New York Harbor. The 15th Regiment was reconstituted after Charles S. Whitman was elected Governor of New York. He enforced the legislation that was passed due to the efforts of the 10th Cavalry in Mexico, which had passed as a law that had not manifested until June 2 1913.
When the U.S. entered World War I, many African Americans believed that entering the armed forces would help eliminate racial discrimination throughout the United States. Many felt it was "a God-sent blessing" so they could prove they deserved respect from white Americans through service in the armed forces. Through the efforts of the Central Committee of Negro College Men and President Wilson, a special training camp to train black officers for the proposed black regiments was established.
World War I
Formation
The 369th Infantry Regiment was constituted on 2 June 1913 in the New York Army National Guard as the 15th New York Infantry Regiment. The 369th Infantry was organized on 29 June 1916 at New York City.
The infantry was called into Federal service on 25 July 1917 at Camp Whitman, New York. While at Camp Whitman, the 369th Infantry learned basic military practices. After their training at Camp Whitman, the 369th was called into active duty in New York. While in New York, the 369th's three battalions were spread throughout New York where they guarded rail lines, construction sites, and other camps.
Then on 8 October 1917 the Regiment traveled to Camp Wadsworth in Spartanburg, South Carolina, where they received training in actual combat. Camp Wadsworth was set up similar to the French battlefields. While at Camp Wadsworth they experienced significant racism from the local communities and from other units. There was one incident in which two soldiers from the 15th Regiment, Lieutenant James Reese Europe and Noble Sissle, were refused by the owner of a hotel shop when they attempted to buy a newspaper. Several soldiers from the white 27th Division, a New York National Guard organization, came to stand with and support their fellow New York soldiers. Lieutenant Europe, however, directed them to leave before violence erupted. There were many other shops that refused to sell goods to the members of the 15th Regiment, so members of the 27th Division told the shop owners that if they did not serve black soldiers that they can close their stores and leave town. The white soldiers then stated "They're our buddies. And we won't buy from men who treat them unfairly."
The 15th Infantry Regiment NYARNG was assigned on 1 December 1917 to the 185th Infantry Brigade. It was commanded by Col. William Hayward, a member of the Union League Club of New York, which sponsored the 369th in the tradition of the 20th U.S. Colored Infantry, which the club had sponsored in the U.S. Civil War. The 15th Infantry Regiment shipped out from the New York Port of Embarkation on 27 December 1917, and joined its brigade upon arrival in France. Despite its designation and training as an infantry regiment, the unit was relegated to labor service duties in France instead of being assigned a combat mission.
The 15th Infantry Regiment, NYARNG was reorganized and re-designated on 1 March 1918 as the 369th Infantry Regiment, but the unit continued labor service duties while it awaited a decision as to its future.
Assignment to French Army 1918
The U.S. Army decided on 8 April 1918 to assign the unit to the French Army for the duration of American participation in the war. General Pershing was under extreme pressure from the French and British armies, they did not want to use the American soldiers as a separate fighting force. General Pershing fought really hard to keep the American Forces as a separate fighting force. There were several compromises he made. One was to have the American “black” 369 inf join the French 15th Div which was made up of French black Senegalese troops. Other American “white” regiments four in total joined British units. The rest of the American Army stayed together. Pershing did a great job and was a platoon commander in an all black unit in his early days and had high respect for African American soldiers.
Eventually the men of the 369th inf for logistic reasons were issued French weapons, helmets, belts, and pouches, although they continued to wear their U.S. uniforms. While in the United States, the 369th Regiment was subjected to intense racial discrimination, and its members looked down upon. French Colonel of the American Expeditionary Forces headquarters was persuaded to write the notorious pamphlet Secret Information Concerning Black American Troops, which "warned" French civilian authorities of the alleged inferior nature and supposed racist tendencies of African Americans.
In France, the 369th was treated as if they were no different than any other French unit. For the most part, the French did not show hatred towards them and did not racially segregate the 369th. The French accepted the all-black 369th Regiment with open arms and welcomed them to their country. The French army had from the start included many colonial units with non-white personnel from among others Morocco and Senegal. Also, since they faced manpower shortages, they were less concerned with race than the Americans.
The 369th Infantry Regiment was relieved 8 May 1918 from assignment to the 185th Infantry Brigade, and went into the trenches as part of the French 16th Division. It served continuously until 3 July before returning to combat in the Second Battle of the Marne. Later, the 369th was reassigned to Gen. Lebouc's 161st Division to participate in the Allied counterattack. On one tour, they were out for over six months, which was the longest deployment of any unit in World War I. On 19 August, the regiment went off the line for rest and training of replacements.
While overseas, the Hellfighters saw enemy propaganda intended for them. It claimed Germans had done nothing wrong to blacks, and they should be fighting the USA, which had oppressed them for years. It had the opposite of the intended effect.
On 25 September 1918, the French 4th Army went on the offensive in conjunction with the American drive in the Meuse–Argonne. The 369th turned in a good account in heavy fighting, though they sustained severe losses. The unit captured the important village of Séchault. At one point the 369th advanced faster than French troops on their right and left flanks, and risked being cut off. By the time the regiment pulled back for reorganization, it had advanced through severe German resistance.
In mid-October the regiment was moved to a quiet sector in the Vosges, and was stationed there on 11 November, the day of the Armistice. Six days later, the 369th made its last advance and on 26 November, reaching the banks of the river Rhine and becoming the first Allied unit to do so. The regiment was relieved on 12 December 1918 from assignment to the French 161st Division. When the regiment attempted to travel home onboard the USS Virginia, the ship's captain, Henry Joseph Ziegemeier, had them removed "on the grounds that no blacks had ever traveled on an American battleship." It returned to the New York Port of Embarkation and was demobilized on 28 February 1919 at Camp Upton at Yaphank, New York, and returned to the New York Army National Guard.
Honors
One Medal of Honor and numerous Distinguished Service Crosses were awarded to members of the regiment.
Perhaps the most celebrated man in the 369th was Pvt. Henry Johnson, a former Albany, New York, rail station porter, who earned the nickname "Black Death" for his actions in combat in France. In May 1918 Johnson and Pvt. Needham Roberts fought off a 24-man German patrol, though both were severely wounded. Johnson instructed Roberts to warn the French units of the approaching patrol, but Roberts returned to him after the Germans opened fire on their position. They battled together until a German grenade incapacitated Roberts, at which point Johnson made it his mission to hold the line and protect his fellow soldier. After they expended their ammunition, Johnson battled with grenades, then the butt of his rifle, and finally with a bolo knife. Reports suggest Johnson killed at least four German soldiers and might have wounded 30 others while sustaining at least 21 injuries. Over 100 men from the 369th were presented with American and/or French decorations. Among those honors Johnson was the first American to receive the Croix de Guerre.
On 13 December 1918, one month after Armistice day, the French government awarded the Croix de Guerre to 170 individual members of the 369th, and a unit citation was awarded to the entire regiment. It was pinned to the unit's colors by General Lebouc.
One of the first units in the United States armed forces to have black officers in addition to all-black enlisted men, the 369th could boast of a fine combat record, a regimental Croix de Guerre, and several unit citations, along with many individual decorations for valor from the French government. Nevertheless, the poor replacement system —coupled with no respite from the line — took its toll, leaving the unit utterly exhausted by the armistice in November. The 369th Infantry Regiment was the first New York unit to return to the United States, and was the first unit to march up Fifth Avenue from the Washington Square Park Arch to their armory in Harlem. Their unit was placed on the permanent list with other veteran units.
Arthur W. Little, who had been a battalion commander for the 369th, wrote in the regimental history From Harlem to the Rhine, it was official that the outfit was 191 days under fire, never lost a foot of ground or had a man taken prisoner; on two occasions men were captured, but were recovered. Only once did it fail to take its objective and that was due largely to bungling by French artillery support.
By the end of the 369th Infantry's campaign in World War, I they were present in the Champagne – Marne, Meuse – Argonne, Champagne 1918, Alsace 1918 campaigns in which they suffered 1,500 casualties, the highest of any U.S. regiment. In addition, the unit was plagued by acute discipline problems resulting from disproportionate casualties among the unit's longest-serving members and related failures to assimilate new soldiers. The 369th also fought in distinguished battles such as Belleau Wood and Chateau-Thierry.
369th Regiment Military Band
The 369th Regiment "Hellfighters Band" was relied upon not only in battle but also for morale. So by the end of their tour, they became one of the most famous military bands throughout Europe. They followed the 369th overseas and were highly regarded and known for being able to immediately boost morale. While overseas the 369th Regiment made up less than 1% of the soldiers deployed but was responsible for over 20% of the territory of all the land assigned to the United States. During the war the 369th's regimental band (under the direction of James Reese Europe) became famous throughout Europe. It introduced the until-then unknown music called jazz to British, French and other European audiences.
At the end of the war, the 369th returned to New York City, and on 17 February 1919, paraded through the city. This day became an unofficial holiday of sorts for all of Harlem. Many black school children were dismissed from school so that they could attend the parade. With the addition of many adults there were thousands of people that lined the streets to see the 369th Regiment: the parade began on Fifth Avenue at 61st Street, proceeded uptown past ranks of white bystanders, turned west on 110th Street, and then turned onto Lenox Avenue, and marched into Harlem, where black New Yorkers packed the sidewalks to see them. The parade became a marker of African American service to the nation, a frequent point of reference for those campaigning for civil rights. There were multiple parades that took place throughout the nation, many of these parades included all black regiments, including the 370th from Illinois. Then in the 1920s and 1930s, the 369th was a regular presence on Harlem's streets, each year marching through the neighborhood from their armory to catch a train to their annual summer camp, and then back through the neighborhood on their return two weeks later.
Tap dancer and actor Bill Robinson is frequently claimed to have been the drum major for the regimental band during the homecoming parade on Fifth Avenue upon the 369th's return from overseas. This has however been questioned as it is not mentioned in either his biography by Jim Haskins or the biography of James Europe.
Coast Artillery
After World War I, the regiment was reorganized in the New York National Guard as the 369th Infantry, and its headquarters was federally recognized on September 6, 1924. In 1938, Benjamin O. Davis Sr. became the regimental commander, and he led a reorganization that resulted in the fielding of the 369th Coast Artillery Regiment in 1940. The regiment was activated for federal service in 1941 as the U.S. Army expanded during preparations for entry into World War II.
The 369th Coast Artillery was broken up in December 1943 as Follows:
Headquarters Detachment, 1st Battalion, as Headquarters Battery, 369th Antiaircraft Artillery Gun Battalion
Headquarters Detachment, 2d Battalion, as Headquarters Battery, 870th Antiaircraft Artillery Automatic Weapons Battalion
The remainder of the regiment was reorganized as: Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 369th Antiaircraft Artillery Group; 726th Antiaircraft Artillery Searchlight Battery; and elements of the 369th Antiaircraft Artillery Gun Battalion and 870th Antiaircraft Artillery Automatic Weapons Battalion.
World War II
On 15 May 1942, the 369th Infantry Regiment was re-established as an element of the 93rd Infantry Division (Colored) in the Army of the United States; as a result, this iteration of the 369th Infantry does not have any lineal connection with the 15th New York established before World War I and that is still active in the present day. It was deployed overseas and participated in labor and security operations in the Southwest Pacific Area. The 369th, along with the rest of the 93rd Infantry Division, occupied Morotai in Dutch New Guinea from April to June 1945, seeing limited combat. The division redeployed to Zamboanga in the Philippines on 1 July 1945, where it conducted "mop up" patrols until the Japanese surrendered on 15 August. The 369th left the Philippines with the division on 17 January 1946, returning to the United States on 1 February. The unit was deactivated two days later.
Armory
In 1933, the 369th Regiment Armory was created to honor the 369th regiment for their service. This armory stands at 142nd and Fifth Avenue, in the heart of Harlem. This armory was constructed starting in the 1920s and was completed in the 1930s. The 369th Regiment Armory was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1994 and was designated as a city landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1985.
Later years
The infantry's polished post-World War I reputation was not completely safe from external criticism, which ultimately surfaced as a result of ongoing racial tension in the United States. In 1940, the Chicago Defender reported that the United States Department of War arranged for the 369th regiment to be renamed the "Colored Infantry." The department announced that there were too many infantry units in the national guard and the 369th regiment would be among those slated to go, the first alleged step toward abolishing the famed unit. Supporters of the regiment swiftly objected to the introduction of racial identity in the title of a unit in the United States army, effectively preserving the regiment's reputation. However, eventually, all African American US Army units were renamed as "Colored," and the 369th served in World War II as the 369th Coast Artillery Regiment (Antiaircraft) (Colored), with its successor being the 369th Infantry Regiment (Colored).
In 2003, the New York State Department of Transportation renamed the Harlem River Drive as the "Harlem Hellfighters Drive." On 29 September 2006 a twelve-foot high monument was unveiled to honor the 369th Regiment. This statue is a replica of a monument that stands in France. The monument is made of black granite and contains the 369th crest and rattlesnake insignia.
Descending units of the 369th Infantry Regiment have continued to serve since World War I. The 369th Infantry Regiment continued to serve up until World War II where they would be reorganized into the 369th Anti-aircraft Artillery Regiment. The newly formed regiment would serve in Hawaii and throughout much of the West Coast. Another 369th Infantry Regiment was raised in 1942 as part of the 93rd Infantry Division (Colored), but is not listed as a New York National Guard unit. At some time postwar, the 369th was re-formed into the present-day 369th Sustainment Brigade.
The Congressional Gold Medal was awarded to the regiment in August 2021 in recognition of their bravery and outstanding service during World War I.
Notable soldiers
Benjamin O. Davis Sr.
James Reese Europe
Hamilton Fish III
Susan Elizabeth Frazier
Harry Haywood
Henry Johnson
Otis Johnson
Rafael Hernández Marín
Horace Pippin
Spotswood Poles
Needham Roberts
George Seanor Robb
Noble Sissle
Vertner Woodson Tandy
John Woodruff
George F. Shiels
Charles Luckyth Robert
William Hayward
Distinctive unit insignia
Description
A silver color metal and enamel device in height overall consisting of a blue shield charged with a silver rattlesnake coiled and ready to strike.
Symbolism
The rattlesnake is a symbol used on some colonial flags and is associated with the thirteen original colonies. The silver rattlesnake on the blue shield was the distinctive regimental insignia of the 369th Infantry Regiment, ancestor of the unit, and alludes to the service of the organization during World War I.
Background
The distinctive unit insignia was originally approved for the 369th Infantry Regiment on 17 April 1923. It was redesignated for the 369th Coast Artillery Regiment on 3 December 1940. It was redesignated for the 369th Antiaircraft Artillery Gun Battalion on 7 January 1944. It was redesignated for the 569th Field Artillery Battalion on 14 August 1956. The insignia was redesignated for the 369th Artillery Regiment on 4 April 1962. It was amended to correct the wording of the description on 2 September 1964. It was redesignated for the 569th Transportation Battalion and amended to add a motto on 13 March 1969. The insignia was redesignated for the 369th Transportation Battalion and amended to delete the motto on 14 January 1975. It was redesignated for the 369th Support Battalion and amended to revise the description and symbolism on 2 November 1994. The insignia was redesignated for the 369th Sustainment Brigade and amended to revise the description and symbolism on 20 July 2007.
369th Veterans' Association
The 369th Veterans' Association is a group created to honor those who served in the 369th infantry. This veterans group has three distinct goals. According to the Legal Information Institute of the Cornell Law Institute these include,"promoting the principles of friendship and goodwill among its members; engaging in social and civic activities that tend to enhance the welfare of its members and inculcate the true principles of good citizenship in its members; and memorializing, individually and collectively, the patriotic services of its members in the 369th antiaircraft artillery group and other units in the Armed Forces of the United States."
Depiction in media
Fictionalized accounts featuring the Harlem Hellfighters include the 2014 graphic novel The Harlem Hellfighters written by Max Brooks and illustrated by Caanan White. It depicts a fictionalized account of the 369th's tour in Europe during World War I. a film adaptation of the aforementioned novel is in the works under Sony Pictures and Overbrook Entertainment.
In 2018 the 369th Infantry Regiment became part of the documentary Noble Sissle's Syncopated Ragtime, directed and produced by Daniel L. Bernardi and David de Rozas with the collaboration of El Dorado Films and the Veteran Documentary Corps. The film subject is musician and Harlem Hellfighters' soldier Noble Sissle, the documentary won Best US Documentary Feature Film at the 2019 American Documentary Film Festival and Film Fund.
Swedish power metal band Sabaton dedicated a song to the Harlem Hellfighters on their 2022 album The war to end all wars.
See also
369th Sustainment Brigade (United States)
References
Sources
2MAR22 (latest update: now will become a 4-part series on History Channel)
https://www.broadwayworld.com/bwwtv/article/The-HISTORY-Channel-Greenlights-HARLEM-HELLFIGHTERS-Documentary-Event-20220302
10MAR17 (update to movie news: now to become a 6-part series on History Channel)
https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/will-smiths-overbook-tackling-max-brooks-harlem-hellfighters-history-channel-985019/
7MAR14 (original referenced link... Harlem Hellfighters as a movie from Sony)
https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/sony-nabs-max-brooks-wwi-686887/
Further reading
Barbeau, Arthur E., and Florette Henri. The Unknown Soldiers; Black American Troops in World War I. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1974. .
Harris, Bill. The Hellfighters of Harlem: African-American Soldiers Who Fought for the Right to Fight for Their Country. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2002. , .
Harris, Stephen L. Harlem's Hell Fighters: The African-American 369th Infantry in World War I. Washington, D.C.: Brassey's, Inc, 2003. , .
Little, Arthur W. From Harlem to the Rhine: The Story of New York's Colored Volunteers. New York: Covici, Friede, Publishers, 1936. (Reprinted: New York: Haskell House, 1974. ).
Myers, Walter Dean, and Bill Miles. The Harlem Hellfighters: When Pride Met Courage. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2006. , .
Nelson, Peter. A More Unbending Battle: The Harlem Hellfighters' Struggle for Freedom in WWI and Equality at Home. New York: Basic Civitas, 2009. .
Sammons, Jeffrey T., and John H. Morrow, Jr. Harlem's Rattlers and the Great War: The Undaunted 369th Regiment and the African American Quest for Equality. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2014. .
Wright, Ben, "Victory and Defeat: World War I, the Harlem Hellfighters, and a Lost Battle for Civil Rights," Afro-Americans in New York Life and History, 38 (Jan. 2014) pp:35–70.
African Americans in World War I
Scott, Emmett Jay. Scott's Official History of the American Negro in the World War. A Complete and Authentic Narration, from Official Sources, of the Participation of American Soldiers of the Negro Race in the World War for Democracy ... a Full Account of the War Work Organizations of Colored Men and Women and Other Civilian Activities, Including the Red Cross, the Y.M.C.A., the Y.W.C.A. and the War Camp Community Service, with Official Summary of Treaty of Peace and League of Nations Covenant. Chicago: Homewood Press, 1919. . (Reprinted: New York, Arno Press, 1969. .)
Williams, Charles H. Sidelights on Negro Soldiers. Boston: B.J. Brimmer Co, 1923. . (Reprinted as: Negro Soldiers in World War I: The Human Side. New York: AMS Press, 1970. ).
Infantry regiments of the United States Army National Guard
Infantry regiments of the United States Army in World War II
United States Army regiments of World War I
Congressional Gold Medal recipients
African Americans in World War I
African Americans in World War II
African-American United States Army personnel
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nail%20%28anatomy%29
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Nail (anatomy)
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A nail is a protective plate characteristically found at the tip of the digits (fingers and toes) of all primates, corresponding to the claws in other tetrapod animals. Fingernails and toenails are made of a tough rigid protein called alpha-keratin, a polymer also found in the claws, hooves and horns of vertebrates.
Structure
The nail consists of the nail plate, the nail matrix and the nail bed below it, and the grooves surrounding it.
Parts of the nail
The nail matrix is the active tissue (or germinal matrix) that generates cells. The cells harden as they move outward from the nail root to the nail plate. The nail matrix is also known as the matrix unguis, keratogenous membrane, or onychostroma. It is the part of the nail bed that is beneath the nail and contains nerves, lymph and blood vessels. The matrix produces cells that become the nail plate. The width and thickness of the nail plate is determined by the size, length, and thickness of the matrix, while the shape of the fingertip bone determines if the nail plate is flat, arched, or hooked. The matrix will continue to produce cells as long as it receives nutrition and remains in a healthy condition. As new nail plate cells are made, they push older nail plate cells forward; and in this way older cells become compressed, flat, and translucent. This makes the capillaries in the nail bed below visible, resulting in a pink color.
The lunula ("small moon") is the visible part of the matrix, the whitish crescent-shaped base of the visible nail. The lunula can best be seen in the thumb and may not be visible in the little finger. The lunula appears white due to a reflection of light at the point where the nail matrix and nail bed meet.
The nail bed is the skin beneath the nail plate. It is the area of the nail on which the nail plate rests. Nerves and blood vessels found here supply nourishment to the entire nail unit. Like all skin, it is made of two types of tissues: the dermis and the epidermis. The epidermis is attached to the dermis by tiny longitudinal "grooves" called matrix crests (cristae matricis unguis). In old age, the nail plate becomes thinner, and these grooves become more visible. The nail bed is highly innervated, and removal of the nail plate is often excruciatingly painful as a result.
The nail sinus (sinus unguis) is where the nail root is; i.e. the base of the nail underneath the skin. It originates from the actively growing tissue below, the matrix.
The nail plate (corpus unguis) sometimes referred to as the nail body, is the visible hard nail area from the nail root to the free edge, made of translucent keratin protein. Several layers of dead, compacted cells cause the nail to be strong but flexible. Its (transverse) shape is determined by the form of the underlying bone. In common usage, the word nail often refers to this part only. The nail plate is strongly attached to the nail bed and does not contain any nerves or blood vessels.
The free margin (margo liber) or distal edge is the anterior margin of the nail plate corresponds to the abrasive or cutting edge of the nail.
The hyponychium (informally known as the "quick") is the epithelium located beneath the nail plate at the junction between the free edge and the skin of the fingertip. It forms a seal that protects the nail bed. The onychodermal band is the seal between the nail plate and the hyponychium. It is just under the free edge, in that portion of the nail where the nail bed ends and can be recognized in fair-skinned people by its glassy, greyish colour. It is not visible in some individuals while it is highly prominent on others.
Eponychium
Together, the eponychium and the cuticle form a protective seal. The cuticle is the semi-circular layer of almost invisible dead skin cells that "ride out on" and cover the back of the visible nail plate. The eponychium is the fold of skin cells that produces the cuticle. They are continuous, and some references view them as one entity. (Thus the names eponychium, cuticle, and perionychium would be synonymous, although a distinction is still drawn here.) It is the cuticle (nonliving part) that is removed during a manicure, but the eponychium (living part) should not be touched due to risk of infection. The eponychium is a small band of living cells (epithelium) that extends from the posterior nail wall onto the base of the nail. The eponychium is the end of the proximal fold that folds back upon itself to shed an epidermal layer of skin onto the newly formed nail plate. The perionyx is the projecting edge of the eponychium covering the proximal strip of the lunula.
The nail wall (vallum unguis) is the cutaneous fold overlapping the sides and proximal end of the nail. The lateral margin (margo lateralis) lies beneath the nail wall on the sides of the nail, and the nail groove or fold (sulcus matricis unguis) are the cutaneous slits into which the lateral margins are embedded.
Paronychium
The paronychium is the soft tissue border around the nail, and paronychia is an infection in this area.
The paronychium is the skin that overlaps onto the sides of the nail plate, also known as the paronychial edge. The paronychium is the site of hangnails, ingrown nails, and paronychia, a skin infection.
Hyponychium
The hyponychium is the area of epithelium, particularly the thickened portion, underlying the free edge of the nail plate. It is sometimes called the "quick", as in the phrase "cutting to the quick".
Function
A healthy fingernail has the function of protecting the distal phalanx, the fingertip, and the surrounding soft tissues from injuries. It also serves to enhance precise delicate movements of the distal digits through counter-pressure exerted on the pulp of the finger.
The nail then acts as a counter-force when the end of the finger touches an object, thereby enhancing the sensitivity of the fingertip, although the nail itself has no nerve endings.
Finally, the nail functions as a tool enabling a so-called "extended precision grip" (e.g., pulling out a splinter in one's finger), and certain cutting or scraping actions.
Growth
The growing part of the nail is under the skin at the nail's proximal end under the epidermis, which is the only living part of a nail.
In mammals, the growth rate of nails is related to the length of the terminal phalanges (outermost finger bones). Thus, in humans, the nail of the index finger grows faster than that of the little finger; and fingernails grow up to four times faster than toenails.
In humans, fingernails grow at an average rate of approx. a month, whereas toenails grow about half as fast (approx. average a month). Fingernails require three to six months to regrow completely, and toenails require twelve to eighteen months. Actual growth rate is dependent upon age, sex, season, exercise level, diet, and hereditary factors.
The longest female nails known ever to have existed measured a total of 8.65 m (28 ft 4.5 in). Contrary to popular belief, nails do not continue to grow after death; the skin dehydrates and tightens, making the nails (and hair) appear to grow.
Permeability
The nail is often considered an impermeable barrier, but this is not true. In fact, it is much more permeable than the skin, and the composition of the nail includes 7–12% water. This permeability has implications for penetration by harmful and medicinal substances; in particular cosmetics applied to the nails can pose a risk. Water can penetrate the nail as can many other substances including paraquat, a fast acting herbicide that is harmful to humans, urea which is often an ingredient in creams and lotions meant for use on hands and fingers, and several fungicidal agents such as salicylic acid, miconazole branded Monistat, natamycin; and sodium hypochlorite which is the active ingredient in common household bleach (but usually only in 2–3% concentration).
Clinical significance
Healthcare and pre-hospital-care providers (EMTs or paramedics) often use the fingernail beds as a cursory indicator of distal tissue perfusion of individuals who may be dehydrated or in shock. However, this test is not considered reliable in adults. This is known as the CRT or blanch test. The fingernail bed is briefly depressed to turn the nail-bed white. When the pressure is released, the normal pink colour should be restored within a second or two. Delayed return to pink color can be an indicator of certain shock states such as hypovolemia.
Nail growth record can show the history of recent health and physiological imbalances, and has been used as a diagnostic tool since ancient times. Deep, horizontally transverse grooves known as "Beau's lines" may form across the nails (horizontal, not along the nail from cuticle to tip). These lines are usually a natural consequence of aging, although they may result from disease. Discoloration, thinning, thickening, brittleness, splitting, grooves, Mees' lines, small white spots, receded lunula, clubbing (convex), flatness, and spooning (concave) can indicate illness in other areas of the body, nutrient deficiencies, drug reaction or poisoning, or merely local injury.
Nails can also become thickened (onychogryphosis), loosened (onycholysis), infected with fungus (onychomycosis), or degenerate (onychodystrophy). A common nail disorder is an ingrowing toenail (onychocryptosis).
DNA profiling is a technique employed by forensic scientists on hair, fingernails, toenails, etc.
Health and care
The best way to care for nails is to trim them regularly. Filing is also recommended, as to keep nails from becoming too rough and to remove any small bumps or ridges that may cause the nail to get tangled up in materials such as cloth.
Bluish or purple fingernail beds may be a symptom of peripheral cyanosis, which indicates oxygen deprivation.
Nails can dry out, just like skin. They can also peel, break, and be infected. Toe infections, for instance, can be caused or exacerbated by dirty socks, specific types of aggressive exercise (long-distance running), tight footwear, and walking unprotected in an unclean environment. Common organisms causing nail infections include yeasts and molds (particularly dermatophytes).
Nail tools used by different people may transmit infections. Standard hygiene and sanitation procedures avoid transmission. In some cases, gel and cream cuticle removers can be used instead of cuticle scissors.
Nail disease can be very subtle and should be evaluated by a dermatologist with a focus in this particular area of medicine. However, most times it is a nail stylist who will note a subtle change in nail disease.
Inherited accessory nail of the fifth toe occurs where the toenail of the smallest toe is separated, forming a smaller "sixth toenail" in the outer corner of the nail. Like any other nail, it can be cut using a nail clipper.
Effect of nutrition
Biotin-rich foods and supplements may help strengthen brittle fingernails.
Vitamin A is an essential micronutrient for vision, reproduction, cell and tissue differentiation, and immune function. Vitamin D and calcium work together in cases of maintaining homeostasis, creating muscle contraction, transmission of nerve pulses, blood clotting, and membrane structure. A lack of vitamin A, vitamin D, or calcium can cause dryness and brittleness.
Insufficient vitamin B12 can lead to excessive dryness, darkened nails, and rounded or curved nail ends. Insufficient intake of both vitamin A and B results in fragile nails with horizontal and vertical ridges. Some over-the-counter vitamin supplements such as certain multivitamins and biotin may help in growth of strong nails, although this is quite subjective. Both vitamin B12 and folate play a role in red blood cell production and oxygen transportation to nail cells. Inadequacies can result in discoloration of the nails.
Diminished dietary intake of omega-3 fatty acids may contribute to dry and brittle nails.
Protein is a building material for new nails; therefore, low dietary protein intake may cause anemia and the resultant reduced hemoglobin in the blood filling the capillaries of the nail bed reflects varying amounts of light incident on the nail matrix resulting in lighter shades of pink ultimately resulting in white nail beds when the hemoglobin is very low. When hemoglobin is close to 15 or 16 grams, most of the spectrum of light is absorbed and only the pink color is reflected back and the nails look pink.
Essential fatty acids play a large role in healthy skin as well as nails. Splitting and flaking of nails may be due to a lack of linoleic acid.
Iron-deficiency anemia can lead to a pale color along with a thin, brittle, ridged texture. Iron deficiency in general may cause the nails to become flat or concave, rather than convex. As oxygen is needed for healthy nails, an iron deficiency or anemia can lead to vertical ridges or concavity in the nails. RDAs for iron vary considerably depending on age and gender. The recommendation for men is 8 mg per day, while that of women aged 19–50 is 18 mg per day. After women hit age 50 or go through menopause, their iron needs drop to 8 mg daily.
Society and culture
Fashion
Manicures (for the hands) and pedicures (for the feet) are health and cosmetic procedures to groom, trim, and paint the nails and manage calluses. They require various tools such as cuticle scissors, nail scissors, nail clippers, and nail files. Artificial nails can also be fixed onto real nails for cosmetic purposes.
A person whose occupation is to cut, shape and care for nails as well as to apply overlays such as acrylic and UV gel is sometimes called a nail stylist. The place where a nail stylist works may be a nail salon or nail shop or nail bar.
Acrylic nails are made out of acrylic glass (PMMA). When it is mixed with a liquid monomer (usually ethyl methacrylate mixed with some inhibitor) it forms a malleable bead. This mixture begins to cure immediately, continuing until completely solid in minutes. Acrylic nails can last up to 21 days but can last longer with touch-ups. To give acrylic nails color, gel polish, nail polish, and dip powders can be applied.
Painting the nails with colored nail polish (also called nail lacquer and nail varnish) to improve the appearance is a common practice dating back to at least 3000 B.C.
Gel nails can be utilized in order to create artificial nail extensions, but can also be used like nail polish. They are hardened using ultraviolet light. They last longer than regular nail polish and do not chip. They have a high-gloss finish and last for two to three weeks.
Nail wraps are formed by cutting pieces of fiberglass, linen, silk fabric, or another material to fit on the surface of the nail (or a tip attached prior), to be sealed onto the nail plate with a layer of resin or glue. They do not damage the nail and also provide strength to the nail but are not used to lengthen it. It can also be used to fix broken nails. The treatment is however more expensive.
With the dip powder method, a clear liquid is brushed onto a nail and the nail is then placed into pigmented powder. Dip nails tend to last about a month, 2-3 weeks longer than gel and acrylic nails. It can be worn on natural nails, or with tips to create an artificial nail. Dip powder nails do not require any UV/LED light to be cured, instead they are sealed using an activator. The quickest way to remove dip powder is to drill, clip off, or buff out layers of the powder so, when they are soaking in acetone, they slide right off.
Length records
Guinness World Records began tracking record fingernail lengths in 1955, when a Chinese priest was listed as having fingernails long.
The current record-holder for men, according to Guinness, is Shridhar Chillal from India who set the record in 1998 with a total of of nails on his left hand. His longest nail, on his thumb, was long.
The record-holder for women is Lee Redmond of the U.S., who set the record in 2001 and as of 2008 had nails with a total length on both hands of , with the longest nail on her right thumb at .
Evolution in primates
The nail is an unguis, meaning a keratin structure at the end of a digit. Other examples of ungues include the claw, hoof, and talon. The nails of primates and the hooves of running mammals evolved from the claws of earlier animals.
In contrast to nails, claws are typically curved ventrally (downwards in animals) and compressed sideways. They serve a multitude of functionsincluding climbing, digging, and fightingand have undergone numerous adaptive changes in different animal taxa. Claws are pointed at their ends and are composed of two layers: a thick, deep layer and a superficial, hardened layer which serves a protective function. The underlying bone is a virtual mold of the overlying horny structure and therefore has the same shape as the claw or nail. Compared to claws, nails are flat, less curved, and do not extend far beyond the tip of the digits. The ends of the nails usually consist only of the "superficial", hardened layer and are not pointed like claws.
With only a few exceptions, primates retain plesiomorphic (original, "primitive") hands with five digits, each equipped with either a nail or a claw. For example, nearly all living strepsirrhine primates have nails on all digits except the second toe which is equipped with a grooming claw. Tarsiers have a grooming claw on second and third toes. Less commonly known, a grooming claw is also found on the second pedal digit of owl monkeys (Aotus), titis (Callicebus), and possibly other New World monkeys. The needle-clawed bushbaby (Euoticus) has keeled nails (the thumb and the first and the second toes have claws) featuring a central ridge that ends in a needle-like tip.
A study of the fingertip morphology of four small-bodied New World monkey species indicated a correlation between increasing small-branch foraging and:
expanded apical pads (fingertips),
developed epidermal ridges (fingerprints),
broadened distal parts of distal phalanges (fingertip bones), and
reduced flexor and extensor tubercles (attachment areas for finger muscles on bones).
This suggests that whereas claws are useful on large-diameter branches, wide fingertips with nails and epidermal ridges were required for habitual locomotion on small-diameter branches. It also indicates keel-shaped nails of Callitrichines (a family of New World monkeys) is a derived postural adaptation rather than retained ancestral condition.
See also
List of cutaneous conditions
Nail disease
Nail fetish
Onychogryphosis, overgrown, claw-like nails
References
External links
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Wilkinson
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James Wilkinson
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James Wilkinson (March 24, 1757 – December 28, 1825) was an American soldier, politician, and double agent who was associated with several scandals and controversies.
He served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, but he was twice compelled to resign. He was twice the Senior Officer of the U.S. Army, appointed to be the first Governor of the Louisiana Territory in 1805, and commanded two unsuccessful campaigns in the St. Lawrence River theater during the War of 1812. He died while seeking to serve as a diplomat in Mexico City.
In 1854, following extensive archival research in the Spanish archives in Madrid, Louisiana historian Charles Gayarré exposed Wilkinson as having been a highly paid spy in the service of the Spanish Empire. In the years since Gayarré's research became public, Wilkinson has been savagely condemned by American historians and politicians. According to President Theodore Roosevelt, "[I]n all our history, there is no more despicable character." However, he has been defended, especially in breaking up the Burr conspiracy.
Early life
James Wilkinson was born on March 24, 1757, the son of Joseph Wilkinson and Alethea (Heighe) Wilkinson. Wilkinson's birthplace was about three miles (5 km) northeast of Benedict, Charles County, Maryland, on a farm south of Hunting Creek in Calvert County.
Wilkinson's grandfather had been sufficiently wealthy to buy a large property known as Stoakley Manor in Calvert County. Even though James Wilkinson's family lived on a smaller estate than those of Maryland's elite, they still saw themselves as members of the higher social class. According to historian Andro Linklater, Wilkinson grew up with the idea that "the image of respectability excused the reality of betrayal". His father inherited Stoakley Manor but by then the family was in debt. Joseph Wilkinson died in 1763 and in 1764 Stoakley Manor was broken up and sold. Wilkinson's older brother Joseph inherited what was left of the manor property after his father died. As the second son, James Wilkinson inherited no land.
Wilkinson's father had left him with the last words of "My son, if you ever put up with an insult, I will disinherit you." Biographer Andro Linklater argued that this upbringing led to Wilkinson's aggressive reaction toward perceived insults. Wilkinson's early education by a private tutor was funded by his maternal grandmother. His study of medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, also funded by his grandmother, was interrupted by the American Revolutionary War.
Marriages
Wilkinson married Ann Biddle (1742–1807) of the prominent Biddle family of Philadelphia on November 12, 1778, in Philadelphia. She was a first cousin of Charles Biddle, an associate of Aaron Burr, and Wilkinson's marriage to the dynamic Biddle helped his career as a politician and general. She died on February 23, 1807.
The couple had four sons: John (1780–1796), James Biddle (c. 1783–1813), Joseph Biddle (1785–1865), and Walter (born 1791). James and Walter both served as Captains in the U.S. Army.
On March 5, 1810, Wilkinson married Celestine Laveau Trudeau, widow of Thomas Urquhart and daughter of Charles Laveau Trudeau. They were the parents of twin girls Marie Isabel and Elizabeth Stephanie as well as a son, Theodore. Celestine's father, known in Louisiana as Don Carlos Trudeau, had served in the Spanish government of New Orleans. When the United States gained control of the city, he remained in New Orleans and anglicized his name.
Marie Isabel Wilkinson died in infancy. Elizabeth Stephanie Wilkinson (1816-1871) married Professor Toussaint Francois Bigot (1794-1869) in 1833. Theodore J. Wilkinson (1819-1853) resided in New Orleans.
Revolutionary War service
Wilkinson first served in Thompson's Pennsylvania rifle battalion, 1775–76, and was commissioned a captain in September 1775. He served as an aide to Nathanael Greene during the Siege of Boston, participated in the placing of guns on the Dorchester Heights in March 1776, and following the British abandonment of Boston, went with the rest of the Continental Army to New York where he left Greene's staff and was given command of an infantry company.
Sent to Canada as part of the reinforcements for Benedict Arnold's army besieging Quebec, he arrived just in time to witness the arrival of 8,000 British reinforcements under General John Burgoyne – which precipitated the collapse of the American effort in Canada. He became aide to Arnold just prior to the final retreat and left Canada with Arnold on the very last boat out. Shortly thereafter, he left Arnold's service and became an aide to General Horatio Gates in August 1776.
When Gates sent him to Congress with official dispatches about the victory at the Battle of Saratoga in 1777, Wilkinson kept the Continental Congress waiting while he attended to personal affairs. When he finally showed up, he embellished his own role in the victory, and was brevetted as a brigadier general (despite being only 20 years old at the time) on November 6, 1777, and appointed to the newly created Board of War. The promotion over more senior colonels caused an uproar among Continental officers, especially because Wilkinson's gossiping seemed to indicate he was a participant in the Conway Cabal, a conspiracy to replace George Washington with Horatio Gates as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army. Gates soon had enough of Wilkinson, and the young officer was compelled to resign in March 1778. On July 29, 1779, Congress appointed him clothier-general of the Army, but he resigned on March 27, 1781, due to his "lack of aptitude for the job".
Kentucky ventures
After his resignation from the Continental Army, Wilkinson reluctantly became a brigadier general in the Pennsylvania militia in 1782 and also a state assemblyman in 1783, due to the wishes of George Washington. He moved to Kentucky (at that time, just three counties still belonging to Virginia) in 1784, and he was active there in efforts to achieve independence from Virginia.
In April 1787, Wilkinson made a highly controversial trip to New Orleans, which was the capital of Spanish colonial Louisiana. At that time, Americans were allowed to trade on the Mississippi River, but they had to pay a hefty tariff. Wilkinson met with Spanish Governor Esteban Rodríguez Miró and managed to convince him to allow Kentucky to have a trading monopoly on the River; in return he promised to promote Spanish interests in the west. On August 22, 1787, Wilkinson signed an expatriation declaration and swore allegiance to the King of Spain to satisfy his own commercial needs. The "Spanish Conspiracy", as it is known, was initiated by Wilkinson's "First Memorial", a 7,500-word report written before he left New Orleans for Charleston, to the Spanish concerning the "political future of western settlers" and to convince Spain to "admit us [Kentuckians] under protection as vassals". This was encoded with myriad symbols, numbers, and letters that was decoded via a complex English-Spanish cipher code-named "Number 13", which became the basis for his pseudonym, "Agent 13".
Upon returning to Kentucky in February 1788, Wilkinson vigorously opposed the new U.S. Constitution. Kentucky had very nearly achieved statehood under the old Articles of Confederation, and there was widespread disappointment when this was delayed because of the new constitution.
Leading up to Kentucky's seventh convention regarding separation from Virginia in November 1788, Wilkinson attempted to gauge the support for Kentucky to seek union with Spain. Wilkinson's ability to win people over with his charm and seeming sincerity got him elected committee chairman at the convention. He advocated for Kentucky to seek independence from Virginia first, and then to consider joining the Union of states as a second step. For many, joining the Union was conditional upon the Union negotiating with Spain to arrange free navigation on the Mississippi River, a contentious point which many doubted the eastern states would act upon.
Unable to gather enough support for his position at the convention, Wilkinson then approached Miró with a proposal. His intention was to obtain a grant of 60,000 acres (243 km2) in the Yazoo lands, at the junction of the Yazoo River and the Mississippi (near present-day Vicksburg). The land was to serve as payment for Wilkinson's efforts on behalf of Spain, and to serve as a refuge in the event he and his supporters had to flee from the United States. Wilkinson asked for and received a pension of $7,000 from Miró, while requesting pensions on behalf of several prominent Kentuckians, including: Harry Innes, Benjamin Sebastian, John Brown, Caleb Wallace, Benjamin Logan, Isaac Shelby, George Muter, George Nicholas, and even Humphrey Marshall (who at one time was a bitter rival of Wilkinson's).
However, by 1788 Wilkinson had apparently lost the confidence of officials in Spain. Miró was not to grant any of the proposed pensions and was forbidden from giving money to support a revolution in Kentucky. Furthermore, Wilkinson continued to secretly receive funds from Spain for many years.
Second military career
Northwest Indian War
In May 1791, Lieutenant Colonel James Wilkinson led a subsequent raid that August, intended to create a distraction that would aid St. Clair's march north. In the Battle of Kenapacomaqua, Wilkinson killed 9 Wea and Miami, and captured 34 Miami as prisoners, including a daughter of Miami war chief Little Turtle. Many of the confederation leaders were considering terms of peace to present to the United States, but when they received news of Wilkinson's raid, they readied for war. Wilkinson's raid thus had the opposite effect, uniting the tribes against St. Clair instead of distracting them. St. Clair's horrific defeat would take place shortly after.
Betrayal of Wayne
When the United States government reorganized the Army as the Legion of the United States, President George Washington was faced with the decision of whom to name as its commanding general. The two major candidates for this promotion were Wilkinson and Anthony Wayne. In the end, the cabinet chose Wayne due to Wilkinson's suspected involvement with the Spanish government. The cabinet promoted Wilkinson to brigadier general as consolation, since the President was aware of Wilkinson's fragile ego.
Wilkinson developed a jealousy of Wayne, but he maintained an ostensible respect toward the general. Throughout the Ohio campaign, Wilkinson secretly tried to undermine him. Wilkinson wrote anonymous negative letters to local newspapers about Wayne and spent years writing negative letters to politicians in D.C. Wilkinson also urged contractors not to perform, in the hope that Wayne's campaign would fail and that he would be appointed to replace Wayne. Wilkinson's refusal of an invitation to Wayne's Christmas party also created suspicion. Wayne eventually developed a full-fledged hatred for Wilkinson, after receiving a tip from Henry Knox. In August 1794, Wayne had led the Legion against the Indians in the Battle of Fallen Timbers; the battle was a significant victory for the United States, yet Wilkinson had criticized Wayne's actions during the battle, simply to antagonize him.
Wilkinson proceeded to file formal complaints against Wayne and his decisions to President Washington. Upon finding out about the complaints against him, Wayne decided to launch an investigation into Wilkinson's history with the Spanish. During all of this time, Wilkinson had renewed his secret alliance with the Spanish government (through the Governor of Louisiana Francisco Luis Héctor de Carondelet), alerting them to the actions of both the US and the French occupancy in North America. When Spanish couriers were intercepted carrying payments for Wilkinson, Wayne's suspicions were confirmed and he attempted to court martial Wilkinson for his treachery. However, Wayne developed a stomach ulcer and died on December 15, 1796; there was no court-martial. Instead, Wilkinson began his first tenure as Senior Officer of the Army, which lasted for about a year and a half. He continued to pass on intelligence to the Spanish in return for large sums in gold, but most of his information was of little value.
Quasi-War with France
Wilkinson was transferred to the southern frontier in 1798. During the Quasi-War crisis of the late 1790s between France and the United States, he was given the third-place rank in the U.S. Army behind George Washington (who, having been succeeded as president by Adams, died in December 1799) and Alexander Hamilton. Among other duties, Wilkinson was charged by Hamilton with establishing a "Reserve Corps" of American troops in the lower Ohio River Valley, who would seize the lower Mississippi River Valley and New Orleans in the event of war with France and her ally Spain.
Despite the end of the crisis in mid-1800 and Hamilton being discharged from the Army, Wilkinson, for unknown reasons, continued the plan for the establishment of the base which he named "Cantonment Wilkinson" after himself. Located in the Indiana Territory (now southern Illinois), the base operated from January 1801 to late 1802 before finally being abandoned. Archaeologists from Southern Illinois University have located the remains of this base, which is producing much previously unknown information and artifacts from the daily life of the frontier army.
Wilkinson served his second, longer term as Senior Officer of the Army from June 15, 1800, until January 27, 1812, when former Secretary of War Henry Dearborn was promoted to major general over Wilkinson.
On 30 April 1801, Wilkinson issued an order to remove all queues or pigtails, which had been worn in the army since the Revolution. This order was highly unpopular with both officers and men, leading to several desertions and threats of resignation. One senior officer, Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Butler, was eventually court martialed in 1803 for failing to cut his hair.
Service under President Jefferson
Wilkinson remained senior officer of the United States Army under President Thomas Jefferson. Along with Mississippi Territorial and the newly named Orleans Territorial Governor William C. C. Claiborne, Wilkinson shared the honor of taking possession of the Louisiana Purchase on behalf of the United States on December 20, 1803. At this time, Wilkinson renewed his treasonous relationship with Spanish colonial officials, offering advice to them on how to contain American expansion in exchange for the restoration of his pension. Among other things, Wilkinson tipped off the Spanish to the object of the Lewis and Clark Expedition and provided advice to the Marquess of Casa Calvo to aid in his negotiations over the Texas–Louisiana border. Wilkinson also provided advice to the Spanish on how to intercept at least two other Jefferson sponsored expeditions to explore the Louisiana Purchase.
Territorial Governor of Louisiana
Wilkinson was appointed by President Jefferson to be the first Governor of Louisiana Territory in the spring of 1805 with an additional salary of $2,000. His secretary, Dr. Joseph Brown, was the brother-in-law of Vice President Aaron Burr, and they were headquartered in St. Louis.
Connections with Aaron Burr
In 1804–05, Wilkinson met in person with Aaron Burr, and they exchanged letters regarding Burr's conspiracy. After Burr's arrest, he claimed he was leading a group of settlers to take up residence on land in Texas which he had leased from the Spanish government in Mexico. The government charged Burr with treason and claimed he intended to separate the then-western states and territories from the United States and establish an independent nation.
Since Wilkinson was both the senior brigadier general of the United States Army and the Louisiana governor, Burr cultivated his support. In 1806 Burr is supposed to have sent a coded, unsigned letter (the "Cipher Letter", which Burr later denied having written) to Wilkinson, which stated that he was ready to commence his movement to Texas. Burr's subsequent efforts to recruit participants in his plans became public, raising fears that he was conspiring with England to start a war with Spain. Wilkinson became fearful that his role in Burr's plans and/or his spying for Spain would be exposed. In October 1806 Wilkinson sent to President Jefferson a letter in which he painted Burr's actions in the worst possible light, while portraying himself as innocent of any involvement. Jefferson ordered Burr's arrest, and Burr was apprehended near Natchez, Mississippi.
Wilkinson testified at Burr's trial, and the documents presented as evidence included the "cipher letter", which Wilkinson had given the prosecution. However, the letter was clearly altered to minimize Wilkinson's culpability. This forgery, coupled with Wilkinson's obviously self-serving testimony, had the effect of making Burr seem to be the victim of an overzealous government. The grand jury nearly produced enough votes in favor of indicting Wilkinson for misprision of treason, and foreman John Randolph said of Wilkinson that he was a "mammoth of iniquity", the "most finished scoundrel", and "the only man I ever saw who was from the bark to the very core a villain."
During Burr's trial, Wilkinson placed New Orleans under martial law, against the will of Governor Claiborne, and imprisoned several people whom he thought may be able to connect him to Burr, along with attorneys who tried to defend them.
He was removed from the Territorial Governor's office after being publicly criticized for heavy-handed administration and abuse of power (and replaced with Meriwether Lewis). In addition, his actions around the Burr conspiracy became public, which aroused the public against him and led to two Congressional inquiries into his private ventures and intrigues. President James Madison, who had succeeded Jefferson in 1809, ordered a military court-martial in 1811, which exonerated Wilkinson.
War of 1812
On March 2, 1813, Wilkinson was commissioned a major general during the War of 1812 with Britain, with whom Spain was allied. The Mobile District, now coastal Mississippi and Alabama, had remained under Spanish control following the U.S. annexation of the Republic of West Florida in 1810. On May 14, 1812, the claimed portion of West Florida east of the Pearl River was assigned to the Mississippi Territory, though at the time, the area around Mobile Bay remained under the control of Spanish Florida. Following that Congressional declaration of annexation, and an act of February 12, 1813, (3 Stat. L. 472) authorizing the President to occupy that area, Wilkinson sailed from New Orleans to Mobile in April 1813 with a force of 600. There he received the surrender of the Spanish commander, effectively implementing the inclusion of the Mobile District in the Mississippi Territory.
He was then assigned to the St. Lawrence River theater of war, following Henry Dearborn's reassignment. Wilkinson engaged in two failed campaigns (the Battle of Crysler's Farm and the Second Battle of Lacolle Mills. He was relieved from active duty and court-martialed in early 1815, but he was ultimately cleared. He was discharged from the Army on June 15, 1815. In 1816, Wilkinson published Memoirs of My Own Times, in a final attempt to clear his name.
General Wilkinson may not have been a competent commander in conventional operations in the Battle of Crysler's Farm and the Battle of Lacolle Mills, but he excelled at guerrilla warfare tactics. Before the Battle of Bladensburg, General Wilkinson helped conceive a strategy of using the militia dominated forces as guerrilla fighters against the incoming British attack on the Capitol. Wilkinson and other American commanders tried to convince the American government to use all the militia in hit-and-run tactics, ambushes, and harassment against the British forces by the flanks and rear. But President James Madison and James Monroe disapproved of the plan. Madison and Monroe wanted to fight a set piece battle by placing the militia in linear defensive formations to fight the British head on. This led to ultimate disaster and defeat as the British easily routed the militia and burned the Capitol.
Last years
After the end of his military career, Wilkinson unsuccessfully sought to be appointed as U.S. Envoy to Mexico.
This was during the period of the Mexican War of Independence against Spain, which was won in 1821. In that year, Wilkinson requested a Texas land grant. While awaiting the Mexican government's approval of his land scheme, Wilkinson died in Mexico City on December 28, 1825, at the age of 68. He was buried in Mexico City.
Wilkinson's involvement with the Spanish (as Agent 13) was widely suspected in his own day, and it was proved in 1854, with Louisiana historian Charles Gayarré's publication of the American general's correspondence with Esteban Rodríguez Miró, Louisiana's colonial governor between 1785 and 1791.
Later view
Some 65 years after the general's misdeeds, then-Governor of New York, Theodore Roosevelt, condemned him in print: "In all our history, there is no more despicable character." Historian Robert Leckie characterized him as "a general who never won a battle or lost a court-martial", while Frederick Jackson Turner called Wilkinson "the most consummate artist in treason that the nation ever possessed". George Rogers Clark biographer Temple Bodley said of Wilkinson, "He had considerable military talent, but used it only for his own gain."
Legacy
Frankfort, Kentucky's downtown was created from land owned by Wilkinson, and he designed the layout. A major street, which runs along historic Liberty Hall, was named Wilkinson Street.
New Orleans has a short street called Wilkinson named for James Wilkinson, in the French Quarter near Jackson Square. There is also a Wilkinson Street in Mandeville, Louisiana. Many of the oldest streets in Mandeville, close to Lake Pontchartrain, are named after prominent New Orleans residents of the late 18th and early 19th centuries or for Battle of New Orleans heroes.
Wilkinson County, Georgia, is named for Wilkinson. A Georgia historical marker on the courthouse square gives a brief biography of the general and identifies him as the source of the county's name. (The entry on the county in the usually reliable reference Georgia Place Names, by the late Kenneth Krakow, confuses James Wilkinson with James Marion Wilkinson, a Valdosta politician and railroad executive who was born decades after the county was founded.)
Wilkinson County, Mississippi, is named for General Wilkinson as well. It was there in the Old Natchez District that Wilkinson spent much of his time, allegedly plotting the Burr Conspiracy; Fort Adams (then an important U.S. Army post) was constructed by Wilkinson as the most southwesterly point in the U.S. and the last American stop on the Mississippi River before entering Spanish territory.
Wilkinson was an avid supporter of the military's short-hair codes. He attempted to prosecute Colonel Thomas Butler, a veteran of both the Revolution and the Indian wars, for keeping his long hair. Colonel Butler died before the trials closed. He never did cut his long, braided queue prior to his death and a possibly apocryphal story tells that his last request was for a hole to be drilled in his casket so that the queue could hang out and taunt Wilkinson even in death.
Wilkinson was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1789.
See also
Jane Herbert Wilkinson Long – Wilkinson's niece, nicknamed "Mother of Texas"
Philip Nolan – Wilkinson's protege
References
Further reading
Cox, Howard W. American Traitor: General James Wilkinson's Betrayal of the Republic and Escape From Justice. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2023.
Jacobs, James Ripley. Tarnished Warrior: Major-General James Wilkinson. New York: Macmillan Company, 1938.
King, John D. "Doctors Afield: General James Wilkinson." New England Journal of Medicine, 279:1043, 1968.
Linklater, Andro. An Artist in Treason: The Extraordinary Double Life of General James Wilkinson (Walker Publishing Company, 2009)
Narrett, David E., "Geopolitics and Intrigue: James Wilkinson, the Spanish Borderlands, and Mexican Independence", William and Mary Quarterly 69 (January 2012), 101–46. online
Nelson, Paul David. "Wilkinson, James (1757–28 December 1825)" American National Biography (1999)
Posey, John Thornton. "Rascality Revisited: In Defense of General James Wilkinson." Filson Club Historical Quarterly 74 (2000): 309–52.
External links
James Wilkinson, A Study in Controversy
Spaniards, Scoundrels, and Statesmen: General James Wilkinson and the Spanish Conspiracy, 1787–1790
Texas Handbook Online
Wilkinson Bio in Commanding Generals and Chiefs of Staff 1775–1995 , a publication of the United States Army Center of Military History
Encyclopedia Louisiana
James Wilkinson Estate Collection at The Historic New Orleans Collection
Guide to the Reuben T. Durrett Collection of James Wilkinson Papers 1784-1882 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center
The Society of the Cincinnati
The American Revolution Institute
1757 births
1825 deaths
American revolutionaries
Aaron Burr
American people of the Northwest Indian War
American confidence tricksters
Continental Army officers from Maryland
Continental Army staff officers
Members of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives
Governors of Louisiana Territory
People from Charles County, Maryland
People from Calvert County, Maryland
United States Army generals
People from Kentucky in the War of 1812
People of colonial Maryland
People of Maryland in the American Revolution
Ambassadors of the United States to Mexico
19th-century spies
Commanding Generals of the United States Army
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essaouira
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Essaouira
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Essaouira ( ; ; , formerly Amegdul), known until the 1960s as Mogador, is a port city in the western Moroccan region of Marakesh-Safi, on the Atlantic coast. It has 77,966 inhabitants as of 2014.
The foundation of the city of Essaouira was the work of the Moroccan 'Alawid sultan Mohammed bin Abdallah, who made an original experiment by entrusting it to several renowned architects in 1760, in particular Théodore Cornut and Ahmed al-Inglizi, who designed the city using French captives from the failed French expedition to Larache in 1765, and with the mission of building a city adapted to the needs of foreign merchants. Once built, it continued to grow and experienced a golden age and exceptional development, becoming the country's most important commercial port but also its diplomatic capital between the end of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century.
Medina of Essaouira was designated by the UNESCO a World Heritage Site in 2001.
Name and etymology
The name of the city is usually spelled Essaouira in Latin script, and in Arabic script. Both spellings represent its name in Moroccan Arabic, ṣ-Ṣwiṛa. This is the diminutive (with definite article) of the noun ṣuṛ which means "wall (as round a yard, city), rampart". The pronunciation with pharyngealized /ṣ/ and /ṛ/ is a typically Moroccan development. In Classical Arabic, the noun is sūr (, with plain /s/ and /r/), diminutive suwayrah (); this is the only form cited in all dictionaries of Classical Arabic. Hence, the spelling of the name in Arabic script according to the classical pronunciation is al-Suwayrah (with sīn not ṣād).
In the Berber language, which is spoken by a sizeable proportion of the city's inhabitants, it is called Taṣṣort, meaning "the small fortress".
In Moroccan Arabic, a single male inhabitant is called ṣwiṛi, plural ṣwiṛiyin, a single female inhabitant is ṣwiṛiya, plural ṣwiṛiyat. In the Berber language, a single male inhabitant is u Taṣṣort, plural: ayt Taṣṣoṛt, a single female inhabitant is ult Taṣṣort, plural ist Taṣṣort.
Until the 1960s, Essaouira was generally known by its Portuguese name, Mogador. This name is probably a corruption of the older Berber name Amegdul (spelled in Arabic), which is mentioned by the 11th-century geographer al-Bakrī.
History
Archaeological research shows that Essaouira has been occupied since prehistoric times. The bay at Essaouira is partially sheltered by the island of Mogador, making it a peaceful harbor protected against strong marine winds.
Antiquity
Essaouira has long been considered one of the best anchorages of the Moroccan coast. The Carthaginian navigator Hanno visited in the 5th century BCE and established the trading post of Arambys.
Around the end of the 1st century BCE or early 1st century CE, the Berber king Juba II established a Tyrian purple factory, processing the murex and purpura shells found in the intertidal rocks at Essaouira and the Iles Purpuraires. This dye colored the purple stripe in the togas worn by the Senators of Imperial Rome.
A Roman villa was excavated on Mogador island. A Roman vase was found as well as coinage from the 3rd century CE. Most of the artifacts are now visible in the Sidi Mohammed ben Abdallah Museum and the Rabat Archaeological Museum.
Early modern period
During the Middle Ages, a Muslim saint named Sidi Mogdoul was buried in Essaouira, probably giving its origin to the name "Mogador".
Portuguese establishment (1506–1510)
In 1506, the king of Portugal, D. Manuel I, ordered a fortress to be built there, named Castelo Real de Mogador. Altogether, the Portuguese are documented to have seized six Moroccan towns and built six stand-alone fortresses on the Moroccan Atlantic coast, between the river Loukos in the north and the river of Sous in the south. Four of them only had a short duration: Graciosa (1489), São João da Mamora (1515), Castelo Real of Mogador (1506–10) and Aguz (1520–25). Two became permanent urban settlements: Santa Cruz do Cabo de Gué (modern Agadir, founded in 1505–06), and Mazagan, founded in 1514–17. Following the 1541 Fall of Agadir, the Portuguese had to abandon most of their settlements between 1541 and 1550, although they were able to keep Ceuta, Tangier and Mazagan.
The fortress of Castelo Real of Mogador fell to the local resistance of the Regraga fraternity four years after its establishment, in 1510.
During the 16th century, powers including Spain, England, the Netherlands and France tried in vain to conquer the locality. Essaouira remained a haven for the export of sugar and molasses and as an anchorage for pirates.
De Razilly expedition (1629)
France was involved in an early attempt to colonize Mogador in 1629. As Richelieu and Père Joseph were attempting to establish a colonial policy, Admiral Isaac de Razilly suggested they occupy Mogador in 1626, which he had reconnoitered in 1619. The objective was to create a base against the Sultan of Morocco and asphyxiate the harbour of Safi.
He departed for Salé on 20 July 1629 with a fleet composed of the ships Licorne, Saint-Louis, Griffon, Catherine, Hambourg, Sainte-Anne, Saint-Jean. He bombarded the city of Salé, destroyed three corsair ships, and then sent the Griffon under Captain Treillebois to Mogador. The men of Razilly saw the fortress of Castelo Real in Mogador and landed 100 men with wood and supplies on Mogador island, with the agreement of Richelieu. After a few days, however, the Griffon reembarked the colonists and departed to rejoin the fleet in Salé.
After these expeditions, France signed a treaty with Abd el-Malek II in 1631, giving France preferential treatment, known as "capitulations": preferential tariffs, the establishment of a Consulate, and freedom of religion for French subjects.
Foundation of modern Essaouira (1760–1770)
The present city of Essaouira was built during the mid-eighteenth century by the Moroccan King. Mohammed III tried to reorient his kingdom toward the Atlantic for increased exchanges with European powers, choosing Mogador as his key location. One of his objectives was to establish a harbour at the closest possible point to Marrakesh. The other was to cut off trade from Agadir in the south, which had been favouring a political rival of Mohammed III, and the inhabitants of Agadir were forced to relocate to Essaouira.
For 12 years, Mohammed III directed a French engineer, Théodore Cornut, and several other Moroccan and European architects and technicians to build the fortress and city along modern lines. Originally called "Souira" ("the small fortress"), the name became "Es-Saouira" ("the beautifully designed").
Thédore Cornut designed and built the city itself, particularly the Kasbah area, corresponding to the royal quarters and the buildings for Christian merchants and diplomats. Other parts were built by other architects, including Moroccan architects especially from Fez, Marrakesh, and Rabat. The harbour entrance, with the "Porte de la Marine", was built by an English renegade by the name of Ahmed el Inglizi ("Ahmed the English") or Ahmed El Alj ("Ahmed the Renegade"). Mohammed III took numerous steps to encourage the development of Essaouira including closing off the harbour of Agadir to the south in 1767 so that southern trade could be redirected through Essaouira. European communities in the northern harbour of Rabat-Salé were ordered to move to Essaouira through an ordinance of 21 January 1765.
From the time of its rebuilding by Muhammad III until the end of the nineteenth century, Essaouira served as Morocco's principal port, offering the goods of the caravan trade to the world. The route brought goods from sub-Saharan Africa to Timbuktu, then through the desert and over the Atlas mountains to Marrakesh. The road from Marrakesh to Essaouira is a straight line, explaining the king's choice of this port among the many others along the Moroccan coast.
Jewish presence
Mohammed III encouraged Moroccan Jews to settle in the town and handle the trade with Europe. Jews once comprised the majority of the population, and the Jewish quarter (or mellah) contains many old synagogues. The town also has a large Jewish cemetery. The city flourished until the caravan trade died, superseded by direct European shipping trade with sub-Saharan Africa. Changes in trade, the founding of Israel, the resulting wars with Arab states, and the independence of Morocco all resulted in Sephardic Jews leaving the country. As of 2017, Essaouira had only three Jewish inhabitants. On 15 January 2020, King Mohammed VI visited Bayt Dakira, a Jewish heritage house, in Essaouira.
European trade and diplomacy
In the 19th century, Essaouira became the first seaport of Morocco, with trade volumes about double those of Rabat. The city functioned as the harbour for Marrakesh, as it was only a few days from the inland city. Diplomatic and trade representations were established by European powers in Essouira. In the 1820s, European diplomats were concentrated in either Tangier or Essaouira.
French interventions and Protectorate
Following Morocco's alliance with Algeria's Abd-El-Kader against France, Essaouira was bombarded and briefly occupied by the French Navy under the Prince de Joinville on 16 August 1844, in the Bombardment of Mogador, an important battle of the First Franco-Moroccan War.
From 1912 to 1956, Essaouira was part of the French protectorate of Morocco. Mogador was used as a base for a military expedition against Dar Anflous, when 8,000 French troops were located outside the city under the orders of Generals Franchet d'Esperey and Brulard. The Kasbah of Dar Anflous was taken on 25 January 1913. In 1930, brothers, Michel and Jean Vieuchange used Essaouira as a base before Michel set off into the Western Sahara to try to find Smara.
France had an important administrative, military and economic presence. Essaouira had a Franco-Moroccan school, still visible in Derb Dharb street. Linguistically, many Moroccans of Essaouira speak French fluently today.
Recent years
In the early 1950s film director and actor Orson Welles stayed at the Hotel des Iles just south of the town walls during the filming of his 1952 classic version of "Othello" which contains several memorable scenes shot in the labyrinthine streets and alleyways of the medina. Legend has it that during Welles' sojourn in the town he met Winston Churchill, another guest at the Hotel des Iles. A bas-relief of Orson Welles is located in a small square just outside the medina walls close to the sea. Several other film directors have utilized Essaouira as a location due to the photogenic and atmospheric qualities.
The town was used in the filming of "The Game of Thrones" as the home of the Army of the Unsullied. The scene of the rows of crucified slaves were props to cover the Portuguese cannons.
Beginning in the late 1960s, Essaouira became something of a hippie hangout.
Geography
Essaouira is protected by a natural bay partially shielded from wave action by the Iles Purpuraires. A broad sandy beach extends from the harbour south of Essaourira, at which point the Oued Ksob discharges to the ocean; south of the discharge lies the archaeological ruin, the Bordj El Berod. The Canary Current is responsible for the generally southward movement of ocean circulation and has led to enhancement of the local fishery. The village of Diabat lies about five kilometres () south of Essaouira, immediately south of the Oued Ksob.
Essaouira connects to Safi to the north and to Agadir to the south via the N1 road and to Marrakech to the east via the R 207 road. There is a small airport some away from the town, which schedules several flights a week to Paris-Orly, London-Luton and Brussels-South (Charleroi) and daily to Casablanca.
Climate
Essaouira's climate is semi-arid (BSk/BSh) with mild temperatures year round. The gap between highs and lows is small and summers are warm while winters are mild. Annual rainfall is usually . The highest temperature ever recorded in Essaouira was on 8 July 2022. The lowest temperature ever recorded was on 20 January 1988. The lowest maximum temperature ever recorded was on 15 February 2018. The highest minimum temperature ever recorded was on 13 October 2017. The maximum amount of precipitation recorded in one day was on 8 March 2013.
Essaouira today
The Medina of Essaouira (formerly "Mogador") is a UNESCO World Heritage listed city, an example of a late 18th-century fortified town, as transferred to North Africa by European colonists.
Accommodation
There are only a handful of modern purpose-built hotels within the walls of the old city. Newer international hotels have been built along the sea front, with local planning regulations restricting buildings to 4 storeys in height. There are also many privately owned riads, also known as dars, that may be rented on a daily or weekly basis.
Activities
The medina is home to many small arts and crafts businesses, notably cabinet making and 'thuya' wood-carving (using roots of the Tetraclinis tree), both of which have been practised in Essaouira for centuries.
The fishing harbour, suffering from the competition of Agadir and Safi, remains rather small, although the catches (sardines, conger eels) are surprisingly abundant due to the coastal upwelling generated by the powerful trade winds and the Canaries Current. Essaouira remains one of the major fishing harbours of Morocco.
Essaouira is also renowned for its kitesurfing and windsurfing, with the powerful trade wind blowing almost constantly onto the protected, almost waveless, bay. Several world-class clubs rent top-notch material on a weekly basis. The township of Sidi Kaouki is located 25 km south of Essaouira and is becoming one of the best locations in Morocco for surfing, windsurfing and kitesurfing. There are several businesses in Sidi Kaouki which offer gear rental.
Essaouira is also a center of argan oil production. It has become a tourist attraction due to the tree-climbing goats who are unique to the region, as argan trees are the only type the goats climb.
Education
There is a French international school in Essaouira, Groupe scolaire Eric-Tabarly.
Culture
Essaouira presents itself as a city full of culture: several small art galleries are found all over the town. Since 1998, the Gnaoua Festival of World Music is held in Essaouira, normally in the last week of June. It brings together artists from all over the world. Although focused on gnaoua music, it includes rock, jazz and reggae. Dubbed as the "Moroccan Woodstock" it lasts four days and attracts annually around 450,000 spectators.
Sights
Jewish quarter "Mellah" of Essaouira's old medina
Bayt Dakira - "House of Memory" (Jewish museum)
Chaim Pinto Synagogue
Jewish cemeteries of Essaouira (old and new)
Gravesite of the Great Rabbi Haim Pinto (and many more rabbis)
Medina
Fortifications:
Sqala du Port
Sqala de la Kasbah
The most picturesque gates:
Port de la Marine
Bab Manjana with clocktower
Tagart beach (with sand dunes)
Notre-Dame-de-l’Assomption church (catholic, operational)
Sidi Mogdoul mosque
Sidi Mogdoul lighthouse
Ben Youssef mosque
International relations
Essaouira is twinned with:
Changshu, China
La Rochelle, France
Notable people
Albert Almoznino, hand shadow artist
Jacques Amir, politician
Rabbi David Hanania Pinto, founder of Chevrat Pinto and Orot Haim VeMoshe Institutions, and grandson of the Tzadik Rabbi Haim Pinto
André Azoulay, adviser to the King
David Bensoussan, author of memoir Le fils de Mogador
Meir Cohen, politician
Victor Elmaleh, businessman and national champion handball and squash player.
Edmond Amran El Maleh, writer
See also
Haha
Regraga
Tensift River
Souira Guedima
Gnaoua World Music Festival
Gnaoua
André Jodin
William Willshire
Notes
Further reading
David Bensoussan & Asher Knafo, "Mariage juif à Mogador" Éditions Du Lys, www.editionsdulys.ca, Montréal, 2004 ()
David Bensoussan, Le fils de Mogador, www.editionsdulys.ca,Éditions Du Lys, Montréal, 2002 ()
David Bensoussan, Il était une fois le Maroc : témoignages du passé judéo-marocain, éd. du Lys, www.editionsdulys.ca, Montréal, 2010 (); Deuxième édition : www.iuniverse.com, , 620p. ebook , Prix Haïm Zafrani de l'Institut universitaire Élie Wiesel, Paris 2012.
David Bensoussan, La rosace du roi Salomon, Les Éditions Du Lys,www.editionsdulys.ca, 2011, .
Hamza Ben Driss Ottmani, Une cité sous les alizés, MOGADOR, Des origines à 1939, Éditions La Porte, Rabat, 1997
Jean-Marie Thiébaud, Consuls et vice-consuls de France à Mogador (Maroc), L'Harmattan, 2010 Harmattan.fr
Jean-Marie Thiébaud, Les Inscriptions du cimetière [chrétien] de Mogador (Essaouira, Maroc) – étude épigraphique et généalogique, L'Harmattan, 2010 Harmattan.fr
Doris Byer: Essaouira, endlich, Wien 2004,
Brigitte Tast, Hans-Juergen Tast: Still the wind cries Jimi. Hendrix in Marokko, Schellerten 2012,
Brigitte Tast, Hans-Jürgen Tast: Orson Welles – Othello – Mogador. Aufenthalte in Essaouira, Kulleraugen Vis.Komm. Nr. 42, Schellerten 2013,
External links
UNESCO World Heritage site: Medina of Essaouira (formerly Mogador)
Website of the Urban Agency of Essaouira
Cities in Morocco
Former Portuguese colonies
Kingdom of the Algarve
Phoenician colonies in Morocco
Populated places in Essaouira Province
Port cities and towns on the Moroccan Atlantic Coast
Essaouira
World Heritage Sites in Morocco
Surfing locations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night%20%28memoir%29
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Night (memoir)
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Night is a 1960 memoir by Elie Wiesel based on his Holocaust experiences with his father in the Nazi German concentration camps at Auschwitz and Buchenwald in 1944–1945, toward the end of the Second World War in Europe. In just over 100 pages of sparse and fragmented narrative, Wiesel writes about his loss of faith and increasing disgust with humanity, recounting his experiences from the Nazi-established ghettos in his hometown of Sighet, Romania, to his migration through multiple concentration camps. The typical parent–child relationship is inverted as his father dwindled in the camps to a helpless state while Wiesel himself became his teenaged caregiver. His father died in January 1945, taken to the crematory after deteriorating from dysentery and a beating while Wiesel lay silently on the bunk above him for fear of being beaten too. The memoir ends shortly after the United States Army liberated Buchenwald in April 1945.
After the war, Wiesel moved to Paris and in 1954 completed an 862-page manuscript in Yiddish about his experiences, published in Argentina as the 245-page Un di velt hot geshvign ("And the World Remained Silent"). The novelist François Mauriac helped him find a French publisher. Les Éditions de Minuit published 178 pages as La Nuit in 1958, and in 1960 Hill & Wang in New York published a 116-page translation as Night.
Translated into 30 languages, the book ranks as one of the bedrocks of Holocaust literature. It remains unclear how much of Night is memoir. Wiesel called it his deposition, but scholars have had difficulty approaching it as an unvarnished account. The literary critic Ruth Franklin writes that the pruning of the text from Yiddish to French transformed an angry historical account into a work of art.
Night is the first in a trilogy—Night, Dawn, Day—marking Wiesel's transition during and after the Holocaust from darkness to light, according to the Jewish tradition of beginning a new day at nightfall. "In Night," he said, "I wanted to show the end, the finality of the event. Everything came to an end—man, history, literature, religion, God. There was nothing left. And yet we begin again with night."
Background
Elie Wiesel was born on 30 September 1928 in Sighet, a town in the Carpathian mountains of northern Transylvania (now Romania), to Chlomo Wiesel, a shopkeeper, and his wife, Sarah (née Feig). The family lived in a community of 10,000–20,000 mostly Orthodox Jews. Northern Transylvania had been annexed by Hungary in 1940, and restrictions on Jews were already in place, but the period Wiesel discusses at the beginning of the book, 1941–1943, was a relatively calm one for the Jewish population.
That changed at midnight on Saturday, 18 March 1944, with the invasion of Hungary by Nazi Germany, and the arrival in Budapest of SS-Obersturmbannführer Adolf Eichmann to oversee the deportation of the country's Jews to the Auschwitz concentration camp in German-occupied Poland. From 5 April, Jews over the age of six had to wear a 10 x 10 cm (3.8 x 3.8 in) yellow badge on the upper-left side of their coats or jackets. Jews had to declare the value of their property, and were forbidden from moving home, travelling, owning cars or radios, listening to foreign radio stations, or using the telephone. Jewish authors could no longer be published, their books were removed from libraries, and Jewish civil servants, journalists and lawyers were sacked.
As the Allies prepared for the liberation of Europe, the mass deportations began at a rate of four trains a day from Hungary to Auschwitz, each train carrying around 3,000 people. Between 15 May and 8 July 1944, 437,402 Hungarian Jews are recorded as having been sent there on 147 trains, most gassed on arrival. The transports comprised most of the Jewish population outside Budapest, the Hungarian capital.
Between 16 May and 27 June, 131,641 Jews were deported from northern Transylvania. Wiesel, his parents and sisters—older sisters Hilda and Beatrice and seven-year-old Tzipora—were among them. On arrival Jews were "selected" for the death or forced labour; to be sent to the left meant work, to the right, the gas chamber. Sarah and Tzipora were sent to the gas chamber. Hilda and Beatrice survived, separated from the rest of the family. Wiesel and Chlomo managed to stay together, surviving forced labour and a death march to another concentration camp, Buchenwald, near Weimar. Chlomo died there in January 1945, three months before the 6th Armored Division of the United States Army arrived to liberate the camp.
Synopsis
Moshe the Beadle
Night opens in Sighet in 1941. The book's narrator is Eliezer, an Orthodox Jewish teenager who studies the Talmud by day, and by night "weep[s] over the destruction of the Temple". To the disapproval of his father, Eliezer spends time discussing the Kabbalah with Moshe the Beadle, caretaker of the Hasidic shtiebel (house of prayer).
In June 1941 the Hungarian government expelled Jews unable to prove their citizenship. Moshe is crammed onto a cattle train and taken to Poland. He manages to escape, saved by God, he believes, so that he might save the Jews of Sighet. He returns to the village to tell what he calls the "story of his own death", running from one house to the next: "Jews, listen to me! It's all I ask of you. No money. No pity. Just listen to me!"
When the train crossed into Poland, he tells them, it was taken over by the Gestapo, the German secret police. The Jews were transferred to trucks, then driven to a forest in Galicia, near Kolomay, where they were forced to dig pits. When they had finished, each prisoner had to approach the hole, present his neck, and was shot. Babies were thrown into the air and used as targets by machine gunners. He tells them about Malka, the young girl who took three days to die, and Tobias, the tailor who begged to be killed before his sons; and how he, Moshe, was shot in the leg and taken for dead. But the Jews of Sighet would not listen, making Moshe Night's first unheeded witness.
Sighet ghettos
The Germans arrived in Sighet around 21 March 1944, and shortly after Passover (8–14 April that year) arrested the community leaders. Jews had to hand over their valuables, were not allowed to visit restaurants or leave home after six in the evening, and had to wear the yellow star at all times. Eliezer's father makes light of it:
The SS transfer the Jews to one of two ghettos, each with its own council or Judenrat, which appoints Jewish police; there is also an office for social assistance, a labor committee, and a hygiene department. Eliezer's house, on a corner of Serpent Street, is in the larger ghetto in the town centre, so his family can stay in their home, although the windows on the non-ghetto side have to be boarded up. He is happy at first: "We should no longer have before our eyes those hostile faces, those hate-laden stares. ... The general opinion was that we were going to remain in the ghetto until the end of the war, until the arrival of the Red Army. Then everything would be as before. It was neither German nor Jew who ruled the ghetto—it was illusion."
In May 1944 the Judenrat is told the ghettos will be closed with immediate effect and the residents deported. Eliezer's family is moved at first to the smaller ghetto, but they are not told their final destination, only that they may each take a few personal belongings. The Hungarian police, wielding truncheons and rifle butts, march Eliezer's neighbours through the streets. "It was from that moment that I began to hate them, and my hate is still the only link between us today."
Auschwitz
Eliezer and his family are among the 80 people crammed into a closed cattle wagon. On the third night one woman, Madame Schächter—Night's second unheeded witness—starts screaming that she can see flames, until the others beat her. Men and women are separated on arrival at Auschwitz II-Birkenau, the extermination camp within the Auschwitz complex. Eliezer and his father are "selected" to go to the left, which meant forced labour; his mother, Hilda, Beatrice and Tzipora to the right, the gas chamber. (Hilda and Beatrice managed to survive.)
The remainder of Night describes Eliezer's efforts not to be parted from his father, not even to lose sight of him; his grief and shame at witnessing his father's decline into helplessness; and as their relationship changes and the young man becomes the older man's caregiver, his resentment and guilt, because his father's existence threatens his own. The stronger Eliezer's need to survive, the weaker the bonds that tie him to other people.
His loss of faith in human relationships is mirrored in his loss of faith in God. During the first night, as he and his father wait in line, he watches a lorry deliver its load of children's bodies into the fire. While his father recites the Kaddish, the Jewish prayer for the dead—Wiesel writes that in the long history of the Jews, he does not know whether people have ever recited the prayer for the dead for themselves—Eliezer considers throwing himself against the electric fence. At that moment he and his father are ordered to go to their barracks. But Eliezer is already destroyed. "[T]he student of the Talmud, the child that I was, had been consumed in the flames. There remained only a shape that looked like me." There follows a passage that Ellen Fine writes contains the main themes of Night—the death of God and innocence, and the défaite du moi (dissolution of self), a recurring motif in Holocaust literature:
With the loss of self goes Eliezer's sense of time: "I glanced at my father. How he had changed! ... So much had happened within such a few hours that I had lost all sense of time. When had we left our houses? And the ghetto? And the train? Was it only a week? One night – one single night?"
Buna
In or around August 1944 Eliezer and his father are transferred from Birkenau to the work camp at Monowitz (known as Buna or Auschwitz III), their lives reduced to the avoidance of violence and the search for food. Their only joy is when the Americans bomb the camp. God is not lost to Eliezer entirely. During the hanging of a child, which the camp is forced to watch, he hears someone ask: Where is God? Where is he? Not heavy enough for the weight of his body to break his neck, the boy dies slowly. Wiesel files past him, sees his tongue still pink and his eyes clear.
Fine writes that this is the central event in Night, a religious sacrifice—the binding of Isaac and crucifixion of Jesus—described by Alfred Kazin as the literal death of God. Afterwards the inmates celebrate Rosh Hashanah, the Jewish new year, but Eliezer cannot take part: "Blessed be God's name? Why, but why would I bless Him? Every fiber in me rebelled ... How could I say to Him: Blessed be Thou, Almighty, Master of the Universe, who chose us among all nations to be tortured day and night, to watch as our fathers, our mothers, our brothers end up in the furnaces? ... But now, I no longer pleaded for anything. I was no longer able to lament. On the contrary, I felt very strong. I was the accuser, God the accused."
Death march
In January 1945, with the Soviet army approaching, the Germans decide to flee, taking 60,000 inmates on a death march to concentration camps in Germany. Eliezer and his father are marched to Gleiwitz to be put on a freight train to Buchenwald, a camp near Weimar, Germany, 350 miles (563 km) from Auschwitz.
Resting in a shed after marching over , Rabbi Eliahou asks if anyone has seen his son. They had stuck together for three years, "always near each other, for suffering, for blows, for the ration of bread, for prayer", but the rabbi had lost sight of him in the crowd and was now scratching through the snow looking for his son's corpse. "I hadn't any strength left for running. And my son didn't notice. That's all I know." Eliezer does not tell the man that his son had indeed noticed his father limping, and had run faster, letting the distance between them grow: "And, in spite of myself, a prayer rose in my heart, to that God in whom I no longer believed. My God, Lord of the Universe, give me strength never to do what Rabbi Eliahou's son has done."
The inmates spend two days and nights in Gleiwitz locked inside cramped barracks without food, water or heat, sleeping on top of one another, so that each morning the living wake with the dead underneath them. There is more marching to the train station and onto a cattle wagon with no roof. They travel for ten days and nights, with only the snow falling on them for water. Of the 100 in Eliezer's wagon, 12 survive the journey. The living make space by throwing the dead onto the tracks:
Buchenwald, liberation
The Germans are waiting with megaphones and orders to head for a hot bath. Wiesel is desperate for the heat of the water, but his father sinks into the snow. "I could have wept with rage ... I showed him the corpses all around him; they too had wanted to rest here ... I yelled against the wind ... I felt I was not arguing with him, but with death itself, with the death he had already chosen." An alert sounds, the camp lights go out, and Eliezer, exhausted, follows the crowd to the barracks, leaving his father behind. He wakes at dawn on a wooden bunk, remembering that he has a father, and goes in search of him.
His father is in another block, sick with dysentery. The other men in his bunk, a Frenchman and a Pole, attack him because he can no longer go outside to relieve himself. Eliezer is unable to protect him. "Another wound to the heart, another hate, another reason for living lost." Begging for water one night from his bunk, where he has lain for a week, Chlomo is beaten on the head with a truncheon by an SS officer for making too much noise. Eliezer lies in the bunk above and does nothing for fear of being beaten too. He hears his father make a rattling noise, "Eliezer". In the morning, 29 January 1945, he finds another man in his father's place. The Kapos had come before dawn and taken Chlomo to the crematorium.
Chlomo missed his freedom by three months. The Soviets had liberated Auschwitz 11 days earlier, and the Americans were making their way towards Buchenwald. Eliezer is transferred to the children's block where he stays with 600 others, dreaming of soup. On 5 April 1945 the inmates are told the camp is to be liquidated and they are to be moved—another death march. On 11 April, with 20,000 inmates still inside, a resistance movement inside the camp attacks the remaining SS officers and takes control. At six o'clock that evening, an American tank arrives at the gates, and behind it the Sixth Armored Division of the United States Third Army. Wiesel looks at himself in a mirror for the first time since the ghetto and sees only a corpse.
Writing and publishing
Move to France
Wiesel wanted to move to Palestine after his release, but because of British immigration restrictions was sent instead by the Oeuvre au Secours aux Enfants (Children's Rescue Service) to Belgium, then Normandy. In Normandy he learned that his two older sisters, Hilda and Beatrice, had survived. From 1947 to 1950 he studied the Talmud, philosophy and literature at the Sorbonne, where he was influenced by the existentialists, attending lectures by Jean-Paul Sartre and Martin Buber. He also taught Hebrew, and worked as a translator for the Yiddish weekly Zion in Kamf. In 1948, when he was 19, he was sent to Israel as a war correspondent by the French newspaper L'arche, and after the Sorbonne became chief foreign correspondent of the Tel Aviv newspaper Yedioth Ahronoth.
1954: Un di Velt Hot Geshvign
Wiesel wrote in 1979 that he kept his story to himself for ten years. In 1954 he wanted to interview the French prime minister, Pierre Mendès-France, and approached the novelist François Mauriac, a friend of Mendès-France, for an introduction. Wiesel wrote that Mauriac kept mentioning Jesus: "Whatever I would ask – Jesus. Finally, I said, 'What about Mendès-France?' He said that Mendès-France, like Jesus, was suffering ..."
Wiesel started writing on board a ship to Brazil, where he had been assigned to cover Christian missionaries within Jewish communities, and by the end of the journey had completed an 862-page manuscript. He was introduced on the ship to Yehudit Moretzka, a Yiddish singer travelling with Mark Turkov, a publisher of Yiddish texts. Turkov asked if he could read Wiesel's manuscript. It is unclear who edited the text for publication. Wiesel wrote in All Rivers Run to the Sea (1995) that he handed Turkov his only copy and that it was never returned, but also that he (Wiesel) "cut down the original manuscript from 862 pages to the 245 of the published Yiddish edition."
Turkov's Tzentral Varband für Polishe Yidn in Argentina (Central Union of Polish Jews in Argentina) published the book in 1956 in Buenos Aires as the 245-page Un di velt hot geshvign (; "And the World Remained Silent"). It was the 117th book in a 176-volume series of Yiddish memoirs of Poland and the war, Dos poylishe yidntum (Polish Jewry, 1946–1966). Ruth Wisse writes that Un di Velt Hot Geshvign stood out from the rest of the series, which survivors wrote as memorials to their dead, as a "highly selective and isolating literary narrative".
1958: La Nuit
Wiesel translated Un di Velt Hot Geshvign into French and in 1955 sent it to Mauriac. Even with Mauriac's help they had difficulty finding a publisher; Wiesel said they found it too morbid. Jérôme Lindon of Les Éditions de Minuit, Samuel Beckett's publisher, agreed to handle it. Lindon edited the text down to 178 pages. Published as La Nuit, a title chosen by Lindon, it had a preface by Mauriac and was dedicated to Chlomo, Sarah and Tzipora.
1960: Night
Wiesel's New York agent, Georges Borchardt, encountered the same difficulty finding a publisher in the United States. In 1960 Arthur Wang of Hill & Wang in New York—who Wiesel writes "believed in literature as others believe in God"—paid a $100 pro-forma advance and published that year a 116-page English translation by Stella Rodway as Night. The first 18 months saw 1,046 copies sell at $3 each, and it took three years to sell the first print run of 3,000 copies, but the book attracted interest from reviewers, leading to television interviews and meetings with literary figures like Saul Bellow.
By 1997 Night was selling 300,000 copies a year in the United States. By 2011 it had sold six million copies in that country, and was available in 30 languages. Sales increased in January 2006 when it was chosen for Oprah's Book Club. Republished with a new translation by Marion Wiesel, Wiesel's wife, and a new preface by Wiesel, it sat at no. 1 in The New York Times bestseller list for paperback non-fiction for 18 months from 13 February 2006, until the newspaper removed it when a significant portion of sales were ascribed to educational usage rather than retail sales. It became the club's third bestseller to date, with over two million sales of the Book Club edition by May 2011.
Reception
Reviewers have had difficulty reading Night as an eyewitness account. According to literary scholar Gary Weissman, it has been categorized as a "novel/autobiography", "autobiographical novel", "non-fictional novel", "semi-fictional memoir", "fictional-autobiographical novel", "fictionalized autobiographical memoir", and "memoir-novel". Ellen Fine described it as témoignage (testimony). Wiesel called it his deposition.
Literary critic Ruth Franklin writes that Nights impact stems from its minimalist construction. The 1954 Yiddish manuscript, at 862 pages, was a long and angry historical work. In preparing the Yiddish and then the French editions, Wiesel's editors pruned mercilessly. Franklin argues that the power of the narrative was achieved at the cost of literal truth, and that to insist that the work is purely factual is to ignore its literary sophistication. Holocaust scholar Lawrence Langer argues similarly that Wiesel evokes, rather than describes: "Wiesel's account is ballasted with the freight of fiction: scenic organization, characterization through dialogue, periodic climaxes, elimination of superfluous or repetitive episodes, and especially an ability to arouse the empathy of his readers, which is an elusive ideal of the writer bound by fidelity to fact."
Franklin writes that Night is the account of the 15-year-old Eliezer, a "semi-fictional construct", told by the 25-year-old Elie Wiesel. This allows the 15-year-old to tell his story from "the post-Holocaust vantage point" of Night's readers. In a comparative analysis of the Yiddish and French texts, Naomi Seidman, professor of Jewish culture, concludes that there are two survivors in Wiesel's writing, a Yiddish and French. In re-writing rather than simply translating Un di Velt Hot Geshvign, Wiesel replaced an angry survivor who regards "testimony as a refutation of what the Nazis did to the Jews," with one "haunted by death, whose primary complaint is directed against God ..." Night transformed the Holocaust into a religious event.
Seidman argues that the Yiddish version was for Jewish readers, who wanted to hear about revenge, but the anger was removed for the largely Christian readership of the French translation. In the Yiddish edition, for example, when Buchenwald was liberated: "Early the next day Jewish boys ran off to Weimar to steal clothing and potatoes. And to rape German shiksas [un tsu fargvaldikn daytshe shikses]. The historical commandment of revenge was not fulfilled." In the 1958 French and 1960 English editions, this became: "On the following morning, some of the young men went to Weimar to get some potatoes and clothes—and to sleep with girls [coucher avec des filles]. But of revenge, not a sign."
Oprah Winfrey's promotion of Night came at a difficult time for the genre of memoir, Franklin writes, after a previous book-club author, James Frey, was found to have fabricated parts of his autobiography, A Million Little Pieces (2003). She argues that Winfrey's choice of Night may have been intended to restore the book club's credibility.
Wiesel wrote in 1967 about a visit to a rebbe (a Hasidic rabbi) who he had not seen for 20 years. The rebbe is upset to learn that Wiesel has become a writer, and wants to know what he writes. "Stories," Wiesel tells him, " ... true stories":
Sources
Explanatory notes
Citations
Works cited
Further reading
Rosenthal, Albert (April 1994 – May 1995). "Memories of the Holocaust". part 1, part 2 (deportations from Sighet).
1955 books
1958 books
1960 non-fiction books
Books by Elie Wiesel
Holocaust literature
Personal accounts of the Holocaust
Sighetu Marmației
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plan%20Dalet
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Plan Dalet
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Plan Dalet (, Tokhnit dalet 'Plan D') was a Zionist military plan executed in the civil war phase of the 1948 Palestine war for the conquest of territory in Mandatory Palestine in preparation for the establishment of a Jewish state. The plan was requested by the Jewish Agency leader David Ben-Gurion and developed by the Haganah and finalized March 10, 1948.
The plan, requested by David Ben-Gurion who became Israel's first prime minister, was a set of guidelines to take control of Mandatory Palestine, declare a Jewish state, and defend its borders and people, including the Jewish population outside of the borders, "before, and in anticipation of" the invasion by regular Arab armies. According to the Israeli Yehoshafat Harkabi, Plan Dalet called for the conquest of Arab towns and villages inside and along the borders of the area allocated to the proposed Jewish State in the UN Partition Plan. In case of resistance, the population of conquered villages was to be expelled outside the borders of the Jewish state. If no resistance was met, the residents could stay put, under military rule.
Plan Dalet specifically spoke of gaining control of areas outside the borders of the Jewish state wherever Yishuv populations existed. The issue is subject to much controversy, with some historians asserting that it was defensive, while other historians assert that the plan aimed at the expulsion, sometimes called an ethnic cleansing, on the grounds that this was an integral part of a planned strategy.
Etymology
Its name was from the letter Dalet (ד), the fourth letter of the Hebrew alphabet, after plans named Aleph (א), Bet (ב), and Gimel (ג) were revised.
Background
In the summer of 1937, according to the official history of the Haganah, the commander of their forces in the Tel Aviv area, Elimelech Slikowitz ("Avnir") received an order from Ben-Gurion who, anticipating an eventual British withdrawal from the country after the Peel Report, asking Slikowitz to prepare a plan for the military conquest of the whole of Palestine. According to the historians Walid Khalidi and Ahmad H. Sa'di, it was this Avnir Plan which provided a blueprint, refined in subsequent adjustments (A,B,C) before it emerged in its final form as Plan Dalet over a decade later.
From 1945 onwards, the Haganah designed four general military plans, the implementation of the final version of which eventually led to the creation of Israel and the dispossession of the Palestinians:
Plan Aleph (Plan A), drawn up in February 1945 to complement the political aim of a unilateral declaration of independence. It was designed to suppress Palestinian Arab resistance to the Zionist take-over of parts of Palestine.
Plan Bet (Plan B), produced in September 1945, emerged in May 1947 and designed to replace Plan Aleph in the context of new developments such as Britain's submission of the problem of Palestine to the United Nations and growing opposition from surrounding Arab states to the Zionist partition plan.
Plan Gimel (Plan C), also known as "May Plan", produced in May 1946, emerged in November/December 1947, in the wake of the UN Partition Plan. It was designed to enhance Zionist military and police mobilisation and enable action as needed.
Plan Dalet (Plan D), of March 1948, is the most noteworthy. Guided by a series of specific operational plans, the broad outlines of which were considered as early as 1944, Plan Dalet was drawn up to expand Jewish-held areas beyond those allocated to the proposed Jewish State in the UN Partition Plan. Its overall objective was to seize as much territory as possible in advance of the termination of the British Mandate—when the Zionist leaders planned to declare their state.
On November 29, 1947, the UN voted to approve the Partition Plan for Palestine for ending the British Mandate and recommending the establishment of an Arab state and a Jewish state. In the immediate aftermath of the United Nations' approval of the Partition plan, the Jewish community expressed joy, while the Arab community expressed discontent. On the day after the vote, a spate of Arab attacks left at least eight Jews dead, one in Tel Aviv by sniper fire, and seven in ambushes on civilian buses that were claimed to be retaliations for a Lehi raid ten days earlier. Shooting, stoning, and rioting continued apace in the following days. Fighting began almost as soon as the plan was approved, beginning with the Arab Jerusalem Riots of 1947. Soon after, violence broke out and became more and more prevalent. Murders, reprisals, and counter-reprisals came fast on each other's heels, resulting in dozens of victims killed on both sides in the process. The sanguinary impasse persisted as no force intervened to put a stop to the escalating cycles of violence.
From January onward, operations became increasingly militarized, with the intervention of a number of regiments of the Arab Liberation Army (consisting of volunteers from Arab countries) inside Palestine, each active in a variety of distinct sectors around the different coastal towns. They consolidated their presence in Galilee and Samaria. Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni came from Egypt with several hundred men of the Army of the Holy War. Having recruited a few thousand volunteers, al-Husayni organised the blockade of the 100,000 Jewish residents of Jerusalem. To counter this, the Yishuv authorities tried to supply the Jews of the city with food by using convoys of up to 100 armoured vehicles, but the operation became more and more impractical as the number of casualties in the relief convoys surged. By March, Al-Hussayni's tactic, sometimes called "The War of the Roads", had paid off. Almost all of Haganah's armoured vehicles had been destroyed, the blockade was in full operation, and the Haganah had lost more than 100 troops. According to Benny Morris, the situation for those who dwelt in the Jewish settlements in the highly isolated Negev and North of Galilee was equally critical. According to Ilan Pappé, in early March, the Yishuv's security leadership did not seem to regard the overall situation as particularly troubling, but instead was busy finalising a master plan.
This situation caused the United States to withdraw their support for the Partition plan, thus encouraging the Arab League to believe that the Palestinians, reinforced by the Arab Liberation Army, could put an end to partition. The British, meanwhile, decided on 7 February 1948, to support the annexation of the Arab part of Palestine by Transjordan.
Plan
In 1947, David Ben-Gurion reorganised Haganah and made conscription obligatory. Every Jewish man and woman in the country had to receive military training. Military equipment was procured from stockpiles from the Second World War and from Czechoslovakia and was brought in Operation Balak. There is some disagreement among historians about the precise authors of Plan Dalet. According to some, it was the result of the analysis of Yigael Yadin, at that time the temporary head of the Haganah, after Ben-Gurion invested him with the responsibility to come up with a plan in preparation for the announced intervention of the Arab states. According to Ilan Pappé the plan was conceived by the "consultancy", a group of about a dozen military and security figures and specialists on Arab affairs, under the guidance of Ben-Gurion. It was finalised and sent to Haganah units in early March 1948. The plan consisted of a general part and operational orders for the brigades, which specified which villages should be targeted and other specific missions. The general section of the plan was also sent to the Yishuv's political leaders.
Purpose
In this plan, the Haganah also started the transformation from an underground organization into a regular army. The reorganization included the formation of brigades and front commands. The stated goals included in addition to the reorganization, gaining control of the areas of the planned Jewish state as well as areas of Jewish settlements outside its borders. The control would be attained by fortifying strongholds in the surrounding areas and roads, conquering Arab villages close to Jewish settlements and occupying British bases and police stations (from which the British were withdrawing).
The introduction of the plan states:
(a) The objective of this plan is to gain control of the areas of the Hebrew state and defend its borders. It also aims at gaining control of the areas of Jewish settlements and concentrations which are located outside the borders (of the Hebrew state) against regular, semi-regular, and small forces operating from bases outside or inside the state.
(b) This plan is based on three previous plans:
Plan B, September 1945.
The May 1946 Plan [this is Plan Gimel]
Yehoshua Plan, 1948 [an earlier version of Plan Dalet named after , a Haganah commander killed December 1947]
(c) Since these plans were designed to deal with the situation inside the country (the first two plans deal with the first phase of incidents, while the third plan deals with the possibility of invasion by regular armies from the neighboring countries), the aim of Plan D is to fill the gaps in the previous three plans and to make them more suitable for the situation expected to obtain at the end of British rule in the country.
Later on, the plan states:
f) Generally, the aim of this plan is not an operation of occupation outside the borders of the Hebrew state. However, concerning enemy bases lying directly close to the borders which may be used as springboards for infiltration into the territory of the state, these must be temporarily occupied and searched for hostiles according to the above guidelines, and they must then be incorporated into our defensive system until operations cease.
According to David Tal,
The strategy called for the fortification and stabilization of a continuous Jewish-controlled line within the areas of the designated Jewish State and along its putative borders, and for the harassment of, and interference with, the Arab forces as they moved in. The success of this strategy depended on three elements: {'}cleansing{'} the area along the Jewish States's borders of an Arab presence; fortifying the Jewish settlements along the line of advance of the Arab column; and {'}hit-and-run{'} raids against the Arab troops as they advanced.
Details
The plan section 3, under (b) Consolidation of Defense Systems and Fortifications calls for the occupation of police stations, the control of government installations, and the protection of secondary transportation arteries. Part 4 under this heading includes the following controversial paragraphs:
Mounting operations against enemy population centers located inside or near our defensive system in order to prevent them from being used as bases by an active armed force. These operations can be divided into the following categories:
Destruction of villages (setting fire to, blowing up, and planting mines in the debris), especially those population centers which are difficult to control continuously.
Mounting search and control operations according to the following guidelines: encirclement of the village and conducting a search inside it. In the event of resistance, the armed force must be destroyed and the population must be expelled outside the borders of the state.
The villages which are emptied in the manner described above must be included in the fixed defensive system and must be fortified as necessary.
In the absence of resistance, garrison troops will enter the village and take up positions in it or in locations which enable complete tactical control. The officer in command of the unit will confiscate all weapons, wireless devices, and motor vehicles in the village. In addition, he will detain all politically suspect individuals. After consultation with the [Jewish] political authorities, bodies will be appointed consisting of people from the village to administer the internal affairs of the village. In every region, a [Jewish] person will be appointed to be responsible for arranging the political and administrative affairs of all [Arab] villages and population centers which are occupied within that region.
The paragraph (g) Counterattacks Inside and Outside the Borders of the State inter alia states:
Counterattacks will generally proceed as follows: a force the size of a battalion, on average, will carry out a deep infiltration and will launch concentrated attacks against population centers and enemy bases with the aim of destroying them along with the enemy force positioned there.
Implementation
Plan Dalet was implemented from the start of April onward. This marked the beginning of the second stage of the war in which, according to Benny Morris, the Haganah passed from the defensive to the offensive.
Execution
The first operation, named Nachshon, consisted of lifting the blockade on Jerusalem. 1500 men from Haganah's Givati brigade and Palmach's Harel brigade conducted sorties to free up the route to the city between 5 April and 20 April.
The operation was successful, and enough foodstuffs to last 2 months were trucked into Jerusalem for distribution to the Jewish population. However, Plan Dalet had not yet begun during Operation Nachshon.
The success of the operation was assisted by the death of Al-Hussayni in combat. During this time, and independently of Haganah or the framework of Plan Dalet, irregular troops from Irgun and Lehi formations massacred a number of Arabs at Deir Yassin, an event that, though publicly deplored and criticized by the principal Jewish authorities, had a deep impact on the morale of the Palestinian population.
At the same time, April 4–14, the first large-scale operation of the Arab Liberation Army ended in a debacle, having been roundly defeated at Mishmar HaEmek, coinciding with the loss of their Druze allies through defection.
Within the framework of the establishment of Jewish territorial continuity foreseen by Plan Dalet, the forces of Haganah, Palmach, and Irgun intended to conquer mixed zones. Tiberias, Haifa, Safed, Beisan, Jaffa, and Acre fell. However, Plan Dalet had not yet begun at that time. Palestinian society was shaken, resulting in the flight of more than 250,000 Palestinians.
The British had, at that time, essentially withdrawn their troops. The situation moved the leaders of the neighboring Arab states to intervene, but their preparations had not finalised, and they could not assemble sufficient forces to turn the tide of the war. Many Palestinian hopes lay with the Arab Legion of Transjordan's monarch, King Abdullah I, but he had no intention of creating a Palestinian-run state, since he hoped to annex as much of the territory of the British Mandate of Palestine as he could.
In preparation for the offensive, Haganah successfully launched Operations Yiftah and Ben-'Ami to secure the Jewish settlements of Galilee and Operation Kilshon, which created a united front around Jerusalem.
Operations
The 8 of 13 operations marked with an asterisk (*) were executed outside territories allocated for a Jewish state according to the demarcations of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and before the entry of Arab regular armies into areas allotted for an Arab state.
Outcome
According to Benny Morris, the Plan's execution lasted about eight weeks
, beginning April 2. In these weeks, the Yishuv's position changed dramatically. Many Arab leaders left the country and local leadership collapsed. On the Jewish side, the number of those killed during the execution of the plan was 1,253, of which 500 were civilians. On the Arab side, Jewish counter-attacks and offensives precipitated a mass exodus of 250,000–300,000 people. According to Benny Morris, this "massive demographic upheaval ... propelled the Arab states closer to an invasion about which they were largely unenthusiastic".
Historiography
In his article "The Fall of Haifa" in the December 1959 issue of the Middle East Forum, the Palestinian historian Walid Khalidi placed the Battle of Haifa within a new Zionist offensive and discernible shift in strategy, without naming the offensive. The scholarship of Khalidi and his colleagues at this time responded to the Israeli narrative that the Palestinian exodus was a result of evacuation orders from Arab leaders, then espoused in English most prominently by Jon Kimche and his younger brother David Kimche.
On May 21, 1961, the Irish journalist Erskine Childers published his article "The Other Exodus" in The Spectator, to which Jon Kimche responded immediately, accusing Childers of being influenced by Khalidi. Childers, Kimche, and Khalidi then argued publicly in a traingular debate in the pages of The Spectator until August 4, 1961. In November 1961, Khalidi published "Plan Dalet: Master Plan for the Conquest of Palestine" with details about the plan in the journal of the Middle East Forum.
Khalidi wrote in 1988 that as of then the exchanges in The Spectator had never published in full in the US, and that there had not been a detailed account of Plan Dalet or previous plans in Israeli and non-Israeli writings on 1948.
Text of Plan Dalet
The Hebrew text of Plan Dalet was published in 1972 in volume 3, part 3 of Sefer Toldot Hahaganah ( History of the Haganah), Appendix 48, pp. 1955-60. An English translation of the text of Plan Dalet was published for the first time as an appendix to Khalidi's 1988 reprint of "Plan Dalet: Master Plan for the Conquest of Palestine" in the Journal of Palestine Studies.
Controversy about intent
The intent of Plan Dalet is subject to much controversy, with historians on the one extreme asserting that it was defensive, and historians on the other extreme asserting that the plan aimed at maximum conquest and expulsion.
According to the French historian Henry Laurens, the importance of the military dimension of plan Dalet becomes clear by comparing the operations of the Jordanian and the Egyptian armies. The ethnical homogeneity of the coastal area, obtained by the expulsions of the Palestinians eased the halt of the Egyptian advance, while Jewish Jerusalem, located in an Arab population area, was encircled by Jordanian forces.
According to The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies, whilst there may be controversy whether Plan Dalet was a centralized plan of ethnic cleansing, it could as well be a case of Haganah forces discovering that they could carry out ethnic cleansing at the local and regional level, as their offensive drove out large numbers of Arabs.
Historians asserting that the plan aimed at maximum conquest and expulsion
Walid Khalidi, General Secretary of the Institute for Palestine Studies, offered this interpretation in an address to the American Committee on Jerusalem:
As is witnessed by the Haganah's Plan Dalet, the Jewish leadership was determined to link the envisaged Jewish state with the Jerusalem corpus separatum. But the corpus separatum lay deep in Arab territory, in the middle of the envisaged Palestinian state, so this linking up could only be done militarily.
Khalidi calls Plan Dalet a "Master Plan for the Conquest of Palestine". He points to the Zionist ideas of transfer and of a Jewish state in all of Palestine, and to the offensive character of the military operations of the Zionists as the main proof of his interpretation.
In his book The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine Israeli historian Ilan Pappé asserts that Plan Dalet was a "blueprint for ethnic cleansing":
... this ... blueprint spelled it out clearly and unambiguously: the Palestinians had to go ... The aim of the plan was in fact the destruction of both rural and urban areas of Palestine.
Pappé distinguishes between the general section of Plan Dalet and the operational orders given to the troops. According to Pappé the general section of the plan, which was distributed to politicians, was misguiding as to the real intentions of the Haganah. The real plan was handed down to the brigade commanders "not as vague guidelines, but as clear-cut operational orders for action". Along with the general section, "each brigade commander received a list of the villages or neighborhoods that had to be occupied, destroyed, and their inhabitants expelled".
Historians asserting that the plan was defensive
In his book on the birth of the Palestinian refugee problem Israeli historian Benny Morris discusses the relevance of the idea of "population transfer" in Zionist thinking. Morris concludes that there was Zionist support for transfer "in the 1930s and early 1940s", and that while this "transfer thinking" had conditioned the Yishuv's hearts and minds to accept it as natural and inevitable when it happened, it "was not tantamount to pre-planning, and did not issue in the production of a policy or master plan of expulsion; the Yishuv and its military forces did not enter the 1948 War, which was initiated by the Arab side, with a policy or plan for expulsion".
On the intent of Plan Dalet Morris writes:
The essence of the plan was the clearing of hostile and potentially hostile forces out of the interior of the territory of the prospective Jewish State, establishing territorial continuity between the major concentrations of Jewish population and securing the future State's borders before, and in anticipation of, the invasion [by Arab states]. The Haganah regarded almost all the villages as actively or potentially hostile.
The plan was neither understood nor used by the senior field officers as a blanket instruction for the expulsion of 'the Arabs'. But, in providing for the expulsion or destruction of villages that had resisted or might threaten the Yishuv, it constituted a strategic-doctrinal and carte blanche for expulsions by front, brigade, district and battalion commanders (who in each case argued military necessity) and it gave commanders, post facto, formal, persuasive cover for their actions. However, during April–June, relatively few commanders faced the moral dilemma of having to carry out the expulsion clauses. Townspeople and villagers usually left their homes before or during battle, and Haganah rarely had to decide about, or issue, expulsion orders....".
According to Israeli historian Yoav Gelber, Plan Dalet was a defensive plan:
Although it provided for counter-attacks, Plan Dalet was a defensive scheme and its goals were (1) protection of the borders of the upcoming Jewish state according to the partition line; (2) securing its territorial continuity in the face of invasion attempts; (3) safeguarding freedom of movement on the roads and (4) enabling continuation of essential daily routines.
Gelber rejects what he calls the "Palestinian-invented" version of Plan Dalet. Gelber says: "The text clarified unequivocally that expulsion concerned only those villages that would fight against the Hagana and resist occupation, and not all Arab hamlets".
Military historian David Tal writes, "the plan did provide the conditions for the destruction of Palestinian villages and the deportation of the dwellers; this was not the reason for the plan's composition", and that "its aim was to ensure full control over the territory assigned to the Jews by the partition resolution, thus placing the Haganah in the best possible strategic position to face an Arab invasion".
See also
References
Quotes
Citations
Sources
Walid Khalidi - All That Remains.
Shabtai Teveth, Ben-Gurion and the Palestinian Arabs: From Peace to War, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1985
Benny Morris, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited, Cambridge University Press, 2004
Benny Morris, 1948: A history of the first Arab–Israeli war. Yale University Press, 2008
Yoav Gelber, Palestine 1948: War, Escape And The Emergence Of The Palestinian Refugee problem, 2nd ed., Brighton, Sussex Academic Press, 2006
David Tal, War in Palestine 1948: strategy and diplomacy, Routledge, London, 2004
J. C. Bosma, "Plan Dalet in the context of the contradictions of Zionism", Holy Land Studies 9 (2), 2010, p. 209-227
Rosemarie M. Esber, Under The Cover of War. The Zionist Expulsion of the Palestinians, Arabicus, 2009, p. 43 ; pp. 179–182.
External links
MidEast Web Historical Documents - Plan D, March 10, 1948
Video of an interview with Ilan Pappé on the Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine
A Documentary film that tells the story of the human toll that Plan Dalet claimed the village of Eilabun.
1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine
Haganah
1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight
Military plans
Military operations
Plan Dalet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meknes
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Meknes
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Meknes (, ; ; ) is one of the four Imperial cities of Morocco, located in northern central Morocco and the sixth largest city by population in the kingdom. Founded in the 11th century by the Almoravids as a military settlement, Meknes became the capital of Morocco under the reign of Sultan Moulay Ismaïl (1672–1727), son of the founder of the Alaouite dynasty. Moulay Ismaïl created a massive imperial palace complex and endowed the city with extensive fortifications and monumental gates. The city recorded a population of 632,079 in the 2014 Moroccan census. It is the seat of Meknès Prefecture and an important economic pole in the region of Fès-Meknès.
Etymology
Meknes is named after an Amazigh (Berber) tribe historically known as the Miknasa ( in Amazigh languages).
History
Early history (8th–16th centuries)
Volubilis, a major Roman-era settlement in Morocco and one of its early urban centres, is located near the site of the current city of Meknes. The current city and its name, however, originate with a Berber tribe called the Miknasa who settled this region around the 10th century. A group of small unfortified Miknasa villages known as miknāsat al-zaytūn were established here in the 10th century. The Almoravids founded a fortress or fortified settlement just south of these villages after conquering the area in the 11th century. Originally called Tagrart or Taqrart, this Almoravid settlement formed the beginnings of what is now the old medina of Meknes. The Nejjarine Mosque, often reputed to be the oldest mosque in the city, dates back to the Almoravid period and may have served as the central mosque of the Almoravid settlement. The mosque that became the present-day Grand Mosque of Meknes is believed to have been first built by the Almoravids in the 12th century.
The fortress resisted the military advance of the Almohads, who destroyed the city after a long siege in the 12th century. However, at the beginning of the 13th century the Almohad caliph Muhammad al-Nasir (ruled 1199–1213) rebuilt the city and its fortifications, as well as its Grand Mosque. The city enjoyed relative prosperity in this period, before being conquered again by the new Marinid dynasty in 1244. The first kasbah (citadel or governor's district) of Meknes was created afterwards by sultan Abu Yusuf Ya'qub in 1276 CE – the same year that the citadel of Fes el-Jdid was built in nearby Fes, the new capital. During this period, Meknes was frequently the residence of Marinid princes (often appointed there as governors) and especially of viziers. The Mosque of the Kasbah (the later Mosque of Lalla Aouda) was also founded and first built in 1276. The Marinids also carried out major restorations to the Grand Mosque in the 14th century and built the major madrasas of the city near it. The latter included the Bou Inania Madrasa (built in 1336) and two other madrasas, Madrasa al-Qadi and Madrasa Shuhud, all built by Sultan Abu el-Hassan.
After the end of the Marinid and Wattasid periods, however, Meknes suffered from neglect as the new Saadian dynasty (16th and early 17th century) focused their attention on their capital at Marrakesh and neglected the old northern cities of Morocco.
The reign of Moulay Isma'il (17th–18th centuries)
It wasn't until the Alaouite dynasty in the second half of the 17th century that Meknes received renewed attention. Under Moulay Rashid (ruled 1666–1672), the first Alaouite sultan to unite Morocco under his rule, Fes became the capital once more and his brother, Moulay Isma'il ibn Sharif, governed Meknes. Upon Rashid's death in 1672, Moulay Isma'il became sultan and chose Meknes as his new capital. In addition to his possible attachment to the city as a governor, a number of reasons may have favoured this choice. One may have been the fact that Ismail had to fight hard to reconquer both Fes and Marrakesh from his rival nephew (Ahmad al-Mahriz, son of Moulay Rashid) during the first years of his reign, which may have rendered him skeptical towards both cities as possible centers of power. Moreover, Moulay Rashid had garrisoned much of Fes with his own contingents from the Tafilalt and eastern Morocco while Moulay Isma'il was forming his own personal royal guard composed of Black slaves ('abid) from Sub-Saharan Africa, and there may have been concerns that not all these contingents could be garrisoned simultaneously in Fes. The ulema (religious scholars) of Fes were also particularly disapproving of his ways, including his use of slaves (many of whom were of Muslim background), and maintained tense relations with him throughout his reign. Choosing Meknes thus removed him from the influence of traditional elites and allowed him to build a fresh base from which he hoped to exercise absolute power. The threat of Ottoman attacks from the east (from Algeria) and the increasing insecurity in central Morocco due to tribal migrations from the Atlas and Sahara regions may have also persuaded Ismail that Meknes, situated further west, was more defensible than Fes.
Whatever the reasons, Ismail made Meknes the center of Morocco in his time and he embarked on the construction of a new monumental palace-city on the south side of the old city. Its construction continued throughout the 55 years of his reign, beginning immediately after his accession to the throne in 1672. Existing structures dating from the earlier medieval kasbah of the city were demolished to make way; the name of the large public square in front of the Kasbah today, el-Hedim (or Place el-Hedim), means "the rubble" and came from the masses of rubble and debris which were piled here during the demolition. Labour was carried out by paid workers as well as by contingents of slaves, particularly Christian prisoners of war. Estimates on the total number of workers involved range from 25,000 and 55,000. Nonetheless, frequently-told stories about the tens of thousands of Christian slaves used for labour and the large underground dungeons where they were kept are somewhat exaggerated and originate from the accounts of European ambassadors who visited Isma'il's court (often to negotiate the release of prisoners from their countries). In reality, the number of Christian slaves was likely closer to a few thousand at most and the chambers popularly called "prisons" were actually storage rooms for grain and supplies.
It was also in Moulay Ismail's reign that the Jewish inhabitants of the city were moved to a new Mellah or Jewish district to the west, near the Kasbah, not unlike the Mellah of Fes or that of Marrakesh. The Mellah was located between the old medina, west of Place el-Hedim, and the more outlying quarter of Madinat al-Riyad al-Anbari. Both the Mellah and Madinat ar-Riyad were part of an urban extension ordered by Isma'il in the western angle between the old city and the Kasbah. Moulay Isma'il also undertook works throughout the old city too. He refortified the walls and built new monumental city gates such as Bab Berda'in and Bab Khemis. He also built several other kasbahs or garrison forts throughout the city to house his 'abid troops and help protect (and control) the rest of the town, such as the Kasbah Hadrash and the Kasbah Tizimi. He carried out renovations to the Grand Mosque and the nearby Madrasa al-Qadi (which he devotes to students from the Tafilalt), and founded the Zitouna Mosque. Khnata bent Bakkar, one of his wives who was vizier (minister) under him (and briefly became de facto ruler of Morocco in 1728 after his death), was responsible for founding the Bab Berda'in Mosque, completed in 1709.One of the last constructions before his death, carried out between 1721 and 1725, was the Heri al-Mansur, a palace on the far southern edge of the kasbah which included vast stables. The monumental gate known as Bab al-Mansur al-'Alj, overlooking Place al-Hedim, was only finished in 1732 by his son Moulay Abdallah. His son and brief successor, Moulay Ahmad ad-Dhahabi, carried out modifications to his father's mausoleum during his two brief reigns (in 1727–28 and 1728–29) and was himself buried here in 1729.
Later Alaouite period (18th–20th centuries)
Following Moulay Isma'il's death, however, the political situation in Morocco degenerated into relative anarchy as his sons competed for power. Meknes lost its status as capital and suffered damage in the 1755 earthquake. The city was neglected and many parts of the enormous imperial kasbah fell into disrepair. The site received only occasional royal attention in the following centuries. Sultan Muhammad ibn Abdallah, who ruled between 1757 and 1790, built a number of projects in the city. He added the Dar al-Bayda Palace in the Agdal garden to the southeast of the main palace complex, which was later turned into a royal military academy. He constructed the Er-Roua Mosque in the southern part of Moulay Isma'il's Kasbah, which became the largest mosque in Meknes. He also renovated and added a qubba over the tomb of Sidi Mohammed ben Aissa (just outside the city walls) and built the current minarets of the Grand Mosque and the Nejjarine Mosque in the old city. The Dar al-Kebira, however, was abandoned and progressively transformed into a residential neighbourhood where the inhabitants constructed their houses within and between the former palace structures of Isma'il's time. In the early 19th century, Sultan Moulay Abd ar-Rahman added a loggia structure in front of Bab al-Mansur which served as a meeting place for ceremonies and the governor's tribunal, though this structure was later removed.
Recent history (20th–21st centuries)
After the installation of French colonial rule in Morocco in 1912, the French administration created a new city (Ville Nouvelle) on a nearby plateau across the valley on the northeast side of the old city. The capital of Morocco was moved from Fes to Rabat, further marginalizing cities like Meknes (which is near Fes). Some traditional Muslim authorities and officials were retained, but Meknes was reorganized under a new French municipal and military regime. This also led to a greater influence of the cities over their surrounding countryside and growing urbanization. The city became a transportation hub for people and goods traveling from east to west or from north to south across the country, in addition to hosting extensive military barracks. The population of Meknes grew from 25,000 at the beginning of the century to over 140,000 by the mid-20th century. Some roads in the old city were widened to accommodate greater circulation, but most of the new development took place in the Ville Nouvelle. The new French authorities took interest in the conservation of historic monuments in the old city; the madrasas, for example, were restored in 1922. During this period Meknes also became a center of agriculture and viniculture, led mainly by French colonists who appropriated large amounts of land nearby.
Nonetheless, Meknes, like other cities, also hosted resistance to French authority. In 1937, a particularly serious and violent revolt erupted following attempts to divert the local river to benefit the French settler population during a time of food shortages for the native Moroccan population. A violent suppression of protests took place in the city which results in 13 dead and more injured. Following Morocco's independence in 1956, the changes which began or accelerated under French rule continued to run their course. Large scale rural migration increased the population of the city and intensified the urbanization process (as elsewhere in the country). Industries developed around the city's perimeter, but at the same time the old elites and bourgeois families moved away to the coastal cities like Casablanca and Rabat.
These changes also contributed to the relative neglect of the old city. According to the ICOMOS Heritage at Risk report of 2000, the historic city of Meknes contains insufficient drainage systems, and as a result, suffers from inundation and leakage in certain areas. Still, some conservation and restoration efforts have taken place in recent years, motivated in part by the revenues of tourism. As of 2023, a number of major restoration projects were planned or underway, led by ADER-Fès (Agence pour la Dédensification et la Réhabilitation de la Médina de Fès), a quasi-governmental agency based in Fez. The projects include proposed restorations to the historic city walls, to the Heri es-Swani, and to the Bou Inania Madrasa, along with other improvements to parking and tourism infrastructure.
Geography
Meknes is located in a strategic position in the heart of Morocco. To its south and south-east are the rich cedar forests and mountains of the Middle Atlas mountains with the cities Ifrane and Azrou; and more to the south are the rich oases of Tafilalt. To the west are the two largest metropolitan areas of Morocco: Casablanca and Rabat. To the north is the mountainous north of Morocco with the cities of Tangier and Tétouan. Oujda and Fes lie east of Meknes.
Climate
Meknes has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa) with continental influences. Its climate is similar to some inland cities in southern Portugal (such as Beja or Évora) and some areas of southern Spain. The temperatures shifts from cool in winter to hot days in the summer months of June–September. Afternoon temperatures generally rise 10–14 °C above the low on most days. The winter highs typically reach only in December–January, whereas night temperatures average . Snow is rare.
Districts - Quartiers (in French)
Prefecture
Meknes is the seat of the prefecture of Meknès, which consists of 6 municipalities (including the city Meknes) and 15 rural communes.
Historic monuments and landmarks
The main historic monuments of the city are concentrated in the medina (old city) and the vast former Kasbah of Moulay Ismail to the south. The most notable monuments are listed below.
Place el-Hedim
Often compared to the Jemaa el-Fnaa square in Marrakesh, el-Hedim Square (Place el-Hedim) is a vast plaza at the southern end of the old city, before the main gates of Moulay Isma'il's former royal palace complex. The square's name, el-Hedim, means "the rubble/debris" and refers to the demolitions which Moulay Isma'il carried out here during the construction of his palaces. He left this open space as a public square to separate his palace from the rest of the city. Since then, the square has become the focus of various activities including evening entertainers such as storytellers, acrobats, and musicians.
Mosques and madrasas
Grand mosque of Meknes: The old city's most important mosque and one of its oldest, covering about 3,500 square meters and was founded in the 12th century by the Almoravids, although renovated multiple times since.
Madrasa Bou Inania: The city's most famous madrasa (school for higher learning in Islamic sciences) was established by the Marinid sultan Abu al-Hasan in 1335-36 but is now named after his son Abu Inan (who may have later restored it). Open to tourists today, it is one of the most richly decorated buildings in the city.
Nejjarine Mosque: Often reputed to be the oldest in the city, this mosque also dates back to the Almoravid period, though it has been modified multiple times.
Lalla Aouda Mosque: The main mosque of the city's former kasbah and of Moulay Isma'il's palaces, it was first founded in the Marinid era but completely rebuilt by Moulay Isma'il between 1672 and 1678. Its prominent minaret is visible from the adjoining Place Lalla Aouda (Lalla Awda Square).
Bab Berda'in Mosque: The mosque, located near the northern gate of the medina (Bab Berda'in) was completed in 1709 on the orders of Morocco's first female minister, Khnata bent Bakkar. The mosque was the site of a tragedy in 2010 when its historic minaret collapsed, killing 41 people. The mosque has since been repaired and its minaret rebuilt.
Ar-Roua Mosque: The largest mosque in Meknes, it was built by Sultan Muhammad ibn Abdallah between 1757 and 1790. It is located near the Heri al-Mansur palace in the southern part of the Kasbah of Moulay Isma'il.
Zitouna Mosque: A large mosque founded by Sultan Moulay Isma'il around 1687.
Zawiya of Sidi Mohammed Ben Aissa: Also known as the Mausoleum of Sheikh al-Kamel. An important mausoleum and religious complex (zawiya) just outside the city walls to the northwest, originally dating from the late 18th century but restored later. Mohamed ben 'Aissa, founder of the Aissawiya, a major Sufi brotherhood in Morocco, is buried here. He is considered the patron saint of Meknes, and his annual moussem (festival) is one of the most intense and was historically known for its displays of self-mutilation.
Zawiya of Sidi Kaddour el-Alami: A richly-decorated mosque and religious complex honoring the tomb of Sidi Kaddour el-Alami, a famous Moroccan poet who died in 1850.
Fortifications and gates
Bab Mansur al-'Alj: The most famous gateway of the city (also known as Bab Mansour or Bab el-Mansur), this gate overlooks the southern end of Place el-Hedim and acted as the ceremonial grand entrance to the Kasbah of Moulay Isma'il. It was begun in the later years of Moulay Isma'il's reign and finished in 1732 by his son Moulay Abdallah. Its name comes from the architect and designer of the gate, Mansour al-'Alj (the "Victorious Apostate"), a former Christian slave who converted to Islam. It is notable for its size and its rich decoration consisting of darj-wa-ktaf motifs carved into brick, filled with colourful zellij (mosaic tilework), and topped by a long and elaborate Arabic inscription painted on tile.
Bab Jama' an-Nouar: Another ornate gate located next to Bab Mansur; also called Bab al-Nuwwar in some sources.
Bab ad-Dar al-Kebira: The monumental gate entrance to the Dar al-Kebira palace, dating to 1679–80.
Bab el-Khemis: A monumental western gate of the city, near the former Mellah, dating from 1687 under the reign of Moulay Ismail and richly decorated with motifs and zellij similar to Bab al-Mansur.
Bab al-Barda'in: The monumental northern gate of the city, also built by Moulay Isma'il and richly decorated.
Borj Belkari: A bastion tower built in the 17th century as a part of the defensive walls of the Kasbah of Sultan Moulay Ismail in Meknes, Morocco. Since 2003 it holds a pottery museum.
Imperial Palaces of Moulay Isma'il
The palace complex or "imperial city" of Sultan Moulay Isma'il was constructed over his entire 55-year reign from 1672 to 1727 (with some elements finished or remodeled shortly after). It occupies the site of the city's former medieval kasbah (citadel) and stretches over an area approximately four times larger than the old city itself. It was composed of several autonomous palaces along with vast gardens, religious buildings, and other amenities. The complex was also notable for its impressive infrastructure, which included a water supply system with a hydraulic system of wells, norias (water extraction mechanism powered by wheel), canals, and underground pipes which distributed water to the royal city's many buildings. It also contained numerous monumental granaries and underground warehouses which stockpiled supplies that could allegedly sustain the city for a siege of ten years. Below is a list of some of its main areas and monuments.
Place Lalla Aouda: A vast open square which stands behind (southeast of) Bab al-Mansur, which served as the former mechouar of the palace. It precedes the former Dar al-Kebira palace and gives access to the Lalla Aouda Mosque.
Dar el-Kebira: The oldest palace in the kasbah, finished in 1679 and itself composed of multiple palaces. Its name means "the Great House". It was the private residence of the sultan and his family, connected directly to the Lalla Aouda Mosque and the later royal mausoleum. The palace fell into ruin after Moulay Isma'il's death (and after the 1755 Lisbon Earthquake), and has since become a residential neighbourhood where common people built their houses amidst the remains of Isma'il's massive palace walls, still visible in various places.
Mausoleum of Moulay Isma'il: The royal mausoleum and funerary complex of Moulay Isma'il and some of his family members and successors. It was built under his reign but significantly modified by Ahmad ad-Dhahabi between 1727 and 1729. The funerary complex was originally entered from the dar al-Kebira to the north but is nowadays entered by a 20th-century gate to the south. Still considered a religious site today, it is also open to tourists. It is composed of relatively austere courtyards leading to a richly-decorated indoor patio chamber, which in turn grants access to the tomb chamber of the sultan.
Qubbat al-Khayyatin and the Qara Prison: The Qubbat al-Khayyatin is a standalone audience chamber or throne room where Moulay Isma'il once received foreign ambassadors. Underground, right next to it, is a large subterranean vaulted space known as the Qara Prison or Habs Qara. Although frequently described as a prison for Christian slaves, scholars agree that it was in fact a storage area and granary, one of many such structures throughout the royal city.
Dar al-Makhzen: This vast walled enclosure, much larger and more rationally organized than the Dar el-Kebira, contained extensive gardens and two more main palaces in Moulay Isma'il's time, some of which have been restored or adapted for current use as one of the royal residences of the King of Morocco. The enclosure, generally known as the Dar al-Makhzen (not to be confused with the royal palaces of the same name in Fez and elsewhere), was divided into two sections. The western section was mostly occupied by the Bahrawiya Gardens but also contained a long narrow palace on its northern edge known as the Dar al-Madrasa ("House of the School"), most likely another private palace of the sultan. The eastern section, which is still entered via an ornate royal gate on its eastern perimeter (north of Heri es-Swani), was mostly occupied by the Qasr al-Muhannasha ("Palace of the Labyrinth"). This palace consisted of roughly eight large courtyards or garden enclosures and acted as both a reception palace and an administrative palace.
Heri as-Swani and the Sahrij (Agdal Basin): The Sahrij or Agdal Basin is an enormous water basin or artificial lake south of the Dar al-Makhzen, which was originally a part of the royal city's water supply system. It measures 148.75 by 319 meters and is, on average, 1.2 meters deep. Next to it, on its eastern side, is an enormous structure composed of two parts: the "House of the Ten Norias" or Dar al-Ma ("House of Water") and the Heri as-Swani (also spelled as Heri es-Souani). The first of these is a monumental building of vaulted passages and domed chambers which contained a number of wheel-powered hydraulic mechanisms (norias) which drew water from the phreatic table underground to the surface, after which it was delivered into the Sahrij or redistributed to the city. The second part, the Heri as-Swani, is attached to the south side of this building and is made up of 22 rows of monumental arches which once held up a vaulted roof (which has since collapsed). Although frequently misidentified as the "royal stables" of the palace, this structure was, once again, a massive granary and storehouse. Grain was originally delivered to the building by mules who climbed onto a roof terrace and dropped the grain directly into holes pierced above each vaulted chamber.
Heri al-Mansur: One of the last constructions of Moulay Isma'il's reign, built between 1721 and 1725, its name means "Granary/silo of Victory", but it was also known as Dar al-Mansur or Qasr al-Mansur ("Palace of Victory"). It is located on the far southern perimeter of the Kasbah and consists of a massive building which seems to have served as a palace, fortress, and storehouse. The basement was taken up by storage rooms while the upper floor held reception rooms for the palace with views over the surrounding area. Located next to it were the Royal Stables of Moulay Isma'il (often misidentified today with the Heri as-Swani), which were reputed to be one of the palace city's most impressive features. It consisted of horse stalls sheltered under two parallel arcades (rows of arches) which stretched for 1200 meters on either side of a water canal which provided water for the horses. Unfortunately, the stables have not been preserved and very little remains of them today.
Museums
Dar Jamaï Museum: The best-known museum in Meknes, housing a number of artifacts and art objects from the city and other regions in Morocco. It is housed in a late 19th-century palace with gardens and ornate rooms built in 1882 by Mokhtar ben Larbi Jamai, who served as Grand Vizier under Sultan Moulay Hassan (ruled 1873–1894). His family also built the Jamai Palace in Fes.
Musée de Meknès (Meknes Museum): A small museum housed in a structure just northeast of Bab al-Mansur, exhibiting artifacts from all over Morocco.
Outlying sites
The ruins of the Roman town of Volubilis (Oualili), another UNESCO World Heritage Site, are about half an hour to the north, as is the village and important pilgrimage site of Moulay Idriss Zerhoun.
Economy
Meknes is an economic centre in Morocco with various products from three sectors (agriculture, industry and services), which makes the city economically competitive and attractive for investment.
Competitiveness
A December 2015 World Bank report classified Meknes as one of the three most competitive cities in Africa. Two of those three competitive African cities are Moroccan: Meknes and Tangier.
Agriculture
Meknes is considered to be the capital of agriculture in Morocco. And the Saïss plain is one of the most fertile and rich plains in Morocco and Meknes is the centre of this plain.
Each year Meknes holds the International Agriculture Show in Morocco (French: Salon International de l'Agriculture au Maroc) since April 2006. This agriculture show has an area of more than 250000 square meters, with more than 60 countries participating, and more than 1200 exhibitors.
The lands around Meknes area are known to be fertile and productive. The high elevation, fertility and the fresh water of those lands favor the cultivation of fruits and vegetables, most notably: peaches, nectarines, prunes, apples, potatoes, onions and garlic. Meknes is also known for its olives and olive oil. Livestock raising, particularly sheep and cattle, is widespread. Meknes has large industrial units for milk and dairy production that fulfill most of the needs of the region.
Industry
Industry in Meknes is of light type, most of it is related to food processing especially in the Commune of Mejjat, and chemical and para-chemical industry in other industrial zones like the Agropolis industrial and agribusiness zone. Add to those the textile and metallic manufacturing which are old industries in the city. The year 2016 marks a new era of industry in the city of Meknes; it includes electrical wire, embedded systems, and automotive parts production companies.
Major companies
Services
Many of the services products in Meknes are related to tourism due to the attractions of the old city district (the medina).
Transport
Road
The geographical location of the city of Meknes makes it one of the important transport hubs in Morocco. The city is accessed via the A2 expressway with two exits, one to the east of the city and another to the west.
The city's Gare Routière (intercity bus station) is located west of the medina, along with the main station for grand taxis (intercity taxis). A newer station for buses operated by CTM is located near the main train station.
Rail
Two train stations are located in the new city district (French: Ville Nouvelle) of Meknes, with trains each hour to the east, west, and north of Morocco. Operated by ONCF, the following table lists destinations reachable via Meknes railway stations (round-trips):
As mentioned above, Meknes city has two train stations, and their names are: Meknes Railway Station (French: Gare de Meknès) and Meknes Amir Abdul Qadir Railway Station (French: Gare de Meknès Amir Abdelkader). All the mentioned trains cited in the previous table stop by the former station; and except the first row of the table, all the remaining trains stop by the latter station.
Air
The nearest airport is Fes-Saïss Airport accessible only by road transport.
Otherwise, Mohammed V Airport in Casablanca, with more international flights and destinations, is conveniently accessible by train.
Public Transport
Public transport in Meknes is managed by the urban commune and it consists of:
A large network of buses that cover all the area of the prefecture, and even outside of the prefecture like the line 16 to El Hajeb.
Taxis in the city exist in two types: small taxis with 3 places Max that work with fares system; and bigger taxis with 6 places Max that have a predetermined trajectory and fixed prices.
Education
Meknes is home to the public Moulay Ismail University, with actually the following faculties, schools and institutions divided among three campuses in the cities: Meknes, Errachidia and Khenifra.
in Meknes:
Faculty of Sciences - FS, created in 1982
Faculty of Letters and Human Sciences - FLSH, created in 1982
Normal Superior School - ENS, created in 1983
Faculty of Juridical, Economical and Social Sciences - FSJES, created in 1993
Superior School of Technology - EST, created in 1993
National Superior School of the Arts and Professions - ENSAM, created in 1997
in Errachidia:
Faculty of Science and Technology - FST, created in 1994
Poly disciplinary Faculty - FP, created in 2006
in Khenifra:
Superior School of Technology - EST, created in 2014
In addition to Moulay Ismail University, numerous private institutes for higher education exist in Meknes.
International relations
See also List of twin towns and sister cities in Morocco
Twin towns – Sister cities
Meknes is twinned with:
Cenon, France, since 2017
Nîmes, France, since 2005
Santarém, Portugal, since 1989
Tulkarm, Palestine, since 2017
Notable people
Abdeljalil Hadda - Former international Moroccan footballer
H-Kayne, Rap group based in Meknes
Houcine Toulali - Moroccan Malhun singer and writer
References
Bibliography
External links
http://www.planetware.com/tourist-attractions-/meknes-mar-mek-mek.htm
http://looklex.com/morocco/meknes02.htm
MeknesCity Newspaper
Prefecturial capitals in Morocco
Municipalities of Morocco
Former capitals of Morocco
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcriptional%20regulation
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Transcriptional regulation
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In molecular biology and genetics, transcriptional regulation is the means by which a cell regulates the conversion of DNA to RNA (transcription), thereby orchestrating gene activity. A single gene can be regulated in a range of ways, from altering the number of copies of RNA that are transcribed, to the temporal control of when the gene is transcribed. This control allows the cell or organism to respond to a variety of intra- and extracellular signals and thus mount a response. Some examples of this include producing the mRNA that encode enzymes to adapt to a change in a food source, producing the gene products involved in cell cycle specific activities, and producing the gene products responsible for cellular differentiation in multicellular eukaryotes, as studied in evolutionary developmental biology.
The regulation of transcription is a vital process in all living organisms. It is orchestrated by transcription factors and other proteins working in concert to finely tune the amount of RNA being produced through a variety of mechanisms. Bacteria and eukaryotes have very different strategies of accomplishing control over transcription, but some important features remain conserved between the two. Most importantly is the idea of combinatorial control, which is that any given gene is likely controlled by a specific combination of factors to control transcription. In a hypothetical example, the factors A and B might regulate a distinct set of genes from the combination of factors A and C. This combinatorial nature extends to complexes of far more than two proteins, and allows a very small subset (less than 10%) of the genome to control the transcriptional program of the entire cell.
In bacteria
Much of the early understanding of transcription came from bacteria, although the extent and complexity of transcriptional regulation is greater in eukaryotes. Bacterial transcription is governed by three main sequence elements:
Promoters are elements of DNA that may bind RNA polymerase and other proteins for the successful initiation of transcription directly upstream of the gene.
Operators recognize repressor proteins that bind to a stretch of DNA and inhibit the transcription of the gene.
Positive control elements that bind to DNA and incite higher levels of transcription.
While these means of transcriptional regulation also exist in eukaryotes, the transcriptional landscape is significantly more complicated both by the number of proteins involved as well as by the presence of introns and the packaging of DNA into histones.
The transcription of a basic bacterial gene is dependent on the strength of its promoter and the presence of activators or repressors. In the absence of other regulatory elements, a promoter's sequence-based affinity for RNA polymerases varies, which results in the production of different amounts of transcript. The variable affinity of RNA polymerase for different promoter sequences is related to regions of consensus sequence upstream of the transcription start site. The more nucleotides of a promoter that agree with the consensus sequence, the stronger the affinity of the promoter for RNA Polymerase likely is.
In the absence of other regulatory elements, the default state of a bacterial transcript is to be in the “on” configuration, resulting in the production of some amount of transcript. This means that transcriptional regulation in the form of protein repressors and positive control elements can either increase or decrease transcription. Repressors often physically occupy the promoter location, occluding RNA polymerase from binding. Alternatively a repressor and polymerase may bind to the DNA at the same time with a physical interaction between the repressor preventing the opening of the DNA for access to the minus strand for transcription. This strategy of control is distinct from eukaryotic transcription, whose basal state is to be off and where co-factors required for transcription initiation are highly gene dependent.
Sigma factors are specialized bacterial proteins that bind to RNA polymerases and orchestrate transcription initiation. Sigma factors act as mediators of sequence-specific transcription, such that a single sigma factor can be used for transcription of all housekeeping genes or a suite of genes the cell wishes to express in response to some external stimuli such as stress.
In addition to processes that regulate transcription at the stage of initiation, mRNA synthesis is also controlled by the rate of transcription elongation. RNA polymerase pauses occur frequently and are regulated by transcription factors, such as NusG and NusA, transcription-translation coupling, and mRNA secondary structure.
In eukaryotes
The added complexity of generating a eukaryotic cell carries with it an increase in the complexity of transcriptional regulation. Eukaryotes have three RNA polymerases, known as Pol I, Pol II, and Pol III. Each polymerase has specific targets and activities, and is regulated by independent mechanisms. There are a number of additional mechanisms through which polymerase activity can be controlled. These mechanisms can be generally grouped into three main areas:
Control over polymerase access to the gene. This is perhaps the broadest of the three control mechanisms. This includes the functions of histone remodeling enzymes, transcription factors, enhancers and repressors, and many other complexes
Productive elongation of the RNA transcript. Once polymerase is bound to a promoter, it requires another set of factors to allow it to escape the promoter complex and begin successfully transcribing RNA.
Termination of the polymerase. A number of factors which have been found to control how and when termination occurs, which will dictate the fate of the RNA transcript.
All three of these systems work in concert to integrate signals from the cell and change the transcriptional program accordingly.
While in prokaryotic systems the basal transcription state can be thought of as nonrestrictive (that is, “on” in the absence of modifying factors), eukaryotes have a restrictive basal state which requires the recruitment of other factors in order to generate RNA transcripts. This difference is largely due to the compaction of the eukaryotic genome by winding DNA around histones to form higher order structures. This compaction makes the gene promoter inaccessible without the assistance of other factors in the nucleus, and thus chromatin structure is a common site of regulation. Similar to the sigma factors in prokaryotes, the general transcription factors (GTFs) are a set of factors in eukaryotes that are required for all transcription events. These factors are responsible for stabilizing binding interactions and opening the DNA helix to allow the RNA polymerase to access the template, but generally lack specificity for different promoter sites. A large part of gene regulation occurs through transcription factors that either recruit or inhibit the binding of the general transcription machinery and/or the polymerase. This can be accomplished through close interactions with core promoter elements, or through the long distance enhancer elements.
Once a polymerase is successfully bound to a DNA template, it often requires the assistance of other proteins in order to leave the stable promoter complex and begin elongating the nascent RNA strand. This process is called promoter escape, and is another step at which regulatory elements can act to accelerate or slow the transcription process. Similarly, protein and nucleic acid factors can associate with the elongation complex and modulate the rate at which the polymerase moves along the DNA template.
At the level of chromatin state
In eukaryotes, genomic DNA is highly compacted in order to be able to fit it into the nucleus. This is accomplished by winding the DNA around protein octamers called histones, which has consequences for the physical accessibility of parts of the genome at any given time. Significant portions are silenced through histone modifications, and thus are inaccessible to the polymerases or their cofactors. The highest level of transcription regulation occurs through the rearrangement of histones in order to expose or sequester genes, because these processes have the ability to render entire regions of a chromosome inaccessible such as what occurs in imprinting.
Histone rearrangement is facilitated by post-translational modifications to the tails of the core histones. A wide variety of modifications can be made by enzymes such as the histone acetyltransferases (HATs), histone methyltransferases (HMTs), and histone deacetylases (HDACs), among others. These enzymes can add or remove covalent modifications such as methyl groups, acetyl groups, phosphates, and ubiquitin. Histone modifications serve to recruit other proteins which can either increase the compaction of the chromatin and sequester promoter elements, or to increase the spacing between histones and allow the association of transcription factors or polymerase on open DNA. For example, H3K27 trimethylation by the polycomb complex PRC2 causes chromosomal compaction and gene silencing. These histone modifications may be created by the cell, or inherited in an epigenetic fashion from a parent.
At the level of cytosine methylation
Transcription regulation at about 60% of promoters is controlled by methylation of cytosines within CpG dinucleotides (where 5’ cytosine is followed by 3’ guanine or CpG sites). 5-methylcytosine (5-mC) is a methylated form of the DNA base cytosine (see Figure). 5-mC is an epigenetic marker found predominantly within CpG sites. About 28 million CpG dinucleotides occur in the human genome. In most tissues of mammals, on average, 70% to 80% of CpG cytosines are methylated (forming 5-methylCpG or 5-mCpG). Methylated cytosines within 5’cytosine-guanine 3’ sequences often occur in groups, called CpG islands. About 60% of promoter sequences have a CpG island while only about 6% of enhancer sequences have a CpG island. CpG islands constitute regulatory sequences, since if CpG islands are methylated in the promoter of a gene this can reduce or silence gene transcription.
DNA methylation regulates gene transcription through interaction with methyl binding domain (MBD) proteins, such as MeCP2, MBD1 and MBD2. These MBD proteins bind most strongly to highly methylated CpG islands. These MBD proteins have both a methyl-CpG-binding domain as well as a transcription repression domain. They bind to methylated DNA and guide or direct protein complexes with chromatin remodeling and/or histone modifying activity to methylated CpG islands. MBD proteins generally repress local chromatin such as by catalyzing the introduction of repressive histone marks, or creating an overall repressive chromatin environment through nucleosome remodeling and chromatin reorganization.
Transcription factors are proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences in order to regulate the expression of a gene. The binding sequence for a transcription factor in DNA is usually about 10 or 11 nucleotides long. As summarized in 2009, Vaquerizas et al. indicated there are approximately 1,400 different transcription factors encoded in the human genome by genes that constitute about 6% of all human protein encoding genes. About 94% of transcription factor binding sites (TFBSs) that are associated with signal-responsive genes occur in enhancers while only about 6% of such TFBSs occur in promoters.
EGR1 protein is a particular transcription factor that is important for regulation of methylation of CpG islands. An EGR1 transcription factor binding site is frequently located in enhancer or promoter sequences. There are about 12,000 binding sites for EGR1 in the mammalian genome and about half of EGR1 binding sites are located in promoters and half in enhancers. The binding of EGR1 to its target DNA binding site is insensitive to cytosine methylation in the DNA.
While only small amounts of EGR1 transcription factor protein are detectable in cells that are un-stimulated, translation of the EGR1 gene into protein at one hour after stimulation is drastically elevated. Expression of EGR1 transcription factor proteins, in various types of cells, can be stimulated by growth factors, neurotransmitters, hormones, stress and injury. In the brain, when neurons are activated, EGR1 proteins are up-regulated and they bind to (recruit) the pre-existing TET1 enzymes which are highly expressed in neurons. TET enzymes can catalyse demethylation of 5-methylcytosine. When EGR1 transcription factors bring TET1 enzymes to EGR1 binding sites in promoters, the TET enzymes can demethylate the methylated CpG islands at those promoters. Upon demethylation, these promoters can then initiate transcription of their target genes. Hundreds of genes in neurons are differentially expressed after neuron activation through EGR1 recruitment of TET1 to methylated regulatory sequences in their promoters.
The methylation of promoters is also altered in response to signals. The three mammalian DNA methyltransferasess (DNMT1, DNMT3A, and DNMT3B) catalyze the addition of methyl groups to cytosines in DNA. While DNMT1 is a “maintenance” methyltransferase, DNMT3A and DNMT3B can carry out new methylations. There are also two splice protein isoforms produced from the DNMT3A gene: DNA methyltransferase proteins DNMT3A1 and DNMT3A2.
The splice isoform DNMT3A2 behaves like the product of a classical immediate-early gene and, for instance, it is robustly and transiently produced after neuronal activation. Where the DNA methyltransferase isoform DNMT3A2 binds and adds methyl groups to cytosines appears to be determined by histone post translational modifications.
On the other hand, neural activation causes degradation of DNMT3A1 accompanied by reduced methylation of at least one evaluated targeted promoter.
Through transcription factors and enhancers
Transcription factors
Transcription factors are proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences in order to regulate the expression of a given gene. There are approximately 1,400 transcription factors in the human genome and they constitute about 6% of all human protein coding genes. The power of transcription factors resides in their ability to activate and/or repress wide repertoires of downstream target genes. The fact that these transcription factors work in a combinatorial fashion means that only a small subset of an organism's genome encodes transcription factors.
Transcription factors function through a wide variety of mechanisms. In one mechanism, CpG methylation influences binding of most transcription factors to DNA—in some cases negatively and in others positively. In addition, often they are at the end of a signal transduction pathway that functions to change something about the factor, like its subcellular localization or its activity. Post-translational modifications to transcription factors located in the cytosol can cause them to translocate to the nucleus where they can interact with their corresponding enhancers. Other transcription factors are already in the nucleus, and are modified to enable the interaction with partner transcription factors. Some post-translational modifications known to regulate the functional state of transcription factors are phosphorylation, acetylation, SUMOylation and ubiquitylation.
Transcription factors can be divided in two main categories: activators and repressors. While activators can interact directly or indirectly with the core machinery of transcription through enhancer binding, repressors predominantly recruit co-repressor complexes leading to transcriptional repression by chromatin condensation of enhancer regions. It may also happen that a repressor may function by allosteric competition against a determined activator to repress gene expression: overlapping DNA-binding motifs for both activators and repressors induce a physical competition to occupy the site of binding. If the repressor has a higher affinity for its motif than the activator, transcription would be effectively blocked in the presence of the repressor.
Tight regulatory control is achieved by the highly dynamic nature of transcription factors. Again, many different mechanisms exist to control whether a transcription factor is active. These mechanisms include control over protein localization or control over whether the protein can bind DNA. An example of this is the protein HSF1, which remains bound to Hsp70 in the cytosol and is only translocated into the nucleus upon cellular stress such as heat shock. Thus the genes under the control of this transcription factor will remain untranscribed unless the cell is subjected to stress.
Enhancers
Enhancers or cis-regulatory modules/elements (CRM/CRE) are non-coding DNA sequences containing multiple activator and repressor binding sites. Enhancers range from 200 bp to 1 kb in length and can be either proximal, 5’ upstream to the promoter or within the first intron of the regulated gene, or distal, in introns of neighboring genes or intergenic regions far away from the locus. Through DNA looping, active enhancers contact the promoter dependently of the core DNA binding motif promoter specificity. Promoter-enhancer dichotomy provides the basis for the functional interaction between transcription factors and transcriptional core machinery to trigger RNA Pol II escape from the promoter. Whereas one could think that there is a 1:1 enhancer-promoter ratio, studies of the human genome predict that an active promoter interacts with 4 to 5 enhancers. Similarly, enhancers can regulate more than one gene without linkage restriction and are said to “skip” neighboring genes to regulate more distant ones. Even though infrequent, transcriptional regulation can involve elements located in a chromosome different from one where the promoter resides. Proximal enhancers or promoters of neighboring genes can serve as platforms to recruit more distal elements.
Enhancer activation and implementation
Up-regulated expression of genes in mammals can be initiated when signals are transmitted to the promoters associated with the genes. Cis-regulatory DNA sequences that are located in DNA regions distant from the promoters of genes can have very large effects on gene expression, with some genes undergoing up to 100-fold increased expression due to such a cis-regulatory sequence. These cis-regulatory sequences include enhancers, silencers, insulators and tethering elements. Among this constellation of sequences, enhancers and their associated transcription factor proteins have a leading role in the regulation of gene expression.
Enhancers are sequences of the genome that are major gene-regulatory elements. Enhancers control cell-type-specific gene expression programs, most often by looping through long distances to come in physical proximity with the promoters of their target genes. In a study of brain cortical neurons, 24,937 loops were found, bringing enhancers to promoters. Multiple enhancers, each often at tens or hundred of thousands of nucleotides distant from their target genes, loop to their target gene promoters and coordinate with each other to control expression of their common target gene.
The schematic illustration in this section shows an enhancer looping around to come into close physical proximity with the promoter of a target gene. The loop is stabilized by a dimer of a connector protein (e.g. dimer of CTCF or YY1), with one member of the dimer anchored to its binding motif on the enhancer and the other member anchored to its binding motif on the promoter (represented by the red zigzags in the illustration). Several cell function specific transcription factor proteins (in 2018 Lambert et al. indicated there were about 1,600 transcription factors in a human cell) generally bind to specific motifs on an enhancer and a small combination of these enhancer-bound transcription factors, when brought close to a promoter by a DNA loop, govern the level of transcription of the target gene. Mediator (coactivator) (a complex usually consisting of about 26 proteins in an interacting structure) communicates regulatory signals from enhancer DNA-bound transcription factors directly to the RNA polymerase II (RNAP II) enzyme bound to the promoter.
Enhancers, when active, are generally transcribed from both strands of DNA with RNA polymerases acting in two different directions, producing two eRNAs as illustrated in the Figure. An inactive enhancer may be bound by an inactive transcription factor. Phosphorylation of the transcription factor may activate it and that activated transcription factor may then activate the enhancer to which it is bound (see small red star representing phosphorylation of a transcription factor bound to an enhancer in the illustration). An activated enhancer begins transcription of its RNA before activating a promoter to initiate transcription of messenger RNA from its target gene.
Regulatory landscape
Transcriptional initiation, termination and regulation are mediated by “DNA looping” which brings together promoters, enhancers, transcription factors and RNA processing factors to accurately regulate gene expression. Chromosome conformation capture (3C) and more recently Hi-C techniques provided evidence that active chromatin regions are “compacted” in nuclear domains or bodies where transcriptional regulation is enhanced. The configuration of the genome is essential for enhancer-promoter proximity. Cell-fate decisions are mediated upon highly dynamic genomic reorganizations at interphase to modularly switch on or off entire gene regulatory networks through short to long range chromatin rearrangements. Related studies demonstrate that metazoan genomes are partitioned in structural and functional units around a megabase long called Topological association domains (TADs) containing dozens of genes regulated by hundreds of enhancers distributed within large genomic regions containing only non-coding sequences. The function of TADs is to regroup enhancers and promoters interacting together within a single large functional domain instead of having them spread in different TADs. However, studies of mouse development point out that two adjacent TADs may regulate the same gene cluster. The most relevant study on limb evolution shows that the TAD at the 5’ of the HoxD gene cluster in tetrapod genomes drives its expression in the distal limb bud embryos, giving rise to the hand, while the one located at 3’ side does it in the proximal limb bud, giving rise to the arm. Still, it is not known whether TADs are an adaptive strategy to enhance regulatory interactions or an effect of the constrains on these same interactions.
TAD boundaries are often composed by housekeeping genes, tRNAs, other highly expressed sequences and Short Interspersed Elements (SINE). While these genes may take advantage of their border position to be ubiquitously expressed, they are not directly linked with TAD edge formation. The specific molecules identified at boundaries of TADs are called insulators or architectural proteins because they not only block enhancer leaky expression but also ensure an accurate compartmentalization of cis-regulatory inputs to the targeted promoter. These insulators are DNA-binding proteins like CTCF and TFIIIC that help recruiting structural partners such as cohesins and condensins. The localization and binding of architectural proteins to their corresponding binding sites is regulated by post-translational modifications. DNA binding motifs recognized by architectural proteins are either of high occupancy and at around a megabase of each other or of low occupancy and inside TADs. High occupancy sites are usually conserved and static while intra-TADs sites are dynamic according to the state of the cell therefore TADs themselves are compartmentalized in subdomains that can be called subTADs from few kb up to a TAD long (19). When architectural binding sites are at less than 100 kb from each other, Mediator proteins are the architectural proteins cooperate with cohesin. For subTADs larger than 100 kb and TAD boundaries, CTCF is the typical insulator found to interact with cohesion.
Of the pre-initiation complex and promoter escape
In eukaryotes, ribosomal rRNA and the tRNAs involved in translation are controlled by RNA polymerase I (Pol I) and RNA polymerase III (Pol III) . RNA Polymerase II (Pol II) is responsible for the production of messenger RNA (mRNA) within the cell. Particularly for Pol II, much of the regulatory checkpoints in the transcription process occur in the assembly and escape of the pre-initiation complex. A gene-specific combination of transcription factors will recruit TFIID and/or TFIIA to the core promoter, followed by the association of TFIIB, creating a stable complex onto which the rest of the General Transcription Factors (GTFs) can assemble. This complex is relatively stable, and can undergo multiple rounds of transcription initiation.
After the binding of TFIIB and TFIID, Pol II the rest of the GTFs can assemble. This assembly is marked by the post-translational modification (typically phosphorylation) of the C-terminal domain (CTD) of Pol II through a number of kinases. The CTD is a large, unstructured domain extending from the RbpI subunit of Pol II, and consists of many repeats of the heptad sequence YSPTSPS. TFIIH, the helicase that remains associated with Pol II throughout transcription, also contains a subunit with kinase activity which will phosphorylate the serines 5 in the heptad sequence. Similarly, both CDK8 (a subunit of the massive multiprotein Mediator complex) and CDK9 (a subunit of the p-TEFb elongation factor), have kinase activity towards other residues on the CTD. These phosphorylation events promote the transcription process and serve as sites of recruitment for mRNA processing machinery. All three of these kinases respond to upstream signals, and failure to phosphorylate the CTD can lead to a stalled polymerase at the promoter.
In cancer
In vertebrates, the majority of gene promoters contain a CpG island with numerous CpG sites. When many of a gene's promoter CpG sites are methylated the gene becomes silenced. Colorectal cancers typically have 3 to 6 driver mutations and 33 to 66 hitchhiker or passenger mutations. However, transcriptional silencing may be of more importance than mutation in causing progression to cancer. For example, in colorectal cancers about 600 to 800 genes are transcriptionally silenced by CpG island methylation (see regulation of transcription in cancer). Transcriptional repression in cancer can also occur by other epigenetic mechanisms, such as altered expression of microRNAs. In breast cancer, transcriptional repression of BRCA1 may occur more frequently by over-expressed microRNA-182 than by hypermethylation of the BRCA1 promoter (see Low expression of BRCA1 in breast and ovarian cancers).
References
External links
Plant Transcription Factor Database and Plant Transcriptional Regulation Data and Analysis Platform
MIT : Activating a new understanding of gene regulation
Gene expression
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastian%20Shaw%20%28actor%29
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Sebastian Shaw (actor)
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Sebastian Lewis Shaw (29 May 1905 – 23 December 1994) was an English actor, theatre director, novelist, playwright and poet. During his 65-year career, he appeared in dozens of stage performances and more than 40 film and television productions.
Shaw was born and brought up in Holt, Norfolk, and made his acting debut at age eight at a London theatre. He studied acting at Gresham's School and the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art. Although he worked primarily on the London stage, he made his Broadway debut in 1929, when he played one of the two murderers in Rope's End. He appeared in his first film, Caste, in 1930 and quickly began to create a name for himself in films. He described himself as a "rotten actor" as a youth and said his success was primarily due to his good looks. He claimed to mature as a performer only after returning from service in the Royal Air Force during World War II.
Shaw was particularly known for his performances in productions of Shakespeare plays which were considered daring and ahead of their time. In 1966, he joined the Royal Shakespeare Company, where he remained for a decade and delivered some of his most acclaimed performances. He also wrote several poems and a novel, The Christening, in 1975. In 1983, he appeared in the third installment of the original Star Wars Trilogy, Return of the Jedi, as the redeemed Anakin Skywalker, as well as Skywalker's ghost in the original 1983 theatrical release of the film.
Early life
Shaw was one of three children born to Dr. Geoffrey Shaw, the music master at Gresham's School, a Norfolk independent boarding school, where Shaw began his education. His uncle, Martin Shaw, was a composer of church music, and his family's love of music heavily influenced Shaw's career path.
Career
Early career
Shaw made his acting debut at age eight on the London stage as one of the juvenile band in The Cockyolly Bird at the Royal Court Theatre in Chelsea on New Year's Day of 1914. During his time at Gresham's, he also played Petruchio in The Taming of the Shrew, his first of many performances from the works of William Shakespeare; schoolmate W. H. Auden, who would go on to become a highly regarded poet, portrayed Katherina in the play opposite him. After Gresham's, Shaw planned to become a painter and spent two years at the Slade School of Fine Art before switching his interests to acting; regarding the change, his father informed him, "I wondered when you would come to your senses." He earned a scholarship to the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in Bloomsbury, London. Actor Charles Laughton enrolled in the academy at the same time as Shaw, who later said his first impression of Laughton was "a poor fat boy". Although Shaw and his fellow students initially felt pity for Laughton, they were quickly impressed with his talent.
Shaw appeared in regional theatres in Bristol, Liverpool and Hull. In 1925, he performed in London as the Archangel in The Sign of the Sun, and played first Lewis Dodd and then the Major in separate productions of The Constant Nymph. He received instruction in verse speaking under famed theatre director William Bridges-Adams in the Stratford Festival Company at Stratford-upon-Avon, where he played some of his early Shakespeare roles, including Romeo in Romeo and Juliet, Ferdinand in The Tempest and Prince Hal in Henry IV in 1926. He was criticised for the audacity he displayed in the latter role. When Prince Hal takes on his kingship and rejects the self-indulgent character Falstaff, convention of the day called for Prince Hal to change from a jovial drinking partner to an arrogant snob, but Shaw saw the view as simple-minded and contradictory toward Shakespeare's script. Instead, he displayed inward regrets about leaving Falstaff and accepting the new responsibilities. The interpretation was criticised at the time but, years later, became the standard approach to the character.
Shaw made his Broadway debut in 1929, when he played the murderer Wyndham Brandon in Patrick Hamilton's stage thriller, Rope's End. In 1929, he married Margaret Delamere and lived with her in the Albany, an apartment complex off of Piccadilly in London. The two would eventually have a daughter together named Drusilla (born 1932). He returned to the works of William Shakespeare in 1931, playing Claudio in Measure for Measure at London's Fortune Playhouse. In 1932 he once again played Romeo at the Embassy Theatre. Other works around this period included productions of Ivor Novello's Sunshine Sisters in 1933, Double Door alongside actress Sybil Thorndike in 1934, J.M. Barrie's A Kiss for Cinderella in 1937, and Robert Morley's Goodness, How Sad in 1938.
The first film Shaw appeared in was Caste in 1930. He soon began to make a name for himself in films such as Brewster's Millions in 1935, Men Are Not Gods in 1936 and Farewell Again in 1937. He was making about £300 a week during this stage of his career, a significant sum higher than the salary of the British Prime Minister of the time. He brought what the Daily Telegraph described as a "smooth villainy" to the role of Frank Sutton in The Squeaker in 1937, while in 1939 he played the hero Cdr. David Blacklock alongside Conrad Veidt and Valerie Hobson in The Spy in Black, Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger's first collaboration. Shaw described himself as a film buff and called Academy Award-winning actor Spencer Tracy his "great god of all screen actors"; he was so impressed by Tracy's technique that he claimed to become depressed while watching his films because Tracy made acting look simple, while Shaw claimed to find it so difficult to master himself.
World War II and post-war career
When World War II broke out, Shaw took a break from acting and joined the Royal Air Force. He was commissioned as an Acting-Pilot Officer on probation in the Administrative and Special Duties Branch on 25 April 1941 and over the next three months was promoted to Pilot Officer on probation, then Flying Officer and then Flight Lieutenant. According to his obituary in the Guardian, he saw little action in the service and was told the only chance he would have to fly would be as a rear gunner. Some of his fellow airmen hounded Shaw for autographs while others mocked his posh accent, to which he retaliated with an excellent and unflattering imitation of their less refined speech. He continued to hold a Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve commission after the war until he resigned the commission on 10 February 1954; he was permitted to retain his rank.
Immediately upon returning to London after the war, Shaw lost his Albany flat and his acting contract, and essentially had to restart his acting career. Although he made 20 films before the war and had already begun to develop a reputation as a strong leading man, in later years he would describe himself as "a rotten actor" in the 1930s who landed roles based mainly on his good looks. He used the phrase "a piece of cinema beefcake" to describe himself as an actor during that period. He felt that after his return home from military service, he learned to act properly and began to mature as a performer. Shaw's Royal Air Force experience was put to good use when he played a pilot in Journey Together, the 1946 RAF training film in which actor Edward G. Robinson coached actor Richard Attenborough in the rudiments of flying.
In 1945, Shaw returned to the Embassy Theatre to direct Fyodor Dostoevsky's The Gambler. Significant theatre roles that decade included Hercules in The Thracian Horses at the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith in 1946, Mr. Hern-Lawrence in Florida Scott-Maxwell's experimental I Said to Myself at the Mercury Theatre, Notting Hill Gate in 1947, Sir James Kirkham in His Excellency at Prince's Theatre in 1950, and Filmer Jesson, MP, in Arthur Wing Pinero's His House in Order at New Theatre in 1951. In 1956, he played the title role in the first British production of Hugo von Hofmannsthal's Everyman. That same year, he wrote the lyrics to his father's ballad-opera, All at Sea, which played at the Royal College of Music. In 1957, he played Lucifer in Brother Lucifer in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, and a sinister Venetian agent in Jonathan Griffin's The Hidden King in Edinburgh.
As Shaw grew older, his reputation as a dramatic actor grew stronger, and he became known for a sharp intelligence and dignified style. Although his good looks diminished, reviewers felt that he used his florid and weatherbeaten face well in evoking grandeur and self-assuredness in such roles as generals, priests and his familiar Shakespearean parts. In 1956, his wife Margaret Delamere died; she was survived by their daughter Drusilla. Shaw began a romantic relationship in the mid-1950s with Joan Ingpen, the well-known classical music and opera talent agent who had previously represented him. The two were romantically involved, to the point that she took his surname, until Shaw's death. During the 1980s, however, Shaw also had a brief relationship with Harriet Ravenscroft, the mother of the disc jockey John Peel, whom he met while performing at Ludlow Castle at Ludlow. He split his time between Ingpen and Ravenscroft on a four-day rotating basis to which both women consented. Although Peel got along with Shaw and said he made his mother happy, he said he did not feel comfortable with the arrangement. He felt it disrupted his mother's friendships and prospects for a more stable relationship.
In 1965, British theatre director William Gaskill was named artistic director of the Royal Court Theatre, where he hoped to re-establish a repertoire. He approached Shaw, who had made his acting début at the Royal Court Theatre as a youth, and Shaw agreed to return. There he delivered several performances over the next year, including General Conrad von Hotzendorf in John Osborne's A Patriot for Me; various roles in Ann Jellicoe's Shelley; Sir Francis Harker in N.F. Simpson's The Cresta Run and Pte Atterclife in John Arden's Serjeant Musgrave's Dance.
Royal Shakespeare Company
In 1966, Shaw joined the Royal Shakespeare Company, where he spent the next decade of his career and eventually became an associate artist. He mostly appeared in Shakespeare plays, including the title role in Cymbeline, Edmund of Langley in Richard II, the King in All's Well That Ends Well, Ulysses in Troilus and Cressida, and Leonato in Much Ado About Nothing. The Times described his performance in the title role of Cymbeline as "awe-inspiring", and The Independent described his performance as Polonius in Hamlet as "unrivalled in his complacency and sense of circumstance". The Telegraph described his performance of Gloucester in King Lear as "doleful" and his performance of Duncan in Macbeth as "decent". Many of the company's Shakespearean productions at the time were considered interpretive and modern, which drew criticism from some traditionalists, but Shaw defended the experimental nature of the shows and rejected the notion that plays should be restricted to preconceived interpretations.
During his time with the company, he also demonstrated what the Daily Telegraph called a "crusty charm" as Sir Oblong Fitz Oblong in Robert Bolt's children's play The Thwarting of Baron Bolligrew. He was also noted as possessing a gift for dry comedy during this period of his acting career, exemplified by his roles in Maxim Gorky's plays Enemies and Summerfolk. He demonstrated a particular knack for Russian comedy in Jonathan Miller's productions of the Anton Chekhov plays Three Sisters and Ivanov.
In 1978, Shaw earned acclaim for his performance as a judge in the stage debut of Whose Life Is It Anyway? at the Mermaid Theatre. The production won Laurence Olivier Awards for Best Play and Best Actor (Tom Conti). Although 73 years old, Shaw did not let his age slow down his career. During the run of this production a mugger tried to steal his money, but Shaw chased him down, tackled him and recovered his property. Later that year, he was painted in the nude by his nephew, Brian Ocean. During his later years, Shaw suffered a physical disability that made him tremble, which had a negative impact on his television roles, particularly when handling cups or trays of drinks. One of his later television appearances was in The Old Curiosity Shop, a 1979 mini-series based on the novel by Charles Dickens. Around this time, he also voiced the part of Squire Beltham in a radio production of The Adventures of Harry Richmond, which the Daily Telegraph said was "remembered with affection". He lent his voice to several radio performances, both Shakespearean and modern, including protagonist John Tanner in the five-hour Man and Superman by George Bernard Shaw.
Writing career
Shaw wrote Take a Life, his first play, in 1961. He directed a production of the show at London's Mermaid Theatre, where he also played the lead role of the Detective. That same year he played two lead roles in George Bernard Shaw plays at the Dublin Theatre Festival: Mrs. Warren's Profession and Candida. Around this time, he also wrote an outline for a television comedy series about four girls sharing a flat, inspired by his real-life daughter, who was in her early twenties and living in a flat with other girls her age. The series was submitted to the Granada Television company, which expressed interest in the show and said it was one of two under consideration for television. The company ultimately chose the other show, the long-running British soap opera Coronation Street.
Shaw agreed to take certain roles only on the condition that he have complete freedom to rewrite his dialogue. When he appeared in It Happened Here, a 1966 World War II film, he wrote many of his own lines, which the filmmakers later said "gave his dialogue an individual slant which enhanced his performance". He also helped in other aspects of the filmmaking, including casting; he introduced the filmmakers to Fiona Leland, who would be cast as the wife of Shaw's character in It Happened Here. He wrote other plays, including The Ship's Bell, The Cliff Walk, The Glass Maze and Cul de Sac. He also wrote Poems, a collection of his personal poetry, which saw a limited print of 300 editions by publisher Exeter University.
Shaw wrote The Christening, his only novel, in 1975. It centres around Miles Madgwick, who believes that he is bisexual but is too timid to find out through physical intercourse, so he instead describes his most intimate thoughts in his diary. He then meets a married woman named Alice and her son, Rodney; he comes to identify with Rodney's childhood innocence, and in Alice sees a symbol both of his mother and a heterosexual lover. Alice starts to tire of her husband and grow fonder of Madgwick, who experiences mixed emotions in his continued interactions with her and Rodney. One night, Rodney stays overnight at Madgwick's house and, when he takes the boy home in a taxicab, the driver observes their strange behaviour and accuses Madgwick of being a pederast. When Alice asks Madgwick to become the godfather to her new child, the driver threatens to expose Madgwick, creating a conflict between losing his first feelings of intimacy with others or facing humiliation and ridicule at the driver's exposure.
A description in the book cover flap reads, "In this tender, sensitive and blackly comic novel, Sebastian Shaw, the distinguished Shakespearean actor, explores areas of sexual and emotional encounter that are rarely seen and, unfortunately, too rarely understood." Shaw originally planned to call the novel The Godfather, but later said he was glad he did not due to the popularity of Mario Puzo's book of that name. He was said to have been working on another novel shortly after The Christening was completed, but no others were ever published.
Shaw's memoirs were published posthumously in 2016.
Return of the Jedi
In 1982, Shaw was chosen for the small but crucial role of redeemed, unmasked and dying Anakin Skywalker in Return of the Jedi, the third and final film in the original Star Wars trilogy. As in the previous films, David Prowse and Bob Anderson played the costumed scenes, while James Earl Jones and Ben Burtt provided the voice and breaths of Darth Vader. Shaw was cast in a single scene with Mark Hamill, during the moment aboard the second Death Star when Luke Skywalker unmasks his dying father. Since this scene was the unequivocal emotional climax of the film, the casting crew sought an experienced actor for the role. Contrary to popular belief, Shaw was familiar with the previous two Star Wars films and enjoyed them particularly for the visual effects, which he described in an interview with science-fiction film magazine Starlog as "brilliant techniques which, in many ways, were revolutionary, something quite new."
When Shaw arrived at the set for filming, he ran into his friend Ian McDiarmid, the actor playing Emperor Palpatine. When McDiarmid asked him what he was doing there, Shaw responded, "I don't know, dear boy, I think it's something to do with science-fiction." His presence during the filming was kept secret from all but the minimum cast and crew, and Shaw was contractually obliged not to discuss any film secrets with anyone, even his family. The unmasking scene, directed by Richard Marquand, was filmed in one day and required only a few takes, with no alteration from the original dialogue.
When the film was re-released on DVD in 2004, a few changes were made: the unmasking scene with Hamill remained mostly the same, but Shaw's eyebrows were digitally removed to maintain continuity with the injuries Darth Vader suffers at the end of Revenge of the Sith. Shaw's eyes were also digitally coloured to match Hayden Christensen's, who portrayed Anakin in Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith.
Star Wars creator George Lucas personally directed Shaw for his appearance in the final scene of the film, in which he is a Force ghost of Anakin. Shaw's image in this scene was replaced with that of Christensen in the 2004 release. This last attempt to tie the prequel and original trilogies together proved to be among the most controversial changes in the Star Wars re-releases.
Although Shaw's unmasking scene lasted only two minutes and seven seconds and included just 24 words of dialogue spoken by Shaw, he received more fan mail and autograph requests from Return of the Jedi than he had for any role in the rest of his career. He later reflected that he very much enjoyed his experience filming for Return of the Jedi and expressed particular surprise that an action figure was made of him from the film.
Later career
Shaw remained active in his later years; along with fellow Royal Shakespeare Company actors Ian Richardson, John Nettles, Martin Best and Ann Firbank, he engaged in discussions and workshops with acting teachers and students in the early 1980s. Although appearances in films became far less common in his later career, he received much acclaim for his performance as the Cold War spy Sharp in Clare Peploe's High Season at the New York Film Festival in 1987; The San Diego Union-Tribune said Shaw played the role with "endearing, sweet gravity". One of his last performances was in the Christmas season of 1988 and 1989, when he played the wizard in a stage production of The Wizard of Oz at the Barbican Centre. The Times said audiences were "delighted to recognise his honeyed threats from behind the great carapace that disguised the Wizard of Oz". Shaw became an honorary life-member at the Garrick Club, which included such past members as writers Charles Dickens, J.M. Barrie, Kingsley Amis and A.A. Milne; artists Dante Gabriel Rossetti and John Everett Millais; and composer Edward Elgar.
Death
Shaw died of natural causes on 23 December 1994 at the age of 89 in Brighton, Sussex, England. A memorial service was held on 15 February 1995 at St Paul's, Covent Garden, commonly known as the Actors' Church due to its long association with the theatre community. Actors Ian Richardson and Ben Kingsley read works by William Shakespeare, stage actress Estelle Kohler read How Do I Love Thee? by Victorian poet Elizabeth Barrett Browning, actress Sheila Allen read Life by Welsh poet George Herbert and actor Kenneth Branagh read from the works of Canon Henry Scott Holland. One of Shaw's own poems, Gemini, was also read by Alan Ravenscroft. Baritone Stephen Varcoe sang by Johannes Brahms, accompanied by Graham Johnson on the piano, and guitarist Martin Best performed and sang his composition of Ariel's Songs from The Tempest. Shaw was survived by his partner Joan Ingpen, daughter Drusilla MacLeod, sisters Susan Bonner-Morgan and Penelope Harness, and sister-in-law Olga Young.His other long term companion Harriet Ravenscroft pre-deceased him.
Filmography
References
External links
1905 births
1994 deaths
Alumni of RADA
English male film actors
English male stage actors
English male television actors
English theatre directors
English male poets
English male novelists
English male dramatists and playwrights
People educated at Gresham's School
People from Holt, Norfolk
Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve personnel of World War II
Royal Shakespeare Company members
20th-century English male actors
20th-century English male writers
Royal Air Force officers
Male actors from Norfolk
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastian%20Shaw%20%28character%29
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Sebastian Shaw (character)
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Sebastian Hiram Shaw is a supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. He has been frequently depicted as an adversary of the X-Men.
A mutant, Shaw possesses the ability to absorb energy and transform it into his own raw strength. He is the leader of the New York branch of the Hellfire Club, an exclusive secret society composed of mutants bent on world domination, although to the public, he is a legitimate businessman and ordinary human. He once funded the mutant-hunting Sentinel program to keep it under his thumb.
Kevin Bacon played the character in the 2011 film X-Men: First Class.
Publication history
Created by writer Chris Claremont and artist/co-writer John Byrne, Sebastian Shaw first appeared in The Uncanny X-Men #129 (Jan. 1980), during the "Dark Phoenix Saga" storyline. John Byrne based the appearance of Sebastian Shaw on British actor Robert Shaw, who had died in 1978.
Fictional character biography
Sebastian Shaw was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. His power first manifested shortly after he was accepted to engineering school and his father Jacob Shaw died after he contracted an incurable disease. Sebastian Shaw devoted himself to his studies and created Shaw Industries, becoming a millionaire by age 30 and a billionaire by age 40.
Joining the Hellfire Club
Shaw became engaged to a woman named Lourdes Chantel, also a mutant, and was soon initiated into the Hellfire Club thanks to his vast fortune along with Warren Worthington, Jr. (father of Archangel), Howard Stark (father of Tony Stark) and Sir James Braddock (father of Brian and Betsy Braddock), having caught the attention of Ned Buckman, then White King of Hellfire Club's New York Branch. Shaw became part of the Council of the Chosen, earning the rank of Black Bishop. Lourdes did not trust Buckman, and feared that Shaw's ambition and the nature of the Hellfire Club would corrupt him.
Taking over
Lourdes is soon seemingly killed by Sentinels in a battle. Upon discovering that Ned Buckman, the White King of the Council, is supporting Steven Lang's Project: Armageddon and its Sentinels, he executes a coup, using Emma Frost's telepathy to make Buckman kill all the Council of the Chosen, including his own White Queen, Paris Seville, and then himself. Shaw proclaims himself Black King, remakes the Council of the Chosen into his Inner Circle and gathers Emma Frost, Harry Leland and the non-mutant cyborg Donald Pierce as the Lords Cardinal of Hellfire Club. At Shaw's side is Tessa, who, unbeknownst to him, is a spy working for Charles Xavier.
As the leader of the Inner Circle of the Hellfire Club, Shaw starts plans to dominate the world through force, money and power. His connections to top officials of corporations and government, acquired via the Club and through his position as CEO of Shaw Industries, make him a powerful enemy. Shaw becomes a major supporter and builder of Sentinels. This activity brings him into frequent contact with the major players of Project: Wideawake, Senator Robert Kelly and Henry Peter Gyrich, to whom he appears to be an anti-mutant bigot.
Meeting the X-Men
Shaw sets his eyes on the X-Men, scheming to capture and study them for use in breeding an army of powerful mutants for the Hellfire Club. He employs the superpowered assassin Warhawk to plant a bug in Cerebro, ensuring the Hellfire Club would be aware of newly manifested mutants at the same moment as the X-Men themselves, as well as giving them access to secret details of their powers and fighting techniques. However, the Club's operatives prove ineffective at defeating the X-Men in the field, and the first two mutants they locate in this manner are lost.
Now aware of the Hellfire Club's existence, the X-Men infiltrate their headquarters, where they are defeated and captured. However, they escape before Shaw can put them to use. Shaw's control of the Hellfire Club grows more tenuous as Pierce proves to be a mutant-hating traitor to the Club and a new recruit to the Inner Circle, Selene, sets her sights on replacing Shaw as the chairman. The Hellfire Club is forced to battle alongside the X-Men against Nimrod, a Sentinel from the future, and though victorious, two key members perish in the fight. After the battle, the Hellfire Club and the X-Men become allies of sorts, with Magneto and Storm filling the position of White King. Arguing that Shaw's support of the Sentinels is endangering the Inner Circle, Magneto, Selene and Emma vote him out of the Club.
Keeping in power
Months later, Shaw was attacked by his son, Shinobi Shaw, who phased his hand into his father's chest to induce a coronary. Shaw was then supposedly blown up in his Swiss Mountain chalet by a bomb set by his son. Shinobi shortly became the new Black King of Hellfire Club; however, Shaw survived, albeit with a scar on his face crossing his left eye, which was removed successfully by Madelyne Pryor (seemingly a sentient psionic construct of X-Man) using her psionic powers during their affair after his reappearance. Shaw became part of a new Inner Circle alongside Selene, Madelyne and Trevor Fitzroy, a descendant of Sebastian himself in an alternate future.
Shaw's first move upon recovery from the bomb was to contact the mutant named Holocaust, who had crossed over from the "Age of Apocalypse" timeline. In exchange for a new armored containment suit, Holocaust agreed to help Shaw capture X-Force, which he did with ease. Shaw then had Tessa telepathically brainwash X-Force to hunt down Cable, but Cable used his own emergent telepathy to break the conditioning and free his team. Shaw's relationship with Holocaust declined soon after.
Shaw's later exploits included vying for control of the Elixir Vitae, thought to be a cure for the Legacy Virus; associations with the British intelligence agency Black Air and an unnamed time-manipulator; and hunting down X-51, the Machine Man. Then, Shaw was apparently ousted from his position as Black King by Selene, who installed the demon Blackheart in his place. This arrangement did not last long, as Selene and Blackheart were defeated and Shaw has since returned to power.
He attempted to use Lady Mastermind to control Tessa (now called "Sage") and Storm's team of X-Men, who were searching for Destiny's prophetic diaries. Then, after Professor X was "outed" as a mutant, Shaw apparently returned to his capitalist roots and converted the NY branch of the Hellfire Club into a strip club, which was in fact a safe haven for mutants regardless of affiliation. Using telepathic strippers, Shaw gleaned secrets from the minds of his patrons, who come in just to have a good decadent time. Thanks to the aid of his employees, Shaw pretended to be a telepath himself.
After a few months, though, Shaw made a play to become the new Lord Imperial of the entire Club worldwide, and invited Sage to help him. Shaw also invited Courtney Ross (who was actually her evil counterpart Sat-Yr-9) and Sunspot to join him as the White Queen and Black King. All three accepted, but Sage effectively betrayed Shaw when she did not warn him that Pierce might try to assassinate him. Shaw met with the X-Men, claiming to be somewhat reformed, just before Pierce's attack. He was then wounded by Pierce, but remained strong enough to literally knock Pierce's head off. However, he was too hurt to maintain his Club position and was replaced by Sunspot, who is now the current Lord Imperial of the Hellfire Club.
Illusion
Later, it seemed he had joined forces with a new Inner Circle which included Cassandra Nova, Negasonic Teenage Warhead, and Emma Frost/Perfection, the latter of whom had since joined the X-Men. As the story arc continued to unfold, the Hellfire Club made their attack as they each targeted an individual member of Cyclops' team of X-Men. Shaw himself defeated Colossus. In the end however, it is revealed that the entire Hellfire Club was not real, and all were mental images created by Emma Frost's mind, which was infected with a special "programming" by Cassandra Nova in an attempt to revive her. The Shaw duplicate vanished after being defeated by Cyclops.
X-Men: Endangered Species
Shaw appears incognito (with an image-inducer) at a funeral for a mutant boy named Landru. When confronted by Professor X, he merely states that he was paying his respects. Xavier overhears his thoughts of a possible coup against Sunspot during the service. When Shaw notices him watching, he quickly creates a Psi-Shield to hide his thoughts.
Mister Sinister and the Cronus Machine
Some time after this Shaw appears at a Hellfire Club dinner hosted by Sunspot and is alerted to a device left to him by his father exploding elsewhere in the compound resulting in the insanity of two club menials and Shaw asking his manservant for a file labelled "Kronos". After being upbraided over the explosion and deaths by da Costa he is ordered to investigate. Shaw however knows the cause. The explosion in the Hellfire Club was caused by the activation of a machine developed beneath the Alamogordo genetics plant in Las Cruces, New Mexico by Mr. Sinister. In the past Sinister had worked here (disguised as a Dr. Milbury) alongside Brian Xavier, Kurt Marko and Irene Adler who had been gathered for him by Jacob Shaw, Sebastian's father, as they all had the X-gene and Sinister predicted their children would be mutants. Sinister then experimented of these children (including Cain Marko, Charles Xavier and Sebastian himself), imprinting himself on their DNA. Sinister's machine, dubbed the Cronus device, was designed to activate soon after his death and would activate these hidden copies until Sinister could be reborn in one of them. Jacob, wanting to protect his son, created the device in the Hellfire Club from Sinister's notes to alert and protect Sebastian from the Cronus device. Shaw travelled to New Mexico to visit another of the children to confirm his theory, running into Xavier and Gambit who were investigating a hit list with the children's names on it. Following them he is present when they are attacked by mercenaries under the employ of Amanda Mueller, a former associate of Sinister's. Xavier is captured and Gambit and Shaw team up to save Xavier. It is revealed that Mueller wants to house the powers (though not the personality) of Sinister herself and so is assassinating the children, having undergone the procedure herself. She shoots Xavier, who is already struggling to stop Sinister from taking over his body, which allows him to take over. Sinister in Xavier's body stops Mueller but is in turn confronted by Shaw and Gambit who destroy the Cronus device while Xavier casts Sinister out of his mind. With the threat gone, Shaw leaves.
Original Sin
Later, Shaw joins forces with Claudine Renko, a.k.a. Miss Sinister, a female clone of Mister Sinister. Together they manipulate Wolverine into defeating the new members of the Inner Circle, try to take control of Logan's son, Daken, and set up a trap against Xavier. Shaw also attempts to kill Xavier but is stopped by Daken. Shaw is eventually confronted by Wolverine and begins to fight. Shaw's powers initially protect him from being injured by Wolverine's adamantium claws, allowing him to fare extremely well. The ending of the fight takes place off panel and Wolverine appears with his body and claws soaked with blood, which he soon confirms belongs to Shaw.
Dark Reign
During her early days as the White Queen, Sebastian Shaw sends Emma to convince Namor to join the Hellfire Club. Instead, Namor takes her to his kingdom and they begin a relationship. Believing Emma to have betrayed him for Namor, Shaw sends a reprogrammed Sentinel to Atlantis, attacking the two and destroying the kingdom. As Namor confronts Shaw for his treachery, Selene takes telepathic hold of Emma, erasing her memories of Namor, who vows revenge on Shaw. In the present, Emma reveals that her initial battle with Phoenix unlocked her memories of Namor. She makes a pact with him, seducing Shaw and using her telepathy to make Namor believe she has executed him, while secretly telepathically incapacitating Shaw. Per their deal, Namor vows to protect mutant-kind as his own people, while Emma, more determined to fill her role as a leader of mutant-kind, contacts Cyclops to have Shaw captured by the X-Men for "crimes against mutant-kind." Approaching him later in his cell, Emma reveals that she has captured Shaw for Namor and on the basis that the Sentinels he commissioned were ones later used by Cassandra Nova to destroy Genosha. She sentences him to remember nothing but the faces of the Genoshan victims using her telepathy.
Necrosha
Shaw is targeted by Selene along with all those who failed her in her attempt to ascend to godhood. It is revealed that sometime after M-Day he had his son, Shinobi Shaw killed. Selene sends Shinobi and Harry Leland after Shaw and Donald Pierce.
Utopia
Due to Namor's presence on Utopia, Emma realizes that Shaw's continued existence poses a threat to the agreement she had made with Namor earlier. She decides to finally kill him, but her plans are exposed when Shadowcat accidentally picks up her thoughts during a psi-conversation between her and Colossus. While disgusted at Frost's intended actions, Shadowcat offers her a compromise. As she currently exists as a ghost, she is the perfect tool for making Shaw disappear.
Fantomex, Shadowcat and Emma then take him aboard E.V.A., whilst they work out how to dispose of him. Emma wakes Shaw up and asks him to recount the early days of the Hellfire Club. Emma and two other dancers were the closest of friends, when one night, Emma was offered, by Shaw, the position of Queen. The only stipulation was that one of the two girls had to die. She stated she did not care which one was killed and watched as Shaw proceeded to kill both. Present day, Emma starts to question Shaw further when Fantomex, bored with Emma's "woe is me" recounts of her history, drops the floor from under Shaw. Emma goes into a rage at Fantomex, as Fantomex was unaware that Shaw could absorb energy, such as that from hitting the ground from such heights.
Shaw proceeds to engage Frost's group, stating that he would rather die than see Emma go on breathing a moment longer. Helped by a maimed Fantomex, the former White Queen tricks Shaw into allowing her into his mind, and (with a little encouragement from Shadowcat), as opposed to killing him, finds the most landlocked place in his mind, the point safest from Namor's rage, and wipes his memory. Shaw's attitude immediately changes, and he seems to have no recollection of who he is, where he is, or the identities of anyone around him. In response to his asking who she is, Emma Frost simply rebuffs him, and asks him who "he" is, coldly telling him that he always said he was a "self-made man" and now is his chance to prove it. She then leaves with the rest of her expedition, leaving a pondering Shaw kneeling in the mud.
Schism/Regenesis
Hope Summers and the Lights find Shaw, assuming him to be a new mutant. When they extract him and bring him back to Utopia, Cyclops is not exactly happy to see him.
Avengers vs. X-Men
After the Avengers invaded Utopia as part of the Avengers vs. X-Men storyline, Shaw along with the kids in Utopia were taken to the Avengers Academy. It is revealed that Shaw read the file on him and now knows everything about his past although he claims not to remember it. Wolverine distrusts Shaw and insists that he should be imprisoned. Shaw relents and is imprisoned in a cell that absorbs kinetic energy, meaning that Shaw would be unable to break it by building up his own kinetic energy by punching it. Shaw however, asks for books to keep him occupied and uses a book to hit himself for 8 hours straight, allowing him to build up enough energy to break out of the cell and into the storm drain. Hercules, Tigra and Madison Jeffries try to stop him, but are quickly defeated. Elsewhere, the young mutants from Utopia, now joined by Ricochet, Wiz Kid and Hollow, confront the Academy students. Shortly after this, Shaw appears to the teenagers. Before a battle between both parties can become serious, X-23 and Finesse warn their friends that Shaw's body language indicates that he doesn't mean to hurt anyone, but to help the mutant children to escape. After both sides agree that the mutant children shouldn't be confined against their will, they fake a battle in order to justify their escape in front of the cameras at the Academy.
All-New, All-Different Marvel
As part of the All-New, All-Different Marvel, Sebastian Shaw represented Shaw Industries when he attended a meeting at the Universal Bank with Tiberius Stone of Alchemax, Wilson Fisk of Fisk Industries, Darren Cross of Cross Technological Enterprises, Zeke Stane of Stane International, Shingen Harada of the Yashida Corporation, Frr'dox of Shi'ar Solutions Consolidated, and Wilhelmina Kensington of Kilgore Arms where they discussed with Dario Agger about his and Roxxon Energy Corporation's plans to exploit the Ten Realms of Asgard. Sebastian Shaw also saw the arrival of Exterminatrix of the Midas Foundation who knocked out Dario and declared herself a new member of their assembly.
Krakoa
In the new phase of the X-Men, beginning with the dual miniseries House of X and Powers of X, Shaw becomes part of the Quiet Council of Krakoa, a ruling body of 14 mutants who oversee the recent mutant nation of Krakoa. He is also part of the Hellfire Trading Company, responsible for smuggling Krakoa's new remedies through the black market.
During this new phase, he is part of the cast of the Marauders.
Powers and abilities
Shaw is a mutant with the unique ability to absorb all kinetic and thermal energy directed at him and use it to augment his strength, speed, stamina and recuperation capabilities to superhuman levels. He absorbs the energy of any impact he is struck by, including not only direct physical blows, but also the impact of bullets and throwing weapons, and less successfully, concussive energy beams; notably Cyclops' optic blasts. By absorbing successive blows from an opponent, Shaw can surpass the physical abilities of said opponent and then overpower them. His speed is the attribute most dramatically increased by his power; after absorbing enough energy he can attack more quickly than opponents can react. He is sometimes shown to be capable of absorbing the cutting, piercing and thrusting energy from a blade. His powers can enable his body to withstand cutting from adamantium, but only for a short time.
In the past, Shaw has been limited to a certain amount of energy and would lose consciousness when he surpassed his capabilities. Subsequently, however, Shaw has been shown to now be able to take in an indefinite amount of energy without any ill effects. The power he absorbs dissipates over time, and exposure to the elements causes it to drain rapidly. Without any absorbed energy, Shaw is merely a strong ordinary human in excellent physical condition, but regularly works to keep his strength at a superhuman level. In one instance, he was shown to spend time hitting a wall after waking in order to build up his power reserves before starting the day. Shaw also can forgo sleep if he receives enough energy. Often he will have his mercenaries pummel him so that he would not need to sleep for some time.
Shaw also has a successful business acumen and access to sophisticated weaponry. He not only prides himself on his power and the connections it allows him, but on knowing his opponents and how best to defeat them, whether in battle or in business. He also possesses technology that can block telepathic intrusions by Professor X.
Relatives
Reverend Hiram Shaw: Sorcerer Supreme and an ambitious Puritan Reverend during the Salem Witch Trials, 1692.
Sarah Shaw: Hiram's wife. Killed by Dormammu when Hiram refuses to submit to him.
Obadiah Shaw: Son of Hiram and Sarah. He fell in love with Abigail Harkness, much to the disapproval of his father, who suspected her to be a witch.
Abigail Harkness: Obadiah's girlfriend. She is arrested for witchcraft after Sarah's death, though Obadiah escapes and runs away with her. When the two are chased by Hiram, she reveals that she is a true witch. She is presumably related to Agatha Harkness.
Elizabeth Shaw-Worthington: A teenager who fled from England when she was 13 years old. In 1780, she was taken by Lady Grey of the Hellfire Club as her protégé, who wanted to use her to seduce General Wallace Worthington and extract military secrets in order to defeat George Washington. Elizabeth fell in love with Worthington and married him, neglecting her duties to Lady Grey. Worthington is killed by the Hellfire Club, though it is hinted that Elizabeth was already pregnant, making her an ancestor of Warren Worthington III.
Brigadier-General Cornelius Shaw: A member of the Inner Circle of London's Hellfire Club and Sebastian's grandfather. Presumably a King in the London Branch Inner Circle.
Esau Shaw: Cornelius Shaw's son, who was invited to take his father's place in the Hellfire Club. Killed by brother Jacob.
Jacob Shaw: Cornelius Shaw's second son and Sebastian's father, who desired the place offered to Esau in the Hellfire Club. He was mutated by Mister Sinister and given limited shapeshifting powers. He kills his brother Esau after assuming the form of Waltham Pierce. After he fell sick, doctors failed to cure him due to his altered genes.
Shinobi Shaw: Sebastian's son with an unnamed Japanese woman. It was later revealed that Harry Leland was Shinobi's biological father.
Anthony Shaw: Black King of the Hellfire Club in Bishop's future timeline, seemingly Shinobi's son.
William Shaw: Anthony Shaw's son.
Trevor Fitzroy: Anthony Shaw's illegitimate son, Shinobi's grandson.
Samarra Shaw: Leader of Clan Hellfire in the Chronomancer alternate future, perhaps Anthony's sister or daughter.
Reception
In 2009, Shaw was placed on a list of 100 comic book villains as #55 by IGN.
Other versions
Age of Apocalypse
In the Age of Apocalypse, Sebastian Shaw is one of the many mutant aristocrats and a prized servant of Apocalypse. He reveals Angel's connections with the X-Men and other rebels to his master, having seen Angel talking to the former X-Man Gambit.
After the death of Apocalypse and the rise of his successor Weapon Omega, Shaw managed to acquire Warren Worthington III's nightclub "Haven" and remade it into his image and renamed it as Hellfire Club. The nightclub eventually became an international social club for wealthy elites, all the while trying to influence world events, in accordance with their own agenda. When Weapon Omega started resurrecting the formerly deceased Alphas, Shaw and the Hellfire Club's position was once again threatened. Shaw was later sent to prison and is killed by Donald Pierce, who slipped poison into Shaw’s drink.
Captain Britain
In Alan Moore's Captain Britain – Waiting for the End of the World, Sebastian Shaw makes contributions to help Sir James Jaspers in his cause against the superhumans of Britain. He is a pawn in a game of chess played between Merlin and his daughter.
Forever Yesterday
In the alternate universe created by the Sphinx, Shaw fights against tyranny alongside such heroes as Cannonball, Juggernaut and Beast.
House of M
In the House of M, Sebastian Shaw was granted the position of S.H.I.E.L.D. Director after he aligned himself with Magneto and helped him transform Sentinels into mutant-protecting robots using his company's money.
Mutant X
In the Mutant X universe, Shaw is still the Black King of the Hellfire Club, but is enclosed in a protective shell for reasons unknown.
Ultimate Marvel
The Ultimate version of Sebastian Shaw is also the leader of the Hellfire Club, a secret society that worships the Phoenix God. Ultimate Shaw, unlike his mainstream counterpart, never demonstrated any signs of mutant powers. He was killed by the Phoenix.
X-Men Noir
In the Marvel Noir series X-Men Noir, Shaw is a powerful politician who commands the Brotherhood to do his bidding.
In other media
Television
Sebastian Shaw appears in the X-Men: The Animated Series four-part episode "The Dark Phoenix". This version is a member of the Inner Circle Club.
Shaw will return in X-Men '97.
Sebastian Shaw appears in Wolverine and the X-Men, voiced by Graham McTavish. This version is a member of the Inner Circle.
Film
Sebastian Shaw appears in X-Men: First Class, portrayed by Kevin Bacon. This version possesses the additional ability to utilize kinetic energy as sustenance, maintain his youth and life, and fire energy blasts. Additionally, he is fluent in English, German, French, and Russian and previously operated as Nazi scientist Dr. Klaus Schmidt during World War II, during which he attempted to experiment on a young Erik Lehnsherr to tease out his mutant abilities. Sometime after the war, Shaw went on to acquire a helmet from the Soviet Union capable of blocking telepaths' powers and became the leader of the Hellfire Club in the hopes of exploiting the Cuban Missile Crisis to incite World War III in a Darwinian plot to accelerate the emergence of mutants. Ultimately, he is foiled by Moira MacTaggert's Division X and killed by Lehnsherr, who takes the helmet for himself and unites the Hellfire Club's remnants under his leadership.
Video games
Sebastian Shaw appears as the final boss of X-Men.
Sebastian Shaw appears in X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse, voiced by Alan Shearman.
Sebastian Shaw's company Systemized Cybernetics Lab appears in X-Men Origins: Wolverine. This version of the company funded Bolivar Trask's Sentinel program.
Sebastian Shaw appears as a boss in Marvel: Avengers Alliance.
Miscellaneous
Sebastian Shaw appears in "The Legacy Quest" novel trilogy, written by Steve Lyons. He forms a reluctant alliance with the X-Men to face various menaces while waiting for an opportunity to seize control of a possible cure for the Legacy Virus.
Hiram Shaw appears in the Marvel's Midnight Suns prequel short "Salem Sisters" as a sorcerer who tried to harness the Darkholds power to conquer the world. Lilith and the Caretaker fought him for years until the latter sealed him within a church while the former took the Darkhold for herself.
References
External links
Sebastian Shaw at Marvel.com
Sebastian Shaw: The Virtue of Selfishness at UncannyXmen.net
20th-century translators
Characters created by Chris Claremont
Characters created by John Byrne (comics)
Comics characters introduced in 1980
Fictional businesspeople
Fictional characters from Pittsburgh
Fictional characters with absorption or parasitic abilities
Fictional characters with energy-manipulation abilities
Marvel Comics Nazis
Marvel Comics scientists
Fictional linguists
Fictional physicists
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength
Marvel Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Marvel Comics male supervillains
Marvel Comics mutants
X-Men supporting characters
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398191
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20aircraft%20engines
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List of aircraft engines
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This is an alphabetical list of aircraft engines by manufacturer.
0–9
2si
2si 215
2si 230
2si 430
2si 460
2si 500
2si 540
2si 690
3W
Source: RMV
3W 106iB2
3W-110
3W-112
3W-170
3W-210
3W-220
A
Abadal (Francisco Serramalera Abadal)
Abadal Y-12 350/400 hp
ABC
Source: Lumsden.
ABC 8 hp
ABC 30 hp V-4
ABC 45 hp V-6
ABC 60 hp V-8
ABC 85 hp V-6
ABC 100 hp V-8
ABC 115 hp
ABC 170 hp V-12
ABC 225 hp V-16
ABC Dragonfly
ABC Gadfly
ABC Gnat
ABC Hornet
ABC Mosquito
ABC Scorpion
ABC Wasp
ABC type 10 APU
ABC type 11 APU
ABECO
Source: RMV
ABECO GEM
Aberg
Source: RMV
Type Sklenar
ABLE
Source: RMV, Able Experimental Aircraft Engine Co. (Able Experimental Aircraft Engine Co., Altimizer, Hoverhawk (US))
ABLE 2275
ABLE 2500
ABLE VW x 2 Geared Drive
Accurate Automation Corp
Accurate Automation AT-1500
Accurate Automation AT-1700
Ace
(Ace American Engr Corp, Horace Keane Aeroplane Co, North Beach, Long Island NY.)
Ace 1919 40 hp
ACE
(American Cirrus Engine Inc)
Source: RMV
ACE Cirrus
ACE LA-1 19?? (ATC 31) = 140 hp 7RA. Evolved into Jacobs LA-1.
ACE Mk III 1929 (ATC 30, 44) = 90 hp 310ci 4LAI; (44) for 110 hp supercharged model.
ACE Mk III Hi-Drive
ACE Ensign
ACT
(Aircraft Cylinder and Turbine Co)
Source: RMV
ACT Super 600
Adams
Source: RMV
Adams (UK) 4 Cylinder in-line of 140 HP
Adams (UK) 8 V
Adams-Dorman
Source: RMV
Adams-Dorman 60/80 HP
Adams-Farwell
The Adams Company, Dubuque, Iowa / F.O. Farwell, engines for gyrocopters
Adams-Farwell 36 hp 5-cyl rotary engine
Adams-Farwell 50 HP
Adams-Farwell 55 hp 5-cyl rotary
Adams-Farwell 63 hp 5-cyl rotary
Adams-Farwell 72 hp 5-cyl rotary
Adams-Farwell 280 hp 6cyl double rotary
Adams-Farwell 6-cyl double rotary
Adams-Farwell 10-cyl double rotary
Adams-Farwell 14-cyl double rotary
Adams-Farwell 18-cyl double rotary
Adams-Farwell KM 11
ADC
ADC (from "Aircraft Disposal Company") bought 35,000 war-surplus engines in 1920. Initially produced engines from Renault 70 hp spares.
ADC Airdisco
ADC Cirrus
ADC Nimbus, development of Siddeley Puma
ADC Airsix, air-cooled version of Nimbus. Not put into use
ADC BR2
ADC Viper
ADC Airdisco-Renault
Adept-Airmotive
Source: RMV
Adept 280 N
Adept 300 R
Adept 320 T
Ader
Source: RMV
Ader Eole engine (Vapour)
Ader Avion engine (Vapour)
Ader 2V
Ader 4V
Adler
Source: RMV
Adler 50 hp 4-cyl in-line
Adler 100 hp 6-cyl in-line
Adler 222 hp V-8
Adorjan & Dedics
Source: RMV
Adorjan & Dedics 2V
Advance Engines
Source: RMV
Advance 4V, 20/25 HP
Advanced Engine Design
Source: RMV
Advanced Engine Design Spitfire 1 Cylinder
Advanced Engine Design Spitfire 2 Cylinder
Advanced Engine Design Spitfire 3 Cylinder
Advanced Engine Design Spitfire 4 Cylinder
Advanced Engine Design K2-1000
Advanced Engine Design 110 HP (BMW Conversion)
Advanced Engine Design 220 LC
Advanced Engine Design 440 LC
Advanced Engine Design 660 LC
Advanced Engine Design 880 LC
Advanced Engine Design 530 (Kawasaki Conversion)
AEADC
(Aircraft Engine & Accessory Development Corporation)
Source: RMV
AEADC Gryphon M
AEADC Gryphon N
AEADC O-510 (Gryphon M)
AEADC O-810 (Gryphon N)
AEC
Source: RMV
AEC Keane
Aeolus Flugmotor
Source: RMV
Aerien CC
Source: RMV
Aerien 20/25 HP
Aerien 30 HP
Aermacchi
Source: RMV
Aermacchi MB-2
Aero & Marine
Aero & Marine 50 HP
Aero Adventure
Source: RMV
Aero Adventure GFL-2000
AeroConversions
AeroConversions AeroVee 2180
Aero Development
Source: RMV
(See SPEER)
Aero Engines Ltd.
(formerly William Douglas (Bristol) Ltd.)
Aero Engines Dryad
Aero Engines Pixie
Aero Engines Sprite
Aero Engines inverted V-4
Aero Engines inverted V-6
Douglas 750cc
Aero Motion
Source: RMV
Aero Motion 0-100
Aero Motion 0-101
Aero Motors
Source: RMV
Aero Motors Aerobat 150 HP
Aero Pixie
Source: RMV
Aero Pixie 153 cc, 2T
Aero Prag
Source: RMV
Aeroprag KT-422
Aeroprag AP-45
Aeroprag TP-422
Aero Products
(Aero Products Aeronautical Products Corp, Naugatuck CT.)
Source: RMV
Aero Products Scorpion 100 HP
Aero Sled
Source: RMV
Aero Sled Twin Flat, 20 HP
Aero Sport International
Source: RMV
Aero Sport International Wade Aero (WANKEL) 2 Types
AeroTwin Motors Corporation
AeroTwin AT972T
Aerojet
Aerojet produced rocket engines for missiles. It merged with Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne.
Aerojet LR1 (Aerojet 25AL-1000)
Aerojet LR3 (Aerojet 25ALD-1000)
Aerojet LR5 (Aerojet X40ALD-3000)
Aerojet LR7 (Aerojet ZCALT-6000)
Aerojet LR9 (Aerojet X4AL-1000)
Aerojet LR13 (Aerojet X60ALD-4000 / Aerojet 4.104a / Aerojet 4.103a)
Aerojet LR15 (Aerojet XCNLT-1500)
Aerojet LR45 (Aerojet AJ24-1)
Aerojet LR49
Aerojet LR51
Aerojet LR53
Aerojet LR59 (CIM-99 Bomarc booster engine)
Aerojet LR87
Aerojet LR91
Aerojet-General SR19 (Aerojet Minuteman 2nd stage motor)
Aerojet 1KS-2800A
Aerojet 2KS-11000 (X102C1)
Aerojet 2KS-33000A
Aerojet 2.2KS-33000
Aerojet 2.5KS-18000 (X103C1)
Aerojet 5KS-4500
Aerojet 12AS-250 Junior
Aerojet 14AS-1000 (D-5) – RATO unit
Aerojet 15KS-1000 RATO unit
Aerojet 15NS-250
Aerojet 30AS-1000C – RATO unit
Aerojet 2.2KS-11000
Aerojet AJ10
Aerojet AJ-260 – largest solid-rocket motor ever built
Aerojet M-1
Aerojet Hawk motor (for Hawk SAM)
Aerojet Polaris motor
Aerojet Senior
Aeromarine Company
Source: RMV
Aeromarine Company D5-1 (Pulse-Jet)
Aeromarine
Aeromarine AL
Aeromarine NAL
Aeromarine S
Aeromarine S-12
Aeromarine AR-3
Aeromarine AR-3-40
Aeromarine AR-5
Aeromarine AR-7
Aeromarine AL-24
Aeromarine B-9
Aeromarine B-45
Aeromarine B-90
Aeromarine D-12 150 hp
Aeromarine K-6
Aeromarine L-6 130 hp
Aeromarine L-6-D (direct drive)
Aeromarine L-6-G (geared)
Aeromarine L-8 192 hp
Aeromarine RAD
Aeromarine T-6
Aeromarine U-6
Aeromarine U-6-D
Aeromarine U-8
Aeromarine U-8-873
Aeromarine U-8D
Aeromarine 85 hp 1914
Aeromarine 90hp
Aeromarine 100 hp V-8
Aeromax
Source: RMV
Aeromax 100 I-F-B
Aeromax 100 L-D
Aeromotion
See: AMI
Aeromotor
(Detroit Aeromotor. Const. Co)
Source: RMV
Aeromotor 30 hp 4-cyl in-line
Aeromotor 75 hp 6-cyl in-line
Aeronamic
Source: RMV
Aeronamic ATS
Aeronautical Engineering Co.
Source: RMV
Aeronautical Engineering 9-cyl radial 200 HP
Aeronca
Aeronca E-107 (O-107)
Aeronca E-113 (O-113)
Aeroplane Motors Company
(Aeroplane Motors)
Source: RMV
Aeroplane 59 hp V-8
Aeroprotech
Source: RMV
Aeroprotech VW 2.3
Aerosila
Source: RMV
Aerosila TA-4 FE
Aerosila 6 A/U
Aerosila 8 N/K
Aerosila 12
Aerosila 12-60
Aerosila 14 (-032,-130,-35)
Aerosila 18-100 (-200)
GTTP-300
Aerosport
Aerosport-Rockwell LB600
Aerostar
Source: RMV
Aerostar M14P
Aerostar M14V-26
Aerotech engines
Source: RMV
Aerotech 2 Cylinder 2T
Aerotech-PL
Source: RMV
Aerotech-PL EA81, Subaru conversion
Aerotech-PL VW conversion
Aerotech-PL BMW conversion
Aerotech-PL Suzuki conversion
Aerotech-PL Guzzi conversion
Aerotechnik
Source: RMV
Aerotechnik Tatra-100
Aerotechnik Tatra-102
Aerotechnik Hirth (Lic)
Aerotechnik Mikron (Lic)
Aerotechnik Tatra-714 (VW)
Aerotek
Source: RMV
Aerotek Mazda RX-7 (conversion)
AES
(See Rev-Air)
Affordable Turbine Power
Source: RMV
Affordable Turbine Power Model 6.5
AFR
Source: RMV
AFR BMW Conversion
AFR R 100 70/80 hp
AFR R 1100D 90/100 hp
AFR R 1100S 98 hp
AFR R 1150RT 95 hp
AFR R 1200GS 100 hp
Agilis
(Agilis Engines)
Sources: RMV
Agilis TF-800
Agilis TF-1000
Agilis TF-1200
Agilis TF-1400
Agilis TF-1500
Agilis TJ-60 (MT-60)
Agilis TJ-75
Agilis TJ-80
Agilis TJ-400
Agusta
Agusta GA.40
Agusta GA.70
Agusta GA.140
Agusta A.270
Turbomeca-Agusta TA.230
Ahrbecker Son and Hankers
Source: RMV
Ahrbecker Son and Hankers 10 HP
Ahrbecker Son and Hankers 20 HP
Ahrbecker Son and Hankers 1 Cylinder – vapor
AIC
(Aviation Ind. China. See Catic and Carec)
Aichi
Source:Gunston 1989 except where noted.
Aichi AC-1
Aichi Atsuta (Atsuta 31) – Licence-builtDaimler-Benz DB 601A for IJN
Aichi AE1A (Atsuta 21)
Aichi AE1P (Atsuta 32)
Aichi Ha-70 (Coupled Atsuta 30s)
AICTA
(AICTA Design Work, Prague, Czech Republic)
AICTA LMD 416-00R
Aile Volante
Aile Volante C.C.2
Aile Volante C.C.4
Air Repair Incorporated
Source: RMV
(Jacobs Licence)
Air Repair Incorporated L-4
Air Repair Incorporated L-5
Air Repair Incorporated L-6
(Jacobs-Page Licence)
Air Repair Incorporated R755
Air Ryder
Source: RMV
Air Ryder Subaru EA-81 (Conversion)
Air Technical Arsenal
Source: RMV
Air Technical Arsenal TSU-11
Air Technical Arsenal TR-30
Air-Craft Engine Corp
Source: RMV
Air-Craft Engine Corp LA-1
Aircat
(Detroit Aircraft Eng. Corp.)
Source: RMV
Aircat Radial 5 cylinders
Aircooled Motors
See: Franklin
Aircraft Engine Co
(Aircraft Engine Co Inc, Oakland, CA)
Aircraft 1911 80 hp
Aircraft & Ind. Motor Corp
(See Schubert)
AiResearch
See: Garrett, Allied Signal and Honeywell
Airex
Airex Rx2
Airex Rx10
Airmotive-Perito
See: Adept-Airmotive
Airship Aircraft Engine Company
Airship A-Tech 100 Diesel
Airtrike
(AirTrike GmbH i.L., Berlin, Germany)
Airtrike 850ti
AISA
Source: RMV
Ramjet on rotor
Aixro
Source: RMV
Aixro XF-40
Aixro XH-40
Aixro XP-40
Aixro XR-30
Aixro XR-40
Aixro XR-50
Ajax
Source: RMV
Ajax 7-cyl rotary
Ajax 6-cyl radial (2 rows of 3 cyls.), 80 HP
Akkerman
Akkerman Model 235 30 HP, special fuel
Akron
Funk E200
Funk E4L
Albatross
(Albatross Co Detroit)
Albatross 50 hp 6-cyl radial
Albatross 100 hp 6-cyl radial
Aldasoro
Aldasoro aero engine
Alexander
Alexander 4-cyl
Alexanderradial 5-cyl
Alfa Romeo
Societa per Azioni Alfa Romeo
Romeo 600 hp V-12
Alfa Romeo V-6 diesel
Alfa Romeo V-12 diesel
Alfa Romeo D2
Alfa Romeo 100 or RA.1100
Alfa Romeo 101 or RA.1101
Alfa Romeo 110/111
Alfa Romeo 115/116
Alfa Romeo 121
Alfa Romeo 122
Alfa Romeo 125/126/127/128/129/131
Alfa Romeo 135/136
Alfa Romeo 138 R.C.23/65
RA.1000 Monsone – licensed Daimler-Benz DB 601
Alfa Romeo RA.1050
Alfa Romeo RA.1100 or AR.100
Alfa Romeo RA.1101 or AR.101
Alfa Romeo AR.318
Alfa Romeo Dux
Alfa Romeo Jupiter – licensed Bristol Jupiter
Alfa Romeo Lynx/Lince – licensed Armstrong Siddeley Lynx
Alfa Romeo Mercury
Alfa Romeo Pegasus
Alfaro
Alfaro baby engine
Alfaro 155 hp 4-cyl barrel engine
Allen
Allen O-675
Alliance
(Aubrey W. Hess/Alliance Aircraft Corporation)
Hess Warrior
Allied
Allied Monsoon Licensed manufacturer of French Règnier 4L
AlliedSignal
AlliedSignal TPE-331
Garrett TPF351
AlliedSignal LTS101
AlliedSignal ALF502/LF507
Allis-Chalmers
Source: Gunston
Allis-Chalmers J36
Allison
Allison V-1410 – Liberty L-12
Allison V-1650 – Liberty L-12
Allison V-1710
Allison V-3420
Allison X-4520
Allison 250 (T63)(T703)
Allison 252
Allison 504
Allison 545
Allison 550
Pratt & Whitney/Allison 578-DX
Allison J33 (Allison 400)
Allison J35 (Allison 450)
Allison J56
Allison J71
Allison J89
Allison J102
Allison T38
Allison T39
Allison T40 (Allison 500, 503)
Allison T44
Allison T54
Allison T56 (501-D)
Allison T61
Allison T63
Allison T71
Allison T78
Allison T80
Allison T406 (AE1107)
Allison T701 (Allison 501-M62)
Allison T703 (Allison 250)
Allison TF32
Allison TF41 (development of Rolls-Royce Spey)
Allison GMA 200
Allison GMA 500
Allison AE3010
Allison AE3012
Allison PD-37 Pyrodyne
Almen
Almen A-4
Alvaston
Alvaston 20 hp 2-cyl opposed
Alvaston 30 hp 2-cyl opposed
Alvaston 50 hp 4-cyl opposed
Alvis
Alvis Alcides
Alvis Alcides Major
Alvis Leonides
Alvis Leonides Major
Alvis Maeonides Major
Alvis Pelides
Alvis Pelides Major
American Cirrus Engine
See: ACE
American Engineering Corporation
Source: RMV
ACE Keane
American Helicopter
American Helicopter PJ49 Pulsejet
American Helicopter XPJ49-AH-3
American Motor & Aviation Co
American 1911 rotary
American S-5 radial
AMCEL
(AMCEL Propulsion Company)
AMCEL controllable solid fuel rocket
AMI
(AeroMotion Inc.)
AeroMotion Twin
AeroMotion O-100 Twin
AeroMotion O-101 Twin
AMT Netherlands
(Aviation Microjet Technology)
AMT Olympus
AMT Titan
AMT Lynx
AMT USA
(AMT USA, LLC, Cincinnati)
AMT-450
A.M.U.A.L
(Établissement A.M.U.A.L)
A.M.U.A.L M.J.5 65° V-8 350 hp
A.M.U.A.L M.J.6 90° V-8 400 hp
A.M.U.A.L M.J.7 90° V-8 600 hp
Angle
Angle 100 hp Radial
Ansaldo
Ansaldo San Giorgio 4E-145 6I 300 hp
Ansaldo San Giorgio 4E-150 6I 300 hp
Ansaldo San Giorgio 4E-284 V-12 450 hp
Ansaldo San Giorgio 4E-290 V-12 550 hp
Antoinette
Source:Gunston
Antoinette 32 hp V-8
Antoinette 46 hp?
Antoinette 64 hp V-16
Antoinette 67hp V-8
Antoinette 165 hp V-16
Antoinette 134 hp V-8
Antoinette 55 hp V-8
Antoinette V-32
Anzani
For British Anzani products see: British Anzani
Source:
Air-cooled Anzani engines
Anzani V-2
Anzani 3-cylinder fan engines
Anzani 14 hp
Anzani 15 hp
Anzani 24.5 hp
Anzani 31.6 hp
Anzani 42.3 hp
Anzani 10-12 hp
Anzani 12-15 hp
Anzani 25-30 hp
Anzani 30-35 hp
Anzani 40-45 hp
Anzani 45-50 hp
Anzani 30hp 3-cyl radial
Anzani 45 hp 5-cyl radial
Anzani 60 hp 5-cyl radial
Anzani 6-cylinder
Anzani 40-45 hp radial
Anzani 50-60 hp radial
Anzani 70 hp radial
Anzani 80 hp radial
Anzani 95 hp 7-cyl radial
Anzani 10-cylinder
Anzani 60-70 hp radial
Anzani 100-110 hp radial
Anzani 95-100 hp radial
Anzani 125 hp radial
Anzani 125 hp radial
Anzani 200 hp radial
Anzani 100 hp 14-cyl radial
Anzani 150-160 hp 14-cyl radial
Anzani 20 200 hp 20-cyl radial
Water-cooled Anzani engines
Anzani 30-32 hp V-4
Anzani 56-70 hp V-4
Anzani 600-700 hp 20-cyl radial In-line radial 10 banks of 2 cylinders
Anzani W-6
Anzani 6A3 (6-cyl radial 60 hp)
ARDEM
(Avions Roger Druine Engines M)
Ardem 4 CO2
Ares
(Ares ltd., Finland)
Ares diesel Cirrus
Argus Motoren
Source:Gunston except where noted
Argus Type I ("50hp") – 4-cyl. 50-70 hp )
Argus Type II (4-cyl. 100 hp )
Argus Type III (aka Argus 110 hp) – 6-cyl )
Argus Type IV (aka 140/150 hp) – 4-cyl. 140 hp )
Argus Type V (6-cyl. 140 hp )
Argus Type VI (6-cyl. 140 hp )
Argus Type VII (6-cyl. 115-130 hp )
Argus Type VIII (6-cyl. 190 hp )
Argus As I 4-cylinder, 100-hp, year 1913
Argus As II, 6-cylinder, 120-hp, year 1914
Argus As III 6-cylinder upright inline
Argus As 5 24-cylinder in-line radial (6 banks of four cylinders)
Argus As VI 700 hp V-12
Argus As VIA
Argus As 7 9R 700 hp
Argus As 8 4-cylinder inverted inline
Argus As 10 8-cylinder inverted V
Argus As 12 16H 550 hp
Argus As 16 4-cylinder horizontally-opposed 35 hp
Argus As 17
Argus As 014 (aka "Argus 109-014") – pulse jet engine for V-1 flying bomb and Tornado boat
Argus As 044
Argus As 16 4-cylinder inverted inline 40 hp
Argus As 17 6-cylinder inverted inline 225 hp / 285 hp
Argus As 401 development and renumbering of the As 10
Argus As 402
Argus As 410 12-cylinder inverted V
Argus As 411 12-cylinder inverted V
Argus As 412 24-cylinder H-block, prototyped
Argus As 413 – similar to 412, never built
Argus 109-044
Argus 115 hp 6-cylinder upright inline
Argus 130 hp 6-cylinder upright inline
Argus 145 hp 6-cylinder upright inline
Argus 190 hp 6-cylinder upright inline
Argylls
Argyll aircraft engine
Armstrong Siddeley
Armstrong Siddeley was formed by purchase of Siddeley-Deasy in 1919.
Piston Engines
Armstrong Siddeley Terrier
Armstrong Siddeley Mastiff
Armstrong Siddeley Boarhound
Armstrong Siddeley Cheetah
Armstrong Siddeley Civet
Armstrong Siddeley Cougar
Armstrong Siddeley Deerhound
Armstrong Siddeley Genet
Armstrong Siddeley Genet Major
Armstrong Siddeley Hyena
Armstrong Siddeley Jaguar
Armstrong Siddeley Leopard
Armstrong Siddeley Lynx
Armstrong Siddeley Mongoose
Armstrong Siddeley Ounce
Armstrong Siddeley Panther
Armstrong Siddeley Puma – originally the Siddeley Puma
Armstrong Siddeley Serval
Armstrong Siddeley Tiger
Armstrong Siddeley Wolfhound – paper project of developed Deerhound
Gas turbines
Armstrong Siddeley Adder
Armstrong Siddeley ASX
Armstrong Siddeley Double Mamba
Armstrong Siddeley Mamba
Armstrong Siddeley Python
Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire
Armstrong Siddeley Viper
Rocket engines
Armstrong Siddeley Alpha
Armstrong Siddeley Beta
Armstrong Siddeley Delta
Armstrong Siddeley Gamma
Armstrong Siddeley Screamer
Armstrong Siddeley Snarler
Armstrong Siddeley Spartan
Armstrong Siddeley Stentor
Armstrong Whitworth
Armstrong Whitworth 1918 30° V-12
Arrow SNC
Arrow 250
Arrow 270 AC
Arrow 500
Arrow 1000
Arsenal
Source:Gunston
Arsenal 213
Arsenal 12H
Arsenal 12H-Tandem
Arsenal 12K
Arsenal 24H
Arsenal 24H-Tandem
Asahina
Asahina 9-cyl 100 hp rotary
Ashmusen
(Ashmusen Manufacturing Company)
Ashmusen 1908 60 hp 8HOA
Ashmusen 1908 105 hp 12HOA
Aspin
(F.M. Aspin & Company)
Aspin Flat-Four
Aster
Aster 51 hp 4-cylinder-line
Astrodyne
(Astrodyne Inc.)
Astrodyne 16NS-1000
Astrodyne XM-34 (ZELL booster)
ATAR
(Atelier Technique Aéronautique de Rickenbach – pre SNECMA take-over)
ATAR 101
ATAR 103
ATAR 104 (Vulcain)
ATAR 201
ATAR 202
ATAR 203
Atwood
(Atwood Aeronautic Company, Williamsport, PA / Harry N. Atwood)
Atwood 120-180 hp V-12 ( bore x stroke
Atwood M-1 (1916)
Atwood M-2 (1916)
Atwood Twin Six
Aubier & Dunne
Data from:Italian Civil & Military Aircraft 1930–1945
Aubier & Dunne 2-cyl 17 hp
Aubier & Dunne 3-cyl
Aubier-Dunne V.2D
Austin
Austin V-12
Austin rotary engine
Austro-Daimler
Source:Gunston
Austro-Daimler 35-40 hp 4-cyl. (35-40 hp )
Austro-Daimler 65-70 hp 4-cyl. (65-70 hp )
Austro-Daimler 90hp 6-cyl. (90 hp )
Austro-Daimler 120hp 6-cyl. (120 hp )
Austro-Daimler 160hp 6-cyl.
Austro-Daimler 185hp 6-cyl.
Austro-Daimler 200hp 6-cyl. (200 hp )
Austro-Daimler 210hp 6-cyl.
Austro-Daimler 225hp 6-cyl.
Austro-Daimler 300 hp V-12
Austro-Daimler 360 hp 6-cyl (360 hp )
Austro-Daimler 400 hp V-12 (400 hp )
Austro-Daimler D-35 (400 hp )
Austro Engine
Austro Engine E4 (AE 300)
Austro Engine AE50R
Austro Engine AE75R
Austro Engine AE80R
Austro Engine AE500
Austro Engine GIAE110R
Auto Diesels
Auto Diesels STAD A250
Auto Diesels STAD A260
Auto Diesels LPI Mk.12A/L
Auto Diesels LPI Mk.12A/T
Auto Diesels LPI Mk.12A/D
Auto Diesels GT15
Auto Diesels 7660.001.020
Ava
(L'Agence General des Moteurs Ava)
Ava 4A
Avco Lycoming
See:Lycoming
Avia
Aviadvigatel
Aviadvigatel PD-14
Aviadvigatel PS-90
Aviatik
Argus engines sold in France under the brand name 'Aviatik' by Automobil und Aviatik AG
Aviatik 70hp 4-cyl in-line
Aviatik 100hp 4-cyl in-line
Aviatik 150hp 4-cyl in-line
A.V. Roe
A.V. Roe 20 hp 2-cyl.
Avro
Avro Alpha
Avro Canada
Avro Chinook
Avro Iroquois
Avro Orenda
Avro P.35 Waconda
Axelson
Axelson A-7-R 115 hp
Axelson-Floco B 150 hp
Axial Vector Engine Corporation
Dyna-Cam
Aztatl
Aztatl 3-cyl radial
Aztatl 6-cyl 80 hp radial
Aztatl 10-cyl radial
B
Bailey
Bailey C-7-R "Bull's Eye" 1927 = 140 hp 7RA.
Bailey Aviation
Bailey B200
Bailey Hornet
Bailey V5 engine
Baradat–Esteve
(Claudio Baradat Guillé & Carlos Esteve)
Baradat toroidal engine
Basse und Selve
Basse und Selve BuS. 120 hp ( 120-130 hp)
Basse und Selve BuS.III 150 hp
Basse und Selve BuS.IV ( / 260 hp / 270 hp)
Basse und Selve BuS.IVa 300 hp
Bates
Data from:
Bates 29 hp V-4
Bayerische
(Bayerische Motoren Gesellschaft)
Bayerische 7-cyl 50 hp rotary
Beardmore
Source: Lumsden
Beardmore 90 hp ()
Beardmore 120 hp
Beardmore 160 hp
Beardmore Pacific
Beardmore Simoon
Beardmore Cyclone
Beardmore Tornado
Beardmore 12-cyl opposed diesel
Beardmore Typhoon
Galloway Adriatic
Galloway Atlantic
Béarn
Construction Mécanique du Béarn/Société de Construction et d'Exploitation de Matériels et de Moteurs
Béarn 6
Béarn 12A
Béarn 12B
Beatty
Beatty 40 hp 4-cyl.()
Beatty 50 hp 4-cyl.()
Beatty 60 hp 4-cyl. (geared 0.66:1 )
Beatty 80 hp 8-cyl. V-8 ()
Beck
Beck 1910 toroidal engine
Beck 35 hp 4cyl toroidal engine
Beck 50 hp 4cyl toroidal engine
Beck 75 hp 4cyl toroidal engine
Beecher
(B.L. Beecher Company, New Haven, Connecticut)
Beecher 8HOA
Bell Aerosystems Company
Bell Model 117
Bell Model 8001
Bell Model 8048
Bell Model 8081
Bell Model 8096
Bell Model 8096-39
Bell Model 8096A
Bell Model 8096B
Bell Model 8096L
Bell Model 8247
Bell Model 8533
Bell LR67
Bell XLR-81
Bell XLR-81-BA-3
Bell XLR-81-BA-5
Bell XLR-81-BA-7
Bell XLR-81-BA-11
Bell XLR-81-BA-13
Bell Hustler
Bell Nike-Ajax engine
Bentley
W. O. Bentley
Bentley BR1
Bentley BR2
Benz
Source:Gunston
Benz 195 hp
Benz FX
Benz Bz.I (Type FB)
Benz Bz.II (Type FD)
Benz Bz.III (Type FF)
Benz Bz.IIIa
Benz Bz.IIIav
Benz Bz.IIIb
Benz Bz.IV
Benz Bz.IVa
Benz Bz.V
Benz Bz.Vb
Benz Bz.VI
Benz Bz.VIv
Berliner
Berliner 6 hp rotary helicopter engine
Bertin
Bertin 50 hp X-4
Bertin 100 hp X-8
Besler
See: Doble-Besler
Beaussier
(Moteurs Beaussier)
Beaussier 4-cyl
Bessonov
(A. A. Bessonov)
Bessonov MM-1
Better Half
Better Half VW
Beardmore Halford Pullinger (B.H.P.)
Atlantic
230 hp – built by Galloway and Siddeley-Deasy developed into Siddeley Puma
Binetti
Binetti B-300
Blackburn
Includes engines of Cirrus Engine Division of Blackburn
Source: Lumsden
Blackburn Cirrus – originally ADC Cirrus,
Blackburn Cirrus Midget
Blackburn Cirrus Minor
Blackburn Cirrus Major
Blackburn Cirrus Bombardier
Blackburn Cirrus Grenadier
Blackburn Cirrus Musketeer
Blackburn Nimbus
Blackburn Artouste – licence built Turbomeca Artouste
Blackburn Turbomeca Palouste – Turbomeca Palouste
Blackburn Turbomeca Palas – Turbomeca Palas
Blackburn Turbomeca Turmo – Turbomeca Turmo
Blackburn A.129
Blackburne
Blackburne Tomtit
Blackburne Thrush
Bliss
(E.W. Bliss Company)
Bliss Jupiter
Bliss Neptune
Bliss Titan
Bloch
Bloch 4B-1
Bloch 6B-1
BMW
Source: Gunston except where noted
BMW Sytlphe 5-cyl rotary
BMW III
BMW IIIa
BMW IV
BMW V
BMW Va
BMW VI
BMW VIIa
BMW VIII
BMW IX
BMW X
BMW XI
BMW 003 axial-flow turbojet
BMW 112 12-cylinder, (prototype)
BMW 114
BMW 116
BMW 117
BMW 132
BMW 139
BMW 801
BMW 802
BMW 803
BMW 804
BMW 805
BMW 109-002 (Bramo 109-002)
BMW 109-003
BMW 109-018
BMW 109-028
BMW 109-510
BMW 109-511
BMW 109-528
BMW 109-548
BMW 109-558
BMW 109-708
BMW 109-718
BMW P-3306
BMW P-3307
BMW MTU 6011
BMW 6002
BMW 6011
BMW 6012 (MTU 6012)
BMW 8025
BMW 8026
BMW GO-480-B1A6
BMW-Lanova 114 V-4 9-cyl. radial diesel engine
BMW M2 B15 – 2 cyl. air-cooled boxer
Boeing
Source:Pelletier except where noted
Boeing T50
Boeing T60
Boeing 500
Boeing 502
Boeing 514
Boeing 520
Boeing 540 gas turbine engine (turboprop)
Boeing 550
Boeing 551 gas turbine engine (turboprop)
Boeing 553 gas turbine engine (turboprop)
Boitel
Boitel soleil
Boland
Boland V-8
Bonner
(Aero Bonner Ltd.)
Bonner Super Sapphire
Borzecki
(Jozef Borzecki)
Borzecki 2RB
Borzecki JB 2X250
Botali
Botali Diesel – eight-cylinder air-cooled 118 hp
Bramo
Source:Gunston except where noted
Bramo Sh.14A
Bramo 301
Bramo 314
Bramo 322
Bramo 323 Fafnir
Bramo 325
Bramo 328
Bramo 329 Twin Fafnir
Bramo 109-002
Bramo 109-003
Brandner
Brandner E-300
Breda
Breda 320 hp V-8
Breguet-Bugatti
Breguet-Bugatti U.16
Breguet-Bugatti U.24
Breguet-Bugatti U.24bis
Breguet-Bugatti Quadrimotor Type A
Breguet-Bugatti Quadrimotor Type B
Breguet-Bugatti H-32B
Breitfeld & Danek
Breitfeld & Danek Perun I 6-cylinder 170 hp
Breitfeld & Danek Perun II 6-cylinder 276 hp
Breitfeld & Danek BD-500 500 hp
Breitfeld & Daněk Hiero IV
Breitfeld & Daněk Hiero L
Breitfeld & Daněk Hiero N
Breese
Breese 40 hp 3-cyl radial
Breuer
(Breuer Werke G.m.b.H.)
Breuer 9-091
Breuer 9-094
Brewer
(Captain R.W.A. Brewer)
Brewer Type M Gryphon O-8
Brewer 250 hp O-12
Brewer 500 hp X-16
Briggs & Stratton
Briggs & Stratton Vanguard Big Block V-Twin
Bristol Engine Company (Bristol)
Division of Bristol Aeroplane Company formed when Cosmos Engineering was taken over in 1920. Became Bristol Aero Engines in 1956. Merged with Armstrong Siddeley in 1958 to form Bristol Siddeley.
Sources: Piston engines, Lumsden, gas turbine and rocket engines, Gunston.
Bristol Aquila
Bristol Centaurus
Bristol Coupled Centaurus
Bristol Cherub
Bristol Draco – fuel injected Pegasus radial
Bristol Hercules
Bristol Hydra
Bristol Jupiter – originally Cosmos Jupiter
Bristol Lucifer
Bristol Mercury
Bristol Neptune
Bristol Olympus
Bristol Orion – Jupiter variant
Bristol Orion sleeve-valve
Bristol Orion (BE.25) turbo-prop/shaft
Bristol Orpheus
Bristol Pegasus (radial engine)
Bristol BE53 Pegasus (later, BS53 the Harrier engine)
Bristol Perseus
Bristol Phoebus
Bristol Phoenix diesel radial
Bristol Proteus – turboprop
Bristol Taurus
Bristol Theseus – turboprop
Bristol Thor – ramjet
Bristol Titan – 5-cylinder radial
Ramjets
Bristol BE.25
Bristol BRJ.1 6in ramjet, Initial development model using Boeing combustor.
Bristol BRJ.2 16in ramjet. Scaled up BRJ1 with Boeing combustor.
Bristol BRJ.2/5 16in M2 ramjet. Used on early Red Duster. Known to the MoS as BT.1 Thor
Bristol BRJ.3 16in M2 ramjet. Fitted with NGTE combustor and used on XRD. Rated at at M3, Ø =
Bristol BRJ.4/1 16in M2 ramjet. Used on early Red Duster and Bloodhound I. Known to the MoS as BT.2 Thor
Bristol BRJ.5/1 16in M2 ramjet. Used on Bloodhound II. Became BT.3 Thor
Bristol BRJ.601 16in M3 ramjet. Tested on Bobbin.
Bristol BRJ.701 23in M3 ramjet project study.
Bristol BRJ.801
Bristol BRJ.801 18in M3 ramjet. Initial M3 ramjet developed for Stage 1 Blue Envoy.
Bristol BRJ.811 18in M3 ramjet. M3 ramjet developed for Stage 1 Blue Envoy.
Bristol BRJ.824 18in M3 ramjet. Cancelled with Blue Steel Mk2.
Bristol Siddeley
Bristol Siddeley was formed by Bristol taking over Armstrong Siddeley, rebranding several of the engines. It took over de Havilland engines and, in turn, became a division of Rolls-Royce Limited.
Bristol Siddeley BE.58
Bristol Siddeley Pegasus (BE.53
Bristol Siddeley BS.59
Bristol Siddeley BS.100
Bristol Siddeley BS.143
Bristol Siddeley BS.347
Bristol Siddeley BS.358
Bristol Siddeley BS.360 -ex de Havilland, finalised as Rolls-Royce Gem
Bristol Siddeley BS.605
Bristol Siddeley BS.1001 Bristol Siddeley M2.4 – 4.2 ramjet.
Bristol Siddeley BS.1002 Bristol Siddeley M4.5 ramjet.
Bristol Siddeley BS.1003 Odin Bristol Siddeley M3.5 ramjet, Odin.
Bristol Siddeley BS.1004 Bristol Siddeley M2.3 ramjet.
Bristol Siddeley BS.1005
Bristol Siddeley BS.1006 Bristol Siddeley M4 research ramjet. Became R.2 research engine.
Bristol Siddeley BS.1007
Bristol Siddeley BS.1008 Bristol Siddeley M1.2 ramjet.
Bristol Siddeley BS.1009 Bristol Siddeley M3 ramjet. Modified BT.3 Thor intended for proposed Bloodhound III. Modified nozzle, intake and diffuser.
Bristol Siddeley BS.1010
Bristol Siddeley BS.1011 Rated at 40000 lb (177.9KN).
Bristol Siddeley BS.1012 Bristol Siddeley combination powerplant for APD 1019 and P.42. Used Olympus or BS.100 turbomachinery, bypass duct burning and ramjets.
Bristol Siddeley BS.1013 Bristol Siddeley ramjet study for stand-off missile. Possibly for Pandora.
Bristol Siddeley/SNECMA M45G
Bristol Siddeley/SNECMA M45H
Bristol Siddeley Gamma (for Black Knight)
Bristol Siddeley Gnome – ex de Havilland
Bristol Siddeley Gyron Junior ex de Havilland
Bristol Siddeley Stentor – Ex Armstrong-Siddeley
Bristol Siddeley Double Spectre two stacked de Havilland Spectres
Bristol Siddeley PR.23
Bristol Siddeley PR.37
Bristol Siddeley Artouste – licence-built Turbomeca Artouste
Bristol Siddeley Cumulus
Bristol Siddeley Nimbus
Bristol Siddeley Orpheus
Bristol Siddeley Palouste – licence-built Turbomeca Palouste
Bristol Siddeley Sapphire – ex Armstrong Siddeley
Bristol Siddeley Spartan I
Bristol Siddeley T64 (T64-BS-6)
Bristol Siddeley Viper
Bristol Siddeley BSRJ.801
Bristol Siddeley BSRJ.824
Bristol Siddeley NRJ.1
Bristol Siddeley R.1 Bristol Siddeley research ramjet.
Bristol Siddeley R.2 Bristol Siddeley research ramjet.
British Anzani
For French Anzani engines see: Anzani
British Anzani 35 hp 2-cyl.
British Anzani 45 hp 6-cyl.
British Anzani 60 hp 6-cyl.
British Anzani 100hp 10-cyl.
British Salmson
British Salmson AD.3
British Salmson AC.7
British Salmson AC.9
British Salmson AD.9
British Salmson AD.9R srs III
British Salmson AD.9NG
British Rotary
British Rotary 100 hp 10-cyl. rotary
Brooke
(Brooke, Chicago)
Brooke 85 hp 10-cyl. rotary
Brooke 24 hp 6-cyl. rotary
Brooke Multi-X
Brott
(A. Brott, Denver, Colorado)
Brott 35 hp V-4 air-cooled
Brott 45 hp V-4 water-cooled
Brott 60 hp V-8 air-cooled
Brouhot
Brouhot 60 hp V-8
Brownback
(Brownback Motor Laboratories Inc.)
Brownback C-400 (Tiger 100)
Bucherer
Bucherer 2-cyl rotary
Buchet
Buchet 6 in-line
Buchet 8-12 hp 3-cyl inline
Buchet 24 hp 6-cyl radial
Bücker
Bücker M 700
Budworth
(David Budworth Limited)
Budworth Puffin
Budworth Brill
Budworth Buzzard
Bugatti
Bugatti 8
Bugatti U-16
Bugatti Type 14
Bugatti Type 34 U-16
Bugatti Type 50B
Bugatti Type 60
Burgess-White
(W. Starling Burgess, Rollin H. White / Burgess Company of Marblehead, MA and White Company of Cleveland, OH)
Burgess-White X-16
Burlat
(Société des Moteurs Rotatifs Burlat)
Burlat 8cyl. 35 hp rotary – at 1800 rpm, . . 6 500F
Burlat 8cyl. 60 hp rotary – at 1800 rpm, , , 11000F
Burla 8cyl. 75 hp rotary – at 1800 rpm, , , 11000F
Burlat 16cyl. 120 hp rotary – p at 1750 rpm, , , 22000 F
Burnelli
Burnelli AR-3
Burt
(Peter Burt)
Burt 180 hp V-12
C
CAC
CAC R-975 Cicada
CAC R-1340
CAC R-1830
CAC Merlin
CAE
See:Teledyne CAE
Caffort
(Anciens Etablissements Caffort Frères)
Caffort 12Aa
Cal-Aero
(Cal-aero Institute, California)
Cal-Aero Project
Call
(Henry L. Call)
Call E-1 2OW
Call E-2 4OW
CAM
(Canadian Airmotive Inc.)
CAM TURBO 90
Canton-Unné
Canton-Unné X-9
Cameron
(Cameron Aero Engine Division / Everett S. Cameron)
Cameron C4-I-E1
Cameron C6
Cameron C12
Campini
Source:Gunston
Secondo Campini thermojet
CANSA
(Fabbrica Italiana Automobili Torino – Costruzioni Aeronautiche Novaresi S.A.)
CANSA C.80
Carden Aero Engines
Source:Ord-Hume.
Carden-Ford 31hp 4-cyl.
Carden-Ford S.P.1
CAREC
(China National Aero-Engine Corporation)
CAREC WP-11
Casanova
(Ramon Casanova)
Casanova pulse-jet
Cato
Cato 35 hp 2-cyl 2OA
Cato 60 hp 4-cyl 4IL
Cato C-2 75 hp 2OA
Caunter
Caunter B
Caunter C
Caunter D
Centrum
Centrum 150 hp 6-cyl radial
Ceskoslovenska Zbrojovka
Data from:
Ceskoslovenska Zbrojovka ZOD 260-B 2-stroke radial diesel engine – 260 hp
CFM International
CFM International CFM56
CFM International LEAP
CFM International RISE
Chaise
(Societe Anonyme Omnium Metallurgique et Industriel / Etablissements Chaise et Cie)
Chaise 12 hp V-2
Chaise 30 hp V-4
Chaise 4A 101 hp
Chaise 4B 120 hp (14° inverted V-4)
Chaise 4Ba
Chaise AV.2
Chamoy
(M. Fernand Chamoy)
Chamoy 5-cyl radial
Chamberlin
Chamberlin L-236
Chamberlin L-267
Changzhou
(Changzhou Lan Xiang Machinery Works)
Changzhou WZ-6
Charomskiy
Source:Gunston
Charomskiy AN.1
Charomskiy ACh-30
Charomskiy ACh-31
Charomskiy ACh-32
Charomskiy ACh-39
Charomskiy M-40
Chelomey
Chelomey D-3 Pulse-jet
Chelomey D-5 Pulse-jet
Chelomey D-6 Pulse-jet
Chelomey D-7 Pulse-jet
Chenu
Chenu 50-65 hp 4-cyl DD
Chenu 75 hp 6-cyl in-line
Chenu 90 hp 4-cyl GD
Chenu 80-90 hp 6-cyl DD
Chenu 80-90 hp 6-cyl GD
Chenu 200-250 hp 6-cyl DD (for dirigibles)
Chengdu
Chengdu WS-18
Chevrolair
(The Arthur Chevrolet Aviation Motors Corporation)
Chevrolair 1923 Water-cooled in-line 4 upright
Chevrolair D-4
Chevrolair D-6
Chevrolair 1923 Air-cooled in-line 4 upright and inverted
Chevrolet
Chevrolet Turbo-Air 6 engine
Chinese aero-engines
Chotia
Chotia 460
Christoffersen
(Christoffersen Aircraft Company)
Christoffersen 120 hp 6-cyl in-line
Christoffersen 120 hp V-12
Chrysler
Chrysler IV-2220
Chrysler T36D
Church
(Jim Church)
Church J-3 Marathon
Church V-248 V-8
Cicaré
Cicaré 4C2T
Cirrus
Cirrus I
Cirrus II
Cirrus III
Cirrus Hermes
Cirrus Major
Cirrus Minor
Cisco Motors
Cisco Snap 100
Citroën
Citroen 2cyl Citroën 2CV – 18 hp
Citroen 4cyl Citroën GS 1.2 – 65 hp at 5,700 rpm
Clapp's Cars
Clapp's Cars Spyder Standard
Clément-Bayard
Data from:
Clément-Bayard 30 hp 2-cyl HOW
Clément-Bayard 29 hp 4-cyl in-line
Clément-Bayard 40 hp 4-cyl in-line
Clément-Bayard 100 hp 4-cyl in-line
Clément-Bayard 118.5 hp 4-cyl in-line
Clément-Bayard 117.5 hp 6-cyl in-line
Clément-Bayard 250 hp 6-cyl in-line (for dirigibles)
Clément-Bayard 50 hp 7-cyl Radial
Clément-Bayard 300 hp 8-cyl in-line (for airships)
Clément-Bayard V-16 (for airships)
Cleone
Cleone 1930 25 hp 2-cyl hor opp 2 stroke
Clerget
(Société Clerget-Blin et Cie / Pierre Clerget)
Source:Lumsden except where noted
Clerget 50 hp 7-cyl water-cooled radial (1907)
Clerget 50 hp 4-cyl
Clerget 100 hp 4-cyl
Clerget 200 hp V-8
Clerget 2K 16 hp
Clerget 4V 40 hp 4-cyl in-line water-cooled (1908)
Clerget 4W 40 hp 4-cyl in-line water-cooled (1910)
Clerget 7Y 60 hp
Clerget 7Z
Clerget 9A (Diesel radial engine)
Clerget 9B
Clerget 9Bf British version of 9B 140 hp
Clerget 9C
Clerget 9F
Clerget 9J 100 hp
Clerget 9Z 110 hp
Clerget 11A 200 hp variable compression
Clerget 11Eb
Clerget 11G 250 hp 5.7:1 compression
Clerget 14D
Clerget 14E
Clerget 14F (Diesel radial engine)
Clerget 14Fcs
Clerget 14F1
Clerget 14F2
Clerget 14U
Clerget 16H diesel V-16 (180x200=81.43L)
Clerget 16SS diesel
Clerget 16X
Clerget 18 rotary 300 hp
Clerget 32 diesel
Clerget Type Transatlantique (H type)
Clerget monocylinder powder powdered coal test engine
Clerget monocylinder 2x variable compression
Clerget monocylinder 4x variable compression
Clerget 180-2T V-8 2x variable compression
Clerget 180-4T V-8 4x variable compression
Clerget 100 hp diesel 1928 9-cyl. radial
Clerget 200 hp diesel 1929 9-cyl. radial
Clerget 250 hp diesel 9-cyl. radial
Clerget 300 hp diesel 9-cyl. radial
Cleveland
(Walter C. Willard / Cleveland Aero Engines)
Cleveland 150 hp 6-cyl axial engine 6x
Cleveland
(Cleveland Engineering Laboratories Company)
Cleveland Weger 400 hp 6-cyl 2-stroke radial
C.L.M.
(Compagnie Lilloise de Moteurs S.A)
Lille 6As 6-cyl opposed piston 2-stroke diesel (Junkers Jumo 205 licence built)
Lille 6Brs (600 hp)
CMB
(Construction Mécanique du Béarn)
See: Béarn
CNA
CNA C.II
CNA C.VI I.R.C.43
CNA C.7
CNA D.4
CNA D.VIII
Coatalen
Source:Brew
Coatalen 12Vrs-2 diesel
Colombo
Colombo C.160
Colombo D.110
Colombo E.150
Colombo S.53
Colombo S.63
Combi
Combi 150 hp 6-cyl
Comet
(Comet Engine Corp, Madison WI.)
Comet 130hp
Comet 5
Comet 7-D 1928 (ATC 9) = 150 hp 612ci 7RA.
Comet 7-E 1929 (ATC 47) = 165 hp 612ci 7RA.
Comet 7-RA 1928 (ATC 9) = 130 hp 7RA.
Compagnie Lilloise de Moteurs
See:C.L.M.
Conrad
(Deutsche Motorenbau G.m.b.H. / Robert Conrad)
Conrad C.III – (licence built by N.A.G. as the C.III N.A.G.)
Continental
Continental 140
Continental 141
Continental 142
Continental 160
Continental 210
Continental 217
Continental 219
Continental 220
Continental 227
Continental 320
Continental 324
Continental TS-325
Continental 327
Continental 352
Continental 354
Continental 356
Continental 420
Continental 500
Continental TP-500
Continental A40
Continental A50
Continental A65
Continental A70
Continental A75
Continental A80
Continental A90
Continental A100
Continental C75
Continental C85
Continental C90
Continental C115
Continental C125
Continental C140
Continental C145
Continental C175
Continental CD175 Thielert Centurion diesel engines 2010s
Continental CD300 Thielert Centurion diesel engines 2010s
Continental E165
Continental E185
Continental E225
Continental E260
Continental GR9-A
Continental GR18
Continental GR36
Continental Tiara 4-180
Continental Tiara 6-260
Continental Tiara 6-285
Continental Tiara 6-320
Continental Tiara 8-380
Continental Tiara 8-450
Continental Voyager 200
Continental Voyager 300
Continental Voyager 370
Continental Voyager 550
Continental O-110
Continental O-170
Continental O-190
Continental O-200
Continental O-240
Continental O-255
Continental O-270 (Tiara)
Continental O-280
Continental O-300
Continental O-315
Continental IO-346
Continental O-360
Continental O-368 (4cyl. O-550)
Continental O-405 (Tiara)
Continental O-470
Continental O-520
Continental O-526
Continental O-540 (Tiara)
Continental O-550
Continental OL-200
Continental OL-370
Continental-Honda OL-370
Continental OL-550
Continental OL-1430
Continental V-1650 (Merlin)
Continental V-1430
Continental IV-1430
Continental I-1430
Continental XH-2860
Continental R-545
Continental R-670
Continental R-975
Continental W670
Continental TD-300
Continental Model R-20
Continental J69
Continental J87
Continental J100
Continental RJ35 Ramjet
Continental RJ45 Ramjet
Continental RJ49 Ramjet
Continental T51
Continental T65
Continental T67
Continental T69
Continental T72
Continental Titan X340
Continental Titan X320
Continental Titan X370
Cors-Air
(Cors-Air srl, Barco di Bibbiano, Italy)
Cors-Air M19 Black Magic
Cors-Air M21Y
Cors-Air M25Y Black Devil
Corvair
(conversions and derivatives of the Chevrolet Turbo-Air 6 engine)
AeroMax Aviation AeroMax 100
Clapp's Cars Spyder Standard
Magsam/Wynne (Del Magsam / William Wynne)
Cosmos Engineering
Cosmos Jupiter
Cosmos Lucifer
Cosmos Mercury
Cosmos Hercules 1,000 hp – 18x
Coventry Victor
Coventry Victor Neptune
Crankless Engines Company
(Anthony Michell)
Michell XB-4070
C.R.M.A.
(Société de construction et de Reparationde Materiel Aéronautique)
C.R.M.A. Type 102
Curtiss
Curtiss 250 hp V-12 1649 cu in AB?
Curtiss 25-30 hp
Curtiss A-2 (9 hp V-2)
Curtiss A-4
Curtiss A-8
Curtiss B-4
Curtiss AB
Curtiss B-8
Curtiss C-1
Curtiss C-2
Curtiss C-4
Curtiss C-6
Curtiss C-12
Curtiss CD-12
Curtiss Crusader
Curtiss D-12
Curtiss E-4
Curtiss E-8 100 hp V-8
Curtiss H
Curtiss K
Curtiss H-1640 Chieftain
Curtiss K-6
Curtiss K-12
Curtiss S
Curtiss L
Curtiss O
Curtiss OX-2
Curtiss OX-5
Curtiss OXX-2
Curtiss OXX-3
Curtiss OXX-5
Curtiss OXX-6
Curtiss R-600 Challenger
Curtiss R-1454
Curtiss V V-8
Curtiss V-2 V-8
Curtiss V-3 V-8-8
Curtiss V-4 V-12
Curtiss V-1400
Curtiss V-1460
Curtiss V-1550
Curtiss V-1570 Conqueror
Curtiss VX
Curtiss-Kirkham
Curtiss-Kirkham K-12
Curtiss-Wright
Curtiss-Wright LR25
Curtiss-Wright RJ41 Ramjet
Curtiss-Wright RJ47 Ramjet
Curtiss-Wright RJ51 Ramjet
Curtiss-Wright RJ55 Ramjet
Curtiss-Wright RC2-60 Wankel engine
Curtiss-Wright R-600 Challenger
Curtiss-Wright TJ-32 (Olympus from Bristol, modified by CW)
Curtiss-Wright TJ-38 Zephyr (Americanised Olympus 551)
Cuyuna
See:2si
D
D-Motor
D-Motor LF26
D-Motor LF39
D'Hennian
D'Hennian 10-12 hp rotary
D'Hennian 50 hp 7-cyl rotary
Daiichi Kosho Company
Daiichi Kosho DK 472
Daimler-Benz
Source:Gunston except where noted
Daimler P 12 hp 1896 airship engine
Daimler N 28 hp 1899 airship engine
Daimler 1900 flugmotor
Daimler 1910 4-cyl. 55 hp
Daimler H4L 160 hp airship engine
Daimler J4 210 hp airship engine
Daimler J4L 230 hp airship engine
Daimler J4F 360 hp airship engine
Daimler J8L 480 hp airship engine
Daimler-Benz 1926 2-cyl.
Daimler-Benz F.2
Daimler-Benz 750 hp V-12 diesel
Mercedes-Benz LOF.6 airship diesel engine
Daimler NL.1 – Zeppelin motor
Daimler-Benz OF 2 4-stroke V-12 diesel
Daimler-Benz DB 600
Daimler-Benz DB 601
Daimler-Benz DB 602 V-16 diesel
Daimler-Benz DB 603
Daimler-Benz DB 604 (X-24)
Daimler-Benz DB 605
Daimler-Benz DB 606 (Coupled DB 601)
Daimler-Benz DB 607 (Diesel)
Daimler-Benz DB 609 (IV-16)
Daimler-Benz DB 610 (Coupled DB 605)
Daimler-Benz DB 612
Daimler-Benz DB 613 (Coupled DB 603G)
Daimler-Benz DB 614
Daimler-Benz DB 615 (Coupled DB 614)
Daimler-Benz DB 616
Daimler-Benz DB 617
Daimler-Benz DB 618 (Coupled DB 617)
Daimler-Benz DB 619 (Coupled DB 609)
Daimler-Benz DB 620 (Coupled DB 628)
Daimler-Benz DB 621
Daimler-Benz DB 622
Daimler-Benz DB 623
Daimler-Benz DB 624
Daimler-Benz DB 625
Daimler-Benz DB 626
Daimler-Benz DB 627
Daimler-Benz DB 628
Daimler-Benz DB 629
Daimler-Benz DB 630 W-36(Coupled W-18)
Daimler-Benz DB 631
Daimler-Benz DB 632
Daimler-Benz DB 670
Daimler-Benz DB 720 (PTL 6)
Daimler-Benz DB 721 (PTL 10)
Daimler-Benz DB 730 (ZTL 6)
Daimler-Benz 109-007 (Turbofan)
Daimler-Benz 109-016 (Turbojet)
Daimler-Benz 109-021 (Turbojet)
Daimler-Benz PTL 6
Daimler-Benz PTL 10
Daimler-Benz ZTL 6
Daimler-Benz ZTL 6000
Daimler-Benz ZTL 6001
Daimler-Benz ZTL 109-007
Daimler F7502
Daimler-Versuchmotor F7506
Daimler D.IIIb – (not related to Mercedes D.III)
Mercedes 50 hp 4-cyl in-line
Mercedes 60 hp 4-cyl in-line
Mercedes 70 hp 4-cyl in-line inverted
Mercedes 80 hp 6-cyl in-line
Mercedes 90 hp 4-cyl in-line
Mercedes 120 hp 4-cyl in-line (airship engine)
Mercedes 160 hp 6-cyl in-line
Mercedes 180 hp 6-cyl in-line
Mercedes 240 hp 8-cyl in-line
Mercedes 240 hp V-8 (airship engine)
Mercedes 260hp 6-cyl in-line
Mercedes 650 hp V-12
Mercedes Typ E4F 70 hp
Mercedes Typ E6F 100 hp
Mercedes Typ J4L 120 hp
Mercedes Typ J8L 240 hp V-8
Mercedes W-18
Mercedes Fh 1256
Mercedes D.I
Mercedes D.II
Mercedes D.III
Mercedes D.IIIa
Mercedes D.IIIaü
Mercedes D.IIIav
Mercedes D.IV
Mercedes D.IVa
Damblanc-Mutti
Damblanc-Mutti 165 hp
Damblanc-Mutti 11-cyl. rotary 220 hp
Danek
(Ceskomorarsk-Kolben-Danek & Co.)
Danek Praga 500 hp V-12
Daniel
(Daniel Engine Company)
Daniel 7-cyl rotary
Dansette-Gillet
Dansette-Gillet Type A 45 hp 4-cyl in-line
Dansette-Gillet Type C 32 hp 4-cyl in-line
Dansette-Gillet Type D 70 hp 4-cyl in-line
Dansette-Gillet 100 hp 6-cyl in-line
Dansette-Gillet 120 hp V-8
Dansette-Gillet 200 hp 6-cyl in-line
Darracq
Data from:
Darracq 25 hp O-2
Darracq 50 hp O-4
Darracq 43 hp 4-cyl in-line
Darracq 84 hp 4-cyl in-line
Darracq 12Da 420 hp V-12
Dassault
Dassault MD.30 Viper
Dassault R.7 Farandole
Day
(Charles Day)
Day 25 hp 5-cyl
Dayton
(Dayton Airplane Engine Co.)
Dayton Bear
de Dietrich
de Dietrich 4-cyl in-line
De Dion-Bouton
De Dion-Bouton 80 hp V-8
De Dion-Bouton 100 hp V-8
De Dion-Bouton 130 hp 12B V-12
De Dion-Bouton 150 hp V-8
De Dion-Bouton 800 hp X-16
de Havilland
Sources: Piston engines, Lumsden, gas turbine and rocket engines, Gunston.
Piston engines
de Havilland Iris
de Havilland Ghost (V8)
de Havilland Gipsy
de Havilland Gipsy Twelve – known as "Gipsy King" in military service
de Havilland Gipsy Major – also known as Gipsy IIIA
de Havilland Gipsy Minor
de Havilland Gipsy Queen
de Havilland Gipsy Six
Gas turbines
Halford H.1
de Havilland Ghost
de Havilland Gnome
de Havilland Goblin
de Havilland Gyron
de Havilland Gyron Junior
Rockets
de Havilland Spectre
de Havilland Double Spectre – two Spectre engines mounted together
de Havilland Sprite – for rocket-assisted take off
de Havilland Super Sprite – development of Sprite
de Laval
de Laval T42
Deicke
(Arthur Deicke)
Deicke ADM-7
Delafontaine
Delafontaine Diesel – seven-cylinder air-cooled
Delage
Delage 12C.E.D.irs
Delage Gvis
DeltaHawk
DeltaHawk DH160
DeltaHawk DH180A4
Demont
(Messrs Demont, Puteaux, France)
Demont 300 hp 6-cyl double acting rotary
Deschamps
Data from:
(D.J.Deschampsdesigner – Lambert Engine & machine Co., Illinois manufacturer)
Deschamps v-12 inverted 2-stroke diesel
Detroit Aero
Detroit Aero 25-30 hp 2OA
DGEN
(Price_Induction, Anglet, France)
DGEN 380
DGEN 390
Diamond Engines
Diamond Engines GIAE 50R
Diamond Engines GIAE 75R
Diamond Engines GIAE-110R
Diemech Turbine Solutions
(DeLand, Florida, United States)
Diemech TJ 100
Diemech TP 100
Diesel Air
Diesel Air Dair 100
DKW
(A.G.-Werk DKW, Zschopau S.a.)
DKW FL 600W
Doble-Besler
Doble-Besler V-2 steam engine
Dobrotvorskiy
Dobrotvorskiy MB-100
Dobrotvorskiy MB-102
Dobrynin
Source:Gunston
Dobrynin VD-4K
Dobrynin VD-7
Dongan
(also known as Harbin Engine Factory)
Dongan HS-7
Dongan HS-8
Dongan WJ-5
Dongan WZ-5
Dongan WZ-6
Dodge
Dodge 125 hp 6-cyl rotary Victory
Dorman
(W. H. Dorman and Co., Ltd)
Dorman 60-80 hp V-8
Douglas
Mostly developed from Douglas motorcycle engines
Douglas 350cc
Douglas 500cc
Douglas Dot
Douglas 736cc (some sources 737cc)
Douglas 750cc
Douglas Digit 22 hp at 3,000rpm
Douglas Dryad
Douglas/Aero Engines Sprite/
Aero Engines 1500cc
Douseler
Douseler 40 hp 4-cyl in-line
Dreher
(Dreher Engineering Company)
Dreher TJD-76 Baby Mamba
Duesenberg
Duesenberg Special A
Duesenberg Special A3
Duesenberg H 850 hp V-16
Duesenberg 100 hp 4-cyl. direct drive in-line
Duesenberg 125 hp 4-cyl. geared in-line
Duesenberg 300 hp V-12
Duesenberg A-44 70 hp 4-cyl
Dufaux
Dufaux 5-cyl tandem double-acting in-line engine
Dushkin
Dushkin D-1-A-1100
Dushkin RD-A-150
Dushkin RD-A-300
Dushkin S-155
Dushkin RD-2M
Dutheil et Chalmers
Data from: (some sources erroneously as Duthiel-Chambers)
Dutheil et Chalmers 20 hp O-2
Dutheil et Chalmers 25 hp O-2
Dutheil et Chalmers 37.25 hp O-2
Dutheil et Chalmers 40 hp O-4
Dutheil et Chalmers 50 hp O-4
Dutheil et Chalmers 60 hp O-6
Dutheil et Chalmers 72.5 hp O-6
Dutheil et Chalmers 76 hp O-4
Dutheil et Chalmers 38 hp OP-2
Dutheil et Chalmers 56.5 hp O-3
Dutheil et Chalmers 75 hp O-4
Dutheil et Chalmers 97 hp O-4
Dutheil et Chalmers 100 hp O-4
Dutheil et Chalmers 72.5 hp O-6
Dux
Dux Hypocycle
Dyna-Cam
Dyna-Cam
E
Easton
Data from:
Easton 50 hp V-8
Easton 75 hp V-8
ECi
ECi O-320
ECi Titan X320
ECi Titan X340
ECi Titan X370
Ecofly
(Ecofly GmbH, Böhl-Iggelheim, Germany)
Ecofly M160
Edelweiss
Edelweiss 75 hp 6-cyl fixed piston radial
Edelweiss 125 hp 6-cyl fixed piston radial
Eggenfellner Aircraft
Eggenfellner E6
E.J.C.
E.J.C. 60 hp 6-cyl rotary
E.J.C. 10-cyl rotary
Elbridge
(Elbridge Engine Company)
Elbridge A 2IW 6-10 hp
Elbridge C 3IW 18-30 hp
Elbridge 4-cyl 4IW
Elbridge Featherweight 3-cyl 3IW 30-40 hp
Elbridge Featherweight 4-cyl 4IW 40-60 hp
Elbridge Featherweight 6-cyl 6IW 60-90 hp
Elbridge Aero Special 4IW 50-60 hp
Electravia
Electravia GMPE 102
Electravia GMPE 104
Electravia GMPE 205
Electric Aircraft Corporation
Electric Aircraft Corporation Electra 1
Elektromechanische Werke
Elektromechanische Werke Taifun rakatenmotor
Elektromechanische Werke Wasserfall rakatenmotor
Elizalde
Source:Gunston
Elizalde A
Elizalde A6?
Elizalde Dragon
Elizalde D V
Elizalde D VII
Elizalde D IX B.
Elizalde D IX M.R.
Elizalde D IX C.R.
Elizalde Super Dragon
Elizalde S.D.M
Elizalde S.D.M.R.
Elizalde S.D.C
Elizalde S.D.C.R.
Elizalde Sirio
Elizalde Tigre IV
Elizalde Tigre VI
Elizalde Tigre VIII
Elizalde Tigre XII
Ellehammer
Elllehammer 3-cyl radial
Elllehammer 5-cyl radial
Elllehammer rotary engine
Emerson
Emerson 100 hp 6-cyl
EMG
(EMG Engineering Company / Eugene M. Gluhareff)
Gluhareff G8-2-20
Gluhareff G8-2-80
Gluhareff G8-2-130
Gluhareff G8-2-250
Emrax
Emrax 2
Emrax 207
Emrax 228
Emrax 268
Endicott
Endicott 60 hp 3-cyl 2-stroke
Engine Alliance
Engine Alliance GP7000
Engineered Propulsion Systems
(Engineered Propulsion Systems)
Engineered Propulsion Systems Graflight V-8
Engineering Division
Engineering Division W-1 750 hp W-18
Engineering Division W-1A-18
Engineering Division W-2779
Engineering Division W-2 1000 hp W-18
Engineering Division 350 hp 9-cyl radial
ENMA
(Empresea Nacional de motores de Aviacion S.A.)
ENMA Alcion
ENMA Beta
ENMA Flecha
ENMA Sirio
ENMA Tigre
ENMA A-1 Alcion
ENMA F-IV Flecha
ENMA Flecha F.1
ENMA Sirio S2
ENMA Sirio S3
ENMA S-VII Sirio
ENMA 4.(2L)-00-93
ENMA 7.E-CR.15-275
ENMA 7.E-C20-500
ENMA 7.E-CR20-600
ENMA 7.E-CR.15-275
ENMA 9.E-C.29-775
E.N.V.
E.N.V. Type A
E.N.V. Type C
E.N.V. Type D
E.N.V. Type F/FA
E.N.V. Type H
E.N.V. Type T
E.N.V. 40 hp V-8
E.N.V. 62 hp V-8
E.N.V. 75 hp V-8
E.N.V. 100 hp V-8
E.N.V. 1914 100 hp V-8
E.N.V. 1909 25/30 hp O-4
E.N.V. 1910 30 hp O-4
ERCO
ERCO IL-116
Esselbé
Esselbé 65 hp 7-cyl rotary
Etoile
Etoile 400 hp
EuroJet
Eurojet EJ200
Europrop
Europrop TP400
F
F&S
F&S K 8 B
Fahlin
Fahlin Plymouth conversion
Fairchild
For Ranger and Fairchild Ranger engines see: Ranger
Source:Gunston except where noted
Fairchild Caminez 4-cylinder
Fairchild Caminez 8 cylinder
Fairchild J44
Fairchild J63
Fairchild J83
Fairchild T46
Fairdiesel
Fairdiesel barrel engine
Fairey
None of Fairey Aviation Company's own engine designs made it to production.
Felix – imported Curtiss D-12 engines
P.12 Prince – V-12
P.16 Prince – H-16
P.24 Monarch also known as Prince 4
Falconer
(Ryan Falconer Racing Engines)
Falconer L-6
Falconer V-12
Farcot
Farcot 8-10 hp V-2
Farcot Fan-6
Farcot 100-110 hp V-8
Farcot 30 hp 8cyl radial
Farcot 65 hp 8cyl radial
Farcot 100 hp 8cyl radial
Farina
(S.A. Stabilimenti Farina)
Farina Algol
Farina Aligoth
Farina T.58
Farman
Source:Liron
Note: Farman engine designations differ from other French manufacturers in using the attributes as the basis of the designation, thus; Farman 7E (7-cyl radial E – Etoile / Star / Radial) or Farman 12We (W-12 fifth type – the e is not a variant or sub-variant it is the type designator). As usual there are exceptions such as the 12Gvi, 12B, 12C and 18T.
Farman 7E
Farman 7Ea
Farman 7Ear Les Établissements lipton
Farman 7Ears
Farman 7Ec
Farman 7Ed
Farman 7Edrs
Farman 8V 200 hp
Farman 8Va
Farman 8VI
Farman 9E
Farman 9Ea
Farman 9Ears
Farman 9Eb
Farman 9Ebr
Farman 9Ecr
Farman 9Fbr
Farman 12B
Farman 12Bfs
Farman 12Brs
Farman 12C
Farman 12Crs
Farman 12Crvi
Farman 12D
Farman 12Drs
Farman 12G inverted V-12 350 hp
Farman 12Goi
Farman 12Gvi
Farman 12V
Farman 12Va
Farman 12W
Farman 12Wa 40° W-12 1919
Farman 12Wb
Farman 12Wc
Farman 12Wd
Farman 12We
Farman 12Wers
Farman 12Wh
Farman 12Wiars
Farman 12Wirs
Farman 12Wkrs
Farman 12Wkrsc
Farman 12WI
Farman 18T
Farman 18W
Farman 18Wa ,
Farman 18Wd
Farman 18We ,
Farman 18Wi ,
Farman 18Wirs
Fasey
Fasey 200 hp V-12
Fatava
Source:
Fatava 45 hp 4IL
Fatava 90 hp V-8
Fatava 180 hp X-16
Faure and Crayssac
Faure and Crayssac 80 hp rotary
Faure and Crayssac 350 hp 6-cyl. 2st barrel engine
Fedden
Designed post war by Roy Fedden formerly of Cosmos Engineering and Bristol. Roy Fedden Ltd went into liquidation in 1947
Fedden Cotswold – design only
Fedden 6A1D-325 (185 hp 6HO)
Fedden G6A1D-325 (geared) 6AID-325?
Fiat
Data from:Italian Civil & Military Aircraft 1930–1945
Fiat twin Airship engine
Fiat V-12 400 hp ca. 1919
Fiat SA8/75 (50 hp V-8 air-cooled) 1908
Fiat S.54
Fiat S.55 (V-8 water-cooled 1912)
Fiat S.56A
Fiat S.76A
Fiat A.10
Fiat A.12
Fiat A.14
Fiat A.15
Fiat A.16
Fiat A.18
Fiat A.20
Fiat A.22
Fiat A.24
Fiat A.25
Fiat A.30
Fiat A.33
Fiat A.33 R.C.35
Fiat A.38 R.C.15/45
Fiat A.50
Fiat A.52
Fiat A.53
Fiat A.54
Fiat A.55
Fiat A.58
Fiat A.58 C.
Fiat A.58 R.C.
Fiat A.59
Fiat A.60
Fiat A.70
Fiat A.70 S.
Fiat A.74
Fiat A.75 R.C.53
Fiat A.76
Fiat A.76 R.C.18S
Fiat A.76 R.C.40
Fiat A.78
Fiat A.80
Fiat A.82
Fiat A.83
Fiat A.83 R.C.24/52
Fiat AS.2 Schneider Trophy 1926
Fiat AS.3
Fiat AS.5 Schneider Trophy 1929
Fiat AS.6 Schneider Trophy 1931
Fiat AS.8
Fiat RA.1000 Monsone
Fiat RA.1050 Tifone
Fiat ANA Diesel – six in-line, water-cooled – 220 hp
Fiat AN.1 Diesel
Fiat AN.2 Diesel
Fiat 4001
Fiat 4002
Fiat 4004
Fiat 4023
Fiat 4024
Fiat 4032
Fiat 4301
Fiat 4700
Fiat D.16
Firewall Forward Aero Engines
Firewall Forward CAM 100
Firewall Forward CAM 125
FKFS
FKFS Gruppen-Flugmotor A
FKFS Gruppen-Flugmotor B?
FKFS Gruppen-Flugmotor C
FKFS Gruppen-Flugmotor D
FKFS Gruppen-Flugmotor 37.6 L 48-cyl
Flader
Source:Geen and Cross
Flader J55 Type 124 Lieutenant
Flader T33 Type 125? Brigadier
Fletcher
Fletcher 5 hp
Fletcher 9 hp
Fletcher Empress 50 hp rotary
FNM
FNM R-760
FNM R-975
Ford
Ford O-145
4 Cylinder X engine
8 Cylinder X engine
Ford PJ31 Pulsejet, see Republic-Ford JB-2
Ford V-1650 Liberty V-12
Fox
(Dean Manufacturing Company, Newport, Kentucky)
Fox 45 hp 3-cyl in-line 2-stroke
Fox 36 hp 4-cyl in-line 2-stroke
Fox 60 hp 4-cyl in-line 2-stroke
Fox 90 hp 6-cyl in-line 2-stroke
Fox 200 hp 8-cyl in-line 2-stroke
Fox De-luxe 50 hp 4-cyl in-line 2-stroke
Franklin
Source:Gunston.
Franklin 2A4-45
Franklin 2A4-49
Franklin 2A-110
Franklin 2A-120
Franklin 2AL-112
Franklin 4A-225
Franklin 4A-235
Franklin 4A4-100
Franklin 4A4-75
Franklin 4A4-85
Franklin 4A4-95
Franklin 4AC-150
Franklin 4AC-171
Franklin 4AC-176
Franklin 4AC-199
Franklin 4AC
Franklin 4ACG-176
Franklin 4ACG-199
Franklin 4AL-225
Franklin 6A-335
Franklin 6A-350
Franklin 6A3
Franklin 6A4
Franklin 6A4-125
Franklin 6A4-130
Franklin 6A4-135
Franklin 6A4-140
Franklin 6A4-145
Franklin 6A4-150
Franklin 6A4-165
Franklin 6A4-200
Franklin 6A8-215
Franklin 6A8-225-B8
Franklin 6AC-264
Franklin 6AC-298
Franklin 6AC-403
Franklin 6ACG-264
Franklin 6ACG-298
Franklin 6ACGA-403
Franklin 6ACGSA-403
Franklin 6ACSA-403
Franklin 6ACT-298
Franklin 6ACTS-298
Franklin 6ACV-245
Franklin 6ACV-298
Franklin 6ACV-403 (O-405? most likely company designation)
Franklin 6AG-335
Franklin 6AG4-185
Franklin 6AG6-245
Franklin 6AGS-335
Franklin 6AGS6-245
Franklin 6AL-315
Franklin 6AL-335
Franklin 6AL-500
Franklin 6ALG-315
Franklin 6ALV-335
Franklin 6AS-335
Franklin 6AS-350
Franklin 6V-335-A
Franklin 6V-335-A1A
Franklin 6V-335-A1B
Franklin 6V-335-B
Franklin 6V-335
Franklin 6V-350
Franklin 6V4
Franklin 6V4-165
Franklin 6V4-178
Franklin 6V4-200
Franklin 6V4-335
Franklin 6V6-245-B16F
Franklin 6V6-245
Franklin 6V6-300-D16FT
Franklin 6V6-300
Franklin 6VS-335
Franklin 8AC-398
Franklin 8ACG-398
Franklin 8ACG-538
Franklin 8ACGSA-538
Franklin 8ACSA-538
Franklin 12AC-596
Franklin 12AC-806
Franklin 12ACG-596
Franklin 12ACG-806
Franklin 12ACGSA-806
Franklin O-150
Franklin O-170
Franklin O-175
Franklin O-180 (Franklin 4AC-176-F3)
Franklin O-200
Franklin O-300
Franklin O-335
Franklin O-405
Franklin O-425-13
Franklin O-425-2
Franklin O-425-9
Franklin O-425
Franklin O-540
Franklin O-595
Franklin O-805
Franklin XO-805-1
Franklin XO-805-3
Franklin XO-805-312
Franklin Sport 4
Fredrickson
(World's Motor Company, Bloomington, Illinois)
Fredrickson Model 5a
Fredrickson Model 10a
Frontier
(Frontier Iron Works, Buffalo, New York)
Frontier 35 hp 4-cyl in-line
Frontier 55 hp V-8
Fuji
Fuji JO-1 (Nippon JO-1)
Fuji J3-1 (Nippon J3-1)
Fuscaldo
Fuscaldo 90 hp
Funk
(Akron Aircraft Company / Funk Aircraft Company)
Funk Model E
G
Gaggenau
Gaggenau 4-cyl in-line
Gajęcki
Gajęcki XL-Gad
Galloway
(Galloway Engineering Company ltd.)
Galloway Adriatic 6IL
Galloway Atlantic (master rod)
Garrett
Source:Gunston except where noted
Now under Honeywell management/design/production
AiResearch GTC 43-44
AiResearch GTC 85 Gas generator for McDonnell 120
AiResearch GTP 30
AiResearch GTP 70
AiResearch GTP 331
AiResearch GTPU 7C
AiResearch GTG series
AiResearch GTU series
AiResearch GTCP 36
AiResearch GTCP 85
AiResearch GTCP 95
AiResearch GTCP 105
AiResearch GTCP 165
AiResearch GTCP 660
AiResearch TPE-331
AiResearch TSE-331
AiResearch TSE-231
AiResearch ETJ-131
AiResearch ETJ-331
AiResearch TJE-341
AiResearch 600
AiResearch 700
Garrett ATF3
Garrett TFE1042
Garrett TFE1088
Garrett TFE76
Garrett TFE731
Garrett TSE331
Garrett TPE331
Garrett TPF351
Garrett T76
Garrett F104
Garrett F109
Garrett F124
Garrett F125
Garrett JFS 100-13A
Garuff
Garuff A – aircraft diesel engine
GE Honda Aero Engines
GE Honda HF120
Geiger Engineering
Geiger HDP 10
Geiger HDP 12
Geiger HDP 13.5
Geiger HDP 16
Geiger HDP 25
Geiger HDP 32
Geiger HDP 50
GEN Corporation
GEN 125
General Aircraft Limited
General Aircraft Monarch V-4
General Aircraft Monarch V-6
General Electric
General Electric 7E
General Electric CF6
General Electric CF34
General Electric CF700
General Electric CFE738
General Electric CJ610
General Electric CJ805
General Electric CJ810
General Electric CT7
General Electric CT58
General Electric CTF39
General Electric GE1
General Electric GE4
General Electric GE1/10
General Electric GE15
General Electric GE27
General Electric GE36 (UDF)
General Electric GE37
General Electric GE38
General Electric GE90
General Electric GE9X
General Electric GEnx
General Electric H75
General Electric H80
General Electric H85
General Electric I-A
General Electric I-16
General Electric I-20
General Electric/Allison I-40
General Electric TG-100
General Electric TG-110
General Electric/Allison TG-180
General Electric TG-190
General Electric X39
General Electric X211
General Electric X24A
General Electric X84
General Electric X353-5
General Electric F101
General Electric F103
General Electric F108
General Electric F110
General Electric F118
General Electric F120
General Electric F127
General Electric F128
General Electric F136
General Electric F138
General Electric F400
General Electric F404
General Electric T407
General Electric F412
General Electric F414
General Electric F700
General Electric J31
General Electric J33
General Electric J35
General Electric J39
General Electric J47
General Electric J53
General Electric J73
General Electric J77
General Electric J79
General Electric J85
General Electric J87
General Electric J93
General Electric J97
General Electric J101 (GE15)
General Electric JT12A
General Electric T31
General Electric T41
General Electric T58
General Electric T64
General Electric T407
General Electric T408
General Electric T700 (GE12)
General Electric T708
General Electric TF31
General Electric TF34
General Electric TF35
General Electric TF37
General Electric TF39
General Electric/Rolls-Royce
General Electric/Rolls-Royce F136
General Motors Research
General Motors Research X-250
General Ordnance
(General Ordnance Company, Derby, Conn.)
General Ordnance 200 hp V-8
Giannini
(Pulsejets)
Giannini PJ33
Giannini PJ35
Giannini PJ37
Giannini PJ39
Glushenkov
Source:Gunston.
Glushenkov TVD-10
Glushenkov TVD-20
Glushenkov GTD-3
Gnome et Rhône
Gnome et Rhône except where noted
Im French engine designations —even— sub-series numbers (for example Gnome-Rhône 14N-68) rotated anti-clockwise (LH rotation) and were generally fitted on the starboard side, —odd numbers— (for example Gnome-Rhône 14N-69) rotated clockwise (RH rotation) and were fitted on the port side.
Gnome
Gnome 1906 25 hp rotary – prototype Gnome rotary engine
Gnome 34 hp 5-cyl rotary
Gnome 123 hp 14-cyl rotary
Gnome 1907 50 hp
Gnome 7 Gamma 70 hp
Gnome 14 Gamma-Gamma
Gnome 9 Delta 100 hp
Gnome 18 Delta-Delta 200 hp
Gnome 7 Lambda 80 hp
Gnome 14 Lambda-Lambda 160 hp
Gnome 7 Sigma 60 hp
Gnome 14 Sigma-Sigma 120 hp
Gnome 7 Omega 50 hp
Gnome 14 Omega-Omega 100 hp
Gnome Monosoupape 7 Type A 80 hp
Gnome Monosoupape 9 Type B-2 100 hp
Gnome Monosoupape 11 Type C 190 hp
Gnome Monosoupape 9 Type N 165/170 hp
Gnome Monosoupape 18 Type Double-N 300 hp
Gnome 600 hp 20-cyl radial
Gnome et Rhône
Gnome-Rhône 5B – licence built Bristol Titan
Gnome-Rhône 5K Titan – licence built Bristol Titan
Gnome-Rhône 7K Titan Major – 7-cylinder development of 5K
Gnome-Rhône 9A Jupiter – licence built Bristol Jupiter
Gnome-Rhône 9K Mistral
Gnome-Rhône 14K Mistral Major
Gnome-Rhône 14M Mars
Gnome-Rhône 14N
Gnome-Rhône 14P
Gnome-Rhône 14R
Gnome-Rhône 18L
Gnome-Rhône 18R
Gnome-Rhône 28T
Gobe
Gobe 2-stroke engine
Gobrón-Brillié
(Gustave Gobrón and Eugène Brillié)
Gobrón-Brillié 54 hp X-8 (fitted to 1910 Voisin de-Caters)
Gobrón-Brillié 102 hp X-8
Goebel
(Georg Goebel of Darmstadt) / (ver Gandenbergesche Maschinen Fabrik)
Goebel 2-cyl. 20/25 hp HOA
Goebel Type II 100/110 hp 7-cyl. rotary
Goebel Type III 200/230 hp 9-cyl. rotary
Goebel Type V 50/60 hp 7-cyl. rotary
Goebel Type VI 30/40 hp 7-cyl. rotary
Goebel 170 hp 9-cyl rotary
Goebel 170 hp 11-cyl rotary
Goebel 180 hp 11-cyl rotary
Grade
Grade 16 hp V-4 2-stroke
Great Plains Aircraft Supply
Great Plains Type 1 Front Drive
Green
Green 32hp 4-cyl in-line
Green 60hp 4-cyl in-line
Green 82 hp V-8
Green C.4
Green D.4
Green E.6
Green 150 hp 6-cyl in-line
Green 260-275 hp V-12 1914
Green 300 hp V-12
Green 450 hp W-18 1914
Grégoire-Gyp
(Pierre Joseph Grégoire / Automobiles Grégoire)
Grégoire-Gyp 26 hp 4-cyl in-line (3-cyl?)
Grégoire-Gyp 40 hp 4-cyl inverted in-line
Grégoire-Gyp 51 hp 4-cyl in-line
Grégoire-Gyp 70 hp
Grey Eagle
Grey Eagle 40 hp 4-cyl in-line –
Grey Eagle 60 hp 6-cyl in-line –
Grey Eagle 50 hp 4-cyl in-line –
Grizodubov
(S.V. Grizodubov)
Grizodubov 1910 40 hp 4-cyl.
Grob
Grob 2500
Grob 2500E
Guiberson
(Guiberson Diesel Engine Company)
Source:Gunston except where noted
Guiberson A-918
Guiberson A-980 –
Guiberson A-1020 –
Guiberson T-1020 – (tank engine?)
Guiberson T-1400 – (tank engine)
Guizhou
(Guizhou Liming Aircraft Engine Company)
Guizhou WP-13
Guizhou WS-13 ("Taishan")
Gyro
Data from:
Gyro 50 hp 7-cyl rotary Old Gyro
Gyro Model J 5-cyl 50 hp Duplex
Gyro Model K 7-cyl 50 hp Duplex
Gyro Model L 9-cyl 50 hp Duplex
H
Haacke
(Haacke Flugmotoren)Source: RMV
Haacke HFM 2 – 2cyl. 25/28 hp
Haacke HFM 2a – 2cyl. 35 hp
Haacke HFM 3 – 3cyl. fan 40 hp
Haacke 55/60 hp 5-cyl. radial
Haacke 60/70 hp radial
Haacke 90 hp 7-cyl. radial
Haacke 120 hp 10-cyl. radial
HAL
See:Hindustan Aeronautics Limited
Hall-Scott
Hall-Scott 60 hp
Hall-Scott A-1
Hall-Scott A-2
Hall-Scott A-3
Hall-Scott A-4
Hall-Scott A-5
Hall-Scott A-5a
Hall-Scott A-7
Hall-Scott A-7a
Hall-Scott A-8
Hall-Scott L-4
Hall-Scott L-6
Hallett
(Hallett Aero Motors Corp, Inglewood CA.)
Hallett H-526 7-cyl radial 130 hp
Hamilton
Hamilton DOHC V-8
Hamilton Sundstrand
Sundstrand T100
Hansa-Lloyd
(Hansa-LLoyd Werke AG)
Hansa-LLoyd V-16
Hansen-Snow
(W.G. Hansen & L.L. Snow, Pasadena, CA)
Hansen-Snow 35 hp 4-cyl in-line
Hardy-Padmore
Hardy-Padmore 100 hp 5-cyl rqdial
Harkness
(Donald (Don) Harkness, built by Harkness & Hillier Ltd)
Harkness Hornet
Harriman
(Harriman Motors Company, South Glastonbury, Conn.)
Harriman 30 hp 4-cyl in-line
Harriman 60 hp 4-cyl in-line
Harriman 100 hp 4-cyl in-line
Harris-Gassner
Harris-Gassner 50/60 hp V-8
Harroun
Harroun 24 hp 2-cyl HOA
Hart
Hart 150 hp 9-cyl rotary
Hart 156 hp 9-cyl radial (?)
Hartland
Hartland 125 hp
H.C.G.
(Les Établissements lipton)
H.C.G. 2-cyl HOA
Heath
(Heath Aircraft Corp)
Heath 4-B
Heath 4-C
Heath B-4
Heath B-12
Heath C-2
Heath C-3
Heath C-6
Heath
(Heath Aerial Vehicle Company, Chicago Illinois)
Heath 25/30 hp 4-cyl in-line
Heath-Henderson
Heath-Henderson B-4
Heinkel-Hirth
Source:
Heinkel HeS 1
Heinkel HeS 2
Heinkel HeS 3
Heinkel HeS 6
Heinkel HeS 8 (Heinkel 109-001)
Heinkel HeS 9
Heinkel HeS 10
Heinkel HeS 011(Heinkel 109-011)
Heinkel HeS 21
Heinkel HeS 30 (Heinkel 109-006)
Heinkel HeS 35
Heinkel HeS 36
Heinkel HeS 40 – paper design only
Heinkel HeS 50d
Heinkel HeS 50z
Heinkel HeS 053
Heinkel HeS 60
Heinkel 109-021
Helium
From Flight
Helium 45 hp 3-cyl radial
Helium 60 hp 3-cyl radial
Helium 75 hp 5-cyl radial
Helium 100 hp 5-cyl radial
Helium 45 hp 3-cyl rotary 2-stroke
Helium 60 hp 3-cyl rotary 2-stroke
Helium 100 hp 5-cyl rotary 2-stroke
Helium 120 hp 6-cyl rotary 2-stroke
Helium 200 hp 10-cyl rotary 2-stroke
Helium 120 hp 6-cyl rotary 2-stroke
Helium 200 hp 10-cyl rotary 2-stroke
Hendee
Hendee Indian 60/65 hp V-8
Hendee Indian 50 hp 7-cyl rotary
Hendee Indian 60 hp 9-cyl rotary
Henderson
Henderson 6 hp 4-cyl in-line
Herman
Herman 45 hp
Herman 70 hp
Hermes Engine Company
Hermes Cirrus
Hess
(Aubrey W. Hess / Alliance Aircraft Corporation)
Hess Warrior
Hewland
Hewland AE75
Hexatron Engineering
Hexadyne P60
Hexadyne O-49
Hiero
(Otto Hieronimus – designer – several manufacturers)
Hiero 50/60 hp 4-cyl in-line
Hiero 6 – generic title for all the Hiero 6-cyl. engines
Hiero B
Hiero C
Hiero D
Hiero E
Hiero L
Hiero N
Hiero 85/95 hp 4-cyl in-line
Hiero 145 hp
Hiero 185 hp
Hiero 180/190 hp 4-cyl inline
Hiero 200 hp 6-cyl inline
Hiero 230/240 hp 6-cyl inline
Hiero 240/250 hp 6-cyl inline HC
Hiero 200/220 hp V-8
Hiero 300/320 hp 6-cyl inline
Hiero 270/280 hp 6-cyl inline
Hiero 35/40 hp 2-cyl HOA
Hill Helicopters
Hill Helicopters GT50
Hiller
Hiller 1910
Hiller 30 hp
Hiller 60 hp
Hiller 90 hp
Hiller Aircraft
Hiller 8RJ2B – ramjet for the Hiller YH-32 Hornet
Hilz
Hilz 45/50 hp 4-cyl in-line
Hilz 50/55 hp 4-cyl in-line
Hilz 65 hp 4-cyl in-line
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited
HAL HPE-2
HAL PTAE-7
HAL HJE-2500
HAL HTFE-25
HAL HTSE-1200
HAL HPE-90
HAL P.E.90H
HAL HJE-2500
GTRE GTX-35VS Kaveri
PTAE-7
GTSU-110
Hiro
Hiro Type 14
Hiro Type 61
Hiro Type 90
Hiro Type 91
Hiro Type 94
Hirth
Hirth Motoren GmbH was merged with Heinkel to make "Heinkel-Hirth" in 1941.
Hirth HM 60
Hirth HM 150
Hirth HM 500
Hirth HM 501
Hirth HM 504
Hirth HM 506
Hirth HM 508
Hirth HM 512
Hirth HM 515
Hirth F-10
Hirth F-23
Hirth F-30
Hirth F-33
Hirth F-36
Hirth F-40
Hirth F-102
Hirth F-263
Hirth O-280
Hirth O-280R
Hirth 2702/2703
Hirth 2704/2706
Hirth 3002
Hirth 3202/3203
Hirth 3502/3503
Hirth 3701
Hispano-Suiza
Hispano-Suiza 4B? 75 hp 4 in-line
Hispano-Suiza 5Q
Hispano-Suiza 6M 250 hp
Hispano-Suiza 6Ma 220 hp
Hispano-Suiza 6Mb 220 hp
Hispano-Suiza 6Mbr 250 hp
Hispano-Suiza 6O
Hispano-Suiza 6P
Hispano-Suiza 6Pa
Hispano-Suiza 8A
Hispano-Suiza 8B
Hispano-Suiza 8F
Hispano-Suiza 9Q licensed Wright J-6 / R-975 Whirlwind
Hispano-Suiza 9T licensed Clerget 9C, diesel radial
Hispano-Suiza 9V licensed Wright R-1820 Cyclone
Hispano-Suiza 12B (1945)
Hispano-Suiza 12G (W-12)
Hispano-Suiza 12Ga (W-12)
Hispano-Suiza 12Gb (W-12)
Hispano-Suiza 12H
Hispano-Suiza 12Ha
Hispano-Suiza 12Hb
Hispano-Suiza 12Hbr
Hispano-Suiza 12J
Hispano-Suiza 12Ja 350 hp
Hispano-Suiza 12Jb
Hispano-Suiza 12K
Hispano-Suiza 12Kbrs
Hispano-Suiza 12L
Hispano-Suiza 12Lb
Hispano-Suiza 12Lbr
Hispano-Suiza 12Lbrx
Hispano-Suiza 12M
Hispano-Suiza 12N
Hispano-Suiza 12X
Hispano-Suiza 12Y
Hispano-Suiza 12Z
Hispano-Suiza 14AA radial
Hispano-Suiza 14AB radial
Hispano-Suiza 14H radial
Hispano-Suiza 14Ha
Hispano-Suiza 14Hbs
Hispano-Suiza 14Hbrs 600 hp radial
Hispano-Suiza 14U diesel radial
Hispano Suiza 18R
Hispano-Suiza 18S
Hispano-Suiza 24Y
Hispano-Suiza 24Z
Latécoère-(Hispano-Suiza) 36Y
Hispano-Suiza 48H
Hispano-Suiza 48Z
Hispano-Suiza Nene
Hispano-Suiza Tay
Hispano-Suiza Verdon
Hispano-Suiza R.300
Hispano-Suiza R.800
Hispano-Suiza R.804
Hispano-Suiza J-5 Whirlwind
Hispano-Suiza Type 31
Hispano-Suiza Type 34
Hispano-Suiza Type 35
Hispano-Suiza Type 36
Hispano-Suiza Type 38
Hispano-Suiza Type 39
Hispano-Suiza Type 40
Hispano-Suiza Type 41
Hispano-Suiza Type 42
Hispano-Suiza Type 42VS
Hispano-Suiza Type 43
Hispano-Suiza Type 44
Hispano-Suiza Type 45
Hispano-Suiza Type 50 Ga W-12 450 hp
Hispano-Suiza Type 51 Ha V-12 450 hp
Hispano-Suiza Type 52 Ja V-12 350 hp
Hispano-Suiza Type 57 Mb V-12 500 hp
Hispano-Suiza Type 61
Hispano-Suiza Type 72
Hispano-Suiza Type 73
Hispano-Suiza Type 76
Hispano-Suiza Type 77
Hispano-Suiza Type 79
Hispano-Suiza Type 80
Hispano-Suiza Type 82
Hispano-Suiza Type 89 12Z
Hispano-Suiza Type 90
Hispano-Suiza Type 93
Hitachi
Source:Gunston.
Hitachi Ha12 (Army Type 95 150 hp Air Cooled Radial)
Hitachi Ha13 (Army Type 95 350 hp Air Cooled Radial)
Hitachi Ha13a (Army Type 98 450 hp Air Cooled Radial)
Hitachi Ha42
Hitachi Ha47
Hitachi Ha-51 (unified designation)
Hitachi GK2
Hitachi GK4
Hitachi GK2 Amakaze
Hitachi Kamikaze
Hitachi Hatsukaze
Hitachi Jimpu
Hitachi Tempu
Army Type 95 150 hp Air Cooled Radial (Ha12 – Hatsudoki system)
Army Type 95 350 hp Air Cooled Radial (Ha13 – Hatsudoki system)
Army Type 98 450 hp Air Cooled Radial (Ha13a – Hatsudoki system)
Army Type 4 110hp Air Cooled Inline (Ha47 – Hatsudoki system / GK4 – Navy system)
HKS
HKS 700E
HKS 700T
Hodge
Hodge 320 hp 18-cyl radial
Hofer
(Al Hofer)
Hofer 10-12 hp 4cyl in-line
Holbrook
(Holbrook Aero Supply)
Holbrook 35 hp
Holbrook 50 hp
Honda
Honda HFX-01
Honda HFX20
Honda HF118
GE Honda HF120
Honeywell
Honeywell ALF502
Honeywell HTF7000
Honeywell LF507
Honeywell LTS101
Honeywell TPE-331
Honeywell TFE731
Honeywell FX5
Hopkins & de Kilduchevsky
Hopkins & de Kilduchevsky 30-40 hp
Hopkins & de Kilduchevsky 60-80 hp
Howard
Howard 120 hp 6-cyl in-line
Hudson
(John W Hudson)
Hudson 100 hp 10-cyl radial
Hummel
(James Morris (Morry) Hummel of Bryan, Ohio)
Hummel 28 hp 1/2 VW
Hummel 32 hp 1/2 VW
Hummel 45 hp 1/2 VW
Hummel 50 hp VW
Hummel 60 hp VW
Hummel 70 hp VW
Hummel 85 hp VW
HuoSai
(HuoSai – Piston engine)
HuoSai HS-5
HuoSai HS-6
HuoSai HS-7
HuoSai HS-8
Hurricane
Hurricane C-450 (8-cyl 2-stroke radial)
I
IAE
IAE V2500
IAE V2500SF SuperFan
I.Ae.
I.Ae. 16 El Gaucho
I.Ae. 19R El Indio
IA IAO-1600-RX/1
IAME
(Ital-American Motor Engineering)
KFM 104
KFM 105
KFM 107
KFM 112M
IAR
IAR K7-I 20
IAR K9-I C40
IAR K14
IAR 4-G1
IAR 6-G1
IAR LD 450
IAR DB605
ICP
ICP M09
IHI
Ishikawajima Tsu-11
Ishikawajima TR-10
Ishikawajima TR-12
Ishikawajima Ne-20
Ishikawajima Ne-20-kai
Ishikawajima Ne-30 Turbojet Engine of 850 kg
Ishikawajima Ne-130
Ishikawajima Ne-230
Ishikawajima Ne-330 Turbojet of 1,320 hp
Ishikawajima-Harima JR100
Ishikawajima-Harima JR200
Ishikawajima-Harima JR220
Ishikawajima-Harima XJ11
Ishikawajima-Harima F3
Ishikawajima-Harima F5
Ishikawajima-Harima F7
Ishikawajima-Harima XF9
Ishikawajima-Harima IGT60
Ishikawajima-Harima J3
Ishikawajima-Harima XF5
Ishikawajima-Harima T64-IHI-10
Ishikawajima-Harima T58-IHI-8B BLC
Ishikawajima-Harima J79-17
Ishikawajima-Harima CT58-IHI-110
IL
(Instytut Lotnictwa – Aviation Institute)
IL SO-1
IL SO-3
IL K-15
ILO
ILO F 12/400
Imaer
Imaer 1000
Imaer 2000
Imperial
(Imperial Airplane Society)
Imperial 35-70 hp (various 6cyl rotary engines)
Imperial 100 hp (12cyl rotary)
In-Tech
(In-Tech International Inc.)
In-Tech Merlyn
Indian
See: Hendee
Innodyn
(Innodyn L.L.C.)
Innodyn TAE165
Innodyn TAE185
Innodyn TAE205
Innodyn TAE255
Innodyn 165 TE
Innodyn 185 TE
Innodyn 205 TE
Innodyn 255 TE
International
Data from:
International 21.5 hp 4-cyl rotary
International 66 hp 6-cyl rotary
Ion
(Gabriel Ion)
Ion airship steam engine
Irwin
(Irwin Aircraft Co)
Irwin 79 Meteormotor (a.k.a. X)
Isaacson
(Isaacson Engine (Motor Supply Co.) / R.J. Isaacson)
Isaacson 45 hp 7-cyl. radial
Isaacson 50 hp
Isaacson 60 hp
Isaacson 6-cyl. radial
Isaacson 50 hp 7-cyl. radial
Isaacson 65 hp 7-cyl. radial
Isaacson 100 hp 14-cyl. radial
Isaacson 100 hp 9-cyl. rotary
Isaacson 200 hp 18-cyl. rotary
Ishikawajima
See: IHI
Isotov
Source:Gunston
Isotov GTD-350
Isotov TV-2-117
Isotov TV-3-117
Isotov TVD-850
Isotta Fraschini
Isotta Fraschini L.170
Isotta Fraschini L.180 I.R.C.C.15/40
Isotta Fraschini L.180 I.R.C.C.45
Isotta Fraschini Asso 80
Isotta Fraschini Asso 120 R.C.40
Isotta Fraschini Asso 200
Isotta Fraschini Asso 250
Isotta Fraschini Asso 450 Caccia
Isotta Fraschini Asso 500
Isotta Fraschini Asso 750
Isotta Fraschini Asso IX
Isotta Fraschini Asso 1000
Isotta Fraschini Asso Caccia
Isotta Fraschini Asso XI
Isotta Fraschini A.120 R.C.40
Isotta Fraschini L.121 R.C.40
Isotta Fraschini Asso XII
Isotta Fraschini Asso XII R.
Isotta Fraschini Asso (racing)
Isotta Fraschini Beta
Isotta Fraschini Gamma
Isotta Fraschini Delta
Isotta Fraschini Zeta
Isotta Fraschini Sigma
Isotta Fraschini Astro 7
Isotta Fraschini Astro 14
Isotta Fraschini V.4
Isotta Fraschini V.5
Isotta Fraschini V.6
Isotta Fraschini V.7
Isotta Fraschini V.8
Isotta Fraschini V.9
Isotta Fraschini 245 hp
Isotta Fraschini K.14 – licence built Gnome-Rhône Mistral Major
Isotta Fraschini 80T
Ivchenko
Source:Gunston.
Ivchenko AI-4
Ivchenko AI-7
Ivchenko AI-8
Ivchenko AI-9
Ivchenko AI-10
Ivchenko AI-14
Ivchenko AI-20
Progress AI-22
Ivchenko AI-24
Ivchenko AI-25
Ivchenko AI-26
Progress AI-222
Ivchenko-Progress AI-322
Ivchenko-Progress AI-450S
Progress D-18T
Progress D-27
Lotarev D-36
Lotarev D-136
Progress D-236
Progress D-436
IWL
See:Pirna
J
Jabiru
Jabiru 1600
Jabiru 2200
Jabiru 3300
Jabiru 5100
Jack & Heinz
Jack & Heinz O-126
Jacobs
Source:Gunston except where noted
Jacobs 35 hp
Jacobs B-1
Jacobs L-3
Jacobs L-4
Jacobs L-5
Jacobs L-6
Jacobs LA-1
Jacobs LA-2
Jacobs O-200
Jacobs O-240A
Jacobs O-240L
Jacobs O-360A (air-cooled)
Jacobs O-360L (liquid-cooled)
Jacobs R-755
Jacobs R-830
Jacobs R-915
Jaenson
Jaenson 300 hp V-8
Jalbert-Loire
Jalbert-Loire 4-cyl. 160 hp
Jalbert-Loire 6-cyl. 235 hp
Jalbert-Loire 16-H – 16-cyl. 600 hp
Jameson
(Jameson Aero Engines Ltd.)
Jameson FF-1 – 1940s horizontally opposed, four cylinder (106 hp)
Janowski
(Jaroslaw Janowski)
Janowski Saturn 500
J.A.P.
Data from:
J.A.P. 1909 9 hp 2-cyl.
J.A.P. 1909 20 hp 4-cyl.
J.A.P. 38 hp V-8 (air-cooled)
J.A.P. 45 hp V-8 (water-cooled)
J.A.P. 1910 40 hp V-8
J.A.P. 8-cyl.
Aeronca-J.A.P. J-99
Japanese rockets and Pulse-jets
Type4 I-Go Model-20 (Rocket)
Tokuro-1 Type 2 (Rocket)
Javelin
Javelin Ford 230hp conversion
Jawa
Jawa 1000
Jawa M-150
Jendrassik
Jendrassik Cs-1
J.E.T
(James Engineering Turbines Ltd)
J.E.T Cobra
JetBeetle
JetBeetle Tarantula H90
JetBeetle Locust H150R
JetBeetle Mantis H250
Jetcat
Jetcat P160
Jetcat P200
Jetcat P300
Jetcat P400
Johnson
Johnson Aero 75 hp V-6
Johnson Aero 100 hp V-8
Johnson Aero 150 hp V-12
JLT Motors
(Boos, Seine-Maritime, France)
JLT Motors Ecoyota 82
JLT Motors Ecoyota 100
JPX
JPX 4TX75
JPX D160
JPX PUL 212
JPX PUL 425
JPX D-320
Junkers
Source:Kay
Jumo 4 later Jumo 204
Jumo 5 later Jumo 205
Junkers L1 air-cooled in-line 6 4-stroke petrol
Junkers L2
Junkers L3
Junkers L4
Junkers L5
Junkers L55
Junkers L7
Junkers L8
Junkers L88
Junkers L10
Junkers Jumo 004 Turbojet
Junkers Jumo 204
Junkers Jumo 205
Junkers Jumo 206
Junkers Jumo 207
Junkers Jumo 208
Junkers Jumo 209
Junkers Jumo 210
Junkers Jumo 211
Junkers Jumo 213
Junkers Jumo 218
Junkers Jumo 222
Junkers Jumo 223
Junkers Jumo 224
Junkers Jumo 225
Junkers Jumo 109-004
Junkers Jumo 109-006 (Junkers/Heinkel 109-006)
Junkers Jumo 109-012
Junkers Jumo 109-022
Junkers Mo3 diesel opposed-piston aero-engine prototype
Junkers Fo2 Petrol opposed-piston 6-cyl/12piston horizontal
Junkers Fo3 diesel opposed-piston aero-engine prototype
Junkers Fo4 diesel opposed-piston aero-engine prototype
Junkers SL1 company designation for Fo4
K
Kalep
(Fyodor Grigoryevich Kalep)
Kalep 1911 4-cyl 2-stroke
Kalep-60
Kalep-80
Kalep-100
Kawasaki
Source:Gunston except where noted
Kawasaki Ha9 – licence-built BMW VI for IJAAF
Kawasaki Ha40 – licence-built Daimler-Benz DB 601A for IJAAF
Kawasaki Ha-60
Kawasaki Ha140
Kawasaki Ha201 – twin Ha40s with common gearbox
Kawasaki KAE-240
Kawasaki 440 engine.
Kawasaki KJ12
Kawasaki KT5311A
Kelly
Kelly 200 hp 2-stroke 4-cyl inline
Kemp
(a.k.a. Grey Eagle)
Kemp D-4
Kemp E-6
Kemp G-2
Kemp H-6 (55 hp 6IL)
Kemp I-4 (35 hp 4IL)
Kemp J-8 (80 hp V-8)
Kemp K-2
Kemp M-2
Kemp O-101
Kemp-Henderson 27 hp
Ken Royce
LeBlond Aircraft Engine Corporation was sold to Rearwin Airplanes in 1937 and renamed Ken-Royce.
Ken-Royce 5E – LeBlond 70-5E
Ken-Royce 5G – LeBlond 90-5G
Ken-Royce 7F- developed from LeBlond 7DF
Ken-Royce 7G
Kessler
Kessler 200 hp
Kessler 6C-400
KFM
(KFM (Komet Flight Motor) Aircraft Motors Division of Italian American Motor Engineering)
KFM 107
KFM 112M
Khatchaturov
Khatchaturov R-35
KHD
Humboldt-Deutz 6 cyl. in-line diesel
Klöckner-Humboldt-Deutz diesel 8 cyl. rotary DZ 700?
Klöckner-Humboldt-Deutz DZ 700
Klöckner-Humboldt-Deutz DZ 710 16-cylinder horizontally opposed diesel
Klöckner-Humboldt-Deutz DZ 720 32-cylinder H-block version of the 710
KHD T112 (APU)
KHD T117
KHD T216
KHD T312
KHD T317
Klöckner-Humboldt-Deutz T53-L-13A
Kiekhaefer
Kiekhaefer O-45
Kiekhaefer V-105
Kimball
Kimball Beetle K
Kimball Gnat M
King
(Chas. B. King)
King 550 hp V-12
King-Bugatti
King-Bugatti U-16
Kinner
Source:Gunston except where noted
Kinner 60 hp
Kinner B-5
Kinner B-54
Kinner C-5
Kinner C-7
Kinner SC-7
Kinner K-5
Kinner O-550
Kinner O-552
Kinner R-5
Kinner R-53
Kinner R-55
Kinner R-56
Kinner R-370
Kinner R-440
Kinner R-540
Kinner R-720
Kinner R-1045-2
Kirkham
Kirkham 50 hp 4IL (C-4?)
Kirkham 75-85 hp
Kirkham 110 hp
Kirkham 180 hp 9-cyl. radial
Kirkham B-4
Kirkham B-6
Kirkham B-12
Kirkham BG-6 (geared)
Kirkham C-4
Kirkham K-12
Kishi
Kishi 70 hp V-8
Klimov
Source:Gunston
Klimov M-100
Klimov M-103
Klimov M-105
Klimov VK-106
Klimov VK-107
Klimov VK-108
Klimov VK-109
Klimov M-120
Klimov RD-33
Klimov RD-45
Klimov RD-500
Klimov VK-1
Klimov VK-2
Klimov VK-3
Klimov VK-5
Klimov VK-2500
Klimov VK-800
Klimov TV2-117
Klimov TV3-117
Klimov TV7-117
Knox
(Knox Motors Company, Springfield Mass.)
Knox 300 hp V-12
Knox H-106
Knox R-266
Koerting
Koerting 65 hp V-8
Koerting 185 hp V-8
Koerting 250 hp V-12
Kosoku
(Kosokudo Kikan KK)
Kosoku KO-4
Kolesov
Kolesov RD-36-51
Kolesov VD-7
Köller
(Dr. Kröber und Sohn GmbH, Treuenbrietzen)
Köller M3
König
(Compact Radial Engines)
König SC 430
König SD 570
Konrad
(Oberbayische Forschungsanhalt Dr. Konrad)
Konrad 109-613
Konrad Enzian IV rakatenmotor
Konrad Enzian V rakatenmotor
Konrad Rheintochter R 3 rakatenmotor
Körting
Körting Kg IV V-8
Körting 8 SL
Kossov
Kossov MG-31F
Kostovich
(O.S. Kostovich)
Kostovich 2-cyl airship engine
Kostovich 80 hp 8-cyl airship engine
Krautter
(Dipl. Ing. Willi Krautter)
Krautter-Leichtflugmotor
Kroeber
(Doktor Kroeber & Sohn G.m.b.H.)
Kroeber M4
Kruk
Kruk rotary
Kuznetsov
Source:Gunston except where noted
Kuznetsov Type 022
Kuznetsov NK-2
Kuznetsov NK-4
Kuznetsov NK-6
Kuznetsov NK-8
Kuznetsov NK-12
Kuznetsov NK-22
Kuznetsov NK-25
Kuznetsov NK-32
Kuznetsov NK-86
Kuznetsov NK-87
Kuznetsov NK-88
Kuznetsov NK-89
Kuznetsov NK-144
Kuznetsov TV-2
Kuznetsov 2TV-2F
L
L'Aisle Volante
L'Aisle Volante C.C.4
Labor
Labor 70 hp 4-cyl in-line
Lambert Engine Division
(Monocoupe Corporation – Lambert Engine Division)
Lambert M-5
Lambert R-266
Lambert R-270
Lamplough
Lamplough 6-cyl 2-stroke rotary
Lamplough 6-cyl 2-stroke axial
Lancia
(Lancia & Company. / Vincenzo Lancia)
Lancia Tipo 4
Lancia Tipo 5
Lange
Lange EA 42
Laviator
Laviator 35 hp 3-cyl rotary 2-stroke
Laviator 50 hp 6-cyl rotary 2-stroke
Laviator 65 hp 6-cyl rotary 2-stroke
Laviator 75 hp 9-cyl rotary 2-stroke
Laviator 100 hp 12-cyl rotary 2-stroke
Laviator 80 hp 6-cyl 2-stroke water-cooled radial
Laviator 120 hp 4IL
Laviator 110 hp 6IL
Laviator 250 hp 6IL
Laviator 80 hp V-8
Laviator 120 hp V-8
Laviator 200 hp V-8
Lawrance
Lawrance A-3
Lawrance B 60 hp 3-cyl.
Lawrance C-2
Lawrance J-1
Lawrance J-2
Lawrance L-2 65 hp
Lawrance L-3
Lawrance L-4 a.k.a. 'Wright Gale'
Lawrance L-5
Lawrance L-64
Lawrance N
Lawrance N-2 40HP 2OA
Lawrance R
Lawrance R-1
Lawrance-Moulton A (France)
Lawrance-Moulton B (200 hp V-8 USA)
Lawrance 140 hp 9-cyl radial
Lawrance 200 hp 9-cyl radial
Lawrence Radiation Laboratory
Tory IIA (Project Pluto)
Tory IIC (Project Pluto)
Le Gaucear
Le Gaucear 150 hp 10-cyl rotary
Le Maitre et Gerard
Le Maitre et Gerard 700 hp V-8
Le Rhône
Le Rhône 7A
Le Rhône 7B
Le Rhône 7B2
Le Rhône 7Z
Le Rhône 9C
Le Rhône 9J
Le Rhône 9R
Le Rhône 9Z
Le Rhône 11F
Le Rhône 14D
Le Rhône 18E (1912)
Le Rhône 18E (1917)
Le Rhône 28E
Le Rhône K
Le Rhône L
Le Rhône M
Le Rhône P
Le Rhône R
LeBlond
LeBlond was sold to Rearwin and engines continued under Ken-Royce name.
LeBlond B-4
LeBlond B-8
LeBlond 40-3
LeBlond 60-5D
LeBlond 70-5DE
LeBlond 75-5
LeBlond 80-5
LeBlond 85-5DF
LeBlond 70-5E
LeBlond 80-5F (in military use known as R-265)
LeBlond 85-5DF
LeBlond 90-5F
LeBlond 90-5G
LeBlond 90-7
LeBlond 110-7
LeBlond 120-7
LeBlond 7D
LeBlond 7DF
Lee
Lee 80 hp
Lefèrve
(F. Lefèrve)
Lefèrve 2-cyl. 33 hp
Lenape
Lenape AR-3
Lenape LM-3 Papoose 3-cyl.
Lenape LM-5 Brave 5-cyl.
Lenape LM-7 Chief 7-cyl.
Lenape LM-125 Brave (suspect should be LM-5-125)
Lenape LM-365 Papoose (suspect should be LM-3-65)
Lenape LM-375 Papoose (suspect should be LM-3-75)
Lessner
Lessner 1908 4-cyl airship engine
Levavasseur
Léon Levavasseur see Antoinette
Levi
Levi 7-cyl barrel engine
Leyland Motors
J. G. Parry-Thomas, the chief engineer at Leyland Motors.
A single X-8 engine was built in August 1918 but failed during testing and with the end of WWI development was abandoned.
LFW
LFW 0
LFW I
LFW II
LFW III
LFW-12 X-1
LHTEC
LHTEC T800
Liberty
Source:Gunston except where noted
Liberty L-4
Liberty L-6
Liberty L-8
Liberty L-12
Liberty L-12 double-crankshaft
Liberty X-24
Ligez
Ligez 3-cyl rotary
Light
Light Kitten 20
Light Kitten 30
Light Tiger 100
Light Tiger 125
Light Tiger Junior 50
Lilloise
See:C.L.M.
Limbach
Limbach L1700
Limbach L2000
Limbach L2400
Limbach L275E
Limbach L550E
Lincoln
Rocket 29 hp
Lindequist
(Konsortiert Överingeniör Sven Lindequist's Uppfinninggar – Consortium Senior Engineer Sven Lindqvist Inventions)
Lindewqiuist 1,000 hp Stratospheric engine
Les Long Long Harlequin
Long Harlequin 933
Lockheed
Lockheed XJ37/L-1000
LOM
(Letecke Opravny Malesice, Praha)
LOM M132
LOM M137
LOM M337
Loravia
(Yutz, France)
Loravia LOR 75
Lorraine-Dietrich
(Société Lorraine des Anciens Établissements de Dietrich)
Source:Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1938
except where noted
Lorraine 3B licence-built Potez 3B?
Lorraine 3D licence-built Potez 3B
Lorraine 5P Ecole – 5 cyl radial
Lorraine 6A – (AM) 110 hp
Lorraine 6Ba – 6 cyl two-row radial 130CV
Lorraine 7M Mizar – 7 cyl radial
Lorraine 8A – V-8
Lorraine 8Aa
Lorraine 8Ab
Lorraine 8Aby
Lorraine 8B – V-8
Lorraine 8Ba
Lorraine 8Bb
Lorraine 8Bd
Lorraine 8Be
Lorraine 8BI (inverted?)
Lorraine 9A
Lorraine 9N Algol – Type 120 9 cyl radial
Lorraine Dietrich 12Cc ? Dc in error?
Lorraine 12? Hibis 450 hp
Lorraine 12D
Lorraine 12 DOO 460 hp O-12
Lorraine 12E Courlis – W-12 450 hp
Lorraine 12F Courlis – W-12 600 hp
Lorraine 12H Pétrel – V-12
Lorraine 12Q Eider
Lorraine 12Qo Eider
Lorraine 12R Sterna – V-12 Type 111 700 hp
Lorraine 12Rs Sterna – V-12 Type 111 700 hp
Lorraine 12Rcr Radium – inverted V-12 with turbochargers 2,000 hp
Lorraine 14A Antarès – 14 cylinder radial 500 hp
Lorraine 14E – 14 cylinder radial 470 hp
Lorraine 18F Sirius – Type 112
Lorraine 18F.0 Sirius
Lorraine 18F.00 Sirius
Lorraine 18F.100 Sirius
Lorraine 18G Orion – W-18
Lorraine 18Ga Orion – W-18
Lorraine 18Gad Orion – W-18
Lorraine 18K – W-18
Lorraine 18Ka
Lorraine 18Kd
Lorraine 18Kdrs
Lorraine 24 – W-24 1,000 hp (3 banks of 8 cylinders)
Lorraine 24E Taurus – 24 cyl in-line radial (six banks of 4-inline?) 1,600 hp
Lorraine P5
Lorraine AM (moteur d’Aviation Militaire (A.M.)) – derived from German 6-cyl in-line engines
Lorraine Algol Junior – 230 hp
Lorraine-Latécoère 8B
Lorraine Diesel – built in 1932, rated at 200 hp
Lorraine DM-400
Lotarev
(Vladimir Lotarev) (see also Ivchenko-Progress)
Lotarev D-36
Lotarev D-136
Lotarev D-236-T
Lotarev DV-2
Lotarev RD-36 (lift turbofan)
Loughead
Loughead XL-1
LPC
LPC Fang 1-KS-40
LPC Sword 3.81-KS-4090
LPC Meteor 33-KS-2800
LPC Mercury 0.765-KS-53,600
LPC Viper I-C 5.6-KS-5,400
LPC Viper II-C 3.77-KS-8,040
LPC Lance I-C 6.65-KS-38,800
LSA-Engines
(LSA-Engines GmbH, Berlin, Germany)
LSA-Engines LSA850
Lucas
Lucas CT 3201
Lutetia
(Marcel Echard / Moteurs Lutetia)
Lutetia 4.C.02 V-4, 2-stroke, 1267 cc, 40-45 hp at 2800rpm
Lutetia 6-cyl radial 70 hp a 2600 rpm
Lycoming
Lycoming O-145
Lycoming O-160
Lycoming O-233
Lycoming IO-233
Lycoming O-235
Lycoming O-290
Lycoming O-320
Lycoming O-340
Lycoming O-350
Lycoming O-360
Lycoming IO-390
Lycoming O-435
Lycoming O-480
Lycoming O-530
Lycoming O-540
Lycoming O-541
Lycoming IO-580
Lycoming GSO-580
Lycoming SO-590
Lycoming IO-720
Lycoming O-1230
Lycoming R-500
Lycoming R-530
Lycoming R-645
Lycoming R-680
Lycoming H-2470
Lycoming XR-7755 (36cyl 7,755ci)
Lycoming AGT1500
Lycoming AL55
Lycoming ALF101
Lycoming ALF502
Lycoming LF507
Lycoming LTC1
Lycoming LTC4
Lycoming LTP101
Lycoming LTS101
Lycoming PLF1A
Lycoming PLF1B
Lycoming F102 (ALF502)
Lycoming F106 (ALF502)
Lycoming F408 (Teledyne CAE 382)
Lycoming J402 (Teledyne CAE 370/372/373)
Lycoming T702 (PLT27)
Lycoming T53
Lycoming T55
Lycoming TF40
Lyulka
Source:Gunston.
Lyulka TR-1
Lyulka AL-5
Lyulka AL-7
Lyulka AL-21
Lyulka AL-31
Lyulka AL-34
Lyulka TS-31M
LZ Design
Front electric sustainer
M
M&D Flugzeugbau
M&D Flugzeugbau TJ-42
MAB
4-cylinder air-cooled "fan" engine
4-cylinder vertical water-cooled in-line engine
MacClatchie
MacClatchie X-2 Panther
Macchi
Macchi MB.2 – 2.cyl 20 hp at 3,000 rpm
Macomber Avis
Macomber Rotary Engine Company with Avis Engine Company
Macomber Avis 7-cylinder axial engine
M.A.N.
Maschinenfabrik Augsburg-Nürnberg (MAN)
Licence-built Argus As III
MAN Mana V (350 hp V-10) V-10 airship engine?
MAN Mana III (185 hp 6-cyl in-line)
260 hp 6-cylinder in-line – "quite similar to 160-hp Mercedes design"
MAN Turbo
MAN Turbo 6012
MAN Turbo 6022
Rolls-Royce/MAN Turbo RB153
Rolls-Royce/MAN Turbo RB193
Manfred Weiss
See: Weiss
Manly
Charles M. Manly redesigned an engine built by Stephen Balzer.
Manly–Balzer engine
Mantovani
Mantovani Citroën 2CV car engine conversion
Marchetti
(Marchetti Motor Patents)
Marchetti A
Mark
(Stahlwerk Mark Flugzeugbau)
Mark F.II (35 hp)
Mark M.3 (40 hp)
Mark M.5 (70 hp)
Mark 55 hp
Mark 120 hp
Marcmotor
(Macerata, Italy)
Marcmotor ROS100
Marcmotor ROS125
Marcmotor ROS200
Marlin-Rockwell
Marlin-Rockwell 72 hp
Marquardt Corporation
Marquardt PJ40 pulsejet
Marquardt PJ46 pulsejet
Marquardt RJ30 C-20 ramjet
Marquardt RJ31 C-30 Ramjet
Marquardt RJ34 ramjet
Marquardt RJ39 ramjet
Marquardt RJ43
Marquardt RJ57 ramjet
Marquardt RJ59 ramjet
Marquardt MA-19
Marquardt MA-20
Marquardt MA-24
Marquardt MA-74
Marquardt MA-196
Marquardt C-20 (2x C-20s fitted to P-51 and 2x Marquardt C20-85D fitted to P-80A 44-85042)
Marquardt C-30 (2x Marquardt C30-10B fitted to P-80A 44-85214)
Marquardt C-48
Marquardt R-1E
Marquardt R-40A
Martin
Martin 133? typo?
Martin 333
Martin 500
Martin 8200 (190 hp V-8)
Martin L-330
Maru
Maru Ka10
Masson
Masson 50 hp 6-cyl in-line
Mathis
Mathis G.2F
Mathis G.4
Mathis G.4F
Mathis G.4R
Mathis G.7
Mathis G.7R
Mathis G.8
Mathis G.8R
Mathis G.14R
Mathis G.14RS
Mathis G.16R
Mathis Vega 42
Mathis Vesta 42
Mathis 175H
Mathis 2.G.60
Mathis 4.G.60
Mathis 4.GB.60
Mathis 4.GB.62
Mathis BG-20
Mathis 12.GS.DS
Mathis 16.GB.21
Mawen
(Mawen S.A.)
Mawen 150 hp rotary
Mawen 350 hp rotary
Mawen 700 hp two row rotary
Max Ams
(Max Ams machine Company)
Max Ams 75 hp V-8
Maxim
Maxim 87 hp 4-cyl in-line
Maximotor Makers
Maximotor 50 hp
Maximotor 60-70 hp
Maximotor 70-80 hp
Maximotor 80-100 hp
Maximotor 100 hp
Maximotor 120 hp
Maximotor 150 hp
Maximotor A-4 (50 hp 4ILW)
Maximotor A-6 (75 hp 6ILW)
Maximotor A-8 (110 hp V-8)
Maximotor B-6 (115 6ILW)
Maximotor 70 hp 4-in-line
Maybach
Maybach AZ
Maybach DW
Maybach IR
Maybach BY
Maybach CX
Maybach HS
Maybach HS D
Maybach HS-Lu
Maybach Mb.III
Maybach Mb.IV
Maybach Mb.IVa
Maybach 300 hp
Maybach VL.I
Maybach VL.II
Maybach 180 hp 6IL
Maybach 200 hp 6IL
Maybach 300 hp 6IL
Mayo
(Mayo Radiator Co)
Mayo 1915 (6LW)
McCulloch
McCulloch MAC-101
McCulloch 104-100
McCulloch O-90
McCulloch O-100
McCulloch O-150
McCulloch 4318A O-100-1
McCulloch 4318B O-100-2
McCulloch 4318C O
McCulloch 4318E YO-100-4
McCulloch TSIR-5190
McCulloch 6150 O-150-1
McCulloch 6318 O-150-2
McDonnell
McDonnell PJ42 pulsejet
McDowell
(Geo. McDowell. Brooklyn NY.)
McDowell Twin-Piston V-4 2-stroke
Mead
(Mead Engine Co.)
Mead 50 hp 4-cyl in-line
Mekker
Mekker Sport
Menasco
Sources:Gunston and Jane's.
Menasco Pirate/Super Pirate
Menasco Buccaneer/Super Buccaneer
Menasco M-50
Menasco Unitwin 2-544
Menasco-Salmson B-2
Menasco L-365 – Military designation for Pirate
Menasco XIV-2040
Menasco XH-4070
Menasco RJ37
Mengin
(Établissements Pierre Mengin)
Mengin B
Mengin C (later 2A.01), Poinsard design
Mengin G.M.H. (Genete, Mengin, and Hochet)
Mengin 2A.01 Poinsard design
Hochet-Mengin
Mercedes
See: Daimler-Benz
Merkulov
(Ivan A. Merkulov)
Merkulov DM-4 ramjet
Métallurgique
Data from:
Métallurgique 32 hp 4-cyl in-line
Métallurgique 40 hp 4-cyl in-line
Métallurgique 48 hp 4-cyl in-line
Métallurgique 60 hp 4-cyl in-line
Métallurgique 90 hp 4-cyl in-line
Meteormotor
Meteormotor 20-25 hp
Meteor
(Meteor S.p.A. Constuzioni Aeronautiche)
Meteor G 80cc
Meteor Alfa 1
Meteor Alfa 1AQ
Meteor Alfa 2
Meteor Alfa 2AQ
Meteor Alfa 2V
Meteor Alfa 3
Meteor Alfa 3AQ
Meteor Alfa 4
Meteor Alfa 4V
Meteor Alfa 5
Metropolitan-Vickers
Metrovick F.1
Metrovick F.2 Freda
Metrovick F.2/2
Metrovick F.2/3
Metrovick F.2/4 Beryl
Metrovick F.3
Metrovick F.5
Metrovick F.9 Sapphire
Metz
(Metz Company, Waltham, Mass.)
Metz 125 hp rotary
Michel
Michel IV-AT3
Michel 4A-14
Michel RAT-3 100 hp
Michel A.M. 14 MARK II
Michel A.M.7 6L 200 hp
Michel A.M.14 Type I 4L 100 hp
Michel A.M.14 Type II
Michel A.M.14 Type III
Michel A.M.16 6L 40 hp
Michigan
Michigan 2-cyl 2-stroke rotary
Michigan Rover
Microturbo
Microturbo TRB 13
Microturbo SG 18
Microturbo TRS 18
Microturbo TRB 19
Microturbo TRS 25
Microturbo TRI-40
Microturbo TRI 60
Microturbo TFA 66
Microturbo TRI 80
Microturbo TFA 130
Microturbo J403
Microturbo Cougar
Microturbo Eclair
Microturbo Eclair II
Microturbo Lynx
Microturbo Noelle
Microturbo Emeraude
Microturbo Espadon
Microturbo Saphir 007
Mid-west
(Mid-West Engines Limited / Diamond engines / Austro Engine)
MidWest AE50
MidWest AE100
MidWest AE110
Austro Engine AE50R
Austro Engine AE75R
Miese
Data from:
Miese 50-60 hp 8-cyl
Miese 100 hp 8-cyl radial
Mikulin
Mikulin AM-3M
Mikulin AM-13
Mikulin AM-34
Mikulin AM-35
Mikulin AM-37
Mikulin AM-38
Mikulin AM-39
Mikulin AM-42
Mikulin M-85
Mikulin RD-3M
Mikulin M-17
Mikulin M-209
Mikulin AM-TKRD-01
Mikulin-Stechkin
(A.A. Mikulin & B.S. Stechkin)
AMBS-1
Milwaukee Tank
Milwaukee Tank V-470
Milwaukee Tank V-502
Miller
Miller 22 hp radial
Miller
(Harry A. Miller Manufacturing Company)
Miller 125 hp 4-cyl in-line
Miller V-12
Minié
Data from:
(Établissements Minié, Colombes, Seine, France)
Minié 4.B0 Horus
Minié 4.D
Minié 4.E0 Horus
Minié 4.E2 Horus
Mistral Engines
Mistral G-190
Mistral G-200
Mistral G-230-TS
Mistral G-300
Mistral G-360-TS
Mistral K-200
Mistral K-300
Mitsubishi
Mitsubishi Ha-42
Mitsubishi Ha-43
Mitsubishi Kasei
Mitsubishi Kinsei
Mitsubishi Shinten
Mitsubishi TS1/MG5
Mitsubishi Zuisei
Modena Avio Engines
(Rubiera, Italy)
MAE 323
Monaco
(Monaco Motor and Engineering Co. Ltd.)
Monaco 75 hp
Monaco 100 hp
Monnett
Data from:'''
Monnett AeroVee
Monnett 1600cc E-Vee
Monnett 1600cc SuperVee
Monnett 1700cc E-Vee
Monnett 1700cc SuperVee
Monnett 1835cc E-Vee
Monnett 2007cc E-Vee
Morehouse
Morehouse 15 hp
Morehouse 29 hp
Morehouse M-42
Morehouse M-80
MorsData from:Mors 30 hp V-4
Mosler
(Mosler, Inc. of Hendersonville, North Carolina)
Mosler MM CB-35
Mosler MM CB-40
Mosler Red 82X
Motor Sich
Motor Sich MS-500V
Motorav Industria
Motorav 2.3 V
Motorav 2.6 R
Motorav 2.6 V
Motorav 2.8 R
Motorav 3.1 R
Motorlet
Motorlet M-701
Motorlet M-601
Motorlet M-602
Motorlet M-20
Motorlet AI-25/Titan/Sirius – see Ivchenko AI-25
Mozhaiskiy
Mozhaisky gas fired machine
MTH
MTH R 422-CG
MTR
MTR MTR390
MTU Aero Engines
MTU DB 720F/PTL6
MTU DB 721/PTL10
MTU DB 730F/PTL6
MTU DB 730H/ZTL6
MTU 6012
MTU 6022
Mudry
(Moteurs Mudry-Buchoux)
Mudry MB-4-80
Mudry MB-4-90
Mulag
Mulag 90/113 hp 6-cyl in-line
Murray-Willat
Murray Ajax
Murray Atlas
Murray-Willat 35 hp 6-cyl 2-stroke rotary
Murray-Willat 90 hp 6-cyl 2-stroke rotary
MWfly
(MWfly srl, Passirana di Rho, Italy)
MWfly B22
MWfly B25
N
N.A.G.Source:Angle. NAG 40 hp 4-cyl in-line
NAG C.III
NAG F.1
NAG F.2
NAG F.3
NAG F.4
NAG Model 301
NAG 6-cyl 135 hp
Nagel
Nagel 444
Nagliati
Nagliati V.N.V 160 hp Y-12
Nagliati 250 hp 8-cyl twin4
Nakajima
Nakajima Ha5
Nakajima Ha219
Nakajima Hikari
Nakajima Homare
Nakajima Kotobuki
Nakajima Mamoru
Nakajima Sakae
NAMI
NAMI A.M.B.20
NapierSources: Piston engines, Lumsden, gas turbine and rocket engines, Gunston.
Napier Cub
Napier Culverin
Napier Cutlass
Napier Dagger
Napier E.237 – Submission to the NGTE specification TE 10/56
Napier Eland
Napier Gazelle
Napier Javelin
Napier Lion
Napier Lioness
Napier Naiad
Napier Nomad
Napier Scorpion
Napier Double Scorpion
Napier Triple Scorpion
Napier Oryx
Napier Rapier
Napier RJTV (Ramjet test Vehicle)
Napier Sabre
Napier Sea Lion (marinised Lions)
Napier N.R.E. 17
Napier N.R.E. 19
Napier N.R.J. 1
Narkiewicz
(Wiktor N. Narkiewicz – production at C.Z.P.S.K. (National)
Narkiewicz WN-1
Narkiewicz WN-2
Narkiewicz WN-3
Narkiewicz WN-4
Narkiewicz WN-6
Narkiewicz WN-6R
Narkiewicz WN-7
Narkiewicz WN-7R
Narkiewicz NP-1
Narkiewicz 2-cyl.
Naskiewicz
(Stanislaw Naskiewicz)
Naskiewicz gas turbine
National Aerospace Laboratory of Japan
MITI/NAL FJR710
National
National 35
N.E.C.
(New Engine Co.)
N.E.C. 1910 2-cyl 2-stroke
N.E.C. 1910 60 hp 6-cyl 2-stroke
N.E.C. 40 hp 4-cyl 2-stroke
N.E.C. 50 hp V-4 2-stroke
N.E.C. 90 hp 6-cyl 2-stroke
N.E.C. 100 hp 6-cyl 2-stroke(1912)
N.E.C. 69.6 hp 4-cyl 2-stroke
Nelson
Nelson 60 hp 4-stroke
Nelson 120 hp 4-stroke
Nelson 150 hp 4-stroke
Nelson H-44
Nelson H-49
Nelson H-56
Nelson H-59
Nelson H-63
Nelson O-65
Nielsen & Winther
Nielsen & Winther M.A.J.
Nieuport
Nieuport 28 hp 2-cyl opposed
Nieuport 32/35 hp 2-cyl opposed
Nihonnainenki
Nihonnainenki Semi
Nippon
(Nippon Jet Engine Company)
Nippon J0-1
Nippon J0-3
Nippon J1-1
Nippon J3-1
Nord
Nord ST.600 Sirius I
Nord ST.600 Sirius II
Nord ST.600 Sirius III
Nord Véga
Normalair Garrett
NGL WAM 274
NGL WAM 342
NorthropSource:Gunston.Northrop Model 4318F
Northrop O-100
Northrop Turbodyne XT-37
Norton
(Kenneth Norton / Norton-Newby Motorcycle Co.)
Norton 2-cyl opposed
Novus
Novus 70 hp 6-cyl rotary
Novus 70 hp 6-cyl double rotary
NPO Saturn
AL-31
AL-32
AL-34
AL-55
NPT
NPT100
NPT109
NPT151
NPT301
NPT301 LTD
NST-Machinenbau
(Niedergoersdorf, Germany)
NST BS 650
Nuffield
Nuffield 100 hp 4HO
O
Oberursel
Oberursel U.0
Oberursel U.I
Oberursel U.II
Oberursel U.III
Oberursel Ur.II
Oberursel Ur.III
Oberursel 200 hp 18-cyl rotary
Oberursel 240 hp V-8
Oerlikon
Oerlikon 50/60 hp 4-cyl opposed
Oldfield
Oldfield 15A
Omsk
Omsk TVO-100
Opel
Opel Argus As III
Orenda Engines
Orenda Engines, formed by Avro Canada taking over publicly funded jet engine development by Turbo Research. Later became Orenda Aerospace under Magellan.
Avro Canada Chinook
Avro Canada Orenda
Orenda Iroquois
Orenda OE600
licence-built General Electric J79
licence-built General Electric J85
Orion
Orion LL-30
Orlo
(Orlo Motor Company)
Orlo B-4 4IL 50 hp
Orlo B-6 6IL 75 hp
Orlo B-8 V-8 100 hp
Orlogsværftet
Orlogsværftet O.V. 160
OKL
(Ośrodek Konstrukcji Lotniczych WSK Okęcie)
OKL LIS-2
OKL LIS-2A
OKL LIS-5
OKL LIT-3
OKL TO-1
OKL NP-1
OKL WN-3 (Wiktor Narkiewicz)
OKL WN-6 (Wiktor Narkiewicz)
OKL WN-7 (Wiktor Narkiewicz)
Otis-Pifre
Otis-Pifre 6-cyl in-line
Otis-Pifer 500 hp V-12
Otto A.G.O.
Otto A.G.O. 50 hp
Otto A.G.O. 70 hp
Otto A.G.O. 80/100 hp
Otto A.G.O. 100/130 hp
Otto 200 hp 8 in-line
P
PackardSource:Gunston.Packard 1A-258 1922 single
Packard 1A-744 1919 V-8(60) 180 hp
Packard 1A-825 1921 V-8(60)
Packard 1A-905 225 hp V-12
Packard 1A-1100 1917 V-8(45) – small scale production of Liberty L-8
Packard 1A-1116 1919 V-12(60) 282 hp
Packard 1A-1237 1920 V-12(60) 315 hp
Packard 2A-1237 1923 V-12(60)
Packard 1A-1300 1923 V-12(60)
Packard 1A-1464 1924 V-12(60) 1st redesign of 1A-1300
Packard 1A-1500 1924 V-12(60)
variants: Packard 2A-1500 1925 V-12(60), Packard 3A-1500 1927 V-12(60)
Packard 1M-1551 test engine
Packard 1A-1551 1921 IL-6
Packard 1A-1650 1919 Packard's post war Liberty
Packard 1A-2025 1920 V-12(60) 540 hp
Packard 1A-2200 1923 V-12(60) (made as 6 cyl.)
Packard 1A-2500 1924 V-12
variants include 2A-2500, 2A-2540, 3A-2500, 4A-2500, 5A-2500, 3M-2500, 4M-2500, 5M-2500
Packard X-2775 – experimental X-24, three engines built
1A-2775, 2A-2775 (1935)
Packard 1A-3000 193? H-24 "H" exp.
Packard 1A-5000 1939 X-24(60) exp.
Packard 2A-5000 1939 H-24 exp.
Packard 3A-5000 1939 X-24(90) exp. sleeve valve
Packard 1D-2270 1952 V-16(TD60)
Packard DR-980 1928 R-9(D) 1st diesel to fly
Packard DR-1340 1932 R-9(D) 2-cycle
Packard DR-1520 1932 R-9(D) 2-cycle
Packard DR-1655 1932 R-9(D) exp. diesel
Packard 299 1916 V-12(60) "299" racer engine
Packard 452 1917 IL-6 aero exp.
Packard 905-1 1916 V-12(40)
Packard 905-2 1917 V-12(40)
Packard 905-3 1917 V-12(40) (1A-905)
Packard IL-6 (1A-1551)
Packard L-8 (1A-1100) – licence-built Liberty L-12
Packard L-12 1917 Liberty L-12 engines
Packard L-12E 1918 U-12 Duplex – 2 crankshafts
Packard V-1650 – inverted Liberty L-12
Packard V-1650 Merlin – licence-built Rolls-Royce Merlin
Packard W-1 1921 W-18(40) Air Service-designed and Packard-built
Packard W-1-A 1923 W-18(40) Air Service-designed and Packard-built
Packard W-1-B 1923 W-18(40) Air Service-designed and Packard-built
Packard W-2 1923 W-18(40) Air Service designed
Packard XJ41 1946 Turbo-Jet Experimental turbojet. 7 were contracted
Packard XJ49 1948 Turbo-Fan Experimental fan jet. Highest thrust——jet built up to that time
Palmer
(Palmer Motor Company)
Palmer 80 hp
Palons & Beuse
Palons & Beuse 2-cyl opposed
Panhard & Levassor
Source:
(Société Panhard & Levassor)
Inline engines
Panhard & Levassor 4M – Dirigible engine with power outputs of 50 to 120 hp (1905–1911)
Panhard & Levassor 4I – 35/40 hp (1909)
Panhard & Levassor 6I – 55 hp (1910)
Panhard & Levassor 6J – 65 hp (1910)
V8 engines
Panhard & Levassor V8 – 100 hp (1912)
V12 engines
Panhard & Levassor 12J – 220 hp (1915)
Panhard & Levassor 12M – 500 hp (1918)
V12 sleeve valve engines
Panhard & Levassor VL 12L – 450 hp (1924)
Panhard & Levassor VK 12L – 450 hp (1925)
W16 engines
Panhard & Levassor 16W – 650 hp (1920)
Parker
(Aero Parker Motor Sales Company)
Parker 1912 3 cyl
Parker 1912 6 cyl
Parma Technik
(Luhačovice, Zlín Region, Moravia, Czech Republic)
Parma Mikron III UL
Parodi
(Roland Parodi)
Parodi HP 60Z
PBS
(První Brnenská Strojírna Velká Bíteš, a.s.)
PBS TJ-20
PBS TJ-40
PBS TJ-100
PBS Velka Bites ÒÅ 50Â
Pegasus Aviation
Pegasus PAL 95
Per Il Volo
Per Il Volo Top 80
Peterlot
Peterlot 80 hp 7-cyl radial
Peugeot
Peugeot 8A
Peugeot L112 V-8
Peugeot Type 16AJ 440 hp double V-8
Peugeot L41 600 hp V-12
Peugeot Type 16X X-16
Peugeot 12L13
Pheasant Aircraft Company
Pheasant Flight 4-cyl
Phillips
(Phillips Aviation Company)
Phillips 333 (Martin 333)
Phillips 500
PiaggioData from:Italian Civil & Military Aircraft 1930–1945 and Jane's 1938
Piaggio P.II (Armstrong Siddeley Lynx)
Piaggio Stella P.VII
Piaggio Stella P.IX
Piaggio P.X
Piaggio P.XI
Piaggio P.XII
Piaggio P.XV
Piaggio P.XVI
Piaggio P.XIX
Piaggio P.XXII
Piaggio-Jupiter
Piaggio Lycoming
Pierce
(Samuel S Pierce Airplane Company)
Pierce B 35 hp 3RA
Pieper
(Pieper Motorenbau GmbH)
Pieper Stamo MS 1500
Pieper Stamo 1000
Pipistrel
Pipistrel E-811
PipeData from:Pipe 50 hp V-8
Pipe 110 hp V-8
Pirna
Pirna 014
Platzer
Platzer MA 12 P/Nissan
Pobjoy
Pobjoy P
Pobjoy R
Pobjoy Cataract
Pobjoy Cascade
Pobjoy Niagara
Poinsard
Poinsard 25hp 2-cyl
Porsche
Porsche 678
Porsche 702
Porsche PFM N00
Porsche PFM N01
Porsche PFM N03
Porsche PFM T03
Porsche PFM 3200
Porsche 109-005
Porsche YO-95-6
Potez
Potez A-4 50 hp 4IL upright
Potez 1C APU
Potez 1D APU
Potez 1D-3 APU
Potez 2D APU
Potez 2D-2 APU
Potez 2D-5 APU
Potez 2C APU
Potez 3B
Potez 4D
Potez 4E
Potez 6A
Potez 6Aa
Potez 6Ab
Potez 6Ac
Potez 6B
Potez 6Ba
Potez 6D
Potez 6E
Potez 6E.30
Potez 8D
Potez 9A
Potez 9Ab
Potez 9Abr
Potez 9Ac
Potez 9B
Potez 9Ba
Potez 9Bb
Potez 9Bd
Potez 9C
Potez 9C-01
Potez 9E
Potez 9Eo
Potez 12As
Potez 12D (a.k.a. D.12)
Potez 12D-00
Potez 12D-01
Potez 12D-03
Potez 12D-30
Pouit
Pouit S-4
PowerJet
PowerJet SaM146
Power Jets
Power Jets WU
Power Jets W.1
Power Jets W.2
Power Jets/Rover B/23 – Rolls-Royce Welland
Poyer
(Poyer Aircraft Engine Company)
Poyer 3-40
Poyer 3-50
PragaSource:Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1938
Praga B
Praga B2
Praga D
Praga DH
Praga DR
Praga ER
Praga ES
Praga ESV
Praga ESVKe
Praga ESVR
Praga FRK
Praga M-197 helicopter engine
Praga Doris B
Praga Doris M-208B
Praga E-I
Praga BD 500
Pratt & Whitney
Pratt & Whitney H-2600 – enlarged X-1800
Pratt & Whitney X-1800
Pratt & Whitney XH-3130 – cancelled
Pratt & Whitney XH-3730 – cancelled
Pratt & Whitney R-985 Wasp Junior
Pratt & Whitney R-1340 Wasp
Pratt & Whitney R-1535 Twin Wasp Junior
Pratt & Whitney R-1690 Hornet
Pratt & Whitney R-1830 Twin Wasp
Pratt & Whitney R-1860 Hornet B
Pratt & Whitney R-2000 Twin Wasp
Pratt & Whitney R-2060 Yellow Jacket
Pratt & Whitney R-2180-A Twin Hornet
Pratt & Whitney R-2180-E Twin Wasp E
Pratt & Whitney R-2270
Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp
Pratt & Whitney R-4360 Wasp Major
Pratt & Whitney JT3
Pratt & Whitney JT3C – company designation for J57
Pratt & Whitney JT3D
Pratt & Whitney JT4 – company designation for J75
Pratt & Whitney JT4A – company designation for J75
Pratt & Whitney JT4D
Pratt & Whitney JT7
Pratt & Whitney JT8
Pratt & Whitney JT8D
Pratt & Whitney JT9D
Pratt & Whitney JT10D
Pratt & Whitney JT11D
Pratt & Whitney JT12A
Pratt & Whitney JT18D
Pratt & Whitney JTF10A – company designation of Pratt & Whitney TF30
Pratt & Whitney JTF16
Pratt & Whitney JTF17
Pratt & Whitney JTF22 – company designation of Pratt & Whitney F100
Pratt & Whitney JFTD12 – company designation of Pratt & Whitney T73
Pratt & Whitney JTN9
Pratt & Whitney PT1 (T32)
Pratt & Whitney PT2 – company designation of Pratt & Whitney T34
Pratt & Whitney PT4
Pratt & Whitney PT5
Pratt & Whitney PW1000G
Pratt & Whitney PW1120
Pratt & Whitney PW1130
Pratt & Whitney PW2000
Pratt & Whitney PW3000
Pratt & Whitney PW3005
Pratt & Whitney PW4000
Pratt & Whitney PW6000
Pratt & Whitney RL-10
Pratt & Whitney ST9
Pratt & Whitney STF300
Pratt & Whitney LR115
Pratt & Whitney F100
Pratt & Whitney F105 – US military designation of JT9D
Pratt & Whitney F117 (PW2037) – military designation of Pratt & Whitney PW2000
Pratt & Whitney F119 (PW5000)
Pratt & Whitney F135
Pratt & Whitney F401 – USN designation for F100
Pratt & Whitney J42 (licence built Rolls-Royce Nene)
Pratt & Whitney J48 (licence built Rolls-Royce RB.44 Tay)
Pratt & Whitney J52 (JT84)
Pratt & Whitney J57
Pratt & Whitney J58
Pratt & Whitney J60 – military designation of JT12
Pratt & Whitney J75
Pratt & Whitney J91
Pratt & Whitney RJ40 Ramjet
Pratt & Whitney T32 – US military designation of PT1
Pratt & Whitney T34
Pratt & Whitney T45
Pratt & Whitney T48
Pratt & Whitney T52
Pratt & Whitney XT57
Pratt & Whitney T73
Pratt & Whitney T101 – military designation of Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6-45A)
Pratt & Whitney T400 – military designation of Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6T
Pratt & Whitney TF30
Pratt & Whitney TF33
Pratt & Whitney / SNECMA TF104, TF106, TF306 -variants of Pratt & Whitney TF30 by SNECMA
Pratt & Whitney/Allison
PW-Allison 578DX
Pratt & Whitney Canada
Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6
Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6T
Pratt & Whitney Canada ST6
Pratt & Whitney Canada JT15D
Pratt & Whitney Canada PW100
Pratt & Whitney Canada PW200
Pratt & Whitney Canada PW300
Pratt & Whitney Canada PW500
Pratt & Whitney Canada PW600
Pratt & Whitney Canada PW800
Pratt & Whitney Canada T74
Pratt & Whitney Canada T101
Pratt & Whitney Canada T400
Pratt & Whitney Rzeszów
Pratt & Whitney Rzeszów PZL-10
Preceptor
Preceptor 1/2 VW
Preceptor 1600cc
Preceptor Gold 1835
Preceptor Gold 2074
Preceptor 2180cc
Price Induction
DGEN
Primi-Berthand
Primi-Berthand 4-cyl in-line 2-stroke
Pulch
(Otto Pulch)
Pulch 003
Pulch 3-cyl. radial
Pulsar
Pulsar Aeromaxx 100
PZI
(Państwowe Zakłady Inżynieryjne – National Engineering Works)
P.Z. Inż. Junior 120 hp
P.Z. Inż. Major
P.Z. Inż. Minor
PZL
(PZL Państwowe Zakłady Lotnicze)
PZL Rzeszów
(PZL Rzeszów)
PZL Rzeszów SO-1
PZL Rzeszów SO-3
PZL-Wytwórnia Silników
PZL GR.760
PZL GR.1620-A
PZL GR.1620-B
PZL-3 – Ivchenko AI-26
PZL-10
PZL GTD-350 – Klimov GTD-350
PZL-Kalisz ASz-61R
PZL ASz-62 – Shvetsov ASh-62
PZL-F 2A – Franklin 2 series
PZL-F 4A – licence built Franklin Engine Company
PZL-F 6A – licence built Franklin Engine Company
PZL-F 6V – licence built Franklin Engine Company
PZL-65KM
PZL K-15
Q
Quick Air Motors Co
(Quick Air Motors, Wichita KS.)
Quick Super Rhone – conversion of 80 hp Le Rhône 9C rotary engine to radial.
Quick 180 hp
R
Radne Motor AB
Radne Raket 120
Ranger
Ranger Engines were a division of Fairchild Aircraft
Ranger 6-370
Ranger 6-375
Ranger 6-390
Ranger 6-410
Ranger L-440 (company designation 6-440)
Ranger V-770
Ranger V-880
Ranger XV-920
Ranger XH-1850 (not actually an H – a double 150° V – two separate crankshafts linked by a gearbox)
Rapp
Rapp Motorenwerke became BMW in 1917
Rapp 100 hp
Rapp 125/145 hp
Rapp Rp III
Rapp 200 hp
Rasmussen
(Hans L Rasmussen)
Rasmussen 65 hp
Rateau
Rateau GTS.65
Rateau A.65 gas turbine
Rateau SRA-01 Savoie
Rateau SRA-101 10-stage axial compressor
Rateau SRA-301 16-stage axial compressor
Rausenberger
Rausenberger A-8 45 hp V-8
Rausenberger B-8 75 hp V-8
Rausenberger C-12 150 hp V-12
Rausenberger D-23 250 hp V-12
Rausenberger E-6 150 hp 6IL
Rausenberger 500 hp
Raven Redrives
Raven 1000 UL
Raven 1300 SVS Turbo
Raven 1600 SV
RBVZ
RBVZ-6 (V.V. Kireev)
MRB-6 (Igor Sikorsky)
Reaction Motors
Reaction Motors LR2
Reaction Motors LR6
Reaction Motors LR8
Reaction Motors LR10
Reaction Motors LR11
Reaction Motors LR22
Reaction Motors LR26
Reaction Motors LR30
Reaction Motors LR32
Reaction Motors LR33
Reaction Motors LR34
Reaction Motors LR35
Reaction Motors LR39
Reaction Motors LR40
Reaction Motors LR44 Guardian
Reaction Motors LR48
Reaction Motors LR99
Reaction Motors 6000C4
Reaction Motors ROR
Reaction Motors Patriot
Reaction Motors TU205
Rearwin
Rearwin 1909 30-45 hp
Rearwin 1909 40-60 hp
Rearwin 1910 50-75 hp
Rearwin 1911 80-90 hp
Rebus
Rebus 50 hp 4-cyl
Rectimo
(Rectimo Aviation SA) / (Rectimo-Savoie Aviation)
Rectimo 4 AR 1200
Rectimo 4 AR 1600
RED
RED Aircraft GmbH
RED A03 – V12 four-stroke iesel engine
Redrup
Redrup 1910 50 hp 10-cyl contra-rotating rotary
Redrup 1914 150 hp 7-cyl radial
Redrup 5-cyl barrel engine
Redrup Fury (barrel engine built by Aero Syndicate Ltd.)
Reggiane
Reggiane Re 101 R.C.50 I (sometimes designated Re L 101 R.C.50 I)
Reggiane Re 102 R.C.50 I (inverted W-18)
Reggiane Re 103 R.C.40 I (inverted W-18)
Reggiane Re 103 R.C.50 I (inverted W-18)
Reggiane Re 103 R.C.57 I (inverted W-18)
Reggiane Re 103 R.C.48 (inverted W-18)
Reggiane Re 104 R.C.38 (V-12 derived from the Isotta Fraschini Asso L.121 R.C.40)
Reggiane Re 105 R.C.100 I (inverted W-18)
Reggiane H-24
Régnier
Régnier R1
Régnier 2
Régnier 4B (derived from de Havilland Gipsy)
Régnier 4D.2
Régnier 4E.0
Régnier 4F.0
Régnier 4JO
Régnier 4KO
Régnier 4LO
Régnier 4L
Régnier 4R
Régnier 6B
Régnier 6C
Régnier 6GO
Régnier 6R
Régnier 6RS
Régnier R161-01
Régnier Martinet
Régnier 12Hoo
Renard
(Société anonyme des avions et moteurs Renard / Alfred Renard, Belgium)
Renard Type 7 7RA
Renard Type 100 5RA
Renard Type 120 5RA
Renard Type 200 9RA
Renard Type 400 18RA (twin-row type 200)
Renard
Renard y Krebs
Renault
(Source: and)
Note: some of the early Renaults seem to have oversquare cylinders and may be listed with bore and stroke transposed below.
Renault 38.5 hp 4-cyl in-line
Renault 42.5 hp 4-cyl in-line
Renault 25/30 hp 4-cyl in-line
Renault 35-40 hp V-4
Renault 35 hp V-8
Renault 35 hp V-8
Renault 45 hp V-8
Renault 50 hp V-8
Renault 50.5 hp V-8
Renault 60 hp V-8
Renault 70hp Type WB
Renault 70hp Type WC
Renault 75 hp V-8
Renault 80hp Type WS
Renault 90 hp V-8
Renault 100 hp V-8
Renault 130 hp V-8
Renault 90 hp V-12 12D
Renault 100hp V-12
Renault 120 hp V-12
Renault 138hp V-12
Renault 190 hp V-12
Renault 200 hp V-12
Renault 220 hp V-12 12E
Renault 265 hp V-12
Renault 300 hp V-12 12F
Renault 320 hp V-12 12Fe
Renault 38.5 hp 4-cyl in-line water-cooled
Renault 42.5 hp 4-cyl in-line water-cooled airship engine
Renault 7A 7 radial
Renault 8A V-8
Renault 8Aa V-8
Renault 8Ab V-8
Renault 9A
Renault 4B 25 hp V-4 1910
Renault 8B V-8
Renault 8C V-8
Renault 8Ca V8
Renault 9C
Renault 9Ca 9 radial
Renault 12D
Renault 12Da
Renault 12Db V12
Renault 12Dc V12
Renault 12Drs V12
Renault 12E V12
Renault 12Eb
Renault 12Ec V12
Renault 9F
Renault 9Fas 9 radial
Renault 12F
Renault 12Fa V12
Renault 12Fb V12
Renault 12Fc V12
Renault 12Fe V12
Renault 12Fex V-12
Renault 14Fas 14 radial
Renault 8G to V8
Renault 12H
Renault 12Ha V12
Renault 12Hd V12
Renault 12He V12
Renault 12Hg V12
Renault 12J
Renault 12Ja V12
Renault 12Jb V12
Renault 12Jc V12
Renault 18J
Renault 18Jbr W18
Renault 12K (aka 450 hp and 500 hp)
Renault 12K1?
Renault 12Ka
Renault 12Kb V12
Renault 12Kd
Renault 12Ke V12
Renault 12Kg V12
Renault 12M V12
Renault 12Ma
Renault 12N
Renault 12Ncr
Renault 12O air-cooled V-12 inverted
Renault 4P
Renault 6P
Renault 9P 9 radial (aka 250 hp air-cooled engine)
Renault 9Pa
Renault 6Q
Renault 12R air-cooled V-12 inverted
Renault 12S V-12 inverted
Renault 14T
Renault 12T V-12 inverted
Renault Bengali 4
Renault Bengali 6
Renault Type WB
Renault Type WC
Renault Type WS
Renault Moteur Coupe Deutsch 6 inline (109.75x140), turbocharged
Renault 438 (Coupe Deutsch) 180 hp 6 in-line
Renault 446 450 hp V-12?
Renault 454 220 hp 6 in-line
Renault 456 300 hp 6 in-line
Renault 468 730 hp inverted V-12
Renault 626 800 hp inverted V-8?
Renault 8? 200 hp 8 cyl in-line water-cooled
R.E.P.
R.E.P. 20/24 hp 5-cyl.
R.E.P. 30/34 hp 7-cyl.
R.E.P. 95 hp 7-cyl.
R.E.P. 40/48 hp 10-cyl.
R.E.P. 60 hp 14-cyl.
R.E.P. 60 hp 5-cyl fan
R.E.P. 50 hp 5-cyl fan
R.E.P. 75 hp 6-cyl
R.E.P. 60 hp 7-cyl
R.E.P. 85 hp 7-cyl radial
Revmaster
Revmaster R-800 2cyl 27 hp (Citroën 2CV)
Revmaster R-1600D VW
Revmaster R-1600S
Revmaster R-1831D
Revmaster R-1831S
Revmaster R-2100D
Revmaster R-2100D Turbo 70 hp at 3,200 rpm
Revmaster R-2100S 65 hp at 3,200 rpm
Revmaster R-2300
Revmaster R-3000D 110 hp at 3,200 rpm
Rex
(Flugmachine Rex GesellschaftG.m.b.H.)
Rex rotary engine
RFB
RFB SG 85
RFB SG 95
Rheem
Rheem S-10 axial
Rheinische
Rheinische 35 hp 3-cyl fan
Rheinische 50/60 hp 5-cyl radial
Rheinische 70 hp 4-cyl in-line
Rheinische 100 hp 6-cyl in-line
Rheinmetall-Borsig
Rheinmetall 109-502
Rheinmetall 109-505
Rheinmetall 109-515 rocket (solid fuel)
Rheinmetall Rheintochter R 1 first stage
Rheinmetall Rheintochter R 1 second stage
Rheinmetall Rheintochter R 3 first stage
Rhenania
(Rhenania Motorenwerke)
Rhenania 11-cyl. rotary engine
Ricardo
Ricardo-Burt S55/4
Ricardo-Halford-Armstrong R.H.A.
Richard & Hering
(Rex-Simplex Automobilwerke)
Richard & Hering engines
Richardson
(Archibald and Mervyn, Sydney Australia)
Richardson rotary
Righter Manufacturing
Righter O-15
Righter O-45
Roberts
(Roberts Motor Company / E.W. Roberts, Sandusky. Ohio)
Roberts 50 hp 4-cyl in-line
Roberts 75 hp 6-cyl in-line
Roberts 4-X.
Roberts 6-X 100 hp
Roberts 6-XX 200 hp
Roberts 6-Z
Roberts E-12 350 hp
Robinson
(Grinnell Aeroplane Co. / William C. Robinson)
Robinson 60 hp
Robinson 100 hp
Robinson
Robinson R-13
Roché
(Jean A Roché)
Roché L-267
Rocket Propulsion Establishment
RPE Gamma
Rocketdyne
Rocketdyne 16NS-1,000
Rocketdyne AR1
Rocketdyne AR2
Rocketdyne LR36 (AR1)
Rocketdyne LR42 (AR2)
Rocketdyne LR64
Rocketdyne LR79
Rocketdyne LR89
Rocketdyne LR101
Rocketdyne LR105
Rocketdyne Aeolus
Rocketdyne A-7 Redstone
Rocketdyne E-1
Rocketdyne F-1 (RP-1/LOX) Saturn V.
Rocketdyne H-1 (RP-1/LOX) Saturn I, Saturn IB, Jupiter, and some Deltas
Rocketdyne J-2 (LH2/LOX) Saturn V and Saturn IB.
Rocketdyne M-34
Rocketdyne MA-2
Rocketdyne MA-3
Rocketdyne MB-3
Rocketdyne MB-93
Rocketdyne P-4
Rocketdyne RS-25 (LH2/LOX) Used by the Space Shuttle
Rocketdyne RS-27A (RP-1/LOX) Used by the Delta II/III and Atlas ICBM
Rocketdyne RS-68 (LH2/LOX) Used by the Delta IV Heavy core stage
Rocketdyne Kiwi Nuclear rocket engine
Rocketdyne Megaboom modular sled rocket
Rocketdyne Vernier engine Atlas, some Thor with MA-2 & MB-3
Rocky Mountain
Rocky Mountain Pegasus
Rollason
Rollason Ardem RTW
Rollason Ardem 4 CO2 FH mod
Rolls-Royce LimitedSources: Piston engines, Lumsden, gas turbine and rocket engines, Gunston.Note: For alternative 'RB' gas turbine designations please see the Rolls-Royce aero engine template.Rolls-Royce 190hp
Rolls-Royce 250hp
Rolls-Royce Avon
Rolls-Royce Bristol Olympus
Rolls-Royce Buzzard
Rolls-Royce Clyde
Rolls-Royce Condor
Rolls-Royce Condor diesel
Rolls-Royce Conway
Rolls-Royce Crecy
Rolls-Royce Dart
Rolls-Royce Derwent
Rolls Royce Eagle (H-24)
Rolls-Royce Eagle (V-12)
Rolls-Royce Eagle (X-16)
Rolls-Royce Exe
Rolls-Royce Falcon
Rolls-Royce Gem
Rolls-Royce Gnome
Rolls-Royce Goshawk
Rolls-Royce Griffon
Rolls-Royce Hawk
Rolls-Royce Kestrel
Rolls-Royce Merlin
Rolls-Royce Nene
Rolls-Royce Olympus
Rolls-Royce Pegasus
Rolls-Royce Pennine
Rolls-Royce Peregrine
Rolls-Royce R
Rolls-Royce RB.44 Tay
Rolls-Royce RB.50 Trent
Rolls-Royce RB.106
Rolls-Royce RB.108
Rolls-Royce RB.141 Medway
Rolls-Royce RB.145
Rolls-Royce/MAN Turbo RB153
Rolls-Royce RB.162
Rolls-Royce RB.175
Rolls-Royce RB.181
Rolls-Royce/MAN Turbo RB193
Rolls-Royce RB.203 Trent
Rolls-Royce RB.207
Rolls-Royce RB211
Rolls-Royce Soar
Rolls-Royce Spey
Rolls-Royce Tweed
Rolls-Royce Tyne
Rolls-Royce Viper
Rolls-Royce Vulture
Rolls-Royce Welland
Rolls-Royce/Continental C90
Rolls-Royce/Continental O-200
Rolls-Royce/Continental O-240
Rolls-Royce/Continental O-300
Rolls-Royce/Continental GIO-470
Rolls-Royce/Continental IO-520
Rolls-Royce RZ.2
Rolls-Royce RZ.12
Rolls-Royce HoldingsNote: For alternative 'RB' gas turbine designations please see the Rolls-Royce aero engine template.Rolls-Royce Trent
Rolls-Royce AE 1107C-Liberty
Rolls-Royce AE 2100
Rolls-Royce AE 3007
Rolls-Royce AE 3010
Rolls-Royce AE 3012
Rolls-Royce BR700
Rolls-Royce BR701
Rolls-Royce BR710
Rolls-Royce BR715
Rolls-Royce RB.183 Tay
Rolls-Royce RB.200
Rolls-Royce RB.202
Rolls-Royce RB.203 Trent
Rolls-Royce RB.207
Rolls-Royce RB.213
Rolls-Royce RB.220
Rolls-Royce RB401
Rolls-Royce 250 – Allison Model 250
Rolls-Royce RR300
Rolls-Royce RR500
Rolls-Royce 501
Rolls-Royce F113 – (Spey Mk.511)
Rolls-Royce F126 – (Tay Mk.611 / 661)
Rolls-Royce F137 (AE3007H)
Rolls-Royce F402 – (Rolls Royce Pegasus)
Rolls-Royce J99
Rolls-Royce XV99-RA-1
Rolls-Royce T56 (T501-D)
Rolls-Royce T68
Rolls-Royce T406
Rolls-Royce Turbomeca
Rolls-Royce Turbomeca Adour
Rolls-Royce Turbomeca RTM322
Rolls-Royce/SNECMA
Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593
Rolls-Royce/SNECMA M45H
Rossel-Peugeot
(Frédéric Rossel et les frères Peugeot)
Rossel-Peugeot 100 hp 4-cyl in-line
Rossel-Peugeot 30 hp 7-cyl rotary
Rossel-Peugeot 40 hp 7-cyl rotary
Rossel-Peugeot 50 hp 7-cyl rotary
Rotax
Rotax 185
Rotax 277
Rotax 377
Rotax 447
Rotax 462
Rotax 503
Rotax 508UL
Rotax 532
Rotax 535
Rotax 582
Rotax 642
Rotax 618
Rotax 804
Rotax 912
Rotax 914
Rotax 915 iS
Rotax 916 iS
Rotec
Rotec R2800
Rotec R3600
Rotex Electric
Rotex Electric REB 20
Rotex Electric REB 30
Rotex Electric REB 50
Rotex Electric REB 90
Rotex Electric REG 20
Rotex Electric REG 30
Rotex Electric RET 30
Rotex Electric RET 60
Rotex Electric REX 30
Rotex Electric REX 50
Rotex Electric REX 90
RotorWay
RotorWay RI-162F
RotorWay RW-100
RotorWay RW-133
RotorWay RW-145
RotorWay RW-152
Rotron
Rotron RT300
Rotron RT600
Rover
Rover Gas Turbines Ltd.
Rover W.2B
Rover Marton
Rover Moreton
Rover Napton
Rover Wolston
Rover T.P.90
Rover/Lucas TJ125 (CT3201)
Rover 1S60
Rover 1S/60
Rover 2S/150A
Rover 748
Rover 801
Rover TJ-125
Royal Aircraft Establishment
RAE 21
RAE 22
Royal Aircraft Factory
RAF 1
RAF 2
RAF 3
RAF 4
RAF 5
RAF 7
RAF 8
RRJAEL
(Rolls-Royce and Japanese Aero-engines Ltd.)
RRJAEL RJ.500
Rumpler
Rumpler Aeolus
Ruston-Proctor
Ruston-Proctor 200 hp 6-stroke rotary(6-cyl 2-stroke?)
Ryan-Siemens
(Ryan Aeronautical Corp/Siemens-Halske)
Ryan-Siemens 5 (Sh-13)
Ryan-Siemens 7 (Sh-14)
Ryan-Siemens 9 (Sh-12)
Ryan-Siemens Sh-14
Rybinsk Motor Factory
DN-200
Rybinsk RD-36-35
Rybinsk RD-38
S
SACMA
(Guy Negre)
SACMA 100
SACMA 120
SACMA 150
SACMA 180
SACMA 240
Safran Helicopter Engines
Safran Arrano
Safran Aneto
SAI Ambrosini
Ambrosini P-25 – 2-cyl. horizontally opposed
Salmson
Salmson air-cooled aero-engines
Salmson 3A, 3Ad
Salmson 5A, 5Ac, 5Ap, 5Aq
Salmson 6A, 6Ad, 6Af
Salmson 6TE, 6TE.S
Salmson 7A, 7AC, 7ACa, 7Aq
Salmson 7M
Salmson 7O, 7Om
Salmson 9AB, 9ABa, 9ABc
Salmson 9AC
Salmson 9AD
Salmson 9AE, 9AEr, 9AErs
Salmson 9NA, 9NAs, 9NC, 9ND, 9NE, 9NH
Salmson 11B
Salmson 12C W-12?
Salmson 12V, 12Vars – V-12
Salmson water-cooled aero-engines
Salmson A – 2x7-cylinder barrel engine, 1 built
Salmson B – 2x7-cylinder barrel engine, 1 built
Salmson C – 2x7-cylinder barrel engine, 1 built
Salmson E – 2x9-cylinder barrel engine, 1 built
Salmson F – 2x9-cylinder barrel engine, 1 built
Salmson G – 2x7-cylinder barrel engine, 1 built
Salmson K – 2x7-cylinder barrel engine, 1 built
Salmson A.7
Salmson A.9
Salmson 2A.9 – a 2-row radial engine
Salmson B.9 water-cooled radial engine
Salmson C.9 water-cooled radial engine
Salmson M.9 water-cooled radial engine
Salmson P.9 water-cooled radial engine
Salmson R.9 water-cooled radial engine
Salmson M.7 water-cooled radial engine
Salmson 2M.7 water-cooled 2-row radial engine
Salmson 9.Z, 9.Za, 9.Zc, 9.Zm
Salmsons 18 cylinder in-line radial engines
Salmson 18Z (1919) 9-bank water-cooled in-line radial 2 x 9Z on common 2-throw crankshaft
Salmson 18AB (1920s) 9-bank air-cooled in-line radial
Salmson 18Cm, 18Cma, 18Cmb – (late 20s early 30s) 9-bank water-cooled (air-cooled heads) in-line radial
Salmson-Szydlowski SH.18 – 18-cyl 2-stroke radial diesel engine (nine banks of two in-line)
Licence-built
Argus As 10 – as Salmson 8As.00, 8As.04
Saroléa
Saroléa V-4
Saroléa Albatros 30 hp 2HO
Saroléa Aiglon
Saroléa Vautour 32 hp 2HO
Saroléa Epervier 25 hp 2HO
S.A.N.A.
S.A.N.A. 700 hp
Saunders-Roe
Saunders-Roe 45 lbf pulse-jet
Saunders-Roe 120 lbf pulse-jet
Sauer
Sauer S 1800
Sauer S 1800 UL
Sauer S 1900 UL
Sauer S 2100
Sauer S 2100 UL
Sauer S 2200 UL
Sauer S 2400 UL
Sauer S 2500
Sauer S 2500 UL
Sauer S 2700 UL
Saurer
GT-15
YS-2
YS-3
YS-4
Scania-Vabis
Scania-Vabis PD
Schliha
(Schlüpmannsche Industrie und Handelsgesellschaft)
Schliha 36 hp 2-cyl
Schliha F-1200
Schmidding
Schmidding 109-505 rocket (solid fuel)
Schmidding 109-513
Schmidding 109-533
Schmidding 109-543
Schmidding 109-553
Schmidding 109-563
Schmidding 109-573
Schmidding 109-593
Schmidding 109-603
Schroeter
Schroeter 89 hp 6-cyl in-line
Schwade
(Otto Schwade GmbH, Erfurt, Germany)
Schwade Stahlherz engine
SCI Aviation
R6-80
R6-150
B4-160
Scott
Scott A2S Flying Squirrel
Scott 40 hp 2-stroke
Scott 1939 2-stroke
Scott 1950 2-stroke V4
Security
(Security Aircraaft Corporation)
Security S-5-120
Sega
Sega trunnion radial engine
SELA
(Société d'Etude pour la Locomotion Aérienne [SELA])
SELA V-8
Seld
(Seld-Kompressorbau G.m.b.H.)
Seld F2
SEPR
SEPR 9
SEPR 16
SEPR 24
SEPR 25
SEPR 35
SEPR 44
SEPR 50
SEPR 55
SEPR 57
SEPR 63
SEPR 65
SEPR 66
SEPR 73
SEPR 732
SEPR 734
SEPR 7341
SEPR 737
SEPR 738
SEPR 739 (Stromboli)
SEPR 78
SEPR 81A
SEPR 167
SEPR 178
SEPR 189
SEPR 192
SEPR 200 (Tramontane)
SEPR 201
SEPR 202
SEPR 2020
SEPR 251
SEPR 481
SEPR 504
SEPR 505
SEPR 5051
SEPR 5052
SEPR 50531
SEPR 5054
SEPR 631
SEPR 683
SEPR 684
SEPR 685
SEPR 6854
SEPR 686
SEPR 703
SEPR 705
SEPR 706
SEPR 740
SEPR 841
SEPR 844
SEPR Topaze
SEPR Diamante
SEPR C2
Sergant
Sergant A
SERMEL
SERMEL TRS 12
SERMEL TRS 18
SERMEL TRS 25
SFFA
(Société Française de Fabrication Aéronautique, France)
SFFA Type A 100 hp 7-cyl
SFFA Type B 45 hp 3-cyl
SFECMAS
SFECMAS Ars 600
SFECMAS Ars 900
SFECMAS 12H
SFECMAS 12K
Shenyang
Shenyang PF-1
Shenyang Aircraft Development Office PF-1A
Shenyang WP-5
Shenyang WP-6
Shenyang WP-7
Shenyang WP-14 ("Kunlun")
Shenyang WS-5
Shenyang WS-6
Shenyang WS-8
Shenyang WS-10
Shimadzu
Shimadzu 80 hp 9-cyl rotary
Shimadzu 90 hp V-8
ShvetsovData from:Russian Piston Aero Engines
Shvetsov M-11
Shvetsov M-3
Shvetsov M-25
Shvetsov M-62
Shvetsov M-63
Shvetsov M-64
Shvetsov M-65
Shvetsov M-70
Shvetsov M-71
Shvetsov M-72
Shvetsov M-80
Shvetsov M-81
Shvetsov M-82
Shvetsov ASh-2
Shvetsov ASh-3
Shvetsov ASh-4
Shvetsov ASh-21
Shvetsov ASh-62
Shvetsov ASh-72 (M-72?)
Shvetsov ASh-73
Shvetsov ASh-82
Shvetsov ASh-83
Shvetsov ASh-84
Shvetsov ASh-90
Shvetsov ASh-93
S.H.K.
S.H.K. 70 hp 7-cyl rotary
S.H.K. 140 hp 14-cyl rotary
S.H.K. 90 hp 7-cyl rotary
S.H.K. 180 hp 14-cyl rotary
Siddeley-Deasy
Siddeley Ounce
Siddeley Pacific
Siddeley Puma
Siddeley Tiger
Siemens
Siemens SP90G
Siemens SP260D
Siemens-Halske
Siemens-Halske 100PS 9-cyl rotary
Siemens VI
Siemens-Halske Sh.0
Siemens-Halske Sh.I
Siemens-Halske Sh.II
Siemens-Halske Sh.III
Siemens-Halske Sh 4
Siemens-Halske Sh 5
Siemens-Halske Sh 6
Siemens-Halske Sh 7
Siemens-Halske Sh 10
Siemens-Halske Sh 11
Siemens-Halske Sh 12
Siemens-Halske Sh 13
Siemens-Halske Sh 14
Siemens-Halske Sh 15
Siemens-Bramo Sh 20
Siemens-Bramo Sh 21
Siemens-Bramo Sh 22
Siemens-Bramo Sh 25
Siemens-Bramo Sh 28
Siemens-Bramo Sh 29
Siemens Bramo SAM 22B
Siemens Bramo 314
Siemens Bramo 322
Siemens Bramo 323 Fafnir
Silnik
Silnik M 11
Silnik Sh 14
Simms
Simms 51 hp V-6
Simonini Racing
Simonini 200cc
Simonini Mini 2 Evo
Simonini Mini 2 Plus
Simonini Mini 3
Simonini Mini 4
Simonini Victor 1 Super
Simonini Victor 2
Simonini Victor 2 Plus
Simonini Victor 2 Super
Škoda
Skoda G-594 Czarny Piotruś
Skoda L
Skoda Lr
Skoda S.14
Skoda S.20
Skoda Hispano-Suiza W-12
Skymotors
Skymotors 70
Skymotors 70A
Smallbone
(Harry Eales Smallbone)
Smallbone 4-cyl wobble-plate axial piston engine
Smalley
(General Machinery Co)
Smalley Aero
SMA Engines
SMA SR305-230
SMA SR460
Smith
Smith Static
Smith 300 hp radial
SMPMC
(South Motive Power and Machinery Complex SMPMC prev Zhuzhou Aeroengine Factory)
SMPMC HS-5 – Chinese production of ShvetsovvASh-62
SMPMC HS-6 – Chinese production of Ivchenko AI-14
SMPMC WZ-8 – Chinese production of Turbomeca Arriel
SMPMC WZ-9
SMPMC WZ-16
SNCAN
SNCAN Ars 600
SNCAN Ars 900
SNCAN Pulse-jet
SNECMASociété nationale d'études et de construction de moteurs d'aviation formed by nationalisation of Gnome et Rhône in 1945. On French engine designations even sub-series numbers (for example Gnome-Rhône 14N-68) rotated anti-clockwise (LH rotation) and were generally fitted on the starboard side, odd numbers (for example Gnome-Rhône 14N-69) rotated clockwise (RH rotation) and were fitted on the port side.
SNECMA Régnier 4L
SNECMA 12S/12T – post war Argus As 411 production
SNECMA-GR 14M – Gnome-Rhône 14M
SNECMA-GR 14N – Gnome-Rhône 14N
SNECMA 14NC Diesel 1945 1,015 hp
SNECMA 14R
SNECMA 14U 1948 2,200 hp(14R-1000)
SNECMA 14X Super Mars 1949 850 hp
SNECMA 14X-02
SNECMA 14X-04
SNECMA 14X-H
SNECMA 28T 1945 3,500 hp
SNECMA 32HL 1947 4,000 hp
SNECMA 36T 1948 4,150 hp
SNECMA 42T 1946 5,000 hp
SNECMA M26
SNECMA M28
SNECMA M45/Mars
Rolls-Royce/SNECMA M45H
SNECMA Turbomeca Larzac (M49)
SNECMA M53
SNECMA M88
SNECMA Atar 101
SNECMA Atar 8
SNECMA Atar 9
SNECMA Hercules – Bristol Hercules
Snecma Silvercrest
SNECMA-BMW 132Z
SNECMA / Pratt & Whitney TF104
SNECMA / Pratt & Whitney TF106
SNECMA / Pratt & Whitney TF306
SNECMA-Renault 4P
SNECMA-Renault 6Q
SNECMA Hispano 12B 1950 2,200 hp
SNECMA Hispano 12Y 1947 900 hp
SNECMA Hispano 12Z
SNECMA Super ATAR
SNECMA R.104 Vulcain
SNECMA R.105 Vesta
SNECMA Escopette
SNECMA Tromblon
SNECMA Ecrevisse Type A
SNECMA Ecrevisse Type B
SNeCMA AS.11
SNECMA S.402 A.3
SNECMA S.407 A.2
SNECMA TA-1000
SNECMA TB-1000
SNCM
(Société Nationale de Constructions de Moteurs – Lorraine post 1936)
Lorraine Type 120 Algol
Lorraine Type 111 Sterna
Lorraine Type 112 Sirius
SOCEMA
(Société de Construction et d'Équipments Méchaniques pour l'Aviation)
SOCEMA TGA 1
SOCEMA TG 1008
SOCEMA TGAR 1008
SOCEMA TP.1
SOCEMA TP.2
Sodemo
Sodemo V2-1.0
Sodemo V2-1.2
Solar
Solar PJ32 pulse-jet
Solar T45 (Mars 50 hp gas turbine)
Solar T62 Titan
Solar T66 free turbine Titan
Solar T-150
Solar Centaur 40
Solar Centaur 50
Solar Jupiter (500 hp gas turbine)
Solar Mars 90
Solar Mars 100
Solar Mercury 50
Solar Saturn
Solar Saturn 10
Solar Saturn 20
Solar Taurus 60
Solar Taurus 65
Solar Taurus 70
Solar Titan 130
Solar Titan 250
Solar A-103B (early detachable afterburner for J34)
Solar AAP-80
Solar M-80
Solar MA-1 (Mars)
Solar T-41M-1
Solar T-41M-2
Solar T-41M-5
Solar T-41M-6
Solar T-45M-1 (Mars)
Solar T-45M-2
Solar T-45M-7
Solar T-300J-2
Solar T-520J
Solar T-522J
Solo
(Solo Kleinmotoren GmbH)
Solo 560, also known as the Hirth F-10, used in the Scheibe SF-24 Motorspatz
Solo 2350, widely used in motor-gliders
Solo 2625 01
Solo 2625 02, used in the Glaser-Dirks DG-500, Schempp-Hirth Ventus-2, Sportinė Aviacija LAK-20 etc.
Solo 2625 02i, a fuel-injected version used in the Schempp-Hirth Arcus and Schempp-Hirth Quintus self-launching gliders
SolovievSource:Gunston.Soloviev D-15
Soloviev D-20
Soloviev D-25V (TB-2BM)
Soloviev D-30
Soloviev D-30K (completely revised)
Soloviev D-90A
Soloy
(Soloy Conversions / Soloy Dual Pak Inc.)
Soloy Dual Pac
Soloy Turbine Pac
Soverini
(Soverini Freres et Cie)
Soverini-Echard 4D
Soverini-Echard 4DR
Soviet union experimental engines
AD-1 (diesel engine)
AD-3 (diesel engine)
AD-5 (diesel engine)
FED-8 (diesel engine)
MB-100 (A.M. Dobrotvorskiy)
MB-102 (A.M. Dobrotvorskiy)
MSK (diesel engine)
AN-1 (diesel engine)
AN-1A (diesel engine)
AN-1R (diesel engine) (geared)
AN-1RTK (diesel engine) (geared, turbo-supercharged)
AN-5 (diesel engine) (N – Neftyanoy – of crude oil type – 24-cyl rhombic opposed piston)
AN-20 (diesel engine) (24-cyl rhombic opposed piston)
BD-2A (diesel engine)
M-1 (aero-engine) (V-12 a.k.a. M-116 – S.D. Kolosov)
M-5-400
M-9 (L.I. Starostin – swashplate engine)
M-10 (diesel engine) (5-cyl radial)
M-16 (aero-engine) (4-cyl horizontally opposed – S.D. Kolosov)
M-20 (diesel engine) (48-cyl rhombic opposed piston)
M-30 (diesel engine)
M-31 (diesel engine)
M-35 (diesel engine)
M-40 (diesel engine)
M-47 (aero-engine) – fitted to Ilyushin Il-20
M-50R (diesel engine) (marine rhombic opposed piston)
M-52 (diesel engine)
M-87D (diesel engine)
M-116 (aero-engine) (V-12 a.k.a. M-1 – S.D. Kolosov)
M-127 (X-24 conrod free)
M-127K (X-24 conrod free)
M-130 (aircraft engine) (H-24)
M-224 (diesel engine)
M-501 (diesel engine)
MB-4 (X-4 MB – O Motor Besshatunniy – con-rod free engine – S.S. Balandin)
MB-4b (X-4 MB – O Motor Besshatunniy – con-rod free engine – S.S. Balandin)
MB-8 (X-8 MB – O Motor Besshatunniy – con-rod free engine – S.S. Balandin)
MB-8b (X-8 MB – O Motor Besshatunniy – con-rod free engine – S.S. Balandin)
MF-45Sh (M-47)
D-11 (diesel engine) (5-cyl radial based on the M-11)
N-1 (diesel engine) (N – Neftyanoy – of crude oil type)
N-2 (diesel engine)
N-3 (diesel engine)
N-4 (diesel engine)
N-5 (diesel engine)
N-6 (diesel engine)
N-9 (diesel engine)
OMB (OMB – O Motor Besshatunniy – con-rod free engine – S.S. Balandin)
OMB-127 (X-12 MB – O Motor Besshatunniy – con-rod free engine – S.S. Balandin)
OMB-127RN (X-12 MB – O Motor Besshatunniy – con-rod free engine – S.S. Balandin)
Soyuz
(AMNTK Soyuz)
Soyuz R-79V-300
Soyuz R-79M
Soyuz R-179-300
Soyuz VK-21
Soyuz R134-300
SPA
SPA 6A
Speer
Speer S-2-C
Sperry
(Lawrence Sperry Aircraft Co)
Sperry WBB 2-stroke
Spyker
Spijker 135 hp rotary
Sport Plane Power
(Sport Plane Power Inc.)
Sport Plane Power K-100A
STAL
STAL Skuten
STAL Dovern
Star
(Star Engineering Co. ltd.)
Star 40 hp
Stark
(Stark Flugzeugbau KG)
Stark Stamo 1400
Statax
(Statax Engine Company Ltd. – prev. Statax-Motor of Zurich)
Statax 3cyl 10 hp axial
Statax 5cyl 40 hp axial
Statax 7cyl 80 hp axial
Statax 10cyl 100 hp axial
Stoewer
Stoewer 125 hp
Stoewer 150 hp
Stoewer 180 hp
Stratus 2000
Stratus EJ 22
Straughan
(Straughn Aircraft Corp)
Straughan AL-1000 (Ford model 1A)
Studebaker
H-9350 (24cyl 153.2 litres)
Studebaker-Waterman
Studebaker-Waterman S-1
Sturtevant
Sturtevant 1913 40 hp
Sturtevant 1913 60 hp
Sturtevant 5 140 hp V-8
Sturtevant 5A 140 hp V-8
Sturtevant 5A-4
Sturtevant 5A-4 210 hp V-8
Sturtevant 7 300 hp V-12
Sturtevant D-4 48 hp 4IL
Sturtevant D-6 86 hp 6IL
Sturtevant E-6 100 hp 6IL
Subaru
Subaru EJ25
Subaru EA82
Sulzer
Sulzer ATAR 09C
SunbeamSource: Lumsden.
Sunbeam 110 hp
Sunbeam 150 hp
Sunbeam 200 hp
Sunbeam 225 hp
Sunbeam Afridi
Sunbeam Amazon
Sunbeam Arab
Sunbeam Bedouin
Sunbeam Cossack
Sunbeam Crusader
Sunbeam Dyak
Sunbeam Gurkha
Sunbeam Kaffir
Sunbeam Malay
Sunbeam Maori
Sunbeam Manitou
Sunbeam Matabele
Sunbeam Mohawk
Sunbeam Nubian
Sunbeam Pathan
Sunbeam Saracen
Sunbeam Sikh
Sunbeam Semi-Sikh
Sunbeam Sikh II a.k.a. Semi-Sikh
Sunbeam Sikh III
Sunbeam Spartan
Sunbeam Tartar
Sunbeam Viking
Sunbeam Zulu
Sunbeam 2,000 hp – engine for Kaye Don's Silver Bullet land speed record car
Superior
Superior Air Parts XP-320
Superior Air Parts XP-360
Superior Air Parts XP-382
Superior Air Parts XP-400
Superior Air Parts Gemini Diesel 100
Superior Air Parts Gemini Diesel 125
Superior Air Parts Vantage
Survol-de Coucy
Survol-de Coucy Pygmée 40 hp
Svenska
Svenska Flygmotor P/15-54
IA R-19-SR/1 Indio
Svenska Flygmotor RM1 Goblin
Svenska Flygmotor RM2 Ghost
Svenska Flygmotor RM5 Avon
Svenska Flygmotor RM6 Avon
Svenska Flygmotor RR2
Svenska RM8
Svenska F-451-A Trollet
Svenska Flygmotor VR-3
Szekely
Szekely SR-3 O 3-cyl (SR – "Sky Roamer")
Szekely SR-3 L
Szekely SR-5 5-cyl
Szekely 100 7-cyl
Szekely O-125
T
Take Off
Take Off TBM 10
Take Off TBM 11
Take Off TBM 12
Tatra
Tatra T100
Tatra T101
TBS
(Turbinenbau Schuberth Schwabhausen GmbH)
TBS 400N-J40P
TECSee: MoslerTechnopower
(Technopower Inc.)
Technopower Twin O-101
TEI
TEI PD170
TEI TS1400
Teledyne CAE
CAE 210 (XT51-1 – Turbomeca Artouste I) 280 shp
CAE 217-5 (XT72 – Turbomeca Astazou) 600shp
CAE 217-10 (XT65 – scaled down Astazou) 305 shp
CAE 217A (XT67 – coupled Turbomeca Astazou X)
CAE 220-2 (XT51-3 – Turbomeca Artouste II)
CAE 227
CAE 300
CAE 320 (Turbomeca Palas – 350 lbf thrust)
CAE 325 (Continental TS325-1?)
CAE 324
CAE 382
Continental T51 – (development of Turbomeca Artouste I) 280 shp
CAE T72 – (Turbomeca Astazou) 600shp
CAE T65 – (scaled down Astazou) 305 shp
CAE T67 – (coupled Turbomeca Astazou X)
Teledyne CAE 352
Teledyne CAE 354
Teledyne CAE 356
Teledyne CAE 365
Teledyne CAE 370
Teledyne CAE 372
Teledyne CAE 373
Teledyne CAE 382
Teledyne CAE 440
Teledyne CAE 455
Teledyne CAE 472 (see F106)
Teledyne CAE 490
Teledyne CAE 555
Teledyne CAE J69
Teledyne CAE LJ95
Teledyne CAE J100
Teledyne CAE J402
Teledyne CAE F106
Teledyne CAE F408
Teledyne CAE CJ69
Teledyne CAE TS120
Thaheld
Thaheld O-290 diesel
Thermo-Jet
(Thermo-Jet Standard Inc.)
Thermo-Jet J3-200
Thermo-Jet J5-200
Thermo-Jet J7-300
Thermo-Jet J8-200
Thermo-Jet J10-200
Thermo-Jet J13-202
Thames
(Thames Ironworks and Ship[building Co.Ltd.)
Thames 30 hp 4OW
Thielert
Thielert Centurion 1.7
Thielert Centurion 4.0
Thiokol
Data from:Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1962-3
Thiokol LR44
Thiokol LR58
Thiokol LR62
Thiokol LR99
Thiokol M6 (TX-136)
Thiokol M10 (TX-10)
Thiokol M12 (TX-12)
Thiokol M16 (TX-16)
Thiokol M18 (TX-18)
Thiokol M19
Thiokol M20 (TX-20)
Thiokol M30 (TX-30)
Thiokol M33 (TX-33)
Thiokol M46
Thiokol M51 (TX-131-15)
Thiokol M55
Thiokol M58 (TX-58)
Thiokol TU-122
Thiokol TX-135
Thiokol TD-174 Guardian
Thiokol TE-29 Recruit
Thiokol TD-214 Pioneer
Thiokol TE-289 Yardbird
Thiokol TE-307 Apache
Thomas
(Thomas Aeromotor Company, United States)
Thomas 120 hp 4-cyl in-line
Thomas 8 135 hp
Thomas 88 150 hp
Thomas 890 250 hp
Thorotzkai
(Thorotzkai Péter alt, spelling Thoroczkay)
Thorotzkai 12 hp
Thorotzkai 22 hp 3cyl. radial
Thorotzkai 35 hp opposed twin
Thorotzkai typ.7 35 hp
Thorotzkai 120 hp
Thorotzkai Gamma-III (35 hp 3cyl. radial)
Thulin
Thulin A (engine)
Thulin D (engine) (Le Rhône 18E ?)
Thulin E (engine)
Thulin G (engine) (Le Rhône 11F ?)
Thunder
(Thunder Engines Inc.)
Thunder TE495-TC700
Tiger
(The Light Manufacturing and Foundry Company)
Tiger 100
Tiger 125
Tiger Kitten-20
Tiger Kitten-30
Tiger Junior 50
Tips
Tips 480 hp 250 hp (18 cyl., 1717.67 ci, air- and water-cooled rotary engine. At rated RPM the crankshaft rotated at 1800 rpm, propeller shaft at 1080 rpm and the engine body at 60 rpm. Cooling was by direct air flow and tubular radiators between the cylinders, with water circulating without hoses or pumps.)
Tips & Smith
Tips & Smith Super-Rhône
Tomonoo
(Tomon Naoji)
Tomono 90 hp 6-cyl in-line
Tone
Tone 2V9 180 hp
TNCA
TNCA Aztatl
TNCA Trebol
Tokyo Gasu Denk/Gasuden
Tokyo Gasu Denki Amakaze
Tokyo Gasu Denki Hatakaze
Tokyo Gasu Denki Jimpu 3
Tokyo Gasu Denki Kamikaze
Tokyo Gasu Denki Tempu
Gasuden Amakaze
Gasuden Hatakaze
Gasuden Jimpu 3
Gasuden Kamikaze
Gasuden Tempu
Torque Master
(Valley Engineering)
Torque Master 1835cc
Torque Master 1915cc
Torque Master 2180cc
Tosi
Tosi 450 hp V-12
Total Engine Concepts
Total Engine Concepts MM CB-40
Trace Engines
Trace turbocharged V-8
Train
(Établissements E. Train / Société des Constructions Guinard)
Train 2T
Train 4A
Train 4E
Train 4T
Train 6C
Train 6D
Train 6T
Trebert
Trebert 60 hp 6-cyl rotary barrel engine
Trebert 100 hp V-8
Tumansky
Tumansky M-87
Tumansky M-88
Tumansky R-11
Tumansky R-13
Tumansky R-15
Tumansky RU-19
Tumansky R-21
Tumansky R-25
Tumansky R-266
Tumansky R-27
Tumansky R-29
Tumansky RD-9
TurbomecaSource:Gunston except where notedTurbomeca Arbizon
Turbomeca Ardiden
Turbomeca Arrius
Turbomeca Arrius (1950s)
Turbomeca Arriel
Turbomeca Artouste
Turbomeca Aspin
Turbomeca Astazou
Turbomeca Astafan
Turbomeca Aubisque
Turbomeca Autan
Turbomeca Bastan
Turbomeca Bi-Bastan – paired Bastan IV
Turbomeca Gabizo
Turbomeca Gourdon
Turbomeca Makila
Turbomeca Marboré
Turbomeca Marcadau
Turbomeca Orédon (1947) Turbomeca's first gas turbine ca 1948; name reused in 1965
Turbomeca Ossau
Turbomeca Palas
Turbomeca Palouste
Turbomeca Piméné
Turbomeca Soular (Soulor?)
Turbomeca Super Palas
Turbomeca Tramontane
Turbomeca Turmo I (turboshaft)
Turbomeca Turmo II (turboshaft)
Turbomeca Turmo III (turboshaft)
Turbomeca Turmastazou
Turbomeca Double Turmastazou
Turbomeca TM251
Turbomeca TM319
Turbomeca TM333
Turbomeca Agusta TAA230
Turbomeca/SNECMA Larzac
Rolls-Royce/Turbomeca RTM321
Rolls-Royce/Turbomeca RTM322
Rolls-Royce/Turbomeca Adour
Rolls-Royce/Turbomeca Orédon
MAN/Rolls-Royce/Turboméca MTR390
MTU/Turbomeca MTM385
Turbo Research
Turbo Research was taken over by Avro Canada
Turbo Research TR.1 – abandoned design study
Turbo Research TR.2 – abandoned design study
Turbo Research TR.3 – abandoned design study
Turbo Research TR.4 – see Avro Canada Chinook
Turbo Research TR.5 – see Avro Canada Orenda
Turbo-Union
Turbo-Union was a joint venture between Rolls-Royce Ltd, MTU and Aeritalia to produce engine for Panavia Tornado
Turbo-Union RB199
Twombly Motor Company
Twombly Motor Company (Willard Irving Twombly)
A 50 hp 7-cylinder rotary; , 1912.
U
Ufimtsev
(A.G. Ufimtsev)
Ufimtsev 1908 20 hp 2-cyl 2-stroke rotary
Ufimtsev 1910 35-40 hp 4-cyl contra-rotating rotary
Ufimtsev ADU-4 – 60 hp 6-cyl contra-rotating rotary
ULPower
ULPower UL260i
ULPower UL350i
ULPower UL390i
ULPower UL520i
Union
(Union Gas Engine Company, United States)
Union 120 hp 6-cyl in-line
Ursinus
(Ursinus Leichtmotorenbau)
Ursinus U.1
Ursinus U.2
UTC
(United Technology Corporation)
UTC P-1
V
Valley
(Valley Engineering)
Valley 1915cc
Valley 2276cc
Van Blerck
(Van Blerck Motor Co., Monroe, Michigan)
Van Blerck 124 hp V-8
Van Blerck 135 hp V-8
Van Blerck 185 hp V-12
Vaslin
(Henri Vaslin)
Vaslin 15 hp flat-4
Vaslin 24 hp
Vaslin 55 hp 6 in-line water-cooled
Vauxhall
(Vauxhall Motors Ltd.)
Vauxhall 175 hp V-12
Vaxell
Vaxell 60i
Vaxell 80i
Vaxell 100i
Vedeneyev
Vedeneyev M14P
Velie
Velie M-5
Velie L-9
Verdet
Verdet 55 hp 7-cyl rotary
Vereinegung Volkseigener Betriebe FlugzeugbauSee: PirnaVerner MotorSource: RMV, Verner Motor range of engines,
Verner Scarlett mini 3 – 3 cyl radial
Verner Scarlett mini 5 – 5 cyl radial
Verner Scarlett 7H – 7 cyl radial
Verner Scarlett 36Hi
Verner JCV 360
Verner VM 125
Verner VM 133
Verner VM 144Hi
Verner VM 1400
Verner Scarlett 3V
Verner Scarlett 5V
Verner Scarlett 5Si
Verner Scarlett 7U
Verner Scarlett 9S
Viale
Viale 35 hp (1910 35-50 hp 5-cyl. radial)
Viale 30 hp 3-cyl fan
Viale 50 hp 5-cyl radial
Viale 70 hp 7-cyl radial
Viale 100 hp 10-cyl radial
VIJA
VIJA J-10Si
VIJA J-10Sbi
VIJA AG-12Si
VIJA AG-12Sbi
VIJA J-16Ti
Viking
(Viking Aircraft Engines)
Viking 100
Viking 110
Viking
(Detroit Manufacturers Syndicate Inc)
Viking 140 hp X-16
Villiers-Hay
(Villiers-Hay Development Ltd.)
Villiers-Hay 4-L-318 Maya I
Villiers-Hay 4-L-319 Maya II
Vittorazi
(Morrovalle, Italy)
Vittorazi Easy 100 Plus
Vittorazi Fly 100 Evo 2
Vittorazi Moster 185
VivinusData from:Vivinus 32.5 hp 4-cyl in-line
Vivinus 37.5 hp 4-cyl in-line
Vivinus 39.2 hp 4-cyl in-line
Vivinus 50 hp 4-cyl in-line
Vivinus 60 hp 4-cyl in-line
Vivinus 70 hp 4-cyl in-line
Volkswagen
1/2 VW
Volvo Aero
RM1
RM2 – licence built de Havilland Ghost
RM3
RM4
RM5, RM6 – licence built Rolls-Royce Avon
Volvo RM8 – modified Pratt & Whitney JT8D
Volvo RM12 – variant of General Electric F404
von Behren
von Behren O-113 Air Horse
Voronezh
(Voronezh engine factory)
Voronezh MV-6
W
Wackett
Source: RMV
Wackett 2-cylinder 20/25 hp
Wackett 2-cylinder 40 hp
Wackett Victa 1-cylinder 1924
Walter Aircraft Engines
Walter A
Walter 108H
Walter 110H
Walter W.III – licensed BMW IIIa
Walter W.IV – licensed BMW IV
Walter W.V – licensed Fiat A.20
Walter W.VI – licensed Fiat A.22
Walter W.VII -licensed Fiat A.24
Walter W.VIII – licensed Fiat A.25
Walter H80
Walter NZ 40
Walter NZ 60
Walter NZ 85
Walter NZ 120
Walter M05 – Rolls-Royce Nene
Walter M06 – Klimov VK-1
Walter M701
Walter M202
Walter M208
Walter M332
Walter M337
Walter M436
Walter M462
Walter M466
Walter M601
Walter M602
Walter M701
Walter Junior
Walter Mikron
Walter Minor 4
Walter Minor 6
Walter Minor 12 I-MR
Walter Major 4-1
Walter Major 6-1
Walter Atlas
Walter Atom
Walter Bora
Walter Castor
Walter Gemma
Walter Jupiter – licensed Bristol Jupiter
Walter Merkur – licensed Bristol Mercury
Walter Mars – licensed Gnome-Rhône 14M
Walter Mars I
Walter Mira R – licensed and developed Pobjoy R
Walter Mistral K 14 – licensed Gnome-Rhône Mistral Major
Walter Pegas – licensed Bristol Pegasus
Walter Polaris
Walter Pollux
Walter Regulus
Walter Sagitta
Walter Scolar
Walter Super Castor
Walter Vega
Walter Venus
Walter (HWK)
Walter RI-201 "Cold" Take Off Pack
Walter RI-203 "Hot" Take Off Pack
Walter RII.203
Walter RII.211
Walter HWK 109-500
Walter HWK 109-501
Walter HWK 109-507
Walter HWK 109-509
Walter HWK 109-559
Walter HWK 109-719
Walter HWK 109-729 (SV-stoff and R-stoff)
Walter HWK 109-739
Walter Heimatschützer I
Walter Heimatschützer IV
Walter Me.109 Climb Assister
Wankel
Wankel AG LCR – 407 SGti
Wankel AG LCR – 814 TGti
Warbirds-engines
(Cesky znalecky institut sro, Prague, Czech Republic)
Warbirds ASz-62 IR
Warner
Warner Scarab/Super Scarab
Warner Scarab Junior
Warner R-420
Warner R-500
Warner R-550
Warner 145
Warner 165
Warner 185
WASAG
(Westphalisch-Anhaltische Springstoff A.G.)Source: RMVWASAG 109-506
WASAG 109-512
WASAG 109-522
WASAG 109-532
Watson
(Gary Watson of Newcastle, Texas)
Watson 917cc 1/2 VW
Weir
Weir 2HOA
Weir 40/50 hp 4IL
Weiss
(Weiss Manfréd Repülögép- és Motorgyár Rt – Manfréd Weiss Aircraft and Engine works)
Weiss WM Sh 10 – licence built Siemens-Halske Sh 10
Weiss WM Sh 11 – licence built Siemens-Halske Sh 11
Weiss WM Sh 12 – licence built Siemens-Halske Sh 12
Weiss Sport I 100-130 hp air-cooled 4-cylinder inline engines
Weiss Sport II 100-130 hp air-cooled 4-cylinder inline engines
Weiss Sport III 100-130 hp air-cooled 4-cylinder inline engines
Weiss – Bristol Jupiter VI
Weiss MW 9K Mistral (520 hp Gnome-Rhône 9Krsd)
Weiss WM-K-14A (870 hp licence built and modified Gnome-Rhône 14K Mistral Major)
Weiss WM-K-14B (910 hp and 1030 hp licence built and modified Gnome-Rhône 14K Mistral Major)
Weiss-Daimler-Benz DB 605B (for Hungarian built Messerschmitt Me 210Ca-1/C-1s).
Welch
(Welch Aircraft Co)
Welch O-2 (O-135)
Wells & Adams
Wells & Adams 50 hp
Wells & Adams 135 hp V-8
Werner
Werner 30 hp 4-cyl in-line
Werner & Pfleiderer
Werner & Pfleiderer 90/95 hp 4-cyl inline
Werner & Pfleiderer 95 hp 4-cyl inverted inline
Werner & Pfleiderer 140/150 hp 6-cyl inline
Werner & Pfleiderer 220 hp 8-cyl
Wessex
a 130 hp 6-cylinder in-line
West Engineering
West Engineering XJ38
Westermayer
(Oskar Westermayer)
Westermayer W-5-33
Western
(Western Enterprise Engine Co)
Western L-7
Westinghouse
Westinghouse J30
Westinghouse J32
Westinghouse J34
Westinghouse J40
Westinghouse J43
Westinghouse J45
Westinghouse J46
Westinghouse J50
Westinghouse J54
Westinghouse J74 (none built?)
Westinghouse J81 (Rolls-Royce Soar)
Westinghouse T30 (25D)
Westinghouse T70
Westinghouse 19XB
Westinghouse 24C
Westinghouse 25D (T30)
Westinghouse 40E
Westinghouse 9.5A/B
Wherry
Wherry 4-cyl rotary barrel engine
White & PoppeSource: RMVWhite & Poppe 23 hp 6-cyl in-line
White & Poppe 130 hp V-8
WhiteheadSource: RMVWhitehead 1910 40 hp
Whitehead 1910 75 hp
Wickner
Wickner Wicko F
Wiley Post
Wiley Post AL-1000
WilkschSource: RMVWilksch WAM100
Wilksch WAM120
Wilksch WAM160
Williams
a water-cooled 125 hp V-8
Williams InternationalSource: RMVWilliams F107 (WR19)
Williams F112
Williams F121
Williams F122
Williams F124
Williams F129 (FJ44)
Williams F415
Williams EJ22
Williams FJ22
Williams FJ33
Williams FJ44
Williams FJX-1
Williams FJX-2
Williams J400 (WR24)
Williams WJ38-5
Williams WJ119
Williams WR2
Williams WR9
Williams WR19
Williams WRC19
Williams WR24
Williams WR27-1
Williams WR34
Williams WR44
Williams WST117
Williams WTS34
Wills
(C. Howard Wills)
WBB V-4 2-stroke for Sperry aerial torpedo
Winterthur
(The Swiss Locomotive and machine Works)
Winterthur V-8
Winterthur V-12
Wisconsin
140 hp 6-cyl in-line
250 hp V-12
Woelfe Aixro
Woelfe Aixro XF40
Wojcicli
(S.Wojcicli)
Wojcicli 10 kg pulsejet
Wojcicli 20 kg pulsejet
Wojcicli 40 kg pulsejet
Wojcicli 70 kg pulsejet
Wojcicli 11 kg ramjet
Wojcicli 200 kg ramjet
WolseleySource: Lumsden.
Wolseley 30 hp 4-cylinder
Wolseley 50 hp V-8 air-cooled
Wolseley 54 hp V-8 water-cooled
Wolseley 60 hp, also known as Type C – V-8 water-cooled
80 hp "Type B"
Wolseley 75 hp V-8 air-cooled
Wolseley 90 hp V-8 air-cooled
Wolseley 90 hp V-8 water-cooled
Wolseley 120/150 hp V-8 water-cooled
Wolseley 1911 Type A V-8
Wolseley 1911 Type D V-8
Wolseley 160 hp – 1912 V-8
Wolseley Aquarius, also known as Wolseley AR7
Wolseley Aries, also known as Wolseley AR9
Wolseley Leo
Wolseley Libra
Wolseley Scorpio
Wolseley Viper – licence built Hispano Suiza HS-8
Wolseley Python
Wolseley Adder
Wright
Wright Model 4
Wright 1903 12 hp
Wright 32.5 hp 4-cylinder in-line 4.25" x 4.33"
Wright 30/35 hp 4-cyl in-line
Wright 50 hp 6-cyl in-line
Wright 60 hp V-8
Wright 1910 50-60 hp
Wright 6-60 60 hp 6IL
Wright R-460
Wright R-540 Whirlwind
Wright R-760 Whirlwind
Wright R-790 Whirlwind
Wright R-975 Whirlwind
Wright R-1200 Simoon
Wright R-1300 Cyclone 7
Wright R-1454 (R-1)
Wright R-1510 Whirlwind 14Wright R-1670
Wright R-1750 Cyclone 9Wright R-1820 Cyclone
Wright R-2160 Tornado
Wright R-2600 Twin Cyclone
Wright R-3350 Duplex-Cyclone
Wright R-4090 Cyclone 22
Wright Gale (from Lawrance L-4)
Wright V-720
Wright IV-1460
Wright IV-1560
Wright V-1950 Tornado
Wright H-2120 12 cylinder liquid cooled radial
Wright XH-4240
Wright D-1
Wright F-50 Cyclone
Wright F-60 Cyclone
Wright G Cyclone
Wright G-100
Wright G-200
Wright GTC-1
Wright J-1
Wright J-3 Whirlwind
Wright J-4 Whirlwind
Wright J-5 Whirlwind
Wright J-6 Whirlwind 5
Wright J-6 Whirlwind 7
Wright J-6 Whirlwind 9
Wright K-2
Wright P-1
Wright P-2
Wright R-1 (R-1454)
Wright T
Wright T-1
Wright T-2
Wright T-3 Tornado
Wright T-3A Tornado (V-1950)
Wright T-4
Wright TJ-6
Wright TJ-7
Wright TJA-1
Wright TJ-38A1 Commercial (Olympus 6)
Wright TP-51A2
Wright J51
Wright J59
Wright J61
Wright J65 (Armstrong-Siddeley Sapphire)
Wright J67 (Bristol Olympus)
Wright T35 (from Lockheed J37)
Wright T43
Wright T47 (Olympus turboprop ~10,500shp)
Wright T49 (Sapphire turboprop ~6,500–10,380ehp)
Wright Company
Wright Vertical 4
Wright-Gypsy
Wright-Gypsy L-320
Wright-Hisso
(Wright-Martin/Wright-Hisso)
Wright-Hisso A
Wright-Hisso B 4-cyl in-line water-cooled
Wright-Hisso C geared A
Wright-Hisso D geared A with cannon
Wright-Hisso E (HC 'I')
Wright-Hisso E-2 (HC 'E')
Wright-Hisso E-3
Wright-Hisso E-4
Wright-Hisso F ('D' without cannon)
Wright-Hisso H
Wright-Hisso H-2 improved 'H'
Wright-Hisso I
Wright-Hisso K H with 37mm Baldwin cannon
Wright-Hisso K-2
Wright-Hisso M experimental 300 hp
Wright-Hisso T
Wright-Hisso 180 hp V-8 direct drive
Wright-Hisso 220 hp V-8 geared drive
Wright-Hisso 300 hp V-8 geared drive
Wright-Morehouse
Wright-Morehouse 2-cyl horizontally opposed 26 hp (Lincoln Rocket)
Wright-Siemens
Wright-Siemens Sh-14
Wright-Tuttle
Wright-Tuttle WT-5
Wynne
(William Wynne)
(The Corvair Authority)
Wynne O-164B 100 HP
Wynne O-164-BE 110 HP
Wynne TSIO-164-BE 145 HP
X
XCOR Aerospace
XCOR XR-4A3
XCOR XR-4K14
Xian
Xian WS-9 ("Qinling")
Xian WS-15 ("Emei")
Y
Yamaha
Yamaha KT100
York
(Jo York)
York 4-cyl in-line
Yuneec International
Yuneec Power Drive 10
Yuneec Power Drive 20
Yuneec Power Drive 40
Yuneec Power Drive 60
Z
Zanzottera
Zanzottera MZ 34
Zanzottera MZ 100
Zanzottera MZ 201
Zanzottera MZ 202
Zanzottera MZ 301
Zanzottera MZ 313
Z.B.
(Ceskoslovenska Zbrojovka A.S. Brno / Zbrojovka Brno)
Z.B. ZOD-260
Zeitlin
(Joseph Zeitlin)
Zeitlin 220 hp 7-cyl rotary bore, variable stroke
Zenoah
Zenoah G-25
Zenoah G-50
Zenoah G-72
Zhuzhou
(Zhuzhou Aeroengine Factory -ZEF now South Motive Power and Machinery Complex (SMPMC))
ZEF HS-5
ZEF HS-6
ZEF WZ-8
ZEF WZ-9
ZEF WZ-16
ZlinSource:Zlin Persy
Zlin Persy II
Zlin Persy III
Zlin Toma 4
Zlin Toma 6
Zoche
Zoche Z 01
Zoche Z 02
Zoche Z 03
Zoche Z 04
ZOD
(Československá zbrojovka Brno'' – ZOD)
ZOD-240 (2-stroke radial)
ZOD-260 (2-stroke radial)
Zündapp
Zündapp 9–090
Zündapp 9-092
See also
United States military aircraft engine designations
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Zlin Website
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398198
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell%20T%20Davies
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Russell T Davies
|
Stephen Russell Davies (born 27 April 1963), better known as Russell T Davies, is a Welsh screenwriter and television producer whose works include Queer as Folk, Bob & Rose, The Second Coming, Casanova, the 2005 revival of the BBC One science fiction franchise Doctor Who, Torchwood, The Sarah Jane Adventures, Cucumber, A Very English Scandal, Years and Years, It's a Sin and Nolly.
Born in Swansea, Davies had aspirations as a comic artist before focusing on being a playwright and screenwriter. After graduating from Oxford University, he joined the BBC's children's department, CBBC, in 1985 on a part-time basis and held various positions, which included creating two series, Dark Season and Century Falls. He eventually left the BBC for Granada Television, and in 1994 began writing adult television drama. His early scripts generally explored concepts of religion and sexuality among various backdrops: Revelations was a soap opera about organised religion and featured a lesbian vicar; Springhill was a soap drama about a Catholic family in contemporary Liverpool; The Grand explored society's opinion of subjects such as prostitution, abortion and homosexuality during the interwar period; and Queer as Folk recreated his experiences in the Manchester gay scene. His work in the 2000s included Bob & Rose, which portrayed a gay man who fell in love with a woman; The Second Coming, which focused on the second coming and deicide of Jesus Christ from a mostly non-religious point of view; Mine All Mine, a comedy about a family who discover they own the entire city of Swansea; and Casanova, an adaptation of the complete memoirs of Venetian adventurer Giacomo Casanova.
Following the show's sixteen-year hiatus, Davies revived and ran Doctor Who for the period between 2005 and 2010, with Christopher Eccleston and later David Tennant in the title role. Davies's tenure as executive producer of the show saw a surge in popularity which led to the production of two spin-off series, Torchwood and The Sarah Jane Adventures, and the revival of Saturday prime-time dramas as a profitable venture for production companies. Davies was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 2008 for services to drama, which coincided with the announcement he would step down from Doctor Who as the show's executive producer with his final script, "The End of Time" (2009–2010). Davies moved to Los Angeles in 2009, where he oversaw production of Torchwood: Miracle Day and the fifth and final series of The Sarah Jane Adventures. Davies returned as Doctor Who showrunner in October 2022 after the departure of Chris Chibnall; the first episodes of his second tenure will be the show's sixtieth anniversary specials in 2023.
After his partner developed cancer in late 2011, Davies returned to the UK. He co-created the CBBC science fantasy drama Wizards vs Aliens, and created Cucumber, a Channel 4 series about middle-aged gay men in the Manchester gay scene; Banana, an E4 series about young LGBT people in the Cucumber universe; and Tofu, an All 4 documentary series which discussed LGBT issues. Davies's later work for BBC One in the 2010s include A Midsummer Night's Dream, a television film adaptation of William Shakespeare's play; A Very English Scandal, a miniseries adaptation of John Preston's novel of the same name; and Years and Years, a drama series which follows a Manchester family affected by political, economic, and technological changes to Britain over 15 years. Davies returned to Channel 4 for a third time in 2021 as creator of It's a Sin, a semi-autobiographical drama about the HIV/AIDS crisis of the 1980s and 1990s.
Early life
Stephen Russell Davies was born on 27 April 1963 at Mount Pleasant Hospital in Swansea. His father, Vivian Davies (1925–2015), and his mother, Barbara (1929–1999), were teachers. Davies was the youngest of three children and their only son. Because he was born by caesarean section, his mother was placed on a morphine drip and was institutionalised after an overdose resulted in a psychotic episode. He described his mother's experience as "literally ... like science fiction" and an early inspiration for his writing career. As a child, Davies was almost always referred to by his middle name. He grew up in a household that "never switched the TV off" until after closedown, and he subsequently became immersed in dramas such as I, Claudius and Doctor Who. One of his first memories, at the age of three, was the 1966 Doctor Who serial The Tenth Planet. He was also an avid cartoonist and comics enthusiast, and purchased series such as Asterix and Peanuts.
Davies attended Tycoch Primary School in Sketty and enrolled at Olchfa School aged 11. In his first year, the main school buildings were closed for rebuilding after inspectors discovered the high alumina cement used in construction had caused other public buildings to collapse. Lessons were instead held in portable buildings, which influenced Davies' imagination to create mystery, science-fiction, and conspiracy thriller stories about the main building. He also immersed himself in books such as Sons and Lovers by D. H. Lawrence and The Crystal Mouse by Babs H. Deal; the latter influenced him so much he could "see it echoing in anything" he wrote. At age 14, he auditioned for and joined the newly formed West Glamorgan Youth Theatre Company (WGYTC). The group's founder and director, Godfrey Evans, considered him to be "a total all-rounder" who was talented and popular with the other students. Working with the group allowed him to define his sexual identity, and he embarked on a several-month relationship with fellow youth actor Rhian Morgan. He later came out as homosexual in his teenage years.
In 1979, Davies completed his O-Levels and stayed at Olchfa with the ambition to study English literature at the University of Oxford; he abandoned his aspirations of becoming a comic artist after a careers advisor convinced him that his colour-blindness would make that path unlikely. During his studies, he participated in the WGYTC's assignments to create Welsh language drama to be performed at the National Eisteddfod of Wales; two such productions were Pair Dadeni, a play based on the Mabinogion myth cycle, and Perthyn, a drama about community belonging and identity in early-1980s West Glamorgan. In 1981, he was accepted by Worcester College, Oxford to study English literature. At Oxford, he realised he was enamoured with the narrative aspect of fiction, especially 19th-century literature such as Charles Dickens.
Davies continued to submit scripts to the WGYT during his studies at Oxford, including Box, a play about the influence of television which Evans noted contained Davies' penchants for misdirecting the audience and mixing comedy and drama; In Her Element, which centred on the animation of still objects; and Hothouse, an Alan Bennett-inspired piece about internal politics in an advertising office. In 1984, he made his final performance for the WGYT and signed up for a course in Theatre Studies at Cardiff University after he graduated from Oxford. He worked sporadically for the Sherman Theatre's publicity department and claimed unemployment benefit in the interim. In 1985, Davies began his professional television career after a friend suggested he should talk to a television producer who was seeking a temporary graphic artist for the children's show Why Don't You?
Children's television career (1985–1993)
Davies was taken on as a member of the BBC Wales children's department (CBBC) in 1985 and given one-day contracts and commissions, such as illustrating for Why Don't You?. As he was only given three days of work per month by the BBC, he continued to freelance and volunteer for the Sherman Theatre. In 1986, he was approached by the Sunday Sport before its launch to provide a football-themed daily strip; he declined because he was concerned about the pornographic content of the newspaper. He submitted a script for Crossroads in response to an appeal for new writers; it was not used because the show was cancelled in 1987. He ultimately abandoned his graphic art career entirely when he realised in his early twenties that he enjoyed writing the dialogue of a comic more than creating the art.
On 1 June 1987, Davies made his first and only appearance as a television presenter on Play School alongside regular presenter Chloë Ashcroft. Why Don't You? line producer Peter Charlton suggested that he would "be good on camera" and advised him to take his career public. Davies was granted the opportunity for sporadic appearances over a period of six months; he hosted only one episode as a storytelling illustrator before he walked off the set and commented he was "not doing that again". The appearance remains an in-joke in the industry, and the recordings were invariably requested for wrap parties Davies attended.
On Why Don't You?, Davies held various jobs including: researcher, director, illustrator, assistant floor manager and unofficial publicist for fan-mail. He was offered his first professional scriptwriting job in 1986 by producer Dave Evans; he had entered Evans's office to collect his wages and was offered an extra £100 to write a replacement script. Davies' script was positively received by the CBBC and led to increasingly larger roles which culminated in a six-month contract to write for the show after it relocated to Manchester in 1988. He worked for the show for two more years and became the show's producer. He oversaw an increase in drama which tripled its audience—despite the fact BBC Manchester was not permitted by the corporation to create children's dramas—which reached its climax with his last episode: a drama where the Why Don't You? protagonists, led by the show's longest running presenter Ben Slade, were trapped in a café by a supercomputer which tried to kill them.
While producing Why Don't You?, Davies branched out within CBBC at BBC Manchester: he attended directors' courses; wrote for older audiences with his contributions to DEF II and On the Waterfront; and accompanied Keith Chegwin to Norway to assist in the production of a children's documentary about politics. The head of CBBC, Ed Pugh, offered him the chance to produce Breakfast Serials, a new series scheduled for an 8:00 am slot. Breakfast Serials incorporated elements of non-sequitur comedy and popular culture references aimed at older children, such as a parody of Land of the Giants. He decided to leave CBBC during the production of Breakfast Serials: a friend called him after the first episode was transmitted and observed he had "broadcast a joke about the juvenilia of Emily Brontë at eight o'clock in the morning"; the conversation caused him to reflect he was writing for the wrong audience. Davies worked as a writer on three more children's series while he pursued an adult drama career, creating Dark Season and Century Falls, and writing for Children's Ward.
Dark Season and Century Falls
During his tenure on Why Don't You?, Davies oversaw the production of a story that took place in Loch Ness. The story was the precursor for his first freelance children's project: Dark Season. The show, originally called The Adventuresome Three, would feature the Why Don't You? characters in a purely dramatic setting influenced by his childhood. He submitted the script to the head of CBBC, Anna Home, and Granada Television. Both companies were interested in producing the show with minor changes: Granada wished to produce it as one six-part serial, as opposed to Davies' plan of two three-part serials; and Home was interested in accepting the show on the condition it included a new cast of characters. He accepted Home's offer, and the show was allocated the budget and timeslot of Maid Marian and her Merry Men, which had been put on hiatus the year before.
The first three episodes of Dark Season feature three young teenagers in a contemporary secondary school, Reet (Kate Winslet), Marcie (Victoria Lambert), and Tom (Ben Chandler), who discover a plot by the villain Mr Eldritch (Grant Parsons) to take over the world using school computers. Eldritch is eventually defeated by Marcie and the computer expert Professor Polzinsky (Rosalie Crutchley). The next three episodes focus on a new villain: the archaeologist Miss Pendragon (Jacqueline Pearce), later described by Davies as a "devil worshipping Nazi lesbian", who becomes a part of the ancient supercomputer Behemoth. The two distinct plot elements converge at the end of the fifth episode, when Pendragon crashes through the school stage as Eldritch walks into the auditorium.
Dark Season uses concepts seen in his tenure as executive producer of Doctor Who: "School Reunion", written by Toby Whithouse, shares its concept of the antagonist using computers in a comprehensive school to take over the world; "Army of Ghosts" unexpectedly brings together the series' two major villains for the final episode; and the characters of Marcie and her friends are similar, albeit unintentionally, to the structure of the Doctor and their companions. Dark Season was the first series he was credited as "Russell T Davies"—the initial arbitrarily chosen to distinguish himself from the BBC Radio 4 presenter—and the first series he was commissioned to write a novelisation: it features a more ambiguous climax and foreshadows a sequel set in an arcade similar to the one featured in The Sarah Jane Adventures serial, Warriors of Kudlak.
Davies started planning a second series for Dark Season, which followed a similar structure. The first half of the series would take part in the arcade mentioned in the novelisation, and the second would feature the appearance of psychic twins and the re-emergence of the villain Eldritch. The concepts were transferred to its spiritual successor, Century Falls, which was produced in 1993 at the request of Dark Season director Colin Cant. The series primarily used the "psychic twins" concept and was set in an isolated village based on those in the Yorkshire Dales and the North York Moors.
The plot of Century Falls is driven by a legend that no children had been born in the eponymous village for more than forty years. The protagonist, Tess Hunter (Catherine Sanderson), is an overweight teenager who moves to the village with her mother at the beginning of the serial. She quickly befriends the psychic Ben Naismith (Simon Fenton) and his twin sister Carey (Emma Jane Lavin). The three teenagers examine the waterfall that gave Ben his powers and the disaster which caused the legendary infertility. The serial climaxes in a confrontation between Tess and the deity Century, who is attempting to fuse with Tess's unborn sister.
Century Falls is conceptually much darker than its predecessor Dark Season and his later work, which Davies attributed to a trend that inexperienced writers "get off on the dark stuff": In a BAFTA interview with Davies, Home recalled she "very nearly got into trouble because it did actually push at the boundaries which some of the powers-that-be would rather not have been pushed". The series offered a sense of realism in its protagonist, who is not heroic and aspirational, has poor social skills, and is bluntly described by Ben as a "fat girl". Century Falls was the last script he wrote for CBBC for fourteen years. He had begun to formulate another successor: The Heat of the Sun, a series set over Christmas 1999 and New Year's Day 2000 that would have included the concepts of psychic powers and world domination.
Children's Ward
While he was writing Dark Season and Century Falls, Davies sought freelance projects elsewhere; these included three scripts for the BBC children's comedy ChuckleVision. One venture in 1991 led him to Granada Television, where he edited scripts for the ITV children's medical drama Children's Ward under the supervision of eventual Coronation Street producer Tony Wood and his former boss Ed Pugh. By 1992, he had been promoted to producer and oversaw an increase in discussion of larger contemporary issues. In 1993, he wrote a script about a teenage boy who had been infected with HIV via a blood transfusion, which challenged the prevalent assumption only gay people contracted HIV:
Davies left the role of producer in 1994, but continued to write occasionally for the series. Notably, he was requested to write the 100th episode of the series, by then called The Ward, which aired in October 1996. Instead of celebrating the milestone, he wrote a script about a recently emerging threat: paedophiles in online chat-rooms. The episode was about an X-Files fan who was drawn in by a paedophile's offer of a rare magazine. In the dénouement of the episode, the child recounts the tale of his near abduction and describes his attacker as "just a man like any other man". The episode earned Davies his first Children's BAFTA award for Best Drama.
Adult television career (1994–2004)
During his production tenure on Children's Ward, Davies continued to seek other freelance writing jobs, particularly for soap operas; his intention was to eventually work on the popular and long-running Granada soap Coronation Street. In pursuit of this career plan, he storylined soaps such as Families and wrote scripts for shows such as Cluedo, a game show based on the board game of the same name, and Do the Right Thing, a localised version of the Brazilian panel show Você Decide with Terry Wogan as presenter and Frank Skinner as a regular panellist. One writing job, for The House of Windsor, a soap opera about footmen in Buckingham Palace, was so poorly received his other scripts for the show would be written under the pseudonym Leo Vaughn.
In 1994, Davies relinquished all of his producing jobs, and was offered a scriptwriting role on the late-night soap opera Revelations, created by him, Tony Wood, and Brian B. Thompson. The series was a tongue-in-cheek deconstruction of organised religion, and featured his first overtly homosexual character: a lesbian vicar portrayed by Sue Holderness, who came out of the closet in a two-hander episode with Carole Nimmons.
Davies attributes the revelation about Holderness's character as a consequence of both the "pressure cooker nature" of the show and the recent ordination of female vicars in the Church of England. He let his contract with Granada expire and pitched a new early-evening soap opera to Channel 4, RU, with its creator Bill Moffat, Sandra Hastie, a producer on Moffat's previous series Press Gang, and co-writer Paul Cornell. Although the slot was eventually taken by Hollyoaks, he and Cornell mutually benefited from the pitch: Davies introduced Cornell to the Children's Ward producers and established contact with Moffat's son Steven, and Cornell introduced Davies to Virgin Publishing. Davies wrote one Doctor Who Virgin New Adventures novel, Damaged Goods, in which the Doctor tracks a Class A drug tainted by Time Lord technology across several galaxies. The book includes several themes which Davies would intersperse in his later works—including a family called "Tyler" and companion Chris Cwej participating in casual homosexual sex— and a subplot formed the inspiration for The Mother War, a proposed but never produced thriller for Granada about a woman, Eva Jericho, and a calcified foetus in her uterus.
Davies continued to propose dramas to Channel 4. The next drama to be commissioned was Springhill, an apocalyptic soap-opera, co-created by Frank Cottrell Boyce and Paul Abbott, which aired simultaneously on Sky One and Channel 4 in 1996–97. Set in suburban Liverpool, the series focuses on the devoutly Catholic Freeman family and their encounter and conflict with Eva Morrigan (Katharine Rogers). He storylined for the second series, but submitted fewer scripts; Granada had commissioned him to write for their soap The Grand, temporarily storyline for Coronation Street, and write the straight-to-video special, Coronation Street: Viva Las Vegas!. The second series of Springhill continued his penchant for symbolism; in particular, it depicted Marion Freeman (Judy Holt) and Eva as personifications of good and evil, and climaxed with a finale set in an ultra-liberal dystopian future where premarital sex and homosexuality are embraced by the Church. Boyce later commented that without Davies' input, the show would have been a "dry run" for Abbott's hit show Shameless.
The Grand
Davies' next project was The Grand, a period soap drama set in a Manchester hotel during the interwar period. It was designed to be a valuable show in a ratings war with the BBC and was scheduled at 9 pm on a Friday night. After the original writer abandoned the series, Granada approached him to write the entire show. His scripts for the first series reflect the pessimism of the period; each episode added its own emotional trauma on the staff; these included a soldier's execution for desertion, a destitute maid who threatened to illegally abort her unborn child to survive, and a multi-episode about the chambermaid, Monica Jones (Jane Danson), who kills her rapist in self-defence, is arrested, and eventually hanged for murder. The show was renewed for a second series despite the first's dark tone.
The second series had a lighter tone and greater emphasis on character development, which Davies attributed to his friend Sally, who had previously warned him of the adult humour in Breakfast Serials; she told him his show was too bleak to be compared to real life. He highlighted the sixth and eighth episodes of the second series as a time of maturity as a writer: for the sixth, he utilised then-unconventional narrative devices such as flashbacks to explore the hotel barman's closeted homosexuality and the societal attitudes towards sexuality in the 1920s; and he highlighted the eighth as when he allowed the series to "take on its own life" by deliberately inserting plot devices such as McGuffins to enhance the comic relief of the series.
Although well received, the series' ratings were not high enough to warrant a third series. After its cancellation in September 1997, Davies had an existential crisis after almost dying from an accidental overdose; the experience persuaded him to detoxify and make a name for himself by producing a series which celebrated his homosexuality.
Queer as Folk
After his near-death experience, Davies started to develop a series for Channel 4 which reflected the "hedonistic lifestyle" of the gay quarter of Manchester he was leaving behind. Encouraged by ex-Granada executives Catriona MacKenzie and Gub Neil to "go gay", the series focused on a group of friends in Manchester's gay scene, tentatively titled The Other End of the Ballroom, and later, Queer as Fuck.
By February 1998, when he completed the first draft for the series première, the series was known under its eventual title Queer as Folk. The series emulates dramas such as Band of Gold in presenting realistic discussion on sexuality, as opposed to "one-sided" gay characters in soap operas such as EastEnders, and eschews "heavy-handed discussion" of issues such as HIV; the show instead focuses on the party scene on Canal Street.
After he wrote the pilot, he approached actors for the main characters. Christopher Eccleston was Davies' first choice for the role of Stuart Jones; Eccleston declined because of his age and suggested his friend Aidan Gillen instead. The roles of Vince Tyler and Nathan Maloney were given to Craig Kelly and Charlie Hunnam, and the secondary character Alexander Perry, originally written for the television producer Phil Collinson during his brief acting career, was portrayed by Antony Cotton, who later played the gay character Sean Tully in Coronation Street. The series was allocated a £3 million budget, and was produced by Red Productions, owned by his friend and former colleague Nicola Shindler, and filmed by director Charles McDougall and Sarah Hardin on location in Manchester. The eight 40-minute episodes emulated experiences from his social life and includes an episode where the minor character Phil Delaney (Jason Merrells) dies of a cocaine overdose, unnoticed by his social circle.
The series was aired in early 1999, when Parliament were discussing LGBT equality; the series première aired on the day the House of Lords was discussing the Sexual Offences Bill 1999, which eventually reduced the age of consent for homosexual couples to 16. The première was controversial, in particular because it depicted the character Nathan, aged 15, in sexual intercourse with an older man; the broadcasting watchdog Ofcom received 136 complaints and the series received criticism from Hunnam's parents and from activist Mary Whitehouse. The controversy was amplified when the sponsor Beck's withdrew after several episodes and homosexual activists complained the series was not representative of gay culture. Nevertheless, the show garnered 3.5 million viewers per episode and a generally positive reaction from fans, and was renewed for a two-episode special due for the following year.
Queer as Folk 2 was broadcast in 2000 and was driven by the plot element of Vince's half-sister's wedding. The specials place emphasis on Vince and Stuart's relationship, and ends with their departure for another gay scene in a pastiche of Grease, as Nathan took the role as the leader of the Manchester scene's next generation. The show ended on 22 February 2000. On the heels of the special, Davies pitched the spin-off Misfits, a late-night soap opera set in a boarding house owned by Vince's mother, Hazel, and The Second Coming, a series which depicted the Second Coming of Christ in contemporary Manchester. Misfits was rejected in December 2000 and The Second Coming was initially approved by Channel 4 but later rejected after a change of executive personnel. Instead of contesting the cancellation of The Second Coming, he left Channel 4 and vowed to not work with them again.
Bob & Rose
Shindler continued to pitch The Second Coming to other television networks while Davies sought other ventures. His next series was based on a gay friend who married a woman and fathered a child. He saw the relationship as a promising concept for an unconventional love story and asked the couple about their relationship to develop the show. After he developed the series around the prejudice he and his gay friends had shown, he realised he was creating caricatures for the purpose of exposing them, and instead focused on telling a traditional love story and gave the couple the traditionally British names of Bob Gossage and Rose Cooper.
To simulate a classic love story, the plot required antagonists, in the form of Bob's best friend and fellow teacher Holly Vance and Rose's boyfriend Andy Lewis (Daniel Ryan). While Andy, named after Davies' boyfriend Andrew Smith, was a minor character and departed in the third episode, Holly featured throughout the entirety of the series. Bob & Rose thus followed a similar format to Queer as Folk, in particular, the triumvirate of main characters composed of a couple and an outsider who lived in contemporary Manchester, and inverted the traditional "coming out" story by focusing on Bob's uncharacteristic attraction to Rose; Bob describes his sexual life by simply speaking the line "I fancy men. And her." The series was similar to the Kevin Smith film Chasing Amy (1997), as they both portrayed a romance between a straight character and gay character and the resulting ostracism from the couple's social circles, much like The Second Coming shared its concept with Smith's 1999 film Dogma.
Like Queer as Folk, Bob & Rose contributed to the contemporary political debate around LGBT rights: a subplot involves the fictional pressure group Parents Against Homphobia (PAH), led by Bob's mother Monica (Penelope Wilton), an ardent gay rights activist, and their campaign to repeal Section 28 of the Local Government Act 1988, which prohibited local authorities from "intentionally promot[ing]" homosexuality. The subplot climaxes in the fourth episode, when Monica and Bob lead a rally into direct action by handcuffing themselves to a bus run by a company whose management donated millions to keeping the law on the books; the scene directly parallels protests against the transport company Stagecoach due to their founder Brian Souter's financial and political support of Section 28—at one point, Davies intended to explicitly name Stagecoach in the script— and is inspired by earlier protests undertaken by the LGBT rights pressure group OutRage!.
After successfully pitching the show to ITV, Red Productions joined Davies in casting the show and initially approached Jonathan Creek star Alan Davies to portray Bob. Although he was not gay, Davies accepted the role and spent several weeks researching first-hand Manchester's gay scene with series director Joe Wright. His only objection to the role was Bob being a fan of Manchester United F.C., the team Shindler had named Red Productions for, because of his prolific support of Arsenal F.C. The part of Rose was given to Lesley Sharp, her first leading role after her portrayal of secondary characters in past Red shows Playing the Field and Clocking Off, and Jessica Stevenson was cast as Holly by ITV Head of Drama Nick Elliott on the basis of her performance in the Channel 4 comedy Spaced.
The series was filmed in the southern suburbs of Manchester between March and June 2001 and often used Davies' own home as a green room. The series was the only Red–Davies collaboration not to be scored by future Doctor Who composer Murray Gold; the soundtrack was a Martin Phipps composition inspired by Hans Zimmer's work on the 1993 film True Romance. It aired on Monday nights in September and October 2001. Critically acclaimed, the series won two British Comedy Awards, and received a nomination at the British Academy Television Awards. However, the series had lower viewership than expected and was moved to a later timeslot for the final two episodes. Although the series was not as successful as he hoped, the show helped Davies rekindle his relationship with his mother shortly before her death, just after the transmission of the fourth episode, which he sees as "possibly the best thing [he has] ever written".
The Second Coming
Shortly after the transmission of Bob & Rose, Davies was approached by Abbott to write for his new BBC show Linda Green. He accepted the offer and wrote an episode where the titular character (Liza Tarbuck) and her friends attend a schoolmate's funeral and become psychologically haunted by the deceased woman's solitary life. His first work for the BBC in eight years prompted them to approach him with additional concepts for period dramas, which he invariably declined as his sole intent was to revive Doctor Who, which had then been on hiatus for over a decade.
In 2002, he met with the BBC to discuss the revival of the show and producing The Second Coming; the BBC were unable to commit to either, and he again declined to work for them. After the BBC rejected The Second Coming, Shindler proposed the series should be pitched to ITV. Despite the story's controversial message, the critical success of Bob & Rose encouraged the channel to commission the series for broadcast.
The Second Coming had been several years in the making and endured many rewrites from the first draft presented to Channel 4 in 2000, but retained its key concept of a depiction of the Second Coming of Christ with a humanity-centred deity. A major removal from the script, due to time constraints, was a long sequence titled "Night of the Demons": the main character, a shop assistant, Stephen Baxter, who discovers his divine lineage, takes over a hotel with his disciples and eventually encounters several of the hotel's employees which had been possessed by the Devil. Several similar sequences were removed to create a thriller set in the days before Judgement Day.
An experienced actor was required to portray Stephen; Davies approached Christopher Eccleston, who had previously been approached for the role of Stuart in Queer as Folk, based on his performance as Nicky Hutchinson in the drama Our Friends in the North. Eccleston accepted the role and helped Davies make the character more human after he observed "Baxter was getting lost amid his loftier pronouncements". The character of Judith, who would represent the fall of God, was given to Lesley Sharp after her performance in Bob & Rose, and the role of the Devil was given to Mark Benton.
The Second Coming was controversial from its conception. When it was a Channel 4 project, it was the subject of a Sunday Express article a year before its original projected transmission date of late 2001. The series would again receive criticism when it was rumoured it would be broadcast over the Easter weekend of 2003. The series was eventually broadcast over consecutive nights on 9–10 February 2003 to 6.3 million and 5.4 million viewers, respectively, and received mixed reactions from the audience: Davies reportedly received death threats for its atheistic message and criticism for its anticlimactic ending, as well as two nominations for Television Awards and one for a Royal Television Society Award.
Mine All Mine
In the time near his mother's death, Davies returned to Swansea several times and reflected on the role of family. During one visit, he realised he had not yet written a series set in Wales; hence, he created a series about a family who discovers they own the entire city of Swansea. The Vivaldi Inheritance, later renamed Mine All Mine, was based on the tale of the Welsh pirate Robert Edwards and his descendants' claim to of real estate in Lower Manhattan, New York City. The series was a departure from his trend of experimental social commentary; it was instead designed to be a mainstream comedy which utilised Welsh actors: Davies and Red Productions even planned a cameo appearance by Academy Award-winning Swansea-born Catherine Zeta-Jones.
Because the series was centred on an entire family, Red Productions was given the task of casting eleven principal characters: the role of family patriarch Max Vivaldi was given to Griff Rhys Jones, at the request of ITV for prolific actors; Rhian Morgan, Davies' ex-girlfriend from the WGYT, was cast as Max's wife Val; Sharon Morgan as Max's sister Stella; Joanna Page as Candy Vivaldi; Matthew Barry and Siwan Morris as the Vivaldi siblings Leo and Maria; Hi-de-Hi! actress Ruth Madoc as Val's sister Myrtle Jones; and Jason Hughes as Maria's boyfriend Gethin. The series, specifically the family's composition of two daughters and a gay son, mirrored his own upbringing to the point where Davies and his boyfriend referred to the show as "The Private Joke".
The series was originally written in six parts, but Davies excised a large portion of the fifth episode because the crew expressed concerns with its pacing. The series was filmed in late 2003 under the direction of Sheree Folkson and Tim Whitby, and utilised many areas of Swansea which Davies was familiar with since his childhood. It aired as four-hour-long episodes and a ninety-minute finale on Thursday nights preceding Christmas 2003. Eventually, Mine All Mine would be his least successful series and ended its run with just over two million viewers, which he later blamed on the series' high eccentricity.
Casanova
Shortly after the transmission of Mine All Mine, the BBC commissioned Davies to produce the revival of Doctor Who, which completed his decade-long quest to return the series to the airwaves. At the time, he was developing two scripts: the first, a cinematic adaptation of the Charles Ingram Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? scandal, was cancelled after he accepted the Doctor Who job; and the second, a dramatisation of the life of the Venetian adventurer and lover Giacomo Casanova, was his next show with Red Productions.
Davies' association with Casanova began when London Weekend Television producers Julie Gardner, Michele Buck, and Damien Timmer approached him to write a 21st-century adaptation of Casanova's memoirs. He accepted to script the series because it was "the best subject in the world" and, after reading the memoirs, sought to create a realistic depiction of Casanova instead of further perpetuating the stereotype of a hypersexual lover. The series was originally written for ITV, but was turned down after he could not agree on the length of the serial. Shortly after ITV declined to produce Casanova, Gardner took up a position as Head of Drama at BBC Wales and brought the concept with her. The BBC agreed to fund the series, but could only release the money required if a regionally based independent company produced the series. Davies turned to Shindler, who agreed to become the serial's fifth executive producer.
Davies' script takes place in two distinct time frames and required two different actors for the eponymous role: the older Casanova was portrayed by Peter O'Toole, and the younger Casanova was portrayed by David Tennant. The serial takes place primarily during Casanova's early adulthood and depicts his life among three women: his mother (Dervla Kirwan), his lover Henriette (Laura Fraser), and his consort Bellino (Nina Sosanya). The script takes a different approach to Dennis Potter's 1971 dramatisation; instead of Potter's focus on sex and misogyny, the 2005 serial focuses on Casanova's compassion and respect for women.
Casanova was filmed alongside the first few episodes of the new series of Doctor Who, which meant producers common to both projects, including Davies and Gardner, made daily journeys between the former's production in Lancashire and Cheshire and the latter's production in Cardiff. Red Productions also filmed on location overseas in a stately home in Dubrovnik, and alongside production of the identically titled 2005 Lasse Hallström film in Venice. The two production teams shared resources and were given the unofficial names of "Little Casanova" and "Big Casanova" respectively. When it premièred on BBC Three in March 2005, the first episode attracted 940,000 viewers, a record for a first-run drama on the channel, but was overshadowed on BBC One by the return of Doctor Who in the same month.
Doctor Who (2005–2010)
Since watching First Doctor's (William Hartnell) regeneration into the Second Doctor (Patrick Troughton) at the end of the 1966 serial The Tenth Planet, Davies had "fallen in love" with the show and, by the mid-1970s, he was regularly writing reviews of broadcast serials in his diary. His favourite writer and childhood hero was Robert Holmes; during his career, he has complimented the creative use of BBC studios to create "terror and claustrophobia" for Holmes's 1975 script The Ark in Space—his favourite serial from the original series—and has opined that the first episode of The Talons of Weng-Chiang (1977) featured "the best dialogue ever written; it's up there with Dennis Potter". His screenwriting career also began with a Doctor Who submission; in 1987, he submitted a spec script set on an intergalactic news aggregator and broadcaster, which was rejected by script editor Andrew Cartmel, who suggested that he should write a more prosaic story about "a man who is worried about his mortgage, his marriage, [and] his dog". The script was eventually retooled and transmitted as "The Long Game" in 2005.
During the late 1990s, Davies lobbied the BBC to revive the show from its hiatus and reached the discussion stages in late 1998 and early 2002. His proposals would update the show to be better suited for a 21st-century audience: the series would be recorded on film instead of videotape; the length of each episode would double from twenty-five minutes to fifty; episodes would primarily take place on Earth, in the style of the Third Doctor (Jon Pertwee) UNIT episodes; and Davies would remove "excess baggage" from the mythology such as Gallifrey and the Time Lords. Davies' pitch competed against Dan Freedman's proposed retool as a fantasy series, Matthew Graham's gothic horror-styled reboot, and the Mark Gatiss—Gareth Roberts—Clayton Hickman pitch which made the Doctor the audience surrogate character, instead of his companions. Davies also took cues from American fantasy television series such as Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Smallville, most notably Buffys concepts of series-long story arcs and the "Big Bad".
In August 2003, the BBC had resolved the legal confusion over production rights which had surfaced as a result of the jointly produced Universal Studios–BBC–20th Century Fox 1996 Doctor Who film, and the Controller of BBC One Lorraine Heggessey and Controller of Drama Commissioning Jane Tranter approached Gardner and Davies to create a revival of the series to air in a primetime slot on Saturday nights, as part of their plan to devolve production to its regional bases. By mid-September, they accepted the deal to produce the series alongside Casanova.
Davies' pitch for Doctor Who was the first one he wrote voluntarily; previously, he opted to outline concepts of shows to commissioning executives and offer to write the pilot episode because he felt a pitch made him "feel like [he's] killing the work". The fifteen-page pitch outlined a Doctor who was "your best friend; someone you want to be with all the time", the 19-year-old Rose Tyler (Billie Piper) as a "perfect match" for the new Doctor, avoidance of the 40-year back story "except for the good bits", the retention of the TARDIS, sonic screwdriver, and Daleks, removal of the Time Lords, and a greater focus on humanity. His pitch was submitted for the first production meeting in December 2003 and a series of thirteen episodes was obtained by pressure from BBC Worldwide and a workable budget from Julie Gardner.
The first new series of Doctor Who featured eight scripts by Davies; the remainder were allocated to experienced dramatists and writers for the show's ancillary releases: Steven Moffat penned a two-episode story, and Mark Gatiss, Robert Shearman, and Paul Cornell each wrote one script. Davies also approached his old friend Paul Abbott and Harry Potter author J. K. Rowling to write for the series; both declined due to existing commitments. Shortly after he secured writers for the show, Davies stated he had no intention of approaching writers from the old series; the only writer he would have wished to work with was Holmes, who died in May 1986.
By early 2004, the show had settled into a regular production cycle. Davies, Gardner, and BBC Controller of Continuing Drama Series Mal Young took posts as executive producers, and Phil Collinson, his old colleague from Granada, took the role of producer. Davies' official position as showrunner combined the roles of head writer and executive producer and consisted of laying a skeletal plot for the entire series, holding "tone meetings" to correctly identify the tone of an episode, often described in one word—for example, the "tone word" for Moffat's "The Empty Child" was "romantic"—and overseeing all aspects of production.
The production team was also tasked with finding a suitable actor for the role of the Doctor. Most notably, they approached film actor Hugh Grant and comedian Rowan Atkinson for the role. By the time Young suggested The Second Coming and Our Friends in the North actor Christopher Eccleston to Davies, Eccleston was one of three left in the running for the role: the other candidates are rumoured to have been Alan Davies and Bill Nighy. Eccleston created his own characteristics of his rendition of the Doctor based on Davies' life, most notably, his catchphrase "Fantastic!":
The show started filming in July 2004 on location in Cardiff for "Rose". The start of filming created stress among the production team because of unseen circumstances: several scenes from the first block had to be re-shot because the original footage was unusable; the Slitheen prosthetics for "Aliens of London", "World War Three", and "Boom Town" were noticeably different from their computer-generated counterparts; and the BBC came to a gridlock in negotiations with the Terry Nation estate to secure the Daleks for the sixth episode of the series; Davies and episode writer Rob Shearman were forced to rework the script to feature another race, until Gardner was able to secure the rights a month later. After the first production block, which he described as "hitting a brick wall", the show's production was markedly eased as the crew familiarised themselves.
The first episode of the revived Doctor Who, "Rose", aired on 26 March 2005 and received 10.8 million viewers and favourable critical reception. Four days after the transmission of "Rose", Tranter approved a Christmas special and a second series. The press release was overshadowed by a leaked announcement that Christopher Eccleston would leave the role after one series; in response, David Tennant was announced as Eccleston's replacement.
Tennant had been offered the role when he was watching a pre-transmission copy of Doctor Who with Davies and Gardner. Tennant initially believed the offer was a joke, but after he realised they were serious, he accepted the role and made his first appearance in the dénouement of "The Parting of the Ways", the final episode of the first series. Doctor Who continued to be one of BBC's flagship programmes throughout Davies' tenure, and resulted in record sales of the show's official magazine, an increase in spin-off novels, and the launch of the children's magazine Doctor Who Adventures and toy sonic screwdrivers and Daleks. The show's popularity ultimately led to a resurgence in family-orientated Saturday night drama; the ITV science-fiction series Primeval and the BBC historical dramas Robin Hood and Merlin were specifically designed for an early Saturday evening timeslot. Davies was also approached by the BBC to produce several spin-off series, eventually creating two: Torchwood and The Sarah Jane Adventures.
Torchwood and The Sarah Jane Adventures
In October 2005, BBC Three Controller Stuart Murphy invited Davies to create a post-watershed Doctor Who spin-off in the wake of the parent series' popularity. Torchwood—named after an anagrammatic title ruse used to prevent leaks of Doctor Who's first series—incorporated elements from an abandoned Davies project titled Excalibur and featured the pansexual 51st century time-traveler Jack Harkness (John Barrowman) and a team of alien hunters in Cardiff. The show began production in April 2006 and was marketed through foreshadowing in the main story arc of Doctor Who's second series, which portrayed Torchwood as a covert quasi-governmental organisation that monitors, exploits, and suppresses the existence of extraterrestrial life and technology. Upon its transmission, Torchwood was one of BBC Three's most popular shows; however, it received criticism for "adolescent" use of sexual and violent themes. This led the production team to alter the format to be subtler in its portrayal of adult themes.
Concurrently, he was approached to produce a CBBC show which was described as Young Doctor Who. Davies was reluctant to diminish the mystery of the Doctor's character and instead pitched a show with Elisabeth Sladen as the once-popular companion Sarah Jane Smith: The Sarah Jane Adventures, which follows Sarah Jane and local schoolchildren as they investigate extraterrestrial events in the London Borough of Ealing. The show was given a backdoor pilot as the Doctor Who episode "School Reunion" and premièred in its own right with "Invasion of the Bane" on 1 January 2007. The show was more successful than its 1981 predecessor K-9 and Company; it received more favourable reviews than Torchwood and a significant periphery demographic which compared the show to 1970s Doctor Who episodes.
The workload of managing three separate shows prompted Davies to delegate writing tasks for Torchwood and The Sarah Jane Adventures to other writers so he could focus on writing Doctor Who. After Billie Piper's departure as Rose Tyler in the second series finale "Doomsday", he suggested a third spin-off, Rose Tyler: Earth Defence, a compilation of annual bank holiday specials which followed Rose and a parallel universe version of Torchwood. He later reneged on his idea, as he believed Rose should stay off screen, and abandoned the idea even though it had been budgeted.
The Writer's Tale, and writing the fourth series
In September 2008, BBC Books published The Writer's Tale, a collection of emails between Davies and Radio Times and Doctor Who Magazine journalist Benjamin Cook. Dubbed the "Great Correspondence" by Davies and Cook, The Writer's Tale covers a period between February 2007 and March 2008 and explores his writing processes and the development of his scripts for the fourth series of Doctor Who: "Voyage of the Damned", "Partners in Crime", "Midnight", "Turn Left", "The Stolen Earth", and "Journey's End". The book's first chapter focuses on Cook's "big questions" on Davies' writing style, character development—he used the Doctor Who character Donna Noble (Catherine Tate) and the Skins character Tony Stonem (Nicholas Hoult) as contrasting examples—, how he formulated ideas for stories, and the question "why do you write?". After several weeks, Cook assumes an unofficial advisory role to the scriptwriting and the development of the series. The book's epilogue consists of a short exchange between Davies and Cook: Cook changes from his role as "Invisible Ben" to "Visible Ben" and strongly advises to vastly alter the denouement to "Journey's End" from a cliffhanger which led into "The Next Doctor"—which had occurred in the previous three series finales, "The Parting of the Ways", "Doomsday", and "Last of the Time Lords"—to a melancholy ending that showed the Doctor alone in the TARDIS. After three days of deliberation, Davies accepts Cook's suggestion and thanks him for improving both episodes.
After its release, the pair embarked on a five-stop signing tour to promote the book in October 2008 at Waterstone's branches in London, Birmingham, Manchester, Bristol, and Cardiff. The book received positive reviews: Veronica Horwell of The Guardian wrote Davies was the "Scheherazade of Cardiff Bay" and opined the book should have been twice the published length; Ian Berriman of science fiction magazine SFX gave the book five stars and commented it was the only book about "new Who" a reader needed; television critic Charlie Brooker was inspired by the book to devote an entire episode of his BBC Four show Screenwipe to interviewing television writers; and chat show couple Richard and Judy selected the book as a recommended Christmas present in the "Serious Non-Fiction" category of their book club. A second edition of the book, The Writer's Tale: The Final Chapter, was released in January 2010 by BBC Books. The second edition added 350 pages of correspondence—before excising draft scripts included in the first edition—and covered Davies' final months as executive producer of Doctor Who as he co-wrote the five-part BBC One Torchwood miniseries Children of Earth, planned David Tennant's departure and Matt Smith's arrival as the Doctor, and moved to the United States.
Post–Doctor Who career (2010–2021)
Davies stepped down from the show's production in 2009 along with Gardner and Collinson, and finished his tenure with four special length episodes. His departure from the show was announced in May 2008, alongside a press release which named Steven Moffat as his successor. His role in late 2008 was split between writing the 2009 specials and preparing for the transition between his and Moffat's production team; one chapter of The Writer's Tale: The Final Chapter discusses plans between him, Gardner, and Tennant to announce Tennant's departure live during ITV's National Television Awards in October 2008. His final full script for Doctor Who was finished in the early morning of 4 March 2009, and filming of the episode closed on 20 May 2009.
Davies moved with Gardner and Jane Tranter to the United States in June 2009 and resided in Los Angeles, California. He continued to oversee production of Torchwood and The Sarah Jane Adventures; he wrote one story for the 2010 series of The Sarah Jane Adventures, Death of the Doctor, which included Matt Smith as the Doctor and Katy Manning as the Doctor's former companion Jo Grant, and was the executive producer and author of the premiere ("The New World") and finale ("The Blood Line") of Torchwood: Miracle Day, the fourth series of Torchwood. He additionally gave informal assistance to and later served as creative consultant of ex-Doctor Who script editor Helen Raynor's and playwright Gary Owen's BBC Cymru Wales drama, Baker Boys. Davies had planned to return to art by writing a graphic novel, and was approached by Lucasfilm to write for the proposed Star Wars live-action television series but refused the commission.
In August 2011, Davies' boyfriend Andrew Smith was diagnosed with a brain tumour, which prompted Davies to postpone current projects and move back to the UK so his partner could undergo treatment closer to their respective families. Davies' return enabled him to develop a replacement series for The Sarah Jane Adventures with prolific series writer Phil Ford after the former series ended due to Elisabeth Sladen's death. Wizards vs Aliens, a CBBC drama about a teenage wizard and his scientist friend and their conflict with the alien Nekross who wished to destroy Earth, was formed to create a "genre clash" between science fiction and supernatural fantasy, as opposed to "culture clashes" such as Cowboys vs. Aliens. Davies additionally made his first contribution to CBeebies, with two scripts for Old Jack's Boat, which stars Doctor Who alumni Bernard Cribbins and Freema Agyeman as retired fisherman Jack and his neighbour Shelley.
Cucumber, Banana, and Tofu
Davies' next project after Doctor Who, codenamed More Gay Men, was a spiritual successor to Queer as Folk and would have focused on middle-aged gay men in the Manchester gay scene. The show's genesis dates back from 2001, when his friend Carl Austin asked him "why are gay men so glad when we split up?". The show was due to enter into production in 2006, but was indefinitely postponed due to the success of Doctor Who. Davies continued to develop ideas for the show, and explained a pivotal scene in the premiere to Cook in 2007:
In 2011, the series had entered into pre-production, with American cable network Showtime contracted for transmission and BBC Worldwide for distribution. Showtime had reached the point of casting before Davies moved back to Manchester, at which point the series was picked up by Channel 4 to be produced with Nicola Shindler and the Red Production Company. The commission by Channel 4 marked Davies' first collaboration with the channel since Queer as Folk and Shindler and Red since Casanova. Davies was convinced to return to the channel by Head of Drama and former Doctor Who executive producer Piers Wenger, who described the show as a "political piece of writing" which creates a "radical approach" to sexuality.
Cucumber focuses on the life of the middle-aged Henry Best (Vincent Franklin) and the fallout from a disastrous date with his boyfriend of nine years, and is accompanied with Banana, an E4 anthology series about younger characters across the LGBT spectrum on the periphery of the Cucumber narrative, and Tofu, an online documentary series available on All 4 which discusses modern sex, sexuality and issues arisen during the show with the cast and public. The three names reference a urological scale which categorises the male erection by hardness from tofu to cucumber, and are used to symbolise differences in sexual attitudes and behaviour between the two generations. Although Cucumber was designed as a self-contained serial about the life of one man, Davies envisioned Banana as open-ended with the potential to continue after its sister series finished.
Second return to the BBC
After Cucumber, Davies returned to the BBC in 2016 to produce A Midsummer Night's Dream, an adaptation of William Shakespeare's play of the same name. Davies credits the play as "opening his eyes to drama" after he starred in a school version of the play as Bottom.
In 2018, Davies produced and wrote the screenplay for A Very English Scandal, an adaptation of the book of the same name about the Thorpe affair—a sex scandal which involved former Liberal Party leader Jeremy Thorpe—which starred Hugh Grant as Thorpe and Ben Whishaw as Thorpe's former lover Norman Scott. Davies' screenplay is more compassionate to Thorpe and Scott than previous narratives of the scandal, which he described as "history written by straight men". For his writing on the series, Davies received a nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Limited Series, Movie, or Dramatic Special in 2019.
Davies followed that with the miniseries Years and Years, a Red Production Company series for BBC One which starred Emma Thompson, Rory Kinnear and Russell Tovey. It focuses on an ordinary family in Manchester who experience massive political, economic, and technological changes over fifteen years as a fascist dictator, played by Thompson, takes over Britain.
It's a Sin
It's a Sin, began filming on 7 October 2019—under the working title of Boys—and completed filming on 31 January 2020. The series, produced by Red Productions for Channel 4, is a dramatised retrospective of the HIV/AIDS crisis during the 1980s, focusing on the men "living in the bedsits", as opposed to films such as Pride, which focused on gay activists. Davies notes the stories about the politics of the crisis and the virus itself has been told, but not those about the early victims of the virus itself.
In 2015, Davies described Boys as a way of "coming to terms" with his own actions during the 1980s, when the shock of the crisis prevented him from properly mourning the deaths of his close friends. Elements of It's a Sin mirror Davies' own experiences during the 1980s: a scene in the second episode where protagonist Richie Tozer—played by Years & Years frontman Olly Alexander—mocks AIDS reflects denialist attitudes in the gay community during the early years of the crisis; the show's characters live in a fictionalised version of the "Pink Palace" flatshare-cum-party house owned by Davies' friends; and Lydia West plays a fictionalised version of Davies' childhood friend—and later actress—Jill Nalder, who appears in the show as the fictional Jill's mother.
It's a Sin is Davies' first script to primarily focus on AIDS since Children's Ward, although the pandemic's legacy is present in his other shows: Queer as Folk relegates AIDS to fleeting mentions as Davies "refused to let [gay peoples'] lives be defined by the disease"; and in Cucumber, middle-aged protagonist Henry blames "those fucking icebergs" for his fear of intimacy. Although the series was filmed prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the show's transmission in early 2021 invited comparisons between the two pandemics; Davies himself cited the "overreaction and lack of reaction" to the pandemics, as well as the focus on social distancing and personal protective equipment, as "history [repeating] itself", and Alexander likened his character's AIDS denialism in the opening episode to COVID-19 conspiracy theorists.
Future projects
Davies plans to write a series about sextortion, drawing inspiration from real-life incidents of blackmail which resulted in suicide, and to adapt Charles Dickens' The Old Curiosity Shop for television. He is also attached to an ITV project, Three Little Birds, a fictionalisation of Lenny Henry's mother's experiences arriving in Britain as part of the Windrush generation, as a script consultant and executive producer.
Return to Doctor Who (2021–present)
After his departure from Doctor Who, Davies kept in contact with the show's crew and made several contributions to its expanded universe: in 2013, Davies made a cameo appearance in Peter Davison's spoof special The Five(ish) Doctors Reboot; in 2015, his Virgin New Adventures novel Damaged Goods was adapted into an audio play by Big Finish; in 2017 he illustrated a book of Doctor Who poetry titled Now We Are Six Hundred: A Collection of Time Lord Verse; and in 2018, he wrote a novelisation of "Rose" for Target Books.
During the COVID-19 lockdowns in 2020, Davies engaged with Doctor Who fans on social media by writing short stories and drawing sketches. For the "Rose" watch party, Davies released a short story originally written in 2013 for the show's fiftieth anniversary—the story was written for Doctor Who Magazine and stylised as the final pages of a Target novelisation, but was not included in the magazine due to continuity conflicts with the anniversary special "The Day of the Doctor"; for the "New Earth" and "Gridlock" watch party, he wrote the script for an animated sequel, "The Secret of Novice Hame", with Tennant and Anna Hope reprising their roles as the Doctor and Hame respectively; and for "The Runaway Bride" watch party, Davies shared excerpts of his 1986 spec script, Mind of the Hodiac, which was later optioned by Big Finish for its The Lost Stories audio play range, which was released on 30 March 2022.
On 24 September 2021, the BBC announced Davies would return as Doctor Who showrunner, succeeding Chris Chibnall for the show's 60th anniversary in 2023 and beyond. Davies is joined by the Bad Wolf production company, which was founded by Gardner and Tranter. In May 2022, the BBC announced that Davies had cast Rwandan–Scottish actor Ncuti Gatwa in the role of the Doctor; Gatwa will be the first black actor to portray the series' lead role. A week later, the BBC further announced that David Tennant and Catherine Tate would reprise their roles of the Doctor and Donna Noble in the show's 2023 specials, and that transgender actress Yasmin Finney would appear as a character named Rose. In November 2022, it was announced that Millie Gibson will join the cast as Ruby Sunday, the companion of Gatwa's Fifteenth Doctor.
Writing style
Davies is a self-admitted procrastinator and often waits hours or days for concepts to form before he commits them to the script. In The Writer's Tale, he describes his procrastination by discussing his early career: at the time, his method of dealing with the pressures of delivering a script was to "go out drinking" instead. On one occasion in the mid-1990s, he was at the Manchester gay club Cruz 101 when he thought of the climax to the first series of The Grand. As his career progressed, he instead spent entire nights "just thinking of plot, character, pace, etc" and waited until 2:00 am, "when the clubs used to shut", to overcome the urge of procrastination. Davies described the sense of anxiety he experiences in an email to Cook in April 2007, in response to Cook's question of "how do you know when to start writing?":
He expanded on his email two weeks later in response to Cook's query about the supposed link between major depressive disorder and creativity. He explained his anxiety and melancholy during the scriptwriting period still allowed him to keep on top of his work; on the other hand, he thought "Depression with a capital D [didn't provide] any such luxury".
Davies explained in length his writing process to Cook in The Writer's Tale. When he creates characters, he initially assigns a character a name and fits attributes around it. In the case of Rose Tyler (Billie Piper) in his inaugural series of Doctor Who, he chose the name because he considered it a "good luck charm" after he used it for Lesley Sharp's character in Bob & Rose. He presented his desire to make the show "essentially British" as another justification: he considered Rose to be "the most British name in the world" and feminine enough to subvert the then-current trend of female companions and their "boyish" names, such as Benny, Charley, and Ace. While he was writing for The Grand, the executive producer requested that he change the female lead character's name, a decision that led to the "character never [feeling] right from that moment on". The surname "Harkness", most notably given to Torchwood lead Captain Jack Harkness, is a similar charm, first used in 1993 for the Harkness family in Century Falls, and ultimately derived from the Marvel Universe supporting character Agatha Harkness, and the surname "Tyler" is similarly used because of his affection for how the surname is spelled and pronounced.
Davies also attempts to channel his writing by using music that fits the theme of the series as a source of inspiration: Doctor Who was typically written while he listened to action-adventure film scores; Queer as Folk was written to Hi-NRG music "to catch [the] sheer clubland drive"; Bob & Rose was written to the Moby album Play, because the two works shared an "urban, sexy, full of lonely hearts at night" image; and The Second Coming shared the concepts of "experimental[ity], anguish, dark[ness], [and] pain" of Radiohead albums. More specifically, he wrote the early drafts of the fourth series Doctor Who episode "Partners in Crime" while he was listening to Mika's Life in Cartoon Motion, and singled out the song "Any Other World" as a "Doctor Who companion song" with lyrics that matched Penny, the planned companion for the fourth series.
When he creates new scripts, Davies considers the dénouement of a story to be representative of the work. He often formulates both the scene and its emotional impact early in the process, but writes the scenes last due to his belief that "[later scenes] can't exist if they aren't informed by where they've come from". Davies is a strong advocate for the continued use of the cliffhanger ending and opposes advertising that sacrifices the impact of storytelling. In pursuit of his quest, he instructs editors to remove scenes from press copies of episodes he writes; cliffhangers were removed from the review copies of the Doctor Who episodes "Army of Ghosts", "The Stolen Earth", and the first part of "The End of Time", and Rose Tyler's unadvertised appearance in "Partners in Crime" was excised. In an interview with BBC News shortly after the transmission of episode "The Stolen Earth", he argued that the success of a popular television series is linked to how well producers can keep secrets and create a "live experience":
Davies attempts to both create imagery and to provide a social commentary in his scripts; for example, he uses camera directions in his scripts more frequently than newer screenwriters to ensure that anyone who reads the script, especially the director, is able to "feel... the pace, the speed, the atmosphere, the mood, the gags, [and] the dread". His stage directions also create an atmosphere by their formatting and avoidance of the first person. Although the basis of several of his scripts derive from previous concepts, he claims most concepts for storytelling have been already used, and instead tries to tell a relatively new and entertaining plot; for example, the Doctor Who episode "Turn Left" shares its concept most notably with the 1998 film Sliding Doors. Like how Sliding Doors examines two timelines based on whether Helen Quilley (Gwyneth Paltrow) catches a London Underground train, Davies uses the choice of the Doctor's companion to turn left or right at a road intersection to depict either a world with the Doctor, as seen throughout the rest of the fourth series, or an alternate world without the Doctor, examined in its entirety within the episode. The world without the Doctor creates a dystopia which he uses to provide a commentary on Nazi-esque fascism. Davies generally tries to make his scripts "quite detailed, but very succinct", and eschews the long character and set descriptions; instead, he limits himself to only three adjectives to describe a character and two lines to describe a set to allow the dialogue to describe the story instead.
Davies also uses his scripts to examine and debate on large issues such as sexuality and religion, especially from a homosexual or atheist perspective. He refrains from a dependence on "cheap, easy lines" which provide little deeper insight; his mantra during his early adult drama career was "no boring issues". Queer as Folk is the primary vehicle for his social commentary of homosexuality and advocation of greater acceptance. He used the series to challenge the "primal ... gut instinct" of homophobia by introducing homosexual imagery in contrast to the heterosexual "fundamental image of life, of family, of childhood, [and] of survival". His next series, Bob & Rose, examined the issue of a gay man who falls in love with a woman, and the reaction of the couple's respective social circles. Torchwood, in Davies' own words, is "a very bisexual programme", and demonstrates a fluid approach to both gender and sexuality "almost from its opening moments": for example, the lead character Captain Jack Harkness nonchalantly mentions he was once pregnant; and later, the other lead characters discuss Jack's sexuality. The culture website AfterElton opined that Torchwoods biggest breakthrough could be "queer representation" by showing Captain Jack as a character whose bisexuality is explored but not his only character trait.
His most notable commentaries of religion and atheism are The Second Coming and his 2007 Doctor Who episode "Gridlock". The Second Comings depiction of a contemporary and realistic Second Coming of Jesus Christ eschews the use of religious iconography in favour of a love story underlined by the male lead's "awakening as the Son of God". In contrast, "Gridlock" takes a more pro-active role in debating religion: the episode depicts the unity of the supporting cast in singing the Christian hymns "Abide with Me" and "The Old Rugged Cross" as a positive aspect of faith, but depicts the Doctor as an atheistic hero which shows the faith as misguided because "there is no higher authority". He also includes his commentary as an undertone in other stories; he described the sub-plot of the differing belief systems of the Doctor and Queen Victoria in "Tooth and Claw" as a conflict between "Rational Man versus Head of the Church".
Like other script writers during Doctor Whos original tenure, several of Davies' scripts are influenced by his personal politics. Marc Edward DiPaolo of Oklahoma City University observes that Davies usually espouses a "left-leaning" view through his scripts. Beyond religion and sexuality, Davies most notably satirises the United States under George W. Bush on Doctor Who: the Slitheen in "Aliens of London" and "World War Three" and Henry van Statten in "Dalek" were portrayed as sociopathic capitalists; the Daleks under his tenure echoed contemporary American conservatives in their appearances, from religious fundamentalists in "The Parting of the Ways" to imperialists in "Daleks in Manhattan" and "Evolution of the Daleks"; and in "The Sound of Drums", a parody of Bush is murdered by the Master (John Simm), who was presented in the story as a Prime Minister reminiscent of Tony Blair. Other targets of satire in his Doctor Who scripts include Fox News, News Corporation, and the 24-hour news cycle in "The Long Game", plastic surgery and consumer culture in "The End of the World", obesity and alternative medicine in "Partners in Crime", and racism and paranoia in "Midnight".
Recognition
Davies has received recognition for his work since his career as a children's television writer. Davies' first BAFTA award nominations came in 1993 when he was nominated for the "Best Children's Programme (Fiction)" Television Award for his work on Children's Ward. Children's Ward was nominated for the Children's Drama award in 1996 and won the same award in 1997. His next critically successful series was Bob & Rose; it was nominated for a Television Award for Best Drama Serial and won two British Comedy Awards for Best Comedy Drama and Writer of the Year. The Second Coming was nominated for the same Television Award in 2004. His work on The Second Coming earned him a nomination for a Royal Television Society award.
Most of Davies' recognition came as a result of his work on Doctor Who. In 2005, Doctor Who won two Television Awards—Best Drama Series and the Pioneer Audience Award—and he was awarded the honorary Dennis Potter Award for writing. He also received that year's BAFTA Cymru Siân Phillips Award for Outstanding Contribution to Network Television. At the Edinburgh International Television Festival, he was awarded the accolade of "Industry Player of the Year" in 2006, and he was announced as recipient of the Outstanding Achievement Award in 2017. In 2007, Davies was nominated for the "Best Soap/Series" Writers' Guild of Great Britain Award—along with Chris Chibnall, Paul Cornell, Stephen Greenhorn, Steven Moffat, Helen Raynor, and Gareth Roberts—for their work on the third series of Doctor Who. He was again nominated for two BAFTA Awards in 2009: a Television Award for his work on Doctor Who, and the Television Craft Award for Best Writer, for the episode "Midnight". Davies was nominated three times for competitive BAFTA Cymru awards due to his work on Doctor Who: in 2006, he was nominated for Best Screenwriter for the whole series; in 2007, he won the same award for "Doomsday"; and in 2009, he won the award again for "Midnight".
Under his tenure, Doctor Who won five consecutive National Television Awards between 2005 and 2010. He has also been nominated for three Hugo Awards, all in the category of "Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form": in 2007, the story comprising "Army of Ghosts" and "Doomsday" was defeated by Steven Moffat's "The Girl in the Fireplace"; in 2009, the episode "Turn Left" was defeated by Joss Whedon's Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along Blog; and in 2010, all three of his scripts which were eligible for the award, "The Next Doctor", the Davies–Roberts collaboration "Planet of the Dead", and the Davies–Ford collaboration "The Waters of Mars", were nominated: the award was won by "The Waters of Mars" and the other episodes took second and third place. His last nominations for working on the Doctor Who franchise came in 2010, when the first episode of Torchwood: Children of Earth was nominated for a BAFTA Cymru Award for Best Screenwriter, and in 2011 when The Sarah Jane Adventures was nominated by BAFTA for the Best Children's Drama award.
During Davies' tenure as executive producer, only Steven Moffat's "Silence in the Library", which was scheduled against the final of the second series of Britain's Got Talent, failed to win in its time slot. The show's viewing figures were consistently high enough that the only broadcasts to have consistently rivalled Doctor Who for viewers in the Broadcasters' Audience Research Board's weekly charts were EastEnders, Coronation Street, Britain's Got Talent, and international football matches. Two of his scripts, "Voyage of the Damned" and "The Stolen Earth", broke audience records for the show by being declared the second most viewed broadcasts of their respective weeks, and "Journey's End" became the first episode to be the most viewed broadcast of the week. The show enjoyed consistently high Appreciation Index ratings: "Love & Monsters", regarded by Doctor Who fans as his worst script, gained a rating of 76, just short of the 2006 average rating of 77; and the episodes "The Stolen Earth" and "Journey's End" share the highest rating Doctor Who has received, at 91.
Among Doctor Who fans, his contribution to the show ranks as high as the show's co-creator Verity Lambert: in a 2009 poll of 6,700 Doctor Who Magazine readers, he won the "Greatest Contribution" award with 22.62% of the votes against Lambert's 22.49% share, in addition to winning the magazine's 2005, 2006, and 2008 awards for the best writer of each series. Ian Farrington, who commented on the 2009 "Greatest Contribution" poll, attributed Davies' popularity to his range of writing styles, from the epic "Doomsday" to the minimalistic "Midnight", and his ability to market the show to appeal to a wide audience.
Davies' work on Doctor Who has led to accolades out of the television industry. He features in the Pinc List of leading Welsh LGBT figures.
Between 2005 and 2008, he was included in The Guardian "Media 100": in 2005, he was ranked the 14th most influential man in the media; in 2006, the 28th; in 2007, the 15th; and in 2008, the 31st. In 2008 he was ranked the 42nd most influential person in British culture by The Telegraph. The Independent on Sunday recognised his contributions to the public by including him on seven consecutive Pink Lists, which chronicle the achievements of gay and lesbian personalities: in 2005, he was ranked the 73rd most influential gay person; in 2006, the 18th; in 2007, the most influential gay person; in 2008, the 2nd; in 2009, the 14th; in 2010, the 64th; in 2011, the 47th; in 2012, the 56th; and in 2013, was listed as a permanent member of the List's "national treasures". Davies was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire in the 2008 Birthday Honours for services to drama, and an honorary fellowship by Cardiff University in July 2008.
Since his departure from Doctor Who, Davies has continued to receive recognition for his work: in 2016, Davies won a British Academy Craft Award in the category of "Best Writer: Drama" for Cucumber; in 2017, A Midsummer Night's Dream was nominated for BAFTA Cymru's "Best Feature/Television Film Award"; in 2019, A Very English Scandal was nominated for four awards—a British Academy Television Award for "Best Mini-Series", a British Academy Craft Award for "Best Writer: Drama", a British Academy Cymru Award for "Best Writer", and a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Limited Series, Movie, or Dramatic Special—and won the Cymru Award; and in 2020, Years and Years was nominated for the British Academy Cymru Award for "Best Writer". In July 2022, Davies was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature for his contributions to television.
Personal life
Davies was in a relationship with Andrew Smith, a customs officer, between 1999 and Smith's death in 2018. They entered into a civil partnership on 1 December 2012, after Smith was diagnosed with a brain tumour from which he was given only a 3% chance of recovering. Smith died on 29 September 2018. Years and Years ends with a title card which dedicates the series to Smith.
Whilst being interviewed about It's a Sin on ITV Wales, Davies was asked if he was "indy-curious" about Welsh independence. He replied that he wasn't sure the current Senedd was one worthy of handing power over to yet, but that the government at Whitehall did not care about Welsh issues and that Wales should at least start looking into fending for itself.
Production credits
Doctor Who franchise writing credits
Bibliography
Prose fiction
Novels
Dark Season (novelization of the series)
(a novelization of the titular Doctor Who episode)
Short fiction
"Revenge of the Nestene" (collected in the 2020 anthology Doctor Who: Adventures in Lockdown)
"Doctor Who and the Time War" (collected in the 2020 anthology Doctor Who: Adventures in Lockdown)
"The Secret of Novice Hame (collected in the 2020 anthology Doctor Who: Adventures in Lockdown)
Nonfiction
Books
A Writer's Tale (with Benjamin Cook) (2008)
A Writer's Tale: The Final Chapter (with Benjamin Cook) (2013) (expanded second edition)
Afterwords
Illustration
Now We Are Six Hundred: A Collection of Time Lord Verse by James Goss
Published scripts
Queer As Folk: The Scripts (1999)
Doctor Who: The Shooting Scripts'' (2005) (a collection of Series 1 scripts by Davies, as well as Steven Moffat, Robert Shearman, Paul Cornell and Mark Gatiss)
Notes
References
External links
1963 births
20th-century British male writers
20th-century British screenwriters
20th-century Welsh writers
21st-century British screenwriters
21st-century British male writers
21st-century Welsh writers
Alumni of Worcester College, Oxford
BAFTA winners (people)
BBC television producers
British male television writers
Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature
Hugo Award-winning writers
LGBT television producers
Living people
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
People educated at Olchfa School
Mass media people from Swansea
Showrunners
Welsh atheists
Welsh gay writers
Welsh humanists
Welsh LGBT screenwriters
Welsh science fiction writers
Welsh screenwriters
Welsh television producers
Welsh television writers
Writers of Doctor Who novels
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamen%20Rider%20%281971%20TV%20series%29
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Kamen Rider (1971 TV series)
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is a Japanese tokusatsu superhero television series and weekly science fiction manga created by manga artist Shotaro Ishinomori. The original airing consisted of a total of 98 episodes and were broadcast from April 3, 1971, to February 10, 1973, on Mainichi Broadcasting System and NET (now TV Asahi). The manga adaptation was also featured in Shōnen Magazine around the same period. The series has evolved into a franchise with many subsequent annual iterations.
Story
The series takes place in a world plagued by Shocker, a mysterious worldwide terrorist organization formed mostly by remaining members of the Nazis. To further its plans for world domination, Shocker recruited its agents through kidnapping, turning their victims into mutant and, ultimately, brainwashing them. However, one victim named Takeshi Hongo escaped just before the final brainwashing. With his sanity and moral conscience intact, Takeshi wages a one-man war against Shocker's minions as the grasshopper-themed cyborg superhero Kamen Rider. Another victim of the cyborg process, freelance photographer Hayato Ichimonji, became Kamen Rider 2 after Kamen Rider, who eventually renamed himself "Kamen Rider 1", saved him from Shocker's brainwashing. Assisted by motorcycle race team manager Tobei Tachibana and FBI agent Kazuya Taki, the Kamen Riders fought in both solo and partnered missions against Shocker while later getting help from Tobei and Kazuya's Kamen Rider Kid Corps. Later, after many battles with Shocker the organization was wiped out and its leader created Gel-Shocker to fulfill his goals. After many battles with Gel-Shocker the Kamen Riders defeated the organization's leader and stopped Gel-Shocker. With Kazuya returning to America peace was restored, or so it seems.
Manga
Many manga based on the original Kamen Rider series have been published, but only one was penned and drawn by Ishinomori himself. Ishinomori was also the author of one chapter of the Kamen Rider Amazon manga and the entire Kamen Rider Black manga. However, those manga were based on sequels to Kamen Rider, rather than the original series.
The original manga, published in 1971, initially follows a path resembling the first few episodes of the TV series, from basic plot to creature designs. However, when Takeshi leaves the story, the series diverge greatly. In the TV show, Takeshi travels abroad to fight Shocker in other countries, leaving Japan's protection to Hayato Ichimonji, a freelance cameraman who was experimented on by Shocker but saved by Takeshi, becoming the second Kamen Rider. In the manga, Takeshi never left Japan. He was confronted by twelve "Shocker Riders" and was subsequently mortally wounded during his battle against them. Hayato Ichimonji, one of the twelve Shocker Riders, receives a head injury during the fight and regains his conscience as a result. He then turns against Shocker and takes Takeshi's role as Kamen Rider. In spite of the damage to his body, Takeshi's brain survives and guides Hayato, the two fighting as one.
Takeshi eventually returns as a Rider in both stories, but starting with Hayato's debut, villains and even basic story development greatly diverge between the two versions. The manga portrays a seemingly hopeless battle against Shocker, an organization with ties to governmental conspiracies that seems much bigger than either of the two Riders. The live action TV shows portray the Riders as heroes strong enough to bring down Shocker, only to see it replaced by similar organizations led by Shocker's mysterious leader. The Shocker Riders eventually appear in the TV series, too, but they looked different and had different abilities. There were also only six Shocker Riders, rather than the manga's 12.
In February 2021, Seven Seas Entertainment announced they licensed the original manga for publication in one omnibus edition.
Characters
Kamen Riders
: The first main protagonist. A biochemistry lab student at Jonan University who also races motorcycles as part of the Tachibana Racing Club.
: The other main protagonist. A freelance photographer who becomes the second Kamen Rider after Takeshi saves him from Shocker.
Allies
: Takeshi's racing mentor and confidant. He is often called "Boss" by other members of his racing club. He runs a small café named Snack Amigo where Hongo and other members of Tachibana's racing club gather in early episodes, and its employees occasionally assist Hongo in countering Shocker's plans. At the same time as Takeshi's departure, he opens a motorcycle goods shop named Tachibana Auto Corner and sets up the Tachibana Racing Club. He is often seen smoking a pipe.
: An FBI agent assigned to investigate Shocker activities in Japan. While not himself a cyborg, Kazuya was skilled in martial arts and often used them alongside both Kamen Riders to battle the combatants who invariably accompanied a Shocker commander.
: Takeshi's teacher at university and an authority on biochemistry. He is a Shocker scientist, but freed Takeshi and was killed by Spider Man, an agent of Shocker.
: The daughter of Doctor Midorikawa, she initially blames Takeshi for her father's death, but eventually learns the truth and becomes his ally. In episode 14, it is revealed that she accompanied Takeshi on his quest to defeat Shocker activities in Europe.
: Ruriko's fellow student, who works as a waitress at Snack Amigo.
: A bartender at Snack Amigo.
: Female members of the Tachibana Racing Club who assist both Kamen Riders.
: Hiromi's friend, who is a first-degree black belt in karate.
: Hiromi's friend, who has experience in fencing.
: Hiromi's friend, who has experience in aikido and is a small-displacement rider.
: Takeshi's assistant from Switzerland, who has experience in aikido.
: Takeshi's assistant from Switzerland, who is good at fortune-telling by playing cards.
: She is in charge of cooking in the Tachibana Racing Club.
: After the Kamen Rider Kid Corps was set up, she was in charge of communication and administration.
: She likes food.
: A bright boy who frequents the Tachibana Racing Club.
: A nationwide organization, with Tobei as the president and Kazuya as the captain, that is composed of boys and girls in episode 74.
: Boys who serve as leading members.
Shocker
is a terrorist organization formed by former Nazis. Shocker's goal is to conquer the world. To this end, their scientists turn humans into superhuman cyborgs by surgically altering them with animal and insect DNA with robotic cybernetics. Virtually all of its members are modified the same way. Even a Shocker Combatant is tougher, faster, and stronger than an ordinary human civilian. The original manga showed that Shocker had influence over the governments of the world. Its founders had ties to the Nazis, Illuminati and the Kamen Rider Spirits manga makes references to the group's support by the Badan Empire.
Ruthless and merciless, Shocker would often kidnap prominent scientists and force them to work for the organization, then kill them when their usefulness was at an end, or if they attempted to escape. The decision to kidnap and modify college student Takeshi Hongo proved to be their undoing. He was intended to be another of Shocker's powerful cyborg warriors, a grasshopper-human hybrid, but he escaped and opposed them as Kamen Rider 1. A later attempt to create a second, more powerful Kamen Rider backfired when the intended victim, Hayato Ichimonji, was rescued by the original Rider before he was brainwashed. Hayato joined Takeshi as Kamen Rider 2. The pair, known as the Double Riders, put an end to Shocker, and later its remnants, who formed Gelshocker after their disbandment.
In OOO, Den-O, All Riders: Let's Go Kamen Riders, Shocker, although with a membership and leadership covering Gelshocker members from the original TV series, obtained a Core Medal and modified it into the Shocker Medal. Though they were originally unable to use it, the appearance of the Greed Ankh in their time enabled the organization to obtain one of his Cell Medals and create the Shocker Greed. This altered time so that Shocker defeated the Double Riders and managed to conquer all of Japan and eventually the world, setting up a union with many of the other organizations that originally emerged after Shocker's destruction. The group is ultimately defeated by the Kamen Riders.
But as revealed in Kamen Rider OOO onwards, there are some surviving members of the Shocker organization, even from Badan Empire who went into hiding to gather data of the Kamen Riders' battles against some of their respective monsters many years ago. But during the events of Super Hero Taisen GP: Kamen Rider 3, Shocker's remaining scientists created a History Modification Machine that they use to send a time displaced cyborg called Kamen Rider Three back in time to destroy the Double Riders in the aftermath of Gelshocker's defeat, creating a new timeline where Shocker rules the world with some Kamen Riders in their service. Luckily, the apparent destruction of the History Modification Machine restores the timeline (with the exception of Go Shijima/Kamen Rider Mach who was killed by Cheetahkatatsumuri), only to be found out during the events of D-Video Special: Kamen Rider Four that Shocker secretly uses it to create time loops and alters the timeline once more, allowing to create Kamen Rider Four, as well as the revelation that they have been targeting Takumi Inui, due to his sacrifice-less wish to ensure that no one dies like what happened to one of his old allies to create a loop. As Takumi is about to destroy the machine, the Shocker Leader appears with an appearance identical to Takumi's. In the end, Takumi destroys the machine and disappears alongside the modified timeline, restored back to its original timeline once more. Though most of his allies who do not originate from the Kamen Rider 555 TV series like from Kamen Rider Drive, and even Kamen Rider Den-O'''s Kamen Rider Zeronos don't remember if they had encountered Takumi, only some of Takumi's old friends from the Kamen Rider 555 TV series, including Naoya Kaido still remember Takumi.
In the movie Kamen Rider 1, there is a civil war between the original Shocker and a newly formed organization called Nova Shocker in an attempt to kidnap Mayu, Tobei Tachibana's granddaughter, and release the Alexander Gamma Eyecon from her body, in order to obtain its power. As all of the revived Ambassador Hell's Shocker faction had been annihilated completely, leaving only himself, and also after he witnessed how dangerous the Alexander Gamma Eyecon is, he makes an uneasy alliance with Kamen Riders Ghost, Specter and a newly improved Kamen Rider 1.
: The high ruler of the organization and main antagonist of the series. He appears for the first time in short video footage shown in episode 34, although his appearance there is mostly hidden by shadows. He talks with his followers through speakers on Shocker's emblems in the multiple outposts. The Shocker Leader is a cruel being who does not have qualms in sacrificing his minions during moments of crisis or failure. He takes various forms, his first being a cyclopean gorgon in crimson robes in the original series, his second being a skeletal creature in Kamen Rider V3, following a skull-faced insect who leads a mini-restoration of Shocker known as Black Satan, and his true form is known as the in Kamen Rider Stronger a giant humanoid rock man controlled by a large one-eyed cybernetic brain.
(a.k.a. ): From Shocker's Near and Middle East Branch, his true form was a wolflike monster. He was also a disguise specialist, able to mimic Taki's appearance almost perfectly using only makeup during his debut. His personal mark, worn by the Combatants of his own Shocker outpost and used in his official correspondence, was the Shocker emblem, but with the bird's head replaced by a wolf's. He confronted Kamen Rider 2 himself in episode 39 and after a lengthy fight was toppled off a cliff by Kamen Rider 2's Rider Punch, destroying him. Gold Wolf-Man briefly appeared in Kamen Rider vs Shocker among the members of the resurrected monster army. In Kamen Rider V3, episode 27, Colonel Zol is resurrected alongside the other three great Shocker and Gelshocker commanders from the original TV series by Destron. He aims to become a Destron commander, replacing Doctor G. However, in episode 28, after Kamen Rider V3 escaped from Destron's base, a self-destruction sequence was activated, and Colonel Zol was unable to escape, dying again with it. In the Kamen Rider Spirits manga, he is revived with other Shocker commanders as a soulless pawn of the Badan Empire.
: From Shocker's branch in Switzerland, he took over Japan's command after Zol's death until Ambassador Hell appeared. However, he returned to Japan in episode 61, working together with Ambassador Hell and also attempting his own plans. He had cold and calculating behavior. In episode 68, he captured Tobei to help train him for his battle with Kamen Rider 1, but that only resulted in Tobei learning about his weak point, his head. Discarding his cape when he faced Takeshi for the last time, Death assumed his squidlike monster form to fight Rider 1 with his tentacle whip, while Taki was held off by the Shocker Combatants. With Tobei's guidance, Kamen Rider 1 managed to overpower Ikadevil and weaken him with a Rider Chop before sending Squiddevil falling to his death with his Rider Drill Shoot. Ikadevil tried to rise once more, only to fall down and explode. Doctor Death was resurrected by Destron in Kamen Rider V3, episode 27, and speculated about how he had been brought back to replace Doctor G, only to learn that he was there just for a new operation. Shortly afterwards, in episode 28, he died when Destron's base accidentally self-destructed. He is revived as a soulless pawn of the Badan Empire alongside Colonel Zol and Ambassador Hell in the Kamen Rider Spirits manga.
: Summoned from Shocker's branch in Southeast Asia, he took command of the organisation in Japan. His true name was according to Kamen Rider Spirits. He used an electromagnetic whip and an iron claw as his weapons. In episode 79, after capturing the Riders' friends, he called Hongo out as he assumed his rattlesnake-like monster form, able to burrow underground and use his whip arm as a weapon. Kamen Rider 1 battled Garagaranda while Kazuya freed Tobei and the others, managing to use his Rider Kick on the monster. Reverting to his normal form, Hell cursed the Riders and screamed to Shocker's perseverance before he died, exploding. Afterwards, the Shocker Leader destroyed the original Shocker. In spite of his failure, Ambassador Hell was resurrected by Destron in Kamen Rider V3, episode 27. In episode 28, his sneaky behavior ended up leading to the prisoner V3 capturing him and escaping from the Destron base. Soon afterwards, Ambassador Hell returned to the base, only to die in its self-destruction. Ambassador Hell returns in the Kamen Rider Spirits manga, working for the Badan Empire. But his difference among the other revived members is that he had his own consciousness, and it is revealed that the Silver Skull used to revive him is capable of bringing back the dead person's memories. In Kamen Rider ZX, the Ambassador of Darkness, Ambassador Hell's younger cousin, appeared as a Badan Empire leader.
: Black uniformed soldiers, some of the later versions having skeleton markings on their torsos. They are normally easily defeated by the Riders, often without even needing to transform. Their trademark is a high-pitched battle-cry.
: A character who only appears in Ishinomori's original Kamen Rider manga. Big Machine is Shocker's highest commander and main antagonist in the manga. He also seems to be the one called "Shocker Leader" by some of the lower ranking Shocker members. He has a fully mechanized body and is behind Shocker's "October Project", which involves using a supercomputer to brainwash the population of Japan. He's able to match up the Riders in combat and launch attacks that disrupt electronic equipment, including Rider 1's and 2's own bodies. The design of his body was the base of Ambassador Hell's design in the TV show, although it was altered to allow a human face and, unlike Big Machine, Ambassador Hell was kept a separate character from the Shocker Leader. In Kamen Rider × Super Sentai: Superhero Taisen, Big Machine is reimagined as a project of the Shocker/Zangyack Alliance to create a giant robot from the Crisis Fortress and the Gigant Horse.
Gel Shocker
was formed after the disbandment of Shocker, with the remnants of the organization absorbing another organization trained in the deserts of Africa. After Ambassador Hell's defeat, the Shocker Leader reorganized the organization from the ground up, destroying all remaining secret bases and even killing the remaining troop contingent in a bloody forest massacre witnessed by unfortunate campers. Gel Shocker Combatants wore bright purple and yellow costumes, were capable of traveling from one place to another by transforming into sheets that would drop down onto unsuspecting victims, and were capable of taking more blunt abuse than their predecessors.
Gel Shocker was led by the and , a commander originally from Geldam who had a monstrous leech/chameleon hybrid form called who had the ability to suck blood by hugging humans, which was later used to revive Gelshocker monsters after already being defeated by the Double Riders, throwing leeches which cause the target to follow his orders and turn himself invisible. Later, he fought the Double Riders on a roller coaster and was defeated by their Rider Double Chop while turning invisible. Weakened, he reverted to his human form and cursed the Double Riders before exploding. Eventually, General Black was resurrected and worked for Destron in an important operation but ended up dying in the self-destruction of a Destron base. Black returned as a soulless pawn of the Badan Empire in the Kamen Rider Spirits manga, but he was defeated by a Rider Double Kick performed by Kamen Riders 2 and ZX.
Episode list
(Original Airdate: April 3, 1971)
(Original Airdate: April 10, 1971)
(Original Airdate: April 17, 1971)
(Original Airdate: April 24, 1971)
(Original Airdate: May 1, 1971)
(Original Airdate: May 8, 1971)
(Original Airdate: May 15, 1971)
(Original Airdate: May 22, 1971)
(Original Airdate: May 29, 1971)
(Original Airdate: June 5, 1971)
(Original Airdate: June 12, 1971)
(Original Airdate: June 19, 1971)
(Original Airdate: June 26, 1971)
(Original Airdate: July 3, 1971)
(Original Airdate: July 10, 1971)
(Original Airdate: July 17, 1971)
(Original Airdate: July 24, 1971)
(Original Airdate: July 31, 1971)
(Original Airdate: August 7, 1971)
(Original Airdate: August 14, 1971)
(Original Airdate: August 21, 1971)
(Original Airdate: August 28, 1971)
(Original Airdate: September 4, 1971)
(Original Airdate: September 11, 1971)
(Original Airdate: September 18, 1971)
(Original Airdate: September 25, 1971)
(Original Airdate: October 2, 1971)
(Original Airdate: October 9, 1971)
(Original Airdate: October 16, 1971)
(Original Airdate: October 23, 1971)
(Original Airdate: October 30, 1971)
(Original Airdate: November 6, 1971)
(Original Airdate: November 13, 1971)
(Original Airdate: November 20, 1971)
(Original Airdate: November 27, 1971)
(Original Airdate: December 4, 1971)
(Original Airdate: December 11, 1971)
(Original Airdate: December 18, 1971)
(Original Airdate: December 25, 1971)
(Original Airdate: January 1, 1972)
(Original Airdate: January 8, 1972)
(Original Airdate: January 15, 1972)
(Original Airdate: January 22, 1972)
(Original Airdate: January 29, 1972)
(Original Airdate: February 5, 1972)
(Original Airdate: February 12, 1972)
(Original Airdate: February 19, 1972)
(Original Airdate: February 26, 1972)
(Original Airdate: March 4, 1972)
(Original Airdate: March 11, 1972)
(Original Airdate: March 18, 1972)
(Original Airdate: March 25, 1972)
(Original Airdate: April 1, 1972)
(Original Airdate: April 8, 1972)
(Original Airdate: April 15, 1972)
(Original Airdate: April 22, 1972)
(Original Airdate: April 29, 1972)
(Original Airdate: May 6, 1972)
(Original Airdate: May 13, 1972)
(Original Airdate: May 20, 1972)
(Original Airdate: May 27, 1972)
(Original Airdate: June 3, 1972)
(Original Airdate: June 10, 1972)
(Original Airdate: June 17, 1972)
(Original Airdate: June 24, 1972)
(Original Airdate: July 1, 1972)
(Original Airdate: July 8, 1972)
(Original Airdate: July 15, 1972)
(Original Airdate: July 22, 1972)
(Original Airdate: July 29, 1972)
(Original Airdate: August 5, 1972)
(Original Airdate: August 12, 1972)
(Original Airdate: August 19, 1972)
(Original Airdate: August 26, 1972)
(Original Airdate: September 2, 1972)
(Original Airdate: September 9, 1972)
(Original Airdate: September 16, 1972)
(Original Airdate: September 23, 1972)
(Original Airdate: September 30, 1972)
(Original Airdate: October 7, 1972)
(Original Airdate: October 14, 1972)
(Original Airdate: October 21, 1972)
(Original Airdate: October 28, 1972)
(Original Airdate: November 4, 1972)
(Original Airdate: November 11, 1972)
(Original Airdate: November 18, 1972)
(Original Airdate: November 25, 1972)
(Original Airdate: December 2, 1972)
(Original Airdate: December 9, 1972)
(Original Airdate: December 16, 1972)
(Original Airdate: December 23, 1972)
(Original Airdate: December 30, 1972)
(Original Airdate: January 6, 1973)
(Original Airdate: January 13, 1973)
(Original Airdate: January 20, 1973)
(Original Airdate: January 27, 1973)
(Original Airdate: February 3, 1973)
(Original Airdate: February 10, 1973)
Films
1971: - A movie version of episode 13.
1972:
1972:
2005: Kamen Rider: The First 2007: Kamen Rider: The Next 2011:
2014:
2016:
2021:
2021:
2023: Shin Kamen RiderS.I.C. Hero Saga
Published in Monthly Hobby Japan, the S.I.C. Hero Saga stories illustrated by S.I.C. figure dioramas portray stories featuring the characters from the Shotaro Ishinomori series. Kamen Rider has had three different stories: Missing Link, , and . Missing Link ran in the July to October 2002 issues, From Here to Eternity was featured in the special issue HOBBY JAPAN MOOK S.I.C. OFFICIAL DIORAMA STORY S.I.C. HERO SAGA vol.1 Kakioroshi, and Special Episode: Escape was featured in the October 2006 issue of Hobby Japan.
New characters introduced during the Missing Link story are the twelve and the .Missing Link chapter titles
Cast
Takeshi Hongo:
Hayato Ichimonji:
Kazuya Taki:
Tōbei Tachibana:
Ruriko Midorikawa:
Hiromi Nohara:
Shiro:
Yuri:
Mari:
Michi:
Goro Ishikura:
Emi:
Mika:
Tokko:
Naoki:
Mitsuru:
Yokko:
Choko:
Colonel Zol:
Doctor Death:
Ambassador Hell:
General Black:
Shocker/Gelshocker Leader (Voice):
Narration:
Staff
Creator: Shotaro Ishinomori
Scriptwriters: Masaru Igami, Shinichi Ichikawa, Masayuki Shimada, Mari Takizawa, Hisashi Yamazaki, Takao Nagaishi, Masahiro Tsukada, Ikurō Suzuki, Takeo Ōno, Fumio Ishimori, Kimiyuki Hasegawa, Kimio Hirayama, Minoru Yamada, Gorō Oketani, Shotaro Ishinomori
Directors: Kōichi Takemoto, Itaru Orita, Hidetoshi Kitamura, Minoru Yamada, Issaku Uchida, Katsuhiko Taguchi, Masahiro Tsukada, Shotaro Ishinomori, Atsuo Okunaka
Music: Shunsuke Kikuchi
Songs
Opening themes
Lyrics: Shotaro Ishinomori
Composition & Arrangement: Shunsuke Kikuchi
Artist: Hiroshi Fujioka / Masato Shimon (as Koichi Fuji) &
Episodes: 1 - 13 (Fujioka), 14 - 88 (Fuji)
Lyrics: Shotaro Ishinomori
Composition & Arrangement: Shunsuke Kikuchi
Artist: Masato Shimon
Episodes: 89 – 98
Ending themes
Lyrics: Saburō Yatsude
Composition & Arrangement: Shunsuke Kikuchi
Artist: Koichi Fuji, Male Harmony
Episodes: 1 – 71
"Rider Action"
Lyrics: Shotaro Ishinomori
Composition & Arrangement: Shunsuke Kikuchi
Artist: Masato Shimon
Episodes: 72 – 88
Lyrics: Mamoru Tanaka
Composition & Arrangement: Shunsuke Kikuchi
Artist: Masato Shimon
Episodes: 89 – 98
Legacy
The Kamen Rider original series famously spearheaded launched the "Second Kaiju Boom" or "Henshin Boom" on Japanese television in the early 1970s, greatly impacting the superhero and action-adventure genre in Japan. The famous "henshin sequence", in which the title hero performs ritualistic poses and shouting a keyword to transform into his superhero form has since become a staple in Japanese pop-culture, inspiring superheroes, and magical girl genres. Kamen Rider went later produce a great number of spin-offs which remain in production today. Several Kamen Rider series were aired in Japan after the first Kamen Rider finished. After Kamen Rider Black RX ended production in 1989, the series was put on hold.
There were three movies released as the 1990s "Movie Riders", which were Shin Kamen Rider: Prologue, Kamen Rider ZO and Kamen Rider J. After the original creator Shōtarō Ishinomori's death in 1998, the Kamen Rider franchise continued in 2000 with Kamen Rider Kuuga. As of 2022, thirty-three Kamen Rider series have been made, with the newest being Kamen Rider Geats which premiered in September 2022.
As of 2005, a remake of the Kamen Rider series in the Heisei era was made and reimagined with Kamen Rider The First and continued with Kamen Rider The Next released in 2007.
The cultural impact of the series in Japan resulted in astronomer Akimasa Nakamura naming two minor planets in honor of the series: 12408 Fujioka, after actor Hiroshi Fujioka, known for his portrayal of Takeshi Hongo/Kamen Rider 1, and 12796 Kamenrider, after the series itself.
As of 2021, starting from Kamen Rider: Beyond Generations, Hiroshi Fujioka's son, Maito portrays Takeshi Hongo's younger self.
As of 2023, another remake of the Kamen Rider series in the Reiwa era was made and reimagined with Shin Kamen Rider''.
References
External links
Ishimori@Style - Shotaro Ishinomori on Ishimori Productions official website
Kamen Rider series on Region 2 DVD - A complete list of all official releases to date.
Toei Kyoto Studio Park - A theme park with official events, exhibitions and shops related to the Kamen Rider.
Kamen Rider
1970s Japanese television series
1971 Japanese television series debuts
1973 Japanese television series endings
Mainichi Broadcasting System original programming
TV Asahi original programming
Cyborgs in television
Human experimentation in fiction
Japanese superheroes
Japanese action television series
Television series about neo-Nazism
Television series about Nazis
Terrorism in television
Japanese horror fiction television series
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20railway%20history
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Timeline of railway history
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Antiquity
– A basic form of the railway, the rutway, – existed in ancient Greek and Roman times, the most important being the ship trackway Diolkos across the Isthmus of Corinth. Measuring between 6 and 8.5 km, remaining in regular and frequent service for at least 650 years, and being open to all on payment, it constituted even a public railway, a concept that, according to Lewis, did not recur until around 1800. The Diolkos was reportedly used until at least the middle of the 1st century AD, after which no more written references appear.
16th–18th century
Mid 16th century (1550) – Hand propelled mining tubs known as "hands" were used in the provinces surrounding/forming modern day Germany by the mid-16th century having been improved use since the mid-15th century. This technology was brought to England by German miners working in the Minerals Royal at various sites in the English Lake District near Keswick (now in Cumbria).
c.1594 – The first overground railway line in England may have been a wooden-railed, horse-drawn tramroad which was built at Prescot, near Liverpool, around 1600 and possibly as early as 1594. Owned by Philip Layton, the line carried coal from a pit near Prescot Hall to a terminus about half a mile away.
c.1600 – A funicular railway was made at Broseley in Shropshire some time before 1605 to carry coal for James Clifford from his mines down to the river Severn to be loaded onto barges and carried to riverside towns.
1604 – Huntingdon Beaumont, partner of landowner Sir Percival Willoughby, built the Wollaton Wagonway, running from mines at Strelley to Wollaton in Nottinghamshire. It was approximately two miles in length. Beaumont built three further wagonways shortly afterwards near Blyth, Northumberland, to service the coal and salt trades.
1722 – The Tranent – Cockenzie Waggonway was built by the York Buildings Company of London, to transport coal from the Tranent pits to the salt pans at Cockenzie and the Harbour at Port Seton, in Haddingtonshire, now East Lothian. This wooden waggonway was replaced in 1815 with an iron fish bellied edgeway to Cockenzie Harbour by the new owners, the Cadell family. This was Scotland's first railway of any kind, with one section of it remaining in constant use until 1962. Some in situ stone sleeper blocks survive at the Robert Stevenson designed Cockenzie Harbour, and the entirety of the route is a way marked footpath.
1725 – The Tanfield Wagonway was constructed to lead coal from pits around Tanfield to the Tyne at Redheugh (Gateshead). It was the first railway built on a large scale – 5 miles of double wooden track with massive civil engineering works including deep cuttings, huge embankments and the world's first large masonry railway bridge, the Causey Arch. Each 2.5 ton capacity waggon (with flanged wooden wheels) was hauled by a horse, up to 60 waggons per hour at peak times. Two miles of the wagonway route are still in use by the Tanfield Railway, making this the oldest operational railway in the world.
1758 – The Middleton Railway, the first railway granted powers by an Act of Parliament, carried coal cheaply from the Middleton pits to Leeds. The line was privately financed and operated, initially as a wagonway using horse-drawn wagons. Around 1799, the wooden tracks were replaced with iron edge rails at a gauge of 4 ft 1 in (1,245 mm). In 1812 the Middleton Railway became the first commercial railway to successfully use steam locomotives: the Salamanca, which used John Blenkinsop's patented design for rack propulsion.
1760s – Iron production in Britain began to rise dramatically, followed by a similar rise on the European continent. This was the result of the use of coke for smelting and refining pig iron and cast iron and the application of the steam engine and cast iron blowing cylinder to providing pressurized air for blast furnaces.
1768 – The Wagon Way was constructed by the Erskines of Mar in Alloa, to carry coal from the Clackmannanshire coalfields of central Scotland to the Port of Alloa. Initially using wooden rails, these were later clad in Swedish iron (1785), and carried horse-drawn wagons. Some of the Wagon Way route still exists, although the tracks are long gone.
1783 – Henry Cort patented the grooved rolling mill for rolling hot iron to expel molten slag. Rolling was 15 times faster than hammering.
1783 – Henry Cort patented the puddling process for making wrought iron. This was the first large scale process for making a structural grade of iron and was also much less expensive than previous methods. Puddled iron production came into widespread production after 1800.
1784 – William Murdoch demonstrated a steam carriage powered by a high pressure engine. He would later show it to his neighbour Richard Trevithick who would go on to build locomotives.
1789 – The Charnwood Forest Canal, sometimes known as the "Forest Line of the Leicester Navigation" uses railways to supplement the canal between Nanpantan and Loughborough, Leicestershire. William Jessop had constructed a horse-drawn railway for coal wagons. He successfully used an iron edge-rail, in contrast to his partner Benjamin Outram , who preferred the traditional iron "L" shaped flange-rail plateway.
1793 – The Butterley Gangroad or the "Crich Rail-way" was built by Benjamin Outram , to connect the Warner Limestone Quarry to the Cromford Canal a mile away at Bullbridge. This railway included the oldest known railway tunnel located at Fritchley.
1798 – The Lake Lock Rail Road, arguably the world's first public railway, opened in 1798 to carry coal from the Outwood area to the Aire and Calder navigation canal at Lake Lock near Wakefield, West Yorkshire, a distance of approximately 3 miles. The load of three wagons was hauled by one horse. The track used edge rails with a gauge of 3 ft 4 3/4 in (1,035 mm). The use of the line gradually declined and was closed in 1836.
1800 to 1849
1800 – The Boulton & Watt steam engine patent expired, allowing others to build high pressure engines with high power to weight ratios, suitable for locomotives.
1802 – The Carmarthenshire Tramroad, a horse-drawn goods line, located in south west Wales, was established by an Act of Parliament. This line was used for coal transportation. It was a plateway of about 4 foot gauge, and using a pair of horses for power.
1802 – Unable to construct a canal similar to the nearby Cyfarthfa Ironworks, three of the four principal ironworks at Merthyr Tydfil, Wales: Dowlais, Plymouth and Penydarren, collaborated in building the 9.5 mile Merthyr Tramroad between Merthyr Tydfil and Abercynon. It was a single track plateway with a gauge of 4 ft 4 in over the flanges of the L shaped cast iron plate rails. The plates were 3 ft long. One horse pulled about five trams.
1803 – The Surrey Iron Railway, London opened. It linked the towns of Wandsworth and Croydon via Mitcham on the south of the Thames. It was double track plateway throughout with a spacing of about 5 feet. The rails were of the Outram pattern and were L-shaped in cross-section and 3 feet 2 inches long. The line was closed in 1846. A part of the route is now used by Tramlink between Wimbledon and West Croydon.
1804 – First steam locomotive railway using a locomotive called the Penydarren or Pen-y-Darren was built by Richard Trevithick. It was used to haul iron from Merthyr Tydfil to Abercynon, Wales. The first train carried a load of 10 tons of iron. On one occasion it successfully hauled 25 tons. However, as the weight of the locomotive was about 5 tons the locomotive's weight broke many of the cast iron plate rails.
1805 – The Croydon Merstham & Godstone goods railway opens. It was the first commercial railway and was connected to the Surrey Iron Railway.
1807 – First fare-paying, horse-drawn passenger railway service in the world was established on the Oystermouth Railway in Swansea, Wales. Later this became known as the Swansea & Mumbles Railway although the railway was more affectionately known as "The Mumbles Train" (). The railway was laid in the form of a plateway, with the rails being approximately 4 ft (1,219 mm) in width.
1808 – The Kilmarnock & Troon Railway was the first railway in Scotland authorised by an Act of Parliament. It was a plateway, using L-shaped iron plates as rails. In 1817 it was also the first railway in Scotland to trial a steam locomotive. It was the Blücher that George Stephenson had used at the Killingworth Colliery. This locomotive could haul 30 tons of coal up a hill at 4 mph (6.4 km/h). It was used to tow coal wagons along the wagonway from Killingworth to Wallsend. It was subsequently withdrawn from service because of damage to the cast iron rails.
1808 – Richard Trevithick sets up a "steam circus" (a circular steam railway using the locomotive Catch Me Who Can) in London for some months, for the public to experience for 1 shilling each.
1809 – Thomas Leiper constructed a 60 ft long test railway in Philadelphia to show that one horse could haul ten times more weight on a railed road than on an earthen road. The railway was constructed with stone sleepers and wooden rails.
1810 – Thomas Leiper constructed a 3/4 mile long railroad to transport gneiss from his quarry in Avondale Pennsylvania to Ridley Creek.
1812 – First commercial use of a steam locomotive on the Middleton Railway, Leeds. Matthew Murray of Fenton, Murray & Wood, located in Holbeck, designed a locomotive with a pinion that meshed with a rack. Murray's design was based on Richard Trevithick's locomotive, Catch Me Who Can, adapted to use John Blenkinsop's rack and pinion system, and was called Salamanca. It was the first two-cylinder locomotive.
1813 – Wylam Waggonway started commercial operation. The wagonway was used to haul coal chaldron wagons from the mine at Wylam to the docks at Lemington-on-Tyne in Northumberland using the steam locomotive Puffing Billy. Puffing Billy was constructed by coal viewer, William Hedley, enginewright, Jonathan Forster, and engineer Timothy Hackworth for Christopher Blackett, the owner of Wylam Colliery. The wagon way was used for hauling coal for 50 years .
1814 – George Stephenson constructs his first locomotive, Blücher for the Killingworth wagonway. The locomotive was modelled on Matthew Murray's. It could haul 30 tons of coal up a hill at 4 mph (6.4 km/h) but was too heavy to run on wooden rails or iron rails which existed at that time.
1822 – Stephenson's Hetton colliery railway was the first purpose built railway not to use animal power, instead using stationary engines, inclines and purpose built steam locomotives.
1825 – Stephenson's Stockton & Darlington Railway was the first publicly subscribed railway to use steam locomotives. It carried freight from collieries near Shildon to Darlington and Stockton-on-Tees in County Durham. The line opened on 26 September 1825. The following day, 550 passengers were hauled, making this the world's first steam-powered passenger railway, contrary to Liverpool's claims five years later.
1825 John Stevens of Hoboken, New Jersey built a 1/2 mile circular test railroad track and also built a steam locomotive, the first in America. The locomotive had a pinion and the track had a rack.
1826, January – The first section of the Springwell Colliery Railway, later to be known as the Bowes Railway, opened. This section was the first six miles of what would become a 15-mile railway, using a mix of locomotive and rope (cable) haulage. Part of the original line is now a British scheduled monument.
1827, 30 June – The first railway in France opened between Saint-Etienne and Andrézieux (horse-drawn carriage). Tests had been run from 1 May 1827.
1827, January to May – Construction of the Mauch Chunk Switchback Railway to transport anthracite from mines in the mountains of Pennsylvania to the Lehigh River. It started operations in 1828.
1828 – The Bolton & Leigh Railway opened on 1 August with the locomotive Lancashire Witch pulling wagons loaded with approximately 150 passengers. However, regular passenger services did not start until 1831.
1828 – Railway (horse-drawn carriage) České Budějovice – Linz, first public railway in continental Europe, with length 120 km and rail gauge 1,106 mm (3 ft 7 1⁄2 in), section České Budějovice – Kerschbaum put into operation on 30 September 1828.
1828 – The Hot blast technology was patented by James Beaumont Neilson. It was the most important development of the 19th century for saving energy in making pig iron. Hot blast also dramatically increased the capacity of blast furnaces and improved the quality of iron made with coke (fuel).
1828 – From 4 July the Baltimore & Ohio (B&O) began constructing a track. The South Carolina Railroad Company commenced construction a few months later.
1829 - George and Robert Stephenson's locomotive, Rocket, sets a speed record of 47 km/h (29 mph) at the Rainhill Trials held in between Liverpool and Manchester, UK.
1829, 8 August – Delaware & Hudson Railroad, constructed using 16 miles of wood rails capped by strap iron, conducts the first test of Stourbridge Lion steam engine built in England.
1830 – The Canterbury & Whitstable Railway opened in Kent, England on 3 May, three months before the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. Built by George Stephenson, this was a 5¾ mile line running from Canterbury to the small port and fishing town of Whitstable, approximately 55 miles east of London. Traction was provided by three stationary winding engines, and Invicta which was a 0-4-0 locomotive, built by the Stephenson company, but only able to operate on level sections of track because the locomotive only produced a meagre 9 horsepower.
1830 – The first public railway in the United States, the B&O, opened with 23 miles of track, with mostly hardwood rail topped with iron. The steam locomotive, Tom Thumb, was designed and built by Peter Cooper for the B&O, the first American-built steam locomotive. Trials of the locomotive began on the B&O that year.
1830 – The Liverpool & Manchester Railway opened. It marked the beginning of the first steam passenger service which was locomotive-hauled and did not use animal power. The line had the first timetables for passengers and proper stations (with ticketing offices and platforms) and went on to prove the viability of rail transport.
1830 – The first portion of the Saint-Étienne–Lyon railway opened between Givors and Rive-de-Gier on 1 July 1830. The rest of the line opened on 1 October 1832 for passenger use only, accepting freight a few months later. It used iron rails on dice stones. The line was 58 km long with 112 bridges and three tunnels. The locomotives were based on George Stephenson's Locomotion, but with a tubular boiler that produced six times more power.
1831 – First railway in Australia, for the Australian Agricultural Company, a cast iron fish belly gravitational railway servicing the A Pit coal mine.
1831 – First passenger season tickets issued on the Canterbury & Whitstable Railway.
1832 – The Leicester and Swannington Railway opened in Leicestershire. It was the first steam railway in the English Midlands.
1832 – The railway switch is patented by Charles Fox.
1833 – Swindon Works in England is founded by the Great Western Railway.
1834 – The first section of the Boston & Albany Railroad opens, subsequently to become part of the New York Central Railroad.
1834 – The world's first commuter railway, the Dublin & Kingstown Railway (D&KR) opened between Dublin and Kingstown (now Dún Laoghaire), covering a distance of six miles.
1835 – The first railway in Belgium opened on 5 May between Brussels and Mechelen. In 1836 a second section between Mechelen and Antwerp opened. The line still exists (now known as line 25) and is used by high speed trains between Paris and Amsterdam.
1835, 7 December – Bavarian Ludwigsbahn, the first steam-powered German railway line, opened for public service between Nuremberg and Fürth.
1836, 21 July – First public railway in Canada, the Champlain and Saint Lawrence Railroad, opened in Quebec with a 16-mile run between La Prairie and Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu.
1837 – Partial opening of the West Coast Main Line by the London & Birmingham Railway. The complete route which ran from London Euston to Birmingham, covered 112 miles (180 km), opened during 1838, becoming England's first inter-city line. Euston became London's first railway terminus.
1837 – The first Cuban railway (under Spanish rule) line connected Havana with Bejucal. In 1838 the line reached Güines. This was the first railway in Latin America.
1837 – The Leipzig–Dresden Railway Company opened the first long-distance German railway line, connecting Leipzig with Althen near Wurzen. In 1839 the line reached Dresden.
1837 – The first Austrian railway line connected Vienna with Wagram. In 1839 the line reached Brno.
1837 – The first rail line in Russia connected Tsarskoye Selo and Saint Petersburg.
1837 – The first line in Paris (Paris-Saint Germain Line) opened between Le Pecq near the former royal town of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and Embarcadère des Bâtignoles (later to become Gare Saint-Lazare). It was the first railway in Paris and the first in France designed solely for the carriage of passengers and operated using steam locomotives. The western section from Saint-Germain to Nanterre is now part of the RER A, the busiest railway line in Europe.
1837 – Robert Davidson built the first electric locomotive.
1838 – The world's first railroad junction is formed in Branchville, South Carolina. The railroad company extended its existing rail that ran between Charleston and the Savannah River to the north toward Orangeburg and Columbia. Both rail lines closely paralleled old Native American trails.
1838 – Edmondson railway ticket introduced.
1839 – The first railway in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Italy, opened from Naples to Portici.
1839 – The first rail line in the Netherlands connected Amsterdam and Haarlem.
1840s – Railway Mania sweeps the United Kingdom. 6,220 miles (10,010 km) of railway lines were built during the decade.
1840 – The Wilmington and Weldon Railroad in North Carolina becomes the longest railroad in the world with 161.5 miles (259.9 km) of track.
1841 – The Great Western Railway was completed from London Paddington to Bridgwater via Bristol, a total of 152 miles (245 km).
1842, 6 November – First railway to cross an international border in Europe is opened. The line ran between Mouscron (Belgium) and Tourcoing (France).
1843 – The first rail line connecting Brussels (Belgium) with Cologne (Prussia) via Liège and Aachen (see Rhenish Railway Company).
1844 – The first rail line in Congress Poland was built between Warsaw and Pruszków.
1844 – The first Atmospheric Railway, the Dalkey Atmospheric Railway opened for passenger service between Kingstown and Dalkey in Ireland. The line was 3 km in length & operated for 10 years.
1845 – The first railway line built in Jamaica opened on 21 November. The line ran 15 miles from Kingston to Spanish Town. It was also the first rail line built in any of Britain's West Indies colonies. The Earl of Elgin, Jamaica's Governor, presided over the opening ceremonies, by the late 1860s the line extended 105 miles to Montego Bay.
1845 – Royal Commission on Railway Gauges to choose between Stephenson's gauge and Brunel's gauge.
1846 – James McConnell met with George Stephenson and Archibald Slate at Bromsgrove. This meeting led to the establishment of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers.
1846 – The first railway line in Hungary connects Pest and Vác.
1846 – First international railway connection between two capitals, Paris and Brussels.
1846 – The Surrey Iron Railway closes, the first railway to cease operations.
1847 – Pennsylvania Railroad opens with a line between Harrisburg and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
1847 – First train in Switzerland, the Limmat, on the Spanisch-Brotli-Bahn Railway line.
1848 – First railway line in Spain, built between Barcelona and Mataró.
1848 – First railway in South America, British Guyana. The railway was designed, surveyed and built by the British-American architect and artist Frederick Catherwood. John Bradshaw Sharples built all the railway stations, bridges, stores, and other facilities. Financing was provided by the Demerera Sugar Company, which wished to transport their product to the dock of Georgetown. Construction was in sections with the first, from Georgetown to Plaisance, opening on 3 November 1848.
1850 to 1899
1850: Kilometres of railway line in operation in Europe: Great Britain: 9797 (plus Ireland: 865); Germany: 5856; France: 2915; Austria: 1357; Belgium: 854; Russia: 501; Netherlands: 176.
1851 – First train in Chile from Caldera to Copiapó (80 km)
1851 – Initiative taken for a railway system in British India, for setting up military routes and growing trade.
1851 – Moscow – Saint Petersburg Railway
1852 – The first railway in Africa, in Alexandria, Egypt.
1853 – Railways introduced to India, train ran from Bombay (now Mumbai) to Thane.
1853 – Indianapolis Union Station, the first union station, opened by the Terre Haute and Richmond Railroad, Madison and Indianapolis Railroad, and Bellefontaine Railroad in the United States.
1854 – The first railway in Brazil, inaugurated by Pedro II of Brazil on 30 April in Rio de Janeiro, built by the Viscount of Maua.
1854 – The first railway in Norway. Between Oslo and Eidsvoll.
1854 – The first railway in today's Romania and Serbia (then Austrian Empire), on 20 August 1854, between Lisava-Oravica-Bazijaš.
1854 – First steam drawn railway in Australia. Melbourne to Hobson's Bay, Victoria.
1855 – The Panama Railway with over of track is completed after five years of work across the Isthmus of Panama at a cost of about $8,000,000 dollars and over 6,000 lives—the first 'transcontinental railway'.
1856 – The first railway in Papal State, Italy, from Rome to Frascati.
1856 – First railway completed in Portugal, linking Lisbon to Carregado.
1856 – Paris–Marseille railway opened, which together with other railways north of Paris created the first transcontinental railroad (from the English Channel to the Mediterranean Sea)
1857 – Steel rails first used in Britain.
1857 – The first railway in Argentina, built by Ferrocarril del Oeste between Buenos Aires and Flores, a distance of 10 km, opened to the public on 30 August.
1858 – The first railway line in Ottoman Empire (Turkiye) opens between Izmir-Aydin.
1858 – Henri Giffard invented the injector for steam locomotives.
1861 – First railway in Paraguay, from the station to the Port of Asuncion on 14 June.
1862 – The first railway in Finland, from Helsinki to Hämeenlinna.
1862 – The Warsaw – Saint Petersburg Railway is opened.
1863 – First underground railway, the Metropolitan Railway opened in London. The adapted steam engines held condensed steam and let it out only at particular tunnel locations that had air vents. This gave rise to a new mode of subterranean urban transit: the Subway/U-Bahn/Metro.
1863 – Scotsman Robert Francis Fairlie invented the Fairlie locomotive with pivoted driving bogies, so trains could negotiate tighter track curves. This innovation was rare for steam locomotives, but was the model for most future diesel and electric locomotives.
1863 – First steam railway in New Zealand opened from Christchurch to Ferrymead.
1863 – World's first narrow – gauge steam locomotive built, The Princess (Later named Princess) for the Ffestiniog Railway
1864 – First railway line opened in Mauritius. The North line covered 50 km (31 mi) and started operation on 23 May.
1865 – Pullman sleeping car introduced in the USA.
1866 – Ruse-Varna is the first railway line completed in Bulgaria (then part of the Ottoman Empire), connecting the Danube port of Ruse with the Black Sea port of Varna.
1869 – The First Transcontinental Railroad (North America) completed across the United States from Omaha, Nebraska to Sacramento, California. Built by Central Pacific and Union Pacific.
1869 – George Westinghouse established the Westinghouse Air Brake Company in the United States.
1870 – The Paldiski-Tallinn-St Petersburg line is opened as the first railway line in Estonia (then part of the Russian Empire).
1871 – The Poti-Zestafoni line is opened as the first railway line in Georgia (country) and Caucasus.
1872 – The first passenger train ran on October 10, 1872, from Poti to Tbilisi.
1872 – The first railway in Japan was inaugurated by government of Japan, and connected between Shimbashi in Tokyo and Yokohama.
1872 – The Midland Railway put in a third-class coach on its trains.
1875 – Midland Railway introduced eight and twelve wheeled bogie coaches.
1877 – Vacuum brakes are invented in the United States.
1879 – First electric railway demonstrated at the Berlin Trades Fair.
1881 – First public electric tram line, the Gross-Lichterfelde Tramway, opened in Berlin, Germany.
1881 – One of the first railway lines in the Middle East was built between Tehran and Rayy in Iran.
1882 – Lavatories were introduced on the Great Northern Railway coaches in Britain
1882 – The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway connected Atchison, Kansas with the Southern Pacific at Deming, New Mexico, thus completing a second transcontinental railroad in the U.S..
1882 – First line in Kingdom of Serbia: 12 km long 600 mm wide gauge track from Majdanpek copper processing plant to Velike Livade, constructed by the "Serbian Copper & Iron Co" (official name in English, most stock holders were British), first run in June 1882.
1883 – First electric tram line using electricity served from an overhead line, the Mödling and Hinterbrühl Tram opened in Austria.
1883 – Southern Pacific linked New Orleans with Los Angeles thus completing the third U.S. transcontinental railroad.
1883 – The Northern Pacific Railway links Chicago with Seattle—the fourth U.S. transcontinental railroad.
1883 – The Orient Express, a long-distance passenger train service connecting Paris to Constantinople / Istanbul, was created by Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits (CIWL).
1885 – The Canadian Pacific is completed 5 years ahead of schedule, the longest single railway of its time, which links the eastern and western provinces of Canada.
1888 – Frank Sprague installs the "trolleypole" trolley system in Richmond, Virginia, making it the first large scale electric street railway in the US, though the first commercial installation of an electric streetcar in the United States was built in 1884 in Cleveland, Ohio and operated for a period of one year by the East Cleveland Street Railway Company.
1888, 30 May – The first railway in British Hong Kong, Peak Tram opened.
1889 – The first interurban tram-train to emerge in the United States was the Newark and Granville Street Railway in Ohio, which opened in 1889.
1890 – The City & South London Railway was the first deep-level underground "tube" railway in the world, and the first major railway to use electric traction
1891 – Construction began on the long Trans-Siberian railway in Russia. Construction completed in 1904. Webb C. Ball established the first railway watch official guidelines for railroad chronometers.
1892 – The first horse-drawn tram line in Belgrade, Serbia.
1893 – The Liverpool Overhead Railway opened on 6 March 1893 with 2-car electric multiple units, the first to operate in the world.
1893 – The first railway in Thailand between Bangkok to Samut Prakan opened (13.05 mi). The Great Northern Railway linked St Paul, Minnesota to Seattle—the fifth U. S. transcontinental railroad.
1894 – Thailand's tram line using electricity served in Bangkok.
1894 – Serbia's first electric tram line in Belgrade.
1895 – Japan's first electrified railway opened in Kyoto.
1895 – First mainline electrification on a four-mile stretch (Baltimore Belt Line) of the Baltimore & Ohio
1898 – The first railway line in the Congo Free State between Matadi in the province of Kongo-Central to Kinshasa opened.
1899 – The first Korean railway line connects Noryangjin (Seoul) with Jemulpo (Incheon).
1899 – Tokyo's first electric railway, the predecessor to Keihin Electric Express Railway opened.
1899 – First use of three-phase alternating current in a mainline. The 40 km Burgdorf-Thun line opened in Switzerland
20th century
1901 – Kenya-Uganda Railway completed and opened.
1908 – Hejaz Railway opened.
1912 – The world's first diesel locomotive (a diesel-mechanical locomotive) was operated in the summer of 1912 on the Winterthur–Romanshorn railway in Switzerland.
1912 – Articulated trams, invented and first used by the Boston Elevated Railway.
1913 – First diesel powered railcar enters service in Sweden. In Austria-Hungary, the first electrified metric railway was opened between Arad and the neighboring vineyards, facilitating transportation of goods and people and reducing travel time from half a day to just one hour (total distance around 60 km).
1915 – First major stretch of electrified railway in Sweden; Kiruna-Riksgränsen (Malmbanan).
1917 – General Electric produced an experimental Diesel-electric locomotive using Lemp's control design—the first in the United States.
1920 – U.S. employment is 2,076,000.
1924 – First diesel-electric locomotive built in Soviet Union, Russian locomotive class E el-2.
1925 – The first electric train ran between Bombay (Victoria Terminus) and Kurla, a distance of 16 km. The first electric train of India.
1925 – Ingersoll Rand with traction motors supplied by General Electric built a prototype diesel switcher (shunter) locomotive, the AGEIR boxcabs. Mumbai to Pune route electrified in India, WCG 1 electric locomotives were introduced on the route.
1926 – First diesel locomotive service introduced in Canada.
1930 – GE began producing diesel-electric switching engines. WCP1 (EA/1), electric locomotives were introduced on the Mumbai – Pune Route.
1934 – the first train (Flying Scotsman) to officially hit 100 mph.
1934 – First diesel-powered streamlined passenger train in America (the Burlington Zephyr) introduced at the Chicago World's Fair.
1935 – First children's railway opens in Tbilisi, USSR.
1937–41 – Magnetic levitation (maglev) train patents awarded in Germany to Hermann Kemper, with design propelled by linear motors.
1938 – In England, the world speed record for steam traction was set by the Mallard, which reached a speed of 203 km/h (126 mph).
1939 – In Persia the Trans-Iranian Railway opened, built entirely by local capital.
1939 – Diesel-electric railroad locomotion entered the mainstream in the U.S. when the Burlington Railroad and Union Pacific start using diesel-electric "streamliners" to haul passengers.
1940 – U.S. employment is 1,046,000.
1942–45 – The U.S. gives over 117 steam locomotives worth over $2,624,182 ($1945) to the Soviet Union under U.S. Lend Lease.
1946 – U.S. railroads begin rapidly replacing their rolling stock with diesel-electric units—not completing the process until the mid 1960s.
1948, 1 January – British Railways formed by nationalising the assets of the 'Big Four' railway companies (GWR, LMS, LNER and SR).
1948, 1 March – Foreign-owned railway companies nationalised in Argentina during the first term of office of President Peron.
1951 – World's first preserved railway, the Talyllyn Railway, operates its first train under the preservation movement on 14 May 1951.
1953 – Japan sets narrow gauge world speed record of 145 km/h (90 mph) with Odakyū 3000 series SE Romancecar.
1959, April – Construction of the first segment of the Tōkaidō Shinkansen between Tokyo and Osaka commenced.
1960 – US employment is 793,000.
1960 – the last British steam engine is made (Evening Star).
1960s–2000s (decade) – Many countries adopt high-speed rail in an attempt to make rail transport competitive with both road transport and air transport.
1963, 27 March – Publication of The Reshaping of Britain's Railways (the Beeching Report). Generally known as the Beeching cuts, it led to the mass closure of 25% of route miles and 50% of stations during the decade following.
1964 – Shinkansen service introduced in Japan, between Tokyo and Osaka. Trains average speeds of 160 km/h (100 mph) due to congested shared urban tracks, with top speeds of 210 km/h.
1967 – Automatic train operation introduced.
1968 – British Rail ran its last final steam-driven mainline train, named the Fifteen Guinea Special, after of a programmed withdrawal of steam during 1962–68. It marked the end of 143 years of its public railway use. Thailand's tram line was stop serviced.
1970, 21 June – Penn Central, the dominant railroad in the northeastern United States, became bankrupt (the largest US corporate bankruptcy up to that time). Created only two years earlier in 1968 from a merger of several other railroads, it marked the end of long-haul private-sector US passenger train services, and forced the creation of the government-owned Amtrak on 1 May 1971.
1975, 10 August – British Rail's experimental tilting train, the Advanced Passenger Train (APT) achieved a new British speed record, the APT-E reaching 245 km/h (152.3 mph). The prototype APT-P pushed the speed record further to 261 km/h (162.2 mph) in December 1979, but when put into service on 7 December 1981, it failed and was withdrawn days later, resuming only from 1980 to 1986 on the West Coast Main Line.
1979 – High speed TGV trains introduced in France, TGV trains travelling at an average speed of . and with a top speed of .
1981 – Port Island Line of Kobe first fully driverless train introduced.
1984 – The Kolkata Metro is a metro railway transport system serving the city of Kolkata and the districts of South 24 Parganas and North 24 Parganas in the Indian state of West Bengal. The Kolkata Metro was the first Metro Railway in India, opening for commercial services from 24 October 1984. The metro system has most of its stations underground. Being the first of its kind in India and in the entire South Asia, the metro system is proudly called "India's First, Kolkata's Pride.
1987 – World speed record for a diesel locomotive set by British Rail's High Speed Train (HST), which reached a speed of .
1989 – Cairo Underground Metro Line 1 is the first line of underground in Africa and Middle East Line length with 34 stations Daily ridership 1 million passenger Operating speed .
1990 – World speed record for an electric train is set in France by a TGV, reaching a speed of .
1990 – ADtranz low floor tram world's first completely low-floor tram introduced.
1994–1997 – Privatisation of British Rail. The British government passes ownership of track and infrastructure to Railtrack on 1 April 1994 (replaced by Network Rail in 2002), with passenger operations later franchised to 25 individual private-sector operators, and freight services sold outright.
21st century
2000 – Amtrak introduced the Acela on the Northeast Corridor in the United States.
2000 – Storstockholms Lokaltrafik introduced the Tvärbanan in the Sweden.
2001 August – Northeast China first electrified railway opened between Shenyang and Harbin.
2001 – High Speed 1, Britain's first high-speed rail line opens, allowing trains to run from London Waterloo to Paris on dedicated high-speed track.
2003 – Germany introduces capa vehicle trams in Mannheim.
2007 – High speed trains travelling at are introduced in Spain between Madrid and Barcelona.
2007 – Modified trainset of France's TGV had beaten its original world record when it travelled from Metz- Reims at a speed of .
2007 – Ireland's first Intercity DMU, the IE 22000 Class, enters service running on the Dublin-Sligo line.
2008 – the first British standard gauge steam train made in 50 years (60163 Tornado).
2009 – Škoda 15 T world's first completely low-floor tram with articulated bogies introduced.
2015 – In March, China South Rail Corporation (CSR) demonstrated the world's first hydrogen fuel cell vehicle tramcar at an assembly facility in Qingdao. The chief engineer of the CSR subsidiary CRRC Qingdao Sifang
2017 – Ground-level power supply technology, TramWave, developed by Italian company Ansaldo, successfully entered commercial application via the opening of Zhuhai tram Line 1 first phase in China.
2018 – Alstom Coradia iLint hydrogen-powered train enters service in Lower Saxony, Germany.
2018 – driverless trams in Potsdam tested.
2020 – The world's first driverless, autonomous [bullet] train enters into service in China.
2021 – The pilot project of the "world's first automated, driverless [conventional] train" is launched in the city of Hamburg, Germany.
See also
History of rail transport
History of rail transport in Great Britain
Years in rail transport
Timeline of United States railway history
Timeline of transportation technology
References
External links
Guide to Railway History, worldwide (2016)
Waggonway Research Circle: The Wollaton Wagonway of 1604. The World's First Overland Railway , August 2005
Describes status of railways worldwide, includes numerous photos as well as c. 1906 continent diagrams of railways
History of Railroad Unions in the U.S.
Timeline
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherwood%20Anderson
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Sherwood Anderson
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Sherwood Anderson (September 13, 1876 – March 8, 1941) was an American novelist and short story writer, known for subjective and self-revealing works. Self-educated, he rose to become a successful copywriter and business owner in Cleveland and Elyria, Ohio. In 1912, Anderson had a nervous breakdown that led him to abandon his business and family to become a writer.
At the time, he moved to Chicago and was eventually married three additional times. His most enduring work is the short-story sequence Winesburg, Ohio, which launched his career. Throughout the 1920s, Anderson published several short story collections, novels, memoirs, books of essays, and a book of poetry. Though his books sold reasonably well, Dark Laughter (1925), a novel inspired by Anderson's time in New Orleans during the 1920s, was his only bestseller.
Early life
Sherwood Berton Anderson was born on September 13, 1876, at 142 S. Lafayette Street in Camden, Ohio, a farming town with a population of around 650 (according to the 1870 census). He was the third of seven children born to Emma Jane (née Smith) and former Union soldier and harness-maker Irwin McLain Anderson. Considered reasonably well-off financially, Anderson's father was seen as an up-and-comer by his Camden contemporaries, but the family left town just before Sherwood's first birthday. Reasons for the departure are uncertain; most biographers note rumors of debts incurred by either Irwin or his brother Benjamin. The Andersons headed north to Caledonia by way of a brief stay in a village of a few hundred called Independence (now Butler). Four or five years were spent in Caledonia, years that formed Anderson's earliest memories. This period later inspired his semi-autobiographical novel Tar: A Midwest Childhood (1926). In Caledonia Anderson's father began drinking excessively, which led to financial difficulties, eventually causing the family to leave the town.
With each move, Irwin Anderson's prospects dimmed; while in Camden he was the proprietor of a successful shop and could employ an assistant, but by the time the Andersons finally settled down in Clyde, Ohio, in 1884, Irwin could get work only as a hired man to harness manufacturers. That job was short-lived, and for the rest of Sherwood Anderson's childhood, his father barely supported the family as an occasional sign-painter and paperhanger, while his mother took in washing to make ends meet. Partly as a result of these misfortunes, young Sherwood became adept at finding various odd jobs to help his family, earning the nickname "Jobby".
Though he was a decent student, Anderson's attendance at school declined as he began picking up work, and he finally left school for good at age 14 after about nine months of high school. From the time he began to cut school to the time he left town, Anderson worked as a "newsboy, errand boy, waterboy, cow-driver, stable groom, and perhaps printer's devil, not to mention assistant to Irwin Anderson, Sign Painter", in addition to assembling bicycles for the Elmore Manufacturing Company. Even in his teens, Anderson's talent for selling was evident, a talent he would later draw on in a successful career in advertising. As a newsboy he was said to have convinced a tired farmer in a saloon to buy two copies of the same evening paper. With the exception of work, Anderson's childhood resembled that of other boys his age.
In addition to participating in local events and spending time with his friends, Anderson was a voracious reader. Though there were only a few books in the Anderson home, the youth read widely by borrowing from the school library (there was not a public library in Clyde until 1903), and the personal libraries of a school superintendent and of John Tichenor, a local artist, who responded to Anderson's interest.
By Anderson's 18th year in 1895, his family was on shaky ground. His father had started to disappear for weeks. Two years earlier, in 1893, Karl, Sherwood's elder brother, had left Clyde for Chicago. On May 10, 1895, his mother succumbed to tuberculosis. Sherwood, now essentially on his own, boarded at the Harvey & Yetter's livery stable where he worked as a groom—an experience that would translate into several of his best-known stories. (Irwin Anderson died in 1919 after having been estranged from his son for two decades.) Two months before his mother's death, in March 1895, Anderson had signed up with the Ohio National Guard for a five-year hitch, while he was going steady with Bertha Baynes, an attractive girl and possibly the inspiration for Helen White in Winesburg, Ohio, and he was working a secure job at the bicycle factory. But his mother's death precipitated his leaving Clyde. He settled in Chicago around late 1896 or the spring or summer of 1897, having worked a few small-town factory jobs along the way.
Chicago and war
Anderson moved to a boardinghouse in Chicago owned by a former mayor of Clyde. His brother Karl lived in the city and was studying at the Art Institute. Anderson moved in with him and quickly found a job at a cold-storage plant. In late 1897, Karl moved away, and Anderson relocated to a two-room flat with his sister and two younger brothers newly come from Clyde. Money was tight—Anderson earned "two dollars for a day of ten hours"— but with occasional support from Karl, they got by. Following the example of his Clyde confederate and lifelong friend Cliff Paden (later to become known as John Emerson) and Karl, Anderson took up the idea of furthering his education by enrolling in night school at the Lewis Institute. He attended several classes regularly including "New Business Arithmetic" earning marks that placed him second in the class. It was also there that Anderson heard lectures on Robert Browning and was possibly first introduced to the poetry of Walt Whitman. Soon, however, Anderson's first stint in Chicago would come to an end as the United States prepared to enter the Spanish–American War.
Although he had limited resources while in Chicago, Anderson bought a new suit and returned to Clyde to join the military. Once home, the company he joined mustered into the army at Camp Bushnell, Ohio on May 12, 1898. Several months of training followed at various southern encampments until early in 1899, when his company was sent to Cuba. Fighting had ceased four months prior to their arrival. On April 21, 1899, they left Cuba having seen no combat. According to Irving Howe, "Sherwood was popular among his army comrades, who remembered him as a fellow given to prolonged reading, mostly in dime westerns and historical romances, and talented at finding a girl when he wanted one. For the first of these traits he was frequently teased, but the second brought him the respect it usually does in armies."
After the war, Anderson resided briefly in Clyde performing agricultural work before deciding to return to school. In September 1899 Anderson joined his siblings Karl and Stella in Springfield, Ohio where, at the age of twenty-three he enrolled for his senior year of preparatory school at the Wittenberg Academy, a preparatory school located on the campus of the Wittenberg University. In his time there he performed well, earning good marks and participating in several extracurricular activities. In the spring of 1900 Anderson graduated from the Academy, offering a discourse on Zionism as one of the eight students chosen to give a commencement speech.
Business, marriage and family
During his time in Springfield, Anderson stayed and worked as a "chore boy" in a boardinghouse called The Oaks among a group of businessmen, educators, and other creatives types many of whom became friendly with the young Anderson. In particular, a high school teacher named Trillena White and a businessman Harry Simmons played a role in the author's life. The former who was ten years Anderson's senior would walk—raising eyebrows among the other boarders—with the young man in the evenings. More importantly, according to Anderson, she "first introduced me to fine literature" and would later serve as inspiration for a number of his characters including the teacher Kate Swift in Winesburg, Ohio. The latter, who worked as the advertising manager for Mast, Crowell, and Kirkpatrick (later Crowell-Collier Publishing Company, publishers of the Woman's Home Companion) and occasionally took meals at The Oaks, was so impressed by Anderson's commencement speech that he offered him a job on the spot as an advertising solicitor at his company's Chicago office. Thus, in the summer of 1900, Anderson returned to Chicago where most of his siblings were now living, intent on achieving success in his new white-collar occupation.
Though he performed well, problems with his boss and a dislike for the office routine and for the style of correspondence, which caused the ultimate rift, caused Anderson to leave Crowell in mid-1901 for a position set up for him by Marco Marrow, another friend from The Oaks, at the Frank B. White Advertising Company (later the Long-Critchfield Agency). There the author stayed until 1906, selling ads and writing advertising copy for manufacturers of farming implements and articles for the trade journal, Agricultural Advertising. In this latter magazine Anderson published his first professional work, a February 1902 piece called "The Farmer Wears Clothes." What followed were approximately 29 articles and essays for his company's magazine, and two for a small literary magazine published by the Bobbs-Merrill Company called The Reader. According to scholar Welford Dunaway Taylor, the two monthly columns ("Rot and Reason" and "Business Types") Anderson wrote for Agricultural Advertising exemplified the "character writing" (or character sketches) that would later become a notable part of the author's approach in Winesburg, Ohio and other works.
Part of Anderson's job in those early years of his career was making trips to solicit potential clients. On one of these trips around May 1903 he stopped in the home of a friend from Clyde, Jane "Jennie" Bemis, then living in Toledo, Ohio. It was there that he met Cornelia Pratt Lane (1877–1967), the daughter of wealthy Ohio businessman Robert Lane. The two were married a year later, on the 16th of May, in Lucas, Ohio. They would go on to have three children—Robert Lane (1907–1951), John Sherwood (1908–1995), and Marion (aka Mimi, 1911–1996). After a short honeymoon, the couple moved into an apartment on the south side of Chicago. For two additional years, Anderson worked for Long-Critchfield until an opportunity came along from one of the accounts he managed and so on Labor Day 1906, Sherwood Anderson left Chicago for Cleveland to become president of United Factories Company, a mail-order firm selling various items from surrounding firms.
While his new job, which amounted to the position of sales manager, could be stressful the happy home life Cornelia had fostered in Chicago continued in Cleveland; "his wife and he entertained frequently. They went to church on Sundays, with Anderson decked out in morning clothes and top hat. On occasional Sunday afternoons Cornelia taught him French. She also helped with his advertising work." His home life could not sustain him when one of the manufacturers United Factories marketed produced a large batch of defective incubators. Soon, letters addressed to Anderson (who personally guaranteed all products sold) began to arrive from customers both desperate and angry. The strain from months of answering hundreds of these letters while continuing his demanding schedule at work and home led to a nervous breakdown in the summer of 1907 and eventually his departure from the company.
His failure in Cleveland did not delay him for long, however, because in September 1907, the Andersons moved to Elyria, Ohio, a town of approximately ten thousand residents, where he rented a warehouse within sight of the railroad and began a mail-order business selling (at a markup of 500%) a preservative paint called "Roof-Fix". The first years in Elyria went very well for Anderson and his family; two more children were added for a total of three in addition to a busy social life for their parents. So well, in fact, did the Anderson Manufacturing Co. do that Anderson was able to purchase and absorb several similar businesses and expand his firm's product-lines under the name Anderson Paint Company. Carrying on that momentum, in late 1911 Anderson secured the financial backing to merge his companies into the American Merchants Company, a profit-sharing/investment firm operating in part on a scheme he developed around that time called "Commercial Democracy".
Nervous breakdown
It was then, at what seemed the pinnacle of his business achievements, when the stresses of Anderson's professional life collided with his social responsibilities and his writing, that Anderson suffered the breakdown that has remained paramount in the "myth" or "legend" of his life.
On Thursday, November 28, 1912, Anderson came to his office in a slightly nervous state. According to his secretary, he opened some mail, and in the course of dictating a business letter became distracted. After writing a note to his wife, he murmured something along the lines of, "I feel as though my feet were wet, and they keep getting wetter." He then left the office. Four days later, on Sunday, December 1, a disoriented Anderson entered a drug store on East 152nd Street in Cleveland and asked the pharmacist to help figure out his identity. Unable to make out what the incoherent Anderson was saying, the pharmacist discovered a phone book on his person and called the number of Edwin Baxter, a member of the Elyria Chamber of Commerce. Baxter came, recognized Anderson, and promptly had him checked into the Huron Road Hospital in downtown Cleveland, where Anderson's wife, whom he would hardly recognize, went to meet him.
But even before returning home, Anderson began his lifelong practice of reinterpreting the story of his breakdown. Despite news reports in the Elyria Evening Telegram and the Cleveland Press following his admittance into the hospital that ascribed the cause of the breakdown to "overwork" and that mentioned Anderson's inability to remember what happened, on December 6 the story changed. All of a sudden, the breakdown became voluntary. The Evening Telegram reported (possibly spuriously) that "As soon as he recovers from the trance into which he placed himself, Sherwood Anderson ... will write a book of the sensations he experienced while he wandered over the country as a nomad." This same sense of personal agency is alluded to thirty years later in Sherwood Anderson's Memoirs (1942) where the author wrote of his thought process before walking out: "I wanted to leave, get away from business. ... Again I resorted to slickness, to craftiness...The thought occurred to me that if men thought me a little insane they would forgive me if I lit out...." This idea, however, that Anderson made a conscious decision on November 28 to make a clean break from family and business is unlikely. In the first place, contrary to what Anderson later claimed, his writing was no secret. It was known to his wife, secretary, and some business associates that for several years Anderson had been working on personal writing projects both at night and occasionally in his office at the factory. Secondly, although some of the notes he wrote were to himself during his journey, notes he mailed to his wife on Saturday, addressing the envelope "Cornelia L. Anderson, Pres., American Striving Co.", show that he had some semblance of memory. The general confusion and frequent incoherence the notes exhibit is unlikely to be deliberate. While diagnoses for the four days of Anderson's wanderings have ranged from "amnesia" to "lost identity" to "nervous breakdown", his condition is generally characterized today as a "fugue state." Anderson himself described the episode as "escaping from his materialistic existence," and was admired for his action by many young male writers who chose to be inspired by him. Herbert Gold wrote, "He fled in order to find himself, then prayed to flee that disease of self, to become 'beautiful and clear.'" After having moved back to Chicago, Anderson formally divorced Cornelia.
Novelist
Anderson's first novel, Windy McPherson's Son, was published in 1916 as part of a three-book deal with John Lane. This book, along with his second novel, Marching Men (1917), are usually considered his "apprentice novels" because they came before Anderson found fame with Winesburg, Ohio (1919) and are generally considered inferior in quality to works that followed.
Anderson's most notable work is his collection of interrelated short stories, Winesburg, Ohio (1919). In his memoir, he wrote that "Hands", the opening story, was the first "real" story he ever wrote.
"Instead of emphasizing plot and action, Anderson used a simple, precise, unsentimental style to reveal the frustration, loneliness, and longing in the lives of his characters. These characters are stunted by the narrowness of Midwestern small-town life and by their own limitations."In addition, Anderson was one of the first American novelists to introduce new insights from psychology, including Freudian analysis.
Although his short stories were very successful, Anderson wanted to write novels, which he felt allowed a larger scale. In 1920, he published Poor White, which was rather successful. In 1923, Anderson published Many Marriages; in it he explored the new sexual freedom, a theme which he continued in Dark Laughter and later writing. Dark Laughter had its detractors, but the reviews were, on the whole, positive. F. Scott Fitzgerald considered Many Marriages to be Anderson's finest novel.
Beginning in 1924, Sherwood and Elizabeth Prall Anderson moved to New Orleans, where they lived in the historic Pontalba Apartments (540-B St. Peter Street) adjoining Jackson Square in the heart of the French Quarter. For a time, they entertained William Faulkner, Carl Sandburg, Edmund Wilson and other writers, for whom Anderson was a major influence. Critics trying to define Anderson's significance have said he was more influential through this younger generation than through his own works.
Anderson referred to meeting Faulkner in his ambiguous and moving short story, "A Meeting South." His novel Dark Laughter (1925) drew from his New Orleans experiences and continued to explore the new sexual freedom of the 1920s. Although the book was satirized by Ernest Hemingway in his novella The Torrents of Spring, it was a bestseller at the time, the only book of Anderson's to reach that status during his lifetime.
Four marriages
Anderson and Cornelia Lane married in 1904, had his only 3 children, and divorced in 1916. Anderson quickly married the sculptor Tennessee Claflin Mitchell (1874–1929), obtaining a divorce from her in Reno, Nevada in 1924.
In 1924, Anderson married Elizabeth Norma Prall (1884–1976), a friend of Faulkner's whom he had met in New York before his divorce from Mitchell. After several years that marriage also failed, and they divorced in 1932.
In 1928 Anderson became involved with Eleanor Gladys Copenhaver (1896–1985), whom he married in 1933. They traveled and often studied together, and were both active in the trade union movement. Anderson also became close to Copenhaver's mother, Laura.
Later work
Anderson frequently contributed articles to newspapers. In 1935, he was commissioned to go to Franklin County, Virginia to cover a major federal trial of bootleggers and gangsters, in what was called "The Great Moonshine Conspiracy". More than 30 men had been indicted for trial. In his article, he said Franklin was the "wettest county in the world," a phrase used as a title for a 21st-century novel by Matt Bondurant.
In the 1930s, Anderson published Death in the Woods (short stories), Puzzled America (essays), and Kit Brandon: A Portrait (novel). In 1932, Anderson dedicated his novel Beyond Desire to Copenhaver. Although by this time he was considered to be less influential overall in American literature, some of what have become his most quoted passages were published in these later works. The books were otherwise considered inferior to his earlier ones.
Beyond Desire built on his interest in the trade union movement and was set during the 1929 Loray Mill Strike in Gastonia, North Carolina. Hemingway referred to it satirically in his novel, To Have and Have Not (1937), where he included as a minor character an author working on a novel of Gastonia.
In his later years, Anderson and Copenhaver lived on his Ripshin Farm in Troutdale, Virginia, which he purchased in 1927 for use during summers. While living there, he contributed to a country newspaper, columns that were collected and published posthumously.
Death
Anderson died on March 8, 1941, at the age of 64, taken ill during a cruise to South America. He had been feeling abdominal discomfort for a few days, which was later diagnosed as peritonitis. Anderson and his wife debarked from the cruise liner Santa Lucia and went to the hospital in Colón, Panama, where he died on March 8. An autopsy revealed that a swallowed toothpick had done internal damage resulting in peritonitis.
Anderson's body was returned to the United States, where he was buried at Round Hill Cemetery in Marion, Virginia. His epitaph reads, "Life, Not Death, Is the Great Adventure".
Legacy and honors
In 1971, Anderson's final home in Troutdale, Virginia, known as Ripshin Farm, was designated as a National Historic Landmark.
In 2012, Anderson was inducted into the Chicago Literary Hall of Fame.
In 1988 the Sherwood Anderson Foundation was created by the author's children and grandchildren. It gives grants to emerging writers. The most notable of these is the annual Sherwood Anderson Foundation Writers Award. As of 2009, the Foundation's Co-Presidents were Anderson's grandsons David M. Spear and Michael Spear, and Anderson's granddaughter, Karlyn Spear Shankland was Secretary. Also, some great-grandchildren of Anderson served terms in S.A.F. as officers and boardmembers: Tippe Miller, Paul Shankland, Susie Spear, Anna McKean, Margo Ross Sears, Abe Spear.
Michael Spear was also a copy editor, journalist, and a journalism professor specialized in copy editing at the University of Richmond for 34 years, before retiring in 2017. David M. Spear is a published author (3 books), retired newspaper editor, and nationally noted journalist photographer in Madison, North Carolina, documenting second world nation life in Cuba, Mexico, and rural North Carolina. Karlyn Shankland retired in 1999 from a public schoolteacher career in Greensboro, North Carolina after 32 years and earned commendations for her pedagogy.
Works
Novels
Windy McPherson's Son (1916)
Marching Men (1917)
Poor White (1920)
Many Marriages (1923)
Dark Laughter (1925)
Tar: A Midwest Childhood (1926, semi-autobiographical novel)
Beyond Desire (1932)
Kit Brandon: A Portrait (1936)
Short story collections
Winesburg, Ohio (1919)
The Triumph of the Egg: A Book of Impressions From American Life in Tales and Poems (1921)
Horses and Men (1923)
Death in the Woods and Other Stories (1933)
Poetry
Mid-American Chants (1918)
A New Testament (1927)
Drama
Plays, Winesburg and Others (1937)
Nonfiction
A Story Teller's Story (1922, memoir)
The Modern Writer (1925, essays)
Sherwood Anderson's Notebook (1926, memoir)
Alice and The Lost Novel (1929)
Hello Towns! (1929, collected newspaper articles)
Nearer the Grass Roots (1929, essays)
The American County Fair (1930, essays)
Perhaps Women (1931, essays)
No Swank (1934, essays)
Puzzled America (1935, essays)
A Writer's Conception of Realism (1939, essays)
Home Town (1940, photographs and commentary)
Published posthumously
Sherwood Anderson's Memoirs (1942)
The Sherwood Anderson Reader, edited by Paul Rosenfeld (1947)
The Portable Sherwood Anderson, edited by Horace Gregory (1949)
Letters of Sherwood Anderson, edited by Howard Mumford Jones and Walter B. Rideout (1953)
Sherwood Anderson: Short Stories, edited by Maxwell Geismar (1962)
Return to Winesburg: Selections from Four Years of Writing for a Country Newspaper, edited by Ray Lewis White (1967)
The Buck Fever Papers, edited by Welford Dunaway Taylor (1971, collected newspaper articles)
Sherwood Anderson and Gertrude Stein: Correspondence and Personal Essays, edited by Ray Lewis White (1972)
The "Writer's Book," edited by Martha Mulroy Curry (1975, unpublished works)
France and Sherwood Anderson: Paris Notebook, 1921, edited by Michael Fanning (1976)
Sherwood Anderson: The Writer at His Craft, edited by Jack Salzman, David D. Anderson, and Kichinosuke Ohashi (1979)
A Teller's Tales, selected and introduced by Frank Gado (1983)
Sherwood Anderson: Selected Letters: 1916–1933, edited by Charles E. Modlin (1984)
Letters to Bab: Sherwood Anderson to Marietta D. Finely, 1916–1933, edited by William A. Sutton (1985)
The Sherwood Anderson Diaries, 1936–1941, edited by Hilbert H. Campbell (1987)
Sherwood Anderson: Early Writings, edited by Ray Lewis White (1989)
Sherwood Anderson's Love Letters to Eleanor Copenhaver Anderson, edited by Charles E. Modlin (1989)
Sherwood Anderson's Secret Love Letters, edited by Ray Lewis White (1991)
Certain Things Last: The Selected Stories of Sherwood Anderson, edited by Charles E. Modlin (1992)
Southern Odyssey: Selected Writings by Sherwood Anderson, edited by Welford Dunaway Taylor and Charles E. Modlin (1997)
The Egg and Other Stories, edited with an introduction by Charles E. Modlin (1998)
Collected Stories, edited by Charles Baxter (2012)
Notes
References
Sources
Anderson, Elizabeth and Gerald R. Kelly (1969). "Miss Elizabeth". Boston: Little, Brown and Company.
Anderson, Sherwood (1924). A Story Teller's Story. New York: B.W. Huebsch.
Anderson, Sherwood (1942). Sherwood Anderson's Memoirs. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company.
Anderson, Sherwood (1984). Sherwood Anderson: Selected Letters. Edited by Charles Modlin. Knoxville, TN: Tennessee UP.
Anderson, Sherwood (1989). Early Writings. Ed. Ray Lewis White. Kent and London: Kent State UP, 1989.
Anderson, Sherwood (1991). Sherwood Anderson's Secret Love Letters. Edited by Ray Lewis White. Baton Rouge, LA: LSU Press.
Bassett, John Earl (2005). Sherwood Anderson: An American Career. Plainsboro, NJ: Susquehanna UP.
Daugherty, George H. (December 1948). "Anderson, Advertising Man". The Newberry Library Bulletin. Second Series, No. 2.
Gold, Herbert (Winter, 1957-1958). "The Purity and Cunning of Sherwood Anderson". The Hudson Review 10 (4): 548–557.
Howe, Irving (1951). Sherwood Anderson. New York: William Sloane Associates.
Rideout, Walter B. (2006). Sherwood Anderson: A Writer in America, Volume 1. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.
Schevill, James (1951). Sherwood Anderson: His Life and Work. Denver, CO: University of Denver Press.
Sutton, William A. (1967). Exit to Elsinore. Muncie, IN: Ball State UP.
Townsend, Kim (1987). Sherwood Anderson: A Biography. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
White, Ray Lewis (1972). "Introduction". in White, Ray Lewis (ed). Marching Men. Cleveland, OH: Case Western Reserve University.
External links
Works by Sherwood Anderson at Project Gutenberg Australia
Sherwood Anderson Biography
Sherwood Anderson Biography 2
Sherwood Anderson in the Dial
Sherwood Anderson Links
Winesburg, Ohio hypertext from American Studies at the University of Virginia.
The Triumph of the Egg hypertext from American Studies at the University of Virginia.
Oral History Interview with Eleanor Copenhaver Anderson from Oral Histories of the American South
Sherwood Anderson Papers at The Newberry Library
Sherwood Anderson Archive at the Smyth-Bland Regional Library
Sherwood Anderson Literary Center
Ten Stories by Sherwood Anderson read aloud by contemporary writers including Charles Baxter, Deborah Eisenberg, Robert Boswell, Patricia Hampl, Siri Hustvedt, Ben Marcus, Rick Moody, Antonya Nelson and Benjamin Taylor
I am a fool Persian Translation, E-Book at Taaghche.ir
1876 births
1941 deaths
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American male writers
American Presbyterians
Writers from Chicago
American copywriters
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
Writers from Cleveland
People from Elyria, Ohio
People from Camden, Ohio
Wittenberg University alumni
Deaths from peritonitis
Accidental deaths in Panama
American male novelists
Ohio National Guard personnel
American male short story writers
20th-century American short story writers
Novelists from Illinois
Novelists from Ohio
People from Marion County, Ohio
People from Morrow County, Ohio
People from Clyde, Ohio
Lost Generation writers
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Professional sports
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In professional sports, as opposed to amateur sports, participants receive payment for their performance. Professionalism in sport has come to the fore through a combination of developments. Mass media and increased leisure have brought larger audiences, so that sports organizations or teams can command large incomes. As a result, more sportspeople can afford to make sport their primary career, devoting the training time necessary to increase skills, physical condition, and experience to modern levels of achievement. This proficiency has also helped boost the popularity of sports. In most sports played professionally there are many more amateur than professional players, though amateurs and professionals do not usually compete.
History
Baseball
Baseball originated before the American Civil War (1861–1865). First played on sandlots in particular, scoring and record-keeping gave baseball gravity. "Today," notes John Thorn in The Baseball Encyclopedia, "baseball without records is inconceivable."
In 1871, the first professional baseball league was created. By the beginning of the 20th century, most large cities in the eastern United States had a professional baseball team. After several leagues came and went in the 19th century, the National League (founded in 1876) and American League (recognized as a major league in 1903) were established as the dominant leagues by the early 20th century. The most victorious team in each league was said to have won the "pennant;" the two pennant winners met after the end of the regular season in the World Series. The winner of at least four games (out of a possible seven) was the champion for that year. This arrangement still holds today, although the leagues are now subdivided and pennants are decided in post-season playoff series between the winners of each division.
Baseball became popular in the 1920s, when Babe Ruth led the New York Yankees to several World Series titles and became a national hero on the strength of his home runs (balls that cannot be played because they have been hit out of the field). One of the most noteworthy players was the Brooklyn Dodgers' Jackie Robinson, who became the first African-American player in the major leagues in 1947; until then black players had been restricted to the Negro leagues.
Starting in the late 1950s, major league baseball expanded its geographical range. Western cities acquired teams, either by luring them to move from eastern cities or by forming expansion teams with players made available by established teams. Until the 1970s, because of strict contracts, the owners of baseball teams also virtually owned the players; the rules then changed so that players could become free agents within certain limits, free to sell their services to any team. The resulting bidding wars led to players becoming increasingly wealthy. Disputes between the players' union and the owners have at times halted baseball for months at a time (e.g., 1994–95 player strike).
A prominent professional baseball circuit known as Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB) also developed in Japan. Founded in 1934, the league emerged as an international force after World War II. NPB is considered to be the highest caliber of baseball outside the U.S. major leagues, and the best Japanese players often emigrate to the U.S. by way of the posting system. Other countries where the game is important include South Korea (where their league has its own posting system with Major League Baseball), Taiwan, Mexico, Latin America, and the Caribbean states.
American football
American football (commonly known as football in the United States) was professionalized in the 1890s as a slow, and initially covert, process; Pudge Heffelfinger and Ben "Sport" Donnelly were the first to secretly accept payment for playing the game in 1892. Regional leagues in Chicago, Pennsylvania, Ohio and New York had coalesced in the 1900s and 1910s, most of which gave way to the American Professional Football Association in 1920. By 1920, pro football remained overshadowed by the college game. The first game involving an APFA team took place on 26 September 1920, at Douglas Park in Rock Island, Illinois, as the hometown Independents flattened the St. Paul Ideals 48–0. The first head-to-head battles in the league occurred one week later as Dayton topped Columbus 14-0 and Rock Island pasted Muncie 45–0.
Forward passes were rare, coaching from the sidelines was prohibited and players competed on both offense and defense. Money was so tight that George Halas carried equipment, wrote press releases, sold tickets, taped ankles, played and coached for the Decatur club. As opposed to today's standard 17-game schedule, clubs in 1920 scheduled their own opponents and could play non-league and even college squads that counted toward their records. With no established guidelines, the number of games played—and the quality of opponents scheduled—by APFA teams varied, and the league did not maintain official standings.
The inaugural season was a struggle. Games received little attention from the fans, and even less from the press. According to Robert W. Peterson's book "Pigskin: The Early Years of Pro Football," APFA games averaged crowds of 4,241. The association bylaws called for teams to pay a US$100 entry fee, but no one ever did. The season concluded on 19 December. At the conclusion of the season there were no play-offs (that innovation, although New York's regional league had used it, did not arrive until 1933) and it took more than four months before the league even bothered to crown a champion. Much as college football did for decades, the APFA determined its victor by ballot. On 30 April 1921, team representatives voted the Akron Pros, which completed the season undefeated with eight wins and three ties while yielding only a total of seven points, the champion in spite of protests by the one-loss teams in Decatur and Buffalo, who each had tied Akron and had more wins, thanks in part to Akron's owner presiding over the meeting. The victors received a silver loving cup donated by sporting goods company Brunswick-Balke-Collender. While players were not given diamond-encrusted rings, they did receive golden fobs in the shape of a football inscribed with the words "World Champions." The whereabouts of the Brunswick-Balke Collender Cup, only given out that one time, are unknown.
The legacy of two APFA franchises continues. The Racine Cardinals now play in Arizona, and the Decatur Staleys moved to Chicago in 1921 and changed their name to the Bears the following year. Ten APFA players along with Carr are enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, set up in 1963 not far from the Canton automobile dealership that gave birth to the NFL in 1920.
The APFA, by 1922 known as the National Football League, has remained the predominant professional American football league in the United States, and, effectively, the entire world. The evolution from a haphazard collection of teams in big and small cities to the much more rigid structure it is in the present was gradual. With most of the small-market teams except the Green Bay Packers squeezed out of the NFL by the time of the Great Depression, multiple attempts at teams in the major cities of Washington, New York, Detroit, Cleveland, and Philadelphia failed before, eventually, their current representatives took root (though Boston proved particularly problematic until the New England Patriots were accepted into the NFL in 1970); the NFL expanded coast-to-coast, the first of the four major leagues to do so, in 1946 with the Los Angeles Rams and admitted the San Francisco 49ers four years later; the NFL did not enter the Southern United States until admitting the Dallas Cowboys, Atlanta Falcons and New Orleans Saints in the 1960s. A championship game was established in 1933, a draft was established in 1936, and schedules were standardized in the 1930s. A competing league has historically arisen to attempt to challenge the NFL's dominance every 10 to 15 years, but none managed to maintain long-term operations independent of the NFL and only two—the All-America Football Conference of the late 1940s and the American Football League of the 1960s—were strong enough to successfully compete against the league before the NFL subsumed their operations. Minor league football, although their leagues' memberships were unstable, began to arise in the late 1930s and remained viable as a business model up into the 1970s.
A major factor in the NFL's rise to dominance was its embrace of television early in the sport's history. As college football heavily restricted the rights of its teams to broadcast games (a policy eventually ruled to be illegal in 1984), the NFL instead allowed games to be televised nationwide, except in a team's home city; the restriction was softened in the early 1970s, by which point the NFL had secured broadcast deals with all of the major television networks, another major factor in the inability of any competing league to gain traction since then.
The related sport of Canadian football was eventually professionalized by the 1950s with the evolution of the Canadian Football League. The CFL, despite losing all games in a series of contests against the NFL, was considered to be at least comparable in talent to the American leagues of the 1960s (its lone game against an AFL squad was a victory). Because Canada has a tenth of the population of the United States, the ability to make money from television was much lower, and although some of the cities of Canada were comparable to the major markets of the U.S., teams in places such as Saskatchewan and Hamilton were in markets quite small compared to even the small markets of the NFL, thus the CFL pays significantly less than other major professional leagues, though enough to be considered fully professional.
Europe, Japan, Mexico also have American football leagues of varying levels that sign professional players. The top leagues are the German Football League, Austrian Football League, the new European League of Football and the X-League. There are over 60 countries that have leagues throughout the world.
The rise of indoor American football from the late 1980s allowed smaller-scale professional football to be viable.
Basketball
Basketball was invented in 1891 and the first professional leagues emerged in the 1920s. The Basketball Association of America was established in 1946 and three years later became the modern National Basketball Association. The NBA was slower to establish dominance of the sport than other sports in the United States, as it would not do so until 1976, when it absorbed four teams from the American Basketball Association.
Professional basketball has the advantages of much smaller rosters than other professional sports, allowing the sport to be viable in smaller cities than other sports. Professional basketball leagues of varying caliber can be found around the world, especially in Europe and South America.
Basketball mainly became popular in the early 1980s when Magic Johnson and Larry Bird joined the NBA and lead their teams to multiple NBA titles. They are considered two of the best players of all time usually underneath Michael Jordan. Michael Jordan also gained the NBA views with carrying the Chicago Bulls to six titles in the 1990s.
Cricket
In the 1920s some cricketers from the Caribbean played professional cricket in Britain. After World War II, professional cricketers from the Indian subcontinent were enlisted in British teams.
Ice hockey
Ice hockey was first professionalized in Pittsburgh, U.S. in the first decade of the 20th century. Because Canadians made up the vast majority of hockey players, early American professional leagues imported almost all of their players before Canadian leagues began to form in the wake of a mining boom, depriving the U.S. leagues and teams of talented players. Two distinct circuits formed: the Pacific Coast Hockey Association in western Canada and the northwestern U.S., and the National Hockey Association of central Canada, both of which competed for the then-independent Stanley Cup. The NHA's teams reorganized as the National Hockey League in 1917, and the West Coast circuit died out by the mid-1920s.
By 1926, the NHL had expanded to ten teams in Canada and the northeastern and midwestern United States. However, the onset of the Great Depression in the 1930s and Canada's entry into World War II, greatly reducing the league's player pool, led to the league's retrenchment to six markets: Boston, New York City, Chicago and Detroit in the U.S., and Toronto and Montreal in Canada. These Original Six cities were the only cities with NHL franchises from 1935 to 1967. During this time, the NHL was both stagnant and restrictive in its policies, giving teams territorial advantages, having teams with multiple owners in the same family (thus allowing the best players to be stacked onto certain teams), and restricting its players' salaries through reserve clauses. This stagnation allowed other leagues to arise: the Western Hockey League soon became the de facto major league of the western states and provinces, and the second-tier American Hockey League emerged in a number of midwestern markets the NHL had neglected, in addition to a handful of small towns.
Amid pressure from television networks that were threatening to offer the WHL a contract, the NHL doubled in size in 1967, beginning a period of expansion that lasted through much of the 1970s. The last major challenger to the NHL's dominance was the World Hockey Association, which successfully broke the NHL's reserve clause in court, drove up professional hockey salaries, and continued to pressure the older league into expansion. The WHA merged four of its remaining teams into the NHL in 1979, but had to give up most of its players, as they were still under NHL contract and had to return to their original teams. The NHL made its last pronounced realignment in the 1990s, moving most of the WHA teams out of their markets and establishing a number of new teams in the southern United States.
In Europe, the introduction of professionalism varied widely, and the highest-caliber league on the continent, the Soviet Championship League (proven to be at least equal to or better than the NHL in the 1970s), was officially populated with ostensibly amateur players who were actually full-time sportspeople hired as regular workers of a company (aircraft industry, food workers, tractor industry) or organization (KGB, Red Army, Soviet Air Force) that sponsored what would be presented as an after-hours social sports society hockey team for their workers. In other words, all Soviet hockey players were de facto professionals who circumvented the amateur rules of the International Olympic Committee to retain their amateur status and compete in the Olympics. The modern-day descendant of the Soviet league, the Kontinental Hockey League, is fully professional and has some teams outside Russia, to the point where it has the resources to sign NHL veterans. Other European countries including Germany, Sweden, Switzerland, Norway, Finland, and Austria have prominent professional leagues.
Rugby football
Rugby union was strictly an amateur sport throughout the 19th and most of the 20th century. In 1995, the game's international administrators allowed professionals to participate for the first time. The related sport of rugby league evolved directly out of rugby union's opposition to player payments; it has allowed professionalism in its game since its inception in 1895.
Opposition to professionalism
Professional athleticism has been a traditional object of criticism by proponents of the amateur philosophy of sport, according to which the central ethos of sport is competition performed for its own sake and pure enjoyment rather than as a means of earning a living. Examples of amateur philosophy include the muscular Christianity movement that informed the promotion of sports in the English public school system, and the Olympism advocated by Pierre de Coubertin, a force behind the revival of the modern Olympic Games. The tension between the two sporting practices and ideals dates from the inception of modern organized sports in the 19th century. The high political and financial stakes involved in sport have ensured that this tension has remained strong. Professional sporting organizations have often developed as "rebel" organizations in relation to established national and international federation, for example the schism which created the code of rugby league.
Arguments against amateurism often appeal to the argument that amateurism in sport favors the classes who can afford not to be paid to play, and is thus a covert form of prejudice against lower classes. Another argument is that amateur players are often de facto professionals who retain their amateur status by earning allowances instead of salaries. For example, all Eastern bloc countries were populated with amateur players who were actually full-time athletes hired as regular workers of a company (aircraft industry, food workers, tractor industry) or organization (KGB, Red Army, Soviet Air Force) that sponsored what would be presented as an after-hours social sports society team for their workers.
Religious opposition
Christians in the Wesleyan-Holiness movement, which adheres to the position of first-day Sabbatarianism, oppose the viewing of or participation in professional sports, believing that professional sports leagues profane the Sabbath as in the modern era some associations hold games on Sundays (the "Lord's Day"). They also criticize professional sports for fostering a commitment that competes with a Christian's primary commitment to God in opposition to , what they perceive to be a lack of conformity with the Methodistic doctrine of outward holiness in the players' and cheerleaders' "immodest" uniforms, its association with violence in opposition to , what they perceive to be the extensive use of profanity among many players that contravenes , and the frequent presence of alcohol and other drugs at sporting events that go against a commitment to teetotalism. Professional sports has been criticized for the gambling that is associated with it.
Laestadian Lutherans, who belong to the Pietistic Lutheran tradition, likewise teach that "Competitive sports are not acceptable, but we should maintain fitness through various forms of exercise."
Sports salaries
Professional sportsmen can earn a great deal of money at the highest levels; for instance, in 2009 the Tampa Bay Rays baseball team paid over 8 million dollars to its highest-paid player. Per Forbes 2021 ranking, the highest-paid athletes include Cristiano Ronaldo, Lionel Messi, Naomi Osaka, Tiger Woods, Serena Williams and wrestler-turned-actor The Rock. The top ten tennis players make about $3 million a year on average. Much of the growth in income for sports and athletes has come from broadcasting rights; for example, the most recent television contract for the NFL is valued at nearly US$5 billion per year.
Women tend to earn considerably less than men in such sports as basketball, golf, football (soccer), softball and baseball. The exception is tennis where women tend to have salaries comparable to those of their male counterparts. The highest-paid female athlete in 2019 was Serena Williams with a $29.2 annual income; the highest-paid male player was Lionel Messi with a $127 million annual income. In association football, the average wage for women worldwide is $35,000, while for men it is $410,730. Attendances in women's leagues also tend to be lower than in men's, and there are fewer corporate sponsors, as well as less money from broadcasting rights. Widespread gender discrepancies hamper the support and appreciation of female athletes in professional sports. Female athletes struggle to obtain the same degree of visibility and sponsorship opportunities as male athletes, whose accomplishments frequently dominate mainstream sports coverage. According to Cheryl Cooky's TEDx talk, a professor in American studies, gender, and sexuality at Purdue University, the marginalization of female athletes in mainstream sports media and sponsorship opportunities is nothing new. According to Cooky, female athletes need more visibility to ensure their access to necessary resources and financial security, which has an impact on their professional development.
Outside the highest leagues, however, the money professional athletes can earn drops dramatically, as fan bases are generally smaller and there are no television revenues. For instance, while the National Football League's teams can afford to pay their players millions of dollars each year and still maintain a significant profit, the second-highest American football league in the United States, the United Football League, consistently struggled to pay its bills and has continually lost money despite allotting its players only US$20,000 a year, and television networks made the league pay for television airtime instead of paying the league, making the league's business model unworkable. In the United States and Canada, most lower-end professional leagues run themselves as affiliated farm teams, effectively agreeing to develop younger players for eventual play in the major leagues in exchange for subsidizing those players' salaries; this is known as the minor league system and is most prevalent in professional baseball and professional ice hockey. Otherwise, the league may be required to classify itself as semi-professional, in other words, able to pay their players a small sum, but not enough to cover the player's basic costs of living.
Many professional athletes experience financial difficulties soon after retiring, due to a combination of bad investments, careless spending, and a lack of non-athletic skills. The wear and tear of a career in professional sport, can cause physical and mental side effects (such as chronic traumatic encephalopathy, a condition that has seen a massive rise in public awareness in the 2010s) that can harm a former professional athlete's employability. In the United States, some of these problems are mitigated by the fact that the college sports system ensures most professional athletes receive a college education with no student debt, a legacy that provides them with a career path after their sports career ends.
American football
In the NFL average annual salaries by position in 2009 were:
Quarterback $1,970,982 (this is a mean that covers both starting quarterbacks and backups; starters regularly draw salaries of over $10,000,000 as of 2016)
Running back $957,360
Defensive tackle $1,223,925
Association football
Chinese Super League
The average salary of a player in the Chinese Super League was about ¥10.7 million (£1 million) for the 2011 season, up from ¥600,000 in the 2010 season. The highest-paid player for the 2011 Chinese Super League season was Dario Conca of Guangzhou Evergrande who received an annual salary of ¥67.4 million ($10.5 million) after income tax, putting him among the highest-paid players in the world.
Russian Premier League
The highest-paid player for the 2011–2012 Russian Premier League season was Samuel Eto'o of Anzhi Makhachkala, who at the end of the 2011–12 season was expected to receive a total salary of RUB 900.2 million (£35.7 million) after income tax, making Eto'o the second highest-earning athlete in the world and the highest-paid footballer in the world followed by Lionel Messi and Zlatan Ibrahimović.
Bundesliga
The average salary of a player in the German Bundesliga was about €3.3 million (£2.5 million) for the 2010–11 season, up from €2.5 million in the 2009–2010 Bundesliga season. The highest-paid player for the 2010–11 Bundesliga season was Franck Ribéry of Bayern Munich who received a salary of €6.3 million after income tax.
Serie A
In the Italian top league, Serie A, the average salary was about €5 million for the 2010–2011 Serie A season, up from €1 million in the 2005–2006 Serie A season. The highest-paid player for the 2010–2011 Serie A season was Zlatan Ibrahimović of A.C. Milan who received a salary of €25.9 million after income tax and which also includes Ibrahimović's bonuses and endorsements.
La Liga
Lionel Messi of FC Barcelona is the world's second highest-paid player receiving a salary of £29.6 million (over US$45 million) a year after income taxation and which also includes the incomes of Messi's bonuses and endorsements. In the Spanish La Liga, the average salary for the players of Lionel Messi's club FC Barcelona was €6.5 million for the 2010–2011 La Liga season, up from €5.5 million for the 2009–2010 La Liga season.
Premier League
The average salary of a player in the English Premier League was about £2.6 million in the 2017–18 season, compared with about £1.2 million in 2007–08 and £676,000 in 2006–07. Even as early as 2010–11, top players such as John Terry and Steven Gerrard could make up to £7 million per year with the players of Premier League club Manchester City F.C. receiving an average salary of £2 million in that season. Premier League salaries have boomed in more recent years thanks to massive television deals and wealthy new investors in clubs. Terry's and Gerrard's 2010–11 salaries would not have placed them among the top 25 earners in 2017–18. In that season, more than 20 players earned more than £10 million, led by Alexis Sánchez (£21.5 million) and Mesut Özil (£20.9 million). The Premier League's two Manchester clubs had the highest average salaries in 2017–18, with players for both Manchester United and Manchester City averaging over £5.2 million.
Players in lower divisions make significantly less money. In 2006–07 the average salary of a player in the Championship (the second tier of the English football pyramid) made £195,750 while the average salary for League One and League Two (tiers 3 and 4) combined were £49,600.
Major League Soccer
The highest salary in Major League Soccer in 2019 was the $14 million paid to former Swedish international Zlatan Ibrahimović, who played for the LA Galaxy in that season. Ibrahimović was signed to his 2019 contract under MLS' Designated Player Rule, which was instituted in 2007 for the express purpose of attracting international stars. Now-retired English star David Beckham was the first player signed under its provisions. When the rule was instituted, each team had one "Designated Player" slot with a salary cap charge of $400,000, but no limit on actual salary paid. Since then, the number of Designated Players per team has increased to three, with each counting for $530,000 of cap room in 2019. The league's average salary was about $283,000 per year in 2015, but the median salary was then closer to $110,000. MLS' minimum player salary in 2019 is $70,250 for most players, and for players on the reserve roster (slots #25-28) the minimum salary is $56,250.
Baseball
In 1970, the average salary in Major League Baseball in the U.S. and Canada was $20,000 ($ inflation-adjusted). By 2005, the average salary had increased to $2,632,655 ($ inflation-adjusted) and the minimum salary was $316,000 (adjusted: $). In 2012 the average MLB salary was $3,440,000, the median salary was $1,075,000, and the minimum salary had grown to four times the inflation-adjusted average salary in 1970 ($480,000).
Cricket
In the Indian Premier League in 2019, players earn an average of $101,444, and a median salary of $72,450, per week. The top-paid players in international cricket in 2017 across the (at the time) 10 Test cricket nations earned anywhere from $90,000 to $1,470,000 (when looking only at contract and match fees).
See also
Semi-professional sports
Amateur sports
High performance sport
Pro–am
Professional sports leagues in the United States
Salary cap
Team sport
Women's professional sports
Professional sports league organization
Lists of professional sports
List of American and Canadian cities by number of major professional sports franchises
List of professional sports
List of professional sports leagues
List of largest sports contracts
References
External links
PDF Reverend Robert S. de Courcy Laffan Coubertin's 'Man' in England
Sports by type
Sports culture
Sport industry
Sports business
Workers' sport
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History of sport
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The history of sports extends back to the Ancient world in 70,000 BCE. The physical activity that developed into sports had early links with warfare and entertainment.
Study of the history of sport can teach lessons about social changes and about the nature of sport itself, as sport seems involved in the development of basic human skills (compare play). As one delves further back in history, dwindling evidence makes theories of the origins and purposes of sport more and more difficult to support.
As far back as the beginnings of sport, it was related to military training. For example, competition was used as a mean to determine whether individuals were fit and useful for service. Team sports were used to train and to prove the capability to fight in the military and also to work together as a team (military unit).
Sports in prehistory
Cave paintings found in the Lascaux caves in France appear to depict sprinting and wrestling in the Upper Paleolithic around 15,300 years ago. Cave paintings in the Bayankhongor Province of Mongolia dating back to the Neolithic age () show a wrestling match surrounded by crowds. Neolithic Rock art found at the cave of swimmers in Wadi Sura, near Gilf Kebir in Egypt shows evidence of swimming and archery being practiced around 10,000 BCE. Prehistoric cave paintings in Japan depict a sport similar to sumo wrestling.
Ancient Sumer
Various representations of wrestlers have been found on stone slabs attributed to the Sumerian civilization. One showing three pairs of wrestlers has been generally dated to around 3000 BCE. A cast bronze figurine (perhaps the base of a vase) found at Khafaji in Iraq shows two figures in a wrestling hold and dates to around 2600 BCE. Interpreted as one of the earliest depictions of sport, the statue is housed in the National Museum of Iraq. Archeology has also found early suggestions pointing to the sport of boxing in ancient Sumer. The Epic of Gilgamesh gives one of the first historical records of sport, with Gilgamesh engaging in a form of belt wrestling with Enkidu. The cuneiform tablets recording the tale date to around 2000 BCE; however, the historical Gilgamesh is supposed to have lived around 2800 to 2600 BCE.
The Sumerian king Shulgi ( 21st century BCE) boasts of his prowess in sport in the Self-praise of Shulgi A, B, and C. Fishing hooks not unlike those made today have been found during excavations at Ur, suggesting some sort of angling activity in Sumer around 2600 BCE.
Ancient Egyptian
Monuments to the Pharaohs found at Beni Hasan dating to around 2000 BCE indicate that a number of sports, including wrestling, weightlifting, long jump, swimming, rowing, archery, fishing and athletics, as well as various kinds of ball games, were well-developed and regulated in ancient Egypt. Other Egyptian sports also included javelin throwing and high jump. An earlier portrayal of figures wrestling was found in the tomb of Khnumhotep and Niankhkhnum in Saqqara dating to around 2400 BCE.
Ancient Greece
The Minoan art of Bronze Age Crete depict ritual sporting events - thus a fresco dating to 1500 BCE records gymnastics in the form of religious bull-leaping and possibly bullfighting. The origins of Greek sporting festivals may date to funeral games of the Mycenean period, between 1600 BCE and 1100 BCE. The Iliad includes extensive descriptions of funeral games held in honour of deceased warriors, such as those held for Patroclus by Achilles. Engaging in sport is described as the occupation of the noble and wealthy, who have no need to do manual labour themselves. In the Odyssey, king Odysseus of Ithaca proves his royal status to king Alkinoös of the Phaiakes by showing his proficiency in throwing the javelin. It was in Greece that sports were first instituted formally, with the first Olympic Games recorded in 776 BCE in Olympia, where they were celebrated until 393 CE. These games took place every four years, or Olympiad, which became a unit of time in historical chronologies. Initially a single sprinting event, the Olympics gradually expanded to include several footraces, run in the nude or in armor, boxing, wrestling, pankration, chariot racing, long jump, javelin throw, and discus throw. During the celebration of the games, an Olympic Truce was enacted so that athletes could travel from their countries to the games in safety. The prizes for the victors were wreaths of laurel leaves. Other important sporting events in ancient Greece included the Isthmian games, the Nemean Games, and the Pythian Games. Together with the Olympics, these were the most prestigious games, and formed the Panhellenic Games. Some games, e.g. the Panathenaia of Athens, included musical, reading and other non-athletic contests in addition to regular sports-events. The Heraean Games, held in Olympia as early as the 6th century BCE, were the first recorded sporting competition for women.
Ancient sports elsewhere
Sports that are at least two and a half thousand years old include hurling in Ancient Ireland, shinty in Scotland, harpastum (similar to rugby) in Rome, cuju (similar to association football) in China, and polo in Persia. The Mesoamerican ballgame originated over three thousand years ago. The Mayan ballgame of Pitz is believed to be the first ball sport, as it was first played around 2500 BCE.There are artifacts and structures that suggest that the Chinese engaged in sporting activities as early as 2000 BCE. Gymnastics appears to have been a popular sport in China's ancient past. Ancient Persian sports include the traditional Iranian martial art of Zourkhaneh. Among other sports that originated in Persia are polo and jousting. A polished bone implement found at Eva in Tennessee, United States and dated to around 5000 BCE has been construed as a possible sporting device used in a "ring and pin" game. Various traditional sports of South Asia are believed to be thousands of years old, with kho-kho having been played since at least the fourth century BCE, aspects of kabaddi having potentially been mentioned in the Mahabharata, and atya-patya having been described in the Naṟṟiṇai, around 300 CE.
Middle Ages
For at least 900 years, entire villages had competed with each other in rough, and sometimes violent, ballgames in England (Shrovetide football) and Ireland (caid). In comparison, the game of calcio Fiorentino, in Florence, Italy, was originally reserved for combat sports such as fencing and jousting being popular. Horse racing, in particular, was a favourite of the upper class in Great Britain, with Queen Anne founding the Ascot Racecourse.
Long summer days provided predictable opportunities for free time, when peasants could engage in athletic activities. Swimming, wrestling, and racing were common among all ages and both genders, while organized ball games of various types can be found in every medieval society and culture. The participation of sports (ball games to be exact) at the time loosened control the ruling class had over the peasants; this is not a rare trend throughout history. By the fourteenth century no fewer than thirty bans have been placed by English Kings on ball games such as football, handball, and hurling.
The Middle Ages were not immediately devoid of sports from the Roman Empire after it collapsed. Gladiatorial bouts and chariot racing continued sporadically and intermittently well into the Middle Ages. They would eventually fade away and be replaced by local activities. Hawking, however, was the particular reserve of emperors and kings. This sport would be one of the few sports continued in the Middle Ages; Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor may have played a critical role in its persistence as he was an avid hawker who authored the first comprehensive book on falconry. Furthermore, kings may have followed the example of falconry as to mimic the status of an emperor.
During the Middle Ages, tournaments were not an uncommon occurrence; after all, war was a constant threat that could occur often. Thus, preparation (for war) is practice, practice is competition, and competition is sport; consequently, (before the establishment of sports history), the medieval hallmarks of upper-class sports (i.e. jousting, mock combat, and blood sports) were generally agreed upon as military training. Modern sports historians, however, debate that such sports were for entertainment purposes; one example considered were tournaments which offered little to prepare one for actual war and would likely have set any forms of real training back. Tournaments in the Middle Ages arose out of local festivals. As a result, many tournaments had their own local characteristic but were uniform in habits and customs of the region the tournament was stationed in.
Medieval tournaments presents characteristics of modern sport as those (ex: professional knights) who were most successful and popular, perhaps the only medieval equivalent to today's sports stars, followed the money and fame of the tournament circuit. Those with political backing and social favor were able to accumulate property and goods to ensure a comfortable life after their competitive days were over. The tournament was a market and a social mixer. These tournaments consequently attracted many people to attend for various purposes such as marriages, and trade of livestock and land or wares provided by merchants and vendors.
Sébastien Nadot writes that sport already existed in the 15th century. He shows that the organization of the chivalry around European contests worked like a system in an elaborate network. He evokes an "chivalrous international", sharing the same codes, especially at tournaments and games. These sporting events went beyond borders and were accompanied by a common cultural base, including courtesy, fair play, honor, and loyalty.
The Middle Ages also revealed the importance of owning a horse; common to the sports and amusements of the ruling class was the horse. If someone of the ruling class did not own a horse, it would represent that they did not have much wealth and leisure (since they would be unable to participate in certain activities like horse racing).
Renaissance
After the late middle ages, early modern sports became less of a violent or military training activity and more of an activity done for recreational benefit in Europe. During the Renaissance, educators, and medical surgeons promoted playing sports because of their numerous physical and psychological benefits to the human body. During this era, there was also support for moderating sports, as it was viewed as more for leisure than a strict procedure. Open-air sporting events became an attraction for many and people of all different social hierarchies were involved in this new culture. These new radical ideas about sports made their way into books, and films, and eventually became part of the social culture during the Renaissance. As mentioned by Mike Huggins, Gargantua written by François Rabelais was a well-known novel published in 1534 that mentioned sports and games as a unit, like many other renowned works of literature. All different types of sports became a functional unit in many people’s routines and it brought refreshment into people’s lives. As the popularity and involvement of sports increased, rules began to form and sports became more regulated so they could be fair. Sports clubs and associations which provided a sense of unity also became more common, especially for elite sports such as horse racing, cockfighting, hunting, and tennis during the sixteenth and seventeenth-centuries. For example, Charles II formed 20 rules for horse racing in 1665. Sports were a form of entertainment for spectators who did not play themselves. There were stake-money contests and prizes in these sports and racing competitions. These modern advancements and developments made about sporting life in the Renaissance in Europe eventually made their way to Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
Development of modern sports
Some historians – most notably Bernard Lewis – claim that team sports as we know them today are primarily an invention of Western culture. British Prime Minister John Major was more explicit in 1995:
We invented the majority of the world's great sports.... 19th century Britain was the cradle of a leisure revolution every bit as significant as the agricultural and industrial revolutions we launched in the century before.
The traditional team sports are seen as springing primarily from Britain, and subsequently exported across the vast British Empire. European colonialism helped spread particular games around the world, especially cricket (not directly related to baseball), football of various sorts, bowling in a number of forms, cue sports (like snooker, carom billiards, and pool), hockey and its derivatives, equestrian, and tennis, and many winter sports. The originally European-dominated modern Olympic Games generally also ensured standardization in particularly European, especially British, directions when rules for similar games around the world were merged.
Regardless of game origins, the Industrial Revolution and mass production brought increased leisure which allowed more time to engage in playing or observing (and gambling upon) spectator sports, as well as less elitism in and greater accessibility of sports of many kinds. With the advent of mass media and global communication, professionalism became prevalent in sports, and this furthered sports popularity in general.
With the increasing values placed on those who won also came the increased desire to cheat. Some of the most common ways of cheating today involve the use of performance-enhancing drugs such as steroids. The use of these drugs has always been frowned on but in recent history there have also been agencies set up to monitor professional athletes and ensure fair play in the sport.
England
Writing about cricket in particular, John Leech has explained the role of Puritan power, the English Civil War, and the Restoration of the monarchy in England. The Long Parliament in 1642 "banned theatres, which had met with Puritan disapproval. Although similar action would be taken against certain sports, it is not clear if cricket was in any way prohibited, except that players must not break the Sabbath". In 1660, "the Restoration of the monarchy in England was immediately followed by the reopening of the theatres and so any sanctions that had been imposed by the Puritans on cricket would also have been lifted." He goes on to make the key point that political, social and economic conditions in the aftermath of the Restoration encouraged excessive gambling, so much so that a Gambling Act was deemed necessary in 1664. It is certain that cricket, horse racing and boxing (i.e., prizefighting) were financed by gambling interests. Leech explains that it was the habit of cricket patrons, all of whom were gamblers, to form strong teams through the 18th century to represent their interests. He defines a strong team as one representative of more than one parish and he is certain that such teams were first assembled in or immediately after 1660. Prior to the English Civil War and the Commonwealth, all available evidence concludes that cricket had evolved to the level of village cricket only where teams that are strictly representative of individual parishes compete. The "strong teams" of the post-Restoration mark the evolution of cricket (and, indeed of professional team sport, for cricket is the oldest professional team sport) from the parish standard to the county standard. This was the point of origin for major, or first-class, cricket. The year 1660 also marks the origin of professional team sport. All-England cricket teams have played since 1739.
A number of the public schools such as Winchester and Eton, introduced variants of football and other sports for their pupils. These were described at the time as "innocent and lawful", certainly in comparison with the rougher rural games. With urbanization in the 19th century, the rural games moved to the new urban centres and came under the influence of the middle and upper classes. The rules and regulations devised at English institutions began to be applied to the wider game, with governing bodies in England being set up for a number of sports by the end of the 19th century. The rising influence of the upper class also produced an emphasis on the amateur, and the spirit of "fair play". The industrial revolution also brought with it increasing mobility, and created the opportunity for universities in Britain and elsewhere to compete with one another. This sparked increasing attempts to unify and reconcile various games in England, leading to the establishment of the Football Association in London, the first official governing body in football.
For sports to become professionalized, coaching had to come first. It gradually professionalized in the Victorian era and the role was well established by 1914. In the First World War, military units sought out the coaches to supervise physical conditioning and develop morale-building teams. Sport became an important part of military life for British servicemen serving around the world.
The British Empire and post-colonial sports
The influence of British sports and their codified rules began to spread across the world in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly association football. A number of major teams elsewhere in the world still show these British origins in their names, such as A.C. Milan in Italy, Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense in Brazil, and Athletic Bilbao in Spain. Cricket became popular in several of the nations of the then British Empire, such as Australia, South Africa, India and Pakistan, and remain popular in and beyond today's Commonwealth of Nations. The revival of the Olympic Games by Baron Pierre de Coubertin was also heavily influenced by the amateur ethos of the English public schools. The British played a major role in defining amateurism, professionalism, the tournament system and the concept of fair play. Some sports developed in England, spread to other countries and then lost its popularity in England while remaining actively played in other countries, a notable example being bandy which remains popular in Finland, Kazakhstan, Norway, Russia, and Sweden.
European morals and views on empires were embedded in the structure of sports. Ideas of "social discipline" and "loyalty" were key factors in European empire ettiequte, which eventually transferred into sports ettiequte. Also ideas of "patient and methodical training", were enforced to make soldiers stronger, and athletes better. Diffusion helped with the process of connecting these two concepts and has helped shaped the values of sports as we know it today. Sports like baseball, football (soccer), and cricket all came from European influence, and all share the same values based on European empires.
Baseball (closely related to English rounders and French la soule, and less clearly connected to cricket) became established in the urban Northeastern United States, with the first rules being codified in the 1840s, while American football was very popular in the south-east, with baseball spreading to the south, and American football spreading to the north after the Civil War. There is documented evidence of baseball in England. An extract from an 18th-century diary containing the oldest known reference to baseball is among the items on display in a new exhibition in London exploring the English origins and cricketing connections of America's national sport.
While baseball was once claimed to have been invented in the U.S. in the mid-19th century, recent findings suggest a sport of the same name may have evolved decades earlier alongside cricket, crossing the Atlantic with English settlers to the American colonies. One notable discovery found in a shed in a village in Surrey, southern England, in 2008 was a handwritten 18th-century diary belonging to a local lawyer, William Bray. "Went to Stoke church this morn.," wrote Bray on Easter Monday in 1755. "After dinner, went to Miss Jeale's to play at base ball with her the 3 Miss Whiteheads, Miss Billinghurst, Miss Molly Flutter, Mr. Chandler, Mr. Ford and H. Parsons. Drank tea and stayed til 8." In the 1870s the game split between the professionals and amateurs; the professional game rapidly gained dominance, and marked a shift in the focus from the player to the club. The rise of baseball also helped squeeze out other sports such as cricket, which had been popular in Philadelphia prior to the rise of baseball.
American football (and gridiron football more generally) also has its origins in the English variants of the game, with the first set of intercollegiate football rules based directly on the rules of the Football Association in London. However, Harvard chose to play a game based on the rules of Rugby football. Walter Camp would then heavily modify this variant in the 1880s, with the modifications also heavily influencing the rules of Canadian football.
Worldwide, the British influence includes many different football codes, lawn bowls, lawn tennis and other sports. The major impetus for this was the patenting of the world's first lawn mower in 1830. This allowed for the preparation of modern ovals, playing fields, pitches, grass courts, etc.
United States
Most sports in the United States evolved out of European practices. However, basketball,volleyball, skateboarding, and snowboarding are North American inventions, some of which have become popular in other countries. However, Lacrosse and surfing in particular arose from Native American and Native Hawaiian activities that predate Western contact.
Around the world
The 21st century has seen a move towards adventure sports as a form of individual escapism, transcending the routines of life. Examples include white water rafting, paragliding, canyoning, base jumping and more genteelly, orienteering.
Women's sport history
Women's competition in sports has been frowned upon by many societies in the past. The English public-school background of organized sport in the 19th and early 20th century led to a paternalism that tended to discourage women's involvement in sports, with, for example, no women officially competing in the 1896 Olympic Games. The 20th century saw major advances in the participation of women in sports due to a growing women's sports movement in Europe and North America. This led to the initiation of the Women's Olympiad (held three times 1921, 1922 and 1923) and the Women's World Games (held four times (1922, 1926, 1930 and 1934. In 1924 the 1924 Women's Olympiad was held in London. The increase in girls' and women's participation in sport has been partly influenced by the women's rights and feminist movements of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, respectively. In the United States, female students’ participation in sports was significantly boosted by the Title IX Act in 1972, which forbade gender discrimination in all aspects of any educational environment that uses federal financial aid, leading to increased funding and support to develop female athletes.
Pressure from sports funding bodies has also improved gender equality in sports. For example, the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) and the Leander Club (for rowing) in England had both been male-only establishments since their founding in 1787 and 1818, respectively, but both opened their doors to female members at the end of the 20th century at least partially due to the requirements of the United Kingdom Lottery Sports Fund.
The 21st century has seen women’s participation in sport at its all-time highest. At the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, women competed in 27 sports over 137 events, compared to 28 men’s sports in 175 events. Several national women's professional sports leagues have been founded and are in competition, and women’s international sporting events such as the FIFA Women's World Cup, Women's Rugby World Cup, and Women's Hockey World Cup continue to grow.
Stadia through the ages
See also
Sport in the United Kingdom § History
Sport in England
History of physical training and fitness
History of sport in Australia
History of sports in Canada
History of sport in the United States
Nationalism and sport
Sociology of sport
References
Further reading
Crawford Scott, A. G. M. Serious Aport: J. A. Mangan's Contribution to the History of Sport, Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass (2004)
. Women's Sports: A History, Columbia University Press (1992)
Guttmann, Allen. Games and Empires: Modern Sports and Cultural Imperialism, Columbia Univ Press, 1996
Guttmann, Allen. The Olympics: A History of the Modern Games (2002)
Holt, Richard. Sport and Society in Modern France (1981).
Holt, Richard. Sport and the British: A Modern History (1990) excerpt
Howell, Colin. Blood, Sweat, and Cheers: Sport and the Making of Modern Canada (2001)
Maurer, Michael. "Vom Mutterland des Sports zum Kontinent: Der Transfer des englischen Sports im 19. Jahrhundert", Mainz: European History Online (2011), retrieved: 25 February 2012.
Morrow, Don; Wamsley, Kevin B. Sport in Canada: A History (2009)
Murray, Bill. The World's Game: A History of Soccer (1998)
Polley, Martin. Sports History: A Practical Guide, Palgrave, 2007.
Journals
online article from The Sports Historian 1993-2001
European Studies in Sport History
The International Journal of the History of Sport
Journal of Sport History
Sport History Journal
Sport in History
Stadion: International Journal of Sport History
Sport History Review
External links
European Committee for Sports History (CESH)
Sport
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gracie%20Fields
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Gracie Fields
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Dame Gracie Fields (born Grace Stansfield; 9 January 189827 September 1979) was an English actress, singer, comedian and star of cinema and music hall who was one of the top ten film stars in Britain during the 1930s and was considered the highest paid film star in the world in 1937. She was known affectionately as Our Gracie and the Lancashire Lass and for never losing her strong, native Lancashire accent. She was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) and an Officer of the Venerable Order of St John (OStJ) in 1938, and a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in 1979.
Life and work
Early life
Fields was born Grace Stansfield, a daughter of Frederick Stansfield (1874–1956) and his wife Sarah Jane 'Jenny' Stansfield née Bamford (1879–1953), over a fish and chip shop owned by her grandmother, Sarah Bamford, in Molesworth Street, Rochdale, Lancashire. Her great-grandfather, William Stansfield (b.1805), of Hebden Bridge, Yorkshire, was a descendant of the Stansfield family of Stansfield, Yorkshire.
Fields made her first stage appearance as a child, in 1905, joining children's repertory theatre groups such as "Haley's Garden of Girls" and the "Nine Dainty Dots". Her two sisters, Edith Fields and Betty Fields, and brother, Tommy Fields, all went on to appear on stage, but Gracie was the most successful. Her professional debut in variety took place at the Rochdale Hippodrome theatre in 1910, and she soon gave up her job in the local cotton mill, where she was a half-timer, spending half a week in the mill and the other half at school. Early newspaper clippings show her appearing locally in venues such as Todmorden (December 1913), Milnrow (February 1914), and Burnley (July 1914) with an appearance at The Palace in Blackpool in April 1914. The Burnley newspaper described her as “The Girl with the Double Voice”.
Fields met the comedian and impresario Archie Pitt and they began working together. Pitt gave Fields champagne on her 18th birthday, and wrote in an autograph book to her that he would make her a star. Pitt began to manage her career and they began a relationship; they married in 1923 at Clapham Register Office. Their first revue was called Yes I Think So in 1915, and the two continued to tour Britain together until 1924. That year they appeared in the revue Mr Tower of London, with other shows following in subsequent years, such as By Request, It's A Bargain and The Show's The Thing.
Pitt was the brother of Bert Aza, founder of the Aza Agency, which was responsible for many entertainers of the day including the actor and comedian Stanley Holloway, who was introduced to Aza by Fields. Fields and Holloway first worked together on her film Sing As We Go in 1934 and the two remained close friends for the rest of their lives.
Fame
Fields came to major public notice in Mr Tower of London, a show staged in London's West End. Her career accelerated from this point, with dramatic performances and the beginning of a recording career on His Master's Voice (HMV). She was one of the most successful recording artists at the label, her first record, My Blue Heaven sold 500,000 copies in 1928. In 1933, HMV produced the four millionth Fields record, which was pressed by the singer herself on camera.
At one point, Fields was playing three shows a night in the West End. She appeared in the Pitt production SOS with Gerald Du Maurier, a play staged at the St James's Theatre.
Fields' most famous song, "Sally", which became her theme, was written for her first film, Sally in Our Alley (1931), a major box office hit. She went on to make a number of films, initially in Britain and later in the United States (when she was paid a record fee of £200,000 for four films). Regardless, she never enjoyed performing without a live audience, and found the process of film-making boring. She tried to opt out of filming, before director Monty Banks persuaded her otherwise, landing her a lucrative Hollywood deal. Fields demanded that the four pictures be filmed in Britain and not Hollywood.
The final few lines of the song "Sally", which Fields sang at every performance from 1931 onwards, were written by her husband's mistress, Annie Lipman. Fields claimed in later life that she wanted to "Drown blasted Sally with Walter with the aspidistra on top!", a reference to two other of her well-known songs, "Walter, Walter", and "The Biggest Aspidistra In The World".
The famous opera star Luisa Tetrazzini heard her singing an aria and asked her to sing in grand opera. Fields decided to stay "where I knew I belonged."
Charity work
In the 1930s, her popularity was at its peak, and she was given many honours: she became an Officer of the Venerable Order of St John (OStJ) for her charity work, and a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) for her services to entertainment in the 1938 New Year Honours, and was granted the Freedom of the Borough of Rochdale in 1937.
She donated her house in The Bishops Avenue, north London – which she had not much cared for, and shared with her husband Pitt and his mistress – to an orphanage after the marriage broke down. In 1939, she became seriously ill with cervical cancer. The public sent over 250,000 goodwill messages and she retired to her villa on Capri. After she recovered, she recorded a special 78rpm record simply called Gracie's Thanks, in which she thanks the public for the many cards and letters she received while in hospital.
Fields also helped Rochdale Association Football Club in the 1930s, when they were struggling to pay fees and buy sports equipment.
In 1933, she set up the Gracie Fields Children's Home and Orphanage at Peacehaven, Sussex, for children of those in the theatre profession who could not look after their children. She kept this until 1967, when the home was no longer needed. This was near her own home in Peacehaven, and Fields often visited, with the children all calling her 'Aunty Grace'.
World War II
In 1939, Fields suffered a breakdown and went to Capri to recuperate.
World War II was declared while she was recovering in Capri, and Fields – still very ill after her cancer surgery – threw herself into her work and signed up for the Entertainments National Service Association (ENSA) headed by her old film producer, Basil Dean. Fields travelled to France to entertain the troops in the midst of air-raids, performing on the backs of open lorries and in war-torn areas. During the war, she also paid for all servicemen and women to travel free on public transport within the boundaries of Rochdale. Fields travelled to Chester with serviceman Harrison after he had watched her perform in France. She stayed with his family of 9 as a guest in their small 2 up 2 down house.
Following her divorce from Archie Pitt, she married Italian-born film director Monty Banks in March 1940. However, because Banks remained an Italian citizen and would have been interned in the United Kingdom after Italy declared war in 1940, she went with him to North America, possibly at the suggestion of Winston Churchill who told her to "Make American Dollars, not British Pounds", which she did, in aid of the Navy League and the Spitfire Fund. She and Banks moved to their home in Santa Monica, California. Fields occasionally returned to Britain, performing in factories and army camps around the country. After their initial argument, Parliament offered her an official apology.
Although she continued to spend much of her time entertaining troops and otherwise supporting the war effort outside Britain, this led to a decline in her popularity at home. She performed many times for Allied troops, travelling as far as New Guinea, where she received an enthusiastic response from Australian personnel. In late 1945, she toured the South Pacific Islands.
Post-war career
After the war, Fields continued her career less actively. She began performing in Britain again in 1948, headlining the London Palladium over Ella Fitzgerald who was also on the bill. The BBC gave her her own weekly radio show in 1947, dubbed Our Gracie's Working Party, in which 12 towns were visited by Fields. A live show of music and entertainment, it was compered by Fields, who also performed, together with local talents. The tour commenced in Gracie's hometown of Rochdale. Like many BBC shows at the time, this show transferred to Radio Luxembourg in 1950, where it was sponsored by Wisk soap powder. Billy Ternent and his Orchestra accompanied her.
In 1951, Fields took part in the cabaret which closed the Festival of Britain celebrations. She proved popular once more, though never regaining the status she enjoyed in the 1930s. She continued recording, but made no more films, moving more towards light classical music as popular tastes changed, often adopting a religious theme. She continued into the new medium of LP records, and recorded new versions of her old favourite songs, as well as contemporary tracks, to 'liven things up a bit'.
Her husband, Monty Banks, died on 8 January 1950 of a heart attack, while travelling on the Orient Express. On 18 February 1952 in Capri, Fields married Boris Alperovici (d.1983), a Romanian radio repairman. She claimed that he was the love of her life, and that she couldn't wait to propose to him. She proposed on Christmas Day in front of friends and family. They married at the Church of St Stefano on Capri in a quiet ceremony, before honeymooning in Rome.
She lived on her beloved Isle of Capri for the remainder of her life, at her home La Canzone Del Mare (The Song of the Sea), where her home overlooked the swimming and restaurant complex. It was favoured by many Hollywood stars during the 1950s, with regular guests including Richard Burton, Elizabeth Taylor, Greta Garbo and Noël Coward.
Later years
Fields began to work less, but still toured the UK under the management of Harold Fielding (manager of top artists of the day such as Tommy Steele and Max Bygraves). Her UK tours proved popular, and in the mid-1960s she gave farewell tours in Australia, Canada and America; the last performance was recorded and released years later.
In 1956, Fields was the first actress to portray Miss Marple on screen, in a US Television (Goodyear Playhouse) production of Agatha Christie's A Murder is Announced. The production featured Jessica Tandy and Roger Moore, and predates the Margaret Rutherford films by five years. She also starred in Television productions of A Tale of Two Cities (DuPont Show of the Month, 1958), The Old Lady Shows Her Medals (United States Steel Hour)– for which she won a Sylvania Award (1956) and received an EMMY Award nomination for Best Single Performance by an Actress (1957) – and Mrs 'Arris Goes to Paris (Studio One), which was remade years later with Angela Lansbury as Mrs Harris, a charwoman in search of a fur coat (or a Christian Dior gown in Lansbury's case).
In 1957, her single "Around the World" peaked at No.8 in the UK Singles Chart, with her recording of "Little Donkey" reaching No.20 in November 1959. The sheet music for the song was the UK's best-seller for seven weeks.
She was the subject of This Is Your Life on 20 March 1960, when she was surprised by Eamonn Andrews at the BBC Television Theatre.
Fields regularly performed in TV appearances, being the first entertainer to perform on Val Parnell's Sunday Night at the London Palladium. Fields had two Christmas TV specials in 1960 and 1961, singing her old favourites and new songs in front of a studio audience. 1971 saw A Gift For Gracie, another TV special presented by Fields and Bruce Forsyth. This followed on from her popularity on Stars on Sunday, a religious programme on Britain's ITV, in which well-known performers sang hymns or read extracts from the Bible. Fields was the most requested artist on the show.
In 1968, Fields headlined a two-week Christmas stint at the West Riding of Yorkshire's prestigious Batley Variety Club. "I was born over a fish and chip shop – I never thought I'd be singing in one!" claimed Fields during the performance recorded by the BBC.
In 1975, her album The Golden Years reached No. 48 in the UK Albums Chart.
In 1978, she opened the Gracie Fields Theatre, near Oulder Hill Leadership Academy in her native Rochdale, performing a concert there recorded by the BBC to open the show. Fields appeared in ten Royal Variety Performances from 1928 onwards, her last being in 1978 at the age of 80, when she appeared as a surprise guest in the finale and sang her theme song, "Sally".
Her final TV appearance came in January 1979 when she appeared in a special octogenarian edition of The Merv Griffin Show in America, in which she sang the song she popularised in America, "The Biggest Aspidistra in the World". Fields was notified by her confidant John Taylor, while she was in America, that she had received the Queen's invitation to become a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (in the 1979 New Years Honours List), to which she replied: "Yes I'll accept, yes I can kneel – but I might need help getting back up, and yes I'll attend – as long as they don't call Boris 'Buttons'." Seven months before her death in 1979, she was invested as a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) by Queen Elizabeth II.
Death
Fields' health declined in July 1979, when she contracted pneumonia after performing an open-air concert on the Royal Yacht which was docked in Capri's harbour. After a spell in hospital, she seemed to be recovering, but died on 27 September 1979. The press reported she died holding her husband's hand, but in reality he was at their Anacapri home at the time, while Gracie was home with the housekeeper, Irena. She is buried in Capri's Protestant Cemetery, in a white marble tomb. Her coffin was carried by staff from her restaurant.
Honours and popular culture
Fields was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1938 New Years Honours. In February 1979, she was invested as a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire seven months before her death at her home on Capri, aged 81.
Fields was the mystery guest on the 1 May 1955 edition of What's My Line? After Bennett Cerf asked about one of her songs, Dorothy Kilgallen correctly guessed it was her. Fields was granted the Freedom of Rochdale. The local theatre in Rochdale, the Gracie Fields Theatre, was opened by her in 1978.
Following her death, she was referenced in the 1987 film Wish You Were Here, the 1996 film Intimate Relations, and the 2006 film The History Boys.
In early 1985, an episode of the BBC television series Halls of Fame, which presented a nostalgic look at various famous regional theatres, included a medley of Fields' songs at the Palace Theatre, Manchester, sung by Marti Webb. At the 1985 Royal Variety Performance, Su Pollard performed "Sally" in tribute to her. The following year's Performance also featured a section with a medley of Fields' songs, again sung by Webb.
On 3 October 2009, the final train to run on the Oldham Loop before it closed to be converted to a tramway, a Class 156, was named in her honour. In September 2016, a statue of Fields was unveiled outside Rochdale Town Hall, which was the first statue of a woman to be erected for over a century in Lancashire.
Gracie! was a 2009 biopic TV film on her life, with Jane Horrocks playing Fields and Tom Hollander her husband Monty Banks. It covers her career before the Second World War and the decline in her popularity during the war.
Notable songs
"We're All living at the Cloisters"
"You Didn't Want Me When You Had Me"
"Sally"
"The Kerry Dance"
"Sing As We Go"
"Thing-Ummy-Bob (That's Gonna Win The War)"
"The Biggest Aspidistra in the World"
"Three Green Bonnets"
"I Took my Harp to a Party"
"The Trek Song"
"Pedro the Fisherman"
"Only a Glass of Champagne"
"Speak Softly, Love"
"Angels Guard Thee"
"Around the World"
"Nuns' Chorus"
"Little Donkey"
"Now Is the Hour"
"The Carefree Heart"
"The Isle of Capri"
"The Woodpecker Song"
"Walter, Walter (Lead Me to the Altar)"
"Young at Heart"
"Christopher Robin is Saying His Prayers"
"Far Away"
"If I Had a Talking Picture of You"
"Home"
"Wish Me Luck as You Wave Me Goodbye"
"The Holy City"
"When I Grow Too Old to Dream"
"If I Knew You Were Comin' I'd've Baked a Cake"
"The Twelfth of Never"
"Those Were The Days" (performed live at The Batley Variety Club in 1968)
"Singin' in the Bathtub"
"Stop and Shop at the Co-op Shop"
"I Never Cried So Much in All My Life"
"Take Me To Your Heart" (alternative English lyrics to "La Vie en rose")
Filmography
Box office ranking
For a number of years, British film exhibitors voted her among the top ten stars in Britain at the box office via an annual poll in the Motion Picture Herald.
1936 – 1st (3rd most popular star over all)
1937 – 1st (3rd overall)
1938 – 2nd
1939 - 2nd
1940 - 3rd
1941 - 8th
References
Sources
Lassandro, Sebastian (2019). Pride of Our Alley, vol 1 and 2. Bear Manor Media.
Lassandro, Sebastian (2020). Gracie's War. Independently published.
Gracie Fields: The Authorised Biography (1995) by David Bret
"Gracie Fields" by Jeffrey Richards in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
Further reading
– Paperback
(First published 1991)
– Paperback
– Paperback . Digitalised 2002
(First published 1938)
External links
The Official Dame Gracie Fields website
Gracie Fields at Turner Classic Movies
Gracie Fields: A Biography by Joan Moules
Photographs and literature
Nine digitally restored Gracie Fields recordings
Gracie Fields and Thomas Thompson
Gracie Fields interview on Parkinson, 05/11/1977
1898 births
1979 deaths
20th-century English actresses
Actresses awarded damehoods
Actresses from Lancashire
Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Deaths from pneumonia in Campania
English comedy musicians
English expatriates in Italy
English expatriates in the United States
English film actresses
English Protestants
English television actresses
English women comedians
Music hall performers
Musicians from Lancashire
Actors from Rochdale
Singers awarded knighthoods
20th-century English singers
20th-century English comedians
British comedy actresses
20th-century English women singers
British novelty song performers
People from Peacehaven
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate%20social%20responsibility
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Corporate social responsibility
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Corporate social responsibility (CSR) or corporate social impact is a form of international private business self-regulation which aims to contribute to societal goals of a philanthropic, activist, or charitable nature by engaging in, with, or supporting professional service volunteering through pro bono programs, community development, administering monetary grants to non-profit organizations for the public benefit, or to conduct ethically oriented business and investment practices. While once it was possible to describe CSR as an internal organizational policy or a corporate ethic strategy similar to what is now known today as Environmental, Social, Governance (ESG); that time has passed as various companies have pledged to go beyond that or have been mandated or incentivized by governments to have a better impact on the surrounding community. In addition national and international standards, laws, and business models have been developed to facilitate and incentivize this phenomenon. Various organizations have used their authority to push it beyond individual or even industry-wide initiatives. In contrast, it has been considered a form of corporate self-regulation for some time, over the last decade or so it has moved considerably from voluntary decisions at the level of individual organizations to mandatory schemes at regional, national, and international levels. Moreover, scholars and firms are using the term "creating shared value", an extension of corporate social responsibility, to explain ways of doing business in a socially responsible way while making profits (see the detailed review article of Menghwar and Daood, 2021).
Considered at the organisational level, CSR is generally understood as a strategic initiative that contributes to a brand's reputation. As such, social responsibility initiatives must coherently align with and be integrated into a business model to be successful. With some models, a firm's implementation of CSR goes beyond compliance with regulatory requirements and engages in "actions that appear to further some social good, beyond the interests of the firm and that which is required by law".
Furthermore, businesses may engage in CSR for strategic or ethical purposes. From a strategic perspective, CSR can contribute to firm profits, particularly if brands voluntarily self-report both the positive and negative outcomes of their endeavors. In part, these benefits accrue by increasing positive public relations and high ethical standards to reduce business and legal risk by taking responsibility for corporate actions. CSR strategies encourage the company to make a positive impact on the environment and stakeholders including consumers, employees, investors, communities, and others. From an ethical perspective, some businesses will adopt CSR policies and practices because of the ethical beliefs of senior management: for example, the CEO of outdoor-apparel company Patagonia, Inc. argues that harming the environment is ethically objectionable.
Proponents argue that corporations increase long-term profits by operating with a CSR perspective, while critics argue that CSR distracts from businesses' economic role. A 2000 study compared existing econometric studies of the relationship between social and financial performance, concluding that the contradictory results of previous studies reporting positive, negative, and neutral financial impact, were due to flawed empirical analysis and claimed when the study is properly specified, CSR has a neutral impact on financial outcomes. Critics have questioned the "lofty" and sometimes "unrealistic expectations" of CSR, or observed that CSR is merely window-dressing, or an attempt to pre-empt the role of governments as a watchdog over powerful multinational corporations. In line with this critical perspective, political and sociological institutionalists became interested in CSR in the context of theories of globalization, neoliberalism, and late capitalism.
Definition
Since the 1960s, corporate social responsibility has attracted attention from a range of businesses and stakeholders and been referred to by a number of other terms, including "corporate sustainability", "sustainable business", "corporate conscience", "corporate citizenship", "purpose", "social impact", "conscious capitalism", and "responsible business".
A wide variety of definitions have been developed but with little consensus. Part of the problem with definitions has arisen because of the different interests represented. A business person may define CSR as a business strategy, an NGO activist may see it as 'greenwash' while a government official may see it as voluntary regulation. "In addition, disagreement about the definition will arise from the disciplinary approach." For example, while an economist might consider the director's discretion necessary for CSR to be implemented a risk of agency costs, a law academic may consider that discretion to be an appropriate expression of what the law demands from directors. In the 1930s, two law professors, A. A. Berle and Merrick Dodd, famously debated how directors should be made to uphold the public interest: Berle believed there had to be legally enforceable rules in favor of labor, customers and the public equal to or ahead of shareholders, while Dodd argued that powers of directors were simply held on trust.
Corporate social responsibility has been defined by Sheehy as "international private business self-regulation". Sheehy examined a range of different disciplinary approaches to defining CSR. The definitions reviewed included the economic definition of "sacrificing profits", a management definition of "beyond compliance", institutionalist views of CSR as a "socio-political movement" and the law's focus on directors' duties. Further, Sheehy considered Archie B. Carroll's description of CSR as a pyramid of responsibilities, namely, economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic responsibilities. While Carroll was not defining CSR, but simply arguing for the classification of activities, Sheehy developed a definition differently following the philosophy of science—the branch of philosophy used for defining phenomena.
Carroll extended corporate social responsibility from the traditional economic and legal responsibility to ethical and philanthropic responsibility in response to the rising concerns on ethical issues in businesses. This view is reflected in the Business Dictionary that defines CSR as "a company's sense of responsibility towards the community and environment (both ecological and social) in which it operates. Companies express this citizenship (1) through their waste and pollution reduction processes, (2) by contributing educational and social programs, and (3) by earning adequate returns on the employed resources."
Deep CSR and the Truly Responsible Enterprise
The "deep" definition for CSR is the following: The Truly Responsible Enterprise (TRE):
sees itself as a part of the system, not a completely individual economic actor concerned only about maximizing its own profit,
recognises unsustainability (the destruction of natural environment and the increase of social injustice) as the greatest challenge of our age,
accepts that businesses and enterprises have to work on solutions according to their economic weight,
honestly evaluates its own weight and part in causing the problems (it is best to concentrate on 2–3 main problems),
takes essential steps – systematically, progressively, and focused– towards a more sustainable world.
The five principles of the TRE are 1) minimal transport, 2) maximal fairness, 3) zero economism, 4) maximum middle size, 5) product or service falling to the most sustainable 30%.
Consumer perspectives
Most consumers agree that while achieving business targets, companies should engage in CSR efforts at the same time. Most consumers believe companies doing charity work will receive a positive response. Somerville also found that consumers are loyal and willing to spend more on retailers that support charity. Consumers also believe that retailers selling local products will gain loyalty. Smith (2013) shares the belief that marketing local products will gain consumer trust. However, environmental efforts are receiving negative views given the belief that this would affect customer service. Oppewal et al. (2006) found that not all CSR activities are attractive to consumers. They recommended that retailers focus on one activity. Becker-Olsen (2006) found that if the social initiative done by the company is not aligned with other company goals it will have a negative impact. Mohr et al. (2001) and Groza et al. (2011) also emphasise the importance of reaching the consumer.
Approaches
Some commentators have identified a difference between the Canadian (Montreal school of CSR), the Continental European, and the Anglo-Saxon approaches to CSR. It has been described that for Chinese consumers a socially responsible company makes safe, high-quality products; for Germans it provides secure employment; in South Africa it makes a positive contribution to social needs such as health care and education. Even within Europe, the discussion about CSR is very heterogeneous.
A more common approach to CSR is corporate philanthropy. This includes monetary donations and aid given to nonprofit organizations and communities. Donations are made in areas such as the arts, education, housing, health, social welfare, and the environment, among others, but excluding political contributions and commercial event sponsorship.
Another approach to CSR is to incorporate the CSR strategy directly into operations, such as procurement of Fair Trade tea and coffee.
Creating shared value, or CSV, is based on the idea that corporate success and social welfare are interdependent. The Harvard Business Review article "Strategy & Society: The Link between Competitive Advantage and Corporate Social Responsibility" provided examples of companies that have developed deep linkages between their business strategies and CSR. CSV acknowledges trade-offs between short-term profitability and social or environmental goals, but emphasizes the opportunities for competitive advantage from building a social value proposition into corporate strategy. CSV gives the impression that only two stakeholders are important – shareholders and consumers.
Many companies employ benchmarking to assess their CSR policy, implementation, and effectiveness. Benchmarking involves reviewing competitor initiatives, as well as measuring and evaluating the impact that those policies have on society and the environment, and how others perceive competitor CSR strategy.
Cost-benefit analysis
In competitive markets, the cost-benefit analysis of CSR initiatives can be examined using a resource-based view (RBV). According to Barney (1990), "formulation of the RBV, sustainable competitive advantage requires that resources be valuable (V), rare (R), inimitable (I) and non-substitutable (S)." A firm introducing a CSR-based strategy might only sustain high returns on their investment if their CSR-based strategy could not be copied (I). However, should competitors imitate such a strategy, that might increase overall social benefits? Firms that choose CSR for strategic financial gain are also acting responsibly.
RBV presumes that firms are bundles of heterogeneous resources and capabilities that are imperfectly mobile across firms. This imperfect mobility can produce competitive advantages for firms that acquire immobile resources. McWilliams and Siegel (2001) examined CSR activities and attributes as a differentiation strategy. They concluded that managers could determine the appropriate level of investment in CSR by conducting cost-benefit analysis in the same way that they analyze other investments. Reinhardt (1998) found that a firm engaging in a CSR-based strategy could only sustain an abnormal return if it could prevent competitors from imitating its strategy.
Moreover, when it comes to cost-benefit analysis, one should look at Waddock and Graves (1997), who showed that corporate social performance was positively linked to financial performance, meaning that the benefit of being socially responsible outweigh the costs. McWilliams and Siegel (2000) noted that Waddock and Graves had not taken innovation into account, that companies that did CSR were also very innovative, and that the innovation drove financial performance, not CSR. Hull and Rothenberg (2007) then found that when companies are not innovative, a history of CSR does help financial performance.
CSR and Corporate Financial Performance
The relationship between corporate social responsibility and a firm's corporate financial performance is a phenomenon that is being explored in a variety of research studies that are being conducted across the world. Based on these research studies, including those conducted by Sang Jun Cho, Chune Young Chung, and Jason Young, a positive relationship exists between a firm's corporate social responsibility policies and corporate financial performance. To investigate this relationship, the researchers conducted a regression analysis and preceded the analysis with the provision of several measures that they utilized to serve as proxies for key financial performance indicators (i.e. return on assets serves as a proxy for profitability).
Scope
Initially, CSR emphasized the official behaviour of individual firms. Later, it expanded to include supplier behaviour, the uses to which products were put, and how articles were disposed of after they lost value. Malcolm McIntosh notes also that focussing on the identifiable behaviour of individual businesses risks not including what he calls "unincorporated market behaviour" within the scope of CSR - actions attributable to market processes, and also calls for other factors including "brand citizenship" and "illegitimate, informal or illegal activity" to be considered as part of a more complete picture.
The term "brand citizenship" has been put forward because the public perception of an organisation may be associated with its branding rather than its corporate identity: McIntosh uses Virgin as an example. Similarly, Anne Bahr Thompson uses the same term and observes that companies adopting socially responsible behaviours are primarilly investing in their reputations.
Supply chain
In the 21st century, corporate social responsibility in the supply chain has attracted attention from businesses and stakeholders. A corporations' supply chain is the process by which several organizations, including suppliers, customers, and logistics providers work together to provide a value package of products and services to the end-user, who is the customer.
Corporate social irresponsibility in the supply chain has greatly affected the reputation of companies, leading to a lot of costs to solve the problems. For instance, incidents like the 2013 Savar building collapse, which killed over 1000 people, pushed companies to consider the impacts of their operations on society and the environment. On the other hand, the horsemeat scandal of 2013 in Europe affected many food retailers, including Tesco, the largest retailer in the United Kingdom, leading to the dismissal of the supplier. Corporate social irresponsibility from both the suppliers and the retailers has greatly affected the stakeholders who lost trust in the affected business entities, and although sometimes it is not directly undertaken by the companies, they become accountable to the stakeholders. These surrounding issues have prompted supply chain management to consider the corporate social responsibility context. Wieland and Handfield (2013) suggested that companies need to include social responsibility in their reviews of component quality. They highlighted the use of technology in improving visibility across the supply chain.
Corporate social initiatives
Corporate social responsibility includes six types of corporate social initiatives:
Corporate philanthropy: company donations to charity, including cash, goods, and services, sometimes via a corporate foundation
Community volunteering: company-organized volunteer activities, sometimes while an employee receives pay for pro-bono work on behalf of a non-profit organization
Socially-responsible business practices: ethically produced products that appeal to a customer segment
Cause promotions and activism: company-funded advocacy campaigns
Cause-related marketing: donations to charity based on product sales
Corporate social marketing: company-funded behavior-change campaigns
All six of the corporate initiatives are forms of corporate citizenship. However, only some of these CSR activities rise to the level of cause marketing, defined as "a type of corporate social responsibility (CSR) in which a company's promotional campaign has the dual purpose of increasing profitability while bettering society."
Companies generally do not have a profit motive when participating in corporate philanthropy and community volunteering. On the other hand, the remaining corporate social initiatives can be examples of cause marketing, in which there is both a societal interest and profit motive.
Implementation
CSR may be based within the human resources, business development or public relations departments of an organisation, or may be a separate unit reporting to the CEO or the board of directors.
Engagement plan
An engagement plan can assist in reaching the desired audience. A corporate social responsibility individual or team plans the goals and objectives of the organization. As with any corporate activity, a defined budget demonstrates commitment and scales the program's relative importance.
Accounting, auditing, and reporting
Social accounting is the communication of social and environmental effects of a company's economic actions to particular interest groups within society and to society at large.
Social accounting emphasizes the notion of corporate accountability. Crowther defines social accounting as "an approach to reporting a firm's activities which stresses the need for the identification of socially relevant behavior, the determination of those to whom the company is accountable for its social performance and the development of appropriate measures and reporting techniques."
Reporting guidelines and standards serve as frameworks for social accounting, auditing, and reporting:
AccountAbility's AA1000 standard, based on John Elkington's triple bottom line (3BL) reporting
The Prince's Accounting for Sustainability Project's Connected Reporting Framework
The Fair Labor Association conducts audits based on its Workplace Code of Conduct and posts audit results on the FLA website.
The Fair Wear Foundation verifies labour conditions in companies' supply chains, using interdisciplinary auditing teams.
Global Reporting Initiative's Sustainability Reporting Guidelines
Economy for the Common Good's Common Good Balance Sheet
GoodCorporation's standard developed in association with the Institute of Business Ethics
Synergy Codethic 26000 Social Responsibility and Sustainability Commitment Management System (SRSCMS) Requirements—Ethical Business Best Practices of Organizations—the necessary management system elements to obtain a certifiable ethical commitment management system. The standard scheme has been built around ISO 26000 and UNCTAD Guidance on Good Practices in Corporate Governance. The standard is applicable to any organization.
Earthcheck Certification / Standard
Social Accountability International's SA8000 standard
Standard Ethics Aei guidelines
The ISO 14000 environmental management standard
The United Nations Global Compact requires companies to communicate on their progress (or to produce a Communication on Progress, COP), and to describe the company's implementation of the Compact's ten universal principles.
The United Nations Intergovernmental Working Group of Experts on International Standards of Accounting and Reporting (ISAR) provides voluntary technical guidance on eco-efficiency indicators, corporate responsibility reporting, and corporate governance disclosure.
The FTSE Group publishes the FTSE4Good Index, an evaluation of CSR performance of companies.
EthicalQuote (CEQ) tracks the reputation of the world's largest companies on Environmental, Social, Governance (ESG), Corporate Social Responsibility, ethics, and sustainability.
The Islamic Reporting Initiative (IRI) is a not-for-profit organization that leads the creation of the IRI framework; the guiding integrated CSR reporting framework based on Islamic principles and values.
In nations such as France, legal requirements for social accounting, auditing and reporting exist, though international or national agreement on meaningful measurements of social and environmental performance has not been achieved. Many companies produce externally audited annual reports that cover Sustainable Development and CSR issues ("Triple Bottom Line Reports"), but the reports vary widely in format, style, and evaluation methodology (even within the same industry). Critics dismiss these reports as lip service, citing examples such as Enron's yearly "Corporate Responsibility Annual Report" and tobacco companies' social reports.
In South Africa, as of June 2010, all companies listed on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE) were required to produce an integrated report in place of an annual financial report and sustainability report. An integrated report reviews environmental, social, and economic performance alongside financial performance. This requirement was implemented in the absence of formal or legal standards. An Integrated Reporting Committee (IRC) was established to issue guidelines for good practice.
One of the reputable institutions that capital markets turn to for credible sustainability reports is the Carbon Disclosure Project, or CDP.
Verification
Corporate social responsibility and its resulting reports and efforts should be verified by the consumer of the goods and services. The accounting, auditing, and reporting resources provide a foundation for consumers to verify that their products are socially sustainable. Due to an increased awareness of the need for CSR, many industries have their own verification resources. They include organizations such as the Forest Stewardship Council (paper and forest products), International Cocoa Initiative, and Kimberly Process (diamonds). The United Nations Global Compact provides frameworks not only for verification, but also for reporting human rights violations in corporate supply chains.
Ethics training
The rise of ethics training inside corporations, some of it required by government regulation, has helped CSR to spread. Such training aims to help employees make ethical decisions when the answers are unclear. The most direct benefit is reducing the likelihood of "dirty hands", fines, and damaged reputations for breaching laws or moral norms. Organizations see increased employee loyalty and pride in the organization.
Common actions
Common CSR actions include:
Environmental sustainability: recycling, waste management, water management, renewable energy, reusable materials, 'greener' supply chains, reducing paper use, and adopting Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) building standards.
Human capital enhancement: Companies provide additional resources for capacity building of local employees, including technical and professional training, adult basic education, and language classes.
Community involvement: This can include raising money for local charities, providing volunteers, sponsoring local events, employing local workers, supporting local economic growth, engaging in fair trade practices, etc.
Ethical marketing: Companies that ethically market to consumers are placing a higher value on their customers and respecting them as people who are ends in themselves. They do not try to manipulate or falsely advertise to potential consumers. This is important for companies that want to be viewed as ethical.
Social license to operate
The term "social license" was introduced in 1997 and has since been applied in multiple resource extraction industries to describe changes in company-community interactions. This use of social license has included an understanding of how acceptance levels impact resource development operations within these industries. Gunningham et al. state corporations comply with their social license by operating within societal expectations and avoiding activities (or influential elements within them) considered unacceptable, and define social license it as "the demands on and expectations for a business enterprise that emerge from neighborhoods, environmental groups, local stakeholders, and other elements of the surrounding civil society".
Social License to Operate can be determined as contractual grounds for the legitimacy of activities and projects a company is involved in. It refers to the level of support and approval of a company's activities by its stakeholders. Displaying commitment to CSR is one way to achieve a social license, by enhancing a company's reputation.
As stated in Enduring value: the Australian minerals industry framework for sustainable development the concept of the 'social license to operate', then defined simply as obtaining and maintaining broad community support and acceptance. Unless a company earns and maintains that license social license holders may intend to block project developments; employees may leave the company for a company that is a better corporate citizen: and companies may be under ongoing legal challenge. Issues related to the government's measurement of corporations' social license include its role in licensure processes, the penalties for non-compliance, or the community's ability to halt a project if a corporation is not responsive to their concerns, are still subject to global concern. Regardless of government involvement, social license is achieved within and given by communities, which is defined as "a social unit of any size that shares common values, or that is situated in a given geographical area". Lacey suggested that social license can take a long time for a corporation or industry to achieve, but social license can be lost very quickly for a variety of factors, including changes in stakeholder expectations, technology, or other disturbances. Gunningham et al. stated that meeting and exceeding regulations to build reputational capital is economically vital, saying: "in certain circumstances, [natural resource based industries] cannot afford to do otherwise". In communities with a diverse economy, the processes of achieving social license are often much more complex than local communities which are economically dependent on the natural resource industry.
In research undertaken by Ketola et al., the writers believed that the forest products industry in rural Michigan in the United States may have received social license through the channels that were originally established by mining corporations and the long history of logging and copper mining in the area continued to shape the attitudes and identities of industry participants to present day. They found that local stakeholders and local industry operators have shared history and experience as having limited power to control the larger economic forces acting upon them. Local actors are more likely to have similar values to stakeholders, have established some history in the area, and have had the time to establish meaningful relationships within the community. This shared experience shaped the process of acquiring social license. Nonlocal actors are likely to experience a much lesser degree of social license than local actors. Furthermore, many of the resources affected by forest management are held in the public trust, so it is important for both industry actors and community stakeholders to feel engaged and involved in decisions regarding local natural resource management. Baines and Edwards shared similar findings in New Zealand's aquaculture sector regarding the importance of relationships and communication between industry and local stakeholders. They find that social license depends on relationships and building trust. Smaller, local companies tend towards relationships that are relational as opposed to transactional, possibly due to their on-going community presences and communication abilities, which are better for fostering these relationships and trust building.
In research of Requisite Organization, Elliott Jaques defines Social License to Operate for the company as the social contract the company has with the social license holders (employees, trade unions, communities, government) for them to manifest positive intention to support the business short- and long-term objectives by "providing managerial leadership that nurtures the social good and also gives the foundation for sustainable growth in organizational results."
The primary objective for the companies is to obtain and maintain the Social License to Operate. Based on the Requisite Organization to achieve this goal a company needs to:
Identify the business strategy and business objectives
Identify the social license holders (employees of a company, labour unions, local and national governments, communities, activist groups, etc.) for every business objectives
Identify the support that the company desires to achieve from the social license holders by specifying for every business objective social license elements (target of support, context of support, time of support, action of support)
Quantitatively measure the intention (positive or negative) of the social license holders to support the business objectives
Identify the factors that negatively impact the intention of the social license holders to support the business objectives (strength of their belief in support, their evaluation of support outcomes, the pressure to provide support, enablers/disablers of support, etc.)
Develop the Social License Development Strategy to remove the negative factors and ensure the positive intention of all the social license holders to support all the business objectives of the company.
Perform ongoing monitoring and quantitative measurement of changes in the Social License to Operate of the company
Emerging markets vs. developed economies
Although a positive relationship has been shown to exist between CSR and a firm's corporate financial performance, results from these analyses may need to be examined under different lenses for emerging and developed economies, especially since firms based in emerging economies oftentimes have weak firm-level governance.
For companies operating in emerging markets, engaging in CSR practices enables widespread reach into a variety of outside markets, an improved reputation, and stakeholder relationships. In all cases (emerging markets vs. developed economies), implementing CSR policies into the daily activities and framework of a company has been shown to allow for a competitive advantage versus other companies, including the creation of a positive image for the company, improved stakeholder relationships, increased employee morale, and attraction of new consumers who are committed to social responsibility. Despite all of the benefits, it is important to note that several drawbacks exist, including possible accusations of hypocrisy, the difficulty of measuring the social impact of CSR policies, and oftentimes placing companies at a disadvantage against competitors when prioritizing CSR ahead of advancing a company's R&D.
Potential business benefits
A large body of literature exhorts businesses to adopt non-financial measures of success (e.g., Deming's Fourteen Points, balanced scorecards). While CSR benefits are hard to quantify, Orlitzky, Schmidt and Rynes found a correlation between social/environmental performance and financial performance.
The business case for CSR within a company employs one or more of these arguments:
Triple bottom line
"People, planet, and profit", also known as the triple bottom line, form one way to evaluate CSR.
"People" refers to fair labour practices, the community, and the region where the business operates.
"Planet" refers to sustainable environmental practices. Profit is the economic value created by the organization after deducting the cost of all inputs, including the cost of the capital (unlike accounting definitions of profit).
Overall, trying to balance economic, ecological, and social goals is at the heart of the triple bottom line.
This measure was claimed to help some companies be more conscious of their social and moral responsibilities. However, critics claim that it is selective and substitutes a company's perspective for that of the community. Another criticism is about the absence of a standard auditing procedure.
The term was coined by John Elkington in 1994 who re-evaluated it in 2018 and called for more urgent action toward sustainability
Human resources
A CSR program can be an aid to recruitment and retention, particularly within the competitive graduate student market. Potential recruits often consider a firm's CSR policy. CSR can also help improve the perception of a company among its staff, particularly when staff can become involved through payroll giving, fundraising activities, or community volunteering. CSR has been credited with encouraging customer orientation among customer-facing employees.
CSR is known for impacting employee turnover. Several executives suggest that employees are their most valuable asset and that the ability to retain them leads to organizational success. Socially responsible activities promote fairness, which in turn generates lower employee turnover. On the other hand, if irresponsible behavior is demonstrated by a firm, employees may view this behavior as negative. Proponents argue that treating employees well with competitive pay and good benefits is seen as socially responsible behavior and therefore reduces employee turnover. Executives have a strong desire for building a positive work context that benefits CSR and the company as a whole. This interest is driven particularly by the realization that a positive work environment can result in desirable outcomes such as more favorable job attitudes and increased work performance.
The IBM Institute for Business Value surveyed 250 business leaders worldwide in 2008. The survey showed that businesses have assimilated a much more strategic view with 68% of companies utilizing CSR as an opportunity and part of a sustainable growth strategy. Developing and implementing a CSR strategy represents a unique opportunity to benefit the company. However, only 31% of businesses surveyed engaged their employees on the company's CSR objectives and initiatives. Employee engagement on CSR initiatives can be a powerful recruitment and retention tool. Moreover, employees tend to avoid employers with a bad reputation.
Risk management
Managing risk is an important executive responsibility. Reputations that take decades to build up can be ruined in hours through corruption scandals or environmental accidents. These situations draw unwanted attention from regulators, courts, governments, and the media. CSR can limit these risks.
Sustainability is key to resilience across value chains. As companies prefer working with long-lasting partners, those that have implemented CSR practices will be preferred over ones that have not in order to minimize reputational as well as other damages. High levels of CSR compliance within supply chains (including Tier 1 and beyond) will also help reduce vulnerabilities and eliminate environmental, social, and economic risks through implementing a sustainability-focused procurement strategy.
With effective CSR policies, a company is better situated to mitigate legislative and legal risks through complying with emerging CSR-related laws and regulations, preempting costly lawsuits and non-compliance actions, and addressing sources of non-compliance by fostering corporate alignment around the relevant issues.
Brand differentiation
CSR can enhance a brand's reputation by "inducing a desire to support and help the company that has acted to benefit consumers". In this way, CSR serves to enhance brand perceptions, which can lead to positive product evaluations, though this effect is dependent upon a variety of factors, including the degree to which consumers value close relationships or believe that the CSR initiative is self-serving, whether the CSR program may be perceived to negatively affect product quality, consumers' consumption-related goals (i.e., whether their consumption is socially versus product-motivated), or consumers' attributions toward the motives of the CSR endeavor.
Some companies use their commitment to CSR as their primary positioning tool, e.g., The Co-operative Group, The Body Shop, and American Apparel. Others use CSR methodologies as a strategic tactic to gain public support for their presence in global markets, helping them sustain a competitive advantage by using their social contributions as another form of advertising.
Companies that operate strong CSR activities tend to drive customers' attention to buy products or services regardless of the price. As a result, this increases competition among firms since customers are aware of the company's CSR practices. These initiatives serve as a potential differentiator because they not only add value to the company, but also to the products or services. Furthermore, firms under intense competition are able to leverage CSR to increase the impact of their distribution on the firm's performance. Lowering the carbon footprint of a firm's distribution network or engaging in fair trade are potential differentiators to lower costs and increase profits. In this scenario, customers can observe the company's commitment to CSR while increasing company sales.
Whole Foods' marketing and promotion of organic foods have had a positive effect on the supermarket industry. Proponents assert that Whole Foods has been able to work with its suppliers to improve animal treatment and the quality of meat offered in their stores. They also promote local agriculture in over 2,400 independent farms to maintain their line of sustainable organic produce. As a result, Whole Foods' high prices do not turn customers away from shopping. They are pleased to buy organic products that come from sustainable practices.
A Harvard Business Review article proposes three stages of practice in which CSR can be divided. Stage one focuses on philanthropy, which includes donations of money or equipment to non-profit organizations, engagement with communities' initiatives, and employee volunteering. This is characterized as the "soul" of a company, expressing the social and environmental priorities of the founders. The authors assert that companies engage in CSR because they are an integral part of society. The Coca-Cola Company contributes $88.1 million annually to a variety of environmental educational and humanitarian organizations. Another example is PNC Financial Services' "Grow Up Great" childhood education program. This program provides critical school readiness resources to underserved communities where PNC operates.
On the other hand, stage two focuses on improving operational effectiveness in the workplace. The researchers assert that programs in this stage strive to deliver social or environmental benefits to support a company's operation across the value chain by improving efficiency. Some of the examples include sustainability initiatives to reduce resource use, waste, and emission that could potentially reduce costs. It also calls for investing in employee work conditions such as health care and education, which may enhance productivity and retention. Unlike philanthropic giving, which is evaluated by its social and environmental return, initiatives in the second stage are predicted to improve the corporate bottom line with social value. Bimbo, the largest bakery in Mexico, is an excellent example of this. The company strives to meet social welfare needs. It offers free educational services to help employees complete high school. Bimbo also provides supplementary medical care and financial assistance to close gaps in the government's health coverage.
Moreover, the third stage program aims to transform the business model. Basically, companies create new forms of business to address social or environmental challenges that will lead to financial returns in the long run. One example can be seen in Unilever's Project Shakti in India. The authors describe that the company hires women in villages and provides them with micro-finance loans to sell soaps, oils, detergents, and other products door-to-door. This research indicates that more than 65,000 women entrepreneurs are doubling their incomes while increasing rural access and hygiene in Indian villages. Another example is IKEA's "People and Planet" initiative to be 100% sustainable by 2020. As a consequence, the company wants to introduce a new model to collect and recycle old furniture.
Reduced scrutiny
Corporations are keen to avoid interference in their business through taxation or regulations. A CSR program can persuade governments and the public that a company takes health and safety, diversity, and the environment seriously, reducing the likelihood that company practices will be closely monitored.
Supplier relations
Appropriate CSR programs can increase the attractiveness of supplier firms to potential customer corporations. For example, a fashion merchandiser may find value in an overseas manufacturer that uses CSR to establish a positive image and to reduce the risks of bad publicity from uncovered misbehavior.
A price-focused procurement strategy has limitations for companies with high CSR expectations. According to Boston Consulting Group, “businesses that are considered leaders in environmental, social and governance criteria have an 11% valuation premium over their competitors.” Such companies look for suppliers who share their social, environmental, and business ethics values, which in turn would trigger common innovations that would attract more customers and generate further value for the whole supply chain for a win-win business relationship through a series of interconnected activities implemented holistically. Furthermore, supplier relations are crucial for a company's CSR profile as 70% of businesses’ social and environmental impacts occur in their supply chain. Through the spillover effect, CSR programs encourage sustainable practices within different industries. Additionally, a CSR-focused supplier relations management improves collaboration with suppliers, increases the satisfaction of customers’ expectations and requirements, expands the market opportunities, enhances investor relations, and promotes the development of more sustainable products. Furthermore, CSR supply chain imperatives can leverage their responsible commitment to forge robust and lasting relationships with important stakeholders and positively influence the decision-making of consumers, partners, investors, and talent. Through constructing this reputational capital, companies have access to earn consumer loyalty, attract top talent, and strengthen employee morale and commitment.
Crisis management
CSR strategy or behaviors related to CSR was discussed by many scholars in terms of crisis management like responses to boycott in an international context. Ang found that relationship building through providing additional services rather than price-cutting is what businesses in Asia feel more comfortable with as a strategy during an economic crisis. Regarding direct research about strategies in cross-cultural crisis management, scholars found that CSR strategies could make effects through empirical case studies involving multinational businesses in China. They found that meeting local stakeholders' social expectations can mitigate the risk of crises. The strategy utilized by Arla Foods works and has helped the company in regaining most of its lost market share among many countries in the Middle East. Arla Foods founded funding for children with cancer and they donated ambulances to refugees in Lebanon. As Arla Foods did, they tried to contribute to solving social problems of children's access to health care which were local priorities. Other researchers analyzed the case of multinational enterprise strategies under the context of conflicts between Lebanon and Israel. During the conflict, many companies stressed seeking to help the local community. In the post-conflict stage, managers highlighted their philanthropic programs and contributions, in terms of monetary in-kind donations to the refugees or businesses that were directly affected. For example, Citibank has provided monetary assistance to some local businesses affected by the war. Another activity done by a Lebanon company was a fund-raising campaign.
Criticisms and concerns
CSR concerns include its relationship to the purpose of business and the motives for engaging in it.
Nature of business
Milton Friedman and others argued that a corporation's purpose is to maximize returns to its shareholders and that obeying the laws of the jurisdictions within which it operates constitutes socially responsible behavior. Friedman argued each person should be free to spend their own money on social causes if they wished, but that business owners should avoid putting a "tax" on consumers as "unwitting puppets" of socialism by raising prices to support business practices with social goals unrelated to profit.
While some CSR supporters claim that companies practicing CSR, especially in developing countries, are less likely to exploit workers and communities, critics claim that CSR itself imposes outside values on local communities with unpredictable outcomes.
Better governmental regulation and enforcement, rather than voluntary measures, are an alternative to CSR that moves decision-making and resource allocation from public to private bodies. However, critics claim that effective CSR must be voluntary as mandatory social responsibility programs regulated by the government interferes with people's plans and preferences, distorts the allocation of resources, and increases the likelihood of irresponsible decisions.
Motives
Some critics believe that CSR programs are undertaken by companies to distract the public from ethical questions posed by their core operations. They argue that the reputational benefits that CSR companies receive (cited above as a benefit to the corporation) demonstrate the hypocrisy of the approach. Moreover, some studies find that CSR programs are motivated by corporate managers' personal interests at the cost of the shareholders so they are a type of an agency problem in corporations.
Others have argued that the primary purpose of CSR is to provide legitimacy to the power of businesses. As wealth inequality is perceived to be increasing it has become increasingly necessary for businesses to justify their position of power.
Joel Bakan is one of the prominent critics of the conflict of interest between private profit and a public good characterizing corporate officials of publicly listed corporations are constrained by law to maximize the wealth of their shareholders. This argument is summarised by Haynes that "a corporate calculus exists in which costs are pushed onto both workers, consumers and the environment". CSR spending may be seen in these financial terms, whereby the higher costs of socially undesirable behaviour are offset by a CSR spending of a lower amount. Indeed, it has been argued that there is a "halo effect" in terms of CSR spending. Research has found that firms that had been convicted of bribery in the US under the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) received more lenient fines if they had been seen to be actively engaging in comprehensive CSR practices. It was found that typically either a 20% increase in corporate giving or a commitment to eradicating a significant labour issue, such as child labour, was equated to a 40% lower fine in the case of bribing foreign officials.
Aguinis and Glavas conducted a comprehensive review of CSR literature, covering 700 academic sources from numerous fields including organizational behaviour, corporate strategy, marketing, and HRM. It was found that the primary reason for firms to engage in CSR was the expected financial benefits associated with CSR, rather than being motivated by a desire to be responsible to society. Consistent with this analysis, consumers respond less favorably to CSR initiatives that they believe are tainted with self-serving motives".
Ethical ideologies
CEOs' political ideologies are evident manifestations of their different personal views. Each CEO may exercise different powers according to their organizational outcomes. Their political ideologies are expected to influence their preferences for CSR outcomes. Proponents argue that politically liberal CEOs will envision the practice of CSR as beneficial and desirable to increase a firm's reputation. They tend to focus more on how the firm can meet the needs of society. As a consequence, they will advance with the practice of CSR while adding value to the firm. On the other hand, property rights may be more relevant to conservative CEOs. Since conservatives tend to value free markets, individualism, and the call for respect of authority, they will not likely envision this practice as often as those identifying as liberals might.
The financials of the company and the practice of CSR also have a positive relationship. Moreover, the performance of a company tends to influence conservatives more likely than liberals. While not seeing it from the financial performance point of view, liberals tend to hold a view that CSR adds to the business's triple bottom line. For example, when the company is performing well, it will most likely promote CSR. If the company is not performing as expected, they will rather tend to emphasize this practice because it will potentially envision it as a way to add value to the business. In contrast, politically conservative CEOs will tend to support the practice of CSR if they hold a view that it will provide a good return to the financials of the company. In other words, these types of executives tend to not see the outcome of CSR as a value to the company if it does not provide anything in exchange.
Misdirection
There have been unsubstantiated social efforts, ethical claims, and outright greenwashing by some companies that have resulted in increasing consumer cynicism and mistrust. Sometimes companies use CSR to direct public attention away from other, harmful business practices. For example, McDonald's Corporation positioned its association with Ronald McDonald House and other children's charities as CSR while its meals have been accused of promoting poor eating habits.
Acts that may initially appear to be altruistic CSR may have ulterior motives. The funding of scientific research projects has been used as a source of misdirection by firms. Stanley B. Prusiner, who discovered the protein responsible for Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD) and won the 1997 Nobel prize in Medicine, thanked the tobacco company RJ Reynolds for their crucial support. RJ Reynolds funded the research into CJD. Proctor states that "the tobacco industry was the leading funder of research into genetics, viruses, immunology, air pollution", anything which formed a distraction from the well-established research linking smoking and cancer.
Research has also found that corporate social marketing, a form of CSR promoting societal good, is being used to direct criticism away from the damaging practices of the alcohol industry. It has been shown that advertisements that supposedly encourage responsible drinking simultaneously aim to promote drinking as a social norm. Companies may engage in CSR and social marketing, in this case, to prevent more stringent government legislation on alcohol marketing.
Controversial industries
Industries such as tobacco, alcohol, or munitions firms make products that damage their consumers or the environment. Such firms may engage in the same philanthropic activities as those in other industries. This duality complicates assessments of such firms concerning CSR.
Case studies
To fully observe the impact of corporate social responsibility practices on a firm's corporate financial performance, it is important to delve into a concrete example, such as the study conducted by researchers from the Global Conference on Business, Economics, Management, and Tourism. In this study, Mocan, Draghici, Ivascu, and Turi examined the correlation between CSR policies and value creation/financial performance in the banking industry specifically and found that various benefits include greater economic efficiency, improved company reputation, and employee loyalty, better communication streamline between the industry and individuals, and the opportunity to attract new opportunities (i.e. attract new investments, or remain competitive) and improve organizational commitment. However, before discussing these effects, the researchers preceded the analysis by stating that typically implementing CSR and other ethical principles within the framework of a financial institution such as banks make it seem as if these are marketing tools for attracting and communicating with stakeholders rather than serving as tools that afford banks and other financial institutions the opportunity to benefit the individuals that they serve. Another interesting case study is provided by Hein Schreuder (2022), who discusses the evolution of CSR at the Dutch multinational corporation DSM.
Stakeholder influence
One motivation for corporations to adopt CSR is to satisfy stakeholders beyond those of a corporation's shareholders.
Branco and Rodrigues (2007) describe the stakeholder perspective of CSR as the set of views of corporate responsibility held by all groups or constituents with a relationship to the firm. In their normative model, the company accepts these views as long as they do not hinder the organization. The stakeholder perspective fails to acknowledge the complexity of network interactions that can occur in cross-sector partnerships. It relegates communication to a maintenance function, similar to the exchange perspective.
Ethical consumerism
The rise in popularity of ethical consumerism over the last two decades can be linked to the rise of CSR. Consumers are becoming more aware of the environmental and social implications of their day-to-day consumption decisions and in some cases make purchasing decisions related to their environmental and ethical concerns.
One issue with the consumer's relationship with CSR is that it is much more complex than it first appears. This phenomenon could be described as the "CSR-Consumer Paradox" or mismatch that occurs where consumers report that they would only buy from companies with good social responsibility. Many consumers want to buy from responsible companies, but surveys indicate an "ethical purchases" are a small percentage of household expenditures. The discrepancy between consumer beliefs and intentions, and actual consumer behaviour, means CSR has a much lesser impact than consumers initially say it does.
One theory for explaining this discrepancy is the "bystander apathy" or the bystander effect. This theory stems from social psychology and states that the likelihood of an individual acting in a given situation is greatly reduced if other bystanders do nothing even if that individual strongly believes in a certain course of action. It would suggest an "If they do not care then why should I?" mentality. Even if a consumer is against the use of sweatshops or wants to support green causes, they may continue to make purchases from companies that are socially irresponsible just because other consumers seem apathetic towards the issue.
Another explanation is that of reciprocal altruism. In the evolutionary psychology of human behaviour: people only do something if they can get something back in return. In the case of CSR and ethical consumerism, however, consumers get very little in return for their investment. Ethically sourced or manufactured products are typically higher in price due to greater costs. However, the reward for consumers is not much different from that of a non-ethical counterpart. Therefore, evolutionary speaking making an ethical purchase is not worth the higher cost to the individual even if they believe in supporting ethically, environmentally, and socially beneficial causes.
Socially responsible investing
Shareholders and investors, through socially responsible investing (SRI), are using their capital to encourage behavior they consider responsible. However, definitions of what constitutes ethical behavior vary. For example, some religious investors in the US have withdrawn investment from companies that violate their religious views, while secular investors divest from companies that they see as imposing religious views on workers or customers.
Public policies
Some national governments promote socially and environmentally responsible corporate practices. The heightened role of government in CSR has facilitated the development of numerous CSR programs and policies. Various European governments have pushed companies to develop sustainable corporate practices. CSR critics such as Robert Reich argued that governments should set the agenda for social responsibility with laws and regulations that describe how to conduct business responsibly.
Collective bargaining is a way nations promote CSR. In Germany, CSR is kept at the industry level instead of the workplace; this has been viewed as one of the strengths of the German government's push for CPR. Germany also established the German Trade Union Confederation in 1949 to further advance CSR; the confederation represents the interests of 45 million workers in Germany. Job security, wage increases with industry growth are key aspects of collective bargaining in the German labor system.
There is a higher percentage of workers in unions in countries like Sweden and Iceland which have more Social-Democratic elements in their Nordic Model than the U.S. and the U.K.
The U.S. and the U.K are Liberal Market Economies (LMEs) and the German economy falls under Coordinated Market Economy (CMEs) which are Varieties of Capitalism. In comparison with the U.S. that covers 25.5% of its blue and white-collar workforce under collective bargaining and the U.K. that covers 29% of its workforce, Germany covers a significantly higher 57% of its workforce under collective bargaining.
Regulation
Fifteen European Union countries are actively engaged in CSR regulation and public policy development. CSR efforts and policies are different among countries, responding to the complexity and diversity of governmental, corporate, and societal roles. Some studies have claimed that the role and effectiveness of these actors were case-specific. This variety among company approaches to CSR can complicate regulatory processes.
Canada adopted CSR in 2007. Prime Minister Harper encouraged Canadian mining companies to meet Canada's newly developed CSR standards.
The 'Heilbronn Declaration' is a voluntary agreement of enterprises and institutions in Germany especially of the Heilbronn-Franconia region signed on 15 September 2012. The approach of the 'Heilbronn Declaration' targets the decisive factors of success or failure, the achievements of the implementation, and best practices regarding CSR. A form of responsible entrepreneurship shall be initiated to meet the requirements of stakeholders' trust in the economy. It is an approach to make voluntary commitments more binding.
In opposition to mandated CSR regulation, researchers Armstrong and Green suggest that all regulation is "harmful", citing regulation as the cause for North Korea's low economic freedom and per capita GDP. They further claim without source that "There is no form of market failure, however egregious, which is not eventually made worse by the political interventions intended to fix it", and conclude "there is no need for further research on regulation in the name of social responsibility."
Laws
In the 1800s, the US government could take away a firm's license if it acted irresponsibly. Corporations were viewed as "creatures of the state" under the law. In 1819, the United States Supreme Court in Dartmouth College vs. Woodward established a corporation as a legal person in specific contexts. This ruling allowed corporations to be protected under the Constitution and prevented states from regulating firms. Countries have included CSR policies in government agendas.
On 16 December 2008, the Danish parliament adopted a bill making it mandatory for the 1100 largest Danish companies, investors, and state-owned companies to include CSR information in their financial reports. The reporting requirements became effective on 1 January 2009. The required information included:
CSR/SRI policies
How such policies are implemented in practice
Results and management expectations
CSR/SRI is voluntary in Denmark, but if a company has no policy on this it must state its positioning on CSR in financial reports.
In 1995, item S50K of the Income Tax Act of Mauritius mandated that companies registered in Mauritius pay 2% of their annual book profit to contribute to the social and environmental development of the country. In 2014, India also enacted a mandatory minimum CSR spending law. Under Companies Act, 2013, any company having a net worth of 500 crore or more or a turnover of 1,000 crore or a net profit of 5 crore must spend 2% of their net profits on CSR activities. The rules came into effect on 1 April 2014.
The only mandatory CSR Act in the world thus far was passed by the Indian parliament in 2013 as Section 135 of the Companies Act. According to that bill, all firms with a net worth above 5 billion rupees (approx. $75 million), turnover over 10 billion rupees (approx. $150 million), or net profit over 50 million rupees (approx. $750,000) are required to spend at least 2% of their annual profits (averaged over three years). The Act requires that all businesses affected establish a CSR committee to oversee the spending. Before this law's passage, CSR laws applied only to public sector companies.
Unlike global definitions of CSR which are in the triple bottom line, corporate citizenship, sustainable business, business responsibility, and closed-loop realm, in India CSR is a philanthropic activity. What has changed since formalizing it in 2014 is the shift in focus from institution building (schools, hospitals, etc.) to focus on community development.
Crises and their consequences
Crises have encouraged the adoption of CSR. The CERES principles were adopted following the 1989 Exxon Valdez incident. Other examples include the lead paint used by toymaker Mattel, which required the recall of millions of toys and caused the company to initiate new risk management and quality control processes. Magellan Metals was found responsible for lead contamination killing thousands of birds in Australia. The company ceased business immediately and had to work with independent regulatory bodies to execute a cleanup. Odwalla experienced a crisis with sales dropping 90% and its stock price dropping 34% due to cases of E. coli. The company recalled all apple or carrot juice products and introduced a new process called "flash pasteurization", as well as maintaining lines of communication constantly open with customers.
National and regional approaches
Corporations that employ CSR behaviors do not always behave consistently in all parts of the world. Conversely, a single behavior may not be considered ethical in all jurisdictions. E.g., some jurisdictions forbid women from driving, while others require women to be treated equally in employment decisions.
CSR in the European Union
The European Commission presented a green paper for the European Communities, as the EU was then called, "promoting a European framework for Corporate Social Responsibility" in 2001. In that document CSR was defined as By 2011, the Commission recognised a "strategic approach" to CSR as "increasingly important too the competitiveness of enterprises". Believing that enterprises can "significantly contribute to the European Union's treaty objectives of sustainable development and a highly competitive social market economy", therefore presented a revised strategy in October 2011, A renewed EU strategy 2011–14 for Corporate Social Responsibility. In this document, CSR was defined more briefly as In parallel with CSR, the alternative term "responsible business conduct" (RBC) introduced by the OECD (see OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises) was also adopted. No longer treating CSR as a "voluntary" or is some sense "additional" aspect of managing an enterprise, the commission now stated that Actions planned under the 2011–2014 agenda were aimed at:
Enhancing the visibility of CSR and disseminating good practices
Improving and tracking levels of trust in business
Improving self- and co-regulation processes
Enhancing market reward for CSR
Improving company disclosure of social and environmental information
Further integrating CSR into education, training, and research
Emphasising the importance of national and sub-national CSR policies, and
Better aligning European and global approaches to CSR.
Subsequently, the Commission published a staff working document in March 2019 which looks at progress in implementing CSR/RBC and business and human rights.
UK retail sector
A 2006 study found that the UK retail sector showed the greatest rate of CSR involvement. Many of the big retail companies in the UK joined the Ethical Trading Initiative, an association established to improve working conditions and worker health.
Tesco (2013) reported that their 'essentials' are 'Trading responsibility', 'Reducing our Impact on the Environment', 'Being a Great Employer' and 'Supporting Local Communities'. J Sainsbury employs the headings 'Best for food and health', 'Sourcing with integrity', 'Respect for our environment', 'Making a difference to our community', and 'A great place to work', etc. The four main issues to which UK retail companies are committed: environment, social welfare, ethical trading, and becoming an attractive workplace.
Anselmsson and Johansson (2007) assessed three areas of CSR performance: human responsibility, product responsibility, and environmental responsibility. Martinuzzi et al. described the terms, writing that human responsibility is "the company deals with suppliers who adhere to principles of natural and good breeding and farming of animals, and also maintains fair and positive working conditions and workplace environments for their employees. Product responsibility means that all products come with a full and complete list of content, that country of origin is stated, that the company will uphold its declarations of intent and assume liability for its products. Environmental responsibility means that a company is perceived to produce environmental-friendly, ecological, and non-harmful products". Jones et al. (2005) found that environmental issues are the most commonly reported CSR programs among top retailers.
CSR and US corporations updates
An article published in Forbes.com in September 2017 mentioned the yearly study of Boston-based reputation management consulting company Reputation Institute (RI) which rates the top 10 US corporations in terms of corporate social responsibility. RI monitors social responsibility reputations by focusing on the perception of consumers regarding company governance, positive impact on the community and society, and treatment of the workforce. It rates each criterion with the firm's proprietary RepTrak Pulse platform. Forbes identified companies like Lego, Microsoft, Google, Walt Disney Company, BMW Group, Intel, Robert Bosch, Cisco Systems, Rolls-Royce Aerospace, and Colgate-Palmolive.
According to the CSR Journal, the millennial generation worldwide helps propel brands toward social responsibility. Many millennials want to conduct business with companies and trademarks that employ pro-social themes, sustainable manufacturing processes, and ethical business practices. Nielsen Holdings published its Annual Global Corporate Sustainability Report in 2017 concentrating on global responsibility as well as sustainability. Nielsen's 2015 report showed that 66 percent of consumers will spend more on products that come from sustainable brands. Another 81 percent expect their preferred corporate institutions to reveal in public their statements about corporate citizenship
The National Association on the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) through its chief executive officer Derrick Johnson shared the organization's insights on how American corporations can help in the realization of social justice. According to the article from Yahoo News, the NAACP has been engaged in a crusade for racial justice and economic opportunities during the last 109 years. This organization believes all citizens in the United States must be held liable in ensuring democracy works for all people.
CSR and the Indian Perspective
From an Indian perspective, 'Corporate Social Responsibility' is not just about how an organization distributes its profits, but is also about how an organization generates its revenue. ‘Corporate Social Responsibility’ is defined as the ethos and practice of discovering, invoking, infusing, evoking and radiating the human values of 'Righteousness' (Dharma) and 'Love' (Prema) in an organisation’s interactions with its stakeholders. Stakeholders, in this definition, refers to the organisation’s customers, employees, shareholders, society, natural environment, business associates, regulatory agencies, future generations, etc..
Texts
United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (2011)
OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises (2011)
See also
References
Notes
Sources
Books
Journals and magazines
Web
External links
Corporate Social Responsibility in India Magazine
Applied ethics
Branding terminology
Codes of conduct
Concepts in ethics
Ethical codes
Ethical investment
Euthenics
Economy and the environment
Law of obligations
Professional ethics
Social ethics
Social finance
Social concepts
Articles containing video clips
Private aid programs
Management cybernetics
Industrial and organizational psychology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellfire%20Club%20%28comics%29
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Hellfire Club (comics)
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The Hellfire Club is a fictional society appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The Hellfire Club often comes into confrontation with the mutant superhero team, the X-Men. Although the Club appears to merely be an international social club for wealthy elites, its clandestine Inner Circle seeks to influence world events, in accordance with their own agenda.
The Hellfire Club was created in 1980 by the Uncanny X-Men writer/artist duo of Chris Claremont and John Byrne, who were heavily influenced by a 1966 episode of the British television series The Avengers ("A Touch of Brimstone"). The name "Hellfire Club" in fact has a historical precedent, having been a popular name for gentlemen's clubs in the 18th century. Additionally, the hierarchy of the Inner Circle is modeled on the pieces of a chess set, with Black and White sets of Kings, Queens, Bishops and Rooks.
The Hellfire Club and its Inner Circle were introduced in "The Dark Phoenix Saga", attempting to subvert the X-Men's Jean Grey. This incarnation, composed most notably of Black King Sebastian Shaw and White Queen Emma Frost, would remain prominent for many years. After their initial confrontations, the Hellfire Club and the X-Men settled into an uneasy alliance. This eventually changed as endless power struggles perpetuated a series of upheavals within the Inner Circle. The club has appeared in two X-Men animated series (X-Men: The Animated Series and Wolverine and the X-Men), both times being renamed as simply The Inner Circle, due to the aversion of using the term "hellfire" in a children's cartoon. Members of the Hellfire Club appeared in 2011's X-Men: First Class as the main villains, led by Sebastian Shaw, Emma Frost, Azazel and Riptide. The Hellfire Club’s Inner Circle also appear as the main antagonists of the second season of the television series The Gifted led by a character named Reeva Payge played by Grace Byers, and the Frost sisters played by Skyler Samuels.
Publication history
In creating the Hellfire Club, Uncanny X-Men writer Chris Claremont and artist/co-writer John Byrne drew heavily upon a 1966 episode of the British spy series The Avengers entitled "A Touch of Brimstone". In the episode, agents John Steed and Emma Peel attempt to infiltrate a secret society named after the Hellfire Club of the 18th century, whose members of the "Inner Circle" all wear period costumes. Emma Peel's guise as "the Queen of Sin", dressed in a black leather corset, would be the model for the Club's Queens, her first name even borrowed for White Queen Emma Frost. The leader of the episode's club was played by actor Peter Wyngarde, best known for his role as Jason King, forming the basis for Mastermind's new "Jason Wyngarde" identity.
Claremont and Byrne similarly drew the names and faces of the other Hellfire Club members from famous actors: Sebastian Shaw was based on actor Robert Shaw, Harry Leland on Orson Welles (who acted as Harry Lime in The Third Man and whose film Citizen Kane featured a reporter named Jed Leland), and Donald Pierce was based on Donald Sutherland (the surname referencing his Hawkeye Pierce character from M*A*S*H).
Later writers would further the references to The Avengers: Sir Patrick and Lady Diana, from the Philadelphia branch of the 1780s, are named after actors Patrick Macnee (John Steed) and Diana Rigg (Mrs. Emma Peel); conversely, the Black Queen of the London branch was revealed to be named Ms. Emma Steed.
Overview
The Hellfire Club counts among its members the most famous, wealthy, and influential members of society. Membership is passed on to descendants, and can also be earned through wealth or influence. While many accept the invitation simply for the pleasures that the Club offers, others seek wealth and influence. In fact, the purpose of the Hellfire Club is to obtain and exert power through politics and economic influence instead of outward conquest and domination. Since its foundation, the Hellfire Club has been involved in wars and assassinations to further the agendas of the Club's most powerful members.
The Club has branches in New York City, London, Hong Kong, and Paris; the various branches are all overseen by the Lord Imperial (a position long-held by Sir Gordon Phillips). Unbeknownst to most members is the Club's Inner Circle. Originally known as the Council of the Chosen, this secret group formed around Edward "Ned" Buckman, each member assuming the titles of the major chess pieces. As White King, Buckman financed Stephen Lang's revived Sentinel program with the assistance of probationary member Sebastian Shaw. Shaw, now Black Bishop, began securing allies within the Club, meeting Harry Leland, Emma Frost, and Donald Pierce, as well as his loyal assistant, Tessa. Buckman, no longer having a use for the dangerously-ambitious Shaw, ordered a Sentinel attack on Shaw and his allies, resulting in the death of Shaw's lover, Lourdes Chantel. That night, Shaw and Emma Frost purged the entire Council of the Chosen, remaking it as the Lords Cardinal and appointing themselves Black King and White Queen.
Shaw's Inner Circle soon turned their attentions to the X-Men, kidnapping several of their number. Mastermind, as Jason Wyngarde, was made a probationary member pending his subversion of the X-Men's Jean Grey. Jean Grey was in fact the Phoenix, a god-like cosmic entity who became unstable after Mastermind's psychic manipulations, turning into the Dark Phoenix. The Hellfire Club had failed, and the X-Men had taken their toll: Phoenix had driven Mastermind insane, Colossus had crippled Donald Pierce and Wolverine nearly killed Harry Leland and several guards.
Despite such setbacks, the Inner Circle continued to pursue its agenda. Shaw, using his connections to Senator Robert Kelly to initiate Project: Wideawake, secured a government contract for Shaw Industries to manufacture Sentinels, profiting from the state of fear concerning the "mutant menace" despite secretly being a mutant himself. Frost meanwhile ran the Massachusetts Academy, a prestigious preparatory school affiliated with the Hellfire Club that secretly trained a team of young mutants, known as the Hellions. The Inner Circle also underwent some personnel changes, notably the expulsion of Donald Pierce for conspiring against his mutant colleagues, and the addition of Selene as Black Queen.
Although the hierarchy of the Inner Circle goes through constant upheaval due to the competing egos and political motives of its members, it continues to exist in the same basic structure today.
Magneto briefly took the title of Grey King after Sebastian Shaw was voted out of the Inner Circle, and with Emma Frost he began plotting against Black Queen Selene, having planted Hellion Empath into Nova Roma via his relationship with New Mutant Magma prior to ousting Shaw. However, when Magneto discovered the X-Man Rogue alive and well in the Savage Land (where Magneto was visiting), Magneto abandoned the Hellfire Club and ultimately went into exile when he was rejected by Rogue when he murdered the Savage Land priestess Zaladane. Meanwhile, Emma Frost attempted to force former Hellion Firestar to rejoin the Hellions but was rebuked by Firestar and her new teammates in the New Warriors.
Disjointed, Selene exploited the chaos to launch a pre-emptive strike to slaughter the Lord Cardinals with aid from a group of young mutant "Upstarts" who were loyal to Selene. Points for each kill were awarded by the Gamesmaster and Magneto, Shaw, Pierce, and Frost were all targeted, before Selene herself was betrayed by Trevor Fritzroy and Gamemaster. During this time the Inner Circle of the London branch was working behind the American branch's back and was influencing Parliament and the secret government agency Black Air. Captain Britain (Brian Braddock) held a position for a short term on Shinobi Shaw's advisement to investigate its activities as they had mutual objectives. Excalibur collected evidence of their crimes and the Inner Circle was either arrested or went into hiding.
The Upstarts' uprising was quashed by Sebastian Shaw. He reinstated some of the old Inner Circle until he disbanded it due to his own invested interest in business pursuits. The Club still continued loosely partly due to Selene's influence, although it never had the same prestige as the original.
Sebastian Shaw again reformed a variation of the original Inner Circle with a nobler outlook posing as a force for good, which may have been a deception on his part. Tessa/Sage rejoined the Inner Circle to observe this and to assist Roberto da Costa's usurping the position of Lord Imperial which Shaw had claimed.
The Hellfire Club was next under the leadership of Roberto da Costa as the Lord Imperial aided by Sage. Sat-Yr-9 (under the guise of Courtney Ross) as the new White Queen, aided by her assassin Viper, her "Warrior White Princess". As with many members in the past, both Sat-Yr-9 and Viper have their own personal agendas.
Following M-Day, Sunspot remains as Lord Imperial, while Shaw resumes his activities, though under Sunspot's close watch. While Sat-Yr-9's whereabouts remain unknown, Viper returns to Madripoor to oversee HYDRA operations and Sage became a member of the short-lived New Excalibur, only to end up as one of the Exiles.
When the X-Men and many other powered or depowered mutants came to San Francisco, an offshoot of the Club, known as the Hellfire Cult, begins attacking mutants and "species traitors". Officially, their leadership appears to be Empath, but the real power behind the scenes is the mysterious Red Queen. Their activities draw the attention of the X-Men.
Kade Kilgore later took control of the Hellfire Club. Kilgore founded the Hellfire Academy where he recruited mutant outlaws as its faculty and started looking for students to attend this school. The Hellfire Academy serves as the direct opponent for the Jean Grey School for Higher Learning.
Organization
Lord Imperial
The Lord Imperial is not a member of the Inner Circle or any particular branch of the Hellfire Club; the Lord Imperial is the true leader of the Hellfire Club and oversees all branches of it. As such, only a few individuals have held the title. Sir Gordon Phillips, while unknown at the time, ruled as Lord Imperial for most of the club's modern history, holding the position from before the club's introduction until his death: killed by Sabertooth on a cruise ship filled with humans infected with the Legacy Virus.
Sir Gordon Phillips
Elias Bogan
Sebastian Shaw
Roberto da Costa (Sunspot)
Inner Circle
The constant intrigue, backstabbing, blackmailing and politicking that plague the Hellfire Club have resulted in many changes of the Inner Circle, as new players seek out membership in order to obtain influence, power and wealth. The following lists the membership of each incarnation of the Inner Circle and the title they held; in descending order of rank are Kings and Queens, followed by Bishops and Rooks.
The Council of the Chosen
The original Inner Circle (existing prior to the club's introduction) consisted of:
Edward "Ned" Buckman - White King
Paris Seville - White Queen
Sebastian Shaw - Black Bishop
Sebastian Shaw was instrumental in the Hellfire Club's funding of Stephen Lang's resurrected Sentinel program, but having completed his purpose, White King Ned Buckman sought to eliminate the ambitious Black Bishop. After a Sentinel attack on Shaw's beach house resulted in the death of his lover, Lourdes Chantel, Shaw and his ally Emma Frost purged the entire Council in one night and appointed themselves its Black King and White Queen.
The Lords Cardinal
Shaw renamed The Council of the Chosen as The Lords Cardinal following his takeover of the New York branch, and appointed a number of allies to key positions. Frost began running the Massachusetts Academy at this time. Jason Wyngarde, also known as Mastermind, later became a probationary member pending his subversion of the X-Men's Jean Grey into the Club's Black Queen.
Sebastian Shaw - Black King
Emma Frost - White Queen
Donald Pierce - White Bishop
Harry Leland - Black Bishop
Jason Wyngarde (Mastermind) - A probationary member who was presumably intended for one of the two Rooks.
Phoenix (posing as Jean Grey) - Black Queen
Tessa - Shaw's personal aide.
Warhawk - Associate of the Hellfire Club.
Following Mastermind's failed subversion of Jean Grey, the title of Black Queen was once again empty. Donald Pierce reached the rank of White King but was later expelled for conspiring against his mutant colleagues. New members appointed during this period were:
Selene: - Black Queen
Friedrich Von Roehm - Black Rook
Emmanuel da Costa - White Rook
A truce between the Hellfire Club and the X-Men began after an encounter with Nimrod resulted in the deaths of Leland and von Roehm. This truce soon grew into a formal alliance as Storm and Magneto, as the leaders of the X-Men and Xavier's school respectively, took over the shared position of White King.
Storm - White King (with Magneto)
Magneto - White King, later Grey King
Storm and the X-Men would later seemingly die, leaving Magneto alone to deal with the Inner Circle. After a protracted power struggle, Magneto turned Emma Frost and Selene against Shaw and expelled him from Inner Circle, assuming both mantles as the new Grey King. Magneto, while never formally resigning, would soon withdraw from the club, after relocating to Savage Land to deal with the threat of the villainess Zaladane. Meanwhile, Selene would turn against Frost and Magneto after learning that the two had sent Empath (one of Emma's students) to Selene's Amazon fortress Nova Roma in order to subvert Selene's granddaughter Magma. Selene would create "The Upstarts", a group of young and wealthy mutants who replace the Hellfire Club. Organizing a "game" where whichever member killed the most Hellfire Club members would rule the group, Emma Frost's students in the Hellfire Club were slaughtered by Trevor Fitzroy and Emma herself put into a coma. Fitzroy also "killed" Donald Pierce and his Reavers. Magneto meanwhile, having relocated to Asteroid M, invited a young healer named Fabian Cortez and his group known as the Acolytes to stay with him. Cortez (whose power was to boost other mutants abilities) manipulated Magneto into declaring war upon the X-Men and ultimately hijacked control over a SHIELD orbital weapons platform, to blow up Asteroid M, seemingly killing Magneto. Sebastian Shaw would be "killed" by Shinobi Shaw, a young mutant who was fathered by Harry Leland but raised by Sebastian as his son. In retaliation, Empath used his powers to manipulate all of Nova Roma (including Magma) into thinking they were kidnapped victims of Selene's, who had been manipulated due to her mind control powers, into thinking they were citizens of an ancient, long lost Roman settlement in South America. Selene however, would soon fall prey to her new allies own wrath as Trevor Fitzroy and Selene's ally, the Gamemaster, turned against her and allowed Gamemaster to take control over the Upstarts.
White Rook Emmanuel da Costa was also killed around this period, though his death was unrelated to the agenda of the Upstarts. A group of immortal mutants known as the Externals, became aware of a prophecy that one of the New Mutants was destined to play a major role in the salvation of the planet. The prophecy referenced two New Mutants in particular, de Costa's son Sunspot and the New Mutant Cannonball, one of which potentially possessed the secondary mutation of immortality and the destiny of savior of mutantkind. As Cable infiltrated the New Mutants under the notion that Cannonball was to be the immortal messiah, the External's leader Gideon sought to corrupt Sunspot, who was the messiah promised in the prophecy. Already a family friend, Gideon had de Costa's secretary poison the White Rook in order to force his super-hero son to leave the New Mutants and take leadership of his family's company. When Cannonball survived a near fatal impaling (which Cable mistook as being the result of his being immortal), Gideon turned on Sunspot who was ultimately rescued by X-Force.
With exception of de Costa; all of the Hellfire Club Lord Cardinals killed by the Upstarts, later recovered. Sebastian Shaw faked his death, as did Magneto. Donald Pierce was rebuilt by Stryfe along with the rest of the Reavers, while Emma Frost recovered from her coma and repented her evil ways.
Shinobi Shaw's Upstart Inner Circle
Selene had originally planned on creating a new Inner Circle with the help of the Upstarts - among them Shinobi Shaw, son of Sebastian Shaw - but they betrayed and imprisoned her. Believing to have successfully assassinated his father, Shinobi Shaw briefly took over the New York branch of the Club, seemingly with support from the External Candra. He offered membership in his Inner Circle to Archangel, Storm, and Sunspot (also known as Roberto da Costa, son of former White Rook Emmanuel da Costa), but all declined.
Shinobi Shaw - Black King
Benedict Kine - White King
Benazir Kaur - White Queen
Reeva Payge - Black Queen
Candra - Associate
Cordelia Frost - Probationary member
Ebon Knights - Shinobi Shaw's Black Guard
Ivory Knights - Benedict Kine's White Guard
The titles of Payge and Kaur are not established. When Cordelia Frost (younger sister of Emma) applies for membership to the Inner Circle, Shinobi states that the title of White Queen is already taken.
Shinobi Shaw's actions as Black King were limited to failed attempts at extending his influence and monitoring the London branch of the Club.
The London Branch
The Hellfire Club's London branch is introduced briefly operating parallel to Shinobi's Inner Circle. Instead of Black and White, the titles of the London Inner Circle are designated Black and Red.
Emma Steed - Black Queen
Margali Szardos - Red Queen
Quentin Templeton - Black King
Alan Wilson - Red King
Brian Braddock (Captain Britain) - Black Bishop
Conrad Strathdee - Red Bishop
Jane Hampshire (possessed by Mountjoy) - Red Rook
Rutledge - Servant
Captain Britain, having inherited club membership from his father, Sir James Braddock, was asked by Shinobi Shaw to infiltrate the London Inner Circle, as the branch's mysterious agenda surely ran counter to both their interests. The London Branch and their plans were soon brought to an end after a failed attempt to use a demon's essence to control the city. The Black Queen and Red King were taken into police custody.
Shaw's Second Circle
Sebastian Shaw, despite his apparent death, later re-emerged and retook control of the Hellfire Club in attempt to restore its former power and glory. Selene, freed from her imprisonment by the Upstarts, took under her influence a resurrected Madelyne Pryor in her quest for revenge. Shaw meanwhile attempted to ally with the AOA-exile Holocaust. Meeting in New York, Shaw proposes a reformation of the Inner Circle with the following line-up: At first operating in secret from outside the Hellfire Club (still under Shinobi Shaw's control), Sebastian's group soon reasserted control over the organization.
Sebastian Shaw - Black King
Selene - Black Queen
Trevor Fitzroy - White Rook
Madelyne Pryor - Red Queen
Donald Pierce - Applicant for White Bishop
Tessa - Shaw's personal aide
Ella - Selene's personal servant
Holocaust - Associate
Miss Hoo - Associate
Selene's mind control over Madelyne Pryor eventually waned, and the Black Rook's allegiance soon turned to Sebastian Shaw. Concerned, Selene contacted Fitzroy and Tessa to counteract the changing balance of power. Donald Pierce returned to the Hellfire Club as a probationary member, however his failure in attaining the alien technology of Apocalypse resulted in his expulsion from the group. Pryor meanwhile had betrayed and deserted the club. Shaw, presented with a mysterious offer, decided to accept its terms and resign from the Inner Circle, advising Fitzroy to do the same.
Selene's Hellfire Club
Selene, finding herself the sole remaining member of the Inner Circle, reformed the club in her own image and allied with the ruler of Hell, Blackheart. After a confrontation with the Fantastic Four, Blackheart is imprisoned and Selene's captive Daimon Hellstrom is freed; Hellstorm then became the club's White King to ensure a balance of power and light. Selene would later successfully induct Sunspot (Roberto da Costa, son of former Black Rook Emmanuel da Costa) into the Inner Circle, offering the resurrection of his long-dead girlfriend, Julianna, who died saving his life.
Selene - Black Queen
Blackheart - Black King
Daimon Hellstrom - White King
Roberto da Costa (Sunspot) - Black Rook
It is unknown what led to the dissolution of this incarnation. The Hellfire Club was found closed and abandoned, covered in blackbriar thorns; Selene herself was trapped inside the mansion, unable to leave.
The Fifth Inner Circle
After the death of Sir Gordon Phillips at the hands of the Brotherhood of Mutants, Sebastian Shaw positioned himself as the new Lord Imperial and, as such, oversaw the entire Hellfire Club.
Sebastian Shaw - Lord Imperial
Roberto da Costa (Sunspot) - Black King
Selene - Black Queen
Sat-Yr-9 (as Courtney Ross) - White Queen
Viper - White Warrior Princess
Tessa - Shaw's personal aide and Sunspot's personal adviser.
Red Lotus - Associate
Selene, despite remaining imprisoned underneath the Hellfire Club's New York mansion and not actively participating in the Inner Circle, has apparently retained her title of Black Queen. It was also revealed that Emma Frost, despite having left the club long ago and having since joined the X-Men, still retained her membership and White Queen title. Sat-Yr-9 confronts Emma Frost and, assuming her title, becomes the newest addition to the Inner Circle, bringing with her bodyguard and self-appointed "White Warrior Princess" Viper.
A confrontation with Donald Pierce leaves Sebastian Shaw gravely injured, and Sunspot takes over as Lord Imperial, which was Tessa's plan all along. Tessa left the Club, still under Sunspot's rule, and joined New Excalibur in the wake of M-Day. Shaw has since returned as the Black King, seemingly plotting to rebuild his power base.
During the same period, Sat-Yr-9 sends Viper to command an attack on Zanzibar, which she does with the help of the piratical militia the Weaponeers. However, Viper is betrayed by the Weaponeers and makes a truce with mutants from the rebuilding nation of Genosha against her former allies.
Nova's Inner Circle
Emma Frost
Sebastian Shaw
Perfection
Cassandra Nova
Negasonic Teenage Warhead
A mysterious new Inner Circle emerged in the pages of 'Astonishing X-Men' vol. 3. Members of this version were never given titles since they were revealed to be psionic projections created by Emma Frost at the behest of Cassandra Nova. In an attempt to free herself the X-Men, Cassandra had placed a portion of her consciousness in Frost's prior to being mentally imprisoned and launched an assault on the X-Mansion by using Emma as a Trojan horse. Other than Cassandra Nova, each member appears to represent a different aspect of Emma's past with Negasonic Teenage Warhead being a former student of hers who died in Genosha; Perfection, a manifestation of Emma's younger, evil self and Sebastian Shaw representing her time with the Hellfire Club.
Selene's second Inner Circle
Selene, finding herself once again the sole remaining member of the Inner Circle, and disappointed by the many betrayals from Sebastian Shaw and his Hellfire Club, decided it was time to rise to goddesshood, a state she believed she was destined for. To accomplish that, she specifically recruited a Coven of deadly mutants to seek revenge against all those that had betrayed her or stood in her way in the past. Together they went to the New York branch of the Hellfire Club, where she cut all ties with them by using her new Inner Circle to slaughter every person there. This Inner Circle was made up of mostly by mutants whose abilities were designed for killing. Membership consisted of:
Blink
Senyaka
Mortis
Wither
Eli Bard - only non-mutant member. Turned into a vampire-like creature by Selene.
The Sixth Inner Circle
Sebastian Shaw's Inner Circle eventually reemerged. Wolverine came into confrontation with a new "Inner Circle", under the false impression (by Sebastian Shaw and "Miss Sinister") that they are behind the kidnapping of his son, Daken.
Sebastian Shaw
Claudine Renko (Miss Sinister)
Mr. Castlemere
Turner
Peter Scholl (Leonine)
Mercedes
The Seventh Inner Circle
In the event "Schism", there has apparently been a pro-human coup in the Hellfire Club, all mutant members have been removed, and 12-year-old supergenius Kade Kilgore has been named the new Black King. Kilgore then called together a cabal of prepubescent geniuses to secretly rule the Hellfire Club and eradicate mutantkind, then proceeding to poison the other remaining Hellfire Club members, making them the sole leadership. Kade Kilgore later had a change of heart and began recruiting mutants to his side to train the newly manifested mutants at the Hellfire Academy. The Hellfire Academy is destroyed by the staff of the Jean Grey School.
Kade Kilgore - Black King. A twelve-year-old sociopath who is also the leader of the group.
Doctor Maximilian Frankenstein (formerly Baron Maximilian von Katzenelnbogen) - Black Bishop. Descendant of Victor Frankenstein. He was responsible for creating the Krakoa that the X-Men befriended and the Krakoas that defended the unnamed island where the Hellfire Academy is located.
Manuel Enduque - White King. He is well-versed in weaponry with his family reportedly being a dynasty of slavers in Africa with Manuel having strangled his own father to death, thus resulting in him taking control of the business.
Wilhemina Kensington - White Queen. She is an eleven year old with a love of martial arts and beauty pageants who inherited the company after her mother died. She is also both psychopathic and sociopathic, having killed human guards and alien warriors and is also alleged to have mutilated both cats and penguins.
Associates:
Sabretooth
Ezekiel Stane
Kid Blackheart
Cordelia Frost
Szandor Shaw
Kevin Krask
Kenneth Krask
Wolfgang von Roehm
The Eighth Inner Circle
Sebastian Shaw has since regained control of the Hellfire Club and in an attempt to restore its former power and glory, decided to ally himself with Magneto and his X-Men branch to form a new Inner Circle.
Sebastian Shaw - Black King
Briar Raleigh - Black Bishop - Magneto's former associate and the only non-mutant within the Inner Circle
Monet St. Croix - White Queen
Black Tom Cassidy - White Bishop
The Ninth Inner Circle
Eventually Emma Frost decided to rid of Shaw, by spiking his wine with a paralytic agent she made sure there was no way for him to release his body's absorbed energies which overloaded his Mothervine-induced secondary mutation, resulting in his death. She then reformed the Inner Circle in her image and using Vanisher as her personal transportation, she worked behind the scenes to get the X-Men to handle certain affairs.
Black King: Emma Frost
White King: Mystique
Black Bishop: Elixir
White Bishop: Marrow
The Tenth Inner Circle
With mutants congregating on Krakoa, Kade Kilgore is able to retake control of the Hellfire Club branch in New York City. Opting later to rename themselves as "Homines Verendi", a Latin name which roughly translates to "man must be revered and feared", Kade and his group (Maximilian Frankenstein, Manuel Enduque and Wilhemina Kensington) recruited Taiwanese millionaire and anti-mutant activist, Chen Zhao and stands poised ready to tear down the new age of mutantkind as they are involved in the Krakoans' problems.
With each of the founding members already in possession of massive fortunes, they succeeded in taking over Madripoor, an island in Southeast Asia, and are using it as its base of power. While it is unknown whether or not the royal family of Madripoor has been detained, fled or simply murdered, it's clear that the lawless island is no longer a safe haven for mutants. Once used as a base of operations for the X-Man Wolverine while using the alias “Patch,” Madripoor has now degenerated into a country that is openly hostile toward mutants and has even gone so far as to offer its citizens payment for killing mutants. It's almost become a dark reflection of Krakoa and everything that it stands for and recruited long-time X-Men foe Donald Pierce to act as Madripoor’s official representative to the United Nations.
They also secretly aid Hellfire Club member Sebastian Shaw in the murder of Kitty Pryde. Shaw paid Verendi to participate in his scheme to get Kitty alone on Verendi's ship so that he could ensnare her in Krakoan vines and sink her with the ship.
Kade Kilgore - Black King
Manuel Enduque - White King
Chen Zhao - White Bishop
Maximillian Frankenstein - Black Bishop
X-Cutioner
Donald Pierce
Hate-Monger
Yellowjacket/Darren Cross
Members
The following characters are members of the Hellfire Club, many of them being extremely influential, but were not part of any of the Inner Circle incarnations mentioned above. Membership is either hereditary, or obtained through personal invitation from the branch's King. Known members include:
Warren Worthington Jr. and Kathryn Worthington (both deceased) - invited by Ned Buckman
Howard Stark (deceased) - invited by Ned Buckman
Sir James Braddock (deceased) - invited by Ned Buckman, former Black Bishop of the London Branch, left the Inner Circle when his inventions were used for anti-mutant purposes.
Senator Robert Kelly (deceased)
Warren Worthington III (Angel) - inherited membership from his father.
Candace "Candy" Southern (deceased)
Elizabeth Braddock (Psylocke) - inherited membership.
James Braddock Jr. - inherited membership.
Berhard Van Ostamgen - failed entry into Inner Circle
Ronald Parvenue
Dwayne Taylor (Night Thrasher) (deceased)
Anthony Stark (Iron Man) - inherited membership from his father
Norman Osborn (Green Goblin)
Bianca LeNeige
Vance Astrovik
Oliver Ryland - Elias Bogan's protégé
The Kingmaker
Rachel Summers - White Warrior Princess, invited by Emma Frost
Lady Jacqueline Falsworth-Crichton - inherited membership
Angus Munroe - deceased
Past members
Philadelphia, 1780/81: Sir Patrick Clemens (King title), Lady Diana Knight (Queen title), Lady Grey (Queen title), Elizabeth Shaw-Worthington, Major General Wallace Worthington, Commander Clinton
London, 1859: Lord Braddock, Mr. Shaw (Sebastian Shaw's great-grandfather and Cornelius Shaw's father)
Boston, 1872/74: Anton Pierce (Member of the Inner Circle)
London, 1915: Brigadier-General Cornelius Shaw, Sir Harry Manners, Waltham Pierce
In Runaways #10, Emma Frost tells Cyclops that the Hellfire Club had once reached out for the Hayeses, though the attempt went awry because the Hayeses were "sadistic monsters".
Staff
The Hellfire Club has employed a large number of mostly-anonymous armed guards. A few have been named:
Wade Cole
Angelo Macon
Murray Reese
Samuel Guthrie (Cannonball)
Richard Salmons
Randall Chase
Chet Andrews
Cole, Macon and Reese were savagely wounded by Wolverine in the Hellfire Club's first confrontation with the X-Men. They would return to duty as cyborgs before leaving the Club to join Lady Deathstrike in seeking revenge against Wolverine, eventually joining the Reavers. Sam Guthrie worked as a Hellfire guard for a brief period before joining the New Mutants as Cannonball. Kade Kilgore also recruited two survivors of private military company Blackguard, who were augmented with adamantium skeletons, and laser claws as his personal bodyguards.
The Hellfire Club also employs a number of servants, escorts and strippers. Sharon Kelly was a waitress at the New York branch who was chosen by Sebastian Shaw to seduce Senator Robert Kelly. The couple quickly married, but soon afterwards Sharon was killed in a battle involving the X-Men, further fueling her husband's hatred for mutants.
Massachusetts Academy
The Hellfire Club was aligned with the prestigious prep school the Massachusetts Academy, run by White Queen Emma Frost, for a number of years. In addition to its large, traditional, student body, the Academy secretly trained a team of young mutants known as the Hellions. Due to their affiliation with the Club, the Hellions were often present at its social functions. This group would entertain a rivalry with Professor Charles Xavier's students at the time, the New Mutants.
After the death of the Hellions in an attack orchestrated by the Upstarts, Emma Frost left the Hellfire Club. Re-aligning herself with Professor Xavier, the Massachusetts Academy became the new site for Xavier's School for Gifted Youngsters and a new class, known as Generation X.
Hellfire Academy
The seventh incarnation of the Hellfire Club have since founded the Hellfire Academy, a rival to the Jean Grey School for Higher Learning. It is located on an unnamed island. According to Kade Kilgore, the purpose of recruiting newly empowered mutants is to train them to be supervillains so he can then profit from the fear generated by them through his Sentinel program. Staff outside the Hellfire Club's leadership include:
Mystique - Headmistress who also teaches Intro to Evil. Joined in Wolverine and the X-Men #20.
Sabretooth - Headmaster. Joined in Wolverine and the X-Men #3.
Dog Logan - Brother of Wolverine. He teaches physical education. Joined in Wolverine and the X-Men #29.
Dr. Xanto Starblood - Self-proclaimed Extreme Zoologist who teaches Xenobiology. Joined in Wolverine and the X-Men #30
Husk - Former X-Man. She is the lunch lady and librarian. Joined sometime after Wolverine and the X-Men #19.; later rejoined X-Men
Lord Deathstrike - Brother of Lady Deathstrike who works as a recruited resourcer. Joined in Wolverine and the X-Men #20.
Master Pandemonium - He teaches Hell Literature. Joined in Wolverine and the X-Men #20.
Madame Mondo - Female member of the Spinless Ones from the Mojoverse. She works as the Public Relations teacher. Joined in Wolverine and the X-Men #20.
Sauron - He works as a science teacher. Joined in Wolverine and the X-Men #20.
Silver Samurai -The son of the original Silver Samurai who works as a designer. Joined in Wolverine and the X-Men #20.
The Philistine - Joined in Wolverine and the X-Men #20.
Toad - Joined in Wolverine and the X-Men #30.; left in Wolverine and the X-Men #33; later rejoined X-Men
Wendigo - He works as a Danger Room Instructor. Joined in Wolverine and the X-Men #20.
The students of the Hellfire Academy include:
Broo - Joined in Wolverine and the X-Men #30; later rejoined X-Men
Glob Herman - Joined prior to Wolverine and the X-Men #18
Infestation - Joined in Wolverine and the X-Men #31
Mudbug - Joined in Wolverine and the X-Men #20
Oya - Joined in Wolverine and the X-Men #29; left in Wolverine and the X-Men #33; later rejoined X-Men
Kid Omega - Joined in Wolverine and the X-Men #30; left in Wolverine and the X-Men #32; later rejoined X-Men
Snot - Joined in Wolverine and the X-Men #31
Tin Man - Joined in X-Men vol. 3 #41
Hellfire Trading Company
In the wake of the establishment of the mutant nation of Krakoa in the 2019 series House of X and Powers of X, Emma Frost reforms the Club and reorganized it into the Hellfire Trading Company, the distribution arm for the Krakoan drugs produced by the mutant nation-state. Sailing out of Hellfire Bay, its ships the Marauder, the Upstart and the Mercury perform public delivery of mutant goods, while also smuggling the drugs illicitly and freeing mutants from unfriendly nations. The company is run by a new Inner Circle which is compose of a triple dynasty of black, white and red Hellfire royalty.
White Palace
White Queen: Stepford Cuckoos: Emma Frost (formerly)
White Bishop: Christian Frost
White Knight: Callisto
Blackstone
Black Queen: Lourdes Chantel; Sebastian Shaw (formerly Black King)
Black Bishop: Shinobi Shaw
Black Knights: Andrea and Andreas Strucker
Red Keep
Red Queen: Katherine Pryde
Red Bishop: Lucas Bishop
Other versions
Age of Apocalypse
In the alternate universe known as the Age of Apocalypse, the Hellfire Club was not active and was possibly decimated by the forces of Apocalypse. Its closest counterpart was Heaven, Warren Worthington III's nightclub that formed a neutral zone from the genetic conflict that boiled outside. Sebastian Shaw meanwhile served as a member of Apocalypse's court. Donald Pierce also became a servant of Apocalypse, and lead the techno-organic-infected Reavers. On the other side of the conflict, Emma Frost served as part of the Human High Council, having been stripped of her powers through a lobotomy. Jason Wyngarde, a victim of the Sugar Man's genetic experiments, had become one of Forge's Outcasts.
After the ascension of Weapon X, Sebastian Shaw remade Heaven into his image and renamed the nightclub as Hellfire Club all the while trying to gain power.
Bishop's Future
The Hellfire Club retained its position as one of the world's major powers in the future timeline of Bishop. The Club is ruled by Anthony Shaw, a descendant of Sebastian Shaw; he also has an illegitimate son, Trevor Fitzroy. (Fitzroy would later travel back in time, bringing him into conflict with his forefathers Shinobi and Sebastian Shaw.) Malcolm, a colleague of Bishop and member of the Xavier Security Enforcers (X.S.E.), was also a member of the Club.
Clan Hellfire
In a future dominated by Trevor Fitzroy, calling himself The Chronomancer, one of the forces opposing his rule is Clan Hellfire, led by a Samara Shaw.
X-Men: Ronin
In one alternate reality in which the X-Men are based in Japan, the Hellfire Club is ruled by Professor Xavier. The White Queen Emma Frost is a junior member who, along with Tessa, believe Xavier to be their biological father. The Club controls the Shadowcat Clan of ninjas, which includes Pyro, Iceman and Colossus.
Marvel Noir
In X-Men Noir, the Hellfire Club is an exclusive S&M club owned by Sebastian Shaw, and is plundered early on by Beast, Cyclops and Iceman.
Ultimate Marvel
In the Ultimate Marvel Universe, the modem Hellfire Club is led by Sebastian Shaw (with other notable members being Xavier spy Gerald Lavine, and Shaw's son Shinobi) who worship a pagan "Phoenix God" dating back to its foundation and ties to Egyptian lore. Believing the Phoenix to be incarnated in the body of X-Man Jean Grey, the Club quietly funded Professor Charles Xavier as she developed under his tutelage. Jean however underwent a mental breakdown, and stole the Inner Circle's bank access codes and wiped their minds.
A group called the Church of Shi'ar Enlightenment later approached the Xavier Institute, claiming the Hellfire Club was a breakaway sect, and asking to examine whether or not Jean really is the Phoenix God. However, Lilandra's assistant Lavine was revealed to be an operative of the Hellfire Club and working for Shinobi Shaw, who is also dating Emma Frost, headmistress of the Academy of Tomorrow and secretly a member of the Hellfire Club.
In other media
Television
The Inner Circle Club appears in X-Men: The Animated Series, consisting of Sebastian Shaw, Jason Wyngarde, Emma Frost, Donald Pierce, and Harry Leland. Following a cameo appearance in the episode "The Phoenix Saga - Part IV", they attempt to brainwash Jean Grey into joining them during the four-part episode "The Dark Phoenix". After being foiled, Shaw, Pierce, and Frost escape while Wyngarde is left catatonic and Leland goes missing following a fight with Wolverine.
The Inner Circle appears in Wolverine and the X-Men, consisting of Sebastian Shaw, Harry Leland, Donald Pierce, Selene, Emma Frost, and the Stepford Cuckoos. Similarly to the Ultimate Marvel incarnation, this version of the group seek to gain the Phoenix Force's power. After spending most of the series infiltrating the X-Men to locate Jean Grey, Frost kidnaps her so the Inner Circle can perform a ritual to extract the Phoenix Force and place it into the Stepford Cuckoos. However, they are unable to control it, leading to Leland and Pierce being killed by falling debris while Frost subdues Shaw and Selene before sacrificing herself to release the Phoenix Force into space.
The Inner Circle appears in Marvel Anime: X-Men, consisting of Jason Wyngarde; Rat (voiced by Manabu Sakamaki in the Japanese version and by Michael Sinterniklaas in the English dub), who can project metal discs from his body; Marsh (voiced by Yuichi Nakamura in the Japanese version and by Mary Elizabeth McGlynn in the English dub), who can dissolve into liquid; and Neuron / White Bishop (voiced by Yutaka Aoyama in the Japanese version and by Dave Wittenberg in the English dub), who possesses a shell and can amplify a target's senses via strips from his body. Additionally, Harry Leland and Emma Frost appear as members of the group in flashbacks. Following a failed attempt to manipulate Jean Grey into using the Phoenix Force for their purposes before she sacrificed herself to stop them, the Inner Circle attempt to use a reality-warping mutant named Takeo Sasaki. However, Rat, Marsh, and Neuron are killed by the X-Men while Wyngarde is killed by Takeo.
A live-action television series titled Hellfire was in development at 20th Century Fox Television and Marvel Television, with an early 2017 airdate. However, on July 12, 2016, Variety reported that the project is no longer moving forward.
The Hellfire Club appears in The Gifted, consisting of Reeva Payge, the Frost sisters, Andy Strucker, Lorna Dane, Fade, and Sage. Under Payge, this version of the group pursues mutant liberation.
Film
The Hellfire Club appears in X-Men: First Class, led by Sebastian Shaw and consisting of Emma Frost, Azazel, Riptide, and Angel Salvadore. This version of the group seeks to cause World War III to accelerate mutant evolution and create a new world order with mutants as Earth's dominant species and Shaw as their leader. To this end, they manipulate American and Soviet government officials into instigating the Cuban Missile Crisis, prompting CIA agent Moira MacTaggert to supervise the initial formation of the X-Men to oppose them. Ultimately, Shaw is killed by Erik Lehnsherr, who unites the remaining Hellfire Club members under his leadership.
The Hellfire Club were originally planned to appear in Dark Phoenix, consisting of Frost, Harry Leland, Friedrich von Roehm, the Strucker Twins, Shinobi Shaw, and the Red Lotus Gang, but they were ultimately cut from the film.
Video games
The Hellfire Club appear in X-Men, with Sebastian Shaw as a prominent member and boss.
The Hellfire Club appear in X-Men: Gamesmaster's Legacy, with Shinobi Shaw as a prominent member and boss.
The Hellfire Club appear in Wolverine: Adamantium Rage, with Selene and Shinobi Shaw as prominent members.
The Hellfire Club appear in Marvel Avengers Alliance, with Selene and Sebastian Shaw as prominent members, Emma Frost as a former member, and various foot soldiers as minor members.
References
External links
Hellfire Club at Marvel.com
Hellfire Club at Marvel Wiki
Hellfire Academy at Marvel Wiki
Characters created by Chris Claremont
Characters created by John Byrne (comics)
Fictional clubs
Fictional elements introduced in 1980
Fictional organizations in Marvel Comics
Fictional organized crime groups
Hellfire Club
Marvel Comics supervillain teams
Video game bosses
Villains in animated television series
X-Men supporting characters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian%20Naval%20Infantry
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Russian Naval Infantry
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The Russian Naval Infantry (), often referred to as Russian Marines in the West, operate as the naval infantry of the Russian Navy. Established in 1705, they are capable of conducting amphibious operations as well as operating as more traditional light infantry.
The Naval Infantry also fields the Russian Navy's only special operations unit, known as the ‘commando frogmen’. Frogmen are typically drawn from the Naval Infantry's ranks, and they are capable of a wide range of special operations tasks and missions. Colloquially, Russian-speakers may refer to Naval Infantrymen using the abbreviation морпехи (morpekhi (plural), singular form: морпех (morpekh)).
The first Russian marine force formed in 1705, and since that time it has fought in the Napoleonic Wars, the Crimean War (1853-1856), the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), the First World War (1914-1918) and the Second World War (1939-1945). Under Admiral Gorshkov (Soviet Navy Commander-in-Chief from 1956 to 1985), the Soviet Navy expanded the reach of the Naval Infantry and deployed it worldwide on numerous occasions.
Since 2009 Lieutenant General (NI) (Lieutenant General (NI) since 2014) has commanded the Naval Infantry in his capacity as the Deputy Commander for Coastal Troops/Commandant of the Coastal Troops of the Russian Navy.
The Naval Infantry, alongside the Coastal Defense Missile Artillery Forces, form part of a larger institution—the Coastal Troops of the Russian Navy (, Beregovye voyska VMF Rossii).
History
Little is known about the Russian Naval infantrymen during the Imperial era of Russia because many of the units formed consisted of supernumerary ship crews of destroyed or immobilised Russian warships.
The history of the Russian Navy could be traced back to the 16th century with Ivan the Terrible with the formation of his special team of Streltsy "sea soldiers" as part of his crew of flotilla ships.
The official history of the Naval Infantry could be traced back to the creation of the Russian ship Oryol (lit., Eagle), which launched in 1668 & sailed with a crew of 23 sailors & 35 soldiers, with the soldiers duties of boarding & capturing enemy ships & providing sentinel service under the command of Ivan Domozhirov.
During the Azov campaign of the Russo-Turkish War, under Peter the Great, the soldiers in these units; many of whom were recruited by the Preobrazhensky & the Semyonovsky Regiments of the later-to-become Imperial Guards, were shown to be particularly effective in carrying out those duties. Those soldiers would later on form the Russian Navy's very first infantry regiment consisting of 4300 men.
The first admiral of the regiment was appointed by no less than Tsar Peter I himself, General Admiral Fyodor Golovin, who later gave the respective order to Vice Admiral Cornelius Kruys on November 16, 1705, marking the glorious years following for the Russian Naval Infantry.
Official formation
In November 16 (27), 1705, following a decree of Peter I, the first regiment "of naval equipage" () (or in other words, equipped and supplied by the Russian Imperial Navy) was formed for boarding and landing operations, on the ships of the Baltic Fleet. The regiment had 1200 men (two battalions of five companies; 45 officers, & 70 non-commissioned officers), and from this original regiment began the long history of Naval Infantry within Russia.
Great Northern War
In 1714, the regiment won a victory against the Swedes during the Battle of Gangut. However, after the war, a review of the Regiment's performance during the war concluded that the regimental organization of the unit did not work with the organizational structure of the Navy's fleet and did not allow it to be correctly utilized in combat conditions. As a result, the naval regiment was disbanded, and in replace of it, five naval battalions of consisting of men drawn from the army was created in 1712-1714 & attached to the fleet:
"Vice Admiral Battalion" - for service in the vanguard squadrons on the ships of the squadron's avant-garde;
"Admiral's Battalion" - for service on ships of the squadron center;
"Rear Admiral Battalion" - for service on the ships of the rear guard of the squadron;
"Galler Battalion" - for service on combat ships of the Galere fleet;
"Admiralty Battalion" - for guard duty and other tasks.
Russo-Turkish Wars
The Russian naval infantry were involved in a series of victories against the Ottoman Empire including the rout of the Turkish Navy at the Battle for Cesme Harbor in 1770, and the taking of Izmail Fortress on the Danube, in 1790.
Napoleonic War
During the prelude to the war, in 1799 the Russian naval infantry took the French fortress at Corfu after a four-month siege. In 1806, a Russian landing force took Naples by storm and entered the Papal States.
During the War of the Sixth Coalition, the Russian naval infantry distinguished itself against La Grande Armée at the Battle of Borodino (1812), Battle of Kulm (1813) and the Siege of Danzig.
Crimean War
By 1813, significant parts of the naval infantry were transferred to the Army & subsequently lost naval connections. For almost 100 years, there were no large infantry units in the Russian Navy. Nevertheless, in 1854–1855, during the Siege of Sevastopol against British, French and Turkish troops, there were renewed calls for revival of the military's Naval Infantry units. 17 separate sea battalions were formed and they participated in the defense of Sevastopol.
Early 20th century
Russo-Japanese War
During 1904 Russo-Japanese War, the naval infantry defended Port Arthur against Japanese forces. Personnels were recruited from regular sailors & naval crews to make up the numbers. Seven separate naval rifle battalions, a separate landing squad of sailors, three separate sea rifle companies and several machine-gun teams were formed.
World War I
The question of the formation of permanent Naval Infantry Units were raised only in 1910 and in 1911, projects were underway under the Chief Naval Staff for the development of permanent infantry units in the main naval bases of the country: an infantry regiment under the Baltic Fleet, an infantry battalion in the Black Sea Fleet and the Vladivostok Battalion for the Pacific Fleet.
In August 1914, two separate battalions from the personnel of the Guards Fleet Crew and one battalion of personnel from the 1st Baltic Fleet Crew were created in Kronstadt. In March 1915, a separate naval battalion of the 2nd Baltic Fleet Crew was transformed into the Marine Regiment of Special Purpose. It included a mine company, a machine-gun team, a communications team, regimental artillery, a technical workshop, a convoy, and individual commands of the steamer Ivan-town and boats.
At the end of 1916 and the beginning of 1917, the first two divisions of naval infantry were formed; the Baltic Division and Black Sea Division.
The naval infantry was deployed to the Baltic to defend the homeland against German attack as well as the Caspian Sea for operations against Ottoman forces.
Post-Russian Revolutions and the Russian Civil War
These naval infantrymen, who served under the Navy of the Imperial State, would later on form the core of the naval infantry service of the young Soviet Navy in 1918, which distinguished itself during the long Russian Civil War (1918-1922). Many of their fellow servicemen though supported the White movement and distinguished themselves as part of anti-Soviet military operations during those years. Many were shot upon capture by Soviet authorities. Others were tortured and killed.
The Soviet Naval Infantry's major force during the civil war was the Baltic Fleet Naval Infantry, the ex-Imperial fleet division's Communist servicemen would provide much of the fighting power during those years following the Revolution.
Soviet era
Kronstadt rebellion
Following the winding down of the Russian Civil War by 1920, the following year, many Soviet Naval Infantrymen stationed in Kronstadt mutinied against the Soviet government in 1921. The mutiny was quickly put down by Soviet forces with the mutinying Naval Infantrymen facing retribution by the Soviet government leading to their eventual execution.
World War II
During World War II about 350,000 Soviet Navy sailors fought on land operations. At the beginning of the war, the navy had only one naval infantry brigade in the Baltic Fleet, but began forming and training other battalions. These eventually were:
six naval infantry regiments, comprising two 650 man battalions each,
40 naval infantry brigades of 5–10 battalions, formed from surplus ships' crews. Five brigades were awarded Gvardiya (Guards) status,
On November 1, 1944, the greatly understrength Red Army 55th Rifle Division was converted into a garrison formation for the Porkkala Naval Base after the Finnish capitulation in late September 1944.
plus numerous smaller units
Many of the new units were raised as part of the Black Sea, Pacific and Northern Fleets. The military situation demanded the deployment of large numbers of naval infantry on land, so the Naval Infantry contributed to the defense of Odessa, Moscow, Leningrad, Sevastopol, Stalingrad, Novorossiysk and Kerch.
The Naval Infantry conducted over 114 landings, most of which were carried out by platoons and companies. In general, however, Naval Infantry served as regular infantry, without any amphibious training. They conducted four major operations: two during the Battle of the Kerch Peninsula, one during the Caucasus Campaign and one as part of the Landing at Moonsund, in the Baltic.
During the war, five brigades and two battalions of naval infantry were awarded Guards status. Nine brigades and six battalions were awarded decorations, and many were given honorary titles. The title Hero of the Soviet Union was bestowed on 122 Naval Infantry servicemen.
The Soviet experience in amphibious warfare in World War II contributed to the development of Soviet operational art in combined arms operations. Many members of the Naval Infantry were parachute trained; they conducted more drops and successful parachute operations than the Soviet Airborne Troops (VDV).
The Naval Infantry was disbanded in 1947, with some units being transferred to the Coastal Defence Force.
Cold War
In 1961, the Naval Infantry was re-formed and became a combat arm of the Soviet Navy. Each Fleet was assigned a Naval Infantry unit of regiment (and later brigade) size. The Naval Infantry received amphibious versions of standard armoured fighting vehicles, including tanks used by the Soviet Army.
By 1989, the Naval Infantry numbered 18,000 troops, organised into the 55th Naval Infantry Division at Vladivostok and at least four independent brigades: the 61st Kirkenneskaya Brigade at Pechenga (Northern Fleet), 175th at Tumannyy in the North, 336th Guards Naval Infantry Brigade at Baltiysk (Baltic Fleet), and 810th at Sevastopol (Black Sea Fleet).
By the end of the Cold War, the Soviet Navy had over eighty landing ships, as well as two Ivan Rogov-class landing ships. The latter could transport one infantry battalion with 40 armoured vehicles and their landing craft. (One of the Rogov ships has since been retired.)
At 75 units, the Soviet Union had the world's largest inventory of combat air-cushion assault craft. In addition, many of the 2,500 vessels of the Soviet merchant fleet (Morflot) could off-load weapons and supplies during amphibious landings.
On November 18, 1990, on the eve of the Paris Summit where the Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty and the Vienna Document on Confidence and Security-Building Measures (CSBMs) were signed, Soviet data were presented under the so-called initial data exchange. This showed a rather sudden emergence of three so-called coastal defence divisions (including the 3rd at Klaipėda in the Baltic Military District, the 126th in the Odessa Military District and seemingly the 77th Guards Motor Rifle Division with the Northern Fleet), along with three artillery brigades/regiments, subordinate to the Soviet Navy, which had previously been unknown as such to NATO.
Much of the equipment, which was commonly understood to be treaty limited (TLE) was declared to be part of the naval infantry. The Soviet argument was that the CFE excluded all naval forces, including its permanently land-based components. The Soviet Government eventually became convinced that its position could not be maintained.
A proclamation of the Soviet government on July 14, 1991, which was later adopted by its successor states, provided that all "treaty-limited equipment" (tanks, artillery and armoured vehicles) assigned to naval infantry or coastal defence forces, would count against the total treaty entitlement.
1989 list of units
Landing Assault units of the Naval Infantry
In addition to the Landing Assault Troops of the Ground Forces similar units were also formed by the Soviet Naval Infantry with the main task to execute airborne landings (by parachute or by helicopters), take over and defend a beachhead for the amphibious landing of the main force. By 1989 these units were organized under their respective Fleet HQs as follows:
Red Banner Northern Fleet (Краснознамённый Северный флот) - ZATO Severomorsk, Murmansk Oblast, RSFSR
61st Separate Kirkenesskaya, Red Banner Naval Infantry Brigade (61-я отдельная киркенесская краснознамённая бригада морской пехоты (61-я обрмп)) - Sputnik, Murmansk Oblast, RSFSR
876th Separate Landing Assault Battalion (876-й отдельный десантно-штурмовой батальон (876-й одшб))
Twice Red Banner Baltic Fleet (Дважды Краснознамённый Балтийский флот) - Kaliningrad, Kaliningrad Oblast, RSFSS
336th Separate Guards Belostokskaya, Order of Suvorov and the Order of Alexander Nevski Naval Infantry Brigade (336-я отдельная гвардейская бригада морской пехоты (61-я обрмп)) - Baltiysk, Kaliningrad Oblast, RSFSS
879th Separate Landing Assault Battalion (879-й отдельный десантно-штурмовой батальон (879-й одшб))
Red Banner Black Sea Fleet (Краснознамённый Черноморский флот) - Sevastopol, Crimean ASSR, Ukrainian SSR
810th Separate Naval Infantry Brigade 60th Anniversary of the USSR (810-я отдельная бригада морской пехоты имени 60-летия образования СССР) - Sevastopol, Crimean ASSR, Ukrainian SSR
881st Separate Landing Assault Battalion (881-й отдельный десантно-штурмовой батальон (881-й одшб))
Red Banner Pacific Fleet - Vladivostok, Primorsky Krai, RSFSR
55th Mozyrskaya, Order of the Red Banner 55th Naval Infantry Division (55-я Мозырская Краснознамённая дивизия морской пехоты (55-я кдмп)) - Vladivostok, Primorsky Krai, RSFSR
165th Naval Infantry Regiment (165-й полк морской пехоты (165-й пмп)) - Vladivostok, Primorsky Krai, RSFSR
unidentified Separate Landing Assault Battalion (Н-й отдельный десантно-штурмовой батальон)
390th Naval Infantry Regiment (390-й полк морской пехоты (390-й пмп)) - Slavyanka, Primorsky Krai, RSFSR
unidentified Separate Landing Assault Battalion (Н-й отдельный десантно-штурмовой батальон)
Russian Federation
The Naval Infantry of the Russian Navy includes the 55th Naval Infantry Division of the Russian Pacific Fleet, the independent brigades of the Northern (61st Brigade at Sputnik, Murmansk Oblast) and Baltic Fleets and of the Caspian Flotilla, and the independent regiment of the Black Sea Fleet.
In 1994, Exercise "Cooperation from the Sea" was conducted, in and around Vladivostok, with the U.S. III Marine Expeditionary Force, to foster a closer relationship between the Russian Naval Infantry and the United States Marine Corps. U.S. Marines and Russian naval infantrymen conducted their first exercise on U.S. soil the following year, in Hawaii. "Cooperation From the Sea 1995" was a maritime disaster relief exercise, which included cross training and personnel exchanges, and culminated in a combined U.S. and Russian amphibious landing. The purpose of the exercise was to improve interoperability, cooperation and understanding between U.S. and Russian personnel.
In 1998, the 22nd Motor Rifle Division, Far East Military District, at Petropavlovsk-Kamchatka, was transferred to the Pacific Fleet. In 2000 the division became the 40th Independent Motor Rifle Brigade, and on 1 September 2007 the 40th Naval Infantry Brigade (40 отд. Краснодарско-Харбинская дважды Краснознаменная бригада морской пехоты). In 2013, the regiment became, again, the 40th Naval Infantry Brigade.
From 2000 onwards, the Caspian Flotilla included a new naval infantry brigade, the 77th, based at Kaspiysk. The headquarters and two battalions of the brigade were scheduled to be established by August 1, 2000. It was reported by Agenstvo Voyenniykh Novostyei (AVN) in June 2000 that the new brigade, which may have inherited the lineage of the 77th Motor Rifle Division, was to have its troops housed in Kaspiysk and Astrakhan, along with as many as 195 combat vehicles and two hovercraft sent to it from Chukotka and the Northern Fleet, respectively. The brigade was also reported to have had helicopters assigned to it.
Syrian Civil War
In early September 2015, it was estimated that approximately 800 Russian Naval Infantrymen had taken up positions all along western Syria with the majority of them being stationed in the mountainous city of Slunfeh in east Latakia – the remaining personnel had been moved to the Homs (Wadi Al-Nasara) and Tartous (Masyaf and Safita) Governorates in preparation for the Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War.
On the night of 19 to 20 September 2015, Russian Naval Infantry engaged in a fight with militants of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) near the city of Latakia. The militants tried to mount an attack on the airbase there, however, they were ambushed by the Naval Infantry. As a result of the clash, three militants were killed, two were captured, and the rest retreated.
Before dawn of 24 September 2015, Russian Naval Infantry went into battle for the first time since their deployment to Syria, Debka file's military and intelligence sources reveal. The 810th Guards Naval Infantry Brigade fought with Syrian Army and Hezbollah special forces in an attack on ISIL forces at the Kweiris air base, east of Aleppo.
In November 2015, a Russian Naval Infantryman was killed during an operation to rescue the crew of a Russian Sukhoi Su-24M bomber aircraft that was shot down by the Turkish Air Force near the Syria–Turkey border.
In March 2016, the 61st Naval Infantry Brigade conducted operations in which it aided the Syrian Army's liberation of the Syrian city of Palmyra. The 61st also participated in the storming of the city. Sources consider it one of the best trained and most combat experienced units of the Russian forces.
In mid-May 2016, Russian Naval Infantry helped Syrian forces recapture the initiative in east Homs, while also recovering several points near the Al-Sha’ar Gas Fields and T-4 Military Airport.
In September 2016, it was reported that Russian Naval Infantry were conducting operations on Aleppo's Castillo Highway.
Russo-Ukrainian War
Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation
Russian Naval Infantry participated in the annexation of Crimea in 2014.
War in Donbas (2014–2022)
The 61st Naval Infantry Brigade (Russia) participated in the Russo-Ukrainian War in the Luhansk Oblast.
2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
On 24 February 2022, Russian Naval Infantry started an amphibious assault on the Sea of Azov coast and besieged the city of Mariupol. Ropucha-class landing ship and Ivan Gren-class landing ship capable of landing tanks have reportedly been deployed in the region. The 155th Guards Naval Infantry participated in the Kyiv offensive which was later repelled forcing the Russian forces to retreat to Belarus in April later redeploying to Yehorivka and Pavlivka in the Donbas.
By 9 November 2022, the 155th Guards Naval Infantry and 40th Naval Infantry Brigade participated in an attack on the Ukrainian military garrison in Pavlivka. Members of the unit claimed to have taken roughly 300 casualties, with many of these complaints shared with notable Russian media figures and the unit's garrison. The members went further stating the attacks took place due to their commander's desire to earn bonuses and distinction through awards. On 15 November 2022, a commander of the Russian-proxy Donetsk People's Republic indicated that lower-level commanders within the 155th Guards Naval Infantry disregarded orders in the attack on Pavlivka.
In December, The New York Times reported on the deployment of the 155th Guards Naval Infantry to Pavlivka. Recruits "lacked sufficient food, maps, critical medical supplies, or walkie-talkies, and they were forced to use 1970s-era Kalashnikov rifles — with some members having to resort to using Wikipedia to locate instructions for using certain weapons". There was also a shortage of ammunition. One soldier said, "This isn't war. It's the destruction of the Russian people by their own commanders." Many used their Russian cellphones to call home, enabling Ukraine to track the unit and attack it. Many soldiers were volunteers but had "little experience" regarding the use of firearms.
In January 2023, the 155th Guards Naval Infantry Brigade attempted a breakthrough assault in Vuhledar against the Ukrainian 72nd Mechanized Brigade but failed. The unit saw initial success, however, but according to former FSB colonel Igor Strelkov, their assault stagnated following heavy losses to infantry and lack of ammunition for their organic fire support, despite using their T-80 tanks in an indirect fire role, and ''in general-poor technical support for the attacking units and their low staffing.''
Organization
The largest naval infantry units are brigades or regiments. A Naval Infantry Regiment consists of roughly 2,000 personnel and is equipped with the PT-76 and BRDM-2, consists of 1 Tank Battalion and 3 naval infantry battalions, one motorised with BTR-60-series amphibious vehicles. brigades are somewhat larger. Although, sizes vary depending on mission and specializations.
Naval Infantry Battalions comprise the backbone of the naval infantry fighting force. The battalion is made up of three naval infantry companies, a mortar platoon, an antitank platoon, and supporting supply and maintenance, medical, and communications units. In all, the battalion numbers about 400 men. This unit, reinforced, constitutes the basic amphibious attack force in the assault landing-the battalion assault force (BAF).
At least one infantry battalion of each regiment or brigade is parachute trained, while all of the remaining infantry battalions are trained to be able to carry out air assault missions.
Pacific Fleet
155th Guards Naval Infantry Brigade
Brigade HQ
390th Naval Infantry Regiment
59th Naval Infantry Battalion
84th Tank Battalion
263rd Artillery Battery
1484th Signals Battalion
Air Defense Battery
40th Krasnodar-Harbin Naval Infantry Brigade (Kamchatka) – redesignated from 3rd Regiment in 2013.
Baltic Fleet
299th Baltic Fleet Coastal Forces Training Center
336th Guards Naval Infantry Brigade– Baltiysk
877th Naval Infantry Battalion
879th Air-Assault (Desant) Battalion
884th Naval Infantry Battalion
1612th Self-Propelled Artillery Battalion
1618th Anti-Aircraft Missile and Artillery Battalion
53rd Naval Infantry cargo escort platoon – Kaliningrad
Northern Fleet
61st Naval Infantry Brigade – Sputnik, Murmansk Oblast
Brigade Headquarters
874th Naval Infantry Battalion
876th Air-Assault (Desant) Battalion
886th Reconnaissance Battalion
125th Armored Battalion
1611th Self-propelled Artillery Battalion
1591st Self-propelled Artillery Battalion
1617th Anti-aircraft Missile and Artillery Battalion
75th Naval Hospital
317th Naval Infantry Battalion
318th Naval Infantry Battalion
Black Sea Fleet
810th Guards Naval Infantry Brigade;– Kazachye Bukhta, Sevastopol (a regiment until 1 December 2008)
880th Naval Infantry Battalion
881st Air-Assault Battalion
888th Reconnaissance Battalion
1613th Artillery Battery
1619th Air-Defense Artillery Battery
382nd Naval Infantry Battalion
Caspian Flotilla
177th Naval Infantry Regiment
Equipment
Russian Naval Infantry had been gradually phasing out PT-76 amphibious tanks, and starting to receive a number of T-80s and upgraded BMP-2Ms. A full-strength Naval Infantry Brigade may have up to 80 tanks. The Russian Naval Infantry has 50 T-72B, 150 T-72B3, 30 T-72B3 mod. 2016, 50 T-80BV and 50 T-80BVM as of 2021. The APCs used by the Naval Infantry are either wheeled BTR-80s (in Assault Landing Battalions) or tracked MT-LBs (in Naval Infantry Battalions). Naval Infantry units are receiving BMP-3 IFVs; about 40 were delivered in 2021. BMP-3s may equip one company per Naval Infantry battalion.
According to a Defense Ministry statement published by RIA Novosti in November 2009, "All units of Russia's naval infantry will be fully equipped with advanced weaponry by 2015." Included in this upgrade would be T-90 tanks, BMP-3 IFVs, 2S31 120mm mortar/artillery tracks, wheeled BTR-82A armored personnel carriers, air defense equipment and small arms. All Naval Infantry units were equipped with Ratnik infantry combat gear and all Northern Fleet naval infantry units were equipped with BTR-82A APCs as of November 2016.
Naval Infantry and Navy units also receive new-technology binoculars. As of 2017 the Naval Infantry had started to receive a modernized version of Strelets reconnaissance, control and communications system and completed receiving D-10 parachutes. All Pacific Fleet and Caspian Flotilla naval infantry units were equipped with BTR-82A APCs as of September 2019. 40 BTR-82A were delivered for the Black Sea Fleet in early 2021. The Pacific Fleet Naval Infantry were armed with "Sectant" small robotic reconnaissance systems in late 2021.
In late February 2014, at least one Black Sea Fleet assigned unit (at company level) was apparently using Tigr armored cars near Sevastopol during the 2014 Crimean crisis. During the crisis in March 2014 imagery emerged of some Naval Infantry personnel carrying what appeared to be the OTs-14-1A-04 7.62×39mm assault rifle with an under-barrel GP-30 40mm grenade launcher, a bullpup design normally associated with Russian Airborne Troops, as well as Combat Engineering and Spetsnaz units. Naval Infantry of the Caspian Flotilla received modernized 5.45-mm Kalashnikov assault rifles, AK-74M with an "Obves" modernization kit in 2021. The newest anti-landing mine PDM-MD passed state tests in 2019-2020.
Heroes of the Soviet Union and the Russian Federation
Heroes of the Soviet Union
Seaman Ahmed Dibirovich Abdulmedzhidov (1945)
Petty Officer Noah P. Adamia (1942)
Junior Sergeant Pavel Petrovich Artemov (1945)
Lieutenant Mikhail Ashik (1946)
Seaman Mikhail Avramenko (1945)
Seaman Yakov Illarionovich Balyaev (1945)
Major Mikhail Barabolko (1945)
Seaman (Naval Infantry) Pazhden M. Bartsits (1944)
Captain Nikolai Belyakov (1943, posthumous)
Major General Petr Bordanovisy (1943)
Corporal Ivan P. Dementyev (1945, posthumous)
Lieutenant Petr Deikano (1943)
Chief Petty Officer (Naval Infantry) Pavel Dubinda (1945, also full Cavalier of the Order of Glory)
Staff Sergeant Varlam Gabliya (1946)
Second Lieutenant Nikolai Kirillov (1943)
Seaman 1st Class (Naval Infantry) Aleksandr Komarov (1945)
Major Caesar Lvovich Kunikov (1943, posthumous)
Gunnery Sergeant Nikolai Kuzhetsov (1943, also Cavalier of the Order of Glory)
Petty Officer 1st Class (Naval Infantry) Yuri Lisitsyin (1945)
Major Pavel Litvinov (1943)
Seaman Kafur Nasyrovich Mamedov (1942, posthumous)
Guards Sergeant Viktor I. Medvedev (1945)
Lieutenant Nikolai Motshalin (1945)
First Lieutenant Konstantin Olyshanskiy (1945, posthumous)
Seaman Pavel D. Osipov (1945, posthumous)
Lieutenant Pyotr Shironin (1943, shironintsy)
Private Andrey Arkadevich Skvortsov (1943, shironintsy)
Private Aleksandr Fedorovich Toropov (1943, shironintsy)
Midshipman Sergei N. Vasilyev (1942, posthumous)
Petty Officer Sergey G. Zimin (1943, shironintsy)
Heroes of the Russian Federation
Starshina (Warrant Officer) Gennadiy A. Azarychev (1995)
Lieutenant Vladimir A. Belyavskiy (2006)
Senior Lieutenant Vladimir V. Borovikov
Colonel Aleksandr Chernov
Guards Lieutenant Aleksandr Darkovich (1995)
Midshipman (Warrant Officer) Andrey Vladimirovich Dneprovskiy
Senior Lieutenant Sergey Firsov
Major Pavel Nikolaevich Gaponenko
Major Andrey Y. Gushchin (1995)
Major Vladimir V. Karpushenko
Lt. Col. Dmitriy Nikolayevich Klimenko
Guards Captain Yevgeniy N. Kolesnikov (1995, posthumous)
Major General Yevgeniy Nikolayevich Kocheshkov
Senior Lieutenant Yuriy Gerasimovich Kuryagin
Major-General Aleksandr Otrakovskiy (2000, posthumous)
Guards Captain Dmitriy Polkovnikov (1995)
Guards Major General Sergey Sheiko (1995)
Major General Viktor Shulyak
Seaman Vladimir Vladimirovich Tatashvili
Captain Viktor Vdovkin
Senior Midshipman (Sr. Warrant Officer) Gregory Mikhailovich Zamyshlyak
Midshipman (Warrant Officer) Andrey N. Zakharchuk
Sealift
The Alligator tank landing ship and more modern Ropucha-class landing ship is a typical amphibious assault ship. Propelled by diesel engines, this ship is relatively small, displacing about 4,500 tons. In 1978, the Soviets launched a new amphibious ship, the Ivan Rogov. The advent of the Ivan Rogov was taken in the West as an indication that the Soviet Navy was planning to strengthen the power projection mission of Naval Infantry.
Twice the size of earlier ships, it can launch amphibious vehicles from its open bow doors. It also carries helicopters. Among the various small assault landing vehicles to launch from the bow are hovercraft, such as the Aist, which can carry the naval infantry ashore at speeds of fifty knots.
The composition and the class of the main ships:
4 units – Alligator-class landing ship
12 units – Ropucha-class landing ship + 3 improved Ropucha-class
2 units – Zubr-class LCAC + 1 in hold (in More (Feodosiya))
5 units – Dyugon-class landing craft
2 units – Ivan Gren-class landing ship
See also
2008 Russian military reform
ADS amphibious rifle (2000s. New standard underwater rifle for Naval spetsnaz and certain other units)
APS underwater rifle (Soviet and later Russian Navy standard issue for certain units)
ASM-DT amphibious rifle (1990's, not widely issued)
SPP-1 underwater pistol (Soviet and later Russian Navy standard issue for certain units)
Combat and other types of tactical divers
Drozd active protection system (Used during the 1980s on the Naval Infantry's T-55AD/T-55AD1 tanks)
IDA71 military and naval rebreather
Protei-5 dpv
Solo Voyage
Battle of Vyborg Bay (1944)
Little green men (Russo-Ukrainian War)
Malaya Zemlya
Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive
Telnyashka
Notes
References
Further reading
Независимое военное обозрение. Сокращение и плюс к этому расформирование
Морская пехота. Состав и дислокация. Часть 1: Часть 2
Журнал «Морской пехотинец»
Три века славных дел
http://www.flamesofwar.com/Default.aspx?tabid=108&art_id=1197&kb_cat_id=100
https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/russian-marines-replace-syrian-army-aleppos-castillo-highway/
External links
Soviet Navy
Military units and formations established in 1705
1705 establishments in Russia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erotic%20literature
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Erotic literature
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Erotic literature comprises fictional and factual stories and accounts of eros (passionate, romantic or sexual relationships) intended to arouse similar feelings in readers. This contrasts erotica, which focuses more specifically on sexual feelings. Other common elements are satire and social criticism. Much erotic literature features erotic art, illustrating the text.
Although cultural disapproval of erotic literature has always existed, its circulation was not seen as a major problem before the invention of printing, as the costs of producing individual manuscripts limited distribution to a very small group of wealthy and literate readers. The invention of printing, in the 15th century, brought with it both a greater market and increasing restrictions, including censorship and legal restraints on publication on the grounds of obscenity. Because of this, much of the production of this type of material became clandestine.
Erotic verse
Early periods
The oldest located love poem is Istanbul 2461, an erotic monologue written by a female speaker directed to king Shu-Sin.
In ancient Sumer, a whole cycle of poems revolved around the erotic lovemaking between the goddess Inanna and her consort Dumuzid the Shepherd.
In the Hebrew Bible, the Song of Songs, found in the last section of the Tanakh, celebrates sexual love, giving "the voices of two lovers, praising each other, yearning for each other, proffering invitations to enjoy".
Many erotic poems have survived from ancient Greece and Rome. The Greek poets Straton of Sardis and Sappho of Lesbos both wrote erotic lyric poems. The poet Archilochus wrote numerous satirical poems filled with obscene and erotic imagery. Erotic poems continued to be written in Hellenistic and Roman times by writers like Automedon (The Professional and Demetrius the Fortunate), Philodemus (Charito) and Marcus Argentarius. Notable Roman erotic poets included Catullus, Propertius, Tibullus, Ovid, Martial and Juvenal, and the anonymous Priapeia. Some later Latin authors such as Joannes Secundus also wrote erotic verse.
Haft Peykar () also known as Bahramnameh (, The Book of Bahram) is a romantic epic by the Persian poet Nizami Ganjavi written in 1197. This poem is a part of the Nizami's Khamsa. The original title Haft Peykar can be translated literally as "seven portraits" with the figurative meaning of "seven beauties." The poem is a masterpiece of erotic literature, but it is also a profoundly moralistic work.
During the Renaissance period, many poems were not written for publication; instead, they were merely circulated in manuscript form among a relatively limited readership. This was the original method of circulation for the Sonnets of William Shakespeare, who also wrote the erotic poems Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece.
The Perfumed Garden of Sensual Delight (Arabic: الروض العاطر في نزهة الخاطر) is a fifteenth-century Arabic sex manual and work of erotic literature by Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Nefzawi, also known simply as "Nefzawi". The book presents opinions on what qualities men and women should have to be attractive and gives advice on sexual technique, warnings about sexual health, and recipes to remedy sexual maladies. It gives lists of names for the penis and vulva, and has a section on the interpretation of dreams. Interspersed with these there are a number of stories which are intended to give context and amusement.
17th and 18th centuries
In the 17th century, John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester (1647–80) was notorious for obscene verses, many of which were published posthumously in compendiums of poetry by him and other "Restoration rakes" such as Sir Charles Sedley, Charles Sackville, 6th Earl of Dorset, and George Etherege. Though many of the poems attributed to Rochester were actually by other authors, his reputation as a libertine was such that his name was used as a selling point by publishers of collections of erotic verse for centuries after. One poem definitely by him was "A Ramble in St. James's Park", in which the protagonist's quest for healthy exercise in the park uncovers instead "Bugg'ries, Rapes and Incest" on ground polluted by debauchery from the time when "Ancient Pict began to Whore". This poem was being censored from collections of Rochester's poetry as late as 1953, though, in line with the subsequent general change in attitudes to sexuality, it was dramatised as a scene in the film The Libertine about his life, based on an existing play.
English collections of erotic verse by various hands include the Drollery collections of the 17th century; Pills to Purge Melancholy (1698–1720); the Roxburghe Ballads; Bishop Percy's Folio; The Musical Miscellany; National Ballad and Song: Merry Songs and Ballads Prior to the Year AD 1800 (1895–97) edited by J. S. Farmer; the three volume Poetica Erotica (1921) and its more obscene supplement the Immortalia (1927) both edited by T. R. Smith. French collections include Les Muses gaillardes (1606) Le Cabinet satyrique (1618) and La Parnasse des poetes satyriques (1622).
A famous collection of four erotic poems, was published in England in 1763, called An Essay on Woman. This included the title piece, an obscene parody of Alexander Pope's "An Essay on Man"; "Veni Creator: or, The Maid's Prayer", which is original; the "Universal Prayer", an obscene parody of Pope's poem of the same name, and "The Dying Lover to his Prick", which parodies "A Dying Christian to his Soul" by Pope. These poems have been attributed to John Wilkes and/or Thomas Potter and receive the distinction of being the only works of erotic literature ever read out loud and in their entirety in the House of Lords—before being declared obscene and blasphemous by that body and the supposed author, Wilkes, declared an outlaw.
Robert Burns worked to collect and preserve Scottish folk songs, sometimes revising, expanding, and adapting them. One of the better known of these collections is The Merry Muses of Caledonia (the title is not by Burns), a collection of bawdy lyrics that were popular in the music halls of Scotland as late as the 20th century.
19th century
One of the 19th century's foremost poets—Algernon Charles Swinburne—devoted much of his considerable talent to erotic verse, producing, inter alia, twelve eclogues on flagellation titled The Flogging Block "by Rufus Rodworthy, annotated by Barebum Birchingly"; more was published anonymously in The Whippingham Papers (). Another notorious anonymous 19th-century poem on the same subject is The Rodiad, ascribed (seemingly falsely and in jest) to George Colman the Younger. John Camden Hotten even wrote a pornographic comic opera, Lady Bumtickler's Revels, on the theme of flagellation in 1872.
Pierre Louÿs helped found a literary review, La Conque in 1891, where he proceeded to publish Astarte—an early collection of erotic verse already marked by his distinctive elegance and refinement of style. He followed up in 1894 with another erotic collection in 143 prose poems—Songs of Bilitis (Les Chansons de Bilitis), this time with strong lesbian themes.
20th century
Although D. H. Lawrence could be regarded as a writer of love poems, he usually dealt in the less romantic aspects of love such as sexual frustration or the sex act itself. Ezra Pound, in his Literary Essays, complained of Lawrence's interest in his own "disagreeable sensations" but praised him for his "low-life narrative". This is a reference to Lawrence's dialect poems akin to the Scots poems of Robert Burns, in which he reproduced the language and concerns of the people of Nottinghamshire from his youth. He called one collection of poems Pansies partly for the simple ephemeral nature of the verse but also a pun on the French word panser, to dress or bandage a wound. "The Noble Englishman" and "Don't Look at Me" were removed from the official edition of Pansies on the grounds of obscenity; Lawrence felt wounded by this.
From the age of 17, Gavin Ewart acquired a reputation for wit and accomplishment through such works as "Phallus in Wonderland" and "Poems and Songs", which appeared in 1939 and was his first collection. The intelligence and casually flamboyant virtuosity with which he framed his often humorous commentaries on human behaviour made his work invariably entertaining and interesting. The irreverent eroticism for which his poetry is noted resulted in W H Smith's banning of his "The Pleasures of the Flesh" (1966) from their shops.
Canadian poet John Glassco wrote Squire Hardman (1967), a long poem in heroic couplets, purporting to be a reprint of an 18th-century poem by George Colman the Younger, on the theme of flagellation.
Italian Una Chi distinguished herself among other publications for coldly analytical prose and for the crudeness of the stories.
Erotic fiction
Erotic fiction is fiction that portrays sex or sexual themes, generally in a more literary or serious way than the fiction seen in pornographic magazines. It sometimes includes elements of satire or social criticism. Such works have frequently been banned by the government or religious authorities. Non-fictional works that portray sex or sexual themes may contain fictional elements. Calling an erotic book 'a memoir' is a literary device that is common in this genre. For reasons similar to those that make pseudonyms both commonplace and often deviously set up, the boundary between fiction and non-fiction is broad.
Erotic fiction has been credited in large part for the sexual awakening and liberation of women in the 20th and 21st centuries.
History of western erotic fiction
Ancient, medieval, and early modern periods
The Satyricon of Petronius Arbiter (later made into a film by Fellini) is an ancient Roman novel, which has partially survived, narrating the misadventures of an impotent man named Encolpius, who has been cursed by the god Priapus. The novel is filled with bawdy and obscene episodes, including orgies, ritual sex, and other erotic incidents. The discovery of several fragments of Lollianos's Phoenician Tale reveal that a genre of picaresque erotic novel also existed in ancient Greece. Some of the ancient Greek romance novels, such as Daphnis and Chloe, also contain elements of sexual fantasy.
From the medieval period, there is the Decameron (1353) by the Italian Giovanni Boccaccio (made into a film by Pasolini) which features tales of lechery by monks and the seduction of nuns from convents. This book was banned in many countries. Even five centuries after publication, copies were seized and destroyed by the authorities in the US and the UK. For instance, between 1954 and 1958 eight orders for destruction of the book were made by English magistrates.
From the 15th century, another classic of Italian erotica is a series of bawdy folk tales called the Facetiae by Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini. The Tale of Two Lovers () written in 1444 was one of the bestselling books of the 15th century, even before its author, Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, became Pope Pius II. It is one of the earliest examples of an epistolary novel, full of erotic imagery. The first printed edition was published by Ulrich Zel in Cologne between 1467 and 1470.
The 16th century was notable for the Heptameron of Marguerite de Navarre (1558), inspired by Boccaccio's Decameron and the notorious I Modi which married erotic drawings, depicting postures assumed in sexual intercourse, by Giulio Romano, with obscene sonnets by Pietro Aretino.
Aretino also wrote the celebrated whore dialogue Ragionamenti, in which the sex lives of wives, whores and nuns are compared and contrasted. Later works in the same genre include La Retorica delle Puttane (The Whore's Rhetoric) (1642) by Ferrante Pallavicino; L'Ecole des Filles (The school for girls) (1655), attributed to Michel Millot and Jean L'Ange. and The Dialogues of Luisa Sigea () by Nicolas Chorier. Such works typically concerned the sexual education of a naive younger woman by an experienced older woman and often included elements of philosophising, satire and anti-clericalism. Donald Thomas has translated L'École des filles, as The School of Venus, (1972), described on its back cover as "both an uninhibited manual of sexual technique and an erotic masterpiece of the first order". In his diary Samuel Pepys records reading and (in an often censored passage) masturbating over this work. Chorier's Dialogues of Luisa Sigea goes a bit further than its predecessors in this genre and has the older female giving practical instruction of a lesbian nature to the younger woman plus recommending the spiritual and erotic benefits of a flogging from willing members of the holy orders. This work was translated into many languages under various different titles, appearing in English as A Dialogue between a Married Woman and a Maid in various editions. The School of Women first appeared as a work in Latin entitled Aloisiae Sigaeae, Toletanae, Satyra sotadica de arcanis Amoris et Veneris. This manuscript claimed that it was originally written in Spanish by Luisa Sigea de Velasco, an erudite poet and maid of honor at the court of Lisbon and was then translated into Latin by Jean or Johannes Meursius. The attribution to Sigea and Meursius was a lie; the true author was Nicolas Chorier.
A unique work of this time is Sodom, or the Quintessence of Debauchery (1684), a closet play by the notorious Restoration rake, John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester in which Bolloxinion, King of Sodom, authorises "that buggery may be used O'er all the land, so cunt be not abused", which order, though appealing to soldiery, has deleterious effects generally, leading the court physician to counsel: "Fuck women, and let Bugg'ry be no more".
18th century
An early pioneer of the publication of erotic works in England was Edmund Curll (1675–1747), who published many of the Merryland books. These were an English genre of erotic fiction in which the female body (and sometimes the male) was described in terms of a landscape. The earliest work in this genre seems to be Erotopolis: The Present State of Bettyland (1684) probably by Charles Cotton. This was included, in abbreviated form, in The Potent Ally: or Succours from Merryland (1741). Other works include A New Description of Merryland. Containing a Topographical, Geographical and Natural History of that Country (1740) by Thomas Stretzer, Merryland Displayed (1741) and set of maps entitled A Compleat Set of Charts of the Coasts of Merryland (1745). The last book in this genre appears to be a parody of Laurence Sterne's A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy (1768) entitled La Souriciere. The Mousetrap. A Facetious and Sentimental Excursion through part of Austrian Flanders and France (1794) by "Timothy Touchit".
The rise of the novel in 18th-century England provided a new medium for erotica. One of the most famous in this genre was Fanny Hill (1748) by John Cleland. This book set a standard in literary smut and was often adapted for the cinema in the 20th century. Peter Fryer suggests that Fanny Hill was a high point in British erotica, at least in the eighteenth century, in a way that mainstream literature around it had also reached a peak at that time, with writers like Defoe, Richardson and Fielding all having made important and lasting contributions to literature in its first half. After 1750, he suggests, when the Romantic period began, the quality of mainstream writing and of smut declined in tandem. Writes Fryer: "sex was driven out of the English novel in the latter half of the eighteenth century. The castration of imaginative English literature made the clandestine literature of sex the most poverty stricken and boring in Europe".
French writers kept their stride. One genre, which vies in oddness with the English "Merryland" productions, was inspired by the newly translated Arabian Nights and involved the transformation of people into objects which were in propinquity with or employed in sexual relationships: such as sofas, dildos and even bidets. The climax of this trend is represented in French philosopher Diderot's Les Bijoux indiscrets (1747) in which a magic ring is employed to get women's vaginas to give an account of their intimate sexual histories.
Other works of French erotica from this period include Thérèse Philosophe (1748) by Jean-Baptiste de Boyer, Marquis d'Argens which describes a girl's initiation into the secrets of both philosophy and sex; The Lifted Curtain or Laura's Education, about a young girl's sexual initiation by her father, written by the French revolutionary politician Comte de Mirabeau; and Les Liaisons dangereuses (Dangerous Liaisons) by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos, first published in 1782.
In the late 18th century, such works as Justine, or the Misfortunes of Virtue and 120 Days of Sodom by the Marquis de Sade were exemplars of the theme of sado-masochism and influenced later erotic accounts of sadism and masochism in fiction. De Sade (as did the later writer Sacher-Masoch) lent his name to the sexual acts which he describes in his work.
19th century
In the Victorian period, the quality of erotic fiction was much below that of the previous century—it was largely written by 'hacks'. Some works, however, borrowed from established literary models, such as Dickens. The period also featured a form of social stratification. Even in the throes of orgasm, the social distinctions between master and servant (including form of address) were scrupulously observed. Significant elements of sado-masochism were present in some examples, perhaps reflecting the influence of the English public school, where flagellation was routinely used as a punishment. These clandestine works were often anonymous or written under a pseudonym, and sometimes undated, thus definite information about them often proves elusive.
English erotic novels from this period include The Lustful Turk (1828); The Romance of Lust (1873); The Convent School, or Early Experiences of A Young Flagellant (1876) by Rosa Coote [pseud.]; The Mysteries of Verbena House, or, Miss Bellasis Birched for Thieving (1882) by Etonensis [pseud.], actually by George Augustus Sala and James Campbell Reddie; The Autobiography of a Flea (1887); Venus in India (1889) by 'Captain Charles Devereaux'; Flossie, a Venus of Fifteen: By one who knew this Charming Goddess and worshipped at her shrine (1897). A novel called Beatrice, once marketed as another classic of Victorian erotica from the pen of the ubiquitous "Anon", now appears to be a very clever 20th-century pastiche of Victorian pornography. It first appeared in 1982 and was written by one Gordon Grimley, a sometime managing director of Penthouse International.
Clandestine erotic periodicals of this age include The Pearl, The Oyster and The Boudoir, collections of erotic tales, rhymes, songs and parodies published in London between 1879 and 1883.
The centre of the trade in such material in England at this period was Holywell Street, off the Strand, London. An important publisher of erotic material in the early 19th century was George Cannon (1789–1854), followed in mid-century by William Dugdale (1800–1868) and John Camden Hotten (1832–1873).
An evaluation of 19th-century (pre-1885) and earlier underground erotica, from the author's own private archive, is provided by Victorian writer Henry Spencer Ashbee, using the pseudonym "Pisanus Fraxi", in his bibliographical trilogy Index Librorum Prohibitorum (1877), Centuria Librorum Absconditorum (1879) and Catena Librorum Tacendorum (1885). His plot summaries of the works he discusses in these privately printed volumes are themselves a contribution to the genre. Originally of very limited circulation, changing attitudes have led to his work now being widely available.
Notable European works of erotica at this time were Gamiani, or Two Nights of Excess (1833) by Frenchman Alfred de Musset and Venus in Furs (1870) by the Austrian author Leopold von Sacher-Masoch. The latter erotic novella brought the attention of the world to the phenomenon of masochism, named after the author.
Toward the end of the 19th century, a more "cultured" form of erotica began to appear by poets such as Algernon Charles Swinburne, who pursued themes of paganism, lesbianism and sado-masochism in such works as Lesbia Brandon and in contributions to The Whippingham Papers (1888) edited by St George Stock, author of The Romance of Chastisement (1866). This was associated with the Decadent movement, in particular, with Aubrey Beardsley and the Yellow Book. But it was also to be found in France, amongst such writers as Pierre Louys, author of Les chansons de Bilitis (1894) (a celebration of lesbianism and sexual awakening).
Pioneering works of gay male erotica from this time were The Sins of the Cities of the Plain (1881), which features the celebrated Victorian transvestite duo of Boulton and Park as characters, and Teleny, or The Reverse of the Medal (1893).
Two important publishers of erotic fiction at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th were Leonard Smithers (1861–1907) and Charles Carrington (1867–1921), both of whom were subject to legal injunctions from the British authorities in order to prohibit their trade in such material. Because of this legal harassment the latter conducted his business from Paris. Erotic fiction published by Carrington at this period includes Raped on the Railway: a True Story of a Lady who was first ravished and then flagellated on the Scotch Express (1894) and The Memoirs of Dolly Morton (1899) set on a slave-plantation in the Southern States of America.
20th century
20th-century erotic fiction includes such classics of the genre as: Suburban Souls (1901), published by Carrington and possibly written by him also; The Confessions of Nemesis Hunt (issued in three volumes 1902, 1903, 1906), attributed to George Reginald Bacchus, printed by Duringe of Paris for Leonard Smithers in London; Josephine Mutzenbacher (1906) by Anon. (presumably Felix Salten); Sadopaideia (1907) by Anon. (possibly Algernon Charles Swinburne); Les Mémoires d'un jeune Don Juan (1907) and the somewhat disturbing Les onze mille verges (1907) by Guillaume Apollinaire; The Way of a Man with a Maid (1908) and A Weekend Visit by Anon.; Pleasure Bound Afloat (1908), Pleasure Bound Ashore (1909) and Maudie (1909) by Anon. (probably George Reginald Bacchus), and My Lustful Adventures (1911) by the pseudonymous 'Ramrod'; Manuel de civilité pour les petites filles à l'usage des maisons d'éducation (1917) and Trois filles de leur mère (1926) by Pierre Louys; Story of the Eye (1928) by Georges Bataille; Tropic of Cancer (1934) and Tropic of Capricorn (1938) by Henry Miller; The Story of O (1954) by Pauline Réage; Helen and Desire (1954) and Thongs (1955) by Alexander Trocchi; Ada, or Ardor (1969) by Vladimir Nabokov; Journal (1966), Delta of Venus (1978) and Little Birds (1979) by Anaïs Nin and The Bicycle Rider (1985) by Guy Davenport and Lila Says (1999) by an anonymous author.
A study found that the most popular of the Armed Services Editions paperbacks distributed to American soldiers during World War II "are novels that deal frankly with sexual relations (regardless of tone, literary merit and point of view, no matter whether the book is serious or humorous, romantically exciting or drably pedestrian)".
Vladimir Nabokov's Lolita is usually described as an erotic novel, but in the view of some it is a literary drama with elements of eroticism. Like Nabokov's Lolita, Johannes Linnankoski's The Song of the Blood-Red Flower is also often described as erotic novel, only a little explicit and cleverly cloaked in gentler romance.
Lolita and The Story of O were published by Olympia Press, a Paris-based publisher, launched in 1953 by Maurice Girodias as a rebadged version of the Obelisk Press he inherited from his father Jack Kahane. It published a mix of erotic fiction and avant-garde literary works. The Girls of Radcliff Hall is a roman à clef novel in the form of a lesbian girls' school story written in the 1930s by the British composer and bon-vivant Gerald Berners, the 14th Lord Berners, under the pseudonym "Adela Quebec", published and distributed privately in 1932.
Another trend in the twentieth century was the rise of the lesbian pulp fiction. Works such as The Price of Salt (1952), Spring Fire (1952), Desert of the Heart (1964), and Patience and Sarah (1969) were only a few examples of this subgenre. Many of the authors were women themselves, such as Gale Wilhelm and Ann Bannon. Many gay men also enjoyed gay pulp fiction, which borrowed the same sexploitation format as the lesbian books.
Asian erotic fiction
Chinese literature has a rich catalogue of erotic novels that were published during the mid-Ming to early-Qing dynasties. Some well-known erotic novels with explicit sexuality during this period include Ruyijun zhuan (The Lord of Perfect Satisfaction), The Embroidered Couch, Su'e pian, Langshi, Chipozi zhuan, Zhulin yeshi, and The Carnal Prayer Mat. The critic Charles Stone has argued that pornographic technique is the "union of banality, obscenity, and repetition", and contains just the "rudiments" of plot, style, and characterization, while anything that is not sexually stimulating is avoided. If this is the case, he concluded, then The Lord of Perfect Satisfaction is the "fountainhead of Chinese erotica", but not pornography. The novel Jin Ping Mei (or The Plum in the Golden Vase), written by an author who used only a pseudonym (as his real name is unknown), is generally regarded as the greatest of all Chinese erotic novels. Its literary status is unparalleled among erotic fiction and it has been described by critic Stephen Marche in the Los Angeles Review of Books as "one of the world's great novels, if not simply the greatest."
There is also a tradition of erotic fiction in Japan. Some portion of this is doujinshi, or independent comics, which are often fan fiction. The sharebon (洒落本) was a pre-modern Japanese literary genre. Plots revolved around humor and entertainment at the pleasure quarters. It is a subgenre of gesaku.
Contemporary erotic fiction
In the 21st century, a number of female authors, including Alison Tyler, Rachel Kramer Bussel, and Carol Queen, rose to prominence. Mitzi Szereto is an editor and author who said she wants to see the term erotica removed from novels and anthologies that include depictions of sexual activities. Other authors celebrate the term but also question why literature featuring sexual activity should be considered outside literary fiction.
The debate was rekindled in 2012 by the release of the 50 Shades of Grey trilogy written by E. L. James. The success of her erotica for every woman, dubbed 'mommyporn', gave rise to satires like Fifty Shames of Earl Grey by 'Fanny Merkin' (real name Andrew Shaffer), a book of essays called Fifty Writers on Fifty Shades (ed. Lori Perkins) and editors of erotic imprints re-evaluating the content and presentation of the genre.
One development in contemporary erotica is the knowledge that many women, and not just men, are aroused by it. This is regardless of whether it is traditional pornography or tailor-made women's erotica. Romantic novels are sometimes marketed as erotica—or vice versa—as "mainstream" romance in recent decades has begun to exhibit blatant (if poetic) descriptions of sex. Erotic romance is a relatively new genre of romance with an erotic theme and very explicit love scenes, but with a romance at the heart of the story. Erotic fantasy is a subgenre of fantasy fiction and utilizes erotica in a fantasy setting. These stories can essentially cover any of the other subgenres of fantasy, such as high fantasy, contemporary fantasy, or even historical fantasy. The extents of the genre to break existing conventions and limits in subject matter have managed to shock popular audiences, with genres such as monster erotica emerging with the ease of digital publishing.
Erotic fantasy fiction has similarities to romantic fantasy but is more explicit. Erotic fantasy can also be found in fan fiction, which uses plot elements and characters from popular fiction such as television, film, or novels. Erotic fan fiction may use characters from existing works in non-canon relationships, such as slash (homoerotic) fan fiction. Fan fiction and its Japanese counterpart, doujinshi, account for an enormous proportion of all erotica written today.
Internet erotic fiction
The Internet and digital revolution in erotic depiction has changed the forms of representing scenes of a sexual nature.
Erotica was present on the Internet from its earliest days, as seen from rec.arts.erotica on Usenet. This news group was a moderated forum for the exchange of erotic stories that predated the creation of the World Wide Web. Most of this migrated to the alt.* hierarchy forums by the 1990s, including alt.sex.stories. The vast majority of Internet erotica is written by amateurs for the enjoyment of the author and readers instead of for profit. The increased interactivity and anonymity allows casual or hobby writers the opportunity not only to author their own stories but also to share them with a world-wide audience. Many authors adopt colorful pseudonyms and can develop cult followings within their genre, although a small number use their real names. Among transgender or non-binary authors, it is a common practice to adopt a feminine or masculine alter-ego, although a writer may use their own given name.
Student erotica
In the 21st century, a new literary genre of student published journals at American universities was started. The following is a partial list of publications:
The Moderator – Bard College
Virgin Mawrtyr – Bryn Mawr College
H-Bomb – Harvard University
Quake – University of Pennsylvania
Squirm – Vassar College
Vita Excolatur – University of Chicago
Bang and Untouchables – Swarthmore College
Boink – Boston University
Other accounts
Writings of prostitutes
Prostitution was the focus of much of the earliest erotic works. The term pornography is derived from the Greek pornographos meaning "writer about prostitutes", originally denoting descriptions of the lives and manners of prostitutes and their customers in Ancient Greece. According to Athenaeus in The Deipnosophists these constituted a considerable genre, with many lubricious treatises, stories and dramas on the subject. A surviving example of this genre is Lucian of Samosata's Dialogues of the Courtesans.
Accounts of prostitution have continued as a major part of the genre of erotic literature. In the 18th century, directories of prostitutes and their services, such as Harris's List of Covent Garden Ladies (1757–1795), provided both entertainment and instruction.
In the 19th century, the sensational journalism of W. T. Stead's The Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon (1885) about the procuring of underage girls into the brothels of Victorian London provided a stimulus for the erotic imagination. Stead's account was widely translated and the revelation of "padded rooms for the purpose of stifling the cries of the tortured victims of lust and brutality" and the symbolic figure of "The Minotaur of London" confirmed European observers worst imaginings about "Le Sadisme anglais" and inspired erotic writers to write of similar scenes set in London or involving sadistic English gentlemen. Such writers include D'Annunzio in Il Piacere, Paul-Jean Toulet in Monsieur de Paur (1898), Octave Mirbeau in Jardin des Supplices (1899) and Jean Lorrain in Monsieur de Phocas (1901).
Well-known recent works in this genre are The Happy Hooker: My Own Story (1971) by the Dutch madame Xaviera Hollander and The Intimate Adventures of a London Call Girl (2005) by Belle de Jour.
Erotic memoirs
Erotic memoirs include Casanova's Histoire de ma vie, from the 18th century. Notable English works of this genre from the 19th century include The Ups and Downs of Life (1867) by Edward Sellon and My Secret Life by "Walter". Edward Sellon was a writer, translator and illustrator of erotic literature who wrote erotica for the pornographic publisher William Dugdale, including such works as The New Epicurean (1865). The true identity of "Walter" is unknown. Ian Gibson, in The Erotomaniac speculates that My Secret Life was actually written by Henry Spencer Ashbee and therefore it is possible that "Walter" is a fiction.
A famous German erotic work of this time, published in two parts in 1868 and 1875 entitled Pauline the Prima Donna purports to be the memoirs of the opera singer Wilhelmine Schröder-Devrient. Various discrepancies with known facts of the singer's life, however, have led many to doubt the veracity of this book and the erotic adventures contained in the second volume, at least, appear to be implausible. These include the author indulging in lesbian sadomasochism, group sex, sodomy, bestiality, scatology, necrophilia, prostitution, and vampirism all before she had reached the age of 27. 20th-century contributions to the genre include Frank Harris's My Life and Loves (1922–27) and the convicted Austrian sex criminal Edith Cadivec's Confessions and Experiences and its sequel Eros, the Meaning of My Life (published together 1930-1). A 21st-century example is One Hundred Strokes of the Brush Before Bed (2004) by Melissa Panarello.
Sex manuals
Sex manuals are among the oldest forms of erotic literature. Three brief fragments of a sex manual written in the fourth century BC that is attributed to Philaenis of Samos have survived. Modern scholars generally regard it as a work of parody probably written by a man, and this was most likely Athenian sophist Polycrates. Other examples of the genre from the classical world include the lost works of Elephantis and Ovid's Ars Amatoria. The Indian Kama Sutra is one of the world's best-known works of this type. The Ananga Ranga, a 12th-century collection of Indian erotic works, is a lesser known one. The Perfumed Garden for the Soul's Recreation, a 16th-century Arabic work by Sheikh Nefzaoui, is also well-known and is often reprinted and translated. There is anecdotal evidence that, as late as the mid-20th century, sex therapists and other physicians prescribed erotic literature as treatment for erectile dysfunction.
The ancient Chinese versions of the sex manual include the texts that contain the Taoist sexual practices. These include books that show illustrations of the ideal sexual behavior because sex in this religion is not considered taboo but a manifestation of the concept of the yin and yang, wherein the male and female engage in an act of "joining of energy" or "joining of essences". The belief is that proper sexual practice is key to achieving good health. The manuals included the Ishinpo text, which is a medical document that also included sections devoted to sexual hygiene and sexual manuals of the Tang and Han dynasties.
Chi kung manuals include warming a wet towel and covering penis for a few minutes, then rubbing one direction away from base of penis hundreds of times daily, similar to chi kung. Squeezing sphincter while semi-erect or fully erect dozens of times daily, particularly a few hours before intercourse will help delay orgasm or enhance non-ejaculatory pleasure. The Universal Tao system was developed by Mantak Chia to teach Taoist meditative and exercise techniques to balance the body and increase and refine one's vital energy, or chi ("chee"). Front and back channel, the back channel is where the perineum is located between anus and scrotum moving up the tailbone to the crown, the front channel is moving down the front of your body down the midline. Breathing up the back channel and then breathing out from the front channel down to and from the abdomen moves chi. Many practices combined help chi to be transformed into spiritual energy or shen.
Not all sex manuals were produced to arouse or inform readers about sexual acts. Some were created as a form of satire or social criticism, as in the case of a mock-sex manual produced in the early sixteenth century by Pietro Aretino. It was in response to the clerical censorship of the nude engravings of the Roman artists Marcantonio Raimondi. This was released in cheap wood, with a corresponding sonnet serving as the voice of the characters.
Legal status
Early legislation
To 1857
Erotic or pornographic works have often been prosecuted, censored and destroyed by the authorities on grounds of obscenity. In Medieval England, erotic or pornographic publications were the concern of the ecclesiastical courts. After the Reformation the jurisdiction of these courts declined in favour of the Crown which licensed every printed book. Prosecutions of books for their erotic content alone were rare and works which attacked the church or state gave much more concern to the authorities than erotica or 'obscene libel' as it was then known. For instance the Licensing Act of 1662 was aimed generally at "heretical, seditious, schismatical or offensive books of pamphlets" rather than just erotica per se. Even this Licensing Act was allowed to lapse in 1695 and no attempt made to renew it.
The first conviction for obscenity in England occurred in 1727, when Edmund Curll was fined for the publication of Venus in the Cloister or The Nun in her Smock under the common law offence of disturbing the King's peace. This set a legal precedent for other convictions. The publication of other books by Curll, however, considered seditious and blasphemous, such as The Memoirs of John Ker, apparently most offended the authorities. Prosecutions of erotica later in the 18th century were rare and were most often taken because of the admixture of seditious and blasphemous material with the porn.
1857–1959
It was the Obscene Publications Act 1857 which made the sale of obscene material a statutory offense, giving the courts power to seize and destroy offending material. The origins of the Act itself were in a trial for the sale of pornography presided over by the Lord Chief Justice, Lord Campbell, at the same time as a debate in the House of Lords over a bill aiming to restrict the sale of poisons. Campbell was taken by the analogy between the two situations, famously referring to the London pornography trade as "a sale of poison more deadly than prussic acid, strychnine or arsenic", and proposed a bill to restrict the sale of pornography; giving statutory powers of destruction would allow for a much more effective degree of prosecution. The bill was controversial at the time, receiving strong opposition from both Houses of Parliament. It was passed on the assurance by the Lord Chief Justice that it was "intended to apply exclusively to works written for the single purpose of corrupting the morals of youth and of a nature calculated to shock the common feelings of decency in any well-regulated mind." The House of Commons successfully amended it so as not to apply to Scotland, on the grounds that Scottish common law was sufficiently stringent.
The Act provided for the seizure and destruction of any material deemed to be obscene, and held for sale or distribution, following information being laid before a "court of summary jurisdiction" (magistrates' court). The Act required that following evidence of a common-law offence being committed – for example, on the report of a plain-clothes policeman who had successfully purchased the material – the court could issue a warrant for the premises to be searched and the material seized. The proprietor then would be called upon to attend court and give reason why the material should not be destroyed. Critically, the Act did not define "obscene", leaving this to the will of the courts.
While the Act itself did not change, the scope of the work affected by it did. In 1868 Sir Alexander Cockburn, Campbell's successor as Lord Chief Justice, held in an appeal that the test of obscenity was "whether the tendency of the matter charged as obscenity is to deprave and corrupt those whose minds are open to such immoral influences and into whose hands a publication of this sort may fall." This was clearly a major change from Campbell's opinion only ten years before – the test now being the effect on someone open to corruption who obtained a copy, not whether the material was intended to corrupt or offend.
Cockburn's declaration remained in force for several decades, and most of the high profile seizures under the Act relied on this interpretation. Known as the Hicklin test no cognisance was taken of the literary merit of a book or on the extent of the offending text within the book in question. The widened scope of the original legislation led to the subsequent notorious targeting of now acknowledged classics of world literature by such authors as Zola, James Joyce and D.H. Lawrence plus medical textbooks by such as Havelock Ellis rather than the blatant erotica which was the original target of this law.
In contrast to England, where actions against obscene literature were the preserve of the magistrates, such actions were the responsibility of the Postal Inspection Service in America. They were embodied in the federal and state Comstock laws and named after the postal officer and anti-obscenity crusader Anthony Comstock, who proved himself officious in the work of suppression both in his official capacity and through his New York Society for the Suppression of Vice. The first such law was the Comstock Act, (ch. 258 enacted March 3, 1873) which made it illegal to send any "obscene, lewd, and/or lascivious" materials through the mail. Twenty-four states passed similar prohibitions on materials distributed within the states.
Modern legislation
This question of whether a book had literary merit eventually prompted a change in the law in both America and the UK. In the United Kingdom the Obscene Publications Act 1959 provided for the protection of "literature" but conversely increased the penalties against pure "pornography." The law defined obscenity and separated it from serious works of art.
The new definition read:
[A]n article shall be deemed to be obscene if its effect or (where the article comprises two or more distinct items) the effect of any one of its items is, if taken as a whole, such as to tend to deprave and corrupt persons who are likely, having regard to all relevant circumstances, to read, see or hear the matter contained or embodied in it.
After this piece of legislation questions of the literary merit of the work in question were allowed to be put before the judge and jury as in the Lady Chatterley trial. The publishers of the latter book were found not guilty by the court on the grounds of the literary merit of the book. In later prosecutions of literary erotica under the provisions of the act, however, even purely pornographic works with no apparent literary merit escaped destruction by the authorities. Purely textual pornographic texts, with no hint of libel, ceased to be brought to trial following the collapse of the Inside Linda Lovelace trial in 1976. However, in October 2008, a man was unsuccessfully prosecuted under the Obscene Publications Act (the R v Walker trial) for posting fictional written material to the Internet allegedly describing the kidnap, rape and murder of the pop group Girls Aloud.
The First Amendment to the United States Constitution gives protection to written fiction, although the legal presumption that it does not protect obscene literature has never been overcome. Instead, pornography has successfully been defined legally as non-obscene, or "obscene" been shown to be so vague a term as to be unenforceable. In 1998 Brian Dalton was charged with creation and possession of child pornography under an Ohio obscenity law. The stories were works of fiction concerning sexually abusing children which he wrote and kept, unpublished, in his private journal. He accepted a plea bargain, pleaded guilty and was convicted. Five years later, the conviction was vacated.
Importing books and texts across national borders can sometimes be subject to more stringent laws than in the nations concerned. Customs officers are often permitted to seize even merely 'indecent' works that would be perfectly legal to sell and possess once one is inside the nations concerned. Canada has been implicated in such border seizures.
Although the Obscene Publications Act of 1857, as well as 1959 legislation, outlawed the publication, retail and trafficking of certain types of writings and images regarded as pornographic, and would order the destruction of shop and warehouse stock meant for sale, the private possession of and viewing of pornography was not prosecuted in those times. In some nations, even purely textual erotic literature is still deemed illegal and is also prosecuted.
See also
Notes
References
Brulotte, Gaëtan & Phillips, John (eds.) (2006) Encyclopedia of Erotic Literature. New York: Routledge
Gibson, Ian (2001) The Erotomaniac London: Faber & Faber
H. Montgomery Hyde (1964) A History of Pornography. London: Heinemann
Kearney, Patrick J. (1982) A History of Erotic Literature, Parragon,
Kronhausen, Phyllis & Eberhard (1959) Pornography and the Law, The Psychology of Erotic Realism and Pornography. New York: Ballantine Books
Kronhausen, Phyllis & Eberhard (1969) Erotic Fantasies, a Study of Sexual Imagination. New York: Grove Press
Muchembled, Robert (2008) Orgasm and the West: a history of pleasure from the 16th century to the present, Polity,
Weller, Michael J. The Secret Blue Book. Home Baked Books,, London.
Williams, Linda (1999) Hardcore: Power, Pleasure, and the 'Frenzy of the Visible'''. Berkeley: University of California Press
Further reading
With an introduction by G. Legman.
A Bibliography of Works Published by Charles Carrington
History
General
Atkins, John (1970) Sex in Literature, 4 vols. 1970–1982
Bertolotti, Alessandro. Curiosa la bibliotheque érotique. Paris, Editions La Martiniere, 2012,
Di Folco, Philippe, ed. (2005) Dictionnaire de la pornographie. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France,
Englisch, Paul (1927) Geschichte der erotischen Literatur, 1927, Reprint 1977,
Fischer, Carolin (1997) Gärten der Lust: eine Geschichte erregender Lektüren, Stuttgart; Weimar: Metzler , paperback: München: Dt. Taschenbuch-Verlag, 2000
Gnüg, Hiltrud (2002) Der erotische Roman: von der Renaissance bis zur Gegenwart, Ditzingen: Reclam
Kronhausen, Eberhard & Phyllis (1969) Bücher aus dem Giftschrank: eine Analyse der verbotenen und verfemten erotischen Literatur Pia, Pascal, ed. (1971) Dictionnaire des œuvres érotiques. Paris: Mercure de France
Schreiber, Hermann (1969) Erotische Texte: sexualpathologische Erscheinungen in der Literatur Spedding, Patrick, curator (2010) Lewd and Scandalous Books: An exhibition of material from the Monash University Library Rare Books Collection, Clayton (Melbourne): Monash University,
Ancient world and Middle Ages
Leick, G. (1994) Sex and Eroticism in Mesopotamian Literature
Mulchandani, S. (2006) Erotic Literature of Ancient India: Kama Sutra, Koka Shastra, Gita Govindam, Ananga Ranga
Modern times to 1900
Goulemot, J. (1993) Gefährliche Bücher: erotische Literatur, Pornographie, Leser und Zensur im 18. Jahrhundert
Moulton, I. (2000) Before Pornography: erotic writing in early modern Europe''
External links
Literary genres
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual%20giftedness
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Intellectual giftedness
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Intellectual giftedness is an intellectual ability significantly higher than average. It is a characteristic of children, variously defined, that motivates differences in school programming. It is thought to persist as a trait into adult life, with various consequences studied in longitudinal studies of giftedness over the last century. There is no generally agreed definition of giftedness for either children or adults, but most school placement decisions and most longitudinal studies over the course of individual lives have followed people with IQs in the top 2.5 percent of the population—that is, IQs above 130. Definitions of giftedness also vary across cultures.
The various definitions of intellectual giftedness include either general high ability or specific abilities. For example, by some definitions, an intellectually gifted person may have a striking talent for mathematics without equally strong language skills. In particular, the relationship between artistic ability or musical ability and the high academic ability usually associated with high IQ scores is still being explored, with some authors referring to all of those forms of high ability as "giftedness", while other authors distinguish "giftedness" from "talent". There is still much controversy and much research on the topic of how adult performance unfolds from trait differences in childhood, and what educational and other supports best help the development of adult giftedness.
Identification
Overview
The identification of giftedness first emerged after the development of IQ tests for school placement. It has since become an important issue for schools, as the instruction of gifted students often presents special challenges. During the twentieth century, gifted children were often classified via IQ tests; other identification procedures have been proposed but are only used in a minority of cases in most public schools in the English-speaking world. Developing useful identification procedures for students who could benefit from a more challenging school curriculum is an ongoing problem in school administration.
Because of the key role that gifted education programs in schools play in the identification of gifted individuals, both children and adults, it is worthwhile to examine how schools define the term "gifted".
Definitions
Since Lewis Terman in 1916, psychometricians and psychologists have sometimes equated giftedness with high IQ. Later researchers (e.g., Raymond Cattell, J. P. Guilford, and Louis Leon Thurstone) have argued that intellect cannot be expressed in such a unitary manner, and have suggested more multifaceted approaches to intelligence.
Research conducted in the 1980s and 1990s has provided data that supports notions of multiple components to intelligence. This is particularly evident in the reexamination of "giftedness" by Sternberg and Davidson in their collection of articles Conceptions of Giftedness (1986; second edition 2005). The many different conceptions of giftedness presented, although distinct, are interrelated in several ways. Most of the investigators define giftedness in terms of multiple qualities, not all of which are intellectual. IQ scores are often viewed as inadequate measures of giftedness. Motivation, high self-concept, and creativity are key qualities in many of these broadened conceptions of giftedness.
Joseph Renzulli's (1978) "three ring" definition of giftedness is one frequently mentioned conceptualization of giftedness. Renzulli's definition, which defines gifted behaviors rather than gifted individuals, is composed of three components as follows: Gifted behavior consists of behaviors that reflect an interaction among three basic clusters of human traits—above average ability, high levels of task commitment, and high levels of creativity. Individuals capable of developing gifted behavior are those possessing or capable of developing this composite set of traits and applying them to any potentially valuable area of human performance. Persons who manifest or are capable of developing an interaction among the three clusters require a wide variety of educational opportunities and services that are not ordinarily provided through regular instructional programs.
In Identifying Gifted Children: A Practical Guide, Susan K. Johnsen explains that gifted children all exhibit the potential for high performance in the areas included in the United States' federal definition of gifted and talented students:
There is a federal government statutory definition of gifted and talented students in the United States.
This definition has been adopted partially or completely by the majority of the individual states in the United States (which have the main responsibility for education policy as compared to the federal government). Most states have a definition similar to that used in the State of Texas:
The major characteristics of these definitions are (a) the diversity of areas in which performance may be exhibited (e.g., intellectual, creativity, artistic, leadership, academically), (b) the comparison with other groups (e.g., those in general education classrooms or of the same age, experience, or environment), and (c) the use of terms that imply a need for development of the gift (e.g., capability and potential).
Since the late 90s, the development of the brain of people with high IQ scores has been shown to be different to that of people with average IQ scores. A longitudinal study over 6 years has shown that high-IQ children have a thinner cerebral cortex when young, which then grows quickly and becomes significantly thicker than the other children's by the time they became teenagers.
Identification methods
In psychology, identification of giftedness is usually based on IQ scores. The threshold of IQ = 130 is defined by statistical rarity. By convention, the 5% of scores who fall more than two standard deviations from the mean (or more accurately 1.96) are considered atypical. In the case of intelligence, these 5% are partitioned to both sides of the range of scores, and include the 2.5% who score more than two standard deviations below the mean and the 2.5% who score more than two standard deviations above the mean. Because the average of IQ is 100 and its standard deviation is 15, this rule places the threshold for intellectual disability at IQ = 70, and the symmetrical threshold for giftedness at IQ = 130 (rounded). This arbitrary threshold is used by most psychologists in most countries.
While IQ testing has the advantage of providing an objective basis for the diagnosis of giftedness, psychologists are expected to interpret IQ scores in the context of all available information: standardized intelligence tests ignore actual achievement and can fail to detect giftedness. For example, a specific learning disorder such as dyslexia or dyspraxia can easily decrease scores on intelligence tests and hide true intellectual ability.
In educational settings, many schools in the US use a variety of assessments of students' capability and potential when identifying gifted children. These may include portfolios of student work, classroom observations, achievement tests, and IQ test scores. Most educational professionals accept that no single criterion can be used in isolation to accurately identify a gifted child.
One of the criteria used in identification may be an IQ test score. Until the late 1960s, when "giftedness" was defined solely based on an IQ score, a school district simply set an arbitrary score (usually in the 130 range) and a student either did or did not "make the cut". This method is still used by many school districts because it is simple and objective. Although a high IQ score is not the sole indicator of giftedness, usually if a student has a very high IQ, that is a significant indicator of high academic potential. Because of this consideration, if a student scores highly on an IQ test, but performs at an average or below-average level academically, school officials may think that this issue warrants further investigation as an example of underachievement. However, scholars of educational testing point out that a test-taker's scores on any two tests may vary, so a lower score on an achievement test than on an IQ test neither necessarily indicates that the test-taker is underachieving nor necessarily that the school curriculum is under-challenging.
IQ classification varies from one publisher to another. IQ tests have poor reliability for determining test-takers' rank order at higher IQ levels, and are perhaps only effective at determining whether a student is gifted rather than distinguishing among levels of giftedness. The Wechsler test manuals have standard score ceilings of 160. However, higher ceilings, including scores into the exceptionally and profoundly gifted range, exist for the WISC-IV and WISC-V, which were specifically normed on large samples of gifted children. Today, the Wechsler child and adult IQ tests are by far the most commonly used IQ tests in hospitals, schools, and private psychological practice. Older versions of the Stanford-Binet test, now obsolete, and the Cattell IQ test purport to yield IQ scores of 180 or higher, but those scores are not comparable to scores on currently normed tests. The Stanford-Binet Third Revision (Form L-M) yields consistently higher numerical scores for the same test-taker than scores obtained on current tests. This has prompted some authors on identification of gifted children to promote the Stanford-Binet form L-M, which has long been obsolete, as the only test with a sufficient ceiling to identify the exceptionally and profoundly gifted, despite the Stanford-Binet L-M never having been normed on a representative national sample. Because the instrument is outdated, current results derived from the Stanford-Binet L-M generate inflated and inaccurate scores. The IQ assessment of younger children remains debated.
While many people believe giftedness is a strictly quantitative difference, measurable by IQ tests, some authors on the "experience of being" have described giftedness as a fundamentally different way of perceiving the world, which in turn affects every experience had by the gifted individual. This view is doubted by some scholars who have closely studied gifted children longitudinally.
Across cultures
Characteristics and attributes associated with giftedness varies across cultures. While intelligence is extremely important in Western and some other cultures, such an emphasis is not consistent throughout the world. For example, in Japan, there is more of a value placed on an individual's motivation and diligence. When Japanese students are given a task, they attribute success to factors like effort, whereas American students tend to attribute success to ability. Similarly, when Japanese students fail, they refer the failure to lack of effort. On the other hand, American students believe failure is due to a lack of ability. There are conceptions in rural Kenya that identify four types of intelligence: initiative (paro), knowledge and skills (rieko), respect (luoro), and comprehension of how to handle real-life problems (winjo). Chan cites the Chinese belief that aspects of giftedness are innate, but that people can become gifted through industriousness, perseverance, and learning. Not all who are intellectually gifted display every noticeable characteristic.
There are many reasons gifted students who have various backgrounds are not as successful at Western intelligence/achievement tests:
Not used to answering questions just for the purpose of showing knowledge – they must use their knowledge to respond to authentic problems.
May perform poorly on paper-and-pencil tasks in an artificial lab setting.
May perform poorly on a culturally biased test, especially if not their own.
Have test anxiety or suffer from stereotype threat.
Many traits that demonstrate intellectual giftedness are identified across a multitude of cultures, such as:
Displaying advanced reasoning and creative thinking, generating ideas beyond the norm
Resourceful and adaptable
Strongly motivated to understand the world
Well developed vocabulary in native language
Learns concepts quickly, and builds/develops these concepts
Strong sense of justice and morality
Displays leadership skills in various ways, such as persuasion, taking initiative, and leading by example
Comprehending and using humor beyond their age
Developmental theory
Gifted children may develop asynchronously: their minds are often ahead of their physical growth, and specific cognitive and emotional functions are often developed differently (or to differing extents) at different stages of development. One frequently cited example of asynchronicity in early cognitive development is Albert Einstein, who was delayed in speech, but whose later fluency and accomplishments belied this initial delay. Psychologist and cognitive scientist Steven Pinker theorized that, rather than viewing Einstein's (and other famously gifted late-talking individuals) adult accomplishments as existing distinct from, or in spite of, his early language deficits, and rather than viewing Einstein's lingual delay itself as a "disorder", it may be that Einstein's genius and his delay in speaking were developmentally intrinsic to one another.
It has been said that gifted children may advance more quickly through stages established by post-Freudian developmentalists such as Jean Piaget. Gifted individuals also experience the world differently, resulting in certain social and emotional issues.
Francoy Gagne's (2000) Differentiated Model of Giftedness and Talent (DMGT) is a developmental theory that distinguishes giftedness from talent, offering explanation on how outstanding natural abilities (gifts) develop into specific expert skills (talents). According to DMGT theory, "one cannot become talented without first being gifted, or almost so". There are six components that can interact in countless and unique ways that foster the process of moving from having natural abilities (giftedness) to systematically developed skills.
These components consist of the gift (G) itself, chance (C), environmental catalyst (EC), intrapersonal catalyst (IC), learning/practice (LP) and the outcome of talent (T). It is important to know that (C), (IC), and (EC) can facilitate but can also hinder the learning and training of becoming talented. The learning/practice is the moderator. It is through the interactions, both environmental and intrapersonal that influence the process of learning and practice along with/without chance that natural abilities are transformed into talents.
Multiple intelligences theory
Multiple intelligences has been associated with giftedness or overachievement of some developmental areas (Colangelo, 2003). Multiple intelligences has been described as an attitude towards learning, instead of techniques or strategies (Cason, 2001).
Howard Gardner proposed in Frames of Mind (Gardner 1983/1994) that intellectual giftedness may be present in areas other than the typical intellectual realm. The concept of multiple intelligences (MI) makes the field aware of additional potential strengths and proposes a variety of curricular methods. Gardner argued that there are eight intelligences, or different areas in which people assimilate or learn about the world around them: interpersonal, intrapersonal, bodily-kinesthetic, linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, naturalistic, and spatial-visual.
The most common criticism of Gardner's MI theory is "the belief by scholars that each of the seven multiple intelligences is in fact a cognitive style rather than a stand-alone construct". Others consider the theory not to be sufficiently empirical. This perspective has also been criticized on the grounds that it is ad hoc: that Gardner is not expanding the definition of the word "intelligence", but rather denies the existence of intelligence as traditionally understood, and instead uses the word "intelligence" where other people have traditionally used words like "ability" and "aptitude".
Identification of gifted students with MI is a challenge since there is no simple test to give to determine giftedness of MI. Assessing by observation is potentially most accurate, but potentially highly subjective. MI theory can be applied to not only gifted students, but it can be a lens through which all students can be assessed. This more global perspective may lead to more child-centered instruction and meet the needs of a greater number of children (Colangelo, 2003).
Characteristics
Generally, gifted or advanced students learn more quickly, deeply, and broadly than their peers. They may talk early, learn to read early, and progress at the same level as normal children who are significantly older. Gifted students also tend to demonstrate high reasoning ability, creativity, curiosity, a large vocabulary, and an excellent memory. They can often master concepts with few repetitions. They may also be perfectionistic, and frequently question authority. Some have trouble relating to or communicating with their peers because of disparities in vocabulary size (especially in the early years), personality, interests, and motivation. As children, they may prefer the company of older children or adults. Teachers may notice that gifted students tend to hover around them more than the other students. This is because gifted students sometimes think that they cannot relate to the students their own age, so they try to communicate with the teacher.
Giftedness is frequently not evenly distributed throughout all intellectual spheres. One gifted student may excel in solving logic problems yet be a poor speller. Another may be able to read and write at a far above-average level yet have trouble with mathematics.
It is possible that there are different types of giftedness with their own unique features, just as there are different types of developmental delay.
Giftedness may become noticeable in individuals at different points of development. While early development (i.e. speaking or reading at a very young age) usually comes with giftedness, it is not a determinant factor of giftedness.
Savantism
Savants are individuals who perform exceptionally in a single field of learning. More often, the terms savant and savantism describe people with a competence level in a single field of learning well beyond what is considered normal, even among the gifted community. Such individuals are alternatively termed idiot savants ─ a term that has been mentioned as early as the eighteenth century. Autistic savantism refers to the exceptional abilities occasionally exhibited by people with autism or other pervasive developmental disorders. These abilities often come with below-age-level functioning in most, if not all areas of skilled performance. The term was introduced in a 1978 article in Psychology Today describing this condition. It is also proposed that there are savants with normal or superior IQ such as those with Asperger syndrome, who demonstrate special abilities involving numbers, mathematics, mechanical, and spatial skills.
Gifted minority students in the United States
The majority of students enrolled in gifted programs are White; Black and Hispanic students constitute a smaller proportion than their enrollment in school. For example, statistics from 1993 indicate that in the U.S., Black students represented 16.2% of public school students, but only constituted 8.4% of students enrolled in gifted education programs. Similarly, while Hispanic students represented 9% of public school students, these students only represented 4.7% of those identified as gifted. However, Asian students make up only 3.6% of the student body, yet constitute 14% in the gifted programs. Poor students are also underrepresented in gifted programs, even more than Black and Hispanic students are.
Lack of equity and access in programs for the gifted has been acknowledged since the early twentieth century. In the 1920s, research by Lillian Steele Proctor pointed to systemic racism as a contributor to the relative invisibility of gifted African American youth. In their 2004 study, "Addressing the Achievement Gap Between Minority and Nonminority Children by Increasing Access to Gifted Programs" Olszewski-Kubilius et al. write that minority students are "less likely to be nominated by teachers as potential candidates for gifted programs and, if nominated, are less likely to be selected for the program, particularly when such traditional measures as I.Q. and achievement tests are used for identification."
This underrepresentation of such students in gifted programs is attributed to a multiplicity of factors including cultural bias of testing procedures, selective referrals and educator bias, and reliance on deficit-based paradigms. To address the inequities in assessment procedures, researchers suggest the use of multiple tests and alternative methods of testing, such as performance-based assessment measures, oral-expressiveness measures as well as non-verbal ability assessments (such as Naglieri Nonverbal Abilities Tests (NNAT) or Raven's Matrix Analogies Tests).
According to 2013-2014 data collected by the Office of Civil Rights of the Department of Education, White students have more opportunities and exposure to attending schools that offer gifted and talented education programs (GATE) than racial and ethnic minority students, specifically Black and Latino students. Data collected by the Office of Civil Rights department of the Department of Education also reveal that racial/ethnic minority students are underrepresented in gifted and talented education programs. Forty-nine percent of all students enrolled in schools that offer GATE programs are White. Whereas 42% of all students enrolled in schools that offer GATE programs are Latino and Black. Thus revealing that white people have more opportunities to be a part of a school that offers GATE programs. The issue is within these GATE programs 29% of the students are Latino and Black and 57% are White (U.S. Department of Education, 2016).
Weinstein's (2002) suggests that some teachers recommend racial minority students – with the exception of Asian students – to special education and remedial classes more often than gifted and talented classes due to teacher expectancy biases placed on racial minority students. Teachers' expectations of their students' academic performance influence how students perceive themselves. If a teacher expects more success academically from specific students, those students are prone to displaying behavior and work ethic that will set them apart from others in a positive light. Whereas if a teacher only expects the bare minimum from his or her students, those students will merely do what is expected of them (Weinstein, 2002).
Racial minority students who are perceived as being disadvantaged from their peers in regards to socioeconomic status tend to have less supportive relations with their teachers (Fitzpatrick, 2015). Due to this lack of support, teachers do not expect these disadvantaged students to go above and beyond, therefore they are often overlooked when it is time for gifted and talented education program nominations. Research suggests that teacher expectancy bias can also be diminish by matching the racial demographics of students to that of teachers. Gershenson and colleagues (2016) found that non-Black teachers held low expectations of their black students specifically in relation to black male students and math. Whereas, Black teachers held high expectations to black male students in regards to math. This finding suggests that racial diversity in our educators is a positive step toward diminishing teacher expectancy bias.
Weinstein and colleagues (1991) aimed to change the low expectations attached to racial minority students of an urban high school that placed many Black and Latino students in remedial programs rather than college preparatory or honor classes. The study aimed to prepare these racial minority students for college-level academic work while attending high school. With positive teacher attitudes toward students and greater teacher self-efficacy, the students who were once on track to being recommended for remedial classes were performing at advanced academic levels after 2 years of intervention. They were also more heavily involved in leadership roles at their high school. This study supports the claim that teacher expectancy contributes to how a student sees him or herself in regards to achievements (Weinstein et al., 1991).
Gifted students of color experience success when multicultural content is incorporated in the curriculum and furthermore when the curriculum itself is designed to be culturally and linguistically compatible. A culturally diverse curriculum and instruction encourages gifted minority students to experience a sense of belonging and validation as scholars. Furthermore, the educator's role in this process is significant as Lee et al. argue that "[t]eacher awareness and understanding of students' racial and cultural differences and their ability to incorporate multicultural perspectives into curricular content and instructional techniques may counter gifted minority students' discomfort in being one of the few minority students in gifted programs."
Twice-exceptional
The term twice-exceptional was coined by James J. Gallagher to denote students who are both gifted and have disabilities. In other words, twice-exceptional students are those who have two special needs. For instance, they might have gifted learning needs and a learning disability. Or, they may be a gifted learner and have a developmental disability, such as autism spectrum disorder.
People have known about twice-exceptional students for thirty years; however, identification and program strategies remain ambiguous. These students represent a unique challenge for the educational system. Teachers and educators will need to make special accommodations for their learning deficits (such as remediation), yet adapt the curriculum to meet their advanced learning needs (for instance, through acceleration or enrichment). Twice-exceptional students are considered to be at risk because they are hidden within the general population of their educational environment, and often viewed as either underachievers or average learners.
Early identification and intervention is critical; however, giftedness in the twice-exceptional population is often identified later than in the average population as it is masked by the disability. The disabilities may include auditory processing weaknesses, sensory-motor integration issues, visual perceptual difficulties, spatial disorientation, dyslexia, and attention deficits. Recognition of learning difficulties among the gifted is made extremely difficult by virtue of their ability to compensate. Among the signs that the student may be twice-exceptional are apparent inconsistencies between abilities and results, deficits in short-term memory and attention, and negative behaviors such as being sarcastic, negative, or aggressive.
A child prodigy who demonstrates qualities to be twice-exceptional may encounter additional difficulties. With insight at a young age, it is possible for them to be constantly aware of the risk of failure. This can be detrimental to their emotional state and academic achievement. If a child comprehends a subject well, but due to a developmental disorder receives poor grades in a subject, the child may have difficulty understanding why there is little success in that subject.
Social and emotional issues
Isolation
Social isolation is a common trait in gifted individuals, especially those with no social network of gifted peers. In order to gain popularity, gifted children will often try to hide their abilities to win social approval. Strategies include underachievement (discussed below) and the use of less sophisticated vocabulary when among same-age peers than when among family members or other trusted individuals.
Some believe that the isolation experienced by gifted individuals is not caused by giftedness itself, but by society's response to giftedness and to the rarity of peers. Plucker and Levy have noted that, "in this culture, there appears to be a great pressure for people to be 'normal' with a considerable stigma associated with giftedness or talent." To counteract this problem, gifted education professionals recommend creating a peer group based on common interests and abilities. The earlier this occurs, the more effective it is likely to be in preventing isolation. Since the mid-1940s, several high-IQ societies of varying levels of selectivity have been established to help gifted individuals find intellectual peers, the oldest ones being Mensa and Intertel, established in 1946 and 1966 respectively.
Some research suggests that mathematically gifted adolescents might have deficiencies in social valuation & mentalization, while gifted adolescents in general may struggle with social adaptive learning, but these conclusions are not supported by a large literature.
Perfectionism
Perfectionism, while considered to have many positive aspects, can be another issue for gifted individuals. It is encouraged by the fact that gifted individuals tend to be easily successful in much of what they do.
Healthy perfectionism refers to having high standards, a desire to achieve, conscientiousness, or high levels of responsibility. It is likely to be a virtue rather than a problem, even if gifted children may have difficulty with healthy perfectionism because they set standards that would be appropriate to their mental age (the level at which they think), but they cannot always meet them because they are bound to a younger body, or the social environment is restrictive. In such cases, outsiders may call some behavior perfectionism, while for the gifted this may simply be their standard. It has been said that perfectionism "becomes desirable when it stimulates the healthy pursuit of excellence."
Some believe that perfectionism can be unhealthy. Unhealthy perfectionism stems from equating one's worth as a human being to one's achievements, and the simultaneous belief that any work less than perfect is unacceptable and will lead to criticism. Because perfection in the majority of human activities is neither desirable, nor possible, this cognitive distortion creates self-doubt, performance anxiety, and ultimately procrastination.
Unhealthy perfectionism can be triggered or further exacerbated by parents, siblings, or classmates with good or ill intentions. Parents are usually proud and will extensively praise the gifted child. On the other hand, siblings, peers, and school bullies may generally become jealous or envious of the intellectual ease of the gifted child and tease him or her about any minor imperfection in his or her work, strength, clothes, appearance, or behavior. Either approach—positive reinforcement from parents or negative reactions from siblings and peers for minor flaws—may push gifted children into equating their worth amongst their peers to their own abilities; thus, any imperfection could be viewed as a serious defect in themselves. This unhealthy perfectionism can be further exaggerated when the child counters bullying with the same tactics (i.e., insulting the less exceptional abilities of others), thus creating further disdain in himself for low or even average performance.
There are many theories that try to explain the correlation between perfectionism and giftedness. Perfectionism can become a problem as it frustrates and inhibits achievements.
D. E. Hamachek identified six specific, overlapping types of behavior associated with perfectionism. They are:
Depression
A nagging "I should" feeling
Shame and guilt feelings
Face-saving behavior
Shyness and procrastination
Self-deprecation
Underachievement
Underachievement is a significant issue for gifted learners. There is often a stark gap between the abilities of the gifted individual and their actual accomplishments. Many gifted students will perform extremely well on standardized or reasoning tests, only to fail a class exam. It is estimated that half of gifted children do not perform in school at a level that is up to their abilities. Studies of high school dropouts in the United States estimate that between 18% and 25% of gifted students fail to graduate. This disparity can result from various factors, such as loss of interest in classes that are too easy or negative social consequences of being perceived as smart. Underachievement can also result from emotional or psychological factors, including depression, anxiety, perfectionism, low self esteem, or self-sabotage.
An often-overlooked contributor to underachievement is undiagnosed learning differences. A gifted individual is less likely to be diagnosed with a learning disorder than a non-gifted classmate, as the gifted child can more readily compensate for their paucities. This masking effect is dealt with by understanding that a difference of one standard deviation between scores constitutes a learning disability even if all of the scores are above average. Assessments may also fail to identify some gifted students entirely because their underachieving behaviours keep them from being recognized as exceptional.
Some gifted children may not be aware that they are gifted. One apparently effective way to attempt to reverse underachievement in gifted children includes educating teachers to provide enrichment projects based on students' strengths and interests without attracting negative attention from peers. Other methods include matching the underachiever with an achieving role model, correcting skill deficiencies and ensuring that proper assessments are in place to identify all learning issues with underachieving students.
Depression
It has been thought in the past that there is a correlation between giftedness and depression. This is not an established research finding. As Reis and Renzulli mention, With the exception of creatively gifted adolescents who are talented in writing or the visual arts, studies do not confirm that gifted individuals manifest significantly higher or lower rates or severity of depression than those for the general population. Gifted children's advanced cognitive abilities, social isolation, sensitivity, and uneven development may cause them to face some challenging social and emotional issues, but their problem-solving abilities, advanced social skills, moral reasoning, out-of-school interests, and satisfaction in achievement may help them to be more resilient.
There is also no research that points to suicide attempt rates being higher in gifted adolescents than other adolescents.
See also
Aptitude
Child prodigy
Davidson Institute for Talent Development
Genius
Gifted education
Greatness
Heritability of IQ
High-IQ society
IQ classification
Multipotentiality
Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth
Talented programs
A Nation Deceived: How Schools Hold Back America's Brightest Students
Marland report
References
Bibliography
Alt URL
External links
Educational psychology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universit%C3%A9%20catholique%20de%20Louvain
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Université catholique de Louvain
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UCLouvain or Université catholique de Louvain (also known as the Catholic University of Louvain, the English translation of its French name, and the University of Louvain, its official English name) is Belgium's largest French-speaking university. It is located in Louvain-la-Neuve, which was expressly built to house the university, and Brussels, Charleroi, Mons, Tournai and Namur. Since September 2018, the university has used the branding UCLouvain, replacing the acronym UCL, following a merger with Saint-Louis University, Brussels.
The original University of Louvain (Universitas Lovaniensis) was founded at the centre of the historic town of Leuven (or Louvain) in 1425, and abolished by the law in 1797 making it the first university in Belgium and the Low Countries. This university was the centre of Baianism, Jansenism and Febronianism in Europe. A new university, the State University of Louvain, was founded in 1817 and abolished by the law in 1835. A new catholic university was founded in Mechlin in 1834, the Catholic University of Mechlin and moved in Leuven in 1835 that is frequently, but controversially, identified as a continuation of the older institution. In 1968 the Catholic University of Leuven split into the Dutch-language Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, which stayed in Leuven, and the French-language Université catholique de Louvain, which moved to Louvain-la-Neuve in Wallonia, 30 km southeast of Brussels. Since the 15th century, Leuven/Louvain, as it is still often called, has been a major contributor to the development of Catholic theology.
History
The Catholic University of Leuven, based in Leuven ("Louvain" in French), 30 km east of Brussels, provided lectures in French from its founding in 1834, and in Dutch from 1930. In 1968, the Dutch-language section became the independent Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, which remained in Leuven, while the French-speaking university was expelled to a greenfield campus and town, Louvain-la-Neuve, 30 km south-east of Brussels, in a part of the country where French is the official language. This separation also entailed dividing existing library holdings between the two new universities.
With the democratization of university education already stretching existing structures, plans to expand the French-speaking part of the university at a campus in Brussels or Wallonia were quietly discussed from the early 1960s, but it was not anticipated that the French-speaking section would become an entirely independent university and lose all of its buildings and infrastructure in Leuven. The first stone of the new campus at Louvain-la-Neuve was laid in 1971, and the transfer of faculties to the new site was completed in 1979.According to a 2007 agreement, the University of Louvain was to absorb three smaller French-speaking catholic colleges: the Facultés universitaires Notre-Dame de la Paix (FUNDP) located in Namur, the Facultés universitaires Saint-Louis (FUSL) located in Brussels (later called Saint-Louis University, Brussels) and the Catholic university of Mons (FUCaM) located in Mons and Charleroi. The negotiations for a full merger aborted by an insufficient vote by the general assembly of the FUNDP in December 2010. The result was a merger between the University of Louvain and the FUCaM in Mons, effective from September 15, 2011. The Mons campus is denoted UCLouvain FUCaM Mons. The three universities still collaborate in consortium, the Académie Louvain. Within this group, member universities have coordinated their masters programmes in the fields of economics, management, political sciences and sciences as well as the doctoral programmes in all disciplines.
In September 2018, the University of Louvain (or UCL until then) and Saint-Louis University, Brussels de facto merged, founding the UCLouvain, a denomination they currently share.
Chronology
In 1425, Dukes of Brabant created the University of Louvain (Université de Louvain), which was suppressed under Joseph II, reopened in 1790, and was finally closed under the French Republic in 1797.
In 1817, the State University of Louvain (Université de l'Etat de Louvain) was founded, which closed 15 August 1835.
In 1834, the Catholic bishops of Belgium created the Catholic University of Belgium (Université catholique de Belgique) in Mechlin, also known as the Catholic University of Malines (Université catholique de Malines).
A law passed on 27 September 1835 stated that there would be only one university funded by the State of Belgium in Louvain. The same year, shortly after the suppression of the State University, the Catholic University of Belgium moved to Louvain. It took advantage of the reputation of the city as an ancient university centre and adopted a new name: Catholic University of Louvain (Université catholique de Louvain).
In a Catholic spirit inspired by Pope Gregory XVI, the promoter and first rector of the university, Monseigneur de Ram, wanted to create a shield that would repulse religion's enemies and block every doctrine weakening the base of Catholic society.
The pharmacy school was founded in 1845 and the engineering school in 1865.
In 1884 the Catholic University of Louvain celebrated its fiftieth anniversary.
In 1968, as a result of linguistic issues, the university was divided into two different universities: one French speaking, which moved to the province of Walloon Brabant, and one Dutch speaking, which remained in the same location.
In 1970, these two universities were established by law as the Katholieke Universiteit te Leuven and Université catholique de Louvain.
In 1971, the first foundation stone was laid in Louvain-la-Neuve, a new city constructed for the French-speaking university.
Student population
Evolution of the number of students at the University of Louvain, including the FUCaM in Mons that integrated the UCL in 2011, Saint-Louis University, Brussels that formally integrated the university in 2023.
Faculties and schools
Sector of Human Sciences (SSH)
Faculty of Law and Criminology (DRT), Louvain-la-Neuve
School of Criminology
Saint-Louis Faculty of Law (DRTB), Saint-Louis Brussels
Faculty of Philosophy, Arts and Literature (FIAL), Louvain-la-Neuve
Higher Institute of Philosophy (ISP)
School of Philosophy (EFIL)
Department of Languages and the Arts
French and Romance languages and literature (ROM)
Modern Languages and Literatures (LMOD)
Ancient languages and literatures (classical and oriental) (GLOR)
Modern and ancient languages and literature (LAFR)
Linguistics (LING)
Louvain School of Translation and Interpreting (LSTI)
Department of History, Art History and Archaeology
History (HIST)
Art History, Archaeology and Musicology (ARKE)
Department of Information and Communication
Multilingual communication (MULT)
Performing Arts (THEA)
Information and Communication Sciences and Technologies (ICTS)
Saint-Louis Faculty of Philosophy, Arts and Human Science (PHLB), Saint-Louis Brussels
Marie Haps Faculty of Translation and Interpreting (TIMB), Saint-Louis Brussels
Faculty of Economic, Social and Political Sciences and Communication (ESPO), Louvain-la-Neuve, Mons & Charleroi
Commission for the Aggregation and In-service Training of Teachers (AGES)
School of Communication (COMU)
Economics School of Louvain (ESL)
Interfaculty School of European Studies (EURO)
Hoover Chair - Teaching Commission (HOOV)
Open Faculty of Economic and Social Policy (FOPES)
Louvain School of Political and Social Sciences (PSAD).
Undergraduate Bureau (ESSP)
School of Labour Sciences (TRAV)
Saint-Louis Faculty of Economic, Social and Political Sciences and Communication (ESPB), Saint-Louis Brussels
Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences (PSP), Louvain-la-Neuve
School of Psychology (EPSY)
School of Speech Therapy (ELOG)
School of Education and Training (EDEF)
School of Sexology and Family Sciences (ESFA)
Faculty of Theology (TECO), Louvain-la-Neuve
Doctoral School of Theology and Biblical Studies (EDT)
Departement of Theology (THEO)
Department of Bible Studies (EBIB)
Department of Religious studies (SREL)
Louvain School of Management (LSM), Louvain-la-Neuve, Mons, Namur & Brussels
Saint-Louis Institute for European Studies (IEEB), Saint-Louis Brussels
The faculties of Philosophy, Arts and Human Sciences, Economic, Social, Political and Communication Sciences (ESPB), Law (DRTB), the Institute for European Studies (IEEB) and the Marie-Haps Faculty of Translating and Interpreting of autonomous UCLouvain Saint-Louis Bruxelles campus are not attached to their corresponding counterparts of UCLouvain.
Sector of Health Sciences (SSS)
Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry (MEDE), Brussels
Louvain Medical School (MED)
School of Dentistry and Stomatology (MDEN)
Faculty of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences (FASB), Brussels
School of Pharmacy (FARM)
School of Biomedical Sciences (SBIM)
Faculty of Public Health (FSP), Brussels
Faculty of Motor Sciences (FSM), Louvain-la-Neuve
Sector of Science and Technology
Louvain School of Engineering (EPL), École polytechnique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve
School of Urban and Spatial Planning (URBA)
Faculty of Architecture, Architectural Engineering and Urban Planning (LOCI), Brussels, Tournai & Louvain-la-Neuve
Faculty of Bioengineering (AGRO), Louvain-la-Neuve
Department of Applied Biology and Agricultural Production (BAPA)
Department of Chemistry and Bioindustries (CABI)
Cluster in Environmental Sciences
Faculty of Science (SC), Louvain-la-Neuve
School of Biology (BIOL)
School of Chemistry (CHIM)
School of Geography (GEOG)
School of Physics (PHYS)
School of Mathematics (MATH)
School of Veterinary Medicine (VETE)
School of Statistics, Biostatistics and Actuarial Sciences (LSBA)
Campuses
While the main campus of the University of Louvain is based in Louvain-la-Neuve, it also comprises a campus in Brussels, UCLouvain Brussels Woluwe, in Woluwe-Saint-Lambert, which until recently was called "Louvain-en-Woluwe" hosting the university's sector of medical science and primary academic hospital (8000 students), a campus in Mons called UCLouvain FUCaM Mons (2300 students), a minor installation in Charleroi with 133 students (as of 2011) at UCLouvain Charleroi, an architectural school in Tournai, UCLouvain Tournai, with 540 students (as of 2011), and an architectural school in Brussels, UCLouvain Bruxelles Saint-Gilles, with 570 students (as of 2011). With the merger with Saint-Louis University, it also comprises an independent campus specialized in education and research of social and human sciences in the center of the City of Brussels, UCLouvain Saint-Louis - Bruxelles and the Marie-Haps Faculty of Translating and Interpreting in Ixelles' European quarter, next to the European Parliament (4150 students).
Hospitals
UCLouvain's main medical implementation is in UCLouvain Brussels Woluwe, Woluwe-Saint-Lambert, Brussels, where the faculty of medicine is installed.
Cliniques universitaires Saint-Luc, Brussels
CHU UCLouvain Namur, Namur
CHU UCLouvain Dinant-Godinne, Dinant and Yvoir.
Centre Hospitalier Neurologique William Lennox, Louvain-la-Neuve
Museums and collections
The UCLouvain hosts Belgium's largest university museum in Louvain-la-Neuve; the Musée L. It exhibits part of the university's 32,000 piece wide collection of art and scientific objects including works of Dürer, Van Dyck, Goya, Rodin, Picasso, Magritte or Alechinski, sculptures, archaeological and ethnographic objects or specimens of natural history.
The UCLouvain FUCaM Mons campus also owns the extended collection of the Convent of the Black Sisters in the city-center of Mons, where the university has placed its Ateliers des FUCaM campus.
UCLouvain Saint-Louis Brussels also owns a classical and modern art collection, primarily paintings recovered from its original campus in Mechelen.
Rankings
The University of Louvain educates around 27,261 students from 127 nationalities in all areas of studies at its different campuses. It has educated a large part of Belgium's elite and is still considered, with its Dutch-speaking sister, as a centre of excellence in many fields. In 2006, it was ranked 76th in the world universities ranking established by the Times Higher Education supplement (24th in Europe).
In the 2011 QS World University Rankings the University of Louvain was ranked 125th overall in the world, moving up one place from its position of joint 126th in the 2009 THE–QS World University Rankings (in 2010 Times Higher Education World University Rankings and QS World University Rankings parted ways to produce separate rankings). An overview of the THE-QS Rankings:
QS World University Rankings
Student activities
Cercles
Cercles are Student Societies or Fraternities based around each faculty. The Cercles, along with the Régionales (which are based around their respective regions of origin) coordinate and manage most of the students' animation and nightlife. Most Cercles run small bars to fund their activities, and also jointly operate a larger nightclub, "La Casa".
Cercles and Régionales are run exclusively by member students known as the committee. These members are elected every year, usually by voting from all members (active or otherwise) wishing to participate, although some Cercles restrict the number of possible voters in some cases.
Aside from promoting student folklore and coordinating student animation, Cercles also offer academic aid to students in their respective faculties and organize more cultural activities, such as visits to museums and/or other cities, conferences, and low-cost trips for students (for example skiing in the Alps during the Winter Break).
Every Cercle and Régionale has its own customs and traditions, but some are practiced by all:
The Baptême () is a hazing ceremony used by most to induct new members, who then participate in a number of trials and activities involving eggs and other foodstuff, paint, demeaning chants etc. Baptized members (les Baptisés) are among the most common type of members, and some Cercles and Régionales try to only accept new members this way, although it is in no way an obligation to be baptized in order to be a part of a Cercle or to frequent them.
The calotte is a Belgian student cap worn by students attending Catholic universities. They are emblems of student folklore dating back to the late 19th century. Nowadays, most calottes are passed by way of a ceremony known as the coronae. How they are passed and what must be known or done to deserve it depends on the Cercle or Régionale. One thing that is universally known, is that there is a lot of singing involved.
Cercles are notorious for their generally high output of alcohol (especially beer) and low level of cleanliness. Students tend to wear old clothes that they don't mind damaging or dirtying as a consequence, and the overall ambiance is more akin to a rave or a frat-party than a nightclub or sports bar.
Kots
Student accommodation in Belgium comes in the form of a "kot", a term having Belgian Dutch origin. A "kot" can be translated as den or hut. The French way to form the plural of "kot" is "kots" (in Dutch, the plural of "kot" is "koten"). In the bilingual region of Brussels, where there are both Dutch- and French-speaking universities and their students, it is common that "for rent" signs are in French only, with the French plural of "kot".
Kot-à-projet
Unique to UCLouvain a Kot-à-projet (kap) is a kot whose inhabitants have similar interests and who organise activities for the general student population, they are similar to Fraternity and sorority houses, but smaller in size with only the committee living in the kot. Being small several Kots can be situated in the same, university owned, apartment building. One of them is "le kap contes", a kot promoting the art of storytelling. Another is called "Kap Délices" which suggests varied activities such as theme buffets, cooking lessons, and material renting.
Student Union
The AGL (General Assembly of Louvain students) is the UCLouvain's Students' union. The body comprises an executive Committee, and a legislative Council. The Committee consists of ex-officio members: President, Vice-Presidents for Education & Welfare, VP for the Medicine faculty (situated in UCLouvain Brussels Woluwe), General Secretary, Activities Officer, Communications Officer, Operations Officer, Foreign student's Officer, Cultural Officer, Editor-in-Chief & Deputy Editor-in-Chief as well as the president of the council.
Publications
Quinzaine a university produced newsletter, La Savate produced by the AGL and the monthly l'étincelle by the Kot-à-projet KAP Etincelle. Cercles also produce publications.
24h Vélo
The 24 Hour Cycle (24h Vélo) is, nominally, a bicycle endurance road race held in October, organised by CSE Animations (Centre Sportif Etudiant). While there is an elite race with teams of two, Student groups enter novelty themed multi-bike vehicles, in the shape of a Van or Whale for example, for prizes. The quality of these designs range in terms of artistic merit, and ability to stay intact over the duration of the race. A 240-minute race also takes place for teenagers. The event is probably best known for what happens off the track. Concurrent with the race is Belgium's largest student event, with concerts and stands lasting the full 24hrs.
Notable people
Faculty
Paul Pascon, sociologist
Alumni
For pre-1968 alumni see Catholic University of Louvain.
(b. 1966), economist
Irene Bertschek, economist, Professor at University of Giessen, head of ZEW (Leibniz Centre for European Economic Research)
Vitold Belevitch (1921–1999), mathematician
Thierry Braspenning Balzacq, professor of political sciences and international relations
Gerbrand Ceder, Daniel M. Tellep Distinguished Professor of Materials Science and Engineering at University of California, Berkeley.
Rafael Correa (b. 1963), Ex-President of Ecuador
Xavier De Cuyper, agricultural engineer
Maryellen Fullerton, lawyer and professor and interim dean at Brooklyn Law School
Archduchess Maria-Anna, Princess Galitzine, (b. 1954), Catholic activist
Véronique Gouverneur, (b. 1964), professor of chemistry
Dyab Abou Jahjah, (b. 1971), Lebanese-Belgian political activist
Oly Ilunga Kalenga, (b. 1960), Minister of Health for the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Carlos Larraín, President of National Renewal (Chile)
Queen Mathilde of Belgium (b. 1973)
Joëlle Milquet (b. 1961), law, politician
António Mascarenhas Monteiro (1944–2016), judge (law) and first democratically elected president of Cape Verde
Pierre De Muelenaere (b. 1958), entrepreneur
Philippe Van Parijs (b. 1951), philosopher and economist
David Payne (b. 1944), politician
Gustavo Petro, (b. 1960), President of Colombia 2022 - 2026
Grégoire Polet (b. 1978), French-speaking Belgian writer, laureate of several literary prizes
Arnoud de Pret de Calesberg, commercial sciences, InBev
Ronald Rolheiser, O.M.I. (b. 1947), President of the Oblate School of Theology, San Antonio, Texas
Páll Skúlason (b. 1945), philosopher and former Rector of the University of Iceland
Vera Songwe, economist
Walter Swennen, artist
Sophie Warny (b. 1969), Belgian Antarctic researcher
Nor Mohamed Yakcop, (b. 1947) Malaysian politician, Malaysian Minister in the Prime Minister's Department, in charge of Economic Planning Unit.
Jean-Pascal van Ypersele, (b. 1957) climatology
See also
Academic libraries in Leuven
Belgian Co-ordinated Collections of Micro-organisms (BCCM)
Catholic University of Mechlin
Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED)
Collegium Trilingue
Louvain-la-Neuve Cyclotron
Lovanium University
Open access in Belgium
Orchestre Symphonique des Étudiants de Louvain-la-Neuve
Science Parks of Wallonia
University Foundation
List of split up universities
Notes
A. The Old University of Leuven (1425) is the oldest university in the low countries, and the Catholic University of Leuven (1834) is sometimes, controversially, identified as a continuation of it. Belgium's highest court, the Court of Cassation has ruled that the (1834) Catholic University of Leuven cannot be regarded as continuing the old (1425) University of Leuven. See Old University of Leuven#History.
B. This is a relatively recent phenomenon. In 1859 the university celebrated its 25th anniversary and issued a book celebrating the 25 anniversary of the founding of the Catholic University of Louvain, November 3, 1859. In 1884, the university celebrated its 50th anniversary, acknowledging its actual date of foundation. Only in 1968 did the new Catholic university add the date 1425 to its neo-gothic seal (created in 1909).
References
External links
Official web site of the University of Louvain
Education in Brussels
Louvain, Universite Catholique de
Louvain, Universite Catholique de
Louvain, Universite catholique de
Louvain, Universite Catholique de
Louvain, Universite Catholique de
Forestry education
1968 establishments in Belgium
Catholic University of Leuven
Buildings and structures in Walloon Brabant
Ottignies-Louvain-la-Neuve
1834 establishments in Belgium
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sectarianism
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Sectarianism
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Sectarianism is a political, cultural, or religious conflict between two groups. Prejudice, discrimination, exclusion, or hatred can arise in these conflicts, depending on the political status quo and if one group holds more power within the government. Often, not all members of these groups are engaged in the conflict. But as tensions rise, political solutions require the participation of more people from either side within the country or polity where the conflict is happening. Common examples of these divisions are denominations of a religion, ethnic identity, class, or region for citizens of a state and factions of a political movement.
While sectarianism is often labelled as 'religious' and/or 'political', the reality of a sectarian situation is usually much more complex. In its most basic form, sectarianism has been defined as, 'the existence, within a locality, of two or more divided and actively competing communal identities, resulting in a strong sense of dualism which unremittingly transcends commonality, and is both culturally and physically manifest.'
Definition
The term "sectarianism" is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as "excessive attachment to a particular sect or party, especially in religion". The phrase "sectarian conflict" usually refers to violent conflict along religious or political lines, such as the conflicts between Nationalists and Unionists in Northern Ireland (religious and class-divisions may play major roles as well). It may also refer to general philosophical, political disparity between different schools of thought, such as that between Shia and Sunni Muslims. Non-sectarians espouse that free association and tolerance of different beliefs are the cornerstone to successful, peaceful human interaction. They adopt political and religious pluralism.
Splintering
The ideological underpinnings of attitudes and behaviors labelled as sectarian are extraordinarily varied. Members of a religious, national or political group may believe that their own salvation, or the success of their particular objectives, requires aggressively seeking converts from other groups; likewise, adherents of a given faction may believe that the achievement of their own political or religious goals requires the conversion or purging of dissidents within their own sect.
Sometimes a group that is under economic or political pressure will kill or attack members of another group which it regards as responsible for its own decline. It may also more rigidly define the definition of orthodox belief within its particular group or organization, and expel or excommunicate those who do not support this newfound clarified definition of political or religious orthodoxy. In other cases, dissenters from this orthodoxy will secede from the orthodox organization and proclaim themselves as practitioners of a reformed belief system, or holders of a perceived former orthodoxy. At other times, sectarianism may be the expression of a group's nationalistic or cultural ambitions, or exploited by demagogues.
Polemics against the term "sectarianism"
Some scholars identify the problems with using the term "sectarianism" in articles. Western mainstream media and politicians often presume "sectarianism" as ancient and long-lasting, for example, Obama in his final State of the Union address phrased the sectarian violence in the Middle East as "rooted in conflicts that dated back millennia", but many pointed out that some sectarian tensions don't even date back a decade. "Sectarianism" is also too ambiguous, which works as a slogan whose meanings are up to the observers. Scholars argued that the use of term "sectarianism" has become a catch-all explanation to conflicts, which drives analytical attention away from underlying political and socioeconomic issues, lacks coherence, and is often associated with emotional negativity. Many scholars find problematic with the term "sectarianism" and two alternatives are proposed.
Alternative: Sectarianization
Hashemi and Postel and other scholars differentiate between "sectarianism" and "sectarianization". While "sectarianism" describes antipathy, prejudice, and discrimination between subdivisions within a group, e.g. based on their religious or ethnic identity, the latter describes a process mobilized by political actors operating within authoritarian contexts to pursue their political goals that involve popular mobilization around religious or identity markers. The use of the word sectarianism to explain sectarian violence and its upsurge in i.e. the Middle East is insufficient, as it does not take into account complex political realities. In the past and present, religious identities have been politicized and mobilized by state actors inside and outside of the Middle East in pursuit of political gain and power. The term sectarianization conceptualizes this notion. Sectarianization is an active, multi-layered process and a set of practices, not a static condition, that is set in motion and shaped by political actors pursuing political goals. The sectarianization thesis focuses on the intersection of politics and sectarian identity from a top-down state-centric perspective. While religious identity is salient in the Middle East and has contributed to and intensified conflicts across the region, it is the politicization and mobilization of popular sentiments around certain identity markers ("sectarianization") that explains the extent and upsurge of sectarian violence in the Middle East. The Ottoman Tanzimat, European colonialism and authoritarianism are key in the process of sectarianization in the Middle East.
Alternative: Sectarian as a prefix
Haddad argues "sectarianism" cannot capture sectarian relations in reality nor represent the complex expressions of sectarian identities. Haddad calls for an abandonment of -ism in "sectarianism" in scholarly research as it "has overshadowed the root" and direct use of 'sectarian' as a qualifier to "direct our analytical focus towards understanding sectarian identity". Sectarian identity is "simultaneously formulated along four overlapping, interconnected and mutually informing dimensions: doctrinal, subnational, national, and transnational". The relevance of these factors is context-dependent and works on four layers in chorus. The multi-layered work provides more clarity and enables more accurate diagnoses of problems at certain dimensions to find more specific solutions.
Political sectarianism
Sectarianism in the 21st century
Sectarian tendencies in politics are visible in countries and cities associated with sectarian violence in the present, and the past. Notable examples where sectarianism affects lives are street-art expression, urban planning, and sports club affiliation.
United Kingdom
Across the United Kingdom, Scottish and Irish sectarian tendencies are often reflected in team-sports competitions. Affiliations are regarded as a latent representation of sectarianism tendencies. (Since the early 1900s, cricket teams were established via patronage of sectarian affiliated landlords. In response to the Protestant representation of the sport, many Catholic schools founded their own Cricket schools.) Modern day examples include tensions in sports such as football and have led to the passing of the "Offensive Behaviour at Football and Threatening Communications (Scotland) Act 2012". Other general examples include the Gaelic sports in Ireland, established to serve as a counterweight to British traditional sports to preserve an Irish identity.
Iran
World leaders have criticised the political ambitions of Iran and have condemned its involvement and support for opposition groups such as Hezbollah. The political authority of the Islamic Republic of Iran has extended into neighboring countries, and has led to an increase of tensions in the region.
An important figure in this process of expansion was the major general of Iran's Quds Force (the foreign arm of the IRGC), Qasem Soleimani. Soleimani was assassinated in Iraq by an American drone in January 2020 leading to an increase of tension between the United States of America and Iran. Soleimani was responsible for strengthening Iran's ties with foreign powers such as Hezbollah in Lebanon, Syria's al-Assad, and Shia militia groups in Iraq. Soleimani was seen as the number-one commander of Iran's foreign troops and played a crucial role in the spread of Iran's ideology in the region. According to President Donald Trump, Soleimani was the world's most wanted terrorist and had to be assassinated in order to bring more peace to the Middle-East region and the rest of the world. Soleimani's death did not end Iran's political, sectarian and regional ambitions. Iran's use of religion continues to serve as an excuse to spread the regime's political power regionally.
Authoritarian regimes
In recent years, authoritarian regimes have been particularly prone to sectarianization. This is because their key strategy of survival lies in manipulating sectarian identities to deflect demands for change and justice, and preserve and perpetuate their power. The sectarianization as a theory and process that extended beyond the middle east was introduced by Saleena Saleem (see State use of public order and social cohesion concerns in the securitisation of non-mainstream Muslims in Malaysia;
Saleena Saleem (2018) State use of public order and social cohesion concerns in the securitisation of non-mainstream Muslims in Malaysia, Journal of Religious and Political Practice, 4:3, 314-335, DOI: 10.1080/20566093.2018.1525899
Saleena Saleem (August 30, 2023). Trust in Polarised Plural Societies: Intersections Across the Ideological Divides of Women’s Groups in Malaysia. University of Liverpool. doi:10.17638/03172024. ).Christian communities, and other religious and ethnic minorities in the Middle East, have been socially, economically and politically excluded and harmed primarily by regimes that focus on "securing power and manipulating their base by appeals to Arab nationalism and/or to Islam". An example of this is the Middle Eastern regional response to the Iranian revolution of 1979. Middle Eastern dictatorships backed by the United States, especially Saudi Arabia, feared that the spread of the revolutionary spirit and ideology would affect their power and dominance in the region. Therefore, efforts were made to undermine the Iranian revolution by labeling it as a Shi’a conspiracy to corrupt the Sunni Islamic tradition. This was followed by a rise of anti-Shi’a sentiments across the region and a deterioration of Shi'a-Sunni relations, impelled by funds from the Gulf states. Therefore, the process of sectarianization, the mobilization and politicization of sectarian identities, is a political tool for authoritarian regimes to perpetuate their power and justify violence. Western powers indirectly take part in the process of sectarianization by supporting undemocratic regimes in the Middle East. As Nader Hashemi asserts:
The U.S. invasion of Iraq; the support of various Western governments for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, which commits war crime upon war crime in Yemen and disseminates poisonous sectarian propaganda throughout the Sunni world; not to mention longstanding Western support for highly repressive dictators who manipulate sectarian fears and anxieties as a strategy of control and regime survival – the "ancient hatreds" narrative [between Sunnis and Shi’as] washes this all away and lays the blame for the regionʹs problems on supposedly trans-historical religious passions. Itʹs absurd in the extreme and an exercise in bad faith.
Approaches to Study Sectarian Identities in authoritarian regimes
Scholars have adopted three approaches to study sectarian discourses: primordialism, instrumentalism, and constructivism. Primordialism sees sectarian identity as rotted in biology and ingrained in history and culture. Makdisi describes the process of bringing the sectarian discourses back to early Islamic history as "pervasive medievalization". The centuries-old narrative is problematic as it treats sectarian identities in the Middle East as sui generis instead of modern collective identities. Scholars should be cautious of sectarian essentialism and Middle East exceptionalism the primordial narrative reinforces since primordialism suggests sectarian tensions persist while theological differences do not guarantee conflicts. Instrumentalism emphasizes that ruling elites manipulate identities to create violent conflicts for their interests. Instrumentalists see the Sunni-Shi'a divide as a modern invention and challenge the myths of primordial narratives since sectarian harmony have existed for centuries. Constructivism is in the middle ground of primordialism and instrumentalism.
Religious sectarianism
Wherever people of different religions live in close proximity to each other, religious sectarianism can often be found in varying forms and degrees. In some areas, religious sectarians (for example Protestant and Catholic Christians) exist peacefully side by side for the most part, although these differences have resulted in violence, death, and outright warfare as recently as the 1990s. Probably the best-known example in recent times were The Troubles.
Catholic-Protestant sectarianism has also been a factor in U.S. presidential campaigns. Prior to John F. Kennedy, only one Catholic (Al Smith) had ever been a major party presidential nominee, and he had been solidly defeated largely because of claims based on his Catholicism. JFK chose to tackle the sectarian issue head-on during the West Virginia primary, but that only sufficed to win him barely enough Protestant votes to eventually win the presidency by one of the narrowest margins ever.
Within Islam, there has been dilemmas at various periods between Sunnis and Shias; Shias consider Sunnis to be false, due to their refusal to accept the first caliph as Ali and accept all following descendants of him as infallible and divinely guided. Many Sunni religious leaders, including those inspired by Wahhabism and other ideologies have declared Shias to be heretics or apostates.
Europe
Long before the Reformation, dating back to the 12th century, there has been sectarian conflict of varying intensity in Ireland. Historically, some Catholic countries once persecuted Protestants as heretics. For example, the substantial Protestant population of France (the Huguenots) were expelled from the kingdom in the 1680s following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. In Spain, the Inquisition sought to root out crypto-Jews and crypto-Muslims (Moriscos); elsewhere the Papal Inquisition held similar goals.
In some countries where the Reformation was successful, there was persecution of Roman Catholics. This was motivated by the perception that Catholics retained allegiance to a 'foreign' power (the Papacy or the Vatican), causing them to be regarded with suspicion. Sometimes this mistrust manifested itself in Catholics being subjected to restrictions and discrimination, which itself led to further conflict. For example, before Catholic Emancipation was introduced with the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829, Catholics were forbidden from voting, becoming MP's or buying land in Ireland.
Ireland
Protestant-Catholic sectarianism is prominent in Irish history; during the period of English (and later British) rule, Protestant settlers from Britain were "planted" in Ireland, which along with the Protestant Reformation led to increasing sectarian tensions between Irish Catholics and British Protestants. These tensions eventually boiled over into widespread violence during the Irish Rebellion of 1641. The Cromwellian conquest of Ireland eighteen years later saw a series of massacres perpetrated by the Protestant New Model Army against Catholic English royalists and Irish civilians. Sectarianism between Catholics and Protestants continued in the Kingdom of Ireland, with the Irish Rebellion of 1798 against British rule leading to more sectarian violence in the island, most infamously the Scullabogue Barn massacre, in which Protestants were burned alive in County Wexford. The British response to the rebellion which included the public executions of dozens of suspected rebels in Dunlavin and Carnew, also inflamed sectarian sentiments.
After the Partition of Ireland in 1922, Northern Ireland witnessed decades of intensified conflict, tension, and sporadic violence (see The Troubles (1920–1922) ) between the dominant Protestant majority and the Catholic minority, which in 1969 finally erupted into 25 years of violence known as “The Troubles” between Irish Republicans whose goal is a United Ireland and Ulster loyalists who wish for Northern Ireland to remain a part of the United Kingdom. The conflict was primarily fought over the existence of the Northern Irish state rather than religion, though sectarian relations within Northern Ireland fueled the conflict. However, religion is commonly used as a marker to differentiate the two sides of the community. The Catholic minority primarily favour the nationalist, and to some degree, republican, goal of unity with the Republic of Ireland, while the Protestant majority favour Northern Ireland continuing the union with Great Britain.
England
Before the eruption of violence during The Troubles, sectarian divisions related to the Irish question were already influencing local constituent politics in England. Liverpool is an English city sometimes associated with sectarian politics.
Halfway through the 19th century, Liverpool faced a wave of mass-immigration from Irish Catholics as a consequence of the Great Famine in Ireland. Most of the Irish-Catholic immigrants were unskilled workers and aligned themselves with the Labour party. The Labour-Catholic party saw a larger political electorate in the many Liverpool-Irish, and often ran on the slogan of "Home Rule" - the independence of Ireland, to gain the support of Irish voters. During the first half of the 20th century, Liverpool politics were divided not only between Catholics and Protestants, but between two polarized groups consisting of multiple identities: Catholic-Liberal-Labour and Protestant-Conservative-Tory/Orangeists.
From early 1900 onwards, the polarized Catholic Labour and Protestant Conservative affiliations gradually broke apart and created the opportunity for mixed alliances. The Irish National party gained its first electoral victory in 1875, and kept growing until the realization of Irish independence in 1921, after which it became less reliant on Labour support. On the Protestant side, Tory opposition in 1902 to vote in line with Protestant proposed bills indicated a split between the working class Protestants and the Tory party, which were regarded as "too distant" from its electorate.
After the First and Second World War, religiously mixed battalions provided a counterweight to anti-Roman Catholic and anti-Protestant propaganda from either side. While the IRA-bombing in 1939 (see S-Plan) somewhat increased violence between the Irish-Catholic associated Labour party and the Conservative Protestants, the German May Blitz destroyed property of more than 40.000 households. Rebuilding Liverpool after the war created a new sense of community across religious lines. Inter-church relations increased as a response as well, as seen through the warming up of relations between Archbishop Worlock and Anglican Bishop David Sheppard after 1976, a symbol of decreasing religious hostility. The increase in education rates and the rise of trade and labour unions shifted religious affiliation to class affiliation further, which allowed Protestant and catholic affiliates under a Labour umbrella in politics. In the 1980s, class division had outgrown religious division, replacing religious sectarianism with class struggle. Growing rates of non-English immigration from other parts of the Commonwealth near the 21st century also provides new political lines of division in identity affiliation.
Northern Ireland has introduced a Private Day of Reflection, since 2007, to mark the transition to a post-[sectarian] conflict society, an initiative of the cross-community Healing Through Remembering organization and research project.
The Balkans
The civil wars in the Balkans which followed the breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s have been heavily tinged with sectarianism. Croats and Slovenes have traditionally been Catholic, Serbs and Macedonians Eastern Orthodox, and Bosniaks and most Albanians Muslim. Religious affiliation served as a marker of group identity in this conflict, despite relatively low rates of religious practice and belief among these various groups after decades of communism.
Africa
Over 1,000 Muslims and Christians were killed in the sectarian violence in the Central African Republic in 2013–2014. Nearly 1 million people, a quarter of the population, were displaced.
Australia
Sectarianism in Australia is a historical legacy from the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, between Catholics of mainly Celtic heritage and Protestants of mainly English descent. It has largely disappeared in the 21st century. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, religious tensions were more centered between Muslim immigrants and non-Muslim nationalists, amid the backdrop of the War on Terror.
Asia
Japan
For the violent conflict between Buddhist sects in Japan, see Japanese Buddhism.
Pakistan
Pakistan, one of the largest Muslim countries the world, has seen serious Shia-Sunni sectarian violence. Almost 85-90%
of Pakistan's Muslim population is Sunni, and another 10-15% are Shia. However, this Shia minority forms the second largest Shia population of any country, larger than the Shia majority in Iraq.
In the last two decades, as many as 4,000 people are estimated to have died in sectarian fighting in Pakistan, 300 in 2006. Among the culprits blamed for the killing are Al Qaeda working "with local sectarian groups" to kill what they perceive as Shi'a apostates.
Sri Lanka
Most Muslims in Sri Lanka are Sunnis. There are a few Shia Muslims too from the relatively small trading community of Bohras. Divisiveness is not a new phenomenon to Beruwala. Sunni Muslims in the Kalutara district are split in two different sub groups. One group, known as the Alaviya sect, historically holds its annual feast at the Ketchimalai mosque located on the palm-fringed promontory adjoining the fisheries harbour in Beruwala.
It is a microcosm of the Muslim identity in many ways. The Galle Road that hugs the coast from Colombo veers inland just ahead of the town and forms the divide. On the left of the road lies China Fort, the area where some of the wealthiest among Sri Lankans Muslims live. The palatial houses with all modern conveniences could outdo if not equal those in the Colombo 7 sector. Most of the wealthy Muslims, gem dealers, even have a home in the capital, not to mention property.
Strict Wahabis believe that all those who do not practise their form of religion are heathens and enemies. There are others who say Wahabism's rigidity has led it to misinterpret and distort Islam, pointing to the Taliban as well as Osama bin Laden. What has caused concern in intelligence and security circles is the manifestation of this new phenomenon in Beruwala. It had earlier seen its emergence in the east.
Turkey
Ottoman Empire
In 1511, a pro-Shia revolt known as Şahkulu Rebellion was brutally suppressed by the Ottomans: 40,000 were massacred on the order of the sultan.
Republican era (1923-)
Alevis were targeted in various massacres including 1978 Maraş massacre, 1980 Çorum massacre and 1993 Sivas massacre.
During his campaign for the 2023 Turkish presidential election, Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu was attacked with sectarian insults in Adıyaman.
Iran
Overview
Sectarianism in Iran has existed for centuries, dating back to the Islamic conquest of the country in early Islamic years and continuing throughout Iranian history until the present. During the Safavid Dynasty's reign, sectarianism started to play an important role in shaping the path of the country. During the Safavid rule between 1501 and 1722, Shiism started to evolve and became established as the official state religion, leading to the creation of the first religiously legitimate government since the occultation of the Twelfth imam. This pattern of sectarianism prevailed throughout the Iranian history. The approach that sectarianism has taken after the Iranian 1979 revolution is shifted compared to the earlier periods. Never before the Iranian 1979 revolution did the Shiite leadership gain as much authority. Due to this change, the sectarian timeline in Iran can be divided in pre- and post-Iranian 1979 revolution where the religious leadership changed course.
Pre-1979 Revolution
Shiism has been an important factor in shaping the politics, culture and religion within Iran, long before the Iranian 1979 revolution. During the Safavid Dynasty Shiism was established as the official ideology. The establishment of Shiism as an official government ideology opened the doors for clergies to benefit from new cultural, political and religious rights which were denied prior to the Safavid ruling. During the Safavid Dynasty Shiism was established as the official ideology.
The Safavid rule allowed greater freedom for religious leaders. By establishing Shiism as the state religion, they legitimised the religious authority. After this power establishment, religious leaders started to play a crucial role within the political system but remained socially and economically independent. The monarchial power balance during the Safavid ere changed every few years, resulting in a changing limit of power of the clergies. The tensions concerning power relations of the religious authorities and the ruling power eventually played a pivotal role in the 1906 constitutional revolution which limited the power of the monarch, and increased the power of religious leaders. The 1906 constitutional revolution involved both constitutionalist and anti-constitutionalist clergy leaders. Individuals such as Sayyid Jamal al-Din Va'iz were constitutionalist clergies whereas other clergies such as Mohammed Kazem Yazdi were considered anti-constitutionalist. The establishment of a Shiite government during the Safavid rule resulted in the increase of power within this religious sect. The religious power establishment increased throughout the years and resulted in fundamental changes within the Iranian society in the twentieth century, eventually leading to the establishment of the Shiite Islamic Republic of Iran in 1979.
Post-1979 Revolution: Islamic Republic of Iran
The Iranian 1979 revolution led to the overthrow of the Pahlavi dynasty and the establishment of the Islamic Government of Iran. The governing body of Iran displays clear elements of sectarianism which are visible within different layers of its system.
The 1979 revolution led to changes in political system, leading to the establishment of a bureaucratic clergy-regime which has created its own interpretation of the Shia sect in Iran. Religious differentiation is often used by authoritarian regimes to express hostility towards other groups such as ethnic minorities and political opponents. Authoritarian regimes can use religion as a weapon to create an "us and them" paradigm. This leads to hostility amongst the involved parties and takes place internally but also externally. A valid example is the suppression of religious minorities like the Sunnis and Baha-ís. With the establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran sectarian discourses arose in the Middle-East as the Iranian religious regime has attempted and in some cases succeeded to spread its religious and political ideas in the region. These sectarian labeled issues are politically charged. The most notable Religious leaders in Iran are named Supreme-leaders. Their role has proved to be pivotal in the evolvement of sectarianism within the country and in the region. The following part discusses Iran's supreme-leadership in further detail.
Ruhollah Khomeini and Ali Khamenei
During the Iran-Iraq war, Iran's first supreme-leader, Ayatollah Khomeini called for the participation of all Iranians in the war. His usage of Shia martyrdom led to the creation of a national consensus. In the early aftermath of the Iranian 1979 revolution, Khomeini started to evolve a sectarian tone in his speeches. His focus on Shiism and Shia Islam grew which was also implemented within the changing policies of the country. In one of his speeches Khomeini quoted: "the Path to Jerusalem passes through Karbala." His phrase lead to many different interpretations, leading to turmoil in the region but also within the country. From a religious historic viewpoint, Karbala and Najaf which are both situated in Iraq, serve as important sites for Shia Muslims around the world. By mentioning these two cities, Khomeini led to the creation of Shia expansionism.
Khomeini's war with the Iraqi Bath Regime had many underlying reasons and sectarianism can be considered one of the main reasons. The tensions between Iran and Iraq are of course not only sectarian related, but religion is often a weapon used by the Iranian regime to justify its actions. Khomeini's words also resonated in other Arab countries who had been fighting for Palestinian liberation against Israel. By naming Jerusalem, Khomeini expressed his desire for liberating Palestine from the hands of what he later often has named "the enemy of Islam." Iran has supported rebellious groups throughout the region. Its support for Hamas and Hezbollah has resulted in international condemnation.
This desire for Shia expansionism did not disappear after Khomeini's death. It can even be argued that sectarian tone within the Islamic Republic of Iran has grown since then.
The Friday prayers held in Tehran by Ali Khamenei can be seen as a proof of growing sectarian tone within the regime. Khamenei's speeches are extremely political and sectarian. He often mentions extreme wishes such as the removal of Israel from the world map and fatwas directed towards those opposing the regime.
Iraq
Sunni Iraqi insurgency and foreign Sunni terrorist organizations who came to Iraq after the fall of Saddam Hussein have targeted Shia civilians in sectarian attacks. Following the civil war, the Sunnis have complained of discrimination by Iraq's Shia majority governments, which is bolstered by the news that Sunni detainees were allegedly discovered to have been tortured in a compound used by government forces on 15 November 2005. This sectarianism has fueled a giant level of emigration and internal displacement.
The Shia majority oppression by the Sunni minority has a long history in Iraq. After the fall of the Ottoman Empire, the British government placed a Sunni Hashemite monarchy to the Iraqi throne which suppressed various uprisings against its rule by the Christian Assyrians and Shi'ites.
Syria
Although sectarianism has been described as one of the characteristic features of the Syrian civil war, the narrative of sectarianism already had its origins in Syria's past.
Ottoman rule
The hostilities that took place in 1850 in Aleppo and subsequently in 1860 in Damascus, had many causes and reflected long-standing tensions. However, scholars have claimed that the eruptions of violence can also be partly attributed to the modernizing reforms, the Tanzimat, taking place within the Ottoman Empire, who had been ruling Syria since 1516. The Tanzimat reforms attempted to bring about equality between Muslims and non-Muslims living in the Ottoman Empire. These reforms, combined with European interference on behalf of the Ottoman Christians, caused the non-Muslims to gain privileges and influence.
In the silk trade business, European powers formed ties with local sects. They usually opted for a sect that adhered to a religion similar to the one in their home countries, thus not Muslims. These developments caused new social classes to emerge, consisting of mainly Christians, Druzes and Jews. These social classes stripped the previously existing Muslim classes of their privileges. The involvement of another foreign power, though this time non-European, also had its influence on communal relations in Syria. Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt ruled Syria between 1831 and 1840. His divide-and-rule strategy contributed to the hostilities between the Druze and Maronite community, by arming the Maronite Christians. However, it is noteworthy to mention that different sects did not fight the others out of religious motives, nor did Ibrahim Pasha aim to disrupt society among communal lines. This can also be illustrated by the unification of Druzes and Maronites in their revolts to oust Ibrahim Pasha in 1840. This shows the fluidity of communal alliances and animosities and the different, at times non-religious, reasons that may underline sectarianism.
After Ottoman rule
Before the fall of the Ottoman Empire and the French Mandate in Syria, the Syrian territory had already witnessed massacres on the Maronite Christians, other Christians, Alawites, Shias and Ismailiyas, which had resulted in distrustful sentiments between the members of different sects. In an attempt to protect the minority communities against the majority Sunni population, France, with the command of Henri Gouraud, created five states for the following sects: Armenians, Alawites, Druzes, Maronite Christians and Sunni Muslims. This focus on minorities was new and part of a divide-and-rule strategy of the French, which enhanced and politicized differences between sects. The restructuring by the French caused the Alawite community to advance itself from their marginalized position. In addition to that, the Alawites were also able to obtain a position of power through granting top level positions to family members of the ruling clan or other tribal allies of the Alawite community.
During the period 1961–1980, Syria was not necessarily exclusively ruled by the Alawite sect, but due to efforts of the Sunni Muslim extremist opponents of the Ba’th regime in Syria, it was perceived as such. The Ba’ath regime was being dominated by the Alawite community, as well as were other institutions of power. As a result of this, the regime was considered to be sectarian, which caused the Alawite community to cluster together, as they feared for their position. This period is actually contradictory as Hafez al-Assad tried to create a Syrian Arab nationalism, but the regime was still regarded as sectarian and sectarian identities were reproduced and politicized.
Sectarian tensions that later gave rise to the Syrian civil war, had already appeared in society due to events preceding 1970. For example, President Hafez al-Assad's involvement in the Lebanese civil war by giving political aid to Maronite Christians in Lebanon. This was viewed by many Sunny Muslims as an act of treason, which made them link al-Assad's actions to his Alawite identity. The Muslim Brothers, a part of the Sunni Muslims, used those tensions towards the Alawites as a tool to boost their political agenda and plans. Several assassinations were carried out by the Muslim Brothers, mostly against Alawites, but also against some Sunni Muslims. The failed assassination attempt on President Hafez al-Assad is arguably the most well-known. Part of the animosity between the Alawites and the Sunni Islamists of the Muslim Brothers is due to the secularization of Syria, which the later holds the Alawites in power to be responsible for.
Syrian Civil War
As of 2015, the majority of the Syrian population consisted of Sunni Muslims, namely two-thirds of the population, which can be found throughout the country. The Alawites are the second largest group, which make up around 10 percent of the population. This makes them a ruling minority. The Alawites were originally settled in the highlands of Northwest Syria, but since the twentieth century have spread to places like Latakia, Homs and Damascus. Other groups that can be found in Syria are Christians, among which the Maronite Christians, Druzes and Twelver Shias. Although sectarian identities played a role in the unfolding of events of the Syrian Civil War, the importance of tribal and kinship relationships should not be underestimated, as they can be used to obtain and maintain power and loyalty.
At the start of the protests against President Basher al-Assad in March 2011, there was no sectarian nature or approach involved. The opposition had national, inclusive goals and spoke in the name of a collective Syria, although the protesters being mainly Sunni Muslims. This changed after the protests and the following civil war began to be portrayed in sectarian terms by the regime, as a result of which people started to mobilize along ethnic lines. However, this does not mean that the conflict is solely or primarily a sectarian conflict, as there were also socio-economic factors at play. These socio-economic factors were mainly the result of Basher al-Assad's mismanaged economic restructuring. The conflict has therefore been described as being semi-sectarian, making sectarianism a factor at play in the civil war, but certainly does not stand alone in causing the war and has varied in importance throughout time and place.
In addition to local forces, the role of external actors in the conflict in general as well as the sectarian aspect of the conflict should not be overlooked. Although foreign regimes were first in support of the Free Syrian Army, they eventually ended up supporting sectarian militias with money and arms. However, it has to be said that their sectarian nature did not only attract these flows of support, but they also adopted a more sectarian and Islamic appearance in order to attract this support.
Yemen
Introduction
In Yemen, there have been many clashes between Salafis and Shia Houthis. According to The Washington Post, "In today’s Middle East, activated sectarianism affects the political cost of alliances, making them easier between co-religionists. That helps explain why Sunni-majority states are lining up against Iran, Iraq and Hezbollah over Yemen."
Historically, divisions in Yemen along religious lines (sects) are less intense than those in Pakistan, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Bahrain. Most political forces in Yemen are primarily characterized by regional interests and not by religious sectarianism. Regional interests are, for example, the north's proximity to the Hejaz, the south's coast along the Indian Ocean trade route, and the southeast's oil and gas fields. Yemen's northern population consists for a substantial part of Zaydis, and its southern population predominantly of Shafi’is. Hadhramaut in Yemen's southeast has a distinct Sufi Ba’Alawi profile.
Ottoman era, 1849–1918
Sectarianism reached the region once known as Arabia Felix with the 1911 Treaty of Daan. It divided the Yemen Vilayet into an Ottoman controlled section and an Ottoman-Zaydi controlled section. The former dominated by Sunni Islam and the latter by Zaydi-Shia Islam, thus dividing the Yemen Vilayet along Islamic sectarian lines. Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din became the ruler of the Zaidi community within this Ottoman entity. Before the agreement, inter-communal battles between Shafi’is and Zaydis never occurred in the Yemen Vilayet. After the agreement, sectarian strife still did not surface between religious communities. Feuds between Yemenis were nonsectarian in nature, and Zaydis attacked Ottoman officials not because they were Sunnis.
Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the divide between Shafi’is and Zaydis changed with the establishment of the Kingdom of Yemen. Shafi’i scholars were compelled to accept the supreme authority of Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din, and the army “institutionalized the supremacy of the Zaydi tribesman over the Shafi’is”.
Unification period, 1918–1990
Before the 1990 Yemeni unification, the region had never been united as one country. In order to create unity and overcome sectarianism, the myth of Qahtanite was used as a nationalist narrative. Although not all ethnic groups of Yemen fit in this narrative, such as the Al-Akhdam and the Teimanim. The latter established a Jewish kingdom in ancient Yemen, the only one ever created outside Palestine. A massacre of Christians, executed by the Jewish king Dhu Nuwas, eventually led to the fall of the Homerite Kingdom. In modern times, the establishment of the Jewish state resulted in the 1947 Aden riots, after which most Teimanim left the country during Operation Magic Carpet.
Conflicting geopolitical interests surfaced during the North Yemen Civil War (1962-1970). Wahhabist Saudi Arabia and other Arab monarchies supported Muhammad al-Badr, the deposed Zaydi imam of the Kingdom of Yemen. His adversary, Abdullah al-Sallal, received support from Egypt and other Arab republics. Both international backings were not based on religious sectarian affiliation. In Yemen however, President Abdullah al-Sallal (a Zaydi) sidelined his vice-president Abdurrahman al-Baidani (a Shaffi'i) for not being a member of the Zaydi sect. Shaffi'i officials of North Yemen also lobbied for "the establishment of a separate Shaffi'i state in Lower Yemen" in this period.
Contemporary Sunni-Shia rivalry
According to Lisa Wedeen, the perceived sectarian rivalry between Sunnis and Shias in the Muslim world is not the same as Yemen's sectarian rivalry between Salafists and Houthis. Not all supporters of Houthi's Ansar Allah movement are Shia, and not all Zaydis are Houthis. Although most Houthis are followers of Shia's Zaydi branch, most Shias in the world are from the Twelver branch. Yemen is geographically not in proximity of the so-called Shia Crescent. To link Hezbollah and Iran, whose subjects are overwhelmingly Twelver Shias, organically with Houthis is exploited for political purposes. Saudi Arabia emphasized an alleged military support of Iran for the Houthis during Operation Scorched Earth. The slogan of the Houthi movement is 'Death to America, death to Israel, a curse upon the Jews'. This is a trope of Iran and Hezbollah, so the Houthis seem to have no qualms about a perceived association with them.
Tribes and political movements
Tribal culture in the southern regions has virtually disappeared through policies of the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen. However, Yemen's northern part is still home to the powerful tribal confederations of Bakil and Hashid. These tribal confederations maintain their own institutions without state interference, such as prisons, courts, and armed forces. Unlike the Bakils, the Hashids adopted Salafist tenets, and during the Sa’dah War (2004-2015) sectarian tensions materialized. Yemen's Salafists attacked the Zaydi Mosque of Razih in Sa’dah and destroyed tombs of Zaydi imams across Yemen. In turn, Houthis attacked Yemen's main Salafist center of Muqbil bin Hadi al-Wadi'I during the Siege of Dammaj. Houthis also attacked the Salafist Bin Salman Mosque and threatened various Teimanim families.
Members of Hashid's elite founded the Sunni Islamist party Al-Islah and, as a counterpart, Hizb al-Haqq was founded by Zaydis with the support of Bakil's elite. Violent non-state actors Al-Qaeda, Ansar al-Sharia and Daesh, particularly active in southern cities like Mukalla, fuel sectarian tendencies with their animosity towards Yemen's Isma'ilis, Zaydis, and others. An assassination attempt in 1995 on Hosni Mubarak, executed by Yemen's Islamists, damaged the country's international reputation. The war on terror further strengthened Salafist-jihadist groups impact on Yemen's politics. The 2000 USS Cole bombing resulted in US military operations on Yemen's soil. Collateral damage caused by cruise missiles, cluster bombs, and drone attacks, deployed by the United States, compromised Yemen's sovereignty.
Ali Abdullah Saleh's reign
Ali Abdullah Saleh is a Zaydi from the Hashid's Sanhan clan and founder of the nationalist party General People's Congress. During his decades long reign as head of state, he used Sa'dah's Salafist's ideological dissemination against Zaydi's Islamic revival advocacy. In addition, the Armed Forces of Yemen used Salafists as mercenaries to fight against Houthis. Though, Ali Abdullah Saleh also used Houthis as a political counterweight to Yemen's Muslim Brotherhood. Due to the Houthis persistent opposition to the central government, Upper Yemen was economically marginalized by the state. This policy of divide and rule executed by Ali Abdullah Saleh worsened Yemen's social cohesion and nourished sectarian persuasions within Yemen's society.
Following the Arab Spring and the Yemeni Revolution, Ali Abdullah Saleh was forced to step down as president in 2012. Subsequently, a complex and violent power struggle broke out between three national alliances: (1) Ali Abdullah Saleh, his political party General People's Congress, and the Houthis; (2) Ali Mohsen al-Ahmar, supported by the political party Al-Islah; (3) Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi, supported by the Joint Meeting Parties. According to Ibrahim Fraihat, “Yemen’s conflict has never been about sectarianism, as the Houthis were originally motivated by economic and political grievances. However, in 2014, the regional context substantially changed”. The Houthi takeover in 2014-2015 provoked a Saudi-led intervention, strengthening the sectarian dimension of the conflict. Hezbollah's Hassan Nasrallah heavily criticized the Saudi intervention, bolstering the regional Sunni-Shia geopolitical dynamic behind it.
Saudi Arabia
Sectarianism in Saudi Arabia is exemplified through the tensions with its Shi’ite population, who constitute up to 15% of the Saudi population. This includes the anti-Shi’ite policies and persecution of the Shi’ites by the Saudi government. According to Human Rights Watch, Shi’ites face marginalisation socially, politically, religiously, legally and economically, whilst facing discrimination in education and in the workplace. This history dates back to 1744, with the establishment of a coalition between the House of Saud and the Wahhabis, who equate Shi’ism with polytheism. Over the course of the twentieth century clashes and tensions unfolded between the Shi’ites and the Saudi regime, including the 1979 Qatif Uprising and the repercussions of the 1987 Makkah Incident. Though relations underwent a détente in the 1990s and the early 2000s, tensions rose again after the 2003 US-led election of Iraq (owing to a broader rise of Shi’ism in the region) and peaked during the Arab Spring. Sectarianism in Saudi Arabia has attracted widespread attention by Human Rights groups, including Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International, especially after the execution of Shi'ite cleric Nimr al-Nimr in 2016, who was active in the 2011 domestic protests. Despite Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman's reforms, Shi’ites continue to face discrimination today.
Lebanon
Sectarianism in Lebanon has been formalized and legalized within state and non-state institutions and is inscribed in its constitution. Lebanon recognizes 18 different sects, mainly within Muslim and Christian worlds. The foundations of sectarianism in Lebanon date back to the mid-19th century during Ottoman rule. It was subsequently reinforced with the creation of the Republic of Lebanon in 1920 and its 1926 constitution and in the National Pact of 1943. In 1990, with the Taif Agreement, the constitution was revised but did not structurally change aspects relating to political sectarianism. The dynamic nature of sectarianism in Lebanon has prompted some historians and authors to refer to it as "the sectarian state par excellence" because it is a mixture of religious communities and their myriad sub-divisions, with a constitutional and political order to match. Yet, the reality on the ground has been more complex than such a conclusion, because as Nadya Sbaiti has shown in her research, in the aftermath of the First World War, the “need of shaping a collective future that paralleled shifting conceptions of the newly territorialized nation-state of Lebanon” was clearly present. “Over the course of the Mandate, educational practitioners and the wide range of schools that proliferated helped shape the epistemological infrastructure en route to creating this entity. By ‘epistemological infrastructure’, one means the cast array of ideas that become validated as truths and convincing explanations.” In other words, contrary to the colonial sectarian education system, “students, parents, and teachers created educational content through curricula, and educational practices so as to produce new ‘communities of knowledge’. These communities of knowledge, connected as they were by worlds of ideas and networks of knowledge, often transcended confessional, sociopolitical, and even at times regional subjectivities.”
See also
References
Further reading
Sectarianism in Syria (Survey Study), The Day After, 2016.
Middle East sectarianism explained: the narcissism of small differences Victor Argo 13 April 2015 Your Middle East
Bryan R. Wilson, The Social Dimensions of Sectarianism: Sects and New Religious Movements in Contemporary Society, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1990
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waddesdon%20Manor
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Waddesdon Manor
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Waddesdon Manor is a country house in the village of Waddesdon, in Buckinghamshire, England. Owned by the National Trust and managed by the Rothschild Foundation, it is one of the National Trust's most visited properties, with over 463,000 visitors in 2019.
The Grade I listed house was built in a mostly Neo-Renaissance style, copying individual features of several French châteaux, between 1874 and 1889 for Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild (1839–1898) as a weekend residence for entertaining and to house his collection of arts and antiquities. As the manor and estate have passed through three generations of the Rothschild family, the contents of the house have expanded to become one of the most rare and valuable collections in the world. In 1957, James de Rothschild bequeathed the house and its contents to the National Trust, opening the house and gardens for the benefit of the general public. Unusually for a National Trust property, the family of James Rothschild, the donor, manage the house. The Rothschild Foundation, chaired by Jacob Rothschild, 4th Baron Rothschild, acts as custodian and continues to invest in the property.
History
1874–1898
In 1874, Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild bought the Waddesdon agricultural estate from the Duke of Marlborough with money inherited from his father Anselm. Rothschild was familiar with the estate from fox hunting in the locality. At the time of purchase, the estate had no house, park or garden. The site of the future Manor House was a bare hill. Known as Lodge Hill, it had been stripped of its timber by the impoverished Duke of Marlborough prior to the sale. Over the following three years, the summit of the hill was levelled; eventually, on 18 August 1877, the foundation stone was laid.
The first house party was held in May 1880 with seven of Rothschild's close male friends enjoying a fireworks display. When, finally, the main house was ready in 1883, Rothschild invited 20 guests to stay. Before his premature death in 1898, on weekends between May and September Rothschild was host to many important guests including the future king Edward VII. House parties usually involved 14 to 20 guests.
Guests commented on the level of luxury service provided by the 24 house staff. In 1890, Queen Victoria unusually requested to pay a visit. She was impressed with the beauty of the house and grounds as well as Rothschild's ability to quietly manage the day's events. She was struck by the newly installed electric lights designed to look like candles in the chandeliers, and it is reported that she asked for the room to be darkened to fully witness the effect.
1898–1957
When Baron Ferdinand died in 1898, the house passed to his sister Alice de Rothschild. She saw Waddesdon as a memorial for her brother and was committed to preserving it. She did add significant items to the collection, particularly furniture and carpets with French royal provenances, Meissen porcelain, textiles and armor.
Following Alice de Rothschild's death in 1922, the property and collections passed to her French great-nephew James A. "Jimmy" de Rothschild, who was married to an English woman, Dorothy Pinto. James further enriched the Manor with objects from the collections of his late father Baron Edmond James de Rothschild of Paris.
James and Dorothy hosted a Liberal Party rally at Waddesdon in 1928, where David Lloyd George addressed the crowd. During World War II, children under the age of five were evacuated from Croydon and lived at Waddesdon Manor, the only time children lived in the house. James and Dorothy also provided asylum for a group of Jewish boys from Frankfurt at Waddesdon.
1957–1997
When James de Rothschild died in 1957, he bequeathed Waddesdon Manor, of grounds and its contents to the National Trust, to be preserved for posterity. Dorothy moved to nearby Eythrope and the Manor was never again used as a residence. It opened to the public in 1959, with around 27,000 visitors in the first year. Dorothy chaired the new management committee in close collaboration with the National Trust and took a very keen interest in Waddesdon for the remainder of her long life.
At Dorothy's death, in 1989, her nephew Jacob Rothschild inherited her position and responsibilities. At his initiative, the Manor underwent a major restoration from 1990 to 1997, and the visitor attractions were enhanced, including the creation of the Waddesdon Wine Cellars.
1997–2019
Jacob Rothschild chairs the family charity handling Waddesdon's management, the Rothschild Foundation. Waddesdon Manor operates as an independent organisation within the National Trust.
From 2004 to 2006, the Baron's Room and Green Boudoir were restored to reflect Baron Ferdinand's original arrangements. In 2003 a burglary was committed involving the Johnson Gang, when approximately 100 gold snuff boxes and other items were stolen from the collection prompting the installation of new security measures. In 2021 one small sweet-box from this theft was identified at auction and returned to Waddesdon.
Since 2004, there has been an exhibitions programme. Notable exhibitions include the Lod Mosaic in 2014. Waddesdon was one venue celebrating the work of Henry Moore in 2015 and Eliot Hodgkin in 2019.
New works of art have been acquired by the Rothschild Foundation to complement the existing collections at Waddesdon, such as Le Faiseur de Châteaux de Cartes by Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin, added in 2007.
There has also been a programme of engagement with contemporary artists, beginning with Angus Fairhurst represented by Arnolfini in 2009. Works have been sited near the Manor and on the wider estate including by Richard Long, Sarah Lucas. In 2012, Christie's chose the Manor to exhibit sculptures by leading contemporary artists.
Between 2013 and 2017, Bruce Munro had a residency at Waddesdon Manor, beginning with the musical and light piece Cantus Arcticus in the Coach House Gallery in 2013. Winter Light (2013), with its distinctive wigwam type structures sited in the gardens of the Manor, was Munro's first solo exhibition of his large-scale pieces; Winter Light returned in 2016–2017. In 2014, Munro developed his pod-like structures, adding elements of language in Snow Code, shown in the Manor. In ...---...SOS, Munro's winter exhibition of 2015–2016, tents were lit up in tune with sound, in response to images of disaster relief.
In 2012, Edmund de Waal exhibited work in the Manor, creating a dialogue between his work and the historical interiors. In 2015, artist Joana Vasconcelos was commissioned to install two sculptures entitled Lafite in front of the Manor. In 2016, Kate Malone exhibited a collection of new work inspired by the people, gardens, collections, and archive. Two portrait pots of Baron Ferdinand and Alice de Rothschild by Malone remain on display at the Manor.
Architecture
Prior to the construction of Waddesdon Manor, no house existed on the site. Ferdinand de Rothschild wanted a house in the style of the great Renaissance châteaux of the Loire Valley. Ferdinand chose as his architect Gabriel-Hippolyte Destailleur. Destailleur was already experienced in working in this style, having overseen the restoration of many châteaux in that region, in particular that of the Château de Mouchy.
Through Destailleur's vision, Waddesdon embodied an eclectic style based on the châteaux so admired by his patron, Baron Ferdinand. The towers at Waddesdon were based on those of the Château de Maintenon, and the twin staircase towers, on the north facade, were inspired by the staircase tower at the Château de Chambord. However, following the theme of unparalleled luxury at Waddesdon, the windows of the towers at Waddesdon were glazed, unlike those of the staircase at Chambord. They are also far more ornate.
The structural design of Waddesdon was not entirely retrospective. Hidden from view were the most modern innovations of the late 19th century including a steel frame, which took the strain of walls on the upper floors, and which consequently permitted the layout of these floors to differ completely from the lower floors. The house also had hot and cold running water in its bathrooms, central heating, and an electric bell system to summon the numerous servants. The building contractor was Edward Conder & Son.
After the Manor was completed in 1883, Ferdinand quickly decided it was too small, as his architect had prophesied. The Bachelors' Wing to the east was extended after 1885 and the Morning Room, built in late-Gothic style, was added to the west after 1888. The stables to the west of the Manor were built in 1884. Ferdinand and his stud groom devised the plan, working with Conder. Destailleur designed the façades in a French 17th-century style.
Wine Cellars
The Wine Cellars in the Manor were created during the Centenary Restoration and opened in 1994. They are modelled on the private cellars at Château Lafite Rothschild. More than 15,000 bottles are stored in the Cellars, some 150 years old, the majority from the Château Lafite Rothschild and Château Mouton Rothschild estates. It is the largest private collection of Rothschild wines in the world. There are also wine labels designed by artists such as Salvador Dalí and Andy Warhol.
Collections
Once his château was complete, Baron Ferdinand installed his extensive collections of English 18th-century portraits by artists like Gainsborough and Reynolds, as well as French 18th-century boiseries, Savonnerie carpets, Gobelins and Beauvais tapestries, furniture, Sèvres ceramics, books, Dutch paintings and Renaissance treasures.
Works were acquired for their exquisite quality and fine provenance, particularly those belonging to French royalty of the Ancien Régime. One of the highlights of the collection is the extraordinary musical automaton elephant, dating from 1774 and made by the French clockmaker H Martinet.
Of the ten surviving examples of the Sèvres pot-pourri vase in the shape of a ship from the 1760s, three are at Waddesdon, including one with a very rare scene of a battle connected to the Seven Years' War.
In the 1890s, Baron Ferdinand focused on the Renaissance collection for his small museum in the New Smoking Room. This collection was bequeathed to the British Museum and is now known as the Waddesdon Bequest.
The interior of Waddesdon Manor was photographed in 1897 for Baron Ferdinand's privately published The Red Book.
Subsequent members of the family added noted collections of paintings, Limoges enamel, arms and armour, maiolica, manuscripts, prints and drawings.
Waddesdon's internationally famous collection has thus been formed principally by four members of the Rothschild family: Baron Ferdinand (1839–1898), his sister Alice de Rothschild (1847–1922), their cousin Edmond James de Rothschild (1845–1934) and the present Lord Jacob Rothschild (b. 1936).
Gardens
Baron Ferdinand wanted a garden to entertain his guests during his weekend house parties. To make the gardens, extensive landscaping of the hill was carried out, including leveling the top of the hill. The gardens and landscape park were laid out by the French landscape architect Elie Lainé. An attempt was made to transplant full-grown trees by chloroforming their roots, to limit the shock. While this novel idea was unsuccessful, many very large trees were successfully transplanted. Elaborate flower beds were planted, centred on the south Parterre. Several artificial rock formations were created by James Pulham, including to house mountain goats and llamas, part of Ferdinand's zoo. Altogether, the creation of his garden cost £153,000, which (in terms of average wages then and in 2015) equates to £68.8 million.
After her brother's death Alice brought the care she had taken with her garden at Eythrope to Waddesdon. Alice was a keen gardener with a good understanding of flowers and plants; she would often walk around and weed the paths. With her head gardener, George Frederick Johnson who worked at Waddesdon from 1905 to 1954, Alice grew flowers for competition. Alice was responsible for introducing three-dimensional bedding in the shape of a bird, recreated in the gardens today.
Under James, the gardens were less impressive. The South Parterre was grassed over in the 1930s. It was replanted with flowers for the opening of the house under the National Trust in 1959.
As part of the 1990s restoration, Beth Rothschild led a team re-introducing Ferdinand's colour scheme of trees, shrubs and bedding plants. The carpet bedding is now designed on computer allowing the schemes to be quickly installed. The patterns change each year to reflect different themes.
The gardens are listed Grade I on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens.
Garden trees
Though the trees are not of a great age there are many specimens of deciduous and coniferous trees that have now reached maturity creating the desired effect in the Waddesdon landscape. Some of these trees were planted in the 1870s and responsibility for this fell to William Barron whose job it was to transplant trees from the surrounding countryside to give the grounds of Waddesdon a sense of maturity, creating vistas and focal points under the instructions from Elie Lainé.
Deciduous trees were selected on their form, flowering and array of autumnal colour. Conifers were selected for their evergreen nature, cones and berries. Today many species such as chestnuts, limes and maples as well as yew, cedars and redwoods can be seen.
From Baron Ferdinand's time to today, distinguished visitors have been invited to plant memorial trees. Queen Victoria, King Edward VII, King George V and Queen Mary were early royal visitors. More recently, The Prince of Wales and Prime Ministers Sir John Major and Tony Blair have also planted trees.
Garden sculptures
Baron Ferdinand acquired many fine statues and fountains to add interest to the gardens. A notable feature is his love of 18th-century Italian pieces. The fountains to the north and south of the house include sculptures of Pluto, Proserpina, tritons and nereids originally made by Giuliano Mozani around 1720 for the Ducal Palace of Colorno. A bust of the muse Erato has been recently attributed to Filippo Parodi.
A fine example of French early 18th-century sculpture is sited near the Aviary: Apollo by Jean Raon, 1699, associated with a commission at Versailles. There are also Dutch vases in the style of Albert Jansz Vinckenbrinck and sculptures by Jan van Logteren, the latter were originally displayed at Aston Clinton House.
In 2001, Stephen Cox's tomb-like sculpture Interior Space: Terra degli Etruschi was installed at the end of the Baron's Walk. Inscribed on a nearby marble slab are the names of the Rothschilds who built and have cared for Waddesdon.
Aviary
Baron Ferdinand also created a cast-iron aviary, inspired by 18th-century pavilions at the Palace of Versailles and Château de Chantilly, as well as his childhood home at Grüneburg. It was completed in 1889. Like other members of his family, such as Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild, Ferdinand was also keen animal lover. He stocked the aviary with exotic birds and enjoyed feeding them for his guests.
The aviary's paint and gilding were restored in 2003 and it now houses endangered species with a focus on breeding programs. It is a registered zoo.
Estate
In Ferdinand's time, there was a large kitchen garden and extensive glass houses growing fruit and flowers, including Ferdinand's beloved orchids. They were near the Dairy Water garden which has elaborate rock formations by James Pulham. As part of the day's entertainments, Ferdinand's guests were taken to the ornamental Dairy to taste milk from cows who wore Meissen porcelain name tags.
In recent years, commissions to contemporary architects have occurred on the wider estate. Windmill Hill Archive (2011) was designed by Stephen Marshall. Flint House (2015) was designed by Skene Catling de la Peña. It won RIBA House of the Year in 2015.
In 2012, it was announced that Waddesdon Manor would be one of the sites for Jubilee Woodlands, designated by the Woodland Trust to commemorate Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee.
Film and television
Many films have been shot at Waddesdon Manor, including the Carry On film Don't Lose Your Head (1966); Never Say Never Again (1983); An Ideal Husband (1999); (2001), Ladies in Lavender (2004); Ripley Under Ground (2005); The Queen (2006); The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor (2008); Sherlock Holmes: A Game of Shadows (2011); A Little Chaos (2014); Victor Frankenstein (2015), Our Kind of Traitor (2016); and The Infiltrator (2016).
Waddesdon Manor has also been used as a location for a number of television programmes. These include Howards' Way (1985), Downton Abbey (2011), And Then There Were None (BBC One, 2015), The Crown (2016) and Endeavour.
Gallery
Notes
References
Girouard, Mark, A Hundred Years at Waddesdon, published by Rothschild Waddesdon, 1998,
Hall, Michael and John Bigelow Taylor, Waddesdon Manor: The Heritage of a Rothschild House (Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 2002)
Rothschild, Mrs. James de [Dorothy], The Rothschilds at Waddesdon Manor (Collins, 1979)
Schwartz, Selma, "The Waddesdon Companion Guide", 3rd revised ed., (The Alice Trust, Waddesdon Manor, 2008) ISBN
Further reading
Thornton, Dora (2015). A Rothschild Renaissance: The Waddesdon Bequest. London: British Museum Publications.
External links
Waddesdon Manor YouTube channel
Waddesdon Manor at the National Trust
Historical Images of Waddesdon Manor House, Gardens and Aviary
Waddesdon Manor entry from The DiCamillo Companion to British & Irish Country Houses
Waddesdon Manor QuickTime Virtual Reality image of Waddesdon Manor's parterre
Art museums and galleries in Buckinghamshire
Country houses in Buckinghamshire
Châteauesque architecture
Downton Abbey
Former private collections in the United Kingdom
Gardens in Buckinghamshire
Grade I listed buildings in Buckinghamshire
Grade I listed houses
Grade I listed museum buildings
Grade I listed parks and gardens in Buckinghamshire
Historic house museums in Buckinghamshire
National Trust properties in Buckinghamshire
Renaissance Revival architecture in the United Kingdom
Rothschild family residences
Museum of the Year (UK) recipients
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General%20anaesthesia
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General anaesthesia
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General anaesthesia (UK) or general anesthesia (US) is a method of medically inducing loss of consciousness that renders a patient unarousable even with painful stimuli. This effect is achieved by administering either intravenous or inhalational general anaesthetic medications, which often act in combination with an analgesic and neuromuscular blocking agent. Spontaneous ventilation is often inadequate during the procedure and intervention is often necessary to protect the airway. General anaesthesia is generally performed in an operating theater to allow surgical procedures that would otherwise be intolerably painful for a patient, or in an intensive care unit or emergency department to facilitate endotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation in critically ill patients.
A variety of drugs may be administered, with the overall goal of achieving unconsciousness, amnesia, analgesia, loss of reflexes of the autonomic nervous system, and in some cases paralysis of skeletal muscles. The optimal combination of anesthetics for any given patient and procedure is typically selected by an anaesthetist, or another provider such as a nurse anaesthetist (depending on local practice and law), in consultation with the patient and the surgeon, dentist, or other practitioner performing the operative procedure.
History
Attempts at producing a state of general anaesthesia can be traced throughout recorded history in the writings of the ancient Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Indians, and Chinese. During the Middle Ages, scientists and other scholars made significant advances in the Eastern world, while their European counterparts also made important advances.
The Renaissance saw significant advances in anatomy and surgical technique. However, despite all this progress, surgery remained a treatment of last resort. Largely because of the associated pain, many patients chose certain death rather than undergo surgery. Although there has been a great deal of debate as to who deserves the most credit for the discovery of general anaesthesia, several scientific discoveries in the late 18th and early 19th centuries were critical to the eventual introduction and development of modern anaesthetic techniques.
Two enormous leaps occurred in the late 19th century, which together allowed the transition to modern surgery. An appreciation of the germ theory of disease led rapidly to the development and application of antiseptic techniques in surgery. Antisepsis, which soon gave way to asepsis, reduced the overall morbidity and mortality of surgery to a far more acceptable rate than in previous eras. Concurrent with these developments were the significant advances in pharmacology and physiology which led to the development of general anaesthesia and the control of pain. On 14 November 1804, Hanaoka Seishū, a Japanese surgeon, became the first person on record to successfully perform surgery using general anaesthesia.
In the 20th century, the safety and efficacy of general anaesthesia was improved by the routine use of tracheal intubation and other advanced airway management techniques. Significant advances in monitoring and new anaesthetic agents with improved pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic characteristics also contributed to this trend. Finally, standardized training programs for anaesthesiologists and nurse anaesthetists emerged during this period.
Purpose
General anaesthesia has many purposes and routinely used in almost all surgical procedures. An appropriate surgical anesthesia should include the following goals:
Hypnosis/Unconsciousness (loss of awareness)
Analgesia (loss of response to pain)
Amnesia (loss of memory)
Immobility (loss of motor reflexes)
Paralysis (skeletal muscle relaxation and normal muscle relaxation)
Biochemical mechanism of action
The biochemical mechanism of action of general anaesthetics is not well understood. Theories need to explain the function of anaesthesia in animals and plants. To induce unconsciousness, anaesthetics have myriad sites of action and affect the central nervous system (CNS) at multiple levels. General anaesthesia commonly interrupts or changes the functions of CNS components including the cerebral cortex, thalamus, reticular activating system, and spinal cord. Current theories on the anaesthetized state identify not only target sites in the CNS but also neural networks and arousal circuits linked with unconsciousness, and some anesthetics potentially able to activate specific sleep-active regions. Potential molecular pharmacologic targets of general anaesthetics are GABAA,and NMDA glutamate receptors. General anesthesia was hypothesized to either enhance the inhibitory transmission or reduce the excitatory transmission of neuro signaling. The most volatile anesthetic has been found to be a GABAA agonist, although the site of action on the receptor remains unknown. Ketamine is a non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonist.
The chemical structure and properties of anesthetics suggest they could target the plasma membrane, yet the exact mechanism remained a mystery for over 100 years. A study from 2020 demonstrated that inhaled anesthetics (chloroform and isoflurane) could disrupt phospholipase D2 localization to the lipid rafts and led to production of the signaling molecule phosphatidic acid (PA). Signaling molecules lead to a cascade of events and eventually activation TWIK-related K+ channels (TREK-1). PLDnull fruit flies were shown to resist anesthesia, the results established a membrane mediated target for inhaled anesthetics.
Preoperative evaluation
Prior to a planned procedure, the anesthesiologist reviews medical records, interviews the patient, and conducts a physical examination to obtain information regarding their medical history and current physical state, and to determine an appropriate anesthetic plan, including what combination of drugs and dosages will likely be needed for the patient's comfort and safety during the procedure. A variety of non-invasive and invasive monitoring devices may be necessary to ensure a safe and effective procedure. Key factors in this evaluation are the patient's age, gender, body mass index, medical and surgical history, current medications, exercise capacity, and fasting time. Thorough and accurate preoperative evaluation is crucial for the effective safety of the anesthetic plan. For example, a patient who consumes significant quantities of alcohol or illicit drugs could be undermedicated during the procedure if they fail to disclose this fact, and this could lead to anaesthesia awareness or intraoperative hypertension. Commonly used medications can also interact with anaesthetics, and failure to disclose such usage can increase the risk during the operation. Inaccurate timing of last meal can also increase the risk for aspiration of food, and lead to serious complications.
An important aspect of pre-anaesthetic evaluation is an assessment of the patient's airway, involving inspection of the mouth opening and visualisation of the soft tissues of the pharynx. The condition of teeth and location of dental crowns are checked, and neck flexibility and head extension are observed. The most commonly performed airway assessment is the Mallampati classification, which evaluates the airway base on the ability to view airway structures with the mouth open and the tongue protruding. Mallampati tests alone have limited accuracy, and other evaluations are routinely performed addition to the Mallampati test including mouth opening, thyromental distance, neck range of motion, and mandibular protrusion. In a patient with suspected distorted airway anatomy, endoscopy or ultrasound is sometimes used to evaluate the airway before planning for the airway management.
Premedication
Prior to administration of a general anaesthetic, the anaesthetist may administer one or more drugs that complement or improve the quality or safety of the anaesthetic or simply provide anxiolysis. Premedication also often has mild sedative effects and may reduce the amount of anaesthetic agent required during the case.
One commonly used premedication is clonidine, an alpha-2 adrenergic agonist. It reduces postoperative shivering, postoperative nausea and vomiting, and emergence delirium. However, a randomized controlled trial from 2021 demonstrated that clonidine is less effective at providing anxiolysis and more sedative in children of preschool age. Oral clonidine can take up to 45 minutes to take full effect, The drawbacks of clonidine include hypotension and bradycardia, but these can be advantageous in patients with hypertension and tachycardia. Another commonly used alpha-2 adrenergic agonist is dexmedetomidine, which is commonly used to provide a short term sedative effect (<24 hours). Dexmedetomidine and certain atypical antipsychotic agents may be also used in uncooperative children.
Benzodiazepines are the most commonly used class of drugs for premedication. The most commonly utilized benzodiazepine is Midazolam, which is characterized by a rapid onset and short duration. Midazolam is effective in reducing preoperative anxiety, including separation anxiety in children. It also provides mild sedation, sympathicolysis, and anterograde amnesia.
Melatonin has been found to be effective as an anaesthetic premedication in both adults and children because of its hypnotic, anxiolytic, sedative, analgesic, and anticonvulsant properties. Recovery is more rapid after premedication with melatonin than with midazolam, and there is also a reduced incidence of post-operative agitation and delirium. Melatonin has been shown to have a similar effect in reducing perioperative anxiety in adult patients compared to benzodiazepine.
Another example of anaesthetic premedication is the preoperative administration of beta adrenergic antagonists, which reduce the burden of arrhythmias after cardiac surgery. However, evidence also has shown an association of increased adverse events with beta-blockers in non-cardiac surgery. Anaesthesiologists may administer one or more antiemetic agents such as ondansetron, droperidol, or dexamethasone to prevent postoperative nausea and vomiting. NSAIDs are commonly used analgesic premedication agent, and often reduce need for opioids such as fentanyl or sufentanil. Also gastrokinetic agents such as metoclopramide, and histamine antagonists such as famotidine.
Non-pharmacologic preanaesthetic interventions include playing cognitive behavioral therapy, music therapy, aromatherapy, hypnosis massage, pre-operative preparation video, and guided imagery relaxation therapy, etc. These techniques are particularly useful for children and patients with intellectual disabilities. Minimizing sensory stimulation or distraction by video games may help to reduce anxiety prior to or during induction of general anaesthesia. Larger high-quality studies are needed to confirm the most effective non-pharmacological approaches for reducing this type of anxiety. Parental presence during premedication and induction of anaesthesia has not been shown to reduce anxiety in children. It is suggested that parents who wish to attend should not be actively discouraged, and parents who prefer not to be present should not be actively encouraged to attend.
Anesthesia and the brain
Anesthesia has little to no effect on brain function, unless there is an existing brain disruption. Barbiturates, or the drugs used to administer anesthesia do not effect auditory brain stem response. An example of a brain disruption would be a concussion. It can be risky and lead to further brain injury if anesthesia is used on a concussed person. Concussions create ionic shifts in the brain that adjust the neuronal transmembrane potential. In order to restore this potential more glucose has to be made to equal the potential that is lost. This can be very dangerous and lead to cell death. This makes the brain very vulnerable in surgery. There are also changes to cerebral blood flow. The injury complicates the oxygen blood flow and supply to the brain.
Stages of anaesthesia
Guedel's classification, described by Arthur Ernest Guedel in 1937, describes four stages of anaesthesia. Despite newer anaesthetic agents and delivery techniques, which have led to more rapid onset of—and recovery from—anaesthesia (in some cases bypassing some of the stages entirely), the principles remain.
Stage 1 Stage 1, also known as induction, is the period between the administration of induction agents and loss of consciousness. During this stage, the patient progresses from analgesia without amnesia to analgesia with amnesia. Patients can carry on a conversation at this time, and may complain about visual disturbance.
Stage 2 Stage 2, also known as the excitement or delirium stage, is the period following loss of consciousness and marked by excited and delirious activity. During this stage, the patient's respiration and heart rate may become irregular. In addition, there may be uncontrolled movements, vomiting, suspension of breathing, and pupillary dilation. Because the combination of spastic movements, vomiting, and irregular respiration may compromise the patient's airway, rapidly acting drugs are used to minimize time in this stage and reach Stage 3 as fast as possible.
Stage 3 In Stage 3, also known as surgical anaesthesia, the skeletal muscles relax, vomiting stops. Respiratory depression and cessation of eye movements are the hallmarks of this stage. The patient is unconscious and ready for surgery. This stage is divided into four planes:
The eyes roll, then become fixed; eyelid and swallow reflexes are lost. Still have regular spontaneous breathing;
Corneal and laryngeal reflexes are lost;
The pupillary light reflex is lost; and the process is marked by complete relaxation of abdominal and intercostal muscles. Ideal level of anesthesia for most surgeries.
Full diaphragm paralysis and irregular shallow abdominal respiration occur.
Stage 4 Stage 4, also known as overdose, occurs when too much anaesthetic medication is given relative to the amount of surgical stimulation and the patient has severe brainstem or medullary depression, resulting in a cessation of respiration and potential cardiovascular collapse. This stage is lethal without cardiovascular and respiratory support.
Induction
General anaesthesia is usually induced in an operating theatre or in a dedicated anaesthetic room adjacent to the theatre. General anaesthesia may also be conducted in other locations, such as an endoscopy suite, intensive care unit, radiology or cardiology department, emergency department, ambulance, or at the site of a disaster where extrication of the patient may be impossible or impractical.
Anaesthetic agents may be administered by various routes, including inhalation, injection (intravenous, intramuscular, or subcutaneous), oral, and rectal. Once they enter the circulatory system, the agents are transported to their biochemical sites of action in the central and autonomic nervous systems.
Most general anaesthetics are induced either intravenously or by inhalation. Commonly used intravenous induction agents include propofol, sodium thiopental, etomidate, methohexital, and ketamine. Inhalational anaesthesia may be chosen when intravenous access is difficult to obtain (e.g., children), when difficulty maintaining the airway is anticipated, or when the patient prefers it. Sevoflurane is the most commonly used agent for inhalational induction, because it is less irritating to the tracheobronchial tree than other agents.
As an example sequence of induction drugs:
Pre-oxygenation or denitrogenation to fill lungs with 100% oxygen to permit a longer period of apnea during intubation without affecting blood oxygen levels
Fentanyl for systemic analgesia during intubation
Propofol for sedation for intubation
Switching from oxygen to a mixture of oxygen and inhalational anesthetic once intubation is complete
Laryngoscopy and intubation are both very stimulating. The process of induction blunts the response to these maneuvers while simultaneously inducing a near-coma state to prevent awareness.
Physiologic monitoring
Several monitoring technologies allow for a controlled induction of, maintenance of, and emergence from general anaesthesia. Standard for basic anesthetic monitoring is a guideline published by the ASA, which describes that the patient's oxygenation, ventilation, circulation and temperature should be continually evaluated during anesthetic.
Continuous electrocardiography (ECG or EKG): Electrodes are placed on the patient's skin to monitor heart rate and rhythm. This may also help the anaesthesiologist to identify early signs of heart ischaemia. Typically lead II and V5 are monitored for arrhythmias and ischemia, respectively.
Continuous pulse oximetry (SpO2): A device is placed, usually on a finger, to allow for early detection of a fall in a patient's hemoglobin saturation with oxygen (hypoxaemia).
Blood pressure monitoring: There are two methods of measuring the patient's blood pressure. The first, and most common, is non-invasive blood pressure (NIBP) monitoring. This involves placing a blood pressure cuff around the patient's arm, forearm, or leg. A machine takes blood pressure readings at regular, preset intervals throughout the surgery. The second method is invasive blood pressure (IBP) monitoring, which allows beat to beat monitoring of blood pressure. This method is reserved for patients with significant heart or lung disease, the critically ill, and those undergoing major procedures such as cardiac or transplant surgery, or when large blood loss is expected. It involves placing a special type of plastic cannula in an artery, usually in the wrist (radial artery) or groin (femoral artery).
Agent concentration measurement: anaesthetic machines typically have monitors to measure the percentage of inhalational anaesthetic agents used as well as exhalation concentrations. These monitors include measuring oxygen, carbon dioxide, and inhalational anaesthetics (e.g., nitrous oxide, isoflurane).
Oxygen measurement: Almost all circuits have an alarm in case oxygen delivery to the patient is compromised. The alarm goes off if the fraction of inspired oxygen drops below a set threshold.
A circuit disconnect alarm or low pressure alarm indicates failure of the circuit to achieve a given pressure during mechanical ventilation.
Capnography measures the amount of carbon dioxide exhaled by the patient in percent or mmHg, allowing the anaesthesiologist to assess the adequacy of ventilation. MmHg is usually used to allow the provider to see more subtle changes.
Temperature measurement to discern hypothermia or fever, and to allow early detection of malignant hyperthermia.
Electroencephalography, entropy monitoring, or other systems may be used to verify the depth of anaesthesia. This reduces the likelihood of anaesthesia awareness and of overdose.
Airway management
Anaesthetized patients lose protective airway reflexes (such as coughing), airway patency, and sometimes a regular breathing pattern due to the effects of anaesthetics, opioids, or muscle relaxants.
To maintain an open airway and regulate breathing, some form of breathing tube is inserted after the patient is unconscious.
To enable mechanical ventilation, an endotracheal tube is often used, although there are alternative devices that can assist respiration, such as face masks or laryngeal mask airways.
Generally, full mechanical ventilation is only used if a very deep state of general anaesthesia is to be induced for a major procedure, and/or with a profoundly ill or injured patient.
That said, induction of general anaesthesia usually results in apnea and requires ventilation until the drugs wear off and spontaneous breathing starts.
In other words, ventilation may be required for both induction and maintenance of general anaesthesia or just during the induction.
However, mechanical ventilation can provide ventilatory support during spontaneous breathing to ensure adequate gas exchange.
General anaesthesia can also be induced with the patient spontaneously breathing and therefore maintaining their own oxygenation which can be beneficial in certain scenarios (e.g. difficult airway or tubeless surgery). Spontaneous ventilation has been traditionally maintained with inhalational agents (i.e. halothane or sevoflurane) which is called a gas or inhalational induction. Spontaneous ventilation can also be maintained using intravenous anaesthesia (e.g. propofol). Intravenous anaesthesia to maintain spontaneous respiration has certain advantages over inhalational agents (i.e. suppressed laryngeal reflexes) however it requires careful titration. Spontaneous Respiration using Intravenous anaesthesia and High-flow nasal oxygen (STRIVE Hi) is a technique that has been used in difficult and obstructed airways.
Eye management
General anaesthesia reduces the tonic contraction of the orbicularis oculi muscle, causing lagophthalmos (incomplete eye closure) in 59% of peoples. In addition, tear production and tear-film stability are reduced, resulting in corneal epithelial drying and reduced lysosomal protection. The protection afforded by Bell's phenomenon (in which the eyeball turns upward during sleep, protecting the cornea) is also lost. Careful management is required to reduce the likelihood of eye injuries during general anaesthesia. Some of the methods to prevent eye injury during general anesthesia includes, taping eyelid shut, use of eye ointment, specialty designed eye protective goggle.
Neuromuscular blockade
Paralysis, or temporary muscle relaxation with a neuromuscular blocker, is an integral part of modern anaesthesia. The first drug used for this purpose was curare, introduced in the 1940s, which has now been superseded by drugs with fewer side effects and, generally, shorter duration of action. Muscle relaxation allows surgery within major body cavities, such as the abdomen and thorax, without the need for very deep anaesthesia, and also facilitates endotracheal intubation.
Acetylcholine, a natural neurotransmitter found at the neuromuscular junction, causes muscles to contract when it is released from nerve endings. Muscle paralytic drugs work by preventing acetylcholine from attaching to its receptor. Paralysis of the muscles of respiration—the diaphragm and intercostal muscles of the chest—requires that some form of artificial respiration be implemented. Because the muscles of the larynx are also paralysed, the airway usually needs to be protected by means of an endotracheal tube.
Paralysis is most easily monitored by means of a peripheral nerve stimulator. This device intermittently sends short electrical pulses through the skin over a peripheral nerve while the contraction of a muscle supplied by that nerve is observed. The effects of muscle relaxants are commonly reversed at the end of surgery by anticholinesterase drugs, which are administered in combination with muscarinic anticholinergic drugs to minimize side effects. Examples of skeletal muscle relaxants in use today are pancuronium, rocuronium, vecuronium, cisatracurium, atracurium, mivacurium, and succinylcholine.Novel neuromuscular blockade reversal agents such as sugammadex may also be used; it works by directly binding muscle relaxants and removing it from the neuromuscular junction. Sugammadex was approved for use in the United States in 2015, and rapidly gained popularity. A study from 2022 has shown that Sugammadex and neostigmine are likely similarly safe in the reversal of neuromuscular blockade.
Maintenance
The duration of action of intravenous induction agents is generally 5 to 10 minutes, after which spontaneous recovery of consciousness will occur. In order to prolong unconsciousness for the duration of surgery, anaesthesia must be maintained. This is achieved by allowing the patient to breathe a carefully controlled mixture of oxygen and a volatile anaesthetic agent, or by administering intravenous medication (usually propofol). Inhaled anaesthetic agents are also frequently supplemented by intravenous analgesic agents, such as opioids (usually fentanyl or a fentanyl derivative) and sedatives (usually propofol or midazolam). Propofol can be used for total intravenous anaesthetia (TIVA), therefore supplementation by inhalation agents is not required. General anesthesia is usually considered safe; however, there are reported cases of patients with distortion of taste and/or smell due to local anesthetics, stroke, nerve damage, or as a side effect of general anesthesia.
At the end of surgery, administration of anaesthetic agents is discontinued. Recovery of consciousness occurs when the concentration of anaesthetic in the brain drops below a certain level (this occurs usually within 1 to 30 minutes, mostly depending on the duration of surgery).
In the 1990s, a novel method of maintaining anaesthesia was developed in Glasgow, Scotland. Called target controlled infusion (TCI), it involves using a computer-controlled syringe driver (pump) to infuse propofol throughout the duration of surgery, removing the need for a volatile anaesthetic and allowing pharmacologic principles to more precisely guide the amount of the drug used by setting the desired drug concentration. Advantages include faster recovery from anaesthesia, reduced incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting, and absence of a trigger for malignant hyperthermia. At present, TCI is not permitted in the United States, but a syringe pump delivering a specific rate of medication is commonly used instead.
Other medications are occasionally used to treat side effects or prevent complications. They include antihypertensives to treat high blood pressure; ephedrine or phenylephrine to treat low blood pressure; salbutamol to treat asthma, laryngospasm, or bronchospasm; and epinephrine or diphenhydramine to treat allergic reactions. Glucocorticoids or antibiotics are sometimes given to prevent inflammation and infection, respectively.
Emergence
Emergence is the return to baseline physiologic function of all organ systems after the cessation of general anaesthetics. This stage may be accompanied by temporary neurologic phenomena, such as agitated emergence (acute mental confusion), aphasia (impaired production or comprehension of speech), or focal impairment in sensory or motor function. Shivering is also fairly common and can be clinically significant because it causes an increase in oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide production, cardiac output, heart rate, and systemic blood pressure. The proposed mechanism is based on the observation that the spinal cord recovers at a faster rate than the brain. This results in uninhibited spinal reflexes manifested as clonic activity (shivering). This theory is supported by the fact that doxapram, a CNS stimulant, is somewhat effective in abolishing postoperative shivering. Cardiovascular events such as increased or decreased blood pressure, rapid heart rate, or other cardiac dysrhythmias are also common during emergence from general anaesthesia, as are respiratory symptoms such as dyspnoea. Responding and following verbal command, is a criterion commonly utilized to assess the patient's readiness for tracheal extubation.
Postoperative care
Postoperative pain is managed in the anaesthesia recovery unit (PACU) with regional analgesia or oral, transdermal, or parenteral medication. Patients may be given opioids, as well as other medications like non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and acetaminophen. Sometimes, opioid medication is administered by the patient themselves using a system called a patient controlled analgesic. The patient presses a button to activate a syringe device and receive a preset dose or "bolus" of the drug, usually a strong opioid such as morphine, fentanyl, or oxycodone (e.g., one milligram of morphine). The PCA device then "locks out" for a preset period to allow the drug to take effect, and also prevent the patient from overdosing. If the patient becomes too sleepy or sedated, he or she makes no more requests. This confers a fail-safe aspect that is lacking in continuous-infusion techniques. If these medications cannot effectively manage the pain, local anesthetic may be directly injected to the nerve in a procedure called a nerve block.
In the recovery unit, many vital signs are monitored, including oxygen saturation, heart rhythm and respiration, blood pressure, and core body temperature.
Postanesthetic shivering is common. Apart from causing discomfort and exacerbating pain, shivering has been shown to increase oxygen consumption, catecholamine release, risk for hypothermia, and induce lactic acidosis. A number of techniques are used to reduce shivering, such as warm blankets, or wrapping the patient in a sheet that circulates warmed air, called a bair hugger. If the shivering cannot be managed with external warming devices, drugs such as dexmedetomidine, or other α2-agonists, anticholinergics, central nervous system stimulants, or corticosteroids may be used.
In many cases, opioids used in general anaesthesia can cause postoperative ileus, even after non-abdominal surgery. Administration of a μ-opioid antagonist such as alvimopan immediately after surgery can help accelerate the timing of hospital discharge, but does not reduce the development of paralytic ileus.
Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) is a society that provides up-to-date guidelines and consensus to ensure continuity of care and improve recovery and peri-operative care. Adherence to the pathway and guidelines has been shown to associate with improved post-operative outcomes and lower costs to the health care system.
Perioperative mortality
Most perioperative mortality is attributable to complications from the operation, such as haemorrhage, sepsis, and failure of vital organs. Over the last several decades, the overall anesthesia related mortality rate improved significantly for anesthetics administered. Advancements in monitoring equipment, anesthetic agents, and increased focus on perioperative safety are some reasons for the decrease in perioperative mortality. In the United States, the current estimated anesthesia-related mortality is about 1.1 per million population per year. The highest death rates were found in the geriatric population, especially those 85 and older. A review from 2018 examined perioperative anesthesia interventions and their impact on anesthesia-related mortality. Interventions found to reduce mortality include pharmacotherapy, ventilation, transfusion, nutrition, glucose control, dialysis and medical device. Interestingly, a randomized controlled trial from 2022 demonstrated that there is no significant difference in mortality between patient receiving handover from one clinician to another compared to the control group.
Mortality directly related to anaesthetic management is very uncommon but may be caused by pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents, asphyxiation, or anaphylaxis. These in turn may result from malfunction of anaesthesia-related equipment or, more commonly, human error. In 1984, after a television programme highlighting anaesthesia mishaps aired in the United States, American anaesthesiologist Ellison C. Pierce appointed the Anesthesia Patient Safety and Risk Management Committee within the American Society of Anesthesiologists. This committee was tasked with determining and reducing the causes of anaesthesia-related morbidity and mortality. An outgrowth of this committee, the Anesthesia Patient Safety Foundation, was created in 1985 as an independent, nonprofit corporation with the goal "that no patient shall be harmed by anesthesia".
The rare but major complication of general anaesthesia is malignant hyperthermia. All major hospital should have protocol in place with emergence drug cart near the OR for this potential complication.
See also
Local anaesthesia
References
External links
Chloroform: The molecular lifesaver An article at University of Bristol providing interesting facts about chloroform.
Australian & New Zealand College of Anaesthetists Monitoring Standard
Royal College of Anaesthetists Patient Information page
Anesthesia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srivijaya
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Srivijaya
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Srivijaya () was a Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra (in modern-day Indonesia), which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th to the 11th century AD. Srivijaya was the first polity to dominate much of western Maritime Southeast Asia. Due to its location, Srivijaya developed complex technology utilizing maritime resources. In addition, its economy became progressively reliant on the booming trade in the region, thus transforming it into a prestige goods-based economy.
The earliest reference to it dates from the 7th century. A Tang dynasty Chinese monk, Yijing, wrote that he visited Srivijaya in year 671 for six months. The earliest known inscription in which the name Srivijaya appears also dates from the 7th century in the Kedukan Bukit inscription found near Palembang, Sumatra, dated 16 June 682. Between the late 7th and early 11th century, Srivijaya rose to become a hegemon in Southeast Asia. It was involved in close interactions, often rivalries, with the neighbouring Mataram, Khmer and Champa. Srivijaya's main foreign interest was nurturing lucrative trade agreements with China which lasted from the Tang to the Song dynasty. Srivijaya had religious, cultural and trade links with the Buddhist Pala of Bengal, as well as with the Islamic Caliphate in the Middle East.
Although it was once thought of as a maritime empire, new research on available records suggests that Srivijaya was primarily a land-based polity rather than a maritime power, fleets were available but acted as logistical support to facilitate the projection of land power. In response to the change in the maritime Asian economy, and threatened by the loss of its dependencies, the kingdoms around the Malacca Straits developed a naval strategy to delay their decline. The naval strategy of the kingdoms around the Malacca Strait was mainly punitive; this was done to coerce trading ships to be called to their port. Later, the naval strategy degenerated to raiding fleet.
The kingdom ceased to exist in the 1025 CE after several raids were launched by Chola empire upon their ports. After Srivijaya fell, it was largely forgotten. It was not until 1918 that French historian George Cœdès, of l'École française d'Extrême-Orient, formally postulated its existence.
Etymology
Srivijaya is a Sanskrit-derived name: श्रीविजय, Śrīvijaya. Śrī means "fortunate", "prosperous", or "happy" and Vijaya means "victorious" or "excellence". Thus, the combined word Srivijaya means "shining victory", "splendid triumph", "prosperous victor", "radiance of excellence" or simply "glorious".
Early 20th-century historians that studied the inscriptions of Sumatra and the neighboring islands thought that the term "Srivijaya" referred to a king's name. In 1913, H. Kern was the first epigraphist that identified the name "Srivijaya" written in a 7th-century Kota Kapur inscription (discovered in 1892). However, at that time he believed that it referred to a king named "Vijaya", with "Sri" as an honorific title for a king or ruler.
The Sundanese manuscript of Carita Parahyangan, composed around the late 16th century in West Java, vaguely mentioned about the name "Sang Sri Wijaya". The manuscript describes princely hero that rose to be a king named Sanjaya that — after he secured his rule in Java — was involved in battle with the Malayu and Keling against their king Sang Sri Wijaya.
Subsequently, after studying local stone inscriptions, manuscripts and Chinese historical accounts, historians concluded that the term "Srivijaya" was actually referred to a polity or kingdom. The main concern is to define Srivijaya's amorphous statehood as a thalassocracy, which dominated a confederation of semi autonomous harbour cities in Maritime Southeast Asia.
Historiography
Little physical evidence of Srivijaya remains. There had been no continuous knowledge of the history of Srivijaya even in Indonesia and Maritime Southeast Asia; its forgotten past has been resurrected by foreign scholars. Contemporary Indonesians, even those from the area of Palembang (around where the kingdom was based), had not heard of Srivijaya until the 1920s when the French scholar, George Cœdès, published his discoveries and interpretations in the Dutch and Indonesian language newspapers. Cœdès noted that the Chinese references to Sanfoqi, previously read as Sribhoja or Sribogha, and the inscriptions in Old Malay refer to the same empire.
The Srivijayan historiography was acquired, composed and established from two main sources: the Chinese historical accounts and the Southeast Asian stone inscriptions that have been discovered and deciphered in the region. The Buddhist pilgrim Yijing's account is especially important in describing Srivijaya, when he visited the kingdom in 671 for six months. The 7th-century siddhayatra inscriptions discovered in Palembang and Bangka Island are also vital primary historical sources. Also, regional accounts that some might be preserved and retold as tales and legends, such as the Legend of the Maharaja of Zabaj and the Khmer King also provide a glimpse of the kingdom. Some Indian and Arabic accounts also vaguely describe the riches and fabulous fortune of the king of Zabag. It's likely that the Zabag-Khmer story was based on Javanese overlordship over Cambodia.
The historical records of Srivijaya were reconstructed from a number of stone inscriptions, most of them written in Old Malay using Pallava script, such as the Kedukan Bukit, Talang Tuwo, Telaga Batu and Kota Kapur inscriptions. Srivijaya became a symbol of early Sumatran importance as a great empire to balance Java's Majapahit in the east. In the 20th century, both empires were referred to by nationalistic intellectuals to argue for an Indonesian identity within a united Indonesian state that had existed prior to the colonial state of the Dutch East Indies.
Srivijaya, and by extension Sumatra, had been known by different names to different peoples. The Chinese called it Sanfotsi, Sanfoqi or Che-li-fo-che (Shilifoshi), and there was an even older kingdom of Kantoli, which could be considered the predecessor of Srivijaya. The Arabs called it Zabag or Sribuza and the Khmers called it Melayu. While the Javanese called them Suvarnabhumi, Suvarnadvipa, Melayu, or Malayu. This is another reason why the discovery of Srivijaya was so difficult. While some of these names are strongly reminiscent of the name of Java, there is a distinct possibility that they may have referred to Sumatra instead.
Capital
Palembang
According to the Kedukan Bukit inscription, dated 605 Saka (683), Srivijaya was first established in the vicinity of today's Palembang, on the banks of Musi River. It mentions that Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa came from Minanga Tamwan. The exact location of Minanga Tamwan is still a subject of discussion. The Palembang theory as the place where Srivijaya was first established was presented by Cœdes and supported by Pierre-Yves Manguin. Soekmono, on the other hand, argues that Palembang was not the capital of Srivijaya and suggests that the Kampar River system in Riau where the Muara Takus temple is located as Minanga Tamwan.
Other than the Kedukan Bukit inscription and other Srivijayan inscriptions, immediately to the west of modern Palembang city, a quantity of artefacts have been revealed through archaeological surveys commenced since the 20th century. Artefacts unearthed includes large amount of Chinese ceramics and Indian rouletted ware remains, also the ruins of stupa at the foot of Bukit Seguntang. Furthermore, a significant number of Hindu-Buddhist statuary has been recovered from the Musi River basin. These discoveries reinforce the suggestion that Palembang was the center of Srivijaya. Nevertheless, Palembang left little archaeological traces of ancient urban settlement. This is probably because of the nature of Palembang environment — a low-lying plain which frequently flooded by Musi River. Expert suggests that the ancient Palembang settlement was formed as a collection of floating houses made from thatched materials, such as wood, bamboo and straw roof. The 13th century Chinese account confirmed this; in his Zhu Fan Zhi, Zhao Rukuo mentioned, "The residents of Sanfo-tsi (Srivijaya) live scattered outside the city on the water, within rafts lined with reeds." It was probably only Kedatuan (king's court) and religious structures were built on land, while the people live in floating houses along Musi River.
Palembang and its relevance to the early Malay state suffered a great deal of controversy in terms of its evidence build-up through the archaeological record. Strong historical evidence found in Chinese sources, speaking of city-like settlements as early as 700 AD, and later Arab travelers, who visited the region during the 10th and 11th centuries, held written proof, naming the kingdom of Srivijaya in their context. As far as early state-like polities in the Malay Archipelago, the geographical location of modern Palembang was a possible candidate for the 1st-millennium kingdom settlement like Srivijaya as it is the best described and most secure in historical context, its prestige was apparent in wealth and urban characteristics, and the most unique, which no other 1st-millennium kingdom held, was its location in junction to three major rivers, the Musi River, the Komering River, and the Ogan River. The historical evidence was contrasted in 1975 with publications by Bennet Bronson and Jan Wisseman. Findings at certain major excavation sites, such as Geding Suro, Penyaringan Air Bersih, Sarang Wati, and Bukit Seguntang, conducted in the region played major roles in the negative evidence of the 1st-millennium kingdom in the same region. It was noted that the region contained no locatable settlements earlier than the middle of the second millennium.
Lack of evidence of southern settlements in the archaeological record comes from the disinterest in the archeologist and the unclear physical visibility of the settlement themselves. Archeology of the 1920s and 1930s focused more on art and epigraphy found in the regions. Some northern urban settlements were sited due to some overlap in fitting the sinocentric model of city-state urban centers. An approach to differentiate between urban settlements in the southern regions from the northern ones of Southeast Asia was initiated by a proposition for an alternative model. Excavations showed failed signs of a complex urban center under the lens of a sinocentric model, leading to parameters of a new proposed model. Parameters for such a model of a city-like settlement included isolation in relevance to its hinterland. No hinterland creates for low archaeological visibility. The settlement must also have access to both easy transportation and major interregional trade routes, crucial in a region with few resources. Access to the former and later played a major role in the creation of an extreme economic surplus in the absence of an exploited hinterland. The urban center must be able to organize politically without the need for ceremonial foci such as temples, monuments and inscriptions. Lastly, habitations must be impermanent, being highly probable in the region Palembang and of southern Southeast Asia. Such a model was proposed to challenge city concepts of ancient urban centers in Southeast Asia and basic postulates themselves such as regions found in the South, like Palembang, based their achievements in correlation with urbanization.
Due to the contradicting pattern found in southern regions, like Palembang, in 1977 Bennet Bronson developed a speculative model for a better understanding of coastal-oriented states in Insular Southeast Asia, such as insular and peninsular Malaysia, the Philippines, and western Indonesia. Its main focus was the relationship of political, economic and geographical systems. The general political and economic pattern of the region seems irrelevant to other parts of the world of their time, but in correlation with their maritime trade network, it produced high levels of socio-economic complexity. He concluded, from his earlier publications in 1974 that state development in this region developed much differently than the rest of early Southeast Asia. Bronson's model was based on the dendritic patterns of a drainage basin where its opening leads out to sea. Being that historical evidence places the capital in Palembang, and in junction of three rivers, the Musi River, the Komering River, and the Ogan River, such model can be applied. For the system to function appropriately, several constraints are required. The inability for terrestrial transportation results in movements of all goods through water routes, lining up economical patterns with the dendritic patterns formed by the streams. The second being the overseas center is economically superior to the ports found at the mouth of the rivers, having a higher population and a more productive and technologically advanced economy. Lastly, constraints on the land work against and do not developments of urban settlements.
An aerial photograph taken in 1984 near Palembang (in what is now Srivijaya Archaeological Park) revealed the remnants of ancient man-made canals, moats, ponds, and artificial islands, suggesting the location of Srivijaya's urban centre. Several artefacts such as fragments of inscriptions, Buddhist statues, beads, pottery and Chinese ceramics were found, confirming that the area had, at one time, dense human habitation. By 1993, Pierre-Yves Manguin had shown that the centre of Srivijaya was along the Musi River between Bukit Seguntang and Sabokingking (situated in what is now Palembang, South Sumatra, Indonesia). Palembang is called in , this is probably a testament of its history as once a great port.
The recent troves discovered from the muddy sediments in the bottom of Musi river seems to confirms that Palembang was indeed the commercial centre of Srivijaya kingdom. In 2021 numbers of treasures were surfaced from shallows and riverbed by local fishermen that turns to be treasure divers. The troves includes coins of certain periods, gold jewelries, Buddhist statues, gems, colourful beads, and Chinese ceramic fragments. However, these troves are immediately lost for the historical knowledge, since local treasure hunters immediately has sold them to international antiquities dealers before archaeologists can properly study them. These discoveries has led to the treasure rush in Musi river in 2021, where locals has formed groups of treasure divers operating in some parts of Musi river in and around Palembang.
Jambi
Some scholar argues that the centre of Srivijaya was located in Muaro Jambi, and not Palembang as many previous writers suggested. In 2013, archaeological research led by the University of Indonesia discovered several religious and habitation sites at the Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds, suggesting that the initial centre of Srivijaya was located in Muaro Jambi Regency, Jambi on the Batang Hari River, rather than on the originally-proposed Musi River. The archaeological site includes eight excavated temple sanctuaries and covers about 12 square kilometers, and stretches 7.5 kilometers along the Batang Hari River, while 80 mounds (menapos) of temple ruins, are not yet restored. The Muaro Jambi archaeological site was Mahayana-Vajrayana Buddhist in nature, which suggests that the site served as a Buddhist learning center, connected to the 10th century famous Buddhist scholar Suvarṇadvipi Dharmakīrti. Chinese sources also mentioned that Srivijaya hosts thousands of Buddhist monks.
Compared to Palembang, Muaro Jambi has richer archaeological sites, i.e. multiple red brick temples and building structures along the Batang Hari river. On the other hand, no comparable temple or building structure ever discovered in Palembang. The proponent of Muaro Jambi theory as Srivijaya's capital pointing out that the descriptions written by I-Tsing and Chau Ju-kua, the description of Srivijaya realms by the Cholas, also the archaeological findings, suggests that the Srivijaya capital fits Muaro Jambi's environs better than the marshy Palembang. The study also compares the environs, geographical location, and the economic wealth of both cities; arguing that Jambi, located on the mouth of Batang Hari river basin with its connection to Minangkabau hinterland was the centre of gold trade in the area, that described as the fabulous wealth of Srivijaya.
Central Java
In the second half of the eighth century, the Srivijayan mandala seem to have been ruled by the Sailendra dynasty of Central Java. Several Arabic sources mentioned that Zabag (the Javanese Sailendra dynasty) ruled over Sribuza (Srivijaya), Kalah (a place in the Malay peninsula, probably Kedah), and Ramni (a place in Sumatra, probably Lambri). However, it was unknown whether Srivijaya's capital has moved to Java or Srivijaya simply became a subordinate of Java.
Other places
Another theory suggests that Dapunta Hyang came from the east coast of the Malay Peninsula, and that the Chaiya District in Surat Thani Province, Thailand, was the centre of Srivijaya. The Srivijayan Period is referred to as the time when Srivijaya ruled over present-day southern Thailand. In the region of Chaiya, there is clear evidence of Srivijayan influence seen in artwork inspired by Mahayana Buddhism. Because of the large amount of remains, such as the Ligor stele, found in this region, some scholars attempted to prove Chaiya as the capital rather than Palembang. This period was also a time for art. The Buddhist art of the Srivijayan Kingdom was believed to have borrowed from Indian styles like that of the Dvaravati school of art. The city of Chaiya's name may be derived from the Malay name "Cahaya" which means "light" or "radiance". However, some scholars believe that Chaiya probably comes from Srivijaya. It was a regional capital in the Srivijaya empire. Some Thai historians argue it was the capital of Srivijaya itself, but this is generally discounted.
History
Formation and growth
Siddhayatra
Around the year 500, the roots of the Srivijayan empire began to develop around present-day Palembang, Sumatra. The Kedukan Bukit inscription (683)—considered as the oldest inscription related to the kingdom of Srivijaya, discovered on the banks of the Tatang River near the Karanganyar site, states about the "glorious Srivijaya", a kadatuan (kingdom or polity) which was founded by Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa and his retinue. He had embarked on a sacred siddhayatra journey and led 20,000 troops and 312 people in boats with 1,312 foot soldiers from Minanga Tamwan to Jambi and Palembang. Many of this armed forces gathered under the Srivijayan rule would have been the sea people, referred to generally as the orang laut. In establishing its power, Srivijaya had first to consolidate its position in Southeast Sumatra, which at that time consists of numbers of quasi-independent polities ruled by local Datus (chieftain).
From the Old Malay inscriptions, it is notable that Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa launched a maritime conquest in 684 with 20,000 men in the siddhayatra journey to acquire wealth, power, and 'magical powers'. Under the leadership of Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, the Melayu Kingdom became the first kingdom to be integrated into Srivijaya. This possibly occurred in the 680s. Melayu, also known as Jambi, was rich in gold and held in high esteem at the time. Srivijaya recognised that the submission of Melayu would increase its own prestige.
The empire was organised in three main zones: the estuarine capital region centred on Palembang, the Musi River basin which served as a hinterland, and competitor estuarine areas capable of forming competitor power centres. The areas upstream of the Musi River were rich in various commodities valuable to Chinese traders. The capital was administered directly by the ruler, while the hinterland remained under local datus or tribal chiefs, who were organised into a network of alliances with the Srivijaya maharaja or king. Force was the dominant element in the empire's relations with competitor river systems such as the Batang Hari River, centred in Jambi.
The Telaga Batu inscription, discovered in Sabokingking, eastern Palembang, is also a siddhayatra inscription, from the 7th century. This inscription was very likely used in a ceremonial sumpah (allegiance ritual). The top of the stone is adorned with seven nāga heads, and on the lower portion there is a type of water spout to channel liquid that was likely poured over the stone during a ritual. The ritual included a curse upon those who commit treason against Kadatuan Srivijaya.
The Talang Tuwo inscription is also a siddhayatra inscription. Discovered in Seguntang Hill, western Palembang, this inscription tells about the establishment of the bountiful Śrīksetra garden endowed by King Jayanasa of Srivijaya for the well-being of all creatures. It is likely that the Seguntang Hill site was the location of the Śrīksetra garden.
Regional conquests
According to the Kota Kapur inscription discovered on Bangka Island, the empire conquered most of southern Sumatra and the neighbouring island of Bangka as far as Palas Pasemah in Lampung. Also, according to the inscriptions, Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa launched a military campaign against Java in the late 7th century, a period which coincided with the decline of Tarumanagara in West Java and the Kalingga in Central Java. The empire thus grew to control trade on the Strait of Malacca, the western side of Java Sea, and possibly the Gulf of Thailand.
Chinese records dating to the late 7th century mention two Sumatran kingdoms and three other kingdoms on Java as being part of Srivijaya. By the end of the 8th century, many western Javanese kingdoms, such as Tarumanagara and Kalingga, were within the Srivijayan sphere of influence.
Golden age
The 7th-century Sojomerto inscription mentioned that an Old Malay-speaking Shivaist family led by Dapunta Selendra had established themselves in the Batang area of the northern coast of Central Java. He was possibly the progenitor of the Sailendra family. By the early 8th century, an influential Buddhist family related to Srivijaya, the Sailendra family of Javanese ancestry, dominated Central Java.
Conquest of Malay Peninsula
During the same century, Langkasuka on the Malay Peninsula became part of Srivijaya. Soon after this, Pan Pan and Tambralinga, north of Langkasuka, came under Srivijayan influence. These kingdoms on the peninsula were major trading nations that transported goods across the Kra isthmus.
The Ligor inscription in Vat Sema Muang says that Maharaja Dharmasetu of Srivijaya ordered the construction of three sanctuaries dedicated to the Bodhisattvas Padmapani, Vajrapani, and Buddha in the northern Malay Peninsula.
Sailendra dynasty rule
The Sailendras of Java established a relationship with the Sumatran Srivijayan lineage, and then further established their rule and authority in the Mataram Kingdom of Central Java. It was unknown the exact nature of the relationship was, with Arab sources mentioning that Zabag (Java) ruled over Sribuza (Srivijaya), Kalah (a place in the Malay peninsula, probably Kedah), and Ramni (a place in Sumatra, probably Lambri).
In Java, Dharanindra's successor was Samaragrawira (r. 800–819), mentioned in the Nalanda inscription (dated 860) as the father of Balaputradewa, and the son of Śailendravamsatilaka (the jewel of the Śailendra family) with the stylised name being Śrīviravairimathana (the slayer of a heroic enemy), which refers to Dharanindra. Unlike his predecessor, the expansive and warlike Dharanindra, Samaragrawira seems to have been a pacifist, enjoying the peaceful prosperity of interior Java in the Kedu Plain and being more interested in completing the Borobudur project. He appointed the Khmer Prince Jayavarman II as governor of Indrapura in the Mekong delta under Sailendran rule. This decision was later proven to be a mistake, as Jayavarman II revolted, moved his capital further inland north from Tonle Sap to Mahendraparvata, severing the link to Srivijaya and proclaimed Khmer independence from Java in 802. Samaragrawira was mentioned as the king of Java that married Tārā, daughter of Dharmasetu. He was mentioned as his other name Rakai Warak in Mantyasih inscription.
Earlier historians, such as N. J. Krom and Cœdes, tend to equate Samaragrawira and Samaratungga as the same person. However, later historians such as Slamet Muljana equate Samaratungga with Rakai Garung, mentioned in the Mantyasih inscription as the fifth monarch of the Mataram kingdom. This would mean that Samaratungga was the successor of Samaragrawira.
Dewi Tara, the daughter of Dharmasetu, married Samaratunga, a member of the Sailendra family who assumed the throne of Srivijaya around 792. By the 8th century, the Srivijayan court was virtually located in Java, as the Sailendras monarch rose to become the Maharaja of Srivijaya.
After Dharmasetu, Samaratungga became the next Maharaja of Srivijaya. He reigned as ruler from 792 to 835. Unlike the expansionist Dharmasetu, Samaratungga did not indulge in military expansion but preferred to strengthen the Srivijayan hold of Java. He personally oversaw the construction of the grand monument of Borobudur; a massive stone mandala, which was completed in 825, during his reign. According to Cœdès, "In the second half of the ninth century Java and Sumatra were united under the rule of a Sailendra reigning in Java... its center at Palembang." Samaratungga, just like Samaragrawira, seems to have been deeply influenced by peaceful Mahayana Buddhist beliefs and strove to become a peaceful and benevolent ruler. His successor was Princess Pramodhawardhani who was betrothed to Shivaite Rakai Pikatan, son of the influential Rakai Patapan, a landlord in Central Java. The political move that seems as an effort to secure peace and Sailendran rule on Java by reconciling the Mahayana Buddhist with Shivaist Hindus.
Return to Palembang
Prince Balaputra, however, opposed the rule of Pikatan and Pramodhawardhani in Central Java. The relations between Balaputra and Pramodhawardhani are interpreted differently by some historians. An older theory according to Bosch and De Casparis holds that Balaputra was the son of Samaratungga, which means he was the younger brother of Pramodhawardhani. Later historians such as Muljana, on the other hand, argued that Balaputra was the son of Samaragrawira and the younger brother of Samaratungga, which means he was the uncle of Pramodhawardhani.
It is not known whether Balaputra was expelled from Central Java because of a succession dispute with Pikatan, or that he already ruled in Suvarnadvipa or Suvarnabhumi (ancient name of Sumatra). Either way, it seems that Balaputra eventually ruled the Sumatran branch of Sailendra dynasty and was enthroned in the Srivijayan capital of Palembang. Historians have argued that this was because Balaputra's mother Tara, the queen consort of King Samaragrawira, was the princess of Srivijaya, making Balaputra the heir of the Srivijayan throne. Balaputra the Maharaja of Srivijaya later stated his claim as the rightful heir of the Sailendra dynasty from Java, as proclaimed in the Nalanda inscription dated 860.
After a trade disruption at Canton between 820 and 850, the ruler of Jambi (Melayu Kingdom) was able to assert enough independence to send missions to China in 853 and 871. The Melayu Kingdom's independence coincided with the troubled times when the Sailendran Balaputradewa was expelled from Java and later seized the throne of Srivijaya. The new maharaja was able to dispatch a tributary mission to China by 902. Two years after that, the weakening Tang dynasty conferred a title on a Srivijayan envoy.
In the first half of the 10th century, between the fall of Tang dynasty and the rise of Song, there was brisk trading between the overseas world with the Fujian kingdom of Min and the rich Guangdong kingdom of Nan Han. Srivijaya undoubtedly benefited from this. Sometime around 903, the Muslim writer Ibn Rustah was so impressed with the wealth of the Srivijayan ruler that he declared that one would not hear of a king who was richer, stronger or had more revenue. The main urban centres of Srivijaya were then at Palembang (especially the Karanganyar site near Seguntang Hill area), Muara Jambi and Kedah.
War against Java
In the 10th century, the rivalry between Sumatran Srivijaya and the Javanese Mataram kingdom became more intense and hostile. The animosity was probably caused by Srivijaya's effort to reclaim the Sailendra lands in Java or by Mataram's aspiration to challenge Srivijaya domination in the region. In East Java, the Anjukladang inscription dated from 937 mentions an infiltration attack from Malayu — which refers to a Srivijayan attack upon the Mataram Kingdom of East Java. The villagers of Anjuk Ladang were awarded for their service and merit in assisting the king's army, under the leadership of Mpu Sindok, in repelling invading Malayu (Sumatra) forces; subsequently, a jayastambha (victory monument) was erected in their honor.
In 990, King Dharmawangsa of Java launched a naval invasion against Srivijaya and attempted to capture the capital Palembang. The news of the Javanese invasion of Srivijaya was recorded in Chinese Song period sources. In 988, a Srivijayan envoy was sent to the Chinese court in Guangzhou. After sojourning for about two years in China, the envoy learned that his country had been attacked by She-po (Java) which made him unable to return home. In 992 the envoy from She-po (Java) arrived in the Chinese court and explaining that their country was involved in continuous war with San-fo-qi (Srivijaya). In 999 the Srivijayan envoy sailed from China to Champa in an attempt to return home, however, he received no news about the condition of his country. The Srivijayan envoy then sailed back to China and appealed to the Chinese Emperor for the protection of Srivijaya against Javanese invaders.
Dharmawangsa's invasion led the Maharaja of Srivijaya, Sri Cudamani Warmadewa, to seek protection from China. Warmadewa was known as an able and astute ruler, with shrewd diplomatic skills. In the midst of the crisis brought by the Javanese invasion, he secured Chinese political support by appeasing the Chinese Emperor. In 1003, a Song historical record reported that the envoy of San-fo-qi was dispatched by the king Shi-li-zhu-luo-wu-ni-fo-ma-tiao-hua (Sri Cudamani Warmadewa). The Srivijayan envoy told the Chinese court that in their country a Buddhist temple had been erected to pray for the long life of Chinese Emperor, and asked the emperor to give the name and the bell for this temple which was built in his honor. Rejoiced, the Chinese Emperor named the temple Ch'eng-t'en-wan-shou ('ten thousand years of receiving blessing from heaven, which is China) and a bell was immediately cast and sent to Srivijaya to be installed in the temple.
In 1006, Srivijaya's alliance proved its resilience by successfully repelling the Javanese invasion. The Javanese invasion was ultimately unsuccessful. This attack opened the eyes of Srivijayan Maharaja to the dangerousness of the Javanese Mataram Kingdom, so he patiently laid a plan to destroy his Javanese nemesis. In retaliation, Srivijaya assisted Haji (king) Wurawari of Lwaram to revolt, which led to the attack and destruction of the Mataram palace. This sudden and unexpected attack took place during the wedding ceremony of Dharmawangsa's daughter, which left the court unprepared and shocked. With the death of Dharmawangsa and the fall of the Mataram capital, Srivijaya contributed to the collapse of Mataram kingdom, leaving Eastern Java in further unrest, violence and, ultimately, desolation for several years to come.
Decline
Chola invasion
The contributary factors in the decline of Srivijaya were foreign piracy and raids that disrupted trade and security in the region. Rajendra Chola, the Chola king from Tamil Nadu in South India, launched naval raids on ports of Srivijaya in 1025. His navy sailed swiftly to Sumatra using monsoon winds, made a stealth attack and raided Srivijaya's 14 ports. The strike took Srivijaya by surprise and unprepared; they first ransacked the capital city of Palembang and then swiftly moved on to other ports including Kadaram (modern Kedah).
The Cholas are known to have benefitted from both piracy and foreign trade. At times, the Chola seafaring led to outright plunder and conquest as far as Southeast Asia. An inscription of King Rajendra states that he had captured the King of Kadaram, Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman, son of Mara Vijayatunggavarman, and plundered many treasures including the Vidhyadara-torana, the jewelled 'war gate' of Srivijaya adorned with great splendour.
According to the 15th-century Malay annals Sejarah Melayu, Rajendra Chola I after the successful naval raid in 1025 married Onang Kiu, the daughter of Vijayottunggavarman. This invasion forced Srivijaya to make peace with the Javanese kingdom of Kahuripan. The peace deal was brokered by the exiled daughter of Vijayottunggavarman, who managed to escape the destruction of Palembang, and came to the court of King Airlangga in East Java. She also became the queen consort of Airlangga named Dharmaprasadottungadevi and, in 1035, Airlangga constructed a Buddhist monastery named Srivijayasrama dedicated to his queen consort.
The Cholas continued a series of raids and conquests of parts of Sumatra and Malay Peninsula for the next 20 years. The expedition of Rajendra Chola I had such a lasting impression on the Malay people of the period that his name is even mentioned (in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan) in the medieval Malay chronicle the Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals). Even today the Chola rule is remembered in Malaysia as many Malaysian princes have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such was the Raja of Perak called Raja Chulan.
Rajendra Chola's overseas expeditions against Srivijaya were unique in India's history and its otherwise peaceful relations with the states of Southeast Asia. The reasons for the naval expeditions are uncertain as the sources are silent about its exact causes. Nilakanta Sastri suggests that the attacks were probably caused by Srivijaya's attempts to throw obstacles in the way of the Chola trade with the East or, more probably, a simple desire on the part of Rajendra Chola to extend his military victories to the well known countries to gain prestige. The new research however, suggests that the attack was a pre-emptive strike with a commercial motive. Rajendra Chola's naval strike was a geostrategic manoeuvre.
The raids gravely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms like Kediri, which were based on intensive agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade. With the passing of time, the regional trading center shifted from the old Srivijayan capital of Palembang to another trade centre on the island of Sumatra, Jambi, which was the centre of Malayu.
Under the Cholas
Sanfoqi sent a mission to China in 1028, but this would refer to Malayu-Jambi, not Srivijaya-Palembang. No Srivijayan envoys came to China between 1028 and 1077. This indicates that the mandala of Srivijaya has faded. It is very possible that Srivijaya collapsed in 1025. In the following centuries, Chinese chronicles still mentioned "Sanfoqi", but this term probably refers to the Malayu-Jambi kingdom, evidenced by the Chinese record of Sanfoqi Zhanbei guo (Jambi country of Sanfoqi). The last epigraphic evidence that mentions the word "Sriwijaya" or "Srivijaya" comes from the Tanjore inscription of the Chola kingdom in 1030 or 1031.
The Chola control over Srivijaya lasted for several decades. Chinese chronicles mentioned Sanfoqi Zhu-nian guo which means "Chola country of Sanfoqi", likely refer to Kedah. Sanfoqi Zhu-nian guo sent missions to China in 1077, 1079, 1082, 1088, and 1090 CE. It is possible that the Cholas installed a crown prince in the Tamil-dominated area of the Malacca Straits.
There is also evidence to suggest that Kulottunga Chola, the maternal grandson of emperor Rajendra Chola I, in his youth (1063) was in Srivijaya, restoring order and maintaining Chola influence in that area. Virarajendra Chola states in his inscription, dated in the 7th year of his reign, that he conquered Kadaram (Kedah) and gave it back to its king who came and worshiped his feet. These expeditions were led by Kulottunga to help the Sailendra king who had sought the help of Virarajendra Chola. An inscription of Canton mentions Ti-hua-kialo as the ruler of Srivijaya. According to historians, this ruler is the same as the Chola ruler Ti-hua-kialo (identified with Kulottunga) mentioned in the Song annals and who sent an embassy to China. According to Tan Yeok Song, the editor of the Srivijayan inscription of Canton, Kulottunga stayed in Kadaram (Kedah) after the naval expedition of 1067 AD and reinstalled its king before returning to South India and ascending the throne.
Tamil colonization of the Malacca Straits seems to have lasted for a century. The Cholas left several inscriptions in northern Sumatra and the Malay peninsula. Tamil influence can be found in works of art (sculpture and temple architecture), it indicated government activity rather than commerce. Chola's grip on northern Sumatra and the Malay peninsula receded in the 12th century — the Tamil poem Kalingatupparani of ca. 1120 CE mentioned Kulottungga's destruction of Kadaram (Kedah). After that, Kedah disappeared from Indian sources.
Government and economy
Political administration
The 7th century Telaga Batu inscription, discovered in Sabokingking, Palembang, testifies to the complexity and stratified titles of the Srivijayan state officials. These titles are mentioned: rājaputra (princes, lit: sons of king), kumārāmātya (ministers), bhūpati (regional rulers), senāpati (generals), nāyaka (local community leaders), pratyaya (nobles), hāji pratyaya (lesser kings), dandanayaka (judges), tuhā an vatak (workers inspectors), vuruh (workers), addhyāksi nījavarna (lower supervisors), vāsīkarana (blacksmiths/weapon makers), cātabhata (soldiers), adhikarana (officials), kāyastha (store workers), sthāpaka (artisans), puhāvam (ship captains), vaniyāga (traders), marsī hāji (king's servants), hulun hāji (king's slaves).
During its formation, the empire was organised in three main zones — the estuarine capital region centred on Palembang, the Musi River basin which served as hinterland and source of valuable goods, and rival estuarine areas capable of forming rival power centres. These rival estuarine areas, through raids and conquests, were held under Srivijayan power, such as the Batanghari estuarine (Malayu in Jambi). Several strategic ports also included places like Bangka Island (Kota Kapur), ports and kingdoms in Java (highly possible Tarumanagara and Kalingga), Kedah and Chaiya in Malay peninsula, and Lamuri and Pannai in northern Sumatra. There are also reports mentioning the Java-Srivijayan raids on Southern Cambodia (Mekong estuarine) and ports of Champa.
After its expansion to the neighbouring states, the Srivijayan empire was formed as a collection of several Kadatuans (local principalities), which swore allegiance to the central ruling powerful Kadatuan ruled by the Srivijayan Maharaja. The political relations and system relating to its realms is described as a mandala model, typical of that of classical Southeast Asian Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms. It could be described as federation of kingdoms or vassalised polity under a centre of domination, namely the central Kadatuan Srivijaya. The polity was defined by its centre rather than its boundaries and it could be composed of numerous other tributary polities without undergoing further administrative integration.
The relations between the central kadatuan and its member (subscribers) kadatuans were dynamic. As such, the status would shift over generations. Minor trading ports throughout the region were controlled by local vassal rulers in place on behalf of the king. They also presided over harvesting resources from their respective regions for export. A portion of their revenue was required to be paid to the king. They were not allowed to infringe upon international trade relations, but the temptation of keeping more money to themselves eventually led foreign traders and local rulers to conduct illicit trading relations of their own. Other sources claim that the Champa invasion had weakened the central government significantly, forcing vassals to keep the international trade revenue for themselves.
In addition to coercive methods through raids and conquests and being bound by pasumpahan (oath of allegiance), the royalties of each kadatuan often formed alliances through dynastic marriages. For example, a previously suzerained kadatuan over time might rise in prestige and power, so that eventually its ruler could lay claim to be the maharaja of the central kadatuan. The relationship between Srivijayan in Sumatra (descendants of Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa) and Sailendras in Java exemplified this political dynamic.
Economy
Trade agreements and commerce
The main interest of Srivijayan foreign economic relations was to secure a highly lucrative trade agreement to serve a large Chinese market, that span from the Tang dynasty to the Song dynasty era. In order to participate in this trade agreement, Srivijaya was involved in a tributary relation with China, in which they sent several numbers of envoys and embassies to secure the Chinese court's favour. By 1178, a Srivijayan mission to China highlighted Srivijaya's role as an intermediary to acquire Bornean products, such as plum flower-shaped Borneo camphor planks.
In the world of commerce, Srivijaya rose rapidly to be a far-flung empire controlling the two passages between India and China, namely the Sunda Strait from Palembang and the Malacca Strait from Kedah. Arab accounts state that the empire of the Srivijayan Maharaja was so vast that the swiftest vessel would not have been able to travel around all its islands within two years. The islands that the accounts referred to produced camphor, aloes, sandal-wood, spices like cloves, nutmegs, cardamom and cubebs, as well as ivory, gold and tin, all of which equalled the wealth of the Maharaja to any king in Medieval India.
Riverine system model
Besides interregional trade agreements, the Srivijayan economy is also theorized to have adopted a "riverine system model", where dominance of a river-system and river-mouth centers guaranteed the kingdom's control of the flow of goods from the hinterland region of where the river flows upstream; as well as control on trade within the Straits of Malacca and international trade routes going through the strait. Srivijaya's victory on its dominance of river-mouth centers on the Sumatra, Malaya and western Java coasts ensured Palembang's control over the region. This was accomplished through its system of: 'oath of allegiances' to local elites; its efforts on redistributions of wealth; and alliances made with local datus (chieftains) rather than on direct coercion.
Items of trade and barter system
The port of Srivijaya served as an important entrepôt in which valuable commodities from the region and beyond are collected, traded and shipped. Rice, cotton, indigo and silver from Java; aloes, resin, camphor, ivory and rhino's tusks, tin and gold from Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula; rattan, rare timber, camphor, gems and precious stones from Borneo; exotic birds and rare animals, iron, sappan, sandalwood, and rare spices including clove and nutmeg from the Eastern Indonesian archipelago; various spices of Southeast Asia and India including pepper, cubeb and cinnamon; also Chinese ceramics, lacquerware, brocade, fabrics, silks, and Chinese artworks are among valuable commodities being traded in Srivijayan ports. What goods were actually native to Srivijaya is currently being disputed due to the volume of cargo that regularly passed through the region from India, China, and Arabia. Foreign traders stopped to trade their cargo in Srivijaya with other merchants from Southeast Asia and beyond. It was an easy location for traders from different regions to meet as opposed to visiting each other directly. This system of trade has led researchers to conjecture that the actual native products of Srivijaya were far less than what was originally recorded by Chinese and Arabic traders of the time. It may be that cargo sourced from foreign regions accumulated in Srivijaya. The accumulation of particular foreign goods that were easily accessible and in large supply might have given the impression they were products of Srivijaya. This could also work in the opposite direction with some native Srivijayan goods being mistaken as foreign commodities.
Ceramics were a major trade commodity between Srivijaya and China with shard artifacts found along the coast of Sumatra and Java. It is assumed that China and Srivijaya may have had an exclusive ceramics trade relationship because particular ceramic shards can only be found at their point of origin, in Guangzhou, or in Indonesia, but nowhere else along the trade route. When trying to prove this theory, there have been some discrepancies with the dating of said artifacts. Ceramic sherds found around the Geding Suro temple complex have been revealed to be much more recent than previously assumed. A statuette found in the same area did align with Srivijayan chronology, but it has been suggested that this is merely a coincidence and the product was actually brought to the region recently.
The currency of the empire was gold and silver coins embossed with the image of the sandalwood flower (of which Srivijaya had a trade monopoly on) and the word "vara," or "glory," in Sanskrit. Other items could be used to barter with, such as porcelain, silk, sugar, iron, rice, dried galangal, rhubarb, and camphor. Some Arabic records that the profits acquired from trade ports and levies were converted into gold and hidden by the King in the royal pond.
Trade relations with Arabia
Other than fostering the lucrative trade relations with India and China, Srivijaya also established commerce links with Arabia. In a highly plausible account, a messenger was sent by Maharaja Sri Indravarman to deliver a letter to Caliph Umar ibn AbdulAziz of Ummayad in 718. The messenger later returned to Srivijaya with a Zanji (a black female slave from Zanj), a gift from the Caliph to the Maharaja. Later, a Chinese chronicle made mention of Shih-li-t-'o-pa-mo (Sri Indravarman) and how the Maharaja of Shih-li-fo-shih had sent the Chinese Emperor a ts'engchi (Chinese spelling of the Arabic Zanji) as a gift in 724.
Arab writers of the 9th and 10th century, in their writings, considered the king of Al-Hind (India and to some extent might include Southeast Asia) as one of the four great kings in the world. The reference to the kings of Al-Hind might have also included the kings of Southeast Asia; Sumatra, Java, Burma and Cambodia. They are, invariably, depicted by the Arabs writers as extremely powerful and being equipped with vast armies of men, horses and having tens of thousands of elephants. They were also said to be in possession of vast treasures of gold and silver. Trading records from the 9th and 10th centuries mention Srivijaya, but do not expand upon regions further east, thus indicating that Arabic traders were not engaging with other regions in Southeast Asia, thus serving as further evidence of Srivijaya's important role as a link between the two regions.
Thalassocratic empire
For some periods, Srivijaya controlled the transoceanic trade in its central passage in the Strait of Malacca, as part of the Maritime Silk Road. This has led some historian to argue that the amorphous statehood of Srivijaya, which dominated a confederation of semi autonomous port cities in the Maritime Southeast Asia, was actually a Thalassocracy. However, the true nature of Srivijaya naval development and maritime hegemony is still a subject of studies and disagreements among historians.
Srivijaya benefited from the lucrative maritime trade between China and India as well as trading in products such as Maluku spices within the Malay Archipelago. Serving as Southeast Asia's main entrepôt and gaining trade patronage by the Chinese court, Srivijaya was constantly managing its trade networks and, yet, always wary of potential rival ports of its neighbouring kingdoms. A majority of the revenue from international trade was used to finance the military which was charged with the responsibility of protecting the ports. Some records even describe the use of iron chains to prevent pirate attacks.
Srivijayan settlers may have colonized some parts of Madagascar. The migration to Madagascar was estimated to have taken place 1,200 years ago around 830.
7th to 11th centuries
Previously it was assumed that Srivijaya was a maritime power that could not be separated from ethnicity and society in the Malacca Strait. The assumption that occurs is that the formation of a successful state and hegemony in the strait is directly related to the ability to participate in international maritime activities, which means that a littoral state like this develops and maintains its circle of power with the navy. However, a survey of the available information shows that such an assumption is incorrect. Data on maritime activity are scanty and mention of the navy occurs only in incomplete sources. Even the material aspects of Southeast Asian navies were not known until the 15th century, scientific attention generally focused on shipbuilding techniques.
In the Kedukan Bukit inscription (683 AD), it is recorded that only 312 people used boats out of a total force of 20,000 people, which also included 1312 land soldiers. The large number of ground troops shows that the Srivijaya navy only acts as a minor provider of logistical support. In the 8th century, Srivijaya's naval capabilities grew to match the proportion of its army strength, although it only played a role as logistical support.
Furthermore, the absence of any terms denoting maritime vessel for general use and military showed that the navy is not a permanent aspect of the state in the Malacca Strait. Even when the neighboring powers in maritime Asia, especially Java during the 10th to 14th centuries, and Chola India in the 11th century, began to develop their navies, Srivijaya's naval power was relatively weak. For example, Songshi and Wenxian Tongkao note that between 990 and 991, a Srivijayan envoy was unable to return from South China to Palembang because of the ongoing military conflict between Java and Srivijaya. However the Javanese, Arabs from the Middle East, and South Asia were able to maintain diplomatic and economic exchanges with China during this time. Obviously, the Javanese navy was strong enough to seriously disrupt Srivijaya's communications with China. Despite the naval confrontation between Java and Srivijaya, communication between the coastal governments of the Indian Ocean and China continued during this time, suggesting that the conflict did not always occur on the high seas, but was more likely to be confined to the estuaries and rivers around the Srivijayan capital of Palembang, the mouth of the Musi River and the Bangka Straits.
Srivijaya's response to Javanese aggression appeared to be defensive. In his account of Sanfoqi, Zhao Rugua records in Zhufanzhi (circa 1225):
In the past, [this state] used an iron chain as a barrier to prepare against other robbing parties (arriving on vessels?). There were opportunities to release (i.e. draw) it by hand. If merchant ships arrive, it has to be released".
The inability of the Malacca Straits states to respond to maritime threats became very clear in the early 11th century. Between 1017 and 1025, the Cholas raided the main Malay ports in the Strait and the Gulf of Siam, including Kedah, Malay (Jambi), Lambri, Srivijaya, and Langkasuka, looted the Kedah treasury and captured Srivijayan rulers, a further indication of the incompetence of the Malacca Straits states to defend itself from naval attacks.
Thus, until the 11th century, at least in terms of their military outlook, the kingdom was arguably land-based. Only with the changing international context from the eleventh century onwards, marked initially by the Chola attacks, and then with the increasing presence of Chinese merchants directly operating in Southeast Asian waters, coupled with the emergence of new powers on the seafront, did the role and nature of these navies begin to change.
12th to 13th centuries
After the Chola attack, there is no information about naval problems in the Malacca Strait. The Chinese term for Srivijaya, namely Sanfoqi, was still used centuries later, but after 1025 the term Sanfoqi referred to the Malayu Dharmasraya kingdom. The new records only appeared in the Lingwai daida (1178 CE), written by Zhou Qufei:
This country (Sanfoqi) has no products, but its people are well trained in warfare. When they put medicine on their body, they can't be hurt. In offensive naval warfare, their attacks are unmatched. Therefore, neighboring countries are aligned with it. If foreign ships passing through the vicinity do not call in this state, [vessels] are sent to teach them a lesson and to kill. Therefore, the state is rich, with rhino horn, elephant [tusks] (ivory), pearls, aromatics and medicines.
Similar information about Sanfoqi is also recorded in Zhufanzhi (c. 1225), which records:All are excellent in maritime and land warfare. At any time that a mobilisation order is established, chieftains [are the ones who] command [the troops]. All of them prepare and equip [themselves] with soldiers, equipment, and food. Arriving at the enemy, they dare to die (i.e. are not afraid of dying). [Hence it is regarded as] the elder of the various states (i.e. first amongst equals)... This state is at the middle of the sea, controlling the choke-point through which the various foreign vessels come and go. In the past, [it] used an iron chain as a barrier... This year (i.e. presently), it is not taut (i.e. not extended) and not used, [lying in a] pile in the water... If merchant ships cross [the vicinity] and do not enter [i.e. call at the port], then ships are dispatched to do battle [with them]. They have to die (i.e. the persons onboard the merchant ships have to be killed). Hence, this state (Sanfoqi) is a great shipping centre.
This information may refer to sea and river warfare in particular given the extensive navigation capabilities of the Musi and Batang Hari rivers where the main centers of the kingdoms around the Malacca Straits (Palembang and Jambi) were located. These records show that both the nature of the navy and the role it played in the survival of the government itself, in the late 12th and 13th centuries, became very different.
At the same time, the 12th century saw the beginning of the decline of the empires around the Malacca Straits and in the eyes of its foreign partners. Kedah fell outside the influence of Sanfoqi during the 11th century. By the early 13th century, Pahang, Kuala Beranang and Kompei had established direct economic links with the Chinese port of Quanzhou. Jambi became independent from Sanfoqi's influence in the early 13th century, while Ligor fell under the influence of Tambralingga in the 1230s.
After Singhasari attack on Malayu in 1275, a large number of Malay port-states emerged in the Strait, each seeking to engage directly with foreign traders, with varying degrees of success. Therefore, the development of an increasingly proactive naval strategy was not only a reaction to the changing nature of interactions with major trading partners such as China and India, but also as a result of the polities' declining power.
Ship types
Textual record of Srivijayan vessels is very lacking, as Old Malay epigraphical records rarely mentioned watercraft. Kedukan Bukit inscription (683 AD) mentioned samvau (modern Malay: Sampan). A ship type called lancang is identified as a Malay type of ship in later records, but during the Srivijaya era, the ship was mentioned in 2 inscriptions on the northern coast of Bali dated 896 and 923 AD. These inscriptions are written in the Old Balinese language, and not in Old Malay.
Srivijayan exploration
The core of the Srivijayan realm was concentrated in and around the Malacca and Sunda straits and in Sumatra, Malay Peninsula and Western Java. However, between the 9th and the 12th centuries, the influence of Srivijaya seems to have extended far beyond the core. Srivijayan navigators may have reached as far as Madagascar. The migration to Madagascar was estimated to have taken place 1,200 years ago around 830 CE. According to an extensive new mitochondrial DNA study, native Malagasy people today can likely trace their heritage back to 30 founding mothers who sailed from Indonesia 1,200 years ago. Malagasy contains loan words from Sanskrit, with all the local linguistic modifications via Javanese or Malay, hinting that Madagascar may have been colonised by settlers from Srivijaya.
Culture and society
Srivijaya-Palembang's significance both as a center for trade and for the practice of Vajrayana Buddhism has been established by Arab and Chinese historical records over several centuries. Srivijaya' own historical documents, inscriptions in Old Malay, are limited to the second half of the 7th century. The inscriptions uncover the hierarchical leadership system, in which the king is served by many other high-status officials. A complex, stratified, cosmopolitan and prosperous society with refined tastes in art, literature and culture, with complex set of rituals, influenced by Mahayana Buddhist faith; blossomed in the ancient Srivijayan society. Their complex social order can be seen through studies on the inscriptions, foreign accounts, as well as rich portrayal in bas-reliefs of temples from this period. Their accomplished artistry was evidenced from a number of Srivijayan Art Mahayana Buddhist statues discovered in the region. The kingdom had developed a complex society; which characterised by heterogeneity of their society, inequality of social stratification, and the formation of national administrative institution in their kingdom. Some forms of metallurgy were used as jewelry, currency (coins), as status symbols—for decorative purposes.
Art and culture
Trade allowed the spread of art to proliferate. Some art was heavily influenced by Buddhism, further spreading religion and ideologies through the trade of art. The Buddhist art and architecture of Srivijaya was influenced by the Indian art of the Gupta Empire and Pala Empire. This is evident in the Indian Amaravati style Buddha statue located in Palembang. This statue, dating back to the 7th and 8th centuries, exists as proof of the spread of art, culture, and ideology through the medium of trade.
According to various historical sources, a complex and cosmopolitan society with a refined culture, deeply influenced by Vajrayana Buddhism, flourished in the Srivijayan capital. The 7th century Talang Tuwo inscription described Buddhist rituals and blessings at the auspicious event of establishing public park. This inscription allowed historians to understand the practices being held at the time, as well as their importance to the function of Srivijayan society. Talang Tuwo serves as one of the world's oldest inscriptions that talks about the environment, highlighting the centrality of nature in Buddhist religion and further, Srivijayan society. The Kota Kapur Inscription mentions Srivijaya military dominance against Java. These inscriptions were in the Old Malay language, the language used by Srivijaya and also the ancestor of Malay and Indonesian language. Since the 7th century, the Old Malay language has been used in Nusantara (Malay for "Malay Archipelago"), marked by these Srivijayan inscriptions and other inscriptions using old Malay language in the coastal areas of the archipelago, such as those discovered in Java. The trade contact carried by the traders at the time was the main vehicle to spread Malay language, since it was the language used amongst the traders. By then, Malay language become lingua franca and was spoken widely by most people in the archipelago.
However, despite its economic, cultural and military prowess, Srivijaya left few archaeological remains in their heartlands in Sumatra, in contrast with the Sailendras of Central Java that produced numerous monuments; such as the Kalasan, Sewu, and Borobudur mandala. The Buddhist temples dated from Srivijayan era in Sumatra are Muaro Jambi, Muara Takus and Biaro Bahal.
Some Buddhist sculptures, such as Buddha Vairocana, Boddhisattva Avalokiteshvara and Maitreya, were discovered in numerous sites in Sumatra and Malay Peninsula. These archaeological findings such as stone statue of Buddha discovered in Bukit Seguntang, Palembang, Avalokiteshvara from Bingin Jungut in Musi Rawas, bronze Maitreya statue of Komering, all discovered in South Sumatra. In Jambi, golden statue of Avalokiteshvara were discovered in Rataukapastuo, Muarabulian. In Malay Peninsula the bronze statue of Avalokiteshvara of Bidor discovered in Perak Malaysia, and Avalokiteshvara of Chaiya in Southern Thailand. The difference in material, yet overarching theme of Buddhism found across the region supports the spread of Buddhism through trade. Although each country put their own spin on an idea, it is evident how trade played a huge role in spreading ideas throughout Southeast Asia, especially in Srivijaya. The commonality of Srivijayan art exists in Southeast Asian sites, proving their influence on art and architecture across the region. Without trade, Srivijayan art could not have proliferated, and cross-cultural exchanges of language and style could not have been achieved.
After the bronze and Iron Age, an influx of bronze tools and jewelry spread throughout the region. The different styles of bangles and beads represent the different regions of origin and their own specific materials and techniques used. Chinese artworks were one of the main items traded in the region, spreading art styles enveloped in ceramics, pottery, fabrics, silk, and artworks.
Religion
Remnants of Buddhist shrines (stupas) near Palembang and in neighboring areas aid researchers in their understanding of the Buddhism within this society. Srivijaya and its kings were instrumental in the spread of Buddhism as they established it in places they conquered like Java, Malaya, and other lands. People making pilgrimages were encouraged to spend time with the monks in the capital city of Palembang on their journey to India.
Other than Palembang, in Srivijayan realm of Sumatra, three archaeological sites are notable for their Buddhist temple density. They are Muaro Jambi by the bank of Batang Hari River in Jambi province; Muara Takus stupas in Kampar River valley of Riau province; and Biaro Bahal temple compound in Barumun and Pannai river valleys, North Sumatra province. It is highly possible that these Buddhist sites served as sangha community; the monastic Buddhist learning centers of the region, which attracts students and scholars from all over Asia.
In the 5th century AD, the Chinese monk Faxian visited the region. 250 years later, the monk Yijing stayed in Srivijaya for six months and studied Sanskrit. According to Yijing, within Palembang there were more than 1000 monks studying for themselves and training traveling scholars who were going from India to China and vice versa. These travelers were primarily situated in Palembang for long periods of time due to waiting for Monsoon winds to help further their journey.
A stronghold of Vajrayana Buddhism, Srivijaya attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of Asia. These included the Chinese monk Yijing, who made several lengthy visits to Sumatra on his way to study at Nalanda University in India in 671 and 695, and the 11th century Bengali Buddhist scholar Atisha, who played a major role in the development of Vajrayana Buddhism in Tibet. Yijing and other monks of his time practiced a pure version of Buddhism although the religion allowed for cultural changes to be made. He is also given credit for translating Buddhist text which has the most instructions on the discipline of the religion. I Ching reports that the kingdom was home to more than a thousand Buddhist scholars; it was in Srivijaya that he wrote his memoir of Buddhism during his own lifetime. Travellers to these islands mentioned that gold coins were in use in the coastal areas but not inland. Srivijaya drew in priests from as far away as Korea.
A notable Srivijayan and revered Buddhist scholar is Dharmakirti who taught Buddhist philosophy in Srivijaya and Nalanda. The language diction of many inscriptions found near where Srivijaya once reigned incorporated Indian Tantric conceptions. This evidence makes it clear the relationship of the ruler and the concept of bodhisattva—one who was to become a Buddha. This is the first evidence seen in the archaeological record of a Southeast Asian ruler (or king) regarded as a religious leader/figure.
One thing researchers have found Srivijaya to be lacking is an emphasis in art and architecture. While neighboring regions have evidence of intricate architecture, such as the Borobudur temple built in 750–850 AD under the Sailendra dynasty, Palembang lacks Buddhist stupas or sculpture.
Next to Buddhism, Hinduism was also practiced by the population of Srivijayan kingdom. This is based on the discovery of Bumiayu temple ruin, a red brick Shivaist Hindu temple compound built and used between the 8th to 13th century CE. The Bumiayu temple site is located by the banks of Lematang River, a tributary of Musi River. This temple compound was probably built by a Kedatuan (settlement or principality) that belongs within Srivijayan mandala (sphere of influence). The fact that Hindu temple was discovered within the area of Srivijayan Buddhist empire suggests that the kingdom's population adheres to both Hinduism and Buddhism that coexist quite harmoniously.
According to the styles of Shiva and Agastya statues found in Bumiayu temple 1, those Hindu statues are dated from around the 9th to 10th-century. By the 12th to 13th-century it seems that the faith in Bumiayu was shifted from Hinduism to Tantric Buddhism.
Relations with regional powers
Although historical records and archaeological evidence are scarce, it appears that by the 7th century, Srivijaya had established suzerainty over large areas of Sumatra, western Java and much of the Malay Peninsula. Initially, Srivijaya's amorphous statehood dominated a confederation of semi autonomous port cities in the region, through nurturing alliances and gaining fealty among these polities. Regarding its status as the central port of the region, it seems that Srivijaya has a unique "ritual policy" in its relations with the dominant powers of South Asia, Southeast Asia, but mainly with China.
The oldest accounts of the empire come from Arabic and Chinese traders who noted in their travel logs of the importance of the empire in regional trade. Its location was instrumental in developing itself as a major connecting port between China and the Middle East to Southeast Asia. Control of the Malacca and Sunda Straits meant it controlled both the spice route traffic as well as local trade, charging a toll on passing ships. Serving as an entrepôt for Chinese, Malay, and Indian markets, the port of Palembang, accessible from the coast by way of a river, accumulated great wealth. Instead of traveling the entire distance from the Middle East to China, which would have taken about a year with the assistance of monsoon winds, it was easier to stop somewhere in the middle, Srivijaya. It took about half a year from either direction to reach Srivijaya which was a far more effective and efficient use of manpower and resources. A round trip from one end to Srivijaya and back would take the same amount of time to go the entire distance one way. This theory has been supported by evidence found in two local shipwrecks. One off the coast of Belitung, an island east of Sumatra, and another near Cirebon, a coastal city on the nearby island of Java. Both ships carried a variety of foreign cargo and, in the case of the Belitung wreck, had foreign origins.
The Melayu Kingdom was the first rival power centre absorbed into the empire, and thus began the domination of the region through trade and conquest in the 7th through the 9th centuries. The Melayu Kingdom's gold mines up in the Batang Hari River hinterland were a crucial economic resource and may be the origin of the word Suvarnadvipa, the Sanskrit name for Sumatra. Srivijaya helped spread the Malay culture throughout Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and western Borneo. Its influence waned in the 11th century.
According to Song shi, a Song dynasty chronicle, Sanfoqi sent their envoys for the last time in 1178. Then in 1225 Chau Ju-kua mentioned that Palembang (Srivijaya) was a vassal kingdom that belonged to Sanfoqi. This means that between 1178 and 1225 the Srivijaya kingdom centered in Palembang was defeated by the Malayu kingdom centered in Jambi. Thus, the seat of the empire moved to Muaro Jambi in the last centuries of the kingdom existence.
Srivijaya was then in frequent conflict with, and ultimately subjugated by, the Javanese kingdoms of Singhasari and, later, Majapahit. This was not the first time the Srivijayans had a conflict with the Javanese. According to historian Paul Michel Munoz, the Javanese Sanjaya dynasty was a strong rival of Srivijaya in the 8th century when the Srivijayan capital was located in Java.
The Khmer Empire might also have been a tributary state in its early stages. The Khmer king, Jayavarman II, was mentioned to have spent years in the court of Sailendra in Java before returning to Cambodia to rule around 790. Influenced by the Javanese culture of the Sailendran-Srivijayan mandala (and likely eager to emulate the Javanese model in his court), he proclaimed Cambodian independence from Java and ruled as devaraja, establishing Khmer empire and starting the Angkor era.
Some historians claim that Chaiya in Surat Thani Province in southern Thailand was, at least temporarily, the capital of Srivijaya, but this claim is widely disputed. However, Chaiya was probably a regional centre of the kingdom.
Srivijaya also maintained close relations with the Pala Empire in Bengal. The Nalanda inscription, dated 860, records that Maharaja Balaputra dedicated a monastery at the Nalanda university in the Pala territory. The relation between Srivijaya and the Chola dynasty of southern India was initially friendly during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I. In 1006, a Srivijayan Maharaja from the Sailendra dynasty, king Maravijayattungavarman, constructed the Chudamani Vihara in the port town of Nagapattinam. However, during the reign of Rajendra Chola I the relationship deteriorated as the Chola dynasty started to attack Srivijayan cities.
The reason for this sudden change in the relationship with the Chola kingdom is not really known. However, as some historians suggest, it would seem that the Khmer king, Suryavarman I of the Khmer Empire, had requested aid from Emperor Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty against Tambralinga. After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid from the Srivijaya king, Sangrama Vijayatungavarman. This eventually led to the Chola Empire coming into conflict with the Srivijaya Empire. The conflict ended with a victory for the Chola and heavy losses for Srivijaya and the capture of Sangramavijayottungavarman in the Chola raid in 1025. During the reign of Kulothunga Chola I, Srivijaya had sent an embassy to the Chola dynasty.
Legacy
Although Srivijaya left few archaeological remains and was almost forgotten in the collective memory in Maritime Southeast Asia, the rediscovery of this ancient maritime empire by Cœdès in the 1920s raised the notion that it was possible for a widespread political entity to have thrived in Southeast Asia in the past.
Modern Indonesian historians have invoked Srivijaya not merely as a glorification of the past, but as a frame of reference and example of how ancient globalisation, foreign relations and maritime trade, has shaped Asian civilisation.
The most important legacy of Srivijayan empire was probably its language. Unlike some inscriptions of Srivijayan contemporaries — Tarumanagara and other Javanese polities that use Sanskrit — Srivijayan inscriptions were written in Old Malay. This has promoted the status of local languages vis-a-vis to Sanskrit; as the language of elite, employed in royal and religious edicts. Sanskrit was only known by a limited circle; brahmin (priests) and kavi (poets), while Old Malay was a common language in Srivijayan realm. This linguistic policy was probably stemmed from the rather egalitarian nature of Mahayana Buddhist adhered in Srivijaya, in contrast to the elitist nature of Hinduism. Unlike Hinduism, Mahayana Buddhism did not emphasize the caste system that limited the use and knowledge of liturgical language only to Brahmin caste. For centuries, Srivijaya, through its expansion, economic power and military prowess, was responsible for the spread of Old Malay throughout the Malay Archipelago. It was the working language of traders, being used in various ports and marketplaces in the region. The language of Srivijayan probably paved the way for the prominence of the present-day Malay and Indonesian language, now the official language of Brunei, Malaysia, and Singapore and the unifying language of modern Indonesia.
Today, in Indonesian artistic tradition, songket weaving art is strongly associated with Palembang, and to certain extent also including West Sumatra and Jambi. This has motivated Indonesian historians to trace the origin of songket and its possible link to Srivijaya. Based on an archaeological study on the Bumiayu temple complex in Penukal Abab Lematang Ilir Regency, South Sumatra, it can be seen that songket has been known by the people of South Sumatra since the 9th century CE. A textile motif known today in Palembang songket as lepus can be seen on the vest worn by Figure 1 statue at the Bumiayu temple complex, which suggests a remarkable continuity of that motif that has been around since the 9th century. This archaeological study has enforced the notions that songket gold thread weaving tradition is a heritage of Srivijaya.
Modern Indonesian nationalists have also invoked the name of Srivijaya, along with Majapahit, as a source of pride in Indonesia's past greatness. Srivijaya has become the focus of national pride and regional identity, especially for the people of Palembang, South Sumatra province as a whole. For the people of Palembang, Srivijaya has also become a source of artistic inspiration for Gending Sriwijaya song and traditional dance.
In Indonesia, Srivijaya is a street name in many cities and has become synonymous with Palembang and South Sumatra. Srivijaya University, established in 1960 in Palembang, was named after Srivijaya. Kodam Sriwijaya (a military commando area unit), PT Pupuk Sriwijaya (a fertiliser company), Sriwijaya Post (a Palembang-based newspaper), Sriwijaya Air (an airline), Gelora Sriwijaya Stadium, and Sriwijaya F.C. (Palembang football club) were also all named to honour this ancient maritime empire. On 11 November 2011, during the opening ceremony of 2011 Southeast Asian Games in Gelora Sriwijaya Stadium, Palembang, a colossal dance performance titled "Srivijaya the Golden Peninsula" was performed featuring Palembang traditional dances and also an actual sized replica of an ancient ship to describe the glory of the maritime empire. In popular culture, Srivijaya has become the sources on inspiration for numbers of fictional feature films, novels and comic books. The 2013 film Gending Sriwijaya for example, took place three centuries after the fall of Srivijaya, telling the story about the court intrigue amidst the effort to revive the fallen empire.
List of kings
Source:
Notes
References
Further reading
D. G. E. Hall, A History of South-east Asia. London: Macmillan, 1955.
D. R. SarDesai. Southeast Asia: Past and Present. Boulder: Westview Press, 1997.
Stuart-Fox, Martin. A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade, and Influence. London: Allen and Unwin, 2003.
Triastanti, Ani. Perdagangan Internasional pada Masa Jawa Kuno; Tinjauan Terhadap Data Tertulis Abad X-XII. Essay of Faculty of Cultural Studies. Gadjah Mada University of Yogyakarta, 2007.
External links
Britannica Encyclopedia: Srivijaya empire
Articles about Srivijaya Kingdom in Southeast Asian Archaeology.com
Timeline of Indonesia from prehistory to present: click on the period for info
Melayu online: Çriwijaya Kingdom
Candi Muaro Jambi
Śrīvijaya―towards ChaiyaーThe History of Srivijaya - Takahashi Suzuki
Chaiya National Museum
650s establishments in Indonesia
1377 disestablishments in Indonesia
Early kingdoms in Malaysian history
Former countries in Indonesian history
Former countries in Malaysian history
Former countries in Philippine history
Former countries in Thai history
Former empires in Asia
Hindu Buddhist states in Indonesia
Indianized kingdoms
Island countries
Pre-Muslim kingdoms in Malaysian history
Shailendra dynasty
States and territories established the 650s
States and territories disestablished in 1377
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semang
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Semang
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The Semang are an ethnic-minority group of the Malay Peninsula. They live in mountainous and isolated forest regions of Perak, Pahang, Kelantan and Kedah of Malaysia and the southern provinces of Thailand. The Semang are among the different ethnic groups of Southeast Asia who, based on their dark skin and other perceived physical similarities, are sometimes referred to by the superficial term Negrito.
They have been recorded since before the 3rd century. They are ethnologically described as nomadic hunter-gatherers.
The Semang are grouped together with other Orang Asli groups, a diverse grouping of several distinct hunter-gatherer populations. Historically they preferred to trade with the local population. For more than one thousand years, some of the Semang people remained in isolation while others were either subjected to slave raids or forced to pay tribute to Southeast Asian rulers.
Name and status
In Malaysia, the term Semang ( in Malay) is used to refer to the hunter-gatherers, that are referred to more generically as Negrito, Spanish for 'little negro'. In the past, eastern groups of Semang have been called Pangan. Semang are referred to as Sakai in Thailand, although this term is considered to be derogatory in Malaysia.
In Malaysia, the Semang are one of three groups that are considered to be Orang Asli, the hunter-gatherer people of the Peninsula. The other two groups are the Senoi and the Proto-Malay (Aboriginal Malay). The Semang have six sub-groups: Kensiu, Kintaq, Lanoh, Jahai, Mendriq and Batek. The Malaysian federal government has designated the Department of Orang Asli Development (Jabalan Kemajuan Orang Asli, JAKOA) as the agency responsible for integrating the Orang Asli into the wider Malaysian society.
The three category division of the indigenous population was inherited by the Malaysian government from the British administration of the colonial era. It is based on racial concepts, according to which the Negrito were seen as the most primitive race leading the vagrant way of life of hunter-gatherers. The Senoi were considered more developed, and the Proto-Malay were placed at almost the same level with the Malaysian Malay Muslims.
In Thailand, the terms Semang and Orang Asli are replaced by the terms Sakai or Ngopa (Ngò 'Pa or Ngoh Paa, which literally means 'curly/frizzy (haired) people'). The first term is derogatory in Malaysia, with the connotation of savages, subjects or slaves. The Semang have had a degree of patronage from the royal family of Thailand.
Physical features
They have dark skin, often curly-hair and eastern Asiatic facial characteristics, and are stockily built.
Ethnic groups
The Semang do not have a sense of common ethnic identity. The term Semang is applied on them from an outside view, however the Semang refer to themselves only with their tribes names.
In total there are at least ten tribes that are classified as Semang in Malaysia (not all of them are officially recognized by the Malaysian government):-
Kensiu live in the northern part of Kedah, near the borders with Thailand. Most of them settled in the district village, Kampung Lubuk-Legong, which is in Baling District, Kedah.
Kintaq also have only one village, which is located near the city Gerik in Hulu Perak District, Perak. Traditionally they wandered around Klian Intan in Hulu Perak District and near Baling District in Kedah.
Lanoh located in three villages situated in the Hulu Perak District in the northwest of Perak near Gerik. Among these people there are also distinct tribal groups such as the Lanoh Yir (probably nomadic), Lanoh Jengjeng (semi-settled) and possibly others.
Semnam are not included in the official list of JAKOA, however they are grouped with the Lanoh. They live at the Ayer Bal River near Kampung Kuala Kenering in the Hulu Perak District, west of Gerik.
Sabub'n are also grouped together with the Lanoh. The remnants of this nearly extinct tribe, along with other Lanoh groups, live near Lenggong and Gerik in Hulu Perak District.
Jahai live in the mountains separating the states of Perak and Kelantan, at south of the borders of Thailand. This is the only mountain that the Semang inhabit. Their settlements are mainly along rivers or near lakes. In Perak they live along rivers such as Sungai Banun, Sungai Tiang and near Temenggor Lake in the Hulu Perak District. In Kelantan, the Jahai are concentrated along rivers namely Sungai Rual and Sungai Jeli in Jeli District.
Mendriq live in several villages along the middle reaches of the Kelantan River in the remotes of Gua Musang District in the southern state of Kelantan.
Batek:-
Bateg Deq live mostly at the Aring River in southern Kelantan, partly in the neighbouring districts of Terengganu and Pahang. JAKOA does not distinguish between different Batek groups.
Bateg Nong, another Batek group, live in the Jerantut District of northern Pahang. In total, there are 7 villages in the Pahang state, of which 5 of them are in the Lipis District and the other 2 are in Jerantut District; while in Kelantan there are 4 hamlet villages in the Gua Musang District.
Mintil or "Mayah" live along the riverbanks of Sungai Tanum near Chegar Perah in north-central of Lipis District, Pahang. Officially, they are recognized as part of the Batek.
A few smaller groups of Semang live in the southern provinces of Thailand. These nomadic groups are mentioned under the names such as Tonga, Mos, Chong and Ten'en. They call themselves Mani, but their linguistic affiliation remains uncertain.
Because of the small number of some of these Semang groups, they are on the verge of disappearance.
Settlement areas
The Semang live mainly in the more isolated lowlands and foothills within the primary and secondary wet tropical jungles of the northern Malay Peninsula. Only the Jahai live at higher altitudes.
In the past, the territory of the Semang settlement was wider, but neighbouring ethnic groups pushed them into hard-to-reach areas. Kensiu now live in the northeast of Kedah, the Kintaq of which are settled in the adjoining areas of Kedah and Perak, the Jahai are in the northeast of Perak and in west of Kelantan, the Lanoh in the northeast of Perak, in the north-central Perak, the Mendriq in the south-east of Kelantan, and the Batek in the northwestern of Terengganu, northeastern of Pahang and southern Kelantan.
A significant part of these tribes live in permanent settlements, but traditionally separate groups of different time periods go into the jungle for the harvesting of jungle produce. Most often of such cases take place during the end of the fall on the maturation of wild fruit season. Because of this tradition, they are often designated as nomads, although the Semang in Malaysia at present are no longer leading a nomadic way of life.
Today, among the Semang; as part of the Orang Asli group, they also live in urban areas of Malaysia, mixed with members of other ethnic groups.
Several isolated Semang groups reside in the jungles of the southern provinces of Thailand. So far in the north, there are two groups in Trang Province and one in Phatthalung Province live for several kilometers apart from each other. For many kilometers, in the southern direction, there is another very small group of Semang in the southern part of the Satun Province, near the Malaysian border.
The remaining groups of Thai Semang can be found living in the Yala Province. In the upper part of the valley, in the Than To District of this province; about 2 km from the Thai-Malaysian border, there is a village in which is the only settled Semang group that lives in Thailand. There is another group of nomad Semang who live along the border with Malaysia in the Yala Province. Both nomadic and settled groups maintain close contacts with Malaysia. The border here has only political significance, and nothing prevents the Semang from freely crossing it.
The closest neighbours of the Semang are the Malay people. This applies not only to Malaysian Semang but also to groups living in Thailand. The extreme south of this country is ethnically predominantly Malay, although the Malay people there are officially called Thai Muslims because of Thaification.
Population
Dynamics of the Semang population after the declaration of independence of Malaysia:-
Distribution of Orang Asli subgroups in Malaysia by states (1996):-
The population of Semang in Thailand was estimated at 240 people (2010).
Language
Semang languages belonged to the Aslian branch of the Austroasiatic languages. These languages are also spoken by the neighbouring Senoi. Austroasiatic languages, spoken by Khmer or Vietnamese, were adopted by various other hunter-gatherer groups during the Neolithic and pre-Neolithic period. Later, Kra-Dai and Austronesian languages partially replaced Austroasiatic and other languages.
Aslian languages are divided into four main divisions: the Northern Aslian languages, Central Aslian languages, Southern Aslian languages and the Jah Hut language, which occupies a separate position.
Among Semang in Malaysia, there are further extended languages and dialects such as Kensiu language, Kentaq Bong dialect, Kintaq Nakil dialect, Jahai language, Minriq language, Bateg Deq language, Mintil language, Bateg Nong language, Semnam language, Sabüm language, Lanoh Yir dialect, Lanoh Jengjeng dialect. Most of them form the Northern Aslian languages group of the Aslian languages, only the languages of the Lanoh language (with the dialects of its subfamilies and Semnam language close to it) belong to the Central Aslian languages group. Very few Semang languages have been studied in Thailand, most likely in Kensiu language or Jahai language.
A characteristic feature of the Semang languages is that they do not have clear boundaries. This is a typical phenomenon for languages whose carriers are mostly small nomadic groups, of whom the usual situation is when representatives of different ethnic groups live together in the same temporary camp settlement. Thus, all the Northern Aslian languages together form a large continuous network of languages, interconnected by constant contacts. A similar but smaller network form the languages of the Lanoh language.
Not all Semang languages have survived to this day, some of the dialects are already completely extinct. This danger also threatens some of the existing dialects, including Sabüm language, Semnam language and Mintil language. At the same time, the situation with most Semang languages remains stable; regardless of the small number of their speakers, their language are not threaten with disappearance.
Most Semang, in addition to their own language, also speak Malay. There are also many Malay loanwords in all Semang languages. In addition, some Aslian languages contain many loanwords from each other. Another source of loanwords is the Thai language, which is noticeably predominantly in the Kensiu language, in the north of the peninsula. In Thailand, most of the settled Semang also speak Thai. However, in some rare cases, some or a few Semang can also speak English since that Malaysia was ruled by the British from 1867–1957.
History
The Semang are suggested to be descended from the people of the pre-Neolithic Hoabinhian culture, which was distributed in Southeast Asia from contemporary Vietnam, to the north eastern part of Sumatra in the 9th-3rd millennium BC. These Hoabinhians were hunter-gatherers and may also have practiced some forms of plant cultivation. While the Upper Paleolithic origins of the Hoabinhians are unknown, the analysis of sampled genomes from Holocene Hoabinhian individuals has shown that they shared a common ancestor with East Asians and (probably more remotely) with Australopapuan populations as part of the Ancient East Eurasian ancestral lineage.
Approximately 4,000 years ago, the practice of Slash-and-burn farming came to the Malay Peninsula, but nomadic hunting and harvesting continued to exist. New migrants also brought to the peninsula Aslian languages, which now speak modern Senoic languages and Semang languages. It is believed that the ancestors of the Senoi became farmers, and the ancestors of the Semang continued to engage in harvesting, sometimes supplementing it with trade and agriculture. A stable social tradition, which made it impossible for marriages between these groups, contributed to the delineation of these two racial types.
After 500 BC, maritime trade was already developed and the Malay Peninsula became a crossroads that bound India with China. On the coast there are settlements, some of them subsequently turned into large ports with permanent populations, consisting of foreign traders who maintained constant ties with China, India, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean. The Semang become suppliers of jungle produce, which was in high demand in other countries such as aromatic woods, camphor, rubber, rattan, rhino horns, elephant tusks, gold, tin and so on. They also played the role of jungle guardians.
The Malay Srivijaya empire came in contact with the Negrito. In the year 724 AD, two Negrito pygmies were among the tribute gifts to Malay rulers. Negrito pygmies from the southern forests were enslaved and exploited until modern times.
At the end of the 14th century, on the coast of the Strait of Malacca, the first trading settlements were founded by Malay settlers from Sumatra. The main center was Malacca. At the beginning of the 15th century, the ruler of Malacca embraced Islam. Malay settlers began to slowly move upstream deeper into the peninsula, while some were subjugated to the Malays, most of the Orang Asli retreated into the interior regions.
During the early years of contact, the Semang peacefully interacted and traded with the Malays, but with the strengthening of the Malay states, the relationship between them began to deteriorate. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the Semang and other indigenous groups became slave trade victims of Batak and Rawa raiders. In response to attempts to capture slaves, the Semang developed a tactic of avoiding contact with outsiders. As a way of preserving their autonomy, they would immediately destroy their shelters if an outsider intruded and they would remained hidden or "closed" in the jungle.
The more the Semang were isolated from the surrounding peoples, the more surprising they were perceived by others. Many peoples of Southeast Asia considered the jungle as home to magical creatures, among those that assented are the Negritos. These people were endowed with magical qualities, and with various legends associated with fairy tales. Among the Malaysian sultans and rulers of the southern provinces of Thailand, it was once regarded as prestigious to keep Negritos in their yards as part of collections of amusing jungle beings.
In the first decade of the twentieth century, the king of Thailand, King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) visited the southern regions of his country and met with the Semang. In 1906, an orphan Semang boy named Khanung was sent to the royal court, where he was perceived as the adoptive son of the ruler. From this event, it has led to the patronage of the Semang by the royal court.
The British colonial government banned slavery at the end of the nineteenth century and introduced a protection policy for the Orang Asli. The British perceived the indigenous people as noble savages, who lead an idealized and romantic existence and need protection from the devastating actions of modern life.
Attention to the aborigines drew only during the Malayan Emergency in Malaysia in the 1950s. In order to bring them to the government's side in the confrontation against the communist rebels, a special department was established, the Department of Orang Asli Affairs (Jabatan Hal Ehwal Orang Asli, JHEOA); which was to provide education, health and economic development of the Orang Asli. A comprehensive control of indigenous communities was then introduced. Similar actions on the neutralization of the Negritos, albeit on a smaller scale, were also carried out by the Thai government in response to the transfer of communist soldiers into Thailand's territory.
The proclamation of Malaysia's independence in 1957 and the cessation of the Malayan Emergency in 1961 did not bring about significant changes in the state's policy towards the Orang Asli. In the 1970s, the Department of Orang Asli Affairs began to organize for the Semang settlements, which were meant to relocate several nomadic groups. Approximately by the end of 1980, the widespread development of jungle harvesting and the replacement of jungles for plantations, it has severely damaged the lives of most tribes of the Semang.
Much of the Kintaq, Jahai, Batek and Lanoh people now live in villages built by the state, surrounded by secondary jungles and plantations, as well as villages whose populations do not belong to the Orang Asli. They were forced to give up their livelihood and to some extent became accustomed to small farming.
In 1966 (according to some sources, 1973), in order to improve their lives, a Sakai Village was established in Thailand. The state laid a rubber plantation for them. In the early 1990s, it was decided to turn this village into a tourist centre, where the Semang in a theatrical form began to demonstrate to tourists features of their traditional way of life.
Beliefs
In terms of religion, the Semang are animists. They believe that not only people, but all natural objects have souls.
The land of the Semang are imagined in the form of a disk that lies on a huge snake or turtle floating underground. The earth is connected with the sky with one or several stone pillars. The world is filled with numerous immortal supernatural beings, spirits living on the sky, in stone pillars and underground. Skyline is a paradise filled with flowers and fruit trees. Supernatural beings have created rain forests to meet the needs of people on earth. Some of them in the past lived on the ground as ordinary people and now from time to time come back here, appearing in people in dreams.
Most supernatural beings have no names, they are often associated with certain natural phenomena or objects, such as wind or fruit trees. Others have their names and individual attributes. Most of the Semang are afraid of three natural phenomena; thunder, floods and storms. The main deity in them is the god of thunder Karey. He is not loved and evokes great fear, he is considered cruel and evil. Karey, according to local beliefs, carries out an important moral function, imposing punishment on violators of taboo. It can cause death, injury or illness through lightning strikes or wildlife attacks.
In each group there is a shaman called a hala. He acts as an intermediary between the visible world of people and the invisible world of spirits. Shamans perform rituals and magic rites, practice magic, anticipate the future, cure illnesses, and define a safe place for camp placement. Treatment of diseases is carried out using different herbs and magic spells. Semang believe that their shamans in a state of trance communicate with supernatural beings, can express them gratitude, as well as learn from them the way to treat a serious illness.
Shamans can be both men and women. There are big and small halas. Small halas are ordinary mortals who know some ways of treating. For the treatment of diseases, they use certain songs, massage, herbal medicine and spells. Sometimes during the healing ceremony, they are part of the trance. Great halas, according to the Semang, are people with supernatural abilities. Not only do they communicate with spirits through dreams or trance, they themselves are supernatural beings, for example, they can turn into tigers and drive away from wildlife people. Big and small halas get their knowledge from the spirits through dreams or from another hook. The best way is to wait on the grave of the deceased shaman until he appears in the likeness of the tiger, and then he will turn to the person and begin to teach the beginner.
Special rites accompany important events in life, such as birth, disease, death, there are also various rituals of economic orientation. When rituals are carried out, animist symbols are used.
The Malaysian government is pursuing a policy of conversion of the Orang Asli to Islam. A certain demographic of the Semang was considered Muslim by the end of the 20th century. The statistics are as follows:-
Culture
Scarification is practised. Young boys and girls are scarified in a simple ritual to mark the end of their adolescence. The finely serrated edge of a sugarcane leaf is drawn across the skin, then charcoal powder rubbed into the cut.
They have bamboo musical instruments, a kind of jaw harp, and a nose flute. On festive occasions, there is song and dance, both sexes decorating themselves with leaves.
The Semang bury their dead on the same day itself with the corpse wrapped in mat and the personal belonging of the deceased kept in a small bamboo rack placed over the grave. Only people of great importance, such as chiefs or great magicians are given a tree burial.
They have used Capnomancy (divination by smoke) to determine whether a camp is safe for the night.
Traditional way of life
Traditionally, the Semang have been living a vagrant lifestyle of jungle hunter-gatherers. Each group occupies a certain customary territory, which was a territorial subsistence for them. Within this territory they are constantly moving from place to place in search for new food resources. The Semang are not hunter-gatherers in the literal sense, as they constantly change their livelihood depending on what is currently beneficial for them. As soon as one source of edible resources is exhausted, they turn to another.
This way of life has been steadily maintained for a millennia due to the specific social structure of their society. Separate families in Semang community are completely autonomous; where they can gather together in temporary camps, then diverge, each in their direction, and then gather together with other families in new camps. Exogamy in such a society has an extreme level, which leads to large-scale family ties. Such model for the society ideally corresponds to the nomadic way of life and is unacceptable for the settled population. It served as a barrier that divided the populations that have been living together for a millennia.
Semang consider their customary territories free for use by all members of the local group. Western Semang recognize their human right to possess poisonous trees and perennial fruit trees that they have planted or found in the jungles. Other groups consider such trees to be free for everyone.
Claims of exclusive rights to a particular area in a dispute with other groups of Semang or with other peoples are usually not put forward and in any case are not valid. The Malaysian government does not at all recognize any rights of Semang to customary lands or resources.
Although they are commonly referred to as the inhabitants of the deep jungle areas, Semang actually occupy a transition zone between tropical jungles and agricultural districts. The resources here are very diverse and abundant. They can also collect valuable wood and maintain trade with neighbors. In the deep jungle they can only hunt small animals living among the trees, as valuable vegetation resources are practically absent from there.
In state villages, the Department of Orang Asli Development is trying to attract Semang to agriculture. On cleared jungle areas, the state organizes the planting of rubber trees, durian, rambutan, oil palms and bananas. The Semang are forced to adapt to new conditions, but agricultural activity requires long term waiting results, which contradicts their world view. At different times of the day, a group of Semang may send a whole group or individuals to harvest forest products, trade them, get hired in casual paid jobs from Malay farmers, go fishing or simply beg or live off of gifts left by visitors.
With this in mind, JAKOA provides the people with grocery kits so they do not leave their work. But, when there is a delay with the release of these rations, the Semang immediately stop agricultural activity, and some even return to live in the woods. The harvesting of jungle produce for sale still remains a priority for them, followed by work for money, settled agriculture and horticulture.
Livelihood
The main livelihood of the Semang has traditionally been gathering, hunting and fishing in a wandering lifestyle. They should add barter trade. Only in the 20th century some groups, the Lanoh and Batek in particular, began to practice Slash-and-burn farming.
For daily consumption, the roots and fruits of wild plants are collected in the jungle. The basis of gathering is wild yams (Dioscorea), of which at least twelve species can be found in relative abundance throughout the year. Other wild foods include bamboo shoots, nuts, seasonal fruits, mushrooms and honey. Apart from this list, there is also a range of medicinal herbs.
Different jungle produce are used by the Semang for various economic purposes. Bamboo is used for housing construction, it is used for the production of blowguns, darts, fish traps, kitchen utensils, water containers, combs, mats, rafts and ritual items. From the wood, they produce handles and sheaths for knives, and cutting boards for slicing meat. Pandan is used to make mats and baskets, tree barks for baskets and also clothing, and rattan for rope, baskets, ladders and belts.
The Semang spend a lot of time and effort on harvesting jungle produce intended for sale or for exchange with neighbouring Malay villages. These includes wild fruits, as well as rattan, rubber, wax, honey, and herbs. The most popular fruits are petai (Parkia speciosa), kerdas (Archidendron bubalinum), keranji (Dialium indum), jering (Archidendron pauciflorum) and durian (Durio pinangianus). Petai and durian are collected from August to November, kerdas during February to May, and keranji from October to January. Money that the Semang receive from the sale of these goods are then used to buy rice, oil, tobacco, salt, sugar and other food products, as well as clothing, fabrics, knives and other provisions.
Hunting is done with spears, rifles, slings, but the main weapon is blowgun that is used to hunt small game (squirrels, monkeys, bats and birds). Hunting with bronze guns using poison dart supplies provides most of the meat that these people eat. Guns and spears are used to hunt large animals such as wild pigs, goats, deer and tapirs. Occasionally hunting traps are set. Slingshots of wood and rubber are used mainly by young men to capture birds, bats and other tree dwelling animals. Some of the Semang in the past used bows and arrows, arranging a collective hunting group, but this practice disappeared at the beginning of the 20th century.
Fish in the rivers are caught using special traps made of bamboo, spears, hooks and fishing rod.
The produce obtained are shared with everyone in the camp.
Most of the Semang groups from time to time have long been growing a certain number of cultivated plants (Upland rice, caviar, corn, sweet potatoes, vegetables). Primitive manual farming was practiced on small scorched areas of the jungle. The resulting of the harvest is the property of the married family that has planted in their backyard, but after harvesting, the foods are distributed to all as a rule.
Pottery and weaving among the Semang are absent. Steel knives and axes are obtained either through trade or by the processing of steel waste from spearheads, arrows, and blades from knives. Individual specialization is practically absent, except for the religious sphere.
Mainly women are engage in harvesting and farming, and mainly men go hunting.
Lifestyle
Until recently, most of the Semang led a nomadic way of life. They lived in temporary camps consisting of a group of primitive shelter structures. Typically, these are simple palm straw shields that are tilted, such that one edge stands on the ground, and the other is based on two or three supporting sticks. This design is a temporary accommodation that provides people with protection from wind and rain. In each of these shelters lived a spouse, a widow or widower, or a group of unmarried young men or girls.
Western groups of Semang sometimes put their lean-to in two rows facing to each other. Thus, a long common communal hut was formed in the form of a tunnel with exits at each of its ends.
The Semang live in caves or leaf-shelters that form between branches. Sometimes Semang erect circular dwellings with the center space being used as a meeting place, dancing and ceremonial rituals. For short stays they would take shelter in caves, rocky overhangs or groups of trees overnight.
Settled Semang live in small bamboo or straw huts on stilts. Residential groups built by the state under the RPS (Rancangan Pengumpulan Semula, meaning "Regrouping Schemes" in English) have typical Malay-style of wooden huts. RPS villages are provided with basic infrastructure such as roads, electricity, water supply, children's and medical institutions and elementary schools.
Traditionally, the Semang tribes place their homes very close to each other. A negative remnant of a nomadic way of life is that they habitually spill garbage around their huts. Previously, Semang simply left their waste and went further. Now, these two factors together lead to people living in constant contact with their own waste, and this harms their health. Before that, they also use water from the polluted waters of their own.
Traditionally, Semang had a minimum of household items and tools, because all their treasure should have been carried with them. Their habitation, utensils and tools were made mainly for single use.
Traditional clothing of the Semang is loincloth for men and skirts with processed bast for women. A loincloth for the men, made of tree bark hammered out with a wooden mallet from the bark of the terap, a species of wild bread-fruit tree, and a short skirt of the same material for the women decorated with segments of bamboo in patterns to magically protect its wearer from disease, is the only dress worn; some go naked although this is not customary. Women also tattoo and paint their faces.
Society
Semang lived in small family groups of 15-50 people without a strict tribal organization. The jungle can not feed a large mass of people. Semang do not have associations with fixed membership, there are no related groups and no affiliation by ideology. Many camps consisted of one or more extended families, but these were only temporary formations.
The only stable association in the Semang community is the nuclear family, consisting of a man, a wife and their children. The family usually occupies an individual home, adult children can put up their own housing, located next to the hut or shelter of their parents. The family is engaged in farming together, and at the same time adults teach children the basic skills of management and cultural values of the group.
The kinship account is carried out both on paternal and on the maternal line. For the Semang, there is no difference between relatives and cousins and siblings, but they differentiate their age categories by dividing their brothers and sisters from the elder and the younger.
Young people usually choose their own spouses, as parents have little influence on these processes. Theoretically, a future husband must ask for permission of marriage from a girl's parents, but this does not always happen. The marriage ceremony is as simple as possible and limited to the participation of the actual married couple, who often arranges a small holiday for themselves. Some groups have been set up so that the groom brings some gifts to the young parents, and the groom handed over handmade items to the bride's parents. Marriage is considered concluded when the young spouse begins to live together.
The general groups are exogamous. For the Semang, marriages between blood relatives and close people (persons related through marriage) are not allowed. These rules require the search for marriages among distant groups, thus creating a large-scale network of social ties.
The rules for avoiding physical contact with the opposite sex, backed up by appropriate taboos, make it impossible for sexual relations outside the family. Polygyny and polyandry are allowed, but they are rare. Instead, divorce is commonplace in most Semang groups, especially if the couple have no children. The procedure is very simple, the couple just ceases to live together. Sometimes there are sharp conflicts on this ground, but in the majority of cases everything is peaceful, and the former spouses remain friendly, staying in the same camp.
Little children of divorced couples usually stay with their mother; older children make their own choices and often move alternately from one parent to another. The fathers and stepmother usually refer to the children from the previous marriage as their own. Just as in the case of a divorce or death of a wife, a Semang man may marry again and again but remain monogamous.
The nucleic family is also the main economic unit of the Semang society. Features of the complex economy of nomadic groups are caused by low fertility. A woman plays an important role in the traditional economy, providing the family with food, spending a lot of time harvesting fruits from the jungle and fish from rivers. A pregnant woman or a woman with a baby is not able to fully perform their work, besides, she becomes less mobile. In addition, taking care of children takes a lot of time and requires more food. Children in the Semang community do not have "economic value". Most of the time during the day they would simply play, simulating the activity of adults of the respective gender. In addition to the simple awareness of the "economic value" of children, in the society Semang also adhere to certain restrictions and taboos on sexual contacts.
Characteristically, with the transition to a sedentary lifestyle, the birth rate among the Semang is rapidly increasing. Labor, oriented mainly for future times, requires more working labors; women are no longer faced with the problem of caring for their children. In addition, the food stamps that children receive at school and bring them home have become a significant factor in family life and have changed the perception of children in society.
Semang society is egalitarian. People are interconnected by ties of kinship and friendship. Social classes do not exist. No adult has any authority over any other adults. There are no means of coercion. Individual autonomy is highly respected. Antisocial behavior is discouraged, an act generally condemned. People believe that violations of the norms will be punished by supernatural forces. Semang in general despise violence. Disputes are resolved through public discussion on the basis of a consensus decision. Individuals who do not get along with one another cannot be in the camp at the same time. In the event of a conflict that involves third parties, the Semang, as a rule, would simply go where they cannot be found.
Individuals of charismatic personality, men and women, may have some influence on others, hence become informal leaders in certain situations, but they have no real power. Such a leader is called penghulu, a Malay term. Some penghulu, exclusively for men, are senior members appointed by the Department of Orang Asli Development, but they only act as mediators between the group and outsiders and they do not have any power within the group.
A penghulu receive wages from the department. Formally, they are elected by a group of men, specifically for this purpose as organized by the authorities. No direct consultations with women are held, although they do express their views on this. The main quality, which is paid attention at the elections, is judged by the voters. Usually the position of the penghulu is inherited by the eldest son, although there are exceptions. If the current penghulu does not suit the JAKOA, the department pressures on the group to make a replacement.
See also
Andamanese
Maniq people
Australian Aborigines
Papuan peoples
Melanesians
Orang Asli
Orang Asli Museum
Notes
Bibliography
A. Hale: “On the Sakais” – Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute vol. 15. London: Trübner & Co 1886, 285–301. (There is also a special print assigned to “Harrison and Sons” who was the printer for Trübner & Co.)
References
Further reading
External links
Indigenous peoples of Southeast Asia
Ethnic groups in Malaysia
Hunter-gatherers of Asia
Orang Asli
Negritos
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final%20Fantasy%20X-2
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Final Fantasy X-2
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is a 2003 role-playing video game developed and published by Square for the PlayStation 2. Unlike most Final Fantasy games, which use self-contained stories and characters, X-2 continues the story of Final Fantasy X (2001). The story follows Yuna as she searches for Tidus, the main character of the previous game, while trying to prevent political conflicts in Spira from escalating to war.
Final Fantasy X-2 was the first game in the series to feature just three player characters and an all-female main cast. The battle system incorporates Final Fantasy character classes—one of the series' signature gameplay concepts—and is one of the few entries to have multiple possible endings. The soundtrack was created by Noriko Matsueda and Takahito Eguchi in lieu of long-time Final Fantasy composer Nobuo Uematsu.
The game was positively received by critics and was commercially successful, selling over 5.4 million copies on PlayStation 2 and winning a number of awards. It was the last Final Fantasy game to be released by Square before it merged with Enix in April 2003. The game was re-released in high-definition for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Vita in 2013, alongside Final Fantasy X, as Final Fantasy X/X-2 HD Remaster; this version was later released for the PlayStation 4 in 2015, Windows in 2016, and the Nintendo Switch and Xbox One in 2019. As of September 2021, the Final Fantasy X series had sold over 20.8 million units worldwide, and at the end of March 2022 had surpassed 21.1 million units sold around the world.
Gameplay
Final Fantasy X-2 is a role-playing video game in which players take on the role of Yuna as she explores the fictional world of Spira. In contrast to its predecessor, Final Fantasy X, players may visit almost every location in Spira from an early point in the game via airship. The field-map navigation system is largely unchanged from Final Fantasy X; players navigate large, continuous three dimensional areas by controlling the on-screen character. A few upgrades have been implemented, providing the player with extended interaction with the environment through jumping, climbing, and rotating camera angles. The game's sidequests include minor tasks and quests, optional bosses and dungeons, and the most minigames of any Final Fantasy at the time of its release. These minigames include Gunner's Gauntlet (a shooter game) and Sphere Break (a math-based coin game), and a management sim based on blitzball, the fictional underwater sport from Final Fantasy X.
Unlike its predecessor, in which the player's course through the world was largely linear, Final Fantasy X-2 allows players to visit almost any location at any time. The game consists of five chapters, with each location featuring one scenario per chapter. Together, the five scenarios in one locale form a subplot of the game called an "Episode". Players are free to engage with as many or as few optional scenarios as they choose; only a few scenarios per chapter are required to advance the game's central plot and are marked on the world navigation system as "Hotspots". Both Hotspots and optional scenarios contribute to a story completion tracker and the latter may indirectly influence the main narrative. Achieving 100% completion unlocks a secret ending. When the game is finished, a New Game Plus option gives players the opportunity to replay the game with different choices, with all of the items and storyline completion percentage previously achieved intact, but all character levels are reset.
The combat in Final Fantasy X-2 uses an enhanced version of the Active Time Battle (ATB) system, in which characters and enemies take actions according to their speed. This implementation of ATB allows characters to interrupt enemies while they are preparing to take an action. With precise timing, it is possible to chain attacks together for greater damage. Characters may change their character class mid-battle using dresspheres and the Garment Grid. These dresspheres, based on Final Fantasy character classes, allow access to different abilities to alter the course of battle. The Garment Grid is a placard featuring a geometric shape connected by nodes. Characters have access to dresspheres placed in the nodes. Depending on the properties of the Garment Grid, changing dresspheres in battle will grant bonuses such as increased strength or added elemental effects. Characters can learn new skills for each dressphere with the use of Ability Points (AP). AP is earned by defeating enemies and by the use of items and abilities for that sphere.
Plot
Setting and characters
Final Fantasy X-2 takes place two years after Final Fantasy X and is set in the fictional world of Spira, which consists of one large landmass divided into three subcontinents, surrounded by small tropical islands. It features diverse climates, ranging from the tropical Besaid and Kilika islands, to the temperate Mi'ihen region, to the frigid Macalania and Mt. Gagazet areas. Spira is distinct from the mainly European-influenced worlds found in previous Final Fantasy games, being much more closely modeled on Southeast Asia, most notably with respect to vegetation, topography, architecture, and names. Although predominantly populated by humans, Spira features a variety of races. Among them are the Al Bhed, a technologically advanced but previously disenfranchised sub-group of humans with distinctive green eyes and unique language. The Guado are less human in appearance, with elongated fingers and other arboreal features. The lion-like Ronso and the frog-like Hypello comprise the remaining sentient races. The "unsent" are the strong-willed spirits of the dead that remain in corporeal form. In Spira, the dead who are not sent to the Farplane by a summoner come to envy the living and transform into "fiends", the monsters that are encountered throughout the game. Unsent with strong attachments to the world of the living may retain their human form.
Aesthetically, the world of Spira is largely unchanged in the two years since Final Fantasy X and many locations return. There are, however, major changes in the ideology of Spira's people. Spira had been terrorized by a gargantuan monster called Sin for 1000 years, inhibiting technological advancement and trapping its people in a cycle of religious asceticism in hopes of praying Sin away. After Sin's destruction during the events of Final Fantasy X, an era of enlightenment known as "the Eternal Calm" began. Yuna, a main character of the previous game, is heralded as High Summoner for her pivotal role in this battle. The priests of the Yevon religion chose to expose the truth about the order's role in perpetuating the cycle, leaving the populace to decide for themselves how to live in a world without Sin. Advanced technology and the Al Bhed are embraced by the people, who have begun to pursue leisures such as attending musical concerts and participating in the sport of blitzball. Others have become hunters of ancient treasures, ranging from coins and machinery to arcane spheres in forgotten caves and ruins. These "sphere hunters" pursue the knowledge of ancient civilizations contained within.
In the absence of Yevon, various factions have formed. Young people were especially quick to abandon Yevon and embrace technology, while many of the older generation felt that cultural changes were happening too quickly. The most influential of the groups are the progressive Youth League led by Mevyn Nooj, the reformist New Yevon Party led by Praetor Baralai, and the Machine Faction led by Gippal which supplies weapons to both sides. By the start of the game, there are rising tensions between the Youth League and the New Yevon Party. Both groups have sought High Summoner Yuna's endorsement.
The three main playable characters of Final Fantasy X-2 are Yuna, Rikku, and Paine, members of the sphere hunter group called the Gullwings. Yuna was inspired to join after viewing a sphere recording that appeared to depict Tidus, her lost love who vanished during the ending of Final Fantasy X. Yuna and Rikku reprise their roles and, though their personalities are much the same as before, Square decided that their appearances would be heavily altered to give a greater impression of activity. Furthermore, it was decided that the pervading cultural changes occurring in Spira as they and others began trying to live positively would be reflected in the new clothing of these two characters. Paine is a new character designed for Final Fantasy X-2, to accommodate the game's intended action-adventure style revolving around a trio of female characters. Several characters from Final Fantasy X appear in the game in supporting roles, including Brother, Wakka, and Lulu. Additionally, other characters are introduced in Final Fantasy X-2, such as the faction leaders and the Leblanc Syndicate, a group of sphere hunters who serve as the Gullwings' rivals for much of the game. The game's main antagonist is Shuyin, the unsent spirit of a fallen soldier during the Machina War 1000 years ago.
Story
Two years after Sin's defeat, Yuna, Rikku, and Paine recover Yuna's stolen Garment Grid from the Leblanc Syndicate in the first of several encounters in which they vie for spheres. The game is punctuated by a narration of Yuna addressing Tidus, as though she is recounting the events of the game to him as they occur. Meanwhile, the Gullwings discover a sphere containing images of an ancient machina weapon called "Vegnagun" that was secretly buried beneath Bevelle. The weapon has enough power to threaten all of Spira. The Gullwings join forces with the Leblanc Syndicate to investigate the underground areas of the city in an attempt to destroy the machine before it can be used by either side in the upcoming conflict. However, discovering a large tunnel recently dug into the floor of the weapon's chamber, they realize that Vegnagun has apparently moved to the Farplane, located deep below ground.
Disagreements between Spira's factions are exacerbated by the disappearance of their leaders, Baralai, Nooj, and Gippal. In the underground areas of Bevelle, the Gullwings discover the missing faction leaders discussing Vegnagun and learn that the machine's artificial intelligence allows it to detect hostility and respond by fleeing. Paine had once been comrades with all three men during an operation in the "Den of Woe". Two years earlier, their squad explored the cave but a vengeful spirit drove them to kill one another. The four were the only survivors. The spirit—Shuyin, a soldier from the Machina War that led to the creation of Vegnagun—possessed Nooj and later forced him to shoot his comrades. Under Bevelle, Shuyin possesses Baralai and follows Vegnagun to the Farplane. Nooj and Gippal pursue, asking Yuna to keep things under control on the surface.
Yuna falls into the Farplane and meets Shuyin, who mistakes her for a woman named Lenne, whose memories are recorded in the Songstress dressphere. One thousand years ago, Shuyin was a famous blitzball player in the high-tech metropolis of Zanarkand and Lenne's lover. Desiring to save Lenne who had been conscripted into the Machina War between Zanarkand and Bevelle, he infiltrated Bevelle to hijack their secret weapon, Vegnagun. Lenne begged him to stop and Shuyin yielded, but a group of Bevelle soldiers arrived a moment later and executed the couple. In the present, Shuyin's spirit expresses anger that the people have still not understood the pain of war and plans to use Vegnagun to destroy all of Spira in retribution. The Gullwings organize a concert to which everyone in Spira is invited, supporters of the Youth League and New Yevon alike. The Songstress dressphere displays the scene of Shuyin and Lenne's last moments to all the concertgoers, opening their eyes to the unproductive nature of their disagreements.
Although the factional fighting had ceased, Shuyin's plan proceeds. Joining forces with the Leblanc Syndicate again, the Gullwings make their way to the Farplane and find Gippal and Nooj already battling Vegnagun. Once the group destroys Vegnagun, Yuna masquerades as Lenne to convince Shuyin to let go, but Shuyin eventually sees through her and attacks. The Gullwings defeat him and Lenne's spirit appears to soothe him as they depart together. By fulfilling certain conditions, the ancient spirits known as fayth agree to restore Tidus to life and reunite him with Yuna. Players who achieve 100% completion see an additional reunion scene in Zanarkand where the pair discuss whether he is truly real or still a dream.
Development
Development of Final Fantasy X-2 began in late 2001 in response to the success of Final Fantasy X, particularly fan reaction to the "Eternal Calm" video included in the Japanese version of Final Fantasy X International, which depicts Yuna's everyday life after the game. Final Fantasy X-2 was released in Japan shortly before the merger between Square and Enix. The production team initially disliked the name "X-2", but was eventually accepted since the story was a direct continuation of the previous story and thus could not be the next numbered game in the Final Fantasy series. Kazushige Nojima, the previous game's writer, was also skeptical about the creation of a sequel. He was particularly averse to the happy ending, which he felt was wrong for the story. The production team was one third the size of its predecessor. This was because the team was already familiar with the material, which allowed them to give a hand-crafted feel to the game. A significant number of character models, enemies, and location designs were reused from Final Fantasy X. Character designer Tetsuya Nomura explained that this enabled the team to create the game in one year and at half the scope Final Fantasy games are normally produced. Maya and Softimage 3D were the two main programs used to create the graphics.
Producer Yoshinori Kitase and director Motomu Toriyama explained that the objective in mind when designing Final Fantasy X-2 was to embrace the concept of change as the game's theme and establish a more upbeat atmosphere than its predecessor. Retaining the engine and locations from the original game meant that the team could spend most of their time on the gameplay systems and plot. To portray the drastic change in Spira, the developers excluded summons, redesigned towns, and included vehicles. The low-flying vehicles were added to allow the player quicker access and mobility to the areas that were already available in the previous game. Final Fantasy X-2 incorporated a number of elements from modern Japanese pop culture.
The ending of Final Fantasy X meant that the Aeon summoning system could not be used in the sequel, necessitating a new gameplay system. Because of the more optimistic setting, the designers drew inspiration from the magical girl subgenre of anime and manga to create the elaborate transformation sequences of the dressphere system. The influence of J-pop is prominent in the game's opening sequence. They also drew inspiration from Charlie's Angels. Toriyama explained that one of the goals during development was to provide a large variety of minigames, such that "if you bought FFX-2 you wouldn't need any other game". The dressphere system and a lead cast of three non-"macho" girls were intended to keep the tone of the game light and lively. Lulu was excluded from the playable cast because, in addition to being married, her presence would have given her an "older sister" role to Yuna, rather than allow Yuna to discover herself on her own. Though work on the opening song and motion capture began early in development, the opening sequence was actually the last portion of the game to be completed.
Music
Noriko Matsueda and Takahito Eguchi composed the soundtrack to Final Fantasy X-2 instead of regular series composer Nobuo Uematsu. The soundtrack included two J-pop songs: "Real Emotion" and "1000 Words". Koda Kumi performed the Japanese versions of the songs and did the motion capture for the "Real Emotion" full motion video shown in the game's opening. She also voiced Lenne in the Japanese version of the game. Jade Villalon of Sweetbox recorded the songs' English versions and released extended versions as bonus tracks for the Japanese release of the album Adagio. Koda released her own English versions of "Real Emotion" and "1000 Words" on the CD single for "Come with Me", with slightly different translations.
Release
As with Final Fantasy X, Square Enix released an expanded version of the game, Final Fantasy X-2 International + Last Mission, in 2004 for the PlayStation 2. It introduces two new dresspheres, an additional "Last Mission" at a location called "Yadonoki Tower", and the option to capture and battle with numerous monsters and characters including Tidus, Auron and Seymour Guado from Final Fantasy X. This version was not released outside Japan, although the English voice track was used for the main story in this version. Due to this change, parts of the Japanese subtitles were changed or altered to fit the voice-overs. This was detailed in the strategy book for the international version. In 2005, a compilation featuring Final Fantasy X and X-2 was released in Japan as Final Fantasy X/X-2 Ultimate Box.
Several action figures, books, and soundtracks were released by Square Enix, including three Ultimania guidebooks, a series of artbooks and strategy guides published in Japan. They feature original artwork from Final Fantasy X-2, offer gameplay walkthroughs, expand upon many aspects of the game's storyline, and feature several interviews with the game's developers. There are three books in the series: Final Fantasy X-2 Ultimania, Final Fantasy X-2 Ultimania Ω, and Final Fantasy X-2: International+Last Mission Ultimania. A similar three-book series was produced for Final Fantasy X.
Gaming peripheral company Hori produced PlayStation 2 controllers modeled after the Tiny Bee guns Yuna uses in Final Fantasy X-2. These controllers were released only in Japan. They were re-released in a new silver box to coincide with the release of Final Fantasy X-2: International + Last Mission. Hori also released a vertical stand for the PlayStation 2 console, with a Final Fantasy X-2 logo that lights up in blue color when plugged in.
Final Fantasy X and X-2 were re-released in high-definition for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Vita in celebration of the game's 10-year anniversary. Production had started by January 2012, with Kitase involved. Both games are based on the expanded editions previously only released in Japan. The collection on PlayStation 3 was titled Final Fantasy X/X-2 HD Remaster. The two games were sold separately on PlayStation Vita in Japan. Outside of Japan, the Vita games were sold together as a collection. The remasters support the "cross save" feature, in which saved games from one platform may be transferred to another platform over the internet. The remaster collection was also released on the PlayStation 4 in 2015, PCs in 2016, followed by Nintendo Switch and Xbox One in 2019.
Reception
Critical response
According to review aggregator Metacritic, reviews for Final Fantasy X-2 were "generally favorable". In 2006, readers of Japanese video game magazine Famitsu ranked Final Fantasy X-2 as number 32 in a poll on the best video games of all time. The Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences recognized the character Rikku, performed vocally by Tara Strong, for "Outstanding Achievement in Character Performance - Female" in 2004 (tying with the character Niobe for Enter the Matrix, performed vocally by Jada Pinkett Smith); it also received nominations for "Console Role-Playing Game of the Year" and "Outstanding Achievement in Art Direction". Despite largely positive reviews from the video games press, Destructoid observed a significant backlash among fans against the game.
IGN summarized Final Fantasy X-2 as "a brilliant and addictive romp" through the world of Spira. GameSpot remarked that it was as endearing and poignant as its forebears, with strengths that outweighed any of its flaws. RPGamer regarded the battle system as innovative and "very simple to navigate". While GameSpot praised the battle system as a "welcome addition", the reviewer disliked the increased inclusion of minigames. GameSpy, while initially unsure about the new system, praised it as a solid alternative with unexpected depth.
Critics had mixed reactions to Final Fantasy X-2s tonal shift from its predecessor. IGN felt the changes were part of its intrigue, praising the narrative's political elements and comedic tone compared to the first game. The reviewer also praised the character writing and gameplay changes. Further praise came from RPGamer, with one staff reviewer summarizing it as "a light-hearted fun game" that "may ... be the most enjoyable thing to come from the series in several years". By contrast, GameSpot commented that some of the missions came off as too frivolous, and that its non-linear nature made the narrative unfocused compared to its predecessor.
The soundtrack was met with mixed reception, due to a lack of input from Uematsu and its shift to a J-pop style. Whereas IGN and 1Up.com commended the music as a fitting backdrop to the action and new tone, Electronic Gaming Monthly regarded it as "too bubbly". RPGamer suggested that "the absence of Uematsu proves deafening", but noted that its lighter atmosphere matched the tone and events of the game. The game's reuse of graphical designs from Final Fantasy X was the subject of criticism. RPGamer and GameSpot commented that, despite the lack of overt improvement on the first game, it was still one of the best-looking PlayStation 2 games at the time. Electronic Gaming Monthly regarded this reuse of code as "[tripping up] in the one area where Final Fantasy titles usually shine". GameSpy shared this view. RPGamer also criticized the multiple outfits as too revealing and aimed more at attracting male gamers than being true to the characters.
Sales
In 2003, Final Fantasy X-2 sold over 1.94 million copies in Japan, making it the highest-selling game of the year. Within nine months of its Japanese release, it sold more than a million copies in North America (within two months of its release there), and nearly four million copies worldwide. It went on to sell 2.11 million units in Japan, 1.85 million units in the United States, and more than 100,000 units in the United Kingdom. International + Last Mission sold over 288,000 copies in Japan over the course of 2004. As of March 2013, the game has sold over 5.4 million copies worldwide on PlayStation 2. By October 2013, Final Fantasy X and its sequel X-2 had together sold over 14 million copies worldwide on PlayStation 2.
Legacy
After Final Fantasy X-2, Square Enix released direct sequels to other Final Fantasy games, including Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII, Final Fantasy IV: The After Years, and two sequels to Final Fantasy XIII. Joseph Leray of Destructoid attributed the fan backlash against the game to its status as the first direct sequel in the series and its light-hearted and "girly" tone. Reflecting on the game's legacy, Dale Bashir of IGN declared it the best among Final Fantasy sequels, citing its innovations in non-linear and episodic storytelling. Fritz Fraundorf of the GIA likewise praised its open-ended nature, observing that it was the first Final Fantasy game released in the wake of Grand Theft Auto IIIs popularity. He felt that it was a worthy companion to Final Fantasy X, with complementary themes, structure, and characterization. Katharine Castle of Rock, Paper, Shotgun appreciated the game for serving as the "happy ending" to Yuna's story, a sentiment echoed by Mike Fahey of Kotaku, who also commended its ability not to take itself seriously.
Notes
References
External links
(archived from the original)
2003 video games
Final Fantasy X
Final Fantasy video games
Final Fantasy spin-offs
Japanese role-playing video games
PlayStation 2 games
Politics in fiction
Role-playing video games
Romance video games
Single-player video games
Turn-based role-playing video games
Video games about spirit possession
Video game sequels
Video games developed in Japan
Video games featuring female protagonists
Video games scored by Takahito Eguchi
Video games scored by Noriko Matsueda
Video games set on fictional planets
Video games with alternative versions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeochemical%20cycle
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Biogeochemical cycle
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A biogeochemical cycle, or more generally a cycle of matter, is the movement and transformation of chemical elements and compounds between living organisms, the atmosphere, and the Earth's crust. Major biogeochemical cycles include the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle. In each cycle, the chemical element or molecule is transformed and cycled by living organisms and through various geological forms and reservoirs, including the atmosphere, the soil and the oceans. It can be thought of as the pathway by which a chemical substance cycles (is turned over or moves through) the biotic compartment and the abiotic compartments of Earth. The biotic compartment is the biosphere and the abiotic compartments are the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere.
For example, in the carbon cycle, atmospheric carbon dioxide is absorbed by plants through photosynthesis, which converts it into organic compounds that are used by organisms for energy and growth. Carbon is then released back into the atmosphere through respiration and decomposition. Additionally, carbon is stored in fossil fuels and is released into the atmosphere through human activities such as burning fossil fuels. In the nitrogen cycle, atmospheric nitrogen gas is converted by plants into usable forms such as ammonia and nitrates through the process of nitrogen fixation. These compounds can be used by other organisms, and nitrogen is returned to the atmosphere through denitrification and other processes. In the water cycle, the universal solvent water evaporates from land and oceans to form clouds in the atmosphere, and then precipitates back to different parts of the planet. Precipitation can seep into the ground and become part of groundwater systems used by plants and other organisms, or can runoff the surface to form lakes and rivers. Subterranean water can then seep into the ocean along with river discharges, rich with dissolved and particulate organic matter and other nutrients.
There are biogeochemical cycles for many other elements, such as for oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorus, calcium, iron, sulfur, mercury and selenium. There are also cycles for molecules, such as water and silica. In addition there are macroscopic cycles such as the rock cycle, and human-induced cycles for synthetic compounds such as for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). In some cycles there are geological reservoirs where substances can remain or be sequestered for long periods of time.
Biogeochemical cycles involve the interaction of biological, geological, and chemical processes. Biological processes include the influence of microorganisms, which are critical drivers of biogeochemical cycling. Microorganisms have the ability to carry out wide ranges of metabolic processes essential for the cycling of nutrients and chemicals throughout global ecosystems. Without microorganisms many of these processes would not occur, with significant impact on the functioning of land and ocean ecosystems and the planet's biogeochemical cycles as a whole. Changes to cycles can impact human health. The cycles are interconnected and play important roles regulating climate, supporting the growth of plants, phytoplankton and other organisms, and maintaining the health of ecosystems generally. Human activities such as burning fossil fuels and using large amounts of fertilizer can disrupt cycles, contributing to climate change, pollution, and other environmental problems.
Overview
Energy flows directionally through ecosystems, entering as sunlight (or inorganic molecules for chemoautotrophs) and leaving as heat during the many transfers between trophic levels. However, the matter that makes up living organisms is conserved and recycled. The six most common elements associated with organic molecules — carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur — take a variety of chemical forms and may exist for long periods in the atmosphere, on land, in water, or beneath the Earth's surface. Geologic processes, such as weathering, erosion, water drainage, and the subduction of the continental plates, all play a role in this recycling of materials. Because geology and chemistry have major roles in the study of this process, the recycling of inorganic matter between living organisms and their environment is called a biogeochemical cycle.
The six aforementioned elements are used by organisms in a variety of ways. Hydrogen and oxygen are found in water and organic molecules, both of which are essential to life. Carbon is found in all organic molecules, whereas nitrogen is an important component of nucleic acids and proteins. Phosphorus is used to make nucleic acids and the phospholipids that comprise biological membranes. Sulfur is critical to the three-dimensional shape of proteins. The cycling of these elements is interconnected. For example, the movement of water is critical for leaching sulfur and phosphorus into rivers which can then flow into oceans. Minerals cycle through the biosphere between the biotic and abiotic components and from one organism to another.
Ecological systems (ecosystems) have many biogeochemical cycles operating as a part of the system, for example, the water cycle, the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle, etc. All chemical elements occurring in organisms are part of biogeochemical cycles. In addition to being a part of living organisms, these chemical elements also cycle through abiotic factors of ecosystems such as water (hydrosphere), land (lithosphere), and/or the air (atmosphere).
The living factors of the planet can be referred to collectively as the biosphere. All the nutrients — such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur — used in ecosystems by living organisms are a part of a closed system; therefore, these chemicals are recycled instead of being lost and replenished constantly such as in an open system.
The major parts of the biosphere are connected by the flow of chemical elements and compounds in biogeochemical cycles. In many of these cycles, the biota plays an important role. Matter from the Earth's interior is released by volcanoes. The atmosphere exchanges some compounds and elements rapidly with the biota and oceans. Exchanges of materials between rocks, soils, and the oceans are generally slower by comparison.
The flow of energy in an ecosystem is an open system; the sun constantly gives the planet energy in the form of light while it is eventually used and lost in the form of heat throughout the trophic levels of a food web. Carbon is used to make carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, the major sources of food energy. These compounds are oxidized to release carbon dioxide, which can be captured by plants to make organic compounds. The chemical reaction is powered by the light energy of the sun.
Sunlight is required to combine carbon with hydrogen and oxygen into an energy source, but ecosystems in the deep sea, where no sunlight can penetrate, obtain energy from sulfur. Hydrogen sulfide near hydrothermal vents can be utilized by organisms such as the giant tube worm. In the sulfur cycle, sulfur can be forever recycled as a source of energy. Energy can be released through the oxidation and reduction of sulfur compounds (e.g., oxidizing elemental sulfur to sulfite and then to sulfate).
Although the Earth constantly receives energy from the sun, its chemical composition is essentially fixed, as the additional matter is only occasionally added by meteorites. Because this chemical composition is not replenished like energy, all processes that depend on these chemicals must be recycled. These cycles include both the living biosphere and the nonliving lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere.
Biogeochemical cycles can be contrasted with geochemical cycles. The latter deals only with crustal and subcrustal reservoirs even though some process from both overlap.
Compartments
Atmosphere
Hydrosphere
The global ocean covers more than 70% of the Earth's surface and is remarkably heterogeneous. Marine productive areas, and coastal ecosystems comprise a minor fraction of the ocean in terms of surface area, yet have an enormous impact on global biogeochemical cycles carried out by microbial communities, which represent 90% of the ocean's biomass. Work in recent years has largely focused on cycling of carbon and macronutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and silicate: other important elements such as sulfur or trace elements have been less studied, reflecting associated technical and logistical issues. Increasingly, these marine areas, and the taxa that form their ecosystems, are subject to significant anthropogenic pressure, impacting marine life and recycling of energy and nutrients. A key example is that of cultural eutrophication, where agricultural runoff leads to nitrogen and phosphorus enrichment of coastal ecosystems, greatly increasing productivity resulting in algal blooms, deoxygenation of the water column and seabed, and increased greenhouse gas emissions, with direct local and global impacts on nitrogen and carbon cycles. However, the runoff of organic matter from the mainland to coastal ecosystems is just one of a series of pressing threats stressing microbial communities due to global change. Climate change has also resulted in changes in the cryosphere, as glaciers and permafrost melt, resulting in intensified marine stratification, while shifts of the redox-state in different biomes are rapidly reshaping microbial assemblages at an unprecedented rate.
Global change is, therefore, affecting key processes including primary productivity, CO2 and N2 fixation, organic matter respiration/remineralization, and the sinking and burial deposition of fixed CO2. In addition to this, oceans are experiencing an acidification process, with a change of ~0.1 pH units between the pre-industrial period and today, affecting carbonate/bicarbonate buffer chemistry. In turn, acidification has been reported to impact planktonic communities, principally through effects on calcifying taxa. There is also evidence for shifts in the production of key intermediary volatile products, some of which have marked greenhouse effects (e.g., N2O and CH4, reviewed by Breitburg in 2018, due to the increase in global temperature, ocean stratification and deoxygenation, driving as much as 25 to 50% of nitrogen loss from the ocean to the atmosphere in the so-called oxygen minimum zones or anoxic marine zones, driven by microbial processes. Other products, that are typically toxic for the marine nekton, including reduced sulfur species such as H2S, have a negative impact for marine resources like fisheries and coastal aquaculture. While global change has accelerated, there has been a parallel increase in awareness of the complexity of marine ecosystems, and especially the fundamental role of microbes as drivers of ecosystem functioning.
Lithosphere
Biosphere
Microorganisms drive much of the biogeochemical cycling in the earth system.
Reservoirs
The chemicals are sometimes held for long periods of time in one place. This place is called a reservoir, which, for example, includes such things as coal deposits that are storing carbon for a long period of time. When chemicals are held for only short periods of time, they are being held in exchange pools. Examples of exchange pools include plants and animals.
Plants and animals utilize carbon to produce carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, which can then be used to build their internal structures or to obtain energy. Plants and animals temporarily use carbon in their systems and then release it back into the air or surrounding medium. Generally, reservoirs are abiotic factors whereas exchange pools are biotic factors. Carbon is held for a relatively short time in plants and animals in comparison to coal deposits. The amount of time that a chemical is held in one place is called its residence time or turnover time (also called the renewal time or exit age).
Box models
Box models are widely used to model biogeochemical systems. Box models are simplified versions of complex systems, reducing them to boxes (or storage reservoirs) for chemical materials, linked by material fluxes (flows). Simple box models have a small number of boxes with properties, such as volume, that do not change with time. The boxes are assumed to behave as if they were mixed homogeneously. These models are often used to derive analytical formulas describing the dynamics and steady-state abundance of the chemical species involved.
The diagram at the right shows a basic one-box model. The reservoir contains the amount of material M under consideration, as defined by chemical, physical or biological properties. The source Q is the flux of material into the reservoir, and the sink S is the flux of material out of the reservoir. The budget is the check and balance of the sources and sinks affecting material turnover in a reservoir. The reservoir is in a steady state if Q = S, that is, if the sources balance the sinks and there is no change over time.
The residence or turnover time is the average time material spends resident in the reservoir. If the reservoir is in a steady state, this is the same as the time it takes to fill or drain the reservoir. Thus, if τ is the turnover time, then τ = M/S. The equation describing the rate of change of content in a reservoir is
When two or more reservoirs are connected, the material can be regarded as cycling between the reservoirs, and there can be predictable patterns to the cyclic flow. More complex multibox models are usually solved using numerical techniques.
The diagram on the left shows a simplified budget of ocean carbon flows. It is composed of three simple interconnected box models, one for the euphotic zone, one for the ocean interior or dark ocean, and one for ocean sediments. In the euphotic zone, net phytoplankton production is about 50 Pg C each year. About 10 Pg is exported to the ocean interior while the other 40 Pg is respired. Organic carbon degradation occurs as particles (marine snow) settle through the ocean interior. Only 2 Pg eventually arrives at the seafloor, while the other 8 Pg is respired in the dark ocean. In sediments, the time scale available for degradation increases by orders of magnitude with the result that 90% of the organic carbon delivered is degraded and only 0.2 Pg C yr−1 is eventually buried and transferred from the biosphere to the geosphere.
The diagram on the right shows a more complex model with many interacting boxes. Reservoir masses here represents carbon stocks, measured in Pg C. Carbon exchange fluxes, measured in Pg C yr−1, occur between the atmosphere and its two major sinks, the land and the ocean. The black numbers and arrows indicate the reservoir mass and exchange fluxes estimated for the year 1750, just before the Industrial Revolution. The red arrows (and associated numbers) indicate the annual flux changes due to anthropogenic activities, averaged over the 2000–2009 time period. They represent how the carbon cycle has changed since 1750. Red numbers in the reservoirs represent the cumulative changes in anthropogenic carbon since the start of the Industrial Period, 1750–2011.
Fast and slow cycles
There are fast and slow biogeochemical cycles. Fast cycle operate in the biosphere and slow cycles operate in rocks. Fast or biological cycles can complete within years, moving substances from atmosphere to biosphere, then back to the atmosphere. Slow or geological cycles can take millions of years to complete, moving substances through the Earth's crust between rocks, soil, ocean and atmosphere.
As an example, the fast carbon cycle is illustrated in the diagram below on the left. This cycle involves relatively short-term biogeochemical processes between the environment and living organisms in the biosphere. It includes movements of carbon between the atmosphere and terrestrial and marine ecosystems, as well as soils and seafloor sediments. The fast cycle includes annual cycles involving photosynthesis and decadal cycles involving vegetative growth and decomposition. The reactions of the fast carbon cycle to human activities will determine many of the more immediate impacts of climate change.
The slow cycle is illustrated in the diagram above on the right. It involves medium to long-term geochemical processes belonging to the rock cycle. The exchange between the ocean and atmosphere can take centuries, and the weathering of rocks can take millions of years. Carbon in the ocean precipitates to the ocean floor where it can form sedimentary rock and be subducted into the earth's mantle. Mountain building processes result in the return of this geologic carbon to the Earth's surface. There the rocks are weathered and carbon is returned to the atmosphere by degassing and to the ocean by rivers. Other geologic carbon returns to the ocean through the hydrothermal emission of calcium ions. In a given year between 10 and 100 million tonnes of carbon moves around this slow cycle. This includes volcanoes returning geologic carbon directly to the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. However, this is less than one percent of the carbon dioxide put into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels.
Deep cycles
The terrestrial subsurface is the largest reservoir of carbon on earth, containing 14–135 Pg of carbon and 2–19% of all biomass. Microorganisms drive organic and inorganic compound transformations in this environment and thereby control biogeochemical cycles. Current knowledge of the microbial ecology of the subsurface is primarily based on 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene sequences. Recent estimates show that <8% of 16S rRNA sequences in public databases derive from subsurface organisms and only a small fraction of those are represented by genomes or isolates. Thus, there is remarkably little reliable information about microbial metabolism in the subsurface. Further, little is known about how organisms in subsurface ecosystems are metabolically interconnected. Some cultivation-based studies of syntrophic consortia and small-scale metagenomic analyses of natural communities suggest that organisms are linked via metabolic handoffs: the transfer of redox reaction products of one organism to another. However, no complex environments have been dissected completely enough to resolve the metabolic interaction networks that underpin them. This restricts the ability of biogeochemical models to capture key aspects of the carbon and other nutrient cycles. New approaches such as genome-resolved metagenomics, an approach that can yield a comprehensive set of draft and even complete genomes for organisms without the requirement for laboratory isolation have the potential to provide this critical level of understanding of biogeochemical processes.
Some examples
Some of the more well-known biogeochemical cycles are shown below:
Many biogeochemical cycles are currently being studied for the first time. Climate change and human impacts are drastically changing the speed, intensity, and balance of these relatively unknown cycles, which include:
the mercury cycle, and
the human-caused cycle of PCBs.
Biogeochemical cycles always involve active equilibrium states: a balance in the cycling of the element between compartments. However, overall balance may involve compartments distributed on a global scale.
As biogeochemical cycles describe the movements of substances on the entire globe, the study of these is inherently multidisciplinary. The carbon cycle may be related to research in ecology and atmospheric sciences. Biochemical dynamics would also be related to the fields of geology and pedology.
See also
Carbonate–silicate cycle
Ecological recycling
Great Acceleration
Hydrogen cycle
Redox gradient
References
Further reading
Schink, Bernhard; "Microbes: Masters of the Global Element Cycles" pp 33–58. "Metals, Microbes and Minerals: The Biogeochemical Side of Life", pp xiv + 341. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin. DOI 10.1515/9783110589771-002
Biogeography
Biosphere
Geochemistry
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel%2C%20Isle%20of%20Man
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Peel, Isle of Man
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Peel ( – Port of the Island) is a seaside town and small fishing port in the Isle of Man, in the historic parish of German but administered separately. Peel is the third largest town in the island after Douglas and Ramsey but the fourth largest settlement, as Onchan has the second largest population but is classified as a village. Until 2016 (when it was merged with Glenfaba) Peel was also a House of Keys constituency, electing one Member of the House of Keys (MHK), who, from September 2015, was Ray Harmer. Peel has a ruined castle on St Patrick's Isle, and a cathedral, seat of the Diocese of Sodor and Man (the diocese was founded when Mann was ruled by the Norse).
Geography
Peel is on the west coast of the Isle of Man, on the east side of the mouth of the River Neb. To the north west is St Patrick's Isle, connected to the mainland by a causeway, and to the west across the river is Peel Hill. The A1 road connects Peel with Douglas. The A4 and A3 roads connect it with Kirk Michael and Ramsey. To the south of Peel is Castletown, the former capital of the island, and to the SE is Douglas. Ireland to the west and Scotland to the north may be seen on a clear day.
The older part of Peel is built of reddish Peel Sandstone, mostly the original homes and businesses of fishermen and merchants with narrow winding lanes by the quayside. Before 1765, the town had a busy import-export trade importing goods from ports such as Amsterdam; in the mid to late 19th century the town was a busy fishing port.
Demographics
The Isle of Man census 2016 lists the population as 5,374, an increase from 5,093 in 2011.
Governance
The local authority is Peel Town Commissioners who are based at the Town Hall on Derby Road. There are nine commissioners. The day-to-day activities of the authority are run by the clerk.
Town history
Peel was the capital of the island before the King of Mann moved his home and military base from Peel Castle to Castle Rushen. The last King of Man, Magnús Óláfsson, is recorded in the Chronicle of Mann to have died at Rushen Castle in 1265.
Peel is the island's main fishing port and Peel Cathedral is the seat of the Bishop of Sodor and Man.
Peel is sometimes referred to as the "rose red city", due to the red sandstone used to build the castle and other important buildings. As it is in the west, it is also called the "sunset city". Peel is a popular seaside destination for Manx residents and visitors in summer. It has narrow streets of fishermen's cottages and a Victorian promenade which was built on reclaimed land and a small construction line built for this purpose, as well as sandy beaches. For many years the main industries in the town were fishing, trading and shipbuilding.
There is evidence of local settlers in the Mesolithic Age on both St Patrick's Isle and the nearby Peel Hill, and Neolithic farmers are believed to have settled in the area.
About 550, a Celtic monastery was founded on St Patrick's Isle.
Excavations in the 1980s found a large early Christian burial ground, many of the burials dating from around 550. Some later graves had Norse burial goods: e.g. the 'Pagan Lady'. The ruins of the original Peel Cathedral (c.1250) can be seen within the walls of Peel Castle on St Patrick's Isle. This replaced an earlier church.
Norsemen first came to Mann around the year 800, and ruled the island for four-and-a-half centuries before finally ceding it to the King of Scotland in 1266.
Norsemen settled in Peel and used the harbour on the River Neb as a shelter for their longships. In 1228 Olaf the Black, King of Mann and the Isles, beached his fleet in the inlet. It was attacked and burned by his half-brother Ragnald. In 1266, as agreed in the Treaty of Perth, Norway's King Magnus VI ceded the Isle of Man to Scotland. The island came under English control in the 14th century.
The town of Peel developed on the east bank of the river and the settlement was known as Holmtown until the 17th century. Later development, apart from the late 19th century guest house building on the sea front, has been inland, away from the coast. The name Peel was given to the castle by the English rulers, and the settlement then became Peeltown until about 1860. By the time the local councils were established in 1883, the name Peel referred to the town rather than the castle. In the 19th century, schooners built in Peel traded around northwest Europe and Peel fishing boats fished around the island and further afield to the southern coast of Ireland and near to Shetland. The harbour and breakwater were gradually improved, with much of the local income derived from the export of salted herring. By the 1880s, fishing was the main employer with about 3,000 men and boys employed, with ancillary businesses such as shipbuilding providing employment to hundreds more. However, with what is now seen as over-fishing, the number of boats leaving for Ireland dwindled from 300 in 1880 to a handful by 1915.
After the railway arrived in Peel in 1873, Peel started to develop as a tourist resort, with guest houses and hotels built along the shoreline and headlands, and then the promenade was added. Tourism gradually grew in the town. During World War I Knockaloe Farm, at Patrick to the south of the town, was made into the Knockaloe internment camp and housed up to 30,000 German, Austrian and Turkish civilians. In 1940, guest houses at one end of the promenade were requisitioned to become Peveril Internment Camp, housing those suspected of having sympathy for the Nazi regime under Defence Regulation 18B. By the late 1960s the Peel to Douglas railway line had closed and tourism declined. Fishing from Peel has seen periods of upturn and decline. For a number of years the annual Viking Festival has attracted visitors to the resort. In 1979 Odin's Raven, a replica of a Viking longship, sailed from Norway to Peel to commemorate the millennium of the legendary first sitting of the Isle of Man's Parliament, Tynwald. In 2005, a new floodgate was installed at Peel to retain the waters of the River Neb and thus enable the moored boats to float at low tide.
Peel is the birthplace of Peel microcars, made by the Peel Engineering Company in the 1960s, the only Manx cars ever built.
Amenities
Peel has a campsite, swimming pool, tennis courts, BMX track, football ground, golf club, bowling green and various other amenities.
House of Manannan Museum
The House of Manannan Museum was built in 1997, costing £5.5 million, partly new and partly in the old Peel railway station. The museum covers the past and present of the island and houses Odin's Raven, a two-thirds scale replica of a Viking longship which had been built in and sailed from Norway, arriving on 4 July 1979 to celebrate the millennium of the High Court of Tynwald, the legislature of the Isle of Man.
Manx Transportation Museum
The Manx Transportation Museum, which opened in 2002, is housed in the former Brickworks building near the harbour.
Leece Museum
The Leece Museum was established in 1984 and relocated to the Old Courthouse building in East Quay in 2000. The museum is devoted to objects, photographs and documents specifically relating to the town. The museum now has a large display of TT and Manx Grand Prix racing bikes, On and off road and vintage bikes along with memorabilia from the TT races.
Peel Castle
Peel Castle is on St Patrick's Isle, a small island connected to Peel Hill by a causeway. It is thought that the castle was started by Magnus Barelegs (King Magnus III of Norway, also known as Magnus Barefoot) and then extended in 1392 by William le Scrope, 1st Earl of Wiltshire. The castle is now a tourist attraction open in summer. There is a public footpath around the castle. Archaeological investigations have uncovered evidence of a cemetery dating to around AD 550, and Norse fortifications. The "Pagan Lady" burial discovered within the castle grounds was a Christian-style grave but with various grave goods in the Norse style, including a necklace of beads traded from various countries in Europe and the Mediterranean. No pagan Viking-age burial in the British Isles has produced grave goods of such high quality.
Events
Regular events from spring to autumn based in Peel include: the Isle of Man Art Festival (WOSAT) in May; Peel Day during TT fortnight (May/June); Peel Secret Gardens (usually July); Yn Chruinnaght Inter-Celtic Festival (July); Peel Viking Longboat Races (July), and Peel Carnival.
Kipper production
Kippers have been produced in Peel since at least the 19th century. Two kipper houses remain: Moore's Kipper Yard (established 1884) which provides tours of the factory demonstrating the preparation and smoking processes, and Devereau's (also established 1884).
Peel Centenary Centre
Peel Centenary Centre () is an arts and community centre based at the Centenary Hall. It runs a programme of films, live concerts (local, British, and international acts), and other community events.
Douglas to Peel railway line
Peel railway station opened on 1 July 1873, beside the harbour, as the western terminus of the Isle of Man Railway's Douglas to Peel line. The station closed to passengers on 7 September 1968. The station site is now a car park and boatyard, and the station building is used as part of the House of Manannan Museum. The former railway line is now a footpath and cycleway: the path is close to the main road and leads to St John's, from where it continues to Douglas, the island's capital.
Peel Harbour and Marina
Peel Harbour is the most active fishing port in the Isle of Man and is also used to import fuel oils. There is a fish and shellfish processing industry as well as the traditional art of kipper curing. The breakwater has deep-water berths with a lighthouse situated at the end. Fishing boats are usually berthed on the breakwater.
The castle overlooks the entrance to the inner harbour, which is tidal. However a water retention scheme was built in July 2005 with a jetty from East Quay toward West Quay with an automatically operated gate-flap and a pedestrian swing bridge above it. This "gate-flap" enables a half tide dock, similar to one at Douglas, and Padstow. Now, in Peel inner harbour boats remain afloat even at low water, whereas before boats would settle upon the "hard", or exposed seabed.
Yachts may be moored in Peel Marina, which was constructed in the inner harbour at a cost of £3.1 million. 124 new berths have been installed by reclaiming part of the top end of the harbour for a boat park, with construction of a new harbour office.
Sport and recreation
Peel A.F.C., who compete in the Isle of Man Football League, are based in Peel. They play their home games at the Peel FC Football Ground, Douglas Road. Formed in 1888, they are the most successful club on the island with 29 league titles and 32 victories in the Manx FA Cup. They were the first winners of the Isle of Man Football League in 1897. Peel Cricket Club are also based in the town, they are members of the Isle of Man Cricket Association.
Valkyrs Hockey Club play their home matches at the Queen Elizabeth II High School astro turf pitch. Peel Golf Club is an 18-hole golf course, totalling over 5870 yds off competitions tees, located on Rheast Lane which was established in 1895. The clubhouse was opened in 1977 by Peter Alliss. Western Athletics club is based at Queen Elizabeth II School. Western Swimming Pool is located on Derby Road.
The Headlands Field has a BMX track, football pitch, park and coastal pathway. There is also a telescope on the headlands which overlooks Peel promenade. The coastal path starts on the Headlands and leads all the way to Kirk Michael beach. Also on the Headlands is the park which has swings, climbing frames and exercise machines installed into it.
The Raad ny Foillan long distance coastal footpath opened in 1986 runs along the coast through Peel.
Astronomy
Peel Castle/St Patrick's Isle is a Dark Skies astronomy site, meaning that there are low levels of light pollution, so that fainter night sky features such as the Milky Way may be seen on a clear night. Peel Head has been used as a vantage point for viewing the Northern Lights when conditions are favourable, as it has a clear and elevated view to the Northern horizon. Peel is well known for sunsets over the sea (hence its moniker "Sunset City"): sometimes these outline the Mourne Mountains in Northern Ireland, directly to the west of Peel.
Wildlife
The seas by Peel are home to basking sharks in early summer. These sharks are seen occasionally from the land and more often from boats. Seals are often to be found around the breakwater by the castle. A variety of seabirds live and feed around the harbour, castle and headland.
Religion
Peel Cathedral (the Cathedral Church of St German), built in 1884, became a cathedral in 1980. It is the cathedral church for the Anglican diocese of Sodor and Man and is located in the centre of the town. Just outside the cathedral are stone reproductions of a few of the many medieval Manx Celtic and Norse crosses. One of these is Thorwald's Cross which shows symbolism of both Christianity and the Norse myths. Another has runes down the side.
The ruins of the original Peel Cathedral (c. 1250) can be seen within the walls of Peel Castle on St Patrick's Isle. This replaced an earlier church.
Before Peel Castle was built on St Patrick's Isle, there was an early Celtic Christian religious community. Excavations in the 1980s found a large early Christian burial ground, many of the burials dating from around 550. Some later graves had Norse burial goods: e.g. the Pagan Lady.
Peel Elim Community Church holds meetings at the Philip Christian Centre.
Grace Baptist Church, founded in 1974 as an outreach of the Grace Baptist Church in Onchan, is located in the former Peel Mathematical School building. It was purchased in 1984 and renovated in 1997, and is listed as a "heritage building".
Peel Methodist Church is located in Athol Street. There have been a number of Methodist chapels in Peel. The first one was Shore Road Wesley Methodist Chapel, built in 1777. It was used as a fishing-net factory between the 1850s and 1870s, and is now the Peel Youth Centre. A Primitive Methodist Chapel was built on Kirk Michael Street in 1835. It became a public hall when the Christian Street Chapel opened and is now used, after much redevelopment, as a showroom. Peel Centenary Wesley Methodist Chapel was built in 1839 on Athol Street. Peel Primitive Methodist Chapel, built in 1878, has now been converted into flats. The organ is now in Jurby parish church. The Isle of Man Christian Fellowship are based at the Philip Christian Centre on Christian Street. St Patrick's Roman Catholic Church is on Patrick Street.
There is also another Evangelical church in Peel named Living Hope which is now held in QE2 High School. It was formerly (until mid 2011) held in the Philip Christian Centre.
Education
The local secondary school is Queen Elizabeth II High School, which is on Douglas Road at the eastern edge of the town. It was opened on 5 July 1979 by Queen Elizabeth II, during her visit to the island to celebrate the millennium of Tynwald, and since then has grown to about 850 pupils with about 50 staff. The school is one of five main schools in the Island, the others being Ramsey Grammar School, St Ninians High School, Castle Rushen High School and Ballakermeen High School.
Peel Clothworkers' School is a primary school on Derby Road, which was founded in the 17th century after Philip Christian, a successful expatriate Peel businessman, bequeathed a sum of money in his will to provide for the education of the children in Peel. After changing sites in the town a number of times, as it grew and developed, it finally moved to Derby Road after World War II and officially opened there in 1953. It is the third largest primary school in the Isle of Man. On 23 April 2008 new £3.3m facilities at the school were officially opened. New dining/assembly hall, kitchen, reception/office complex, meeting room, library, special needs unit, ICT suite had all opened in June 2007, while a refurbished sports hall, staff facilities, two more classrooms and a permanent nursery were added in 2008.
Christian's Endowed National School was built in 1860. It was closed for some time in the mid-20th century before it was refurbished and became the Philip Christian Centre, and a registered building.
House of Keys Elections
This list is incomplete.
The Peel constituency was amalgamated with Glenfaba for the 22 September 2016 general election to form the constituency of Glenfaba & Peel.
Notable people
Betty Hanson (1918 in Peel – 2008 in Douglas) was a Manx politician and teacher.
Stewart Stevenson Moore QC (1860 in Peel – 1951 in Chelsea, London) was a Manx lawyer, who was the First Deemster and Clerk of the Rolls in the Isle of Man.
Sophia Morrison (1859 in Peel – 1917 in Peel) was a Manx cultural activist, folklore collector and author.
Bernard Moffatt (born in Peel 1946) Founder member of Mec Vannin, the Manx Nationalist Party and Trade Union official.
James Teare (1872 in Peel – 1909) was a Manx merchant navy officer who served on numerous Isle of Man Steam Packet Company vessels. Capt. Teare is best known as the Master of the RMS Ellan Vannin on her ill-fated voyage from Ramsey, Isle of Man to Liverpool on 3 December 1909.
James Kewley Ward (1819 in Peel – 1910 in Westmount, Quebec) was a Canadian lumber merchant and politician, educated at May's Academy in Douglas, Isle of Man, he emigrated to the United States in 1842.
In popular culture
Govags or gobbags, among other spellings, was a word used by Peel people to describe others, but nowadays more often used by others to refer to people from Peel (see Manx English#Manx loanwords and Lesson 2 - Where do you live? | Learn Manx)
References
Other sources
Ingram, Michael (1983) Voyage of Odin's Raven (Clearwater)
External links
Peel 2011: a photographic project - over 130 Peel businesses and organisations recorded in July 2011
Peel Heritage Trust website
Viking Festival website
House of Manannan website
‘Odin’s Raven’ Viking ship display
Towns in the Isle of Man
Ports and harbours of the Isle of Man
Constituencies of the Isle of Man
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antanas%20Smetona
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Antanas Smetona
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Antanas Smetona (; 10 August 1874 – 9 January 1944) was a Lithuanian intellectual, journalist and the first President of Lithuania from 1919 to 1920 and again from 1926 to 1940, before its occupation by the Soviet Union. In the second of these periods, he ruled as a dictator. He was one of the most important Lithuanian political figures between World War I and World War II, and was one of the most prominent ideologists of nationalism in Lithuania.
Early life and education
Smetona was born on in the village of Užulėnis, Kovno Governorate, Russian Empire, to a family of farmers, Jonas Smetona and Julijona Kartanaitė – former serfs of the Taujėnai Manor, which belonged to the Radziwiłł family. Researcher Kazimieras Gasparavičius has traced Smetona's patrilineal ancestry to Laurentijus who was born around 1695 and lived near Raguva. Smetona was the eighth of nine children. His parents were hardworking people who managed to double their inherited . His father was literate and Smetona learned to read at home.
His father died in 1885 when Smetona was only 11 years old and, despite financial difficulties, a year later Smetona – the only of his siblings – was sent to the primary school in Taujėnai where instruction was in Russian due to the Lithuanian press ban. This was his dying father's request. His mother hoped that Smetona would become a priest. After graduation in 1889, Smetona wanted to continue his education, but gymnasiums admitted pupils only up to the age of 12 and he was already 15 years old. Therefore, he was forced to study privately in Ukmergė in order to catch up and be able to pass examinations to enter the fourth class of gymnasium. In summer 1891, he attempted to gain admission to the Liepāja Gymnasium as his brother Motiejus worked in a factory in Liepāja. He was refused and instead applied to the Palanga Pro-Gymnasium, which had no age restrictions. Smetona was an exemplary student (one of the top two students) and received a tuition waiver. As a superintendent of a student dormitory, he also received free housing and was able to support himself by providing private lessons. Three other future signatories of the Act of Independence of Lithuania attended the Pro-Gymnasium at the same time: Steponas Kairys, Jurgis Šaulys, and Kazimieras Steponas Šaulys. As Palanga was close to East Prussia, it was easier to obtain Lithuanian literature, which was banned by the Tsarist authorities. Smetona began reading Lithuanian periodicals and books, including a history of Lithuania by Maironis.
After graduation in 1893, according to his family's wishes, he passed his entrance examinations for the Samogitian Diocesan Seminary in Kaunas. However, he felt no great calling for priesthood and enrolled at the Jelgava Gymnasium in Latvia. This was a cultural hub of the Lithuanian National Revival and attracted many future leaders in Lithuanian culture and politics, including Juozas Tūbelis and Vladas Mironas who later became Smetona's political companions. In particular, Lithuanian language and culture was openly promoted by the linguist, Jonas Jablonskis, teacher of Greek, with whom Smetona developed a close professional relationship. Jablonskis visited Smetona's native village collecting data on Lithuanian dialects. Smetona met his future wife, Sofija Chodakauskaitė, through Jablonskis who recommended him as tutor for her brother.
In autumn 1896, the administration of the Jelgava Gymnasium forced the Lithuanian students to recite their prayers in Russian while Latvian and German students were allowed to use their native languages. Smetona and other students refused and were expelled. Most later agreed to pray in Russian and were re-admitted, but a handful who refused were prohibited from attending any other school. The students sent petitions to Pope Leo XIII and Ivan Delyanov, Minister of National Education. Smetona and two others, and Petras Vaiciuška, managed to secure an audience with Delyanov who allowed the Lithuanians to pray in Latin and the expelled students to continue their education. Smetona did not return to Jelgava and finished up at Gymnasium No. 9 in Saint Petersburg.
Upon graduation in 1897, Smetona entered the faculty of law of the University of Saint Petersburg. He was more interested in history and languages, but knew that as a Catholic his choices were limited to priest, lawyer, or doctor if he wanted to work in Lithuania. Saint Petersburg, with a direct railway connection to Lithuania, was becoming a Lithuanian cultural center. Smetona joined and chaired a secret Lithuanian student organization; he was later succeeded by Steponas Kairys. He also joined a Lithuanian choir led by Česlovas Sasnauskas, organist at the Church of St. Catherine. Smetona was exposed to socialist ideas and even read Marx's Capital, but resolutely rejected them. He was expelled from the university, imprisoned for two weeks, and deported to Vilnius for participating in the February 1899 student protests. It was the first time Smetona visited the city, the historical capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and it left a deep impression on him. A month later, he was allowed to return to the university.
In 1898, Smetona and his roommate, , using a mimeograph printed about 100 copies of a brief Lithuanian grammar written by Petras Avižonis based on the German-language writings of Friedrich Kurschat. This grammar was insufficient for Lithuanian needs and in summer 1900 Jonas Jablonskis set out to work on his Lithuanian grammar. He was assisted by Avižonis, Žemaitė, and Smetona, though Smetona mostly edited works of Bishop Motiejus Valančius. The grammar was published in 1901 and became a fundamental work in establishing the standard Lithuanian language. In early 1902, the police began investigating a network of Lithuanian book smugglers and raided Smetona's room where they found several prohibited Lithuanian publications. He was imprisoned in the Vyborg Castle, but managed to secure acquittal and graduate that spring.
Early activities
After his graduation from the university in 1902, he moved to Vilnius and worked at the Vilnius Land Bank until 1915. He became an active participant in Lithuanian cultural life and, up until becoming president in December 1926, devoted substantial amounts of time and effort to the Lithuanian press. Two years later, he married Sofija Chodakauskaitė in the Church of St. Raphael the Archangel in Vilnius.
From his very first days in Vilnius, Smetona became involved in the activities of various Lithuanian nationalist groups, and joined the Lithuanian Democratic Party, which he represented in the Great Seimas of Vilnius. He was later elected to its Presidium. In 1904 and 1907, he was on the staff of the Lithuanian newspaper, Vilniaus žinios (The Vilnius News). In 1905–1906, he edited the weekly Lietuvos ūkininkas (The Lithuanian Farmer). In 1907, Smetona and the Rev. Juozas Tumas-Vaižgantas established a venture to print the newspaper Viltis (The Hope), and started publishing and circulating it. In Viltis, Smetona advocated national unity. He was also one of the incorporators of the Aušra (Dawn) company for the publishing of Lithuanian books, a member of the Lithuanian Mutual Aid Society of Vilnius, the Lithuanian Learned Society, the Vilniaus aušra (The Dawn of Vilnius), and Rytas (The Morning) education societies, the Rūta Art Society and many other societies, and taught the Lithuanian language at Vilnius schools. In 1914, he started publishing Vairas (The Rudder), a new bi-weekly magazine.
Politics
During the First World War, he was the first vice-chairman, and later chairman, of the Central Committee of the Lithuanian Society for the Relief of War Sufferers. In the summer of 1916, Antanas Smetona, together with other Lithuanians from Vilnius, presented a memorandum to the German Commander-in-Chief of the Eastern Front, in which they demanded the right of the Lithuanian nation to have an independent State. On 6 September 1917, he started printing the newspaper, Lietuvos Aidas (Lithuania's Echo), working as its publisher and its editor-in-chief. In the first issue of the newspaper, Smetona wrote that the most important goal of the Lithuanian nation was the re-establishment of an independent Lithuanian state.
Between 18 and 22 September 1917, he participated in the Lithuanian Conference in Vilnius, and was elected chairman (1917–1919) of the Council of Lithuania (later Council of the State). On 16 February 1918, Antanas Smetona signed the Act of Independence of Lithuania.
Between December 1918 and March 1919, he lived primarily in Germany and the Scandinavian countries, soliciting loans for the cause of Lithuanian independence. On 4 April 1919, the State Council of Lithuania elected Smetona the first president of the Republic of Lithuania. On 19 April 1920, the Constituent Assembly elected Aleksandras Stulginskis President. Not re-elected to Seimas, from 1921 to 1924, he edited several periodicals, including Lietuvos balsas (Voice of Lithuania), Lietuviškas balsas (Lithuanian Voice) and Vairas.
After the Klaipėda Revolt of January 1923, in the Memelland, which had been separated from Germany, he was made commissioner there on 20 February, but, due to disagreements with Prime Minister Ernestas Galvanauskas, he resigned from his post.
In November 1923, authorities imprisoned Smetona for several days for publishing an article by Augustinas Voldemaras in Vairas. Between 1923 and 1927, he was an assistant professor at the University of Lithuania – at first in the chair of art theory and history and later at the department of philosophy. He lectured on ethics, ancient philosophy and Lithuanian linguistics. In 1932, he was awarded an honorary Ph.D. at the Vytautas Magnus University.
Smetona participated in the activity of the Lithuanian Riflemen's Union that had staged the Klaipėda Revolt, which gave him greater name-recognition. More than once, he was elected to its central board. Between 1924 and 1940, he was the vice-chairman of the board of the International Bank.
Authoritarian president
Smetona was one of the leaders of the coup d'état of 1926, which deposed President Kazys Grinius. He once again became president on 19 December of that year (two others briefly held the office during the coup, which began on 17 December, before Smetona was formally restored to the presidency). He designated Augustinas Voldemaras as prime minister. One year later, he suppressed the parliament and, on 15 May 1928, with the approval of the government, he promulgated a new constitution with more extensive presidential powers. In 1929, he removed Voldemaras and assumed dictatorial powers. He was re-elected President in 1931 and 1938, both times as the only candidate. He remained in office until 15 June 1940.
Smetona's constitution vested the president with both executive and legislative powers when the Seimas was not in session. The Seimas was not reconvened until 1936; for the next decade, Smetona ruled by decree, without a parliament, making his regime on paper one of the most arbitrary in the world. Even when the Seimas was reconvened, it was composed entirely of Smetona's adherents; Smetona thus effectively retained all governing power in the nation. In 1938, a third constitution was enacted that retained the general authoritarian character of the 1928 document, and declared that political power in the state was "indivisible."
The regime repeatedly arrested and imprisoned members of the already-banned Communist Party – as with almost all interwar European dictatorships, the claimed threat of Communism was the source of its legitimacy and the regime executed the original leadership five days after coming to power. However, despite propaganda that Communists were a "non-Lithuanian force invading the country", they continued to operate underground with growing membership and it is known today that their leaders were ethnically Lithuanian.
In 1935, Smetona suffered a blow when farmers in south-east Lithuania organised a strike and refused to sell their products. Reprisals led to five deaths and 456 farmers being arrested. This exacerbated long-standing tensions within his regime between hardliners arguing for more rigid authoritarian control over Lithuanian life, and moderates who wanted liberalisation. These difficulties, however, were already becoming overshadowed by the threat of Nazi Germany. Smetona's regime was the first in Europe to put Nazis on trial: as early as 8 February 1934, action had begun against Nazis in the Memel region, which was autonomous within Lithuania. The Smetona regime's trial of Ernst Neumann and Freiherr von Sass (July 1934 to March 1935) was the first attempt anywhere to bring Nazis to justice, and saw 76 Hitlerites imprisoned and four sentenced to death – though this was commuted to life imprisonment. By 1938, however, Memel was becoming a difficult issue for a regime spending a quarter of its budget on defence and expensive army modernisation, and the Nazis were able to win 26 of 29 seats in elections. The following year, Smetona surrendered Memel to Hitler and declared a state of emergency – he never lost his distaste for Hitler and Nazism, having been so discredited by the loss of Memel that members of the Lithuanian political opposition were appointed to his cabinet to try recovering credibility and domestic stability.
Smetona's government was cautious about industrialisation, as its support base lay in the dominant rural population. As dictator, Smetona did nothing to encourage direct foreign investment, which remained extremely limited throughout his rule. Nonetheless, during Smetona's dictatorship, Lithuania did advance economically: industrial output – mainly directed to domestic demand – when he was overthrown by the Soviet invasion was twice what it had been before the coup that brought him to power, and the country's transport network had been greatly improved by the construction of railways from Šiauliai to Klaipėda and from Kaunas to the south and north-east. In contrast, Smetona was more generous in support for the agricultural sector, which at the time provided almost all of Lithuania's exports despite occasionally protesting against the regime.
Soviet occupation
Lithuania was occupied by Soviet troops in 1940, as a consequence of the 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. After the USSR presented an ultimatum to Lithuania in June of that year, Smetona proposed armed resistance against the Soviets. The majority of the government and the commanders of the army did not concur, believing that the country was not capable of effective resistance with Soviet troops stationed inside Lithuania. On 15 June, Smetona turned his presidential duties to Prime Minister Antanas Merkys on an interim basis according to the constitution. Before leaving the Presidential Palace in Kaunas, Smetona said: "I do not want to make Lithuania a bolshevik country with my own hands." He believed that by leaving the country, he would be in a position to do more for the country's sake by leading a government in exile instead of becoming a Soviet marionette. He firstly fled to Germany with his family. Shortly afterwards, the Smetonas fled to Switzerland.
A day after Smetona left the country, Merkys announced he had deposed Smetona and was now president in his own right. Two days later, Merkys was pressured into appointing the more pliant Justas Paleckis as prime minister and resigning himself. Paleckis then became acting president, and was used as a puppet to oversee the final stages of Lithuania being incorporated into the Soviet Union a month later.
Since Lithuania declared independence from the Soviet Union in 1990, it has taken the position that Merkys' takeover of the presidency was illegal and unconstitutional, since Smetona never formally resigned. Lithuanian officials thus do not recognize Merkys or Paleckis as legitimate presidents, and contend that all subsequent actions leading up to the Soviet annexation were ipso facto void.
Flight abroad
On the morning of 15 June, just after the government decided to accept the Soviet ultimatum, Smetona began making hasty preparations for fleeing the country. He was accompanied by his wife, his son and daughter and their spouses and children, Kazys Musteikis, former Minister of Defense, and two presidential adjutants. Smetona departed Kaunas at about 3 pm that day. They stopped in Kybartai on the border with Nazi Germany. Smetona and Musteikis attempted to summon the 9th Infantry Regiment from Marijampolė to protect them and to offer at least symbolic resistance to the Red Army, but the regiment was stopped by a delegation sent from Kaunas to retrieve the president. Smetona decided to cross the border without delay, but Lithuanian border guards would not allow him to pass. Around midnight, a local man led Smetona, his bodyguard and adjutant across the shallow Liepona stream. With Smetona already on the other side, his family managed to convince border guards to let them through at about 6 am.
On the German side, Smetona was met by , a Gestapo officer. Via Königsberg, the refugees were moved to a hunting lodge near the (Schwenzait) lake in the Masurian Lake District. On 17 August, Smetona received permission to relocate to Berlin, where he settled on the . There, he was carefully supervised and allowed to communicate only with a Lithuanian representative, Kazys Škirpa. The Germans did not allow him to make any political moves so as not to upset the Soviet Union. It was clear that Smetona's presence was not desirable. On 4 September, Smetona officially petitioned the Embassy of the United States in Berlin for U.S. visas. The request was granted, but only on the condition that, while Smetona was in the U.S., he would not be considered the leader or representative of any state or government. It was a humiliating condition, but Smetona accepted it and departed to Bern, Switzerland on 18 September. Musteikis stayed in Berlin.
In Bern, Smetona met with members of the Lithuanian Diplomatic Service, ambassadors and diplomats who continued to represent pre-occupation Lithuania. They hoped to establish a government-in-exile via the National Committee chaired by former prime minister Ernestas Galvanauskas. Smetona saw no need for such a committee and criticized the choice of Galvanauskas. The diplomats were also not receptive to Smetona – he had no funds, authority or political influence. Nevertheless, Smetona signed the so-called Kybartai Act – a backdated document supposedly written in Kybartai before his exile. The Act dismissed Antanas Merkys and appointed Stasys Lozoraitis as both prime minister and acting president. This controversial document was never used in practice.
Smetona departed Bern for Lisbon in January 1941. He stayed in Monte Estoril, at the Pensão Zenith. He left for Brazil aboard the Serpa Pinto, arriving in Rio de Janeiro on 14 February. He was met by local officials and Lithuanian emigrants, and had a meeting with Getúlio Vargas, the president of Brazil. Smetona departed Brazil on 26 February. On 9 or 10 March 1941, Smetona with his wife arrived in New York aboard the SS Argentina. He was greeted by about 30 American journalists and photographers as well as Lithuanian-American representatives. He was escorted to The Pierre hotel, where an evening function with about 400 guests was held on 13 March. Since Smetona was a private individual in the United States, the gathering did not include any members of U.S. organizations.
They lived temporarily at the Embassy of Lithuania in Washington, D.C., but their relationship with the representative Povilas Žadeikis was tense. Smetona then lived in Pittsburgh and Chicago before settling in Cleveland, Ohio in May 1942 with his son's family. While in exile, he began work on a history of Lithuania and on his memoirs.
Death and burial
As Smetona was busy on his writing, he paid little attention to the fact that the heating system in his son's house needed repair and was becoming dangerous. On October 28, 1943, Smetona wrote: The night before yesterday coal fumes made me dizzy. I could not think clearly. Now I have completely recovered.On January 9, 1944, a fire broke out in the house. Smetona's son Julius noticed the fire while on the first floor. Above him, in the attic suite, Smetona and his wife Sofija spotted the smoke seeping in under the door. Sofija opened the door and she and Smetona began descending the stairs. Sofija, choking from the smoke and flames, stopped when she realized her husband was not with her. Smetona, apparently deciding that he could not go outside without a coat – for he was recovering from the flu and was to give a talk in the coming weeks – without saying anything to his wife, returned to get a fur coat. It took just a few minutes for him to be overcome by the smoke. Julius tried to return into the burning building to save his father but was forced out by the smoke and fire. Smetona was found lying on the kitchen floor on the second floor of Julius' flat. He was not burned.
Firefighters took Smetona outside and he was rushed to hospital by ambulance. He died before arriving.
The official record stated that the fire was caused by an overheated furnace. Some believe, however, that due to Smetona's continued political activities, the fire was started by the Russian Intelligence Service (the NKGB at the time). With no evidence turning up in the subsequent years to substantiate that claim, it is, however, doubtful.
On January 13, 1944, the funeral of President Smetona took place at Cleveland's Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist. Bishop Edward F. Hoban officiated. Smetona was buried at Calvary Cemetery in Cleveland.
His wife Sofija died in Cleveland on December 28, 1968.
The couple were survived by their daughter, Marija Danutė Smetonaitė (1905–1992), son Julius Rimgaudas Smetona (1913–1974) and Julius' sons, Anthony Algirdas Smetona (1939–2012), Juozas Smetona (1940–1996) and Vytautas Julius Smetona (born 1955).
In 1975, Smetona's remains were moved from Cleveland's Knollwood Cemetery mausoleum to a crypt (No. 103) next to his wife Sofija in Section 23 of All Souls Cemetery in Chardon, Ohio.
See also
List of Lithuanian rulers
Konstantin Päts
Kārlis Ulmanis
European interwar dictatorships
References
Bibliography
External links
1874 births
1944 deaths
People from Ukmergė District Municipality
People from Vilkomirsky Uyezd
Lithuanian Roman Catholics
Lithuanian Democratic Party politicians
Party of National Progress politicians
Lithuanian Nationalist Union politicians
Presidents of Lithuania
Members of the Council of Lithuania
Lithuanian independence activists
Leaders who took power by coup
Lithuanian jurists
Lithuanian writers
Saint Petersburg State University alumni
Lithuanian people of World War II
World War II political leaders
Lithuanian emigrants to the United States
Lithuanian exiles
Lithuanian nationalists
Exiled politicians
Lithuanian-American culture in Ohio
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Cross of Vytis
Recipients of the Order of the White Lion
Accidental deaths in Ohio
Deaths from fire in the United States
Burials in Ohio
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatian%20Parliament
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Croatian Parliament
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The Croatian Parliament () or the Sabor is the unicameral legislature of the Republic of Croatia. Under the terms of the Croatian Constitution, the Sabor represents the people and is vested with legislative power. The Sabor is composed of 151 members elected to a four-year term on the basis of direct, universal and equal suffrage by secret ballot. Seats are allocated according to the Croatian Parliament electoral districts: 140 members of the parliament are elected in multi-seat constituencies. An additional three seats are reserved for the diaspora and Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina, while national minorities have eight places reserved in parliament. The Sabor is presided over by a Speaker, who is assisted by at least one deputy speaker (usually four or five deputies).
The Sabor's powers are defined by the Constitution and they include: defining economic, legal and political relations in Croatia, preservation and use of its heritage and entering into alliances. The Sabor has the right to deploy the Croatian Armed Forces abroad, and it may restrict some constitutional rights and liberties in wartime or in cases of imminent war or following natural disasters. The Sabor amends the borders of Croatia or the Constitution, enacts legislation, passes the state budget, declares war and decides on cessation of hostilities, adopts parliamentary resolutions and bylaws, adopts long-term national security and defence strategies, implements civil supervision of the armed forces and security services, calls referendums, performs elections and appointments conforming to the constitution and applicable legislation, supervises operations of the Government and other civil services responsible to the parliament, grants amnesty for criminal offences and performs other duties defined by the constitution.
The oldest Sabor with extant records was held in Zagreb on 19 April 1273. This was the Sabor of Slavonia, and not of Croatia and Dalmatia. The earliest Sabor of the Kingdom of Croatia and Dalmatia dates to 1351. The Parliament session held in 1527 in Cetin affirmed the House of Habsburg as Croatian rulers. After this, the Sabor became a regular gathering of the nobility, and its official title gradually stabilised by 1558 as the Parliament of the Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia. Since 1681, it has been formally called the Diet of the Kingdom of Croatia, Dalmatia and Slavonia. In 1712, the Sabor once again invoked its prerogative to select the ruler, supporting what later became the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713. Since the mid-1800s, the Sabor has regularly met and its members have been regularly elected. Exercising its sovereignty once again on 29 October 1918, the Sabor decided on independence from Austria-Hungary and formation of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs which later joined the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The Sabor did not meet between 1918 and 1945, except for an unelected Sabor convened in 1942. The Sabor initially reconvened as an assembly of State Anti-fascist Council for the National Liberation of Croatia (ZAVNOH) in 1943 and evolved since through various structures following the November 1945 elections and several changes of the constitution. After the first multi-party elections since Communist rule and the adoption of the 1990 constitution, the Sabor was bicameral (Chamber of Representatives and Chamber of Counties) until 2001, when constitutional amendments changed it to the unicameral form currently used.
Historical background
The Sabor, in its various forms, has represented the identity and opinions of Croats from the diets of the 9th century nobility to the modern parliament. The oldest Sabor whose records are preserved was held in Zagreb on 19 April 1273 as the Congregatio Regni totius Sclavonie generalis or Universitas nobilium Regni Sclavoniae (General diet of the entire kingdom of Slavonia or Community of the nobility of the kingdom of Slavonia). Its decisions had legislative power. The 1527 Parliament decision was a decisive event of fundamental importance for the extension and confirmation of Croatian statehood, as described by the Constitution of Croatia. The parliament freely chose Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg as the new ruler of Croatia, after centuries of Croatian personal union with Hungary. Following the entry into the Habsburg Monarchy, the Sabor became a regular noble diet, and its official title gradually stabilised by 1558 to the Parliament of the Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia. Since 1681 it has been formally styled as the Congregatio Regnorum Croatiae, Dalmatiae et Slavoniae or Generalis Congregatio dominorum statuum et ordinum Regni (Diet of the Kingdom of Croatia, Dalmatia and Slavonia or General Diet of the Estates of the Realm). In 1712, the Sabor once again invoked its prerogative to select the ruler, supporting what later became the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 and electing Maria Theresa of Austria as monarch. This event is also specified by the Constitution of Croatia as a part of the foundation of unbroken Croatian statehood from the Middle Ages to the present.
In 1848, first modern Diet with the elected representatives was summoned (even high nobility and high dignitaries of the Catholic and Orthodox church remained ex officio members). The Sabor operated as the legislative authority during the existence of the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia (1848/1868 – 1918). The events of 1848 in Europe and in the Austrian Empire represent a watershed in Croatian society and politics, given their linkage to the Croatian national revival that strongly influenced and significantly shaped political and social events in Croatia from that point onwards to the end of the 20th century. At the time, the Sabor advocated the implicit severance of ties with the Kingdom of Hungary, emphasizing links to other South Slavic lands within the empire. A period of neo-absolutism was followed by the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and Croatian–Hungarian Settlement, recognizing the limited independence of Croatia, together with reinvigorated claims of uninterrupted Croatian statehood. Two political parties that evolved in the 1860s and contributed significantly to this sentiment were the Party of Rights (1861–1929) and the People's Party. They were opposed by the National Constitutional Party that was in power for most of the period between the 1860s and 1918, which advocated closer ties between Croatia and Hungary. Another significant party formed in this era was the Serb People's Independent Party, which would later form the Croat-Serb Coalition with the Party of Rights and other Croat and Serb parties. This Coalition ruled Croatia between 1903 and 1918. The Croatian Peasant Party (HSS), established in 1904 and led by Stjepan Radić, advocated Croatian autonomy but achieved only moderate gains by 1918. In the Kingdom of Dalmatia, two major parties were the People's Party, a branch of the People's Party active in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, and the Autonomist Party, which advocated maintaining the autonomy of Dalmatia, opposing the People's Party's demands for unifying Croatia-Slavonia and Dalmatia. The Autonomist Party was also linked to Italian irredentism.
By the 1900s, the Party of Rights also made electoral gains in Dalmatia. In Dalmatia, the Autonomists won the first three elections held there in 1861, 1864 and 1867, while those from 1870 to 1908 were won by the People's Party. In 1861–1918, there were 17 elections in Croatia-Slavonia and 10 in Dalmatia.
Exercising its sovereignty once again on 29 October 1918, the Sabor decided on independence from Austria-Hungary and formation of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. The council of the newly established state voted to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes; however, the Sabor never confirmed that decision. The 1921 constitution defining the new kingdom as a unitary state, and the abolition of historical administrative divisions, effectively ended Croatian autonomy for the time and the Sabor did not convene until the 1940s. The Cvetković–Maček Agreement of August 1939 established the autonomous Province of Croatia, or Banovina of Croatia, in which the Yugoslav government retained control of defence, internal security, foreign affairs, trade, and transport, while other matters were left to the Croatian Sabor and a crown-appointed ban (Viceroy or governor). Before any elections were held, the establishment was made obsolete with the beginning of World War II and the establishment of the Independent State of Croatia which banned all political opposition. In 1942, three sessions of an unelected Sabor were held in the Independent State of Croatia; these were held between 23 February and 28 December 1942, when it was formally dissolved. The assembly had no real power as the state was under the direct rule of (the fascist) Ante Pavelić.
The post-World War II Sabor developed from the National Anti-fascist Council of the People's Liberation of Croatia (ZAVNOH), formed in 1943. In 1945, ZAVNOH transformed itself into the National Sabor of Croatia, preserving the continuity of Croatian sovereignty. After the war, the Communists ran unopposed in the 1945 elections; all opposition parties boycotted the elections due to coercion and intimidation by the OZNA secret police and the Communist Party, aimed at eliminating electoral dissent. Once in power, the Communists introduced a single-party political system, with the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (from 1952 the League of Communists of Yugoslavia) as the ruling party and the Communist Party of Croatia (from 1952 the League of Communists of Croatia) as a branch party. In January 1990, the Communist Party fragmented along national lines, with the Croatian faction demanding a looser federation.
During Communist rule, the Sabor went from a unicameral parliament as specified by the 1947 constitution, to bicameral in 1953, changing again in 1963 to as many as five chambers and then to three in 1974. The constitutional amendments of 1971 established the Presidency of the Sabor, and one of its functions became representing Croatia, as the Yugoslav constituent republics were essentially viewed as nation-states generally surrendering only their foreign and defence policies to the federation; the federal bodies were no longer independent of, but instead formed by, the republics (after 1974 constitution, this role was taken by newly formed Presidency of the Republic elected by the Sabor).
The first political party founded in Croatia since the beginning of the Communist rule was the Croatian Social Liberal Party (HSLS), established on 20 May 1989, followed by the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) on 17 June 1989. In December, Ivica Račan became the head of the reformed Communist party. At this time, the Communist party decided to cancel political trials, release political prisoners and endorse a multi-party political system. The Civil Organisations Act was formally amended to allow multiple political parties on 11 January 1990, legalising the new parties. By the time of the first round of the first multi-party elections, held on 22 April 1990, there were 33 registered parties. There were single-seat constituencies for half of the seats and a single nationwide constituency (through election lists) for the remaining seats. Still, the most relevant parties and coalitions were the renamed Communist party (the League of Communists of Croatia — Party of Democratic Changes), the HDZ and the Coalition of People's Accord (KNS), which included the HSLS, led by Dražen Budiša, and the HSS, which resumed operating in Croatia in December 1989. The runoff election, open to any candidate receiving at least 7% of the vote, was held on 6 May 1990. The HDZ led by Franjo Tuđman won ahead of the reformed Communists and the KNS. The KNS, led by the former leaders of the Croatian Spring (Savka Dabčević-Kučar and Miko Tripalo), soon splintered into individual parties. On 8 October 1991, Croatia's declaration of independence took effect. The HDZ maintained a parliamentary majority until the 2000 parliamentary elections when it was defeated by the SDP led by Račan. The HDZ returned to power in the 2003 elections, while the SDP remained the largest opposition party.
Parliamentary powers
The Parliament represents the citizens of the Republic of Croatia; it acts as the country's legislature. It convenes regularly in two sessions each year, from 15 January to 15 July and from 15 September to 15 December; however, extraordinary sessions may be called by the President of Croatia, the government of Croatia or a majority of the parliamentary members. The sessions are open to the public. The parliament decides through simple majority votes, except in issues pertaining to (constitutionally recognised) ethnic minorities in Croatia, the constitution, electoral legislation, the scope and operational methods of governmental bodies and local government; in these cases, decisions are made by two-thirds majority votes. The parliament may authorise the government to enact regulations dealing with matters normally covered by parliamentary acts. Such regulations expire one year after the authorisation is issued. The authorisation does not apply to matters that must be decided upon by a parliamentary two-thirds vote. Legislation enacted by the parliament is either endorsed by the President of Croatia within eight days or referred to the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Croatia.
The members are granted parliamentary immunity; their criminal prosecution is possible only after parliamentary consent, except for crimes with five or more years of imprisonment mandated. The parliament may appoint investigative commissions for any matter of public interest.
The Croatian parliament's powers are defined by the Constitution of Croatia. These include: defining economic, legal and political relations in the Republic of Croatia; preservation of Croatia's natural and cultural heritage and its utilisation; and forming alliances with other states. The parliament has the right to deploy Croatian Armed Forces abroad. It may also restrict constitutional rights and liberties in wartime or in cases of imminent war or following natural disasters, although that constitutional provision is limited to specific rights—right to life, prohibition of torture, cruel or denigrating conduct or punishment, upholding of habeas corpus and freedoms of thought, conscience and religious views. In addition, in those circumstances parliamentary members' terms may be extended. (As these rights are defined by the constitution, the decision would require a two-thirds majority. Since Croatia never declared a state of war during the breakup of Yugoslavia, this option has not been exercised in practice.) The parliament reserves the right to amend the borders of Croatia. The parliament decides on constitutional amendments, enacts legislation, passes the state budget, declares war and decides on the cessation of hostilities, adopts declarations of policy of the parliament, adopts national defence strategy, representing a long-term defence resource planning document, and national defence strategy, which defines bases for establishment and implementation of institutions, measures and activities in response to general security issues and specific challenges and threats to Croatia, implements civil supervision of the armed forces and security services, calls referendums, performs elections and appointments conforming to the constitution and applicable legislation, supervises operations of the government (headed by the Prime Minister of Croatia) and other civil services responsible to the parliament, grants amnesty for criminal offences and performs various other duties defined by the constitution. Becoming the Prime Minister of Croatia requires majority support in the parliament.
The Government is responsible to the parliament; some other institutions, such as the Croatian National Bank and the State Audit Office, also report directly to the parliament. The parliament appoints an ombudsman to promote and protect human rights and liberties established by the constitution, parliamentary legislation and treaties adopted by Croatia. The ombudsman is appointed for an eight-year term; the ombudsman's work is independent. The ombudsman, as well as all other persons authorised to act on behalf of the parliament, is granted parliamentary immunity equal to that enjoyed by parliamentary members.
Speaker of the Parliament
The members of the parliament elect the Speaker of the Parliament and one or more deputy speakers by a simple majority vote.
Since the first multi-party elections held after the start of Communist rule, there have been eight speakers of the parliament; the first five, executing the office until constitutional amendments in March 2001, were also speakers of the Chamber of Deputies (since the parliament was bicameral at the time). As of 28 December 2015, Željko Reiner (HDZ) is the tenth Speaker of the Sabor. There are five deputy speakers in the current parliament: Ante Sanader (HDZ), Rajko Ostojić (SDP), Željko Reiner (HDZ), Davorko Vidović (Ind.) and Furio Radin (Ind.).
The speaker of the parliament becomes the acting President of the Republic in the event of the death, resignation or incapacitation of the President of Croatia, as specified by the constitution. This situation occurred after the death of Franjo Tuđman in 1999, when Vlatko Pavletić became the acting president. After the 2000 parliamentary elections, the role was transferred to Zlatko Tomčić, who filled the office until Stjepan Mesić was elected President of Croatia in 2000.
Composition
The Constitution of Croatia mandates that the parliament consists of at least 100 members and no more than 160 members, elected by a direct secret ballot for four-year terms. Parliamentary elections are held within 60 days following the term's expiration or parliamentary dissolution (the latter takes place with a parliamentary no-confidence vote or if the parliament fails to approve a state budget within 120 days after the government submits one for approval), and a new parliament must convene within 20 days after the elections.
As specified by the current electoral legislation in Croatia, 140 members of the Parliament are elected in multi-seat constituencies, up to 3 members are chosen by proportional representation to represent Croatian citizens residing abroad and 8 members represent ethnic and national communities or minorities (including "undeclared", "unknown", or otherwise other than constitutionally recognized groups).
The model of parliamentary elections is based on the Christmas Constitution (1990), but has been significantly modified four times since then, most recently in 1999.
The most recent substantial revision of the election law came in February 2015, and was partially upheld by the Constitutional Court in September 2015. An element of preferential voting was introduced by letting voters choose not only for a list of candidates, but also a single member of the same list. If the percentage of votes for a candidate exceeds 10%, they are elected as if it was an open list system. The list ranking is maintained for those candidates that do not meet this quota.
Previous parliamentary elections
Since 1990, seven parliamentary elections have been held in Croatia. The elections held in 1990 were the first multi-party elections following 45 years of Communist rule. The Parliament had three chambers at the time; the candidates ran for all 80 seats in the Social-Political Council of Croatia, all 116 seats to the Municipalities Council of Croatia and all 160 seats to the Associated Labour Council of Croatia. The first round of the election saw a turnout of 85.5%; the turnout for the runoff election was 74.8%. In this election, the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) won 205 seats and the Social Democratic Party of Croatia won 107. Between then and 2007, five parliamentary elections were held for the Chamber of Deputies () of the parliament or the unicameral parliament since (in 1992, 1995, 2000, 2003 and 2007). Starting with the 1992 elections, the number of seats first in the Chamber of Deputies, and then in the unicameral parliament, were significantly variable: ranging from 127 in 1995 to 153 in 2007. In the Croatian parliamentary elections held since 1992, when the number of seats in the parliament was limited to below 160, only 5 parties have won 10 seats or more in any one parliamentary election. These were the HDZ, the Croatian Peasant Party (HSS), the Croatian People's Party – Liberal Democrats (HNS), the Croatian Social Liberal Party (HSLS) and the SDP.
Several political parties, besides the HDZ, HSS, HNS, HSLS and SDP, have won parliamentary seats in the elections since 1990. These have been (in alphabetical order): the Alliance of Primorje-Gorski Kotar (previously named Rijeka Democratic Alliance), the Croatian Christian Democratic Union, the Croatian Citizen Party, the Croatian Democratic Alliance of Slavonia and Baranja, the Croatian Democratic Peasant Party, the Croatian Independent Democrats, the Croatian Party of Pensioners, the Croatian Party of Rights, the Croatian Party of Rights dr. Ante Starčević, the Dalmatian Action party, the Democratic Centre party, the Istrian Democratic Assembly, the Liberal Party, the Party of Liberal Democrats, the Serb Democratic Party, the Slavonia-Baranja Croatian Party, and the Social Democratic Action of Croatia party.
The following parties have won special seats reserved for representatives elected by minorities (also in alphabetical order): the Bosnian Democratic Party of Croatia, the Democratic Union of Hungarians of Croatia, the German People's Union – National Association of Danube Swabians in Croatia, the Independent Democratic Serb Party, the Party of Democratic Action of Croatia, and the Serb People's Party.
In addition, some independents have won seats through party lists by being elected as an independent running on a party's list, and Ivan Grubišić's list of non-partisan candidates has won seats as well. Since individuals (not parties) possess parliamentary seats once won, there also can be (and have been) instances where seat-holders became independent or switched to another political party.
(*)In the first multi-party elections in 1990 three parliamentary chambers were elected in a two-round majoritarian system: the Social-Political Council, the Council of Municipalities and the Council of Associated Labour. Turnout for the election each chamber varied. It was as follows: Social-Political council (84.5% in first round in all constituencies, 74.82% in second round in 51 of 80 constituencies), Council of Municipalities (84.1% in first round, 74.6% in second round) and Council of Associated Labour (76.5% in first round in all constituencies, 66% in second round in 103 of 160 constituencies).
Chamber of Counties
Under the Constitution of Croatia adopted in 1990, the parliament became bicameral. The Chamber of Deputies had been elected a few months earlier; its members enacted legislation creating a new territorial organisation of Croatia. This reorganisation included counties that were to be represented by the new Chamber of Counties (). The first election of members of the chamber was on 7 February 1993, with each of the counties acting as a three-seat constituency using proportional representation. In addition, as per Article 71 of the 1990 constitution, the President of Croatia was given the option of appointing up to 5 additional members of the Chamber of Counties; it could have as many as 68 members. The second and last election for the Chamber of Counties of the parliament was on 13 April 1997. The Chamber of Counties was abolished by a 2001 constitutional amendment.
Publication of proceedings
The Croatian Parliament publishes all its decisions in Narodne Novine, the official gazette of the Republic of Croatia. Article 90 of the constitution requires publication of all acts and other regulations in the gazette before they are legally binding. Narodne Novine is available through a paid subscription as print, or for free online. Parliamentary debates and other proceedings are the subject of news coverage by media of Croatia, and Saborska televizija was set up in 2007 in addition as an IPTV channel broadcasting all plenary sessions of the parliament. Finally, the Parliament's Public Relations Department publishes a news bulletin available to all institutions and citizens of Croatia through a print paid subscription, and online for free.
Parliamentary location
The Sabor has convened in Zagreb since the 13th century, but there was no special building for this until the 18th century. Previously, sessions of the Sabor had been held in private houses, in royal estates in Gradec and at the bishop's residence. During the Croatian-Ottoman Wars, which severely disrupted the functioning of the Croatian kingdom, the Sabor's sessions became so impractical that the 1685 session decided to have the ban appoint a six-member committee to do the work of the Sabor when sessions were not possible. This body became operational in 1689 and had its mandate extended through the entire 18th and into the 19th century. This consisted of the ban, two high clerics and three or four noblemen, and it would bring forward numerous acts; it met in various places, usually Zagreb or Varaždin, but also in Čiče, Ludbreg, Kerestinec, Vienna, Želin, Bratislava, Klenovnik, Slunj, Glina, Petrinja, Rasinja, Ptuj and Budim.
In 1731, the government purchased houses at the site of the present building and construction of a new building started the next year. The Sabor first met in the new building on 6 May 1737. The building was originally designed to accommodate archives, the court and the office of the ban; however, the government of Zagreb County moved in as well in 1765. The ban's office, the court and the archives moved out of the building in 1807, when a building across St. Mark's Square was bought to accommodate them. Subsequently, the newly purchased building was named Banski dvori after its new primary purpose of housing the ban and his office. The Zagreb County government purchased buildings adjacent to the parliament in 1839 and commissioned a new building at the site. It was completed in 1849; in the meantime, the Sabor had to convene elsewhere; it met in a theatre building located on a corner of the square. The theatre building later became the Zagreb City Hall.
In 1907, the government of the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia bought the parliament building and adjacent structures, starting construction of the present parliament building. At the same time, the Zagreb County government moved its headquarters elsewhere, leaving the Sabor as the sole user. The present parliament building was completed in 1911 using the design of Lav Kalda and Karlo Susan.
See also
Constitution of Croatia
Elections in Croatia
Politics of Croatia
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Official website of the Croatian Parliament
Official website of the Croatian Parliament
Internet Television of the Croatian Parliament
Politics of Croatia
Government of Croatia
Croatia
Croatia
Croatia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill%20Nelson%20%28musician%29
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Bill Nelson (musician)
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William Nelson (born 18 December 1948) is an English singer, guitarist, songwriter, producer, painter, video artist, writer and experimental musician. He rose to prominence as the chief songwriter, vocalist and guitarist of the rock group Be-Bop Deluxe, which he formed in 1972. Nelson has been described as "one of the most underrated guitarists of the seventies art rock movement". In 2015, he was recognised with the Visionary award at the Progressive Music Awards.
Early life and personal life
Nelson was born in Wakefield in the West Riding of Yorkshire, to Jean and Walter Nelson. Walter Nelson was an alto saxophone player who led his own dance band, and Jean a member of a dance troupe when younger. Bill Nelson attended local schools in the Wakefield area and in the 1960s went to Wakefield College of Art. Nelson's younger brother, Ian (1956–2006), collaborated on the Be-Bop Deluxe song "Ships in the Night" and formed the band Fiat Lux; he also played on the 1979 Red Noise album Sound-on-Sound and with the 2004 touring band Bill Nelson and the Lost Satellites.
Nelson has three children, Julia (born 1970 with Bill’s first wife, Shirley) and Elle (born 1978) and Elliot (born 1981), both born with Bill’s second wife, Jan. Elle and Elliot played in their own band, Honeytone Cody, between the late 1990s and 2014. Some time around April 1995 Nelson married Emiko, who was previously married to Yellow Magic Orchestra drummer Yukihiro Takahashi.
Career
1970s
Nelson was educated at the Wakefield College of Art, where he developed an interest in the work of poet and filmmaker Jean Cocteau. At this time he was also developing as a musician, drawing upon Duane Eddy as a primary guitar influence.
His first record was a brief contribution on the album A-Austr: Musics from Holyground, with Brian Calvert, Chris Coombs, Ted Hepworth, Mike Levon and Brian Wilson. Levon recorded and produced the album which appeared on Levon's own Holyground Records label in 1970. After that, Nelson appeared in a much more substantial role with Lightyears Away on Astral Navigations released in 1971. On one track, "Yesterday", written by Coombs, Levon recorded Nelson's lead guitars in an acid rock style, supporting Coombs' stylophone riff. This track also gave Nelson his first airplay by John Peel on his national BBC Radio 1 programme in the United Kingdom. Nelson's Holyground recordings were released in February 2001 as Electrotype.
In 1973, Nelson's debut solo album Northern Dream, released on his own independent Smile label, drew further attention from Peel which eventually led to Nelson's band Be-Bop Deluxe signing to EMI's Harvest Records subsidiary and releasing Axe Victim in 1974. Nelson replaced the original band members for Futurama in 1975. The lineup of Bill Nelson (guitar), Andrew Clark (keyboards), Charlie Tumahai (bass) and Simon Fox (drums) recorded Sunburst Finish and Modern Music in 1976, the live album Live! In The Air Age in 1977 and their final studio album Drastic Plastic in 1978.
Nelson found the structure of a permanent band constricting. An instrumental on Drastic Plastic performed by Nelson (acoustic guitar) and Clark (keyboards) anticipated Nelson's later solo ambient work. Other tracks on that album required Fox record drum parts for use as repeating loop backing tracks in the studio. (Performing these songs live on the subsequent tour, Fox would physically play these repeating patterns on drums). This sowed the seeds for later experimentation by Nelson. 1983's Invisibility Exhibition tour would see Bill Nelson (guitar) and Ian Nelson (sax) improvise to the former's self-produced backing audio (and video) tracks (later released as the Chamber of Dreams album), an approach Nelson would repeat for many solo live performances throughout his career. Playing the guitar over pre-recorded backing tracks would bear further fruit in later studio recordings, notably the Painting With Guitars series (2003, 2015) and And We Fell into A Dream (2007).
In autumn 1978, Nelson halted the Be-Bop Deluxe project, removed Tumahai and Fox from his immediate working band and replaced the name with the moniker Red Noise (releasing the Sound-on-Sound album in February 1979). Harvest, who had insisted on naming it "Bill Nelson's Red Noise", refused to release the second Red Noise album Quit Dreaming And Get on the Beam which was largely recorded by Nelson with contributions on sax from his brother Ian rather than the more-obviously marketable five-piece band Harvest's execs had understandably expected. The record remained unreleased in record company limbo.
Meanwhile, with his producer from Harvest John Leckie, Nelson did some production (and, in Nelson's case, sessions keyboards) work for the band Skids, whose guitarist Stuart Adamson was an admirer of Nelson's musicianship. Fruitful friendships followed. Vocalist Richard Jobson would appear as a support act reading poetry on the Invisibility Exhibition tour. After Adamson's death in 2001, Nelson composed a piece in memory of his departed friend, called simply "For Stuart", which appeared on 2003's The Romance of Sustain Volume One: Painting With Guitars and (in a live version) on 2011's live at Metropolis Studios DVD.
1980s
Nelson's manager Mark Rye negotiated with Harvest to buy back some of the unreleased songs for Nelson to release under his own name on his own label, Cocteau Records, which Nelson and Rye had set up. Consequently, in July 1980, Nelson was able to release the single "Do You Dream in Colour?", which after airplay on BBC Radio 1 reached No. 52 in the UK Singles Chart. This debut release on the label persuaded Phonogram to acquire the remaining tracks for Cocteau in order to release Quit Dreaming And Get on the Beam as a Bill Nelson album on their subsidiary label Mercury Records in 1981. The release contained bonus disc Sounding The Ritual Echo (Atmospheres for Dreaming) featuring experimental, ambient instrumentals which Nelson had recorded privately at his home. Subsequent Mercury releases included The Love That Whirls, which included a bonus disc of Nelson's soundtrack for The Yorkshire Actors' stage production of Jean Cocteau's 1946 film La Belle et la Bête/Beauty and the Beast. Nelson had already contributed music (and released it under the title Das Kabinet on Cocteau) to the same company's similar adaptation of Robert Wiene's 1920 silent film classic The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari.
Freed from the demands of a mainstream, commercial record company, Nelson released considerable quantities of singles and LPs on Cocteau throughout the decade, much of it by himself but also a number of singles by other artists, notably Last Man in Europe, A Flock of Seagulls, The Revox Cadets, Richard Jobson, Q (16), Fiat Lux, Man Jumping and Yukihiro Takahashi. The more ambitious Cocteau releases by Nelson himself included the four-LP box set of experimental electronic music Trial by Intimacy (The Book of Splendours) and the later ambient two-LP collection Chance Encounters in the Garden of Lights, which contained music informed by Nelson's Gnostic beliefs. In 1989, he released the 4-CD box set Demonstrations of Affection.
He was hired by English new wave artist Gary Numan to produce his 1983 album Warriors, with Numan saying that Bill Nelson was his "favourite guitar player, bar none." However, the two musicians failed to maintain a working relationship, and ultimately Nelson chose not to be credited for his production role on the album. Nelson also contributed towards several tracks on David Sylvian's Gone to Earth (1986). Nelson was commissioned by Channel 4 to write music for the 1987 television drama series Brond.
In the 1980s a deal with CBS Records' Portrait imprint failed, leaving the one album Getting the Holy Ghost Across (US title: On a Blue Wing) with further tracks from that album's sessions issued on the UK mini-LP Living for the Spangled Moment. In the late 1980s, Nelson signed to Enigma Records, which went out of business shortly after re-releasing his entire Cocteau catalogue.
As the decade ended, Nelson suffered a series of personal setbacks, including a divorce, tax problems and an acrimonious dispute with his manager over his back catalogue rights. In the case of one album, the unreleased Simplex, Nelson discovered his manager had been selling copies via mail order without Nelson's authorisation or knowledge; Nelson claimed he never received any royalties from these sales.
1990s
In 1992, Nelson released Blue Moons and Laughing Guitars on Virgin which consisted of demos for a proposed band including four guitarists and two drummers which never materialised. "This is what I do behind locked doors," he wrote on the sleeve, prefiguring much of his later, home recorded work including My Secret Studio (4-CD + 2-CD) and Noise Candy (6-CD). In the same year, Nelson worked with Roger Eno and Kate St John as producer (with Roger Eno) on the duo's album The Familiar, on which Nelson also played guitar and other instruments. This experience fortuitously not only sowed the seeds of Eno's, Nelson's and St.John's participation in the 'ambient supergroup' Channel Light Vessel, which also featured Laraaji and Mayumi Tachibana, but also introduced Nelson to Voiceprint Records, whose subsidiary labels included All Saints and Resurgence, both of which would release a number of CLV and Nelson recordings over the next few years.
In 1995, Nelson released two very different albums. Crimsworth (Flowers, Stones, Fountains And Flames) was an ambient piece which had provided the soundscape to an art installation. Practically Wired, or How I Became... Guitarboy! was a return to guitar-based instrumental music, something Nelson had barely touched for the previous decade and a half.
In 1996, Nelson augmented his sound with drum and bass for After The Satellite Sings, credited as a major influence on David Bowie's Earthling album by Bowie's then guitarist Reeves Gabrels.
By 1996, Nelson's troubles with his former manager were resolved in a lawsuit which enabled Nelson to recover much of his back catalogue. The fully authorised Simplex was subsequently released in 2001 by Lenin Imports and reissued in 2012 by Esoteric.
In the late 1990s, Nelson created the Populuxe label, with a distribution arrangement via Robert Fripp's Discipline Global Mobile, but his relationship with them stagnated and Nelson's last release on that label was Atom Shop in 1998. Subsequent releases have been on other imprints such as Toneswoon as well as direct mail order (and later internet order) releases.
2000s
2002 saw the release of EP Three White Roses & A Budd (with Fila Brazillia and Harold Budd) on Twentythree Records,.
In 2001, Nelson attended a first Nelsonica convention, set up in West Yorkshire by fans in his honour, taking with him drawings to sell to any interested parties. It proved such a good experience that he resolved to contribute live music performances, dedicated CDs of new material, and anything else that seemed appropriate, to any such future events. Nelsonica became an annual fixture in his calendar for the next decade or so. Attendees at 2002's Nelsonica 02 received a copy of Astral Motel, the first convention CD release. Honeytone Cody played one set, Nelson and his brother Ian played a second, while Nelson's newly assembled seven piece band The Lost Satellites, which also included Ian, played a third. It was a resounding success and an annual institution was born.
Three further albums followed in 2003: The Romance of Sustain Volume One: Painting With Guitars, Plaything, and a second Nelsonica CD Luxury Lodge,. Since then, Nelson has released an average of four albums a year, often in small runs which soon go out of print. He has accomplished this using his own series of branded record labels: Almost Opaque then Discs of Ancient Odeon for the Nelsonica releases; Universal Twang then Sonoluxe for the others. (Nelson's Sonic Masonic imprint lasted for only one release, 2004's Satellite Songs)
Nelson's in-house releasing was made possible by the financial backing of Sound on Sound magazine, whose website hosts his online shop and is named after Red Noise's Sound-on-Sound album. In 2004, the magazine also put up the money for Nelson to take his band Bill Nelson and the Lost Satellites on tour around the UK as The Be-Bop Deluxe And Beyond Tour.
Nelson pursued different artistic directions. Two Rosewood releases contained acoustic guitar pieces "submitted to electronic and digital processing." The highly personal The Alchemical Adventures of Sailor Bill, was a concept album about the English coastline, ships and the sea, while its more ambient, instrumental companion piece Neptune's Galaxy comprised five long form instrumental compositions exploring the same subject. Of the former, Nelson wrote, "this set of songs comes (closer) to being personally fulfilling as almost any other album of mine." Most of the decade's remaining albums were lead electric guitar-oriented and non-vocal. Improvisation against pre-recorded backing tracks played a major role in And We Fell into A Dream while the very different Theatre of Falling Leaves eschewed lead guitar in favour of keyboards. The decade closed with more voice-based material as Nelson crooned through Golden Melodies of Tomorrow, delivered more familiar rock and ballad vocals on Fancy Planets and delved into romantic songwriting in The Dream Transmission Pavilion.
In the first half of the decade, Nelson published his collected online diaries from 1999–2003 under the moniker diary of a hyperdreamer. A second volume covering entries from 2005–2006 would appear in 2015. The last ten years of this diary remain on his official website to this day. He also gave extensive interviews to biographer Paul Sutton Reeves for a book, the publication of which was put on hold for around two years when publisher Sean Body died. Music in Dreamland Bill Nelson & Be-Bop Deluxe, finally materialised in 2008.
In the second half of the decade, Nelson's live performances (mostly at the Nelsonica events) broadened out from solo work to encompass two other bands. One was the improvisational, three-piece Orchestra Futura consisting of Nelson, Dave Sturt (bass) and Theo Travis (assorted woodwind, brass). (The duo of Sturt and Travis already played together as Cipher.) The other was the more conventional rock oriented, seven-piece Bill Nelson and the Gentlemen Rocketeers (again including Sturt and Travis) which played songs with vocals from the extensive Nelson/Be-Bop Deluxe back catalogue.
By 2006, Universal Music (UK) had re-issued three Mercury albums: Quit Dreaming and Get on the Beam, The Love that Whirls and Chimera had all been remastered and released with bonus tracks. Sonoluxe had reissued the CBS album Getting the Holy Ghost Across / On a Blue Wing with all the original tracks including those from Living for the Spangled Moment.
2010s
In 2010, Nelson published the first part of an autobiography.
In March 2011, motivated by a desire to capture the flavour of recent gigs on film for posterity via DVD release, Bill Nelson and the Gentlemen Rocketeers played a concert of songs spanning Nelson's career before a live audience in front of in-house cameras at Metropolis Studios, London. Dissatisfied with the resultant sound mix, Nelson remixed it himself at his own expense. Using Nelson's remix, ITV Studios Home Entertainment released a DVD of the event. This initial release quickly sold out. A promised television broadcast of the recording only materialised in a few selected territories, excluding the UK. The video and audio recording has subsequently been reissued on other formats including CD and LP. However, having signed away his rights to these recordings, Nelson has made no money on these releases.
In 2011, Cherry Red Records' subsidiary Esoteric Recordings commenced a roll-out re-release of Nelson's back catalogue for many of his releases between 1981 and 2002 with the 8-CD compilation The Practice of Everyday Life which covered 40 years of recordings. Other notable reissues have included the 4-CD The Book of Splendours and the 6-CD Noise Candy,. The Esoteric deal did not involve a rights buyout, so Nelson is properly compensated for these reissues.
In 2013, Nelson finally began releasing his out of print CD back catalogue from 2002 onwards as digital downloads via Bandcamp. On this platform he subsequently released the three volume compilation The Dreamer's Companion in 2014 and brand new albums commencing with Special Metal from 2016 onwards.
In addition to his numerous solo releases of recent years, Nelson has also made both film soundtracks and a number of collaborative recordings with other artists. In 2010, he released the soundtrack to the US TV documentary American Stamps as Picture Post while in 2014, he released the soundtrack to UK director Daisy Asquith's paean to cycling Velorama (a tie in with the 2014 Tour de France cycle race which went through Yorkshire) as Pedalscope. In 2012, Nelson finally completed The Last of the Neon Cynics, a long standing project with comic artist Matt Howarth: the latter supplied a comic (a PDF file) while the former provided a soundtrack to it. In 2014, he collaborated with fellow guitarist Reeves Gabrels (who has also worked with David Bowie and The Cure) on Fantastic Guitars.
In 2014, Nelson suffered a complete hearing loss in his right ear. This put a stop to any plans for playing live (and by extension Nelsonica events built around live performance) for the foreseeable future. Yet he continued to record and release music despite this disability. The first album to be affected was Quiet Bells. According to Nelson's sleeve notes, "to slowly adjust to this problem, I decided to make an album that features mainly guitar, a gentle collection of instrumentals in a neo-minimalist, ambient style."
In 2014, Nelson was honoured by Wakefield Council with a Hollywood-style star on the city’s walk of fame. He also designed an extremely limited edition 'Astroluxe Custom Ltd' guitar for the Eastwood company.
In 2016, 46 years after recording his debut album, Nelson released a sequel entitled New Northern Dream.
Discography
Albums
solo before Be-Bop Deluxe
Northern Dream (1971) Smile
Electrotype – The Holyground Recordings 1968–1972 (2001) Holyground (includes pre-Harvest Be-Bop Deluxe recordings)
with Be-Bop Deluxe
Axe Victim (1974) Harvest
Futurama (1975) Harvest
Sunburst Finish (1976) Harvest
Modern Music (1976) Harvest
Live! In The Air Age (1977) Harvest
Drastic Plastic (1978) Harvest
The Best of and the Rest of Be-Bop Deluxe (1978) Harvest
Radioland (1994) BBC Radio 1 live in concert 1976 Windsong
Tramcar To Tomorrow (1998) John Peel BBC Radio 1 Sessions 1974-8 Hux
Tremulous Antenna (2002) Radioland remastered Hux
Live! In The Air Age The Hammersmith Odeon Concert 1977 (2022) Esoteric
with Bill Nelson's Red Noise
Sound-on-Sound (1979) Harvest
Live – De Montfort Hall Leicester 1979 (2023) Esoteric
with Orchestra Arcana
Iconography (1986) Cocteau
Optimism (1988) Cocteau
with Channel Light Vessel
Automatic (1994) Channel Light Vessel All Saints
Excellent Spirits (1996) Channel Light Vessel All Saints
solo after Be-Bop Deluxe/Bill Nelson's Red Noise
Quit Dreaming and Get on the Beam (1981) Mercury
Sounding the Ritual Echo (Atmospheres for Dreaming) (1981) Mercury
Das Kabinet (1981) Cocteau
The Love That Whirls (Diary of a Thinking Heart) (1982) Mercury
La Belle et la Bête (1982) Mercury
Chimera mini-LP (1983) Mercury
Savage Gestures for Charm's Sake (1983) Cocteau
The Two-Fold Aspect of Everything (1984) Cocteau
Trial by Intimacy (The Book of Splendours) – The Summer of God's Piano (1985) Cocteau
Trial by Intimacy (The Book of Splendours) – Chamber of Dreams (Music from the Invisibility Exhibition) (1985) Cocteau
Trial by Intimacy (The Book of Splendours) – Pavilions of the Heart And Soul (1985) Cocteau
Trial by Intimacy (The Book of Splendours) – A Catalogue of Obsessions (1985) Cocteau
Chameleon (The Music of Bill Nelson) (1985) Themes International Music
Getting the Holy Ghost Across (1986) Portrait
Living for the Spangled Moment mini-LP (1986) Portrait
On a Blue Wing (1986) US version of Getting the Holy Ghost Across – different cover, slightly different track listing Portrait
Map of Dreams (1987) Cocteau
Chance Encounters in the Garden of Lights – The Angel at the Western Window (1987) Cocteau
Chance Encounters in the Garden of Lights – The Book of Inward Conversation (1987) Cocteau
Demonstrations of Affection – Chimes And Rings (1989) Cocteau
Demonstrations of Affection – Nudity (1989) Cocteau
Demonstrations of Affection – Heartbreakland (1989) Cocteau
Demonstrations of Affection – Details (1989) Cocteau
Simplex (1990) Cocteau
Duplex (1990) double CD compilation Cocteau
Altar Pieces (1990) limited edition audio cassette The Orpheus Organisation
Luminous (1991) Imaginary
Blue Moons & Laughing Guitars (1992) Virgin
Crimsworth (Flowers, Stones, Fountains And Flames) (1995) Resurgence
Practically Wired or how I became…Guitarboy! (1995) All Saints
My Secret Studio Volume I – Buddha Head (1995) Resurgence
My Secret Studio Volume I – Electricity Made Us Angels (1995) Resurgence
My Secret Studio Volume I – Deep Dream Decoder (1995) Resurgence
My Secret Studio Volume I – Juke Box for Jet Boy (1995) Resurgence
After The Satellite Sings (1996) Resurgence
Confessions of a Hyperdreamer: My Secret Studio Volume II – Weird Critters (1997) Populuxe
Confessions of a Hyperdreamer: My Secret Studio Volume II – Magnificent Dream People (1997) Populuxe
Atom Shop (1998) Discipline Global Mobile
Whistling While The World Turns (2000) Lenin Imports
Noise Candy – Old Man Future Blows The Blues (2002) Toneswoon
Noise Candy – Stargazing With Ranger Bill (2002) Toneswoon
Noise Candy – Sunflower Dairy Product (2002) Toneswoon
Noise Candy – King Frankenstein (2002) Toneswoon
Noise Candy – Console (2002) Toneswoon
Noise Candy – Playtime (2002) Toneswoon
Caliban and the Chrome Harmonium (2002) Almost Opaque
Astral Motel (2002) Nelsonica convention CD Almost Opaque
Whimsy (2003) Fabled Quixote
Whimsy Two (A Garage Full of Clouds) (2003) Fabled Quixote
The Romance of Sustain Volume One: Painting With Guitars (2003) Universal Twang
Luxury Lodge (2003) Nelsonica convention CD Almost Opaque
Plaything (2003) Universal Twang
Dreamland To Starboard (2004) Universal Twang
Custom Deluxe (2004) Universal Twang
Satellite Songs (2004) Sonic Masonic
Wah-Wah Galaxy (2004) Nelsonica convention CD Almost Opaque
Rosewood: Ornaments and Graces for Acoustic Guitar Volume One (2005) Sonoluxe
Rosewood: Ornaments and Graces for Acoustic Guitar Volume Two (2005) Sonoluxe
Orpheus in Ultraland (2005) Nelsonica convention CD Discs of Ancient Odeon
The Alchemical Adventures of Sailor Bill (2005) a coastal song suite by [Bill Nelson and his Lighthouse Signal Mechanism Orchestra] Sonoluxe
Neptune's Galaxy (2006) Sonoluxe
Return to Jazz of Lights (2006) Sonoluxe
Arcadian Salon (2006) Nelsonica convention CD Discs of Ancient Odeon
Gleaming Without Lights (2006) Sonoluxe
Secret Club For Members Only (2007) Nelsonica convention CD Discs of Ancient Odeon
And We Fell into a Dream (2007) Sonoluxe
Silvertone Fountains (2008) Sonoluxe
Illuminated at Dusk (2008) Sonoluxe
Mazda Kaleidoscope (2008) Sonoluxe
Clocks & Dials (2008) Nelsonica convention double CD Discs of Ancient Odeon
Golden Melodies of Tomorrow (2008) Sonoluxe
Fancy Planets (2009) Sonoluxe
Here Comes Mr Mercury (2009) Sonoluxe
The Dream Transmission Pavilion (2009) Nelsonica convention CD Discs of Ancient Odeon
Theatre of Falling Leaves (2009) Sonoluxe
Non-Stop Mystery Action (2009) Sonoluxe
Picture Post (2010) Sonoluxe
Modern Moods For Mighty Atoms (2010) Blue Shining Fountain Records
Captain Future's Psychotronic Circus (2010) Nelsonica convention CD Discs of Ancient Odeon
Fables And Dreamsongs (2010) Sonoluxe
Fantasmatron (2011) Sonoluxe
Hip Pocket JukeBox (2011) The Art School Ascended on Vapours of Roses art exhibition/concert CD
Signals from Realms of Light (2011) Sonoluxe
Model Village (2011) Sonoluxe Super Listener Series
Songs of the Blossom Tree Optimists (2012) Sonoluxe Super Listener Series
The Last of the Neon Cynics (2012) Enhanced CD includes PDF file of graphic novel by Matt Howarth Sonoluxe
Joy Through Amplification (2012) Sonoluxe
Return To Tomorrow (2012) Nelsonica convention CD Discs of Ancient Odeon
The Palace of Strange Voltages (2012) Sonoluxe
The Dreamshire Chronicles (2012) Sonoluxe
Blip! (2013) Sonoluxe
Blip!2 – The Tremulous Doo-Wah-Diddy (2013) Blip! Launch Party CD Sonoluxe
Albion Dream Vortex (2013) Sonoluxe
The Sparkle Machine (2013) Sonoluxe
Pedalscope (2014) Sonoluxe
Fantastic Guitars (2014) with Reeves Gabrels Sonoluxe
Astroloops (2014) given away with extremely limited edition Eastwood 'Astroluxe Custom Ltd' guitar designed by Bill Nelson Astrotone
Stereo Star Maps (2014) Sonoluxe
Shining Reflector (2014) Sonoluxe
Quiet Bells (2015) Sonoluxe
Swoons And Levitations (2015) Sonoluxe
The Years (2015) Sonoluxe
Plectrajet: Painting With Guitars Volume Two (2015) Sonoluxe
Electric Atlas (2015) Sonoluxe
Loom (Astroloops Volume Two) (2015) Astrotone
Perfect Monsters (2016) Sonoluxe
Special Metal (2016) Tremolo Boy Records (digital download only)
All That I Remember (2016) Sonoluxe Super Listener Series
New Northern Dream (2016) Sonoluxe Super Listener Series
Six String Super Apparatus: Painting With Guitars Volume Three (2016) Tremolo Boy Records (digital download only)
The Awakening of Dr.Dream (2017) Tremolo Boy Records (digital download only)
Kid Flip and the Golden Spacemen (2017) Tremolo Boy Records (digital download only)
Luxury Wonder Moments (2017) Sonoluxe
Tripping the Light Fantastic (2017) Sonoluxe
Songs For Ghosts (2017) Sonoluxe
That Old Mysterioso (2018) Sonoluxe
The Unrealist (2018) Tremolo Boy Records (digital download only)
Drive This Comet Across The Sky (2018) Tremolo Boy Records (digital download only)
Dynamos and Tremolos (2018) Sonoluxe
Auditoria (2018) Sonoluxe (triple CD to celebrate Bill Nelson's 70th birthday)
Stand By: Light Coming (2019) Sonoluxe
The Last Lamplighter (2019) Tremolo Boy Records (digital download only)
Old Haunts (2019) Sonoluxe
The Jewel (2020) Sonoluxe
Transcorder the Acquitted By Mirrors recordings (2020) Sonoluxe
New Vibrato Wonderland (2020) Sonoluxe
Dazzlebox (2021) Sonoluxe
Mixed Up Kid (2021) Sonoluxe
My Private Cosmos (2021) 6-CD set, Sonoluxe
Electra (In Search Of The Golden Sound) (2022) Sonoluxe
Marvellous Realms (2023) Sonoluxe
stupid/serious (2023) Sonoluxe
Singles
"Teenage Archangel" / "Jets at Dawn" (1973) [Be-Bop Deluxe] Smile
"Jet Silver and the Dolls of Venus" / "Third Floor Heaven" (1974) [Be-Bop Deluxe] Harvest
"Between the Worlds" / "Lights" (1975) recalled after only one day of sale [Be-Bop Deluxe] Harvest
"Maid in Heaven" / "Lights" (1975) [Be-Bop Deluxe] Harvest
"Ships in the Night" / "Crying to the Sky" (1976) – UK No. 23 [Be-Bop Deluxe] Harvest
"Kiss of Light" / "Shine" (1976) [Be-Bop Deluxe] Harvest
"Japan" / "Futurist Manifesto" (1977) [Be-Bop Deluxe] Harvest
"Panic in the World" / "Blue as a Jewel" (1978) [Be-Bop Deluxe] Harvest
"Electrical Language" / "Surreal Estate" (1978) [Be-Bop Deluxe] Harvest
"Furniture Music" / "Wonder Toys That Last For Ever", "Acquitted By Mirrors" (February 1979) [Bill Nelson's Red Noise] Harvest
"Revolt into Style" / "Out of Touch" recorded live at Leicester De Montfort Hall 8 March 1979 (April 1979) [Bill Nelson's Red Noise] Harvest
"Revolt into Style" / "Stay Young", "Out of Touch" both recorded live at Leicester De Montfort Hall 8 March 1979 12" (April 1979) [Bill Nelson's Red Noise] Harvest
"Rooms With Brittle Views" / "Dada Guitare" (1980) Les Disques du Crépuscule
"Do You Dream in Colour" / "Ideal Homes", "Instantly Yours", "Atom Man Loves Radium Girl" (1980) Cocteau
To Heaven A Jet: "Airfields" / "Tony Goes To Tokyo (And Rides The Bullet Train)" (1981) [The Revox Cadets] Cocteau
"Youth of Nation on Fire" / "Be My Dynamo" (1981) Mercury
"Youth of Nation on Fire" / "Be My Dynamo" / "Rooms With Brittle Views" / "All My Wives Were Iron" (1981) Mercury
"Living in My Limousine" / "Birds of Tin", "Love in the Abstract" (1981) Mercury
"Living in My Limousine (Remix)", "White Sounds" / "Birds of Tin", "Love in the Abstract" 12" (1981) Mercury
"Banal" / "Mr. Magnetism Himself" (1981) Mercury
"Banal" / "Turn To Fiction" / "Hers Is A Lush Situation" / "Mr. Magnetism Himself" 12" (1981) Mercury
"Eros Arriving" / "Haunting in My Head" (1982) Mercury
"Eros Arriving" / "Haunting in My Head" / "He And Sleep Were Brothers" / "Flesh" (1982) Mercury
"Flaming Desire" / "The Passion" (1982) Mercury
"Flaming Desire" (Long Version) / "The Passion", "The Burning Question" 12" (1982) Mercury
Flaming Desire And Other Passions: "Flaming Desire" (Long Version), "Flesh" / "The Passion", "The Burning Question", "He And Sleep Were Brothers", "Haunting in My Head" 12" (1982) PVC
"Sleepcycle", "Konny Buys A Kodak" / "When The Birds Return", "The Beat That Can't Go Wrong Today" EP 33 1/3 RPM (1982) Acquitted By Mirrors (ABM) fan club release Cocteau
"King of the Cowboys", "Shadowland" / "Carnival", "Spring" EP 33 1/3 RPM (1982) ABM release Cocteau
"Touch And Glow" / "Dancing in the Wind", "Love Without Fear" (1982) Cocteau
"The World And His Wife" / "Dream Car Romantics (In Death's Garage Antics)", "Dancing Music" EP 33 1/3 RPM (1982) ABM release Cocteau
"Dancing on a Knife's Edge" / "Indiscretion", "Contemplation" EP 33 1/3 RPM (1983) ABM release Cocteau
"Acceleration" Remixed by John Luongo / "Hard Facts From The Fiction Department" (1984) Cocteau
"Hard Facts From The Fiction Department", "Acceleration Dub" Remixed by John Luongo / "Acceleration Long Version" Remixed by John Luongo, "Acceleration Short Version" Remixed by John Luongo 12" (1984) Cocteau
'Giants of the Perpetual Wurlitzer: "The Strangest Things, The Strangest Times", "Phantom Gardens", "French Promenades" / "Golden Mile", "West-Deep", "Threnolia" EP 33 1/3 RPM (1984) ABM release Cocteau
"Hard Facts From The Fiction Department", "Daily Bells" / "Rhythm Unit", "Junc-Sculpture" EP 33 1/3 RPM (1984) ABM release Cocteau
The Cote D'Azur EP: "A Dream Fulfilled", "Familiar Spirit" / "Palais Des Marine", "Letter To Jacques Maritan", "Villefranche Interior" EP 33 1/3 RPM (1984) ABM release Cocteau
Sex-Psyche-Etc: "Sex, Psyche Etcetera" / "Several Famous Orchestras", "Who He Is" 12" (1985) [Orchestra Arcana] Cocteau
"Wildest Dreams" / "Self Impersonisation" (1986) Portrait
"Wildest Dreams (Wild Mix)", "Self Impersonisation" / "Wildest Dreams (Single Version)", "The Yo-Yo Dyne" 12" (1986) Portrait
"Secret Ceremony (Theme From Brond)" / "Wiping A Tear From The All Seeing Eye" 7" and 12" versions (1987) [Scala Featuring Bill Nelson & Daryl Runswick] Cocteau
Ecclesia Gnostica (Music for the Interior Church): "Set Me As A Seal Upon Thine Heart", "Mysterium", "Katharos", "Day of Eternity", "Evening Adoration" / "Ecclesia Gnostica", "Young Angels by an Ancient River", "Finis Gloria Mundi" (1987) bonus release with Chance Encounters in the Garden of Lights first edition Cocteau
"Do You Dream in Colour" / "Life in Your Hands" (1989) Cocteau
"Life in Your Hands", "Do You Dream in Colour" / "Get Out of That Hole", "My Dream Demon" 12" (1989) Cocteau
"The Dead We Wake With Upstairs Drums", "Boat To Forever", "So It Goes" CD (1992) Venture
"Contemplation 2007" / "The Dreamsville Poetry Experiment" (2007) no label (digital download only)
"I Hear Electricity" / "Kiss You Slowly" (2008) Sonoluxe (digital download only)
"The Jingler" (2009) Christmas single no label (digital download only)
"Frost-O-Matic" .wav (2010) Christmas single Sonoluxe (digital download only)
"Think And You’ll Miss It" / "Beat Street" (2012) Christmas single no label (digital download only)
"Snow Is Falling" (2014) Christmas single no label (digital download only)
DVDs
flashlight dreams... and fleeting shadows an audio-optical diary by Bill Nelson (2003) Voiceprint
Picture House (2010) Nelsonica convention DVD Visuluxe
Classic Rock Magazine Legends Bill Nelson and the Gentlemen Rocketeers filmed live at Metropolis Studios (2011) [Bill Nelson and the Gentlemen Rocketeers] ITV Studios Home Entertainment
Be-Bop Deluxe at the BBC 1974–78 (2013) [Be-Bop Deluxe] 3-CD + DVD box set of previously unreleased material + material from Tramcar To Tomorrow (most tracks) and Tremulous Antenna (all tracks) + televised performances EMI
Compilation albums
The Best of and the Rest of Be-Bop Deluxe (1978) [Be-Bop Deluxe] 2-LP set; second disc material previously unreleased on LP – Drastic Plastic outtakes plus single A- and B-sides Harvest
Singles A's & B's (1981) [Be-Bop Deluxe] Harvest Heritage
Vistamix (1984) Portrait (10 tracks – Chimera mini LP, two tracks from The Love That Whirls, one from Quit Dreaming And Get on the Beam, and one single)
The Two-Fold Aspect of Everything (1984) 2-LP set of A- and B-sides previously unavailable on LP Cocteau
Bop to the Red Noise (1986) [Be-Bop Deluxe] mixture of BBD and RN material Dojo
The Strangest Things A Collection of Recordings 1979–1989 (1989) Enigma
The Best of Be-Bop Deluxe: Raiding The Divine Archive (1990) [Be-Bop Deluxe] Harvest
Air Age Anthology: The Very Best of Be-Bop Deluxe (1997) [Be-Bop Deluxe] 2-CD set EMI
The Very Best of Be-Bop Deluxe (1998) [Be-Bop Deluxe] EMI-Capitol Special Markets
What Now, What Next? The Cocteau Years Compendium (1998) Discipline Global Mobile
Electrotype – The Holyground Recordings 1968–1972 (2001) previously unreleased pre-Northern Dream BN and pre-Axe Victim BBD recordings Holyground
Postcards From the Future... Introducing Be-Bop Deluxe (2004) [Be-Bop Deluxe] EMI
Futurist Manifesto (2011) [Be-Bop Deluxe] 5-CD set, 1st four discs are the five BBD studio albums plus the singles; fifth disc is previously unreleased material from demos and Live! In The Air Age recordings Harvest
The Practice of Everyday Life (2011) 8-CD set, 40-year career retrospective mixture of BBD, RN and BN solo material Esoteric Recordings
Original Albums Series (2014) [Be-Bop Deluxe] 5-CD set, five discs are the five BBD studio albums, tracks as originally released on LP Warner/Parlophone
The Dreamer's Companion Vol 1 (How I Got My Secret Powers) (2015) Sonoluxe (digital download only)
The Dreamer's Companion Vol 2 (In This I Reveal My Secret Identity) (2015) Sonoluxe (digital download only)
The Dreamer's Companion Vol 3 (Songs of the Bel-Air Rocketman) (2015) introductory compilation of 14 tracks per each of 3 volumes taken from rare and limited edition CD pressings, personally chosen by Bill Nelson himself Sonoluxe (digital download only)
Compilation albums with other artists
Future Perfect includes tracks from Practically Wired or how I became…Guitarboy! and Automatic [Channel Light Vessel] (1995) [Various Artists] All Saints
Compilation singles
Hot Valves: "Maid in Heaven", "Bring Back The Spark" / "Blazing Apostles", "Jet Silver and the Dolls of Venus" EP (1976) UK No. 36 Harvest
Permanent Flame (The Beginners Guide To Bill Nelson) (1983) 5-disc set of previously released BBD, RN and BN solo material Cocteau
Albums as producer
Days in Europa (1st release version) — producer and keyboards (1979) Skids Virgin
Warriors — Nelson removed his producer credit following creative differences with Numan; "guitar and keyboards" credit remains (1983) Gary Numan Beggars Banquet Records*
New Way To Move — producer, guitar, synthesizer (1983) The Units 6-track mini-LP Epic
Heaven & Hell Volume 2 (a Velvet Underground tribute album) — production and keyboard solo on "Pale Blue Eyes" The Mock Turtles, also "Lonesome Cowboy Bill" Bill Nelson & The Roy Rogers Rocketeers (1990) Imaginary
Lovesnake — producer (1991) Jean Park Epic
Willerby — production, guitars, sitar, keyboards, also features Ian Nelson on saxes and clarinet (1991) The Rhythm Sisters Imaginary
The Familiar (1992) Roger Eno with Kate St John All Saints
Geography — produced by Culturemix, Nelson also plays guitar, all compositions Yumiko Norika (1993) Culturemix Japanese release Voice Records
Listen — producer (1983) A Flock of Seagulls Jive
Culturemix with Bill Nelson — produced with Yumiko Norika, Nelson also plays guitar, keyboards, occasional piano, occasional vocals, all compositions Yumiko Norika except "Four Postcards Home" by Bill Nelson and Yumiko Norika (1995) Culturemix Resurgence
Lines of Desire — 10 tracks in total: played on three of which he produced two (1995) Su Lyn Bruce's Fingers
360 Degrees — produced with Gillcover and the Monkey (1996) [Gillcover and the Monkey] Japanese release Stillwaters / Sony Music Japan
Яблокитай / Yablokitay — Nelson also plays guitar (1997) Наутилус Помпилиус / Nautilus Pompilius Russian release Dana Music
Leaving the Electric Circus — Nelson also plays guitar on and helped write "The Sunglass" (2002) Sea of Wires Sea of Wires self-released
Animals They Dream About — (2016, recorded 1982) The Units Futurismo
Singles as producer
"Working for the Yankee Dollar" / "Vanguards Crusade" — (1979) [Skids] Virgin
"Charade" / "Grey Parade" — producer, keyboards and co-authorship with Stuart Adamson / Richard Jobson (1979) [Skids] Virgin
"Animation" / "Pros & Cons" — (1980) [Skids] Virgin
"Losing You" / "You Don't Turn Me on Anymore" — (1981) [Stranger Than Fiction] Ambergris Records
"Novel Romance" / "In A Glass Eye" — produced A-side only (1981) Nash the Slash Dindisc
"Telecommunication" / "Intro" — produced A-side only (1981) A Flock of Seagulls Jive Records
"(It's Not Me) Talking" / "Tanglimara" — produced A-side only (1983) [A Flock of Seagulls] Jive Records
"Sister Surprise" / "Poetry And Power" — also guitars, keyboards, backing vocals (1983) [Gary Numan] Beggars Banquet
"Warriors" / "My Car Slides" — also guitars, keyboards (1983) [Gary Numan] Beggars Banquet
"Infotainment" / "Please Mr Postman" — production, guitar, keyboards (1990) [The Rhythm Sisters] Imaginary
"Rain" production, guitar / "She Rides" — sitar (1990) [The Rain Poets] Scorp Records
"Magic Boomerang" / "Take Your Time" — (1990) [The Mock Turtles] Imaginary
Pink & Clean "Cheap Thrill Star", "Pink & Clean", "Girlie", "A Monster of Me" EP — (1998) [Honeytone Cody] Elle & Elliot Nelson
Believe in the Promise of Tomorrow — contributed secret track which consisted of music he wrote that the band played before their gigs EP (2000) [Honeytone Cody]
Compilation albums as producer
Sweet Suburbia — worked on featured tracks, a Best of compilation (1995) [Skids] Virgin
Albums as collaborator
Disguise in Love guitar on 3 tracks "(I don't want to) Be Nice", "Readers Wives", "Health Fanatic" (1978) John Cooper Clarke CBS
Days in Europa (2nd release version) keyboards by Bill Nelson, additional production, remix by Bruce Fairbairn (1980) Skids Virgin
La Rocca! synthesizer (1981) [Snips] EMI, UK
Third Eye E-bow guitars, electric guitar (1982) Monsoon Phonogram
Rice Music "flying e-bow" guitar (1982) Masami Tsuchiya Epic
What Me Worry? guitars, vocals (1982) Yukihiro Takahashi Japanese release Yen / Alfa, UK release Alfa
Tomorrow's Just Another Day guitar on "This Island Earth", guitar and backing vocals on "Are You Receiving Me" (remix) (1983) [Yukihiro Takahashi] Japanese release Yen / Alfa
Naughty Boys guitar (1983) Yellow Magic Orchestra Alfa
Naughty Boys Instrumental guitar (1984) [Yellow Magic Orchestra] Alfa
Time and Place guitars, vocals, live (1984) [Yukihiro Takahashi] Japanese release Yen / Alfa
Wild and Moody guitar, vocal on "Helpless" (Neil Young) and "Bounds of Reason, Bonds of Love" (lyrics: Nelson; music: Nelson, Takahashi) mini-LP (1984) [Yukihiro Takahashi] Japanese release Yen / Alfa, UK release Cocteau
Viva Lava Liva lyrics on "Walk Away" (1984) Sandii & the Sunsetz Japanese release Yen / Alfa
Gone To Earth solo electric / acoustic guitars on "Before The Bullfight", guitar on "Wave", "Silver Moon", "The Healing Place", acoustic guitar on "Answered Prayers" (1986) David Sylvian Virgin
Code guitar on "Don't Argue", "Here To Go", "Trouble (Won't Stop)", "White Car", "No One Here", "Here to Go (Little Dub)" (1987) Cabaret Voltaire Parlophone UK
Still Looking For Heaven on Earth guitar on: "Burning Rain", "This Means Everything To Me", "Feel The Fire", "Heaven Said My Name", "Shake (Sell Your Soul)" (1988) [Crazy House] Chrysalis Records US
Ego lyrics on "Only the Heart Has Heard" (1988) [Yukihiro Takahashi] Japanese release Eastworld
Gagalactyca guitar on "Cold Tired & Hungry" [Chris Coombs & Lightyears Away/Thundermother] (1990) Holyground
By the Dawn's Early Light guitar on tracks 1–14, composed track 13 "The Place of Dead Roads" (1991) Harold Budd Opal Records
Rain Tree Crow guitar on 3 tracks "Big Wheels in Shanty Town", "Blackwater", "Blackcrow Hits Shoe Shine City" (1991) Rain Tree Crow Virgin
Chill and Kiss guitar on "Love So Terse", "Get It On", "This Song in You", "Get Stoned", Ian Nelson sax on "Togetherness Blues", Ian Leese (After The Satellite Sings, Excellent Spirits Channel Light Vessel)] bass (1992) Ramon Tikaram German release DSB (Deutsche Schallplatten GmbH Berlin)
地上の楽園 / Chizyou No Rakuen / Paradise on Earth guitar, lyrics on "Hope" (1994) [久石譲 / Joe Hisaishi] Japanese release Pioneer
The Way Out Is The Way In guitar on "Music & Cosmic (Feel Yourself)" (sampled from Channel Light Vessel's Automatic) (1995) [Audio Active & Laraaji] All Saints
Alienshamanism guitar solo on "Alienshamanism – Prologue", flamenco guitar solo on "Flamenco Luminoso", guitars and ebo (sic) guitars on "Desire Machine" (2000) Dr.Jan (guru) Nap
Selected Esoterica (2003) [Dr.Jan (guru)] Kaerucafe
Communion (2003) Jan Linton/Dr.Jan (guru)] Explosion
Monsoon Featuring Sheila Chandra E-bow guitars, electric guitar, re-release of Third Eye includes several previously unreleased tracks (1995) [Monsoon] Mercury Records
Dreams And Absurdities (2015) Dave Sturt Esoteric/Antenna
Singles as collaborator
"Are You Receiving Me" / "And I Believe in You" guitar, backing vocals (1982) [Yukihiro Takahashi] Japanese release Yen / Alfa
"Wings of the Dawn" / "Ever So Lonely", "And I You" e-bow guitar 7", 12" (1982) [Monsoon] Phonogram
"Tomorrow Never Knows" / "Indian Princess" guitar and "base" (sic) 7", 12" (1982) [Monsoon] Phonogram
"Stranger Things Have Happened" / "Bounds of Reason, Bonds of Love" vocals, guitar, keyboards "Metaphysical Jerks" guitar, keyboards, writer 12" (1985) [Yukihiro Takahashi] Cocteau
"Castles in Spain" / "A Gathering", "Ring Those Bells" co-writer with The Armoury Show on "Ring Those Bells" only 12" (1985) The Armoury Show Parlophone
The Eternal Desire Machines of Dr Jan guitars and ebo (sic) guitars on "Desire Machine (dance meditation)" EP (1999) [Dr.Jan (guru)] Global Vision Music
Three White Roses & A Budd: "No Shade, No Shadow", "Adrift Amidst Les Odalisques", "The Airless Time", "Blue Locus" EP (2002) Harold Budd, Bill Nelson & Fila Brazillia Twentythree Records
Compilation albums as collaborator
A to Austr (Musics From Holy Ground) (1970) [Various Artists] Holyground
Astral Navigations guitar on 3 tracks by Light Years Away "Yesterday", "Today (North Country Cinderella)", "Tomorrow (Buffalo)" (1971) A-side: [Light Years Away], B-side: [Thundermother] Holyground
87–90 includes "Magic Boomerang", "Take Your Time" [The Mock Turtles] also released as single (1990) [Various Artists] Imaginary
Gagalactyca guitar, recorded from Holyground sessions 1968–1970 (1990) [Various Artists] Holyground
Loose Routes guitar, recorded from Holyground sessions, includes Global Village's "Global Fantasy" (a re-working of Traffic's "Dear Mr. Fantasy") and other tracks 1968–1970 (1990) [Various Artists] 2-LP Holyground
Drop 5 (The Liquid Side of Dance) guitar (possibly just a guitar sample) also features David Torn, Richard Barbieri, Brian Eno, Jah Wobble, Steve Jansen, Hector Zazou, possibly David Sylvian (1998) [Various Artists] Italian release Materiali Sonori
communion ii download compilation (2015?) [Jan Linton] Burning Shed
Bibliography
Nelson, Bill diary of a hyperdreamer (2004) Bill Nelson's collected diaries from between 1999 and 2003, previously published on his official website Pomona
Nelson, Bill Painted From Memory (Sketches for an Autobiography) Volume One: Evocation of a Radiant Childhood (2010) Autumn Ink Incorporated self-published
Nelson, Bill diary of a hyperdreamer vol.2 (2015) Bill Nelson's collected diaries from between 2005 and 2006, previously published on his official website Pomona
Reeves, Paul Sutton Music in Dreamland Bill Nelson & Be-Bop Deluxe (2008) Helter Skelter publishing
References
External links
Official website
William's Study (Diary Of A Hyperdreamer): Nelson's online diary 2015-2005
Permanent Flame – an archive of a previous Nelson site with more content
Holyground Records website – details of Nelson's early work
Gilby, Ian 1984/1985 interview in Home Studio Recording magazine detailing Nelson's then leading edge of multi-track home recording technology
Sound on Sound website – search results for Bill Nelson (news items, articles)
– first shown at the launch party for New Northern Dream album, a series of photographs of Nelson throughout the years, together with a selection of his music from the 21st century
20th-century English painters
English male painters
21st-century English painters
1948 births
Art rock musicians
Be-Bop Deluxe members
Bill Nelson's Red Noise members
Caroline Records artists
Discipline Global Mobile artists
English electronic musicians
English experimental musicians
English rock guitarists
English male guitarists
English male songwriters
English record producers
English new wave musicians
Enigma Records artists
Glam rock musicians
Harvest Records artists
Imaginary Records artists
Living people
Musicians from Wakefield
Virgin Records artists
20th-century English male artists
21st-century English male artists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Jackson%20Hooker
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William Jackson Hooker
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Sir William Jackson Hooker (6 July 178512 August 1865) was an English botanist and botanical illustrator, who became the first director of Kew when in 1841 it was recommended to be placed under state ownership as a botanic garden. At Kew he founded the Herbarium and enlarged the gardens and arboretum.
Hooker was born and educated in Norwich. An inheritance gave him the means to travel and to devote himself to the study of natural history, particularly botany. He published his account of an expedition to Iceland in 1809, even though his notes and specimens were destroyed during his voyage home. He married Maria, the eldest daughter of the Norfolk banker Dawson Turner, in 1815, afterwards living in Halesworth for 11 years, where he established a herbarium that became renowned by botanists at the time.
He held the post of Regius Professor of Botany at Glasgow University, where he worked with the botanist and lithographer Thomas Hopkirk and enjoyed the supportive friendship of Joseph Banks for his exploring, collecting and organising work. in 1841 he succeeded William Townsend Aiton as Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. He expanded the gardens at Kew, building new glasshouses, and establishing an arboretum and a museum of economic botany. Among his publications are The British Jungermanniae (1816), Flora Scotica (1821), and Species Filicum (184664).
He died in 1865 from complications due to a throat infection, and was buried at St Anne's Church, Kew. His son, Joseph Dalton Hooker, succeeded him as Director of Kew Gardens.
Family
Hooker's father Joseph Hooker was related to the Baring family and worked for them in Exeter and Norwich as a wool-stapler, trading in worsted and bombazine. He was an amateur botanist who collected succulent plants, and was, according to his grandson Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, "mainly a self-educated man and a fair German scholar". Joseph Hooker was related to the sixteenth-century historian John Hooker, and the theologian Richard Hooker.
His mother, Lydia Vincent, the daughter of James Vincent, belonged to a family of Norwich worsted weavers and artists. Her cousin, William Jackson, was William Jackson Hooker's godfather. Upon his death in 1789 William Jackson bequeathed his estate in Seasalter, Kent, to his godson, who inherited it when he was 21. Lydia Vincent's nephew, George Vincent, was one of the most talented of the Norwich School of painters.
Biography
Early life and education
William Jackson Hooker was born on 6 July 1785 at 7177 Magdalen Street, Norwich. A child named William Jacson Hooker was christened by his parents Joseph and Lydia Hooker at the nonconformist Tabernacle in Norwich on 9 November 1785. He attended the Norwich Grammar School from about 1792 until his late teens, but none of the school records from the period he was there have been kept, and little is known of his schooldays. He developed an interest in entomology, reading and natural history during his boyhood.
In 1805, Hooker discovered a moss (now known as Buxbaumia aphylla) when out walking on Rackheath, north of Norwich. He visited the Norwich botanist Sir James Edward Smith to consult his Linnean collections. Smith advised the young Hooker to contact the botanist Dawson Turner about his discovery.
Upon reaching the age of 21 he inherited an estate in Kent from his godfather. His independent means allowed him to travel and develop his interest in natural history.
As a young man Hooker was fascinated by the endemic birds of Norfolk and spent time studying them on the Broads and the Norfolk coast. He became skilled in drawing them and understanding their behaviour. He also studied insects and, when still at school, his skills were appreciated by the Reverend William Kirby. In 1805, Kirby dedicated the Omphalapion hookerorum, a species of weevil, to him and his brother Joseph: "I am indebted to an excellent naturalist, Mr. W. J. Hooker, of Norwich, who first discovered it, for this species. Many other nondescripts have been taken by him and his brother, Mr. J. Hooker, and I name this insect after them, as a memorial of my sense of their ability and exertions in the service of my favourite department of natural history."
In 1805 Hooker went to be trained in estate management at Starston Hall, Norfolk, perhaps because of the need to be able to manage his own newly acquired estates. He lived there with Robert Paul, a gentleman farmer. In 1806 he was introduced to Sir Joseph Banks, the president of the Royal Society. He elected to the Linnean Society of London that year.
Early friends and patrons
When a young man, Hooker gained the patronage and friendship of some of most important naturalists in eastern England, including Smith, who had founded the Linnean Society of London in 1788 and owned Carl Linnaeus's collection of plants and books, the botanist and antiquarian Dawson Turner, and Joseph Banks.
In 1807, Hooker was bitten by an adder when walking near Burgh Castle and badly hurt. He was found by friends and taken to Dawson Turner's house, where he was cared for until he recovered completely from the effects of the snake's bite. Once he had fully recovered, he accompanied Turner and his wife Mary on a tour of Scotland. In 1808, he again travelled to Scotland, this time accompanied by his friend William Borrer. During this journey he discovered a new species of moss, Andreaea nivalis, on Ben Nevis, which may have led to him publishing a paper Some Observations on the Genus Andreaea in 1810.
Hooker produced the illustrations for James Edward Smith's paper Characters of Hookeria, a new Genus of Mosses, with Descriptions of Ten Species, a genus named by Smith in honour of William and his older brother Joseph. Hooker had discovered a specimen of the moss in the countryside around Holt. From 1806 to 1809 he was a constant guest of Dawson Turner in Yarmouth, where he produced the illustrations for Turner's four-volume Historia Fucorum. He also spent time in London, where he took up rooms in Frith Street, near the British Museum.
By 1807, Hooker had begun work as a supervising manager at a brewery at Halesworth, in partnership with Dawson Turner and Samuel Paget. Sharing a quarter of the company, he lived in the brewery house, which had a large garden and a greenhouse in which he grew orchids. The brewing venture proved to be unsuccessful, for he had no capacity for business. He remained as the manager there for ten years, living at 15 Quay Street, Halesworth.
Excursions abroad
Hooker inherited enough money to be able to travel at his own expense. His first botanical expedition abroad—at the suggestion of the naturalist Sir Joseph Banks, who had made a previous visit in 1772—was to Iceland, in the summer of 1809. He sailed on the Margaret and Anne, arriving at Reykjavík in June. That month an attempt at Icelandic independence was staged by the Danish adventurer Jørgen Jørgensen.
During his return voyage, the Margaret and Anne, in a dead calm, was discovered to be on fire, the result of sabotage which was afterwards found to have been planned by Danish prisoners. Hooker and the ship's company were all rescued, but the fire destroyed most of his drawings and notes. Banks later offered Hooker the use of his own papers, and with these materials, along with the surviving parts of his own journal, his good memory aided him to publish an account of the island, its inhabitants and flora: his A Journal of a Tour in Iceland (1809) was privately circulated in 1811 and published two years later.
In 1810–11, he made extensive preparations, and sacrifices which proved financially serious, with a view to travelling to Ceylon, to accompany the newly-appointed governor, Sir Robert Brownrigg. He sold property inherited from his godfather, William Jackson, to raise the necessary capital for the journey. Political upheaval there led to the project being abandoned. In 1812 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London.
In 1813, encouraged by Sir Joseph Banks, he considered travelling to Java, but was dissuaded from the idea by friends and family.
In 1814, he travelled in Europe for nine months, going to Paris with the Turners, then travelling alone to Switzerland, southern France, and Italy, where he studied plants and visited notable botanists. The following year he married the eldest daughter of his friend Dawson Turner. Settling at Halesworth, he devoted himself to the formation of his herbarium, which became of worldwide renown among botanists. In 1815, he was made a corresponding member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
Career in Glasgow
In February 1820, Hooker was appointed as the regius professor of botany in the University of Glasgow, taking over from the Scottish physician and botanist Robert Graham, and inheriting a small botanic garden that was underfunded and lacking in plants. In May he was received by the University and read his inaugural thesis in Latin, written by his father-in-law, Dawson Turner. Hooker was faced with the prospect of delivering lectures to students, when he had never previously taught, and was ignorant of some aspects of botany: his position within the medical faculty inspired him to study for a medical degree.
He soon became popular as a lecturer, his style being both clear and eloquent, and people such as local army officers came to attend them. For 15 years he delivered a summer course on botany, required to be studied by all medical students—for the remaining months of the year he was free to study, work on his publications and his herbarium, and correspond with other botanists.
His classroom was remarkable for having drawings of plants on display to assist the students, and their course included trips to study plants, organised by Hooker. Student numbers increased from 30 in 1820 to 130 ten years later. He earned £144 in his first year, which later increased, but still needed to supplement his income by tutoring two boys from wealthy families, who lived with the family.
His years at Glasgow were his most productive, when he was known as the most active botanist in the country. In 1821 he brought out the Flora Scotica, written to be used by his botany students. He was awarded a doctorate by Glasgow University in 1821. He worked with the lithographer and botanist Thomas Hopkirk to establish the Royal Botanic Institution of Glasgow and to lay out and develop the Botanic Gardens. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1823.
Under Hooker, the Botanic Gardens enjoyed remarkable success and became prominent in the botanic world. The garden was his responsibility and he set to work developing it with the help of his extensive network of friends and acquaintances. Principal among these was Sir Joseph Banks, who promised Kew's help. The botanic gardens steadily acquired new plants, often from visiting naturalists, or from students who had travelled. His work on the botanic garden resulted in experts expressing the view that "Glasgow would not suffer by comparison with any other establishment in Europe".
During his professorship at Glasgow, his numerous published works included Flora Londinensis, British Flora, Flora Boreali-Americana, Icones Filicum, The Botany of Captain Beechey's Voyage to the Bering Sea, Icones Plantarum, Exotic Flora (1823–27), 13 volumes of Curtis's Botanical Magazine (from 1827), and the first seven volumes of Annals of Botany.
In 1836, Hooker was made a Knight of the Royal Guelphic Order and a Knight Bachelor in recognition of his work at Glasgow and his services to botany. Although officially recognised in this way, he became increasingly disillusioned with how his work was viewed by the University authorities, and by 1839 was feeling as if the "dignity of the position was stripped to one of ridicule and his work was dismissed as of no account".
During his time in Glasgow, he lived, for several summers, at Invereck at the head of the Holy Loch. "He seems to have devoted special attention to the vegetation of the neighbourhood," wrote John Colegate in 1868. "The result of his inquiries were published in the Rev. Dr. McKay's Statistical Account of the United Parishes of Dunoon and Kilmun."
Director of Kew Gardens
The origins of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew can be traced to the merging of the royal estates of Richmond and Kew in 1772, when the garden at Kew Park formed by Henry, Lord Capell of Tewkesbury was enlarged by Augusta, Dowager Princess of Wales. The gardens were developed by the architect William Chambers, who built the pagoda in 1761, and by George III, who was aided by William Aiton and Sir Joseph Banks. The Dutch House, now known as Kew Palace, was purchased by George III in 1781 for his children. The adjoining White House was demolished in 1802. The plant collections at Kew were first enlarged systematically by Francis Masson in 1771, but had since the death of George III slowly declined. In 1838, a Parliamentary review of the nation's royal gardens recommended the development of Kew as a national botanical garden.
In April 1841 he was appointed as the Garden's first full time Director, on the resignation of William Townsend Aiton. Following his appointment as director, a position he had long wished for, he wrote "I feel as if I were to begin life over again", in a letter to Dawson Turner. He started on an annual salary of £300, with an additional allowance of £200. To Allan, who described Hooker as a man with "drive, enthusiasm and creative ability", he was eminently suited for the post, being a professional botanist, an artist, a leader with connections to others in the botanical world, who was knowledgeable about plants from Britain and those collected from around the world. The curator of Kew Gardens during Hooker's period as Director was the experienced and knowledgeable botanist John Smith (1798–1888).
Under Hooker's direction the gardens expanded considerably in size. Initially about in size, they were extended to in 1841. An arboretum of was introduced, many new glass-houses were erected, and a museum of economic botany was established. In 1843 the Palm House, to a design by the architect Decimus Burton and the iron founder Richard Turner, was constructed at Kew. The gardens and glasshouses were opened daily to the visiting public, who were allowed to wander freely there for the first time. Sir William himself wandered around during opening hours, lending his advice.
He was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1862.
Hooker lived with his family at West Park, a large house in which he accommodated 13 rooms of books in his library, which was seen as a public institution by the world's botanical experts, who were never turned away. Among his visitors were Queen Victoria, her husband Prince Albert and their children; during 1865—the year Hooker died—the attendance had risen to 529,241.
Under Hooker's direction Kew became the centre of an emerging interconnected worldwide network of botanical expertise, and staff recommended by him joined expeditions or worked for botanical gardens around the world. He was invariably consulted when government questions arose about botanical matters. Newly propagated plants and sent from Kew to private and public gardens in Britain, and to botanical gardens overseas, in some cases to be developed as crops.
Marriage and family
In June 1815, he married Maria Sarah Turner, the eldest daughter of Dawson Turner and Mary Palgrave. Maria was an amateur artist who collected mosses, and who with her sister Elizabeth illustrated them for her husband. The couple toured the Lake District and across Ireland on their honeymoon, before travelling to Scotland.
They had five children. William Dawson Hooker (born 1816) was a naturalist who trained as a doctor. He published Notes on Norway (1837 and 1839). He emigrated with his new wife to Jamaica to practise medicine, but died at Kingston, aged 24. Joseph Dalton Hooker (born 1817) became a botanist and was appointed the first assistant director at Kew. He served in this post for 10 years, before taking over as director from his father in 1865. The three daughters in the family were Maria (born 1819), Elizabeth (born 1820), and Mary Harriet (born 1825), who died aged sixteen.
Death
He was engaged on the Synopsis filicum with the botanist John Gilbert Baker when he contracted a throat infection then epidemic at Kew.
Works
Hooker studied mosses, liverworts, and ferns, and published a monograph on a group of liverworts, British Jungermanniae, in 1816. This was succeeded by a new edition of William Curtis's Flora Londinensis, for which he wrote the descriptions (18171828); by a description of the Plantae cryptogamicae of Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland; by the Muscologia, a very complete account of the mosses of Britain and Ireland, prepared in conjunction with Thomas Taylor and first published in 1818; and by his Musci exotici (2 volumes, 18181820), devoted to new foreign mosses and other cryptogamic plants.
Hooker published more than 20 major botanical works over a period of 50 years, including British Jungermanniae (1816), Musci Exotici (18181820), Icones Filicum (18291831), Genera Filicum (1838) and Species Filicum (18461864). Other works include Flora Scotica (1821), The British Flora (1830) and Flora Borealis Americana; or, The Botany of the Northern Parts of British America (1840).
Examples
Plants named after William Jackson Hooker
A number plants have the Latin specific epithet of hookeri which refers to Hooker.
Including;
Allium hookeri
Alsophila hookeri
Anthurium hookeri
Arctostaphylos hookeri
Dasypogon hookeri
Drosera hookeri
Epiphyllum hookeri
Iris hookeri
Kopsiopsis hookeri
Lithops hookeri
Lysiphyllum hookeri
Ozothamnus hookeri
Notholaena hookeri
Pachyphytum hookeri
Prosartes hookeri
Pseudarthria hookeri
Townsendia hookeri
References
Sources
External links
Details of the books, articles, etc. written by William Jackson Hooker from the Biodiversity Heritage Library
Details of collections in the United Kingdom containing Hooker's correspondence, notes and drawings, from the National Archives
The Hookers' blue plaque at Kew (English Heritage)
Details of Hooker's will:
English botanists
Botanical illustrators
1785 births
1865 deaths
British pteridologists
Botanists with author abbreviations
Botanists active in Kew Gardens
English taxonomists
Economic botanists
Independent scientists
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Fellows of the Royal Society
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Academics of the University of Glasgow
Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
People educated at Norwich School
People from Halesworth
Writers from Norwich
Burials at St. Anne's Church, Kew
19th-century British botanists
Scientists from Norwich
Members of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala
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398837
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darren%20Hayes
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Darren Hayes
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Darren Stanley Hayes (born 8 May 1972) is an Australian singer, songwriter, music producer and composer. He was the frontman and singer of the pop duo Savage Garden until their disbandment. Their 1997 album Savage Garden peaked at number 1 in Australia, number 2 in the United Kingdom and number 3 in the United States. It spawned the singles "I Want You", "To the Moon and Back", and Australian and US number 1 "Truly Madly Deeply". The duo followed the success of their debut album with Affirmation (1999), which provided additional hits such as Australian and US number 1 "I Knew I Loved You", and Australian number 3 "The Animal Song". Savage Garden parted ways in 2001.
Hayes released his first solo album Spin in 2002. The album sold two million copies worldwide, debuted at Number 2 in the UK and number 3 in Australia. It delivered the hit single "Insatiable". Hayes's second album, The Tension and the Spark, preceded by single "Pop!ular", was released in 2004. Hayes parted ways with his record label Columbia Records in 2006 and started his own independent record label, Powdered Sugar, from which he would release his third and fourth solo albums, 2007's double-album This Delicate Thing We've Made and 2011's Secret Codes and Battleships. After a decade-long hiatus, Hayes returned in 2022 with his fifth studio album; Homosexual, which was released in October 2022, spawned the singles "Let's Try Being in Love", "Do You Remember?", "Poison Blood", "All You Pretty Things" and "Feels Like It's Over".
Early life and education
At school, Hayes was bullied and physically and verbally abused. He described himself as "a big-hearted, emotional, and excitable" teenager, with an obsession for Star Wars and E.T. Hayes ' father was an alcoholic, and regularly subjected Hayes and his mother to violence.
In late 1987, he got the chance to see his hero Michael Jackson performing live in Brisbane as part of the Bad Tour. He credits this as encouraging him to pursue a career in entertainment. His other acknowledged influences are Stevie Nicks, Madonna, Peter Gabriel, Kate Bush, Annie Lennox, Prince and Marvin Gaye, and he has cited U2's "With or Without You" as the most touching song he has ever heard.
Music career
1993–2001: Savage Garden
In 1993, Hayes answered an advertisement in a Brisbane music magazine, Time Off, placed by Daniel Jones, for a lead vocalist position in the band called Red Edge. Hayes was successful, despite his voice breaking in the audition, as he mentioned in an interview with Rosie O'Donnell. The cover band broke up in 1994 and Hayes formed a partnership with Jones, a duo band initially called Crush. However, another band in the UK already owned the rights to the name. Hayes and Jones submitted their first demo tape to record companies under the name Bliss, before they eventually changed their name to Savage Garden, a phrase used by Anne Rice to describe the world through the eyes of Lestat de Lioncourt in her novel The Vampire Lestat. The Savage Garden is a vision of Earth in which the natural laws of the world govern over anything aesthetic or civil.
Savage Garden started recording their debut album in 1995 with producer Charles Fisher. Their first single, "I Want You", was released in 1996 and was the best selling single by an Australian artist that year. The second single, "To the Moon and Back", topped the Australian charts at the end of 1996. The third single, "Truly Madly Deeply", was their second number one and was the best-selling Australian single of 1997. Their debut album, Savage Garden, was the best-selling album in Australia during 1997 and the duo won ten ARIA awards.
Hayes moved to New York City to promote Savage Garden internationally, while Daniel Jones stayed in Brisbane. The move proved to be successful, with "Truly Madly Deeply" going to the top of the American charts in 1998. The Savage Garden album sold seven million copies in the US on the back of this success.
In New York City, Hayes wrote Affirmation. He had recently divorced his wife of several years. Parts of the album reflected the pain from the end of the relationship. Affirmation was released in 1999 and proved to be another hit, with lead single "I Knew I Loved You" going to number one in the United States, and the album selling six million copies worldwide by the end of 2000. The pair played the title track of the album at the closing ceremony of the 2000 Sydney Olympics.
Hayes moved to Sausalito in 2000. He became the public face of the duo, doing most of the media. Hayes announced that Savage Garden had broken up in October 2001 during a chat with an Australian journalist. Hayes thought the information would be saved for a later article; it was not. When confronted with this information during the early morning hours, before an unrelated interview, Jones denied the break-up of the band. However, it appears that Jones did not believe the reporter was accurately quoting Hayes and denied what he thought was yet another break-up rumour. Still, the fact that Jones took a back seat in all promotional activities for Affirmation seems indicative that Jones was not content to remain within Savage Garden as it had operated in the past. Savage Garden had sold over 23 million albums by that stage.
Luciano Pavarotti and Darren Hayes sang "O Sole Mio" together in a concert in 2000.
In 2005, manager of Savage Garden, John Woodruff confirmed that Jones had announced his intention of leaving Savage Garden prior to the promotion for Affirmation. Woodruff criticised the media for their treatment of Hayes. The duo have never issued a united statement regarding the situation, yet Hayes has guaranteed that the group will "never, by any chance" reunite, adding in 2020, "Imagine if you had come out and survived a really dysfunctional and toxic relationship, and then for years later people would ask you to please get back in that relationship [...] "I once said I'd only do it if it cured cancer and that's still how I feel."
2002–2004: Spin and The Tension and the Spark
Hayes recorded his first solo album, Spin, which was released in 2002. The album was produced by Walter Afanasieff, the producer of Affirmation. Spin carried on in the same musical vein as Savage Garden, with a less soft rock sound and more edgy R&B vibe, although the first single "Insatiable" was a ballad, reaching Number 3 in Australia. Other singles "Strange Relationship", "Crush (1980 Me)" and "I Miss You" also performed well in charts. The album reached the Top 5 in Australia at Number 3, and in the UK at Number 2. It also reached the top ten in Denmark, Sweden and Finland. In the United States, the album failed to make the same impact as Savage Garden's previous releases, reaching Number 35 on Billboard. It was later re-issued with a bonus disc consisting of some live and studio tracks.
Hayes spent two years working on his second solo album, The Tension and the Spark. Other than the track "I Forgive You", which was produced with Madonna collaborator Marius De Vries, the entire album was produced by Hayes and Robert Conley (with whom he had previously toured and recorded "Crush (1980 Me)" for Spin and "Do You Believe" for Specificus). The album marked a bold change of direction for Hayes. Conley's production was almost entirely electronic, with acoustic instruments buried under walls of sequenced sounds. Although artistically this was a huge step forward and earned Hayes the strongest praise of his career, it alienated a large portion of his audience, who were expecting another album of radio-friendly pop songs. The first single, "Pop!ular", was released on 12 July 2004. This single reached Number One on the US Dance Charts, and fared well in the UK. Hayes's follow-up single, "Darkness", charted in the lower regions of the ARIA top 50 charts.
One of his out-takes from the Spin sessions, "When You Say You Love Me", was recorded by Clay Aiken in 2003 for his Measure of a Man album. It was later covered by Human Nature, resulting in an Australian top 20 single in April 2004 off their Walk The Tightrope album, and was then re-recorded in 2008 featuring Hayes himself.
2005–2006: Truly Madly Completely and parting ways with Columbia
In 2005, Hayes recorded a track he wrote with Robert Conley called "So Beautiful", which was included on the Savage Garden greatest hits compilation, Truly Madly Completely: The Best of Savage Garden. The compilation also includes a second track by Hayes called "California". Both of these tracks hark back to Hayes's early sound, although still retaining some of the electronic flourishes from The Tension and the Spark.
On 9 July 2006, Hayes announced that he had parted ways with Columbia Records after ten years and 24 million album sales together.
The tour following this release saw Hayes play the iconic Sydney Opera House. The performance was recorded and released on a DVD titled A Big Night in with Darren Hayes.
2007–2010: This Delicate Thing We've Made and We Are Smug
Hayes finished recording his third solo album, This Delicate Thing We've Made, in 2007. The album was a double-disc, with 25 tracks. Many of the tracks were co-written with Robert Conley, and a great deal of the album was written with and produced by Justin Shave, who played keyboards for part of Hayes's Time Machine tour. The album was released on 20 August 2007 on Hayes's own independent record label, Powdered Sugar, while the first single, "On the Verge of Something Wonderful", was released in Australia on 28 July 2007, and in the UK and online on 6 August 2007.
On 9 April 2007, Hayes released the album track "Who Would Have Thought" from This Delicate Thing We've Made as a teaser track on his official website, as well as his MySpace profile. This was accompanied by an animation for the song created by his partner, animator and director, Richard Cullen. Around April 2007, remixes of the album track "Step into the Light" were being played in clubs around the world. The album version of "Step into the Light" was released as a teaser on Hayes's official website and MySpace on 30 April 2007.
During the first half of 2007, Hayes performed selected songs from the album in The Time Machine World Tour small, exclusive gigs around the world. Tickets for several of these much sought after shows sold out in under ten minutes. In June 2007, Hayes embarked on a small tour of USA and Canada, stopping in New York, Toronto, Chicago, San Francisco and Los Angeles, along with the band Temposhark. The shows were well received with very positive reviews.
On 30 June 2007, Hayes headlined the London Gay Pride at Trafalgar Square. He performed "I Want You" and "On the Verge of Something Wonderful", as well as a medley that included "Pop!ular".
In July 2007, Hayes announced The Time Machine Tour that would start out in the UK, and then move on to Hayes's home country Australia. On 29 July 2007, "On the Verge of Something Wonderful" was the most selected music video on The Box in the UK. On 20 August 2007, This Delicate Thing We've Made was released in the UK, America and Australia. 'The Time Machine Tour' included venues such as The Royal Albert Hall and the State Theatre in Sydney. His stage was again designed by Willie Williams and included a large bridge that could extend over the first few rows of seats. On the final night, at the Queensland Performing Arts Centre in Hayes's hometown of Brisbane, the performance was recorded in HD for a DVD release. The Time Machine Tour DVD came out in two editions: the special edition which was limited to 2000 copies and contained a four-panel, fold-out, gleaming white box, a thirty-two-page color booklet with 300 photos and notes from the artist, and the regular edition. The special edition DVD, which was only available from Hayes' website, was shipped to purchasers on 1 July, and the regular edition, which was available in shops, was released on 22 July.
Hayes did a mini tour in the US in November and December 2007, making appearances at Borders stores and performing two shows in New York City and Philadelphia.
On 18 December 2007, Hayes announced "The Side Two Tour". The show toured the UK in February 2008 and featured Hayes performing songs from This Delicate Thing We've Made that were not featured on "The Time Machine Tour", in a more intimate setting. In late 2008, the DVD This Delicate Film We've Made was announced. The DVD featured selected songs from the album, arranged in a new sequence, and set to visuals that told a loose, abstract animated narrative. The DVD entered the UK music DVD charts at Number 1.
On 19 April 2009, Hayes teased via Twitter that he was preparing another album. On 8 May, Hayes announced, via his MySpace page, that he and Robert Conley had produced an album together titled We Are Smug. The ten-track album, with a fair amount of experimentation with both lyrics and music, was made available via a link from his MySpace page, and was made free to download to gauge acceptability of Hayes's shifting musical styles. The album is heavily electronic with some heavy beats. It also contains some explicit content. Both Hayes and Conley share vocal duties on this album.
Hayes signed to Sony ATV Music Publishing for a worldwide deal in August 2009. Emma Banks from CAA UK came on board October 2009 to represent Hayes for his touring plans around the new album.
Although the album was completed before the holidays in 2009, Hayes announced in early 2010 that he had more song ideas and he was going back into the studio, which delayed the album another year. Hayes completely finished his fourth solo album in mid-2010, working with top writer/producers from around the world and having the record mixed by Robert Orton.
Hayes also recorded a song for the Finn tribute album He Will Have His Way, a cover of "Not Even Close". It was released on Halloween 2010.
2011–2021: Secret Codes and Battleships and hiatus
On 17 April 2011, Hayes announced that he had signed a record deal with Mercury Records/Universal Music Australia and signed to EMI Services UK /Europe. He released his fourth studio album in October 2011. The first single titled "Talk Talk Talk" was announced in May and was released on 24 June. The single contains a cover version of Madonna's "Angel" as the B-side.
It was announced on 20 June, via Hayes's Facebook page, that his new album would be titled Secret Codes and Battleships.
Hayes announced on Twitter on 22 July that he was shooting a second music video from the album. On 14 August, he revealed in a radio interview that "Black Out the Sun" will be the second single from Secret Codes and Battleships. Since its release in the UK, BBC Radio 2 has selected the track to feature on their A list the week commencing 1 October 2011. He later confirmed, on Twitter, that this song will be the single for the UK and other international markets, while "Bloodstained Heart" would be the second single in Australia. Hayes played dates on "The Secret" Tour in the UK and Australia beginning on 15 October in Liverpool. Hayes tweeted, on 2 March 2012, that he would be shooting another music video the week after. He later confirmed the music video was being shot for "Stupid Mistake", which was released as the album's fourth single in May 2012.
Since 2013, Hayes stopped his music career and tried to build a stand-up comedy career. At the same time, he kept creating short singing videos in his social media accounts for his fans. In an 2022 interview with Queerty, Hayes said that he had actually planned to retire at that point. In 2018 Hayes briefly returned on stage with one-off performance of two songs, including "I Knew I Loved You". In 2019, Hayes featured on Cub Sport's single "I Never Cried So Much in My Whole Life". He did not appear in the official video. In 2020 he recorded a new version of "Truly Madly Deeply" with slightly modified lyrics. The video of his studio performance was released on YouTube on 24 April.
2022–present: Homosexual and Do You Remember? tour
On 26 January 2022, Hayes released the single, "Let's Try Being in Love". A music video for the song was released the same day, starring Hayes and featuring actor Scott Evans. The video was directed by Andrew Putschoegl. Referred to as a "queer anthem" by NME, in promotional interviews, Hayes explained "I've been married to Richard [Cullen] for almost 17 years, [and] I'm in this really comfortable place in my life. But at the same time at mid-life I'm grieving the fact I never got to celebrate who I really was at the period of my life where I was most famous. I look at this world we live in now where someone like Lil Nas X can push forward his true self, full of pride and self-love and have the chance to be loved for who he truly is [...] A lot of the time I was my most famous, I was deeply sad." Less than 24 hours of release, "Let's Try Being in Love" debuted at number 96 on the Official UK Singles Download Chart Top 100 and at number 98 on the Official UK Singles Sales Chart Top 100. The single also peaked at number 9 on the Australian Independent singles chart. "I wanted to show I love the feminine in me, be proud of the gay me. There's a dance scene that is so passionate, everything's alive and thriving and blooming. That's how I feel in general about music. And that's a hugely sharp contrast to how I felt 10 years ago."
On 27 January 2022, Hayes announced he would be headlining the 2022 Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras Parade and would be performing on 5 March 2022. Hayes performed "The Animal Song", "I Want You", "Affirmation" plus, live for the very first time, "Let's Try Being in Love".
On 2 March 2022, Hayes announced the Do You Remember? Tour that would be performed in six Australian cities between January and February 2023 and would feature songs from his musical career as part of Savage Garden and as a solo artist. On 10 March 2022, Hayes released the single "Do You Remember?", following with the official video on 16 March 2022. In June 2022, Hayes released "Poison Blood", which details his life living with depression, and others affected by it. Hayes released the official "Poison Blood" music video on 26 June 2022, announcing UK Tour dates on the same day. A remix of "Let's Try Being in Love" was released on 15 July 2022, with production helmed by Louis La Roche. This was followed on 29 July by Roche's remix to "Do You Remember?".
On 18 August 2022, Hayes announced that Homosexual, his fifth studio album, would be released that October. A fourth single, "All You Pretty Things", was released on 19 August 2022. When the album was released on 7 October 2022, Hayes said "My new album was born from a desire to rid myself of the grief I developed over the years I lost to shame growing up in a world where being gay was met with rejection and condemnation. I wanted to revisit my teenage years with the wisdom of a proud 50-year-old gay man and revisit my youthful memories and view them through this new peach-tinted lens of joy. I imagined an adolescence where I could be loved for who I truly am today. Through this music, my goal was to reclaim my happiness and reclaim my identity. That confidence gave me the courage to explore deep wounds in my life and explore old trauma from the perspective of an effervescent endless summer." Homosexual debuted at number 6 on the Australian Digital Albums and number 16 on the Australian Artist Albums Chart. The album debuted at number 82 on the UK Albums Chart, also placing on the UK Download and Album Sales charts, placing at numbers 3 and 13, respectively.
In April 2023, Hayes graced the cover of Washington, DC’s Metro Weekly. The magazine featured a 13-page pictorial and Q&A about Hayes’ past career and recently-concluded Do You Remember? tour. On 10 February 2023, Peking Duk released a version of "I Want You" featuring re-recorded vocals by Hayes. On 1 May 2023, Hayes released an official music video for "Feels Like It's Over", directed by Andrew Huebscher. An edited version of the song was released as the fifth single from Homosexual on 12 May 2023.
Other media
In December 2014, Hayes announced a comedy podcast "The He Said, He Said Show".[16] The podcast debuted on 10 February 2015.[4] Rosie O'Donnell has appeared as a guest.[17] The podcast ended its run at the end of the year. Hayes has co-hosted a comedic movie review podcast with writer and comedian Anthony Armentano called "We Paid To See This". Some of Hayes' sketch comedy can be found on his YouTube page including a Star Wars spoof documentary and several of his sketches he wrote and performed during his time studying at The Groundlings Theatre and School. On 13 March 2016, Hayes announced he had been writing an original musical with writer and comedian Johnny Menke. As of March 2022, the musical has yet to be publicly performed or recorded.
Personal life
Hayes married his childhood sweetheart, makeup artist Colby Taylor, in 1994. They were still married when Savage Garden "skyrocketed to fame around the globe in the late 1990s." They separated in 1998 and were divorced in 2000. Much of the lyrics for the band's second album, Affirmation, dealt with his divorce. He recorded Affirmation in San Francisco mid-1999 and eventually bought a house there. He also maintained a base in London since 2004. In 2013, Hayes moved to Los Angeles.
Hayes started coming out as gay to friends and the head of his label, Sony, in the early 2000s. He entered into a private marriage ceremony with his boyfriend of two years, Richard Cullen, on 23 July 2005 in London. On 19 June 2006, also in London, they entered into a formal civil partnership. Hayes and Cullen applied for a marriage licence in California, and were married on 15 July 2013, to show their support for those fighting for same-sex marriage. Though public speculation about his sexual orientation had been present throughout his career, he kept his personal life private. He announced the event the day prior on his official website. Before the announcement, Cullen's name had appeared on the website as the designer of the cover for Hayes's single "So Beautiful". In a 2017 interview with Attitude, Hayes commented, "I don't regret [publicly coming out] for a second. It wasn't that I was blacklisted, but it was that I became a 'niche' artist purely based on my sexuality. There was a kind of unintentionally patronizing view of me. No longer a sexual object, but more of someone you might take home to Mom [...] I was suddenly your gay uncle. That was frustrating. My sexuality was used as a descriptor, and if you think about it, that's nuts. No one says 'Openly heterosexual singer Adele.' "
In May 2023, Hayes shared a statement confirming his separation from Cullen, in which he said:
"After 17 years of marriage to the best person I ever met, Richard and I have chosen to accept that our union has gently and beautifully come to rest. In honour of this realisation, we separated earlier this year and have been supporting each other emotionally throughout this massive change in our lives. Because people will ask, let me answer the ugly questions to get them out of the way forever – no, there’s no scandal to report, no infidelity, guilty or third party. It's just life. We adore each other and always will. We view our marriage as our greatest collaboration. Nobody can ever take away what we achieved together. We are still best friends. We always will be."
Hayes has often been open about his mental health struggles, namely with depression, that go back to his childhood, and his depression with hiding his sexuality whilst in Savage Garden. "I was deeply unhappy, barely containing secrets that would soon devastate me emotionally and send me to the brink of suicide at the height of my fame." Whilst promoting his 2022 single "Poison Blood", Hares told Retro Pop Magazine: "I describe my depression as a blessing, a gift and a curse all at once. I wouldn't wish it upon my worst enemy and yet I’m aware I am a deeply sensitive person, and that my unique brain allows me to feel depths of emotions that many people don’t experience [...] I have learned to use those moments to channel melodies and stories that I hope are so real and so relatable they might reach someone else who is in pain, like me, and remind them to stay, like I choose to, every single day." In 2023, Hayes elaborated, "I think we always have to remember that each one of us is essential and that we change and improve everybody's lives. Everybody is affected positively by our place on this earth. Every time that I've had a thought about wishing that I wasn't here, when the mood passes, the next day, something trivial will happen, and I think, "I'm so glad I was here to witness that." And that trivial moment can be as simple as having the best mac and cheese ever, or as brilliant as Madonna releasing a new song."
Hayes is a Star Wars fan, and has been since childhood. He also collects Star Wars memorabilia, and he even auditioned for a role in Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith. After JoJo's Bizarre Adventure licensed the Savage Garden song "I Want You" to be used in the television adaptation of Diamond Is Unbreakable, Hayes expressed his gratitude and also revealed that he is a fan of the series.
Discography
Studio albums
Spin (2002)
The Tension and the Spark (2004)
This Delicate Thing We've Made (2007)
Secret Codes and Battleships (2011)
Homosexual (2022)
Awards and nominations
References
External links
1972 births
20th-century Australian male singers
21st-century Australian male singers
APRA Award winners
Australian expatriates in the United States
Australian expatriates in England
Australian pop singers
Australian male singer-songwriters
Australian singer-songwriters
Australian tenors
Gay singers
Australian gay musicians
Australian LGBT singers
Australian LGBT songwriters
Gay songwriters
Living people
People from Brisbane
Musicians from Brisbane
20th-century Australian LGBT people
21st-century Australian LGBT people
Columbia Records artists
Mercury Records artists
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398862
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Arsenal
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Royal Arsenal
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The Royal Arsenal, Woolwich is an establishment on the south bank of the River Thames in Woolwich in south-east London, England, that was used for the manufacture of armaments and ammunition, proofing, and explosives research for the British armed forces. It was originally known as the Woolwich Warren, having begun on land previously used as a domestic warren in the grounds of a mid-16th century Tudor house, Tower Place. Much of the initial history of the site is linked with that of the Office of Ordnance, which purchased the Warren in the late 17th century in order to expand an earlier base at Gun Wharf in Woolwich Dockyard.
Over the next two centuries, as operations grew and innovations were pursued, the site expanded massively. At the time of the First World War the Arsenal covered and employed close to 80,000 people. Thereafter its operations were scaled down. It finally closed as a factory in 1967 and the Ministry of Defence moved out in 1994. Today the area, so long a secret enclave, is open to the public and is being redeveloped for housing and community use.
17th-century origins: the Gun Wharf and Tower Place
The Royal Arsenal had its origins in a domestic warren at Tower Place in Old Woolwich. Tower Place was a Tudor mansion built in the 1540s for Martin Bowes, a wealthy goldsmith and merchant, later Lord Mayor of London. The house with its octagonal tower stood nearby Gun Wharf (the original site of Woolwich Dockyard where the Henry Grace à Dieu had been built around 1515). After the Dockyard moved west in the 1540s, Gun Wharf was acquired by the Office of Ordnance and mainly used for gun storage.
In 1651, the owners of Tower Place gave the board permission to prove its guns on the warren that formed part of their land. That same year the first proof butts were built on the site, under the board's direction (24 years later they were enlarged, to enable more guns to be proved at each firing).
Purchase of the site
In 1667, in response to the raid on the Medway, a gun battery (known as Prince Rupert's Battery, being under the command of the King's cousin) was built in the grounds of the house, designed to defend London in the event of a similar raid on the Thames. The following year, Tower Place was acquired by Sir William Pritchard who promptly entered into negotiations to sell it to the Board of Ordnance; and in 1671, the estate was given to the board in exchange for the Gun Wharf and a substantial amount of cash. The board at the time declared the site to be "a convenient place for building a storehouse for powder and other stores of war, and for room for the proof of guns". The first Storekeeper, Captain Francis Cheeseman, was appointed in 1670 by Warrant of the Master-General of the Ordnance.
Proof and experiment
In 1681, King Charles II visited the Warren and observed Richard Leake, Master Gunner of England, conduct an experiment with fire-shot in the proof butts. In 1682 what had till then been the board's main proving ground (in 'Old Artillery Garden' near its headquarters in the Tower of London) was closed and its staff and activities were promptly moved to Tower Place. That year a thousand cannon and ten thousand cannonballs were sent to Woolwich from the Tower, and the proof butts were further expanded.
When the constitution of the Board of Ordnance was formalised by Charles II in 1683, two Proof Masters were appointed, under the Surveyor-General of the Ordnance, to ensure that proofs and trials were conducted correctly and the results duly certified. In 1684 the King paid another visit, when Leake conducted a trial of his newly-developed mortar design.
Centralisation of ordnance stores
In 1688 it was ordered that 'all guns, carriages and stores now at Deptford, be removed to Woolwich, and from henceforth new ordnance and carriages be laid there'. No manufacturing took place at this stage, however, except for the periodical production of fireworks for state celebrations; (between 1681 and 1694 saltpetre, a key ingredient of gunpowder, was regularly refined on the site).
In due course, the site as a whole became known as The Warren.
18th century: The Warren
The Board of Ordnance was both a civil and a military office of State, independent of the Army, overseen by a high-ranking official, the Master-General of the Ordnance. Both branches, civil and military, were represented at the Warren; indeed there was a great deal of overlap: military officers for the most part headed up the civil departments, and civilians often worked alongside the military personnel.
The civil establishment
For most of its history, the civil establishment of the Warren/Arsenal consisted of the following four departments:
The Storekeeper's Department (which managed storage of all kinds of 'warlike stores')
The Royal Laboratory (which manufactured ammunition of all kinds, for small arms as well as artillery)
The Royal Brass Foundry (which manufactured artillery pieces and was later renamed the Royal Gun Factory)
The Royal Carriage Department (which manufactured gun carriages)
In addition, proof butts continued to be maintained by the Board of Ordnance to test guns beyond their normal operational limits and for experimenting with new types of ammunition.
The storekeeper's department
First and foremost, the Warren was established as an Ordnance storage depot. As at the board's other depots, the site was overseen by an official called the storekeeper, who was provided with an official residence in Tower Place itself. The Storekeeper not only controlled the receipt, safekeeping and issue of all the items that were stored on the site; he was also responsible (until the early 1800s) for issuing payments on the board's behalf to all personnel across the different departments. He was assisted by a clerk of the cheque, clerk of the survey and other administrative staff.
To begin with much of the Warren was preserved as open space with cannons stored in the open air and guns proved on ranges to the east. (Proof-testing was overseen at this time by the Master Gunner of England, who was also accommodated in Tower Place.) Gunpowder was stored in a converted dovecote initially; but before long specialist buildings began to appear.
The Royal Laboratory
An ammunition laboratory (i.e. workshop) was set up at the Warren in 1695, overseen by the Comptroller of Fireworks. Manufacture of ammunition had previously taken place within a Great Barn on the tilt-yard at Greenwich Palace (an offshoot of the royal armoury there); but in 1695 construction of Greenwich Hospital began on the palace site, so the laboratory was relocated downstream at Woolwich (the barn building itself was even disassembled and rebuilt at the Warren). In 1696 Laboratory Square was built to house its operations, which included manufacture of gunpowder, shell cases, fuses and paper gun cartridges; it consisted of a quadrangle with a gateway at the north end, buildings along either side and a clock tower at the south end, beyond which further buildings were ranged. The manufacturing process was conducted by hand, overseen by a Chief Firemaster; early paintings show artisans at work in the courtyards among pyramid stacks of shells. A pair of pavilions, which once faced each other across the centre of the courtyard, are now the oldest surviving buildings on the Arsenal site; they were being restored for residential use in 2013.
The Comptroller, Royal Laboratory, had oversight of the Royal Gunpowder Mills in addition to the Woolwich manufactory. From time to time there were public demonstrations of the work of the Laboratory, often in Hyde Park, and by the mid-18th century it was customary for the Royal Laboratory to provide an official 'fireworks display' on occasions such as coronations, peace treaties, royal jubilees etc.
The Royal Brass Foundry
A gun foundry, overseen by a Master Founder, was established in 1717. (The decision of the Board of Ordnance to set up and supervise its own foundry operations followed a devastating explosion at the private foundry it had previously used in Moorfields.) In Woolwich, the original Royal Brass Foundry building survives (built on the site of the relocated "Greenwich Barn"). Its handsome exterior encloses a space designed for pure industrial functionality, with height to accommodate a vertical boring machine, and tall doors permitting easy removal of newly made cannons.
Completed guns could then be taken through what is now Dial Arch into a complex known as the 'Great Pile of buildings' (built 1717-20) to be finished and stored. Behind the surviving frontage and archway was a small courtyard in which the newly forged guns were turned, washed and engraved; beyond which two large gun-carriage storehouses stood (one for the Navy, one for the Army) at either end of a larger quadrangle, with workshops alongside.
The first Master Founder, Andrew Schalch, served in post for 54 years before retiring in 1769 at the age of 78. In 1770 a revolutionary horse-powered horizontal boring machine was installed in the Foundry by his successor, Jan Verbruggen which inspired Henry Maudslay (who worked at the foundry from 1783) to his inventions improving the lathe. Remarkably, it remained in use until 1843 when a steam-powered equivalent replaced it.
From 1780 a new official, the Inspector of Artillery, was given oversight of the Royal Brass Foundry and of other aspects of gun manufacture including carriage-making (for the time being) and proof-testing, which continued to take place on ranges to the east; (over the next hundred years the proof ranges were moved progressively further eastwards as the Arsenal continued to expand).
The carriage works
From the beginning, gun carriages had been stored at the Warren (unlike the guns themselves the wooden carriages had to be kept under cover). The first store ('Old Carriage Yard') had been built as early as 1682, and probably also contained workshops for the repair or scrapping of old carriages. In 1697 a far larger complex of sheds ('New Carriage Yard') was built on what had been Prince Rupert's gun battery.
By the 1750s manufacture of gun carriages was also taking place on site, overseen by the Constructor of Carriages. This took place around New Carriage Square (a low quadrangle of storehouses built alongside, and as an extension of, the Great Pile storehouses in 1728–1729). In 1803 this activity was formalized as the Royal Carriage Department, a recognition of the importance of effective carriage design and manufacture, alongside that of guns and ammunition, as part of ordnance provision.
The military establishment
By 1700 the Board of Ordnance had a team of 20 gunners stationed in the Warren, overseen by the Master Gunner of England, who (except in time of war) assisted in the manufacture as well as the proving of cannons. Building, repair and technical work was undertaken by the board's (civil) artificers, who were drafted in from the Tower of London as and when required. In many respects 'there was no distinction between the Ordnance soldier and the Ordnance civilian' at this time, and a close working relationship endured between the two constituencies across subsequent decades.
The military constitution of the Board of Ordnance was strengthened when, on 26 May 1716, a Royal Warrant directed that two companies of artillery (of a hundred men each, plus officers) and a separate corps of twenty-six military engineers (all officers) be formed on a permanent basis: this marked the foundation of the Royal Artillery and the Royal Engineers. Both had their headquarters in the Warren for a time and (when not mobilized for war) they were regularly engaged in its work.
The regiment of artillery
The two companies of artillery (referred to as 'Royal Artillery' by 1720) were quartered and based at the Warren. By 1722 the detachment had grown and was formally named the Royal Regiment of Artillery. These troops (who were not under the command of the Army but of the Board of Ordnance) provided a versatile workforce on site, as well as helping ensure its security. In 1719 they were provided with their own barracks within the compound, close to Dial Arch: a single block was built, housing 200 men in open barracks accommodation across four floors, with a pair of officers' houses incorporated at each end. (This block has since been demolished, but an identical block (now known as Building 11), survives; it was built alongside the first in 1739–1740, the Regiment having been enlarged).
After the formation of the Regiment in 1716, the Royal Artillery took on responsibility for conducting proof tests and the (recently renamed) post of Master Gunner of Great Britain was abolished. Proving guns at the Warren became part of routine training for gunners of the Royal Artillery, overseen at first by the Board's proofmaster-general (and then, after 1780, by the Inspector of Artillery). In addition to the proof butts, a range was set up in 1787 for gunnery practice, firing parallel to the river across Plumstead Marshes.
The Corps of Engineers
An Order in Council (dated 22 August 1717) increased the size of the Engineer Corps to fifty officers (including the Chief Engineer). Serving under the Board of Ordnance, they received their commissions from the Master-General until 1757 when the King granted them commission and rank equivalent to officers of the Army. In a Royal Warrant of 1787 the Corps (which was still composed solely of officers) was renamed the Corps of Royal Engineers.
Initially, civilians were employed as workers, but in 1787 a Corps of Royal Military Artificers was formed: a body of non-commissioned officers and men who were placed under the command of officers from the Corps of Royal Engineers. From 1795 both these Corps were headquartered in the Warren; alongside their other duties, they had responsibility for the design, construction and maintenance of buildings, wharves and other features across the Arsenal site.
The Royal Military Academy
In 1720, the Board sought to establish an on-site military academy for the education of its Artillery and Engineer officers. Tower Place had by this time largely been demolished, and a new building was erected in its place to provide a base for the new academy alongside a Board Room for the Ordnance Board (with a new residence for the Storekeeper added to the rear). It would not be until 1741, however, that the Royal Military Academy was set up on a firm footing and occupied its rooms in the building. Soon, the Academy's cadets were given their own purpose-built barracks alongside the southern boundary wall; dating from 1751, these were entirely demolished in the 1980s for road widening.
The Royal Military Repository
An offshoot of the Academy was the Royal Military Repository. In the 1770s Captain William Congreve built a "Repository for Military Machines" between New Carriage Square and some open ground to the east. The building housed an educative display of cannons and mortars, and the open space was used as a training ground to help develop skills in handling large artillery pieces on various terrains in different conflict scenarios.
The Ordnance Field Train
In 1792, with Britain on the cusp of war with France, the Board of Ordnance established a Field Train department to ensure supply and storage of guns, ammunition and other equipment for its Artillery and Engineers serving in the field of battle. The small corps (which had its headquarters in the Arsenal) was composed of a permanent cadre of officers, who were supplemented at time of war by uniformed civilians (many of whom were volunteers recruited from the ordnance storekeeper's department). In addition, a number of Royal Artillery sergeants served in the Field Train as Conductors. (The Ordnance Field Train was disbanded following the abolition of the Board of Ordnance, but is now seen as a precursor of the Royal Army Ordnance Corps). The Field Train had its offices in the main guard house and stored its guns, carriages and other equipment in a large building known as the Blue Storehouse (which was near the old Carriage Yard).
Removal of the military to Woolwich Common
By the 1770s the number of artillerymen accommodated in the Warren had increased to 900, prompting the construction of a new Royal Artillery Barracks on the north side of Woolwich Common, where they moved in 1777; whereupon their old barracks were converted into terraces of houses (they continued to house artillery officers for some years, and were later used for senior staff of the Royal Laboratory). The Commandant Woolwich Garrison remained quartered in the Arsenal until 1839, when he was provided with a new house on Woolwich Common (Government House).
The Royal Military Repository was destroyed along with New Carriage Square in the fire of 1802, but soon re-established itself just west of the new Artillery Barracks in the area now known as the Repository Grounds (which continue to be used for military training to this day). What survived of the items on display at the Repository came to be housed in the Rotunda there from 1820 (having been kept in the old Academy building in the interim), where they formed the nucleus of a new Royal Artillery Museum.
In place of the old Repository in the Warren, a new Royal Engineers Establishment was built in 1803 (next to, and contemporary with, the new Carriage Factory). It was a sizeable quadrangle of workshops and other facilities, which served as the Royal Engineers' headquarters until 1856 (when it was converted into a wheel factory for the adjacent Royal Carriage Works). Also in 1803, the Royal Military Artificers were provided with new barracks, outside the Warren (south of Love Lane, halfway between the Warren and the Common); the corps was renamed the Royal Sappers and Miners in 1812. In 1824 the Commanding Royal Engineer, until then resident in the Arsenal, was given a new house in Mill Lane on the edge of the Common. In 1856 the Royal Sappers and Miners merged with the Royal Engineers and the headquarters of the newly unified Corps was moved from Woolwich to Chatham; a small detachment of Engineer officers was retained in Woolwich, however, alongside the house in Mill Lane, where an office building and a works yard were built. The Royal Engineers (after a brief hiatus) retained responsibility for design and construction of the Arsenal's buildings and other structures, latterly as part of the Building Works Department, which remained active until the 1950s.
The Ordnance Field Train also left the Warren, in 1804, moving scores of combat-ready field guns and large stocks of ammunition into the newly-built carriage sheds and magazines of what became known as the Grand Depôt (which stretched from the new Artificers' barracks up towards the new Artillery barracks).
The Royal Military Academy was relocated to the south side of the Common in 1806. The old Academy building, together with the adjacent Storekeeper's residence, then became part of the Royal Laboratory; so the Storekeeper (who still had seniority within the Arsenal) was given a sizeable new house on what was then the south-east edge of the site (later overtaken by expansion, it came to be named after the nearby Middle Gate, the second of three main gates in the Arsenal's perimeter wall). The Cadet Barracks continued to be occupied by the Academy for some time afterwards, initially housing the 'Lower Establishment' (junior cadets), and later accommodating the Practical Class, formed of senior cadets awaiting commission. From the 1860s the cadet barracks began to be converted for other uses, but they were still occasionally used by the Academy as overflow accommodation until as late as 1882.
Consolidation of the site
By 1777 the site had expanded to . The purchase that year of additional land to the east allowed the proof butts to be relocated, realigned and extended in 1779. This in turn freed up additional land on the old Warren site which would be used for a series of substantial building projects in the early 19th century.
In 1777–1778, convict labour was used to construct a (approximately) brick boundary wall, generally high. In 1804 this wall was raised to near the Plumstead road, and to in other parts. (The first boundary wall had been built in 1702, prior to which the Warren had operated on open ground.)
Use of convict labour was key to this period of expansion. It was used to construct a huge new wharf, completed in 1813, and then again in 1814–1816 to dig a canal (the Ordnance Canal), which formed the eastern boundary of the site.
Guardhouses were built at points on the perimeter, manned by troops of the Royal Artillery; one at the main gate (1787–1788) and a pair by the new wharf (1814–1815) are still in place today. The River Thames was key to the Warren and its operations from the earliest days. A dock was built as part of the rebuilt wharf to facilitate loading and unloading from ships (it was supplemented in 1856 by the first in a series of substantial piers). The canal, as well as forming a boundary, provided access for barges; these were initially used to deliver timber to the heart of the carriage-building department and later provided a transit route for guns and explosives.
19th century: The Arsenal
In 1805, at the suggestion of King George III, the entire complex became known as the Royal Arsenal; its constituent elements retained their independence, however.
Expansion during the Napoleonic Wars
The Napoleonic wars prompted an increase of activity at the Arsenal, which affected all areas of its operation.
In 1803–1805 a substantial Royal Carriage Factory was built (on the site of New Carriage Square, which had been destroyed by fire - possibly arson - the previous year). Its outer walls, complete with a contemporary chiming clock, survive; within, where there are now new apartment blocks, there was once a vast engineering and manufacturing complex staffed by wheelwrights, carpenters, blacksmiths and metalworkers. It was here that steam power first came to be used in the Arsenal, when Joseph Bramah installed his patented planing machine in 1805.
The Arsenal was soon a renowned centre of excellence in mechanical engineering, with notable engineers including Samuel Bentham, Marc Isambard Brunel and Henry Maudslay employed there. Brunel was responsible for erecting the steam sawmills, part of the Royal Carriage Department; Maudslay later expanded this buying more steam machinery. The Arsenal also became a noted research facility, developing several key advances in armament design and manufacture. One example was the innovative Congreve Rocket, designed and (from 1805) manufactured on site by William Congreve (son of the Comptroller of the Royal Laboratory). Thenceforward rocket manufacture became a key activity, carried out in purpose-built premises on the eastern edge of the site.
Between 1805 and 1813 the massive Grand Stores complex was constructed alongside new wharves by the river; though celebrated as a landmark of size and dignity befitting the Arsenal, the buildings were immediately, and for many years afterwards, vulnerable to subsidence due to their proximity to the river (this was caused in no small part by on-site supervisors directing the use of cheaper wooden piles in place of the stone foundations specified by the architect, James Wyatt). The buildings formed a three-sided quadrangle of warehouses facing the river, with the central open space used as a shot-yard. (The main range of buildings was flanked by smaller quadrangles to the east and west, only fragments of which survive.) The Grand Store was not uniquely, or even primarily, designed as an artillery store, but rather as warehousing for all kinds of military equipment: an early example of a planned integrated military stores complex.
From 1808, "New Laboratory Square" began to be developed to the north of the original Laboratory complex, with an open-sided quadrangle built around an eighteenth-century Naval storehouse; initially used for storage, it came to be used for manufacturing from the 1850s. (It replaced the 'East Laboratory', a quadrangle of buildings which had been demolished to make way for the Grand Store.) Earlier, in 1804, subsidiary Royal Laboratories were set up in the Dockyard towns of Portsmouth and Devonport and in Upnor Castle near Chatham. The Devonport Laboratory (on Mount Wise) had been converted into barracks by 1834 but ten years later Portsmouth's (which had been overtaken by dockyard expansion) was relocated to Priddy's Hard, where manufacture (initially of small arms ammunition, later of shells and fuzes) continued, overseen from Woolwich.
Proof work continued at this time. In 1803 a burst gun caused damage to nearby buildings, which prompted construction of a new set of proof butts further to the east; these opened (on what would later be the site of the Arsenal's gasworks) in 1808. Starting in 1811, a project was begun to raise the ground level of the eastern part of the Arsenal site, as far as the canal, using material dredged from the river bed (a huge undertaking, which took nine years to complete). Also in 1811, a further 20 acres of marshland to the east was purchased, with a view to re-siting the gunnery range (so as to make room for the new sawmills); a 1,250-yard range was then built. In 1838, however, it was accepted that (due to improved ballistics) a much longer range was required; this would require multiple land purchases (at great expense), but was eventually achieved in 1855 when a 3,000-yard range was opened. At the same time, new proof butts were constructed alongside the range.
Peacetime contraction
Levels of arms manufacture naturally ebbed during the relatively peaceful years after the Battle of Waterloo; between 1815 and 1835 the size of the workforce shrank from 5,000 to 500 (not including military personnel and convicts). At the same time, the Arsenal fell behind the pace of technological change. In the early 1840s, Scottish engineering pioneer James Nasmyth toured the site and described it as a 'museum of technical antiquity'. Nasmyth was subsequently engaged to help modernize the complex, but it was only when Britain was on the brink of war that the pace of mechanization increased until, by 1857 (within the space of a decade), the Arsenal had 2,773 specialized machines at work powered by 68 stationary steam engines. A similar pattern of development was seen at the other Board of Ordnance manufacturing sites: the Royal Small Arms Factory, Enfield and the Royal Gun Powder Factory, Waltham Abbey.
Crimean War: mechanisation and innovation
By 1854, the old Laboratory Square had been roofed over to serve as a vast machine shop at the heart of what was now a munitions factory. The open spaces of the Royal Carriage Works were similarly roofed over and mechanised, and the area of its operations expanded; its carpenters and wheelwrights were moved out into new workshops (which later developed into what is now Gunnery House) east of the main building. (This area had previously been used for the storage and seasoning of the timber used for building the gun carriages.) The building of a new Shot and Shell Foundry, an addition to the Royal Laboratory completed in 1856, enabled manufacture of the latest types of ammunition; this huge complex covered the whole of what is now Wellington Park, and later expanded further to the east.
The Royal Brass Foundry was renamed the Royal Gun Factory in 1855, and its workshops expanded into the Great Pile (Dial Arch) quadrangles. For the first time it diversified into manufacture of iron cannons (which had previously always been commissioned from private contractors); for this it developed a new and much larger foundry complex (on the far side of the Shot and Shell Foundry) which was completed in 1857. The new foundry building, which still stands, was subdivided into three sections (for moulding, casting and trimming) and complemented by a separate forge and boring mill. The early years of its work were defined by famed arms manufacturer William George Armstrong, who in 1859 made his patented designs for rifled ordnance available for government use; (the Arsenal had previously been unable to replicate its effectiveness in-house). He was duly rewarded with a knighthood and the part-time position of Superintendent of the Royal Gun Factory at Woolwich; after further expansion of the factory complex he resigned in 1863 following the demonstration of an even more powerful rifled gun by his rival Sir Joseph Whitworth.
As part of the preparations for the Crimean War (1854–1856), Frederick Abel (later Sir Frederick Abel) had been appointed the first War Department Chemist with the aim of investigating the new chemical explosives which were then being developed. He was mostly responsible for bringing guncotton into safe use and for winning a patent dispute brought by Alfred Nobel against the British Government over the patent rights to cordite which Abel had jointly developed with Professor James Dewar. A new Chemical Laboratory was built to Abel's requirements; this was numbered Building 20. Abel was also responsible for the technical management of the Royal Gunpowder Factory. He retired from the Royal Arsenal in 1888.
1854 saw the installation of a retort house for what would become the Royal Arsenal's Gas Works, which was established close to what was then the north-east corner of the site, just west of the canal. Its superintendent additionally had charge of all hydraulic equipment (lifts, cranes etc.) in use around the Arsenal site (other than that used directly in the process of manufacturing); a pair of hydraulic accumulator towers were built within the eastern outer quadrangle of the Grand Store in 1855 (replacing parts of the building demolished due to subsidence twenty years earlier), which drove machinery throughout the adjacent stores complex.
Demise of the Ordnance Board
In the wake of the Crimean War there was widespread criticism of several aspects of Britain's military command. The Board of Ordnance, much criticised for inefficiency, was disbanded in 1855, and the War Office then took over responsibility for the Arsenal and all its activities. A Military Stores Department was established, with its headquarters in the Arsenal's Grand Store. The manufacturing departments were mostly left to their own devices, though the Ordnance Select Committee (initially set up to assess the merits of the Armstrong Gun) took some responsibility for overseeing ongoing research and development; it and its successors were given Verbruggen's House to serve as offices and a board room from 1859. The same period also saw a shift in guard duties and policing on the site – from 1843 these were shared between the Royal Artillery and a detachment from R (Greenwich) Division of the Metropolitan Police, with the Metropolitan Police taking over such duties completely in 1861 with the formation of a devoted No. 1 (Woolwich Arsenal) Division.
After Crimea
As had happened earlier in the century, the wartime expansion of the 1850s was followed by spending cuts, and workforce contraction, in the 1860s. Twenty years later, though, the Arsenal began to grow again as investment in weaponry research and manufacture resumed. The narrow-gauge Royal Arsenal Railway was opened in 1873, complemented later by a standard-gauge network connected to the main line. Electricity arrived in the Arsenal in the 1870s; initially used for lighting, it was soon used to power all kinds of machinery. An on-site power station was opened (on the site of the east quadrangle of the Grand Store) in 1896.
Mechanical and managerial developments
The Arsenal was still made up of separate divisions. The manufacturing departments (which soon came to be called Ordnance Factories) were each overseen by a (largely independent) Superintendent (who answered directly to the Director of Artillery and Stores): the Royal Laboratory continued to use hundreds of lathes to manufacture ammunition (including bullets, shrapnel shells, fuzes, percussion caps, as well as shot and shells); the Royal Carriage Department continued to build gun carriages, with metal fast replacing wood for this purpose; and the Royal Gun Factory expanded still further, with a new rolling mill and associated boiler house and forge being erected in the early 1870s, and a huge boring-mill ten years later. Tentative moves toward the manufacture of steel guns were made at this time, though these were mainly sourced from outside contractors; it was not till the turn of the century that iron gun manufacture finally ceased in the Arsenal.
Each Factory was responsible for the initial design and final inspection of items, as well as for the intervening manufacturing process. Once completed, all items manufactured on site passed to the Ordnance Store Department, overseen by the Commissary-General of Ordnance (successor to the Storekeepers of old). He had oversight of one of the world's largest depots for military equipment (following the closure of Woolwich Dockyard in 1869 its site had been given over to serve the department as a storage depot); he also had a degree of seniority across the Arsenal as a whole, being responsible for receiving orders from the Director of Artillery and Stores and disseminating them across the departments.
The three Ordnance Factories guarded their autonomy and resisted efforts made to place them under a single command (the appointment in 1868 of a Brigadier-General with the title 'Director-General of Ordnance and Commandant of the Royal Arsenal' was an initiative which lasted only two years). Since ammunition, guns and carriages had to function together, this lack of co-ordination and communication between the departments that manufactured them inevitably caused problems, at a time when the Arsenal was in any case facing criticism for high levels of wasteful expenditure. An 1886 committee of enquiry, under the chairmanship of the Earl of Morley, laid bare these shortcomings and made a number of recommendations, leading among other things to the (civilian) appointment of Sir William Anderson as Director-General of Ordnance Factories (the post was retitled Chief Superintendent of Ordnance Factories, following Anderson's death, in 1899). A key recommendation was for clear managerial separation between the manufacturing departments and those responsible for inspection and approval of their products, which resulted in the establishment of a separate Inspection department under a Chief Inspector of Armaments.
In 1887 the Proof Butts were relocated once again (for the last time) further to the east. Four bays were built, to which a further four were added in 1895. Each bay consisted of a concrete box (25 ft wide by 20 ft high and 70 ft deep, two-thirds filled with sand) open towards the gun position, which was around 500 yards away. (The design was much as it had been in previous centuries, except in concrete rather than wood.) Guns were brought into position using a gantry crane, and various instruments measured velocity and other variables. Further bays, with railway mountings for the guns, would be added during the First World War, by which time the area and its operation was known as the Proof and Experimental Establishment.
Recognising the increasing divergence of naval gun design from that of land artillery, part of the Ordnance Store Department was separated off in 1891 to form an independent Naval Ordnance Store Department, which (from its headquarters in the Arsenal) had oversight of what were soon termed Royal Naval Ordnance Depôts (later RN Armament Depots), including RNAD Woolwich: an extensive storage facility within the Arsenal itself.
Social and sporting activities
In 1868 twenty workers at the Arsenal formed a food-buying association operating from a house in Plumstead and named it the Royal Arsenal Co-operative Society. Over the next 115 years the enterprise grew to half a million members across London and beyond, providing services including funerals, housing, libraries and insurance.
In 1886 workers at the Arsenal formed a football club initially known as Dial Square after the workshops in the heart of the complex, playing their first game on 11 December (a 6–0 victory over Eastern Wanderers) in the Isle of Dogs. Renamed Royal Arsenal two weeks later (and also known as the 'Woolwich Reds'), the club entered the professional football league as Woolwich Arsenal in 1893 and later became known as Arsenal F.C., having moved to north London in 1913. Royal Ordnance Factories F.C. were another successful team set up by the Royal Arsenal but only lasted until 1896.
20th century: The Royal Ordnance Factories
Further enlargement was to follow, and on an unprecedented scale; by the 20th century, though, there was little room for further development on site, so the Arsenal had to expand its area eastwards outside its brick boundary wall onto the Plumstead Marshes. The eastern portion of the Arsenal site had long been used for the more dangerous manufacturing processes, as well as for proof testing. This pattern continued, with the Composition Establishment (where assembly of cartridges, fuzes and other items took place) being moved east of the canal and a lyddite factory being established by the river. Later, much of the area of Plumstead and Erith Marshes was scattered with storage magazines for explosive materials, each in its own walled, moated and earth-traversed enclosure. Manufacture of Whitehead torpedoes, begun in the Arsenal in 1871 (with the canal used as a testing run for a time) was moved to Greenock in 1911.
Scientific research played an increasing role across the Arsenal from the early years of the 20th century: in 1902 an Experimental Establishment was set up to carry out research and investigations into explosives; (co-located with the Proof Butts, the two operations later combined to form the Proof and Experimental Establishment). At the same the staff of the War Department Chemist was expanded to strengthen its research capability; and over the next few years other small research departments emerged, focused on areas such as metallurgy, materials and mechanical technology. In 1907 these were all grouped together under a Superintendent of Research to form the Research Department.
First World War
At its peak, during the First World War, the Royal Arsenal extended over some and employed around 80,000 people. The Royal Arsenal by then comprised the Royal Gun & Carriage Factory (which had amalgamated under Colonel Capel Lofft Holden in 1907), the Royal Laboratory (which in 1922 split to form the Royal Ammunition Factory and the Royal Filling Factory) and separate Naval Ordnance and Army Ordnance Store Departments. Other divisions included the Research and Development Department and various Inspection departments set up in the wake of the Morley Report (including that of the Chief Chemical Inspector, Woolwich, successor to the War Department Chemist). The expansion was such that in 1915 the Government built an estate of 1,298 homes - later (1925) known as the Progress Estate - at Eltham to help accommodate the workforce.
In addition to the massive expansion of the Royal Ordnance Factories in the Arsenal, and of private munitions companies, other UK Government-owned National Explosives Factories and National Filling Factories were built during the First World War. All the National Factories closed at the end of the War, with only the Royal (munitions) Factories (at Woolwich, Enfield, and Waltham Abbey) remaining open through to the Second World War.
Inter-war years
During the quiet period after the end of the First World War, the Royal Arsenal built steam railway locomotives. It had an extensive standard gauge internal railway system, and this was connected to the North Kent Line just beyond Plumstead railway station. The Royal Arsenal also cast the Memorial Plaques given to the next-of-kin of deceased servicemen and servicewomen. In 1919 a committee was set up, under the chairmanship of Thomas McKinnon Wood, to report on the future organisation and role of the Royal Arsenal. One recommendation was for the establishment of an integrated Armament Design Office (up until then each factory had maintained its own, largely independent, drawing office). In 1921 a new Design Department duly came into being; based in the Central Offices building, it was a joint service body, responsible for initiating designs for guns, carriages, ammunition, small arms, tanks and transport vehicles, in close collaboration with the ordnance factories.
On 1 January 1927 policing of the site was transferred from the Metropolitan Police to the new War Department Constabulary. The latter was renamed the Army Department Constabulary in 1964 and then merged into the Ministry of Defence Police in 1971, with these two bodies continuing to police the site until its closure. In 1935, the Ballistics branch of the Research Department began work on developing rockets for use as anti-aircraft weapons. To provide a more remote testing location, Fort Halstead in Kent was acquired by the War Office in 1937, initially serving as an outstation of the Arsenal. This went on to become the Projectile Development Establishment (it later relocated to Aberporth in Wales for the duration of the war).
The build-up to the Second World War started in the late 1930s. Abel's old Chemical Laboratory was by now too small and new Chemical Laboratories were built in 1937 on Frog Island, on a former loop in the Ordnance Canal. Staff from the Royal Arsenal helped design, and in some cases managed the construction of, many of the new Royal Ordnance Factories (ROFs) and the ROF Filling Factories. Much of the Royal Arsenal's former ordnance production was moved to these new sites, as it was considered vulnerable to aerial bombing from mainland Europe. The original plan was to replace the Royal Arsenal's Filling Factory with one at ROF Chorley and another at ROF Bridgend, but it was soon realised that many more ROFs would be needed. Just over forty had been established by the end of the war, nearly half of them Filling Factories, together with a similar number of explosives factories built and run by private companies, such as ICIs Nobels Explosives, but these private sector factories were not called ROFs.
Second World War
The Royal Arsenal was caught up in the Blitz on 7 September 1940. After several attacks, the fuze factory was destroyed and the filling factory and a light gun factory badly damaged. Explosive filling work ceased on the site, but the production of guns, shells, cartridge cases and bombs continued. In September 1940, prior to the raid, some 32,500 people worked there; but after the raid this dropped to 19,000. The numbers employed on site had increased by February 1943, with 23,000 employed, but by August 1945 were down to 15,000. 103 people were killed and 770 injured, during 25 raids, by bombs, V-1 flying bombs and V-2 rockets.
The Central Offices were also damaged in the raid, prompting the removal of the Design Department from Woolwich; by 1942 both it and the Research Department were accommodated at Fort Halstead (they remained there after the war, and would later merge to become the Armament Research and Development Establishment (ARDE)).
The staff of the Chemical Inspectorate, working with explosives, were evacuated in early September 1940. Shortly afterwards one of the Frog Island buildings was destroyed by bombing and another damaged. The laboratories were partially re-occupied in 1945 and fully re-occupied by 1949.
The final run-down
During the quiet period after the end of the Second World War, the Royal Arsenal built railway wagons, between 1945 and 1949, and constructed knitting frames for the silk stockings industry, up to 1952. Armament production then increased during the Korean War.
From 1947, the British atomic weapons programme, called HER or High Explosive Research, was based at Fort Halstead in Kent (ARDE), and also at Woolwich. The first British atomic device was tested in 1952; Operation Hurricane. In 1951 the AWRE moved to RAF Aldermaston in Berkshire. ARDE, which had its origin in the Research and Design Departments of the Arsenal, retained its Woolwich outstation there until the 1980s.
In 1953, a body called Royal Arsenal Estate was set up to dispose of areas of land deemed surplus to requirements. An approximately area of the site, around what is now Griffin Manor Way, was used for an industrial estate; the Ford Motor Company becoming its first tenant in 1955. Two of the roads on this estate Nathan Way and Kellner Road appear to have links with people connected with the Royal Arsenal: a Col. Nathan, at the Royal Gunpowder Factory; and, W. Kellner being the second War Office Chemist.
In 1957 a merger took place which created ROF Woolwich: thus, for the first time, the various manufacturing operations on the site were united into a single Royal Ordnance Factory. Its area of operation was henceforward restricted to the western part of the Arsenal site, with everything to the east being earmarked for eventual disposal. In this guise, the factory continued to operate (with upgraded facilities) for a further ten years. The Proof and Experimental Establishment closed in 1957, though RARDE continued to make use of the proof butts until September 1969.
The Woolwich Royal Ordnance Factories closed in 1967, and at the same time a large part of the eastern end of the site was sold to the Greater London Council. Much of it was used to build the new town of Thamesmead. Parts of the older (western) section of the site were leased as storage or office space to assorted public bodies (including HM Customs and Excise, the British Museum Library, the National Maritime Museum, the Property Services Agency); alongside these tenants, a variety of smaller MOD departments were accommodated, some on a temporary but others on a longer-term basis.
Shortly after the closure of the Woolwich Royal Ordnance Factories, the Frog Island chemical laboratories were moved into a new building erected in 1971, in what was to become the Royal Arsenal East. The old Frog Island area was then sold off and a relocated Plumstead Bus Garage was built on part of this site. This action separated what remained of the Royal Arsenal, some , into two sites: Royal Arsenal West, at Woolwich; and, Royal Arsenal East, at Plumstead, approached via Griffin Manor Way. It also led to breaking down of parts of the 1804 brick boundary wall. Part of it near Plumstead Bus station was replaced by iron railings and chain link fencing; later the public roadway (now the A206) was also changed at the Woolwich market area and the Royal Arsenal's boundary was moved inwards so that the Beresford Gate (which had served as the main entrance to the Arsenal since 1829) became separated from the site by the A206. Its mid-1980s replacement, north of the rerouted A206, stands not far from where the original (1720s) main gateway once stood; it is graced by a pair of 18th-century gatepiers and urns saved from The Paragon on the New Kent Road (itself demolished for road-widening in the 1960s).
The Royal Arsenal site retained its links to ordnance production for almost another thirty years as a number of the Ministry of Defence Procurement Executive's Quality Assurance Directorates had their headquarters offices located there. These included the Materials Quality Assurance Directorate (MQAD), which looked after materiel, including explosives and pyrotechnics; and the Quality Assurance Directorate (Ordnance) (QAD (Ord)), which looked after ordnance for the Army. MQAD was the successor of the old War Department Chemist and the Chemical Inspectorate; QAD(Ord) was the successor of the Chief Inspector of Armaments department. There was a separate Naval Ordnance Inspection Department (based in Middlegate House from 1922) that looked after the Royal Navy's interests. QAD (Ord) was based at Royal Arsenal West together with a Ministry of Defence Publications section and part of the British Library's secure storage accommodation. MQAD was based, until closure of the site at Royal Arsenal East; and all the buildings on this site were given E numbers, such as E135. Belmarsh high-security prison was built on part of Royal Arsenal East, becoming operational in 1991.
The Royal Arsenal ceased to be a military establishment in 1994.
Present day
The sprawling Arsenal site is now one of the focal points for redevelopment in the Thames Gateway zone. Parts of the Royal Arsenal have been used to build residential and commercial buildings.
Some links to its historic past have been kept, with many notable buildings in the historic original (West) site being retained in the redevelopment. Attempts to put the history of the site into context were, however, short-lived: Firepower - The Royal Artillery Museum (direct successor of the Arsenal's Repository museum), which had presented the history of artillery alongside that of the regiment, closed in 2016; and Greenwich Heritage Centre, which told the story of Woolwich including the Royal Arsenal, closed in 2018.
Residential developments
The western part of the Royal Arsenal has now been transformed into a mixed-use development by Berkeley Homes. It comprises one of the biggest concentrations of Grade I and Grade II listed buildings converted for residential use, with more than 3,000 residents. One of the earliest developments was Royal Artillery Quays, a series of glass towers rising along the riverside built by Barratt Homes in 2003. The first phase of homes at Royal Arsenal, "The Armouries", consisted of 455 new-build apartments in a six-storey building. This was followed by "The Warehouse, No.1 Street". The development has a residents' gym, a Thames Clippers stop on site, a Streetcar car club and a 24-hour concierge facility for residents. Wellington Park provides open space and a public house, the Dial Arch, opened in June 2010
Plans have now been submitted for a new masterplan encompassing further land along the river. More than 1,700 homes already exist at Royal Arsenal Riverside, with an additional 3,700 new homes planned, along with of commercial, retail, leisure space and a 120-bedroom hotel by Holiday-Inn Express. Also included in the plans is the new Woolwich Crossrail station, which has been part-funded by Berkeley Homes.
Cultural district
In October 2018, planning permission was granted for the first phase of a multi-million pound restoration of historic buildings near the new Woolwich Crossrail station, to create a 15,000sqm complex of theatres, dance studios and places to eat. Originally this development was known as 'Woolwich Creative District' but names of the district and buildings were later put to the public vote and in July 2019 the name 'Woolwich Works' was announced
Historic architecture
Several early 18th-century buildings on the site have been attributed to the architects Sir John Vanbrugh or Nicholas Hawksmoor (both of whom are known to have designed buildings for the Board of Ordnance), including the Royal Brass Foundry, Dial Arch and the Royal Military Academy; but whilst acknowledging their influence (direct or indirect), the Survey of London credits Brigadier-General Michael Richards (Surveyor-general for the Ordnance board at the time) as having played the leading part in their design. In the late-18th and early-19th centuries James Wyatt, as Architect of the Ordnance, was responsible for several buildings on the site, including the Main Guardhouse (1787), the Grand Store (1805) and Middlegate House (1807). More often than not, though, it was the on-site Engineers and Clerks of the Works who were responsible for the design of buildings and other structures within the working Arsenal.
See also
Greenwich Heritage Centre - local museum with Royal Arsenal exhibition
Royal Arsenal Railway - railway inside the Royal Arsenal
Broadwater Green - modern housing development on the grounds of the Arsenal
Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills - another historic munitions factory in the London area
References
Sources
External links
Royal Arsenal History Website (RAH) Historical information: photos, maps, documents, presentations, recollections, football history etc.
Royal Arsenal History Facebook group (RAH) Rare photos, videos, family research, historical information, includes members who worked in the Royal Arsenal, recollections etc.
Royal Arsenal History YouTube channel (RAH)Royal Arsenal documentaries, presentations, maps and rare photo slideshows and local Woolwich and Thamesmead history.
Woolwich Royal Arsenal during WWI - BBC London film, part of World War One at Home series, on YouTube
Royal Arsenal Riverside - Official site about the redevelopment project
Woolwich: A Guide to the Royal Arsenal &c. by Wm. Thos. Vincent - Detailed guide to the layout, buildings and manufacturing processes of the Arsenal c. 1884
RCHME Historic Buildings Report: The Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, volume I - October 1994 report by the Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England giving an overview of all surviving buildings on the former MoD Royal Arsenal (West) site.
RCHME Historic Buildings Report: The Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, volume II - An in-depth study of selected buildings
1671 establishments in England
Military units and formations established in 1671
Engineering ROF
Filling factories
Military history of London
National government buildings in London
Arsenal
History of the Royal Borough of Greenwich
Grade I listed buildings in the Royal Borough of Greenwich
Grade II* listed buildings in the Royal Borough of Greenwich
Grade I listed industrial buildings
Industrial buildings in London
Conservation areas in London
Woolwich
Grade I listed government buildings
Grade II* listed government buildings
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ERCO%20Ercoupe
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ERCO Ercoupe
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The ERCO Ercoupe is an American low-wing monoplane aircraft that was first flown in 1937. It was originally manufactured by the Engineering and Research Corporation (ERCO) shortly before World War II; several other manufacturers continued its production after the war. The final model, the Mooney M-10, first flew in 1968 and the last model year was 1970. It was designed to be the safest fixed-wing aircraft that aerospace engineering could provide at the time, and the type continues to enjoy a faithful following.
Design and development
Fred Weick
In 1931, aeronautical engineer Fred Weick was assistant chief of the aeronautics division of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). In 1934 he asked permission to build an aircraft based on the 1931 Stout Skycar, using fabric instead of aluminum covering, and control modifications based on NACA research. Weick and a group of co-workers designed and assembled the experimental aircraft with a group of his colleagues who worked on the project in their spare time and paid for it themselves. The resulting aircraft, known as the W-1, featured tricycle landing gear, a parasol wing, and a pusher propeller configuration.
Fred Weick listed the W1 design goals that were tested in later seminars:
Tricycle landing gear with castering nosewheel, steerable if desired
Suitable longitudinal and lateral stability with limited up-elevator deflection, to prevent loss of control due to stalling and spinning.
A glide-control flap
Two-control operation using controls for pitch and roll.
In 1934, the Bureau of Air Commerce approached Weick's team looking for standards for a competition for a safe and practical $700 aircraft. In 1936 the winner of the competition was the Stearman-Hammond Y-1, incorporating many of the safety features of the W-1. Two other winners were the Waterman Aeroplane and a roadable autogyro, the Autogiro Company of America AC-35. The W-1 was not intended for production to qualify as a competitor, but was purchased by the Bureau for continued experimental tests in spin-control safety. After the prototype W-1 underwent a forced landing, an updated W-1A was built by Fairchild, incorporating leading edge cuffs.
ERCO
Weick left NACA in 1936 and joined Engineering and Research Corporation's (ERCO) fledgling aircraft team as chief designer, primarily to continue improving his aircraft design. Focusing his efforts on a number of design issues, primarily simplicity and safety, Weick strove to create a reasonably priced aircraft that would not stall or spin. Retaining the tricycle gear for ease of maneuvering on the ground, and limited stall-spin features, Weick switched to a low-wing monoplane configuration in his new model, powered by an engine in tractor configuration.
The ERCO 310, which included a fully cowled engine, made its first flight in October 1937 at College Park Airport and was soon renamed the "Ercoupe". The easy-to-fly design included unique design features, including a large glazed canopy - with almost as much visibility as a bubble canopy - for improved visibility. The prototype 310 featured an ERCO-made inverted four-cylinder engine, the ERCO I-L 116, which was quickly dropped due to its high manufacturing cost compared to the new four-cylinder Continental A-65 air-cooled boxer engine. Lacking rudder pedals, the Ercoupe was flown using only the control wheel. A two-control system linked the rudder and aileron systems, which controlled yaw and roll, with the steerable nosewheel. The control wheel controlled the pitch and the steering of the aircraft, both on the ground and in the air, simplifying control and coordinated turning and eliminating the need for rudder pedals. A completely new category of pilot's license was created by the CAA for Ercoupe pilots who had never used a rudder pedal.
The Ercoupe was the first aircraft certified by the Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA) as "characteristically incapable of spinning." The high-winged General Skyfarer obtained the second certification by licensing the ERCO technology. The first production Ercoupe, serial no. 1, NC15692 built in 1939 was donated to the National Air and Space Museum. In 1941 that aircraft, designated YO-55, was used in US Army Air Force testing.
The two-seat ERCO Ercoupe 415 went on sale in 1940. LIFE magazine described the aircraft as "nearly foolproof" and showed pictures of a pilot landing with his hands in the air. Only 112 aircraft were delivered before World War II intervened, halting all civil aircraft production. By mid-1941 aluminum supplies were being diverted to war-related production, so ERCO decided to manufacture Ercoupes for military use by using wood as the principal building material. The substitution of wood resulted in a heavier but quieter aircraft, because the wood absorbed vibrations from the engine and airflow. Ercoupes were flown during the war by the Civilian Pilot Training Program for flight instruction, and the Civil Air Patrol used them to patrol for German submarines.
Postwar sales
Although World War II had interrupted production of the Ercoupe, general aviation manufacturers were enthusiastic about the prospects of a postwar aviation boom. Thousands of men and women were trained as pilots by the government, and the hope was that they would want to include flying in their civilian life. Production of the model 415-C resumed in 1945, and in 1946 alone 4,311 aircraft were produced and sold at a cost of US$2,665. This was the same price as in 1941. At its peak, ERCO was turning out 34 Ercoupes per day, operating three shifts per day. The aircraft was aggressively marketed through unconventional outlets such as the men's department of the Macy's department store chain.
However, private aircraft sales slumped after the war and the bottom dropped out of the civil aircraft market in late 1946, ending prospects for a boom market for civil aircraft sales. A 30-day layoff at the factory in November resulted in rivets tossed around the factory and some aircraft sides and signs being painted. The year ended with an Ercoupe flown by a test pilot and mechanic breaking up in flight.
Other production
Aeronca
Aeronca obtained a licence to produce the Ercoupe 415 as the Aeronca 12AC Chum in 1946 and built two prototypes: NX39637, with the Ercoupe twin-tail, and NX83772 with a larger, single tail, metal wings and trailing-link struts in the main undercarriage. The Chum was powered by a Continental C-85J with a cruise speed. No production ensued.
Sanders Aviation
In 1947 ERCO sold its remaining Ercoupe inventory to Sanders Aviation, which continued to produce the aircraft in the same ERCO-owned factory. A total of 213 aircraft were sold by 1950. During this time, ERCO's chief engineer Fred Wieck moved on to Texas A&M, where he developed the agricultural Piper Pawnee aircraft and eventually the popular Piper Cherokee with John Thorp and Karl Bergey.
Univair Aircraft Industries
Univair Aircraft Corporation of Aurora, Colorado purchased the Ercoupe design from the Engineering and Research Company in 1950. It provided spare parts and customer support to the existing aircraft.
Forney/Fornaire Aircoupe
In April 1955, Univair sold the Ercoupe type certificate to the Forney Aircraft Company of Fort Collins, Colorado, which later became the Fornaire Aircraft Company. The aircraft produced differed from the 415-G in its engine/propeller combination they were upgraded to a C-90 engine, revised engine cowling, larger baggage compartment, and aluminum-covered wing panels. The F-1A model had three axis controls and bucket seats. Production began in 1958 and ended in 1959.
56 of the F-1 Forney Deluxe were produced in 1958 and sold for $6,995 each.
59 of the F-1 Forney Explorer, Execta and Expediter were produced in 1959 and sold for $6,995.
23 of the F-1A Forney Trainer were produced in 1959. It was sold for $7,450.
A total of 138 aircraft were produced.
Air Products Company Aircoupe
Between August 1960 and March 1964, the rights to the Aircoupe aircraft were held by the AirCoupe division of Air Products Company of Carlsbad, New Mexico. The company was started by the city, with the hope of establishing aircraft manufacture as a local industry. It purchased the type certificate from Forney when a potential deal with Beechcraft fell through. Only a few airframes were produced before the type certificate was sold to Alon, Incorporated on March 16, 1964. 25 of the F-1A Forney Trainer were produced for US$7,450 each.
Alon Aircoupe
Alon Inc. was founded by John Allen and Lee O. Higdon, two executives who had retired from aircraft manufacturer Beechcraft to found their own company. They had previously negotiated with Forney Aircraft to purchase production of the Aircoupe so that Beechcraft could use the design as an introductory trainer. The deal was canceled by Olive Ann Beech, who decided to concentrate resources on the Beechcraft Musketeer. This decision caused the executives to leave Beechcraft and establish Alon in McPherson, Kansas, which purchased the type certificate for the Aircoupe from the City of Carlsbad, New Mexico on March 16, 1964.
"A new company formed by former Beechcraft executives Allen and Higdon, who have purchased all assets, jigs, tools, and engineering of the program from the city of Carlsbad NM. They expect to deliver the first of 30-50 Aircoupes to be built next year for about $8,000."
The Alon A-2 and A-2A Aircoupes featured a sliding canopy, a Continental C90 engine, separate bucket seats and an improved instrument panel. The A-2 also differed from earlier two-control models in having limited-movement rudder pedals. This was done in order to make it a more acceptable training aircraft and to make it easier to counteract increased P-factor yaw during a climb from the more powerful engine. Nosewheel steering was no longer interlinked with the control yoke, and was changed to the more common practice of being interlinked with the rudder pedals (this was the same system that was installed in the Forney F-1A). The older two axes control system was offered as an option. The single control (non-differential) wheel brakes remained. The airplane had a higher rate of climb, a higher speed for best climb rate, and better engine cooling. Its non-spinning characteristics remained unchanged.
Alon produced 245 A-2s from 1964 to 1967, with peak production of 137 in 1966. The last 25 A-2s produced by Alon had spring-steel landing gear in place of the original main gear struts, light alloy castings and trailing links. The base price in 1967 was up to $7975. Production of the A-2 ceased in September 1967, and on October 9, 1967, Alon was purchased by, and became a division of, the Mooney Airplane Company of Kerrville, Texas.
Mooney A2-A and M-10 Cadet
Mooney began producing the aircraft in 1968 as the Mooney A2-A. Next the company redesigned the fuselage from the cockpit back, with square windows behind the sliding canopy. Even as it produced the A2-A Cadet, Mooney was busy re-designing the aircraft. On February 23, 1968, the first Mooney Cadet M-10 flew. The aircraft has a single fin, with a vertical leading edge, as most Mooneys do.
Univair
The type certificate was sold to Univair Aircraft Corporation of Aurora, Colorado in October, 1974 and remains with Univair. The company has not produced any new aircraft but continues to produce replacement parts and provide technical assistance to Ercoupe owners.
Operational history
Military
Three model 415-C aircraft were procured by the United States Army Air Forces for use during World War II.
On 12 August 1941, the first USAAF rocket-assist takeoff was made by a Wright Field test pilot, Capt. Homer Boushey, using a small civilian-type Ercoupe aircraft. Subsequent refinements of this technique were made for assisting heavily loaded aircraft in taking off from limited space. The tests were conducted between 6 August and 23 August 1941, at March Field, California, using various combinations of rocket units mounted under the wings of NC28655.
An additional Ercoupe was evaluated by the Royal Air Force in 1947. This aircraft was serial number 4784, carried Royal Air Force markings VX 147 and was polished metal all over with RAF roundels.
Light sport use
The Ercoupe is a type certified aircraft. However, some Univair Ercoupe 415-C and 415-CD models meet the FAA requirements to be flown by sport pilots as light-sport aircraft. The characteristics of the Ercoupe helped Jessica Cox (who was born without arms) to become a qualified pilot.
Variants
ERCO 310
Appearing in 1937, this two-seat low-wing monoplane was the origin of the Ercoupe, powered by a Continental A40.
ERCO 415
Initial production aircraft powered by ERCO IL-116 engines. The -A and -B suffixes were never used; the company's official records use only the -C suffix, which stood for "Continental", once the IL-116 was no longer used. 10 aircraft were built from 1939 to 1940.
Wooden Ercoupe
Two aircraft were built using birch and plywood in 1941 to demonstrate use of non-strategic materials, but no further aircraft were built and the test articles were scrapped.
ERCO 415-C Ercoupe
The prewar 415-C Ercoupes were powered by Continental A65-8 engines. The postwar Ercoupes were powered by Continental C75 engines. One Ercoupe was built in 1946 with a retractable undercarriage but no production followed. These models were built under type certificate A-718, giving them a maximum gross weight of 1,260 pounds, making this model light sport compliant.
ERCO 415-D Ercoupe and 415-CD Ercoupe
From 1947, further refinement introduced a 9° elevator up-travel restriction, stainless steel front fuselage skin and increased gross weight (1,400 pounds under type certificate A-787), powered by the Continental C75. One consequence of the increased gross weight was to make these models ineligible to be flown by light sport pilots.
One ERCO 415-D was modified under a Supplemental Type Certificate to fit a Lycoming O-235-C2C powerplant.
During 1947, pilots complained that it was too difficult to land with the limited elevator travel. Some of the aircraft produced in 1947 had the 9° elevator up-travel restriction of the 415-D removed and the gross weight lowered. These were designated as model 415-CD Ercoupes. This model used the A-718 type certificate, giving it a gross weight of 1,260 pounds, making this model light sport compliant.
ERCO 415-E Ercoupe
From 1948 the -E model, powered by an Continental C85, introduced the split elevator with 20° of up-elevator travel. The -E elevator restored the landing characteristics of the -C model, while having the 1400 lb. gross weight.
ERCO 415-F Ercoupe
415-F aircraft had fuel injection.
ERCO 415-G Ercoupe
, the 1949 model was powered by an Continental C85 , and Kiddy-Seat.
ERCO 415-H Ercoupe
Seven aircraft built in 1949 powered by Continental C75 engines with no electrical systems.
ERCO YO-55
A single Ercoupe was acquired for evaluation for the military observation role.
ERCO XPQ-13
In August 1941 the US Army Air Corps (USAAC) evaluated use of the Ercoupe as a man carrying aerial target. Similar to the pre-war 415-C. Erco provided two aircraft to Wright Field, Dayton Ohio for evaluation. One aircraft was used for JATO testing, with modified extended rudders. Because of the modifications and damages from JATO testing the aircraft was not returned to civilian service. The remaining aircraft continued to serve at the Army Mechanics training school at Lincoln Army Airfield, Lincoln Ne. then assigned from the Lincoln Army Airfield to the Nebraska Wing of the Civil Air Patrol, on 05/29/1944, ultimately returned to civilian service. In the end the military determined the Ercoupe was unsuited for use as an aerial target role.
ERCO Twin Ercoupe
in 1948 J. B. Collie of Southeast Air Service produced a Twin Ercoupe by joining two Ercoupe fuselages with a new centre section, similar to the North American P-82 Twin Mustang, for use in airshows by Thrasher Brothers Air Circus, Elberton GA. Flown by Grady Thrasher and his brother, who rolled, looped, and spun it. The aircraft had a smoke system for each engine, and could be flown from either cockpit.
Forney F-1 Aircoupe
The Fornaire Aircraft Co. continued development of the ERCO Ercoupe 415-G, as the F-1 Aircoupe powered by a Continental C90-12F They also built the Forney F1A that had standard three axis controls, to be sold as a basic trainer.
New Aircoupe
The rights to the Aircoupe passed from Fornaire, via the Carlsbad civil government, to Air Products Co. which marketed the air craft as the New Aircoupe. In 1962 the rights were passed on to Alon.
Alon A2 Aircoupe
After acquiring the rights to the Forney Aircoupe (aka Ercoupe), Alon Inc modernized the Ercoupe with a new panel and sliding canopy. Fitting a 90hp Continental C90.
Mooney M10 Cadet
A single-tailed version of the Alon Aircoupe, powered by a Continental C90-16F, aka Mooney-Coupe, with 59 aircraft built.
Bryan Autoplane
Leland D. Bryan built a series of roadable aircraft using an Ercoupe fuselage, calling this line the Bryan Autoplane. Significant modifications included a double-articulated folding wing mechanism and a pusher engine. It still retained Ercoupe features, such as the twin tail and the center section. The first flight was in 1953, and the model II flew 65 hours. The Model III with a single wing-fold mechanism crashed in 1974, killing Bryan.
Lasher Little Thumper
C. W. Lasher built and flew a single-seat open-cockpit taildragger aircraft called "Little Thumper", using an Ercoupe center section and wing assembly and an Aeronca Champ aft fuselage.
Specifications (Ercoupe 415-C)
See also
Notes
References
"Abandoned & Little-Known Airfields: Maryland: Central Prince George's County area", by Roger Freeman, Abandoned & Little-Known Airfields
"CAC Manuscripts: MS 162", by Marilyn Levinson, Center for Archival Collections, Bowling Green State University
"College Park Aviation Museum: History: ERCO", College Park Aviation Museum
"ERCO Ercoupe", by Roger Guillemette, US Centennial of Flight Commission
"ERCO 415-C Ercoupe", National Air and Space Museum
"American airplanes: Ab – Ak", Aerofiles
"American airplanes: Al – Av", Aerofiles
"American airplanes: Ea – Ew", Aerofiles
"American airplanes: Fa – Fu", Aerofiles
External links
Owl Plane Can't Spin Or Stall Popular Science, October 1940
Richard Harris, "Ercoupe: Fred Weick's 'Safer' Airplane," AAHS Journal, Vol 59 No 1 - Spring 2014, American Aviation Historical Society, retrieved 2016-08-09.
Richard Harris, "ERCOUPE: Fred Weick’s 'Safer' Airplane - References", (bibliography), AAHS Journal, Vol 59 No 1 - Spring 2014, American Aviation Historical Society
AVweb guide to the Ercoupe and Cadet
1930s United States civil utility aircraft
World War II utility aircraft of the United States
Light-sport aircraft
Aviation in Maryland
Low-wing aircraft
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Ercoupe
Aircraft first flown in 1937
Twin-tail aircraft
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon%20%28music%29
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Canon (music)
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In music, a canon is a contrapuntal (counterpoint-based) compositional technique that employs a melody with one or more imitations of the melody played after a given duration (e.g., quarter rest, one measure, etc.). The initial melody is called the leader (or dux), while the imitative melody, which is played in a different voice, is called the follower (or comes). The follower must imitate the leader, either as an exact replication of its rhythms and intervals or some transformation thereof. Repeating canons in which all voices are musically identical are called rounds—"Row, Row, Row Your Boat" and "Frère Jacques" are popular examples.
An accompanied canon is a canon accompanied by one or more additional independent parts that do not imitate the melody.
History
Medieval and Renaissance
During the Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Baroque—that is, through the early 18th century—any kind of imitative musical counterpoints were called fugues, with the strict imitation now known as canon qualified as fuga ligata, meaning "fettered fugue". Only in the 16th century did the word "canon" begin to be used to describe the strict, imitative texture created by such a procedure. The word is derived from the Greek "κανών", Latinised as canon, which means "law" or "norm". In contrapuntal usage, the word refers to the "rule" explaining the number of parts, places of entry, transposition, and so on, according to which one or more additional parts may be derived from a single written melodic line. This rule was usually given verbally, but could also be supplemented by special signs in the score, sometimes themselves called canoni. The earliest known non-religious canons are English rounds, a form first given the name rondellus by Walter Odington at the beginning of the 14th century; the best known is "Sumer is icumen in" (composed around 1250), called a rota ("wheel") in the manuscript source. The term "round" only first came to be used in English sources in the 16th century.
Canons featured in the music of the Italian Trecento and the 14th-century ars nova in France. An Italian example is "Tosto che l'alba" by Gherardello da Firenze. In both France and Italy, canons were often featured in hunting songs. The medieval and modern Italian word for hunting is "caccia", while the medieval French word is spelled "chace" (modern spelling: "chasse"). A well-known French chace is the anonymous "Se je chant mains". Richard Taruskin describes "Se je chant mains" as evoking the atmosphere of a falcon hunt: "The middle section is truly a tour de force, but of a wholly new and off-beat type: a riot of hockets set to 'words' mixing French, bird-language, and hound-language in an onomatopoetical mélange." Guillaume de Machaut also used the 3-voice "chace" form in movements from his masterpiece Le Lai de la Fontaine (1361). Referring to the setting of the fourth stanza of this work, Taruskin says "a well-wrought chace can be far more than the sum of its parts; and this particular chace is possibly Machaut's greatest feat of subtilitas."
An example of late 14th century canon which featured some of the rhythmic complexity of the late 14th century ars subtilior school of composers is La harpe de melodie by Jacob de Senleches. According to Richard Hoppin, "This virelai has two canonic voices over a free and textless tenor."
In many pieces in three contrapuntal parts, only two of the voices are in canon, while the remaining voice is a free melodic line. In Dufay's song "Resvelons nous, amoureux", the lower two voices are in canon, but the upper part is what David Fallows describes as a "florid top line":
Baroque
Both J. S. Bach and Handel featured canons in their works. The final variation of Handel's keyboard Chaconne in G major (HWV 442) is a canon in which the player's right hand is imitated at the distance of one beat, creating rhythmic ambiguity within the prevailing triple time:
Classical
An example of a classical strict canon is the Minuet of Haydn's String Quartet in D Minor, Op. 76, No. 2. "Throughout its sinewy length, between upper and lower strings. Here is the superbly logical fulfilment of the two-part octave doubling of Haydn's earliest divertimento minuets":
Beethoven
Beethoven's works feature a number of passages in canon. The following comes from his Symphony No. 4:
Antony Hopkins describes the above as "a delightfully naïve canon". More sophisticated and varied in its treatment of intervals and harmonic implications is the canonic passage from the second movement of his Piano Sonata 28 in A major, Op. 101:
Beethoven's most spectacular and dramatically effective use of canon occurs in the first act of his opera Fidelio. Here, four of the characters sing a quartet in canon, "a sublime musical wonder", accompanied by orchestration of the utmost delicacy and refinement. "Each of the four participants delivers his or her quatrain", "The use of canon to embody the differing perspectives of the participants a first glance seems odd, but the rigid form allows for some character differentiation and does in fact make a dramatic point". "Everyone sings the same music to very different words, sinking their private thoughts into musical or at least linear anonymity". "The softly padding gait, the dove-tailed perfection of the counterpoint, induce a trance that, carrying the protagonists outside Time, hints that there are realms of truth beyond the masks they pathetically or comically present to the world."
Romantic era
In the Romantic era, the use of devices such as canon was even more often subtly hidden, as for example in Schumann's piano piece "Vogel als Prophet" (1851).
According to Nicholas Cook, "the canon is, as it were, absorbed into the texture of the music—it is there, but one doesn't easily hear it." Peter Latham describes Brahms' Intermezzo in F minor, Op. 118, No. 4 as a piece "rich in canons". In the following passage, the left hand shadows the right at the time distance of one beat and at the pitch interval of an octave lower:
Michael Musgrave writes that as a result of the strict canon at the octave, the piece is "of an anxious, suppressed nature, ... in the central section this tension is temporarily eased through a very contained passage which employs the canon in chordal terms between the hands." According to Denis Matthews, "[what] looks on paper like another purely intellectual exercise... in practice it produces a warmly melodic effect."
20th century to present
Stravinsky composed canons, including a Canon on a Russian Popular Tune and the Double Canon. Conlon Nancarrow composed a number of canons for player piano. (See Mensuration and tempo canons below.) Anton Webern employed canonic textures in his work; his Op. 16 work is a collection of five canons for soprano, clarinet, and bass clarinet.
Types
Considering the many types of canon "in the tonal repertoire", it may be ironic that "canon—the strictest type of imitation—has such a wide variety of possibilities". The most rigid and ingenious forms of canon are not strictly concerned with pattern but also with content. Canons are classified by various traits including the number of voices, the interval at which each successive voice is transposed in relation to the preceding voice, whether voices are inverse, retrograde, or retrograde-inverse; the temporal distance between each voice, whether the intervals of the second voice are exactly those of the original or if they are adjusted to fit the diatonic scale, and the tempo of successive voices. However, canons may use more than one of the above methods.
Contour Canon
A Contour Canon can be recognized in the traditional sense, similar to a strict canon or to a canon by inversion, where an original theme or design is presented, and is then followed by a response of the same theme, as well as in an untraditional fashion, where Subcontouric Cells are positioned in such a way that they assemble a canon. In this untraditional fashion, a contour’s cells are presented and altered in a rotational motion, until the entire image or contour can be seen in its Prime form. Each cell in a pairing of Subcontouric Cells cycles through their rotational variations, until they have established themselves in their intended contour position, or Prime Form, such as (1-1)(1-2), referred to as a contour’s Cell Cycle.
Terminology
Although, for clarity, this article uses leader and follower(s) to denote the leading voice in a canon and those that imitate it, musicological literature also uses the traditional Latin terms dux and comes for "leader" and "follower", respectively.
Number of voices
A canon of two voices may be called a canon in two, similarly a canon of x voices would be called a canon in x. This terminology may be used in combination with a similar terminology for the interval between each voice, different from the terminology in the following paragraph.
Another standard designation is "Canon: Two in One", which means two voices in one canon. "Canon: Four in Two" means four voices with two simultaneous canons. While "Canon: Six in Three" means six voices with three simultaneous canons, and so on.
Simple
A simple canon (also known as a round) imitates the leader perfectly at the octave or unison. Well-known canons of this type include the famous children's songs Row, Row, Row Your Boat and Frère Jacques.
Interval
If the follower imitates the precise interval quality of the leader, then it is called a strict canon; if the follower imitates the interval number (but not the quality—e.g., a major third may become a minor third), it is called a free canon.
Contrapuntal derivations
The follower is by definition a contrapuntal derivation of the leader.
Canon by inversion
An inversion canon (also called an al rovescio canon) has the follower moving in contrary motion to the leader. Where the leader would go down by a particular interval, the follower goes up by that same interval.
Retrograde or crab canon
In a retrograde canon, also known as a canon cancrizans (Latin for crab canon, derived from the Latin cancer = crab), the follower accompanies the leader backward (in retrograde). Alternative names for this type are canon per recte et retro or canon per rectus et inversus.
Mensuration and tempo canons
In a mensuration canon (also known as a prolation canon, or a proportional canon), the follower imitates the leader by some rhythmic proportion. The follower may double the rhythmic values of the leader (augmentation or sloth canon) or it may cut the rhythmic proportions in half (diminution canon). Phasing involves the application of modulating rhythmic proportions according to a sliding scale. The cancrizans, and often the mensuration canon, take exception to the rule that the follower must start later than the leader; that is, in a typical canon, a follower cannot come before the leader (for then the labels 'leader' and 'follower' should be reversed) or at the same time as the leader (for then two lines together would constantly be in unison, or parallel thirds, etc., and there would be no counterpoint), whereas in a crab canon or mensuration canon the two lines can start at the same time and still respect good counterpoint.
Many such canons were composed during the Renaissance, particularly in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries; Johannes Ockeghem wrote an entire mass (the Missa prolationum) in which each section is a mensuration canon, and all at different speeds and entry intervals. In the 20th century, Conlon Nancarrow composed complex tempo or mensural canons, mostly for the player piano as they are extremely difficult to play. Larry Polansky has an album of mensuration canons, Four-Voice Canons. Arvo Pärt has written several mensuration canons, including Cantus in Memoriam Benjamin Britten, Arbos and Festina Lente. Per Nørgård's infinity series has a sloth canon structure. This self-similarity of sloth canons makes it "fractal like".
Other types
The most familiar of the canons is the perpetual/infinite canon (in Latin: canon perpetuus) or round. As each voice of the canon arrives at its end it can begin again, in a perpetuum mobile fashion; e.g., "Three Blind Mice". Such a canon is also called a round or, in medieval Latin terminology, a rota. Sumer is icumen in is one example of a piece designated rota.
Additional types include the spiral canon, accompanied canon, and double or triple canon. A double canon is a canon with two simultaneous themes; a triple canon has three.
Double canon
A double canon is a composition that unfolds two different canons simultaneously. A duet aria, "Herr, du siehst statt guter Werke" from J. S. Bach's Cantata BWV 9, Es ist das Heil uns kommen her features a double canon "between flute and oboe on the one hand and the soprano and alto voices on the other. But what is most interesting in this movement is that the very attractive melodic surface of the canon belies its dogmatic message by offering a moving simplicity of tone to indicate the comfort that particular doctrine provides for the believer. Canonic devices often bear the association of strictness and the law in Bach's work."
Mirror canon
In a mirror canon (or canon by contrary motion), the subsequent voice imitates the initial voice in inversion. They are not very common, though examples of mirror canons can be found in the works of Bach, Mozart (e.g., the trio from Serenade for Wind Octet in C minor, K. 388/384a), Anton Webern, and other composers.
Table canon
A table canon is a retrograde and inverse canon meant to be placed on a table in between two musicians, who both read the same line of music in opposite directions. As both parts are included in each single line, a second line is not needed. Bach wrote a few table canons.
Rhythmic canon
Olivier Messiaen employed a technique which he called "rhythmic canon", a polyphony of independent strands in which the pitch material differs. An example is found in the piano part of the first of the Trois petites liturgies de la présence divine, where the left hand (doubled by strings and maracas), and the right hand (doubled by vibraphone) play the same rhythmic sequence in a 3:2 ratio, but the right hand adapts a sequence of 13 chords in the sixth mode (B–C–D–E–F–F–G–A–B) onto the 18 duration values, while the left hand twice states nine chords in the third mode. Peter Maxwell Davies was another post-tonal composer who favoured rhythmic canons, where the pitch materials are not obliged to correspond.
The notion of rhythmic canon transfers Messiaen's idea of mode of limited transposition from the domain of pitch to the domain of time:
Computational methods for finding rhythmic canons, both infinite and finite, with arbitrary generative rhythmic patterns were developed in the 2000s with further generalization to so-called "rhythmic fugues" with a few generative rhythmic patterns.
Puzzle canon
A puzzle canon, riddle canon, or enigma canon is a canon in which only one voice is notated and the rules for determining the remaining parts and the time intervals of their entrances must be guessed. "The enigmatical character of a [puzzle] canon does not consist of any special way of composing it, but only of the method of writing it down, of which a solution is required." Clues hinting at the solution may be provided by the composer, in which case the term "riddle canon" can be used. J. S. Bach presented many of his canons in this form, for example in The Musical Offering. Mozart, after solving Father Martini's puzzles, composed his own riddles, K. 73r, using Latin epigrams such as Sit trium series una and Ter ternis canite vocibus ("Let there be one series of three parts" and "sing three times with three voices").
Other notable contributors to the genre include Ciconia, Ockeghem, Byrd, Beethoven, Brumel, Busnois, Haydn, Josquin des Prez, Mendelssohn, Pierre de la Rue, Brahms, Schoenberg, Nono and Maxwell Davies. According to Oliver B. Ellsworth, the earliest known enigma canon appears to be an anonymous ballade, "En la maison Dedalus", found at the end of a collection of five theory treatises from the third quarter of the fourteenth century collected in the Berkeley Manuscript.
Thomas Morley complained that sometimes a solution, "which being founde (it might bee) was scant worth the hearing", J. G. Albrechtsberger admits that, "when we have traced the secret, we have gained but little; as the proverb says, 'Parturiunt montes, etc.'" but adds that, "these speculative passages ... serve to sharpen acumen".
Elaborate use of canon technique
Josquin des Prez, Missa L'homme armé super voces musicales, Agnus Dei 2: One voice with the words 'ex una voce tres' (three voice parts out of one), a mensuration canon in three voices.
Josquin des Prez, Missa L'homme armé sexti toni, Agnus Dei 2: two simultaneous canons in the four upper voices, and at the same time a crab canon in the two lower voices.
Johann Sebastian Bach's Goldberg Variations contains nine canons of increasing interval size, ranging from unison to ninth. Each canon additionally obeys the overall structure and harmonic sequence common to all variations in the composition.
Contemporary canons
In his early work, such as Piano Phase (1967) and Clapping Music (1972), Steve Reich used a process he calls phasing which is a "continually adjusting" canon with variable distance between the voices, in which melodic and harmonic elements are not important, but rely simply on the time intervals of imitation.
See also
Canon, a 1964 animated representation of a musical canon
Pachelbel's Canon
References
Sources
Further reading
Agon, Carlos, and Moreno Andreatta. 2011. "Modeling and Implementing Tiling Rhythmic Canons in the OpenMusic Visual Programming Language". Perspectives of New Music 49, no. 2 (Summer): 66–91.
Andreatta, Moreno. 2011. "Constructing and Formalizing Tiling Rhythmic Canons: A Historical Survey of a 'Mathematical' Problem". Perspectives of New Music 49, no. 2 (Summer): 33–64.
Blackburn, Bonnie J. 2012. "The Corruption of One Is the Generation of the Other: Interpreting Canonic Riddles". Journal of the Alamire Foundation 4, no. 2 (October):182–203.
Cooper, Martin. 1970. Beethoven: The Last Decade. London and New York: Oxford University Press.
Davalan, Jean-Paul. 2011. "Perfect Rhythmic Tiling". Perspectives of New Music 49, no. 2 (Summer): 144–197.
Johnson, Tom. 2011. "Tiling in My Music". Perspectives of New Music 49, no. 2 (Summer): 9–21.
Lamla, Michael. 2003 Kanonkünste im barocken Italien, insbesondere in Rom. 3 vols. Berlin: Dissertation.de—Verlag im Internet. .
Lévy, Fabien. 2011. "Three Uses of Vuza Canons". Perspectives of New Music 49, no. 2 (Summer): 23–31.
Messiaen, Olivier. Traité de rythme, de couleur, et d'ornithologie (1949–1992). I-II, edited by Yvonne Loriod, preface by Pierre Boulez. Paris: Leduc, 1994.
Schiltz, Katelijne, and Bonnie J. Blackburne (eds.). 2007. Canons and Canonic Techniques, 14th–16th Centuries: Theory, Practice, and Reception History. Proceedings of the International Conference Leuven, 4–5 October 2005. Analysis in Context: Leuven Studies in Musicology 1. Leuven and Dudley, Massachusetts: Peeters. .
Ziehn, Bernhard. Canonic Studies: A New Technique in Composition, edited and introduced by Ronald Stevenson. New York: Crescendo Pub., 1977. .
External links
Anatomy of a Canon
The Musical Offering – A Musical Pedagogical Workshop by J. S. Bach, or, The Musical Geometry of Bach's Puzzle Canons, schillerinstitut.dk (in English)
Visualization of J. S. Bach's crab canon (requires Adobe Flash)
Software SonneLematine to produce canons
Electro-Acoustic Music Dartmouth.edu: Larry Polansky's Four Voice Canons
, on "My Favorite Things"
Polyphonic form
Classical music styles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich%20Wilhelm%20von%20Seydlitz
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Friedrich Wilhelm von Seydlitz
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Friedrich Wilhelm Freiherr von Seydlitz (3 February 1721 – 8 November 1773) was a Prussian officer, lieutenant general, and among the greatest of the Prussian cavalry generals. He commanded one of the first Hussar squadrons of Frederick the Great's army and is credited with the development of the Prussian cavalry to its efficient level of performance in the Seven Years' War. His cavalryman father retired and then died while Seydlitz was still young. Subsequently, he was mentored by Margrave Frederick William of Brandenburg-Schwedt. Seydlitz's superb horsemanship and his recklessness combined to make him a stand-out subaltern, and he emerged as a redoubtable Rittmeister (cavalry captain) in the War of Austrian Succession (1740–1748) during the First and Second Silesian Wars.
Seydlitz became legendary throughout the Prussian Army both for his leadership and for his reckless courage. During the Seven Years' War, he came into his own as a cavalry general, known for his coup d'œil, his ability to assess at a glance the entire battlefield situation and to understand intuitively what needed to be done: he excelled at converting the King's directives into flexible tactics. At the Battle of Rossbach, his cavalry was instrumental in routing the French and Imperial armies. His cavalry subsequently played an important role in crushing the Habsburg and Imperial left flank at the Battle of Leuthen. Seydlitz was wounded in battle several times. After the Battle of Kunersdorf in August 1759, he semi-retired to recover from his wounds, charged with the protection of the city of Berlin. He was not healthy enough to campaign again until 1761.
Frederick rewarded him with Order of the Black Eagle on the field after the Battle of Rossbach; he had already received the Pour le Mérite for his action at the Battle of Kolin. Although estranged from Frederick for several years, the two were reconciled during Seydlitz's final illness. Seydlitz died in 1773, and Frederick's heirs included his name on the Equestrian statue of Frederick the Great in Berlin, in a place of honor.
Early life
Seydlitz was born on 3 February 1721, in Kalkar in the Duchy of Cleves, where his father, Daniel Florian von Seydlitz, was a major of Prussian cavalry with the Cuirassier Regiment Markgraf Friedrich Wilhelm of Brandenburg-Schwedt No. 5. In 1726, his father left military service and moved the family to Schwedt, where he became a forestry master in East Prussia; the senior Seydlitz died in 1728, leaving a widow and children in restricted financial circumstances. Limited schooling was available to young Seydlitz; sources differ whether he knew how to speak and write in French, the lingua franca of Frederick the Great's Court. One biographer, Bernhard von Poten, maintained that his German was good, and if he knew French, he preferred German and wrote it with a "fine, firm hand, unusually correct, in well-formed sentences and with apt expression," and he knew enough Latin to express himself well. His future sovereign, Frederick, always addressed him in German.
By Seydlitz's seventh year, he could ride a horse well, raced with older boys, and he was, by most accounts, a wild and high-spirited child. At the age of fourteen he went as a page to the court of the Margrave Frederick Wilhelm of Brandenburg-Schwedt, who had been his father's colonel. The Margrave was a grandson of the Great Elector, and a nephew to both Frederick I of Prussia and Leopold of Anhalt Dessau. Himself a reckless man, the "Mad" Margrave inspired in young Seydlitz a passion for feats of daredevil horsemanship. Seydlitz did not limit this passion to horses: the Margrave once dared him to ride a wild stag, which he did. Seydlitz became a skilled horseman, and many stories tell of his feats, the best known of which involved riding between the sails of a windmill in full swing. Seydlitz remained in his position as a page to the Margrave until King Frederick William appointed him as cornet in the Margrave's Cuirassier Regiment No. 5 (his father's old regiment) on 13 February 1740.
Military career
Seydlitz's first months as a cornet were made difficult by the regimental colonel, who considered him a spy for the Margrave, and abused him by sending him on useless errands and generally making it clear that the cornet was no match for the colonel. Within a year of Seydlitz's commission, the old King Frederick William died and his son, Frederick II of Prussia, ascended to the throne. Frederick claimed Silesia from the Habsburg's Maria Theresa, and made a broad appeal to arms. The Margrave's regiment played an important role in the ensuing war, during which Seydlitz came to the notice of the King several times. Once, when Frederick asked the caliber of the artillery shelling the Prussian line, opinions were divided and vague. Seydlitz rode in front of the battery, halting in their line of fire. When he saw a ball hit the ground, he picked it up, wrapped it in his handkerchief and presented it to the King.
In May 1742, while stationed with his regiment in Kranowitz during the First Silesian War, the regimental colonel ordered him to take 30 men and hold a village post until infantry came to his assistance; despite heavy fire, the grudging colonel did not send reinforcements. Realizing what had happened, the brigade's general took three squadrons of heavy cavalry to relieve Seydlitz, but these were turned back by fire from the Austrian line. Subsequently, Seydlitz was forced to surrender his small unit. He entered into Austrian captivity with several of his closest comrades, including Charles de Warnery.
Frederick exchanged an Austrian captain for Cornet Seydlitz. Upon his return from captivity, Seydlitz had a choice to wait for the first lieutenancy that became available in a cuirassier regiment, or take the immediate command of a troop of hussars, as a captain. Hussars were the newest form of service in the Prussian army, and not as prestigious an assignment as cuirassiers, but Seydlitz chose the immediate promotion to a lesser unit. In 1743, the King made him a Rittmeister (captain) in the 4th Hussars. He entirely skipped the rank of lieutenant. With the 4th Hussars, he was stationed in the city of Trebnitz and he brought his squadron to a state of conspicuous efficiency.
In August 1744, the King entered Bohemia, took Prague, and then moved south. Lieutenant General Count Nassau led the vanguard, and Seydlitz participated with the Natzmer Hussars, commanded by Major Hans Heinrich Adam Schütz, a violent man of whose conduct of warfare Seydlitz disapproved. Seydlitz served through the Second Silesian War. On 22 May, Hans Karl von Winterfeldt, trusted by the King as a good judge of character, reported to Frederick: "Certainly, at Hohenfriedberg, on the 4 June, [Seydlitz] captured the Saxon general [Georg Sigismund] von Schlichting personally, after he had cut the reins from him." Based largely on his conduct at Hohenfriedberg and Winterfeldt's recommendation, Frederick promoted Seydlitz to major on 28 July at the unusually young age of twenty-four.
Seydlitz led his squadron at the Battle of Soor on 30 September, scouting the enemy's position before the battle, and then participating in the action. He was also present in the engagement at Katholisch-Hennersdorf on 23 November, which proved convincingly to Frederick the benefit of close support during a cavalry charge. At the successful action on 27 November, Seydlitz led 15 squadrons in an attack on the Austrian rear guard. The Austrians were dispersed and nearly destroyed.
Development of cavalry tactics
After Frederick concluded the peace on 25 December 1748, Seydlitz returned with his squadron to Trebnitz. In the subsequent years of peace, Seydlitz developed flexible cavalry tactics. He assembled a plan on tactical form and training for the Prussian cavalry and presented it to the King. Frederick approved the procedures and Seydlitz established a rigorous training program. He would leave his own estate by jumping the gate; he required similar horsemanship from all his men, regardless of whether they were cuirassiers, hussars or dragoons. They had to be capable of galloping across broken fields, wheeling in formation, and riding in close action. Furthermore, they had to be prepared to support any movement of infantry, or to react to any action from the enemy. Under Seydlitz's direction, possibly influenced by the ideas of Frederik Sirtema van Grovestins, Prussian cavalry learned to use only their swords, as pistols or carbines could not be fired with accuracy and had to be reloaded. Frederick set up straw dummies for his troopers to shoot; their shots were woefully inaccurate, but Seydlitz's tactics demonstrated that the troopers could hit their target with a sword every time. Generally, cavalry horses were the sturdy warm-blood Trakehners, from Frederick's stud farm in Trakenhen, East Prussia.
On 21 September 1752, after a successful review in which the different cavalry forms demonstrated their competencies, the King promoted Seydlitz to lieutenant colonel and the commander-in-chief of cavalry and, on 13 October of the same year, to the commander of the Dragoon Regiment Württemberg No. 12, whose staff was at Treptow. Frederick was not satisfied with the regiment's performance, and instructed Seydlitz to "put it back into order". In 1753 Frederick appointed Seydlitz to the command of the 8th Cuirassiers. In Seydlitz's hands, this regiment soon became a model for the rest of the Prussian Army's mounted force. In 1755 Frederick promoted him to colonel.
By the start of the Seven Years' War, Seydlitz's transformed cavalry had become Frederick's pride and joy: it had unrivaled training and an esprit de corps bolstered by Frederick's confidence in its members, and by their confidence in Seydlitz. The King had issued orders that no Prussian cavalryman would allow himself to be attacked without a commensurate response, under penalty of being cashiered; consequently, Prussian cavalrymen were active, impetuous and aggressive. For the King, Seydlitz's cavalry became the dynamic factor in the army of the state, and would be the tool by which Frederick could challenge empires. In 1756, Seydlitz's cavalry became Frederick's weapon of choice.
Seven Years' War
In May 1757, in defiance of the custom of holding the heavy cavalry in reserve, Seydlitz brought his regiment forward to join the advance guard at the Battle of Prague. Here he nearly lost his life attempting to ride through a marshy pool; his horse became stuck in quicksand and his troopers pulled him away. At the Prussian loss at Kolin in June 1757, he and a cavalry brigade checked the Austrian pursuit by a brilliant charge. Two days later, the King promoted him to major general and awarded him the Pour le Mérite. Seydlitz felt he had deserved the promotion for a long time, for he responded to Hans Joachim von Zieten's congratulations by saying, "It was high time, Excellency, if they wanted more work out of me. I am already thirty-six."
Another example of his leadership and his coup d'œil, the ability to see at a glance what needed to be done, occurred after the Battle of Kolin. The loss at Kolin forced the King to lift the siege at Prague. The King's brother, Augustus William, took command of the army and ordered the retreat from Prague. Seydlitz was attached to the advanced corps of Karl Christoph von Schmettau in a brigade of ten squadrons. As Seydlitz's wing entered Lusatia, near the town of Zittau, the Austrians were present in force, and Seydlitz with his squadrons were trapped in the town. Tricking the Austrians into thinking his troop was a foraging party, his cavalry burst on the Austrian cavalry before they could climb into their saddles. Seydlitz led his cavalry in an escape, in close column, and was quickly out of sight.
Battle of Rossbach
On the morning of the Battle of Rossbach, Frederick passed over two senior generals and placed Seydlitz in command of the whole of the cavalry, much to those men's annoyance and to Seydlitz's satisfaction. At Rossbach, Seydlitz's coup d'œil and his understanding of the King's objectives led to battlefield success. After positioning the cavalry in two ranked lines, he watched the French army move for several minutes, while puffing on his pipe; his troopers never took their eyes off him. When he threw his pipe away, this was the signal they had waited for: the first line of massed squadrons surged forward, smashing the unprepared French in the flank. Typically, cavalry action in the mid-eighteenth century meant a single cavalry charge; the cavalry would spend the rest of the action pursuing fleeing troops. At Rossbach, though, not content with this single attack, Seydlitz called his second formation of squadrons in another charge; he then withdrew all 38 squadrons into a copse, where they regrouped under cover of the trees. Without waiting for new orders from the King, Seydlitz deployed the Prussian cavalry a third time; this proved a critical factor in the battle. As trained, Seydlitz's squadrons charged headlong into the French columns: a massive wall of horses galloping flank to flank, their riders flashing swords and maneuvering at full speed. By the end of the battle, only seven infantry battalions of Frederick's army had fired a shot; the rest of the victory had been the work of Seydlitz's 38 squadrons and Karl Friedrich von Moller's artillery.
That day, the Prussians took as trophies 72 cannons (62 percent of the French/Imperial artillery), seven flags, and 21 standards. With some 3,500 horsemen and 20 cannons, plus a portion of Prince Henry's regiment of infantry, the Prussian army had defeated the combined armies of two European powers, France and the Holy Roman Empire. The tactics at Rossbach became a landmark in the history of military art. The same night, on the field, the King awarded Seydlitz the Order of the Black Eagle, and promoted him to lieutenant general. Seydlitz had been wounded during the melée and he remained out of action for four months, nursed by a lady in Leipzig.
Campaign 1758–59
Seydlitz rejoined the King in 1758 and on 25 August, at the Battle of Zorndorf, Seydlitz's cavalry again secured the victory. He led thirty-six squadrons into a mass of Russian cavalry mingled with infantry. This charge broke the Russian right wing and sent them running for the woods. At the Prussian debacle at Hochkirch, on 14 October 1758, he covered the Prussian retreat with 108 squadrons, and in the disaster of Kunersdorf, on 12 August 1759, he received another severe wound in a hopeless attempt to storm a hill held by the Russians; his 8th Cuirassiers was one of the few intact regiments at the end of the battle. While recuperating in Berlin, he helped organize a defense of the city during the Austro-Russian raid (October 1760). Although he was unable to prevent the Russians from briefly occupying the city, Frederick later praised Seydlitz for his conduct.
Seydlitz's health frequently kept him off the battlefield, and he did not reappear at the front until 1761. Then, he received command of a wing of Prince Henry's army, composed of troops of all arms, and many of his fellow officers expressed doubts as to his fitness for this command, as his service had been with the cavalry exclusively. Subsequently, though, at Freiberg on 29 October 1762, his direction of both his infantry and his cavalry in turn decided the outcome of the battle.
Later life
After the Seven Years' War concluded with the Treaty of Hubertusburg (1763), Seydlitz became inspector general of the cavalry in Silesia, where eleven regiments were permanently stationed and where Frederick sent all his most promising officers to be trained. In 1767, Frederick promoted Seydlitz to general of cavalry.
Seydlitz's later years were marred by domestic unhappiness. During his convalescence in Berlin, on 18 April 1761, he had married Susannah Johanna Albertine Hacke, daughter of Hans Christoph Friedrich Graf von Hacke, and she was eventually unfaithful to him, reportedly due to the syphilis from which he had suffered for decades. He had at least one daughter, according to an early biographer, Anton König, and two according to another biographer, Robert Lawley. The oldest daughter married first to an official from Breslau, and was divorced. She married second to a Polish count, and divorced soon after. She eventually converted to Catholicism, but died in a madhouse in Brieg. The youngest lived to old age and died in poverty near Lausitz.
By the end of the decade, some misunderstanding brought an end to his formerly close friendship with the King. Seydlitz's health had been declining for years and he suffered from recurrent bouts of syphilis; in 1772, after an attack of apoplexy, he completed a couple of stays at the spa at Carlsbad to take the mineral waters. While these helped somewhat, his other activities continued without moderation, and to his detriment. A subordinate brought him two healthy Circassian beauties, whose company he enjoyed but who undoubtedly stressed his tenuous health. In August 1773, in his last illness, Frederick and Seydlitz met again at Seydlitz's home at Minkovsky near Ohlau (now Oława, Poland). The King sat beside his sickbed, horrified at Seydlitz's condition, and even persuaded him to take some of his medications, but Seydlitz would not look at him; the illness had already deformed his face. Eventually paralyzed, whether from another stroke or the underlying tertiary syphilis, Seydlitz died at Ohlau in Silesia in November 1773.
Character
Seydlitz was generally admired for the superb coup d'œil that allowed him to utilize the cavalry to its full potential. His 19th-century biographer, K. A. Varnhagen von Ense, related that Seydlitz lived above all for the service, and promoted the training of his hussars before all else. According to Anton Balthasar König, who wrote in 1780–1790, Seydlitz performed best at taverns and excelled in practical jokes: one would gather that Seydlitz was a drunkard, a rake, and a savage, but another of his biographers, Bernhard von Poten, cited conflicting descriptions offered by Seydlitz's contemporaries, particularly Warnery, as more accurate. Nevertheless, there is some evidence to support König's assertion, at least of Seydlitz's excesses: Seydlitz was no doubt dependent upon his tobacco and had been since his teenage years, although he smoked a pipe rather than using snuff, as many officers did; he was indeed reckless, as his career testified; he enjoyed the company of women; and Seydlitz indeed suffered from recurring illness.
Memorials
In 1851, Frederick William IV, Frederick's great-great nephew, included Seydlitz's name on the Equestrian statue of Frederick the Great in Berlin, honoring those who had helped to build the Prussian state. Seydlitz holds a position of honor as one of the four full-sized mounted figures, sharing the first tier of the plinth with the King's brother, his cousin, and Hans Joachim von Zieten. A bronze sculpture installed at Wilhelmplatz, in Berlin, was created by Anton Lulvès, a copper worker from Hamburg. , representing the first generation of battlecruisers, was ordered in 1910 and commissioned in May 1913, the fourth such vessel built for the Imperial German Navy's High Seas Fleet. The heavy cruiser , of the , was launched in 1939, but never completed.
References
Notes
Citations
Resources
Further reading
External links
Google Maps. Seydlitz Strasse in Reichertswerben. April 2017.
Reichertswerben village. 03. – 05. November 2017, Biwak in Reichardtswerben, anlässlich des 260. Jahrestages der Schlacht bei Roßbach, Diorama. Accessed 8 November 2017.
1721 births
1773 deaths
Barons of Germany
Cavalry commanders
Deaths from syphilis
Generals of Cavalry (Prussia)
Military personnel from North Rhine-Westphalia
People from Kleve (district)
People from the Duchy of Cleves
People of the Silesian Wars
Prussian military personnel of the Seven Years' War
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (military class)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujranwala
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Gujranwala
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Gujranwala (Punjabi/; ) is a city and capital of Gujranwala Division located in Pakistan. It is also known as "City of Wrestlers" and is quite famous for its food. It is the 5th most populous city proper after Karachi, Lahore, Faisalabad and Rawalpindi respectively. Founded in the 18th century, Gujranwala is a relatively modern town compared to the many nearby millennia-old cities of northern Punjab. The city served as the capital of the Sukerchakia Misl state between 1763 and 1799, and is the birthplace of the founder of the Sikh Empire, Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
Gujranwala is now Pakistan's third largest industrial centre after Karachi and Faisalabad, and contributes 5% to 9% of Pakistan's national GDP. The city is part of a network of large urban centres in north-east Punjab province that forms one of Pakistan's mostly highly industrialized regions. Along with the nearby cities of Sialkot and Gujrat, Gujranwala forms part of the so-called "Golden Triangle" of industrial cities with export-oriented economies.
Etymology
Gujranwala's name means "Abode of the Gujjars" in Punjabi, and was named after the Gujjar tribe that live in northern Punjab. One local narrative suggests that the town was named after a Gujjar, Choudhry Gujjar, owner of the town's Persian wheel that supplied water to the town. Evidence suggests, however, that the city derives its name from Serai Gujran (meaning "inn of Gujjars"), a village once located near what is now Gujranwala's Khiyali Gate.
History
Founding
Gujranwala was founded by Gurjars in the eighteenth century however the exact origins of Gujranwala are unclear. Unlike the ancient nearby cities of Sialkot and Lahore, Gujranwala is a relatively modern city. It may have been established as a village in the middle of the 16th century. Locals traditionally believe that Gujranwala's original name was Khanpur Sansi, though recent scholarship suggests that the village was possibly Serai Gujran instead - a village once located near what is now Gujranwala's Khiyali Gate that was mentioned by several sources during the 18th-century invasion of Ahmad Shah Abdali.
Sikh
In 1707, with the death of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, Mughal power began to rapidly weaken especially following Nader Shah's invasion in 1739 and then completely dissipated from the Punjab region due to the invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali who raided Punjab many times between 1747 and 1772 causing much devastation and chaos.
Abdali's control over the region began to weaken in the latter part of the 18th century with the rise of the Sikh Misls (independent chieftainships usually consisting of the chief's kinsmen) who overran Punjab. Charat Singh, ruler of the Sukerchakia Misl, established himself in a fort which he had built in the area of Gujranwala between 1756 and 1758.
Nuruddin, a Jammu-based Afghan (Pashtun) general, was ordered by Abdali to subdue the Sikhs but was driven back at Sialkot by Sikh soldiers led by Charat Singh. In 1761, Khwaja Abed Khan, Abdali's governor in Lahore, tried to besiege Charat Singh's base in Gujranwala but the bid misfired. The Sikh misls rallied to his support by attacking Afghan officers wherever they were found. A fleeing Abed Khan was pursued by Sikh contingents led by the Ahluwalia misl into Lahore, where he was killed. Charat Singh made Gujranwala the capital of his misl in 1763.
In a 1774 battle waged in Jammu, Charat Singh of the Sukerchakia misl and Jhanda Singh of the powerful Bhangi misl, fighting on opposite sides, were both killed. Before his death, Charat Singh had become master of large and contiguous territories in the three doabs between the Indus and the Ravi. He was succeeded by his son Maha Singh who added to the lands that Charat Singh had not only captured but also capably administered.
In the Gujranwala area in the 1770s, the Jat Chathas of Wazirabad and Rajput Bhattis of Hafizabad (Muslims in both cases) offered ‘fierce resistance’ to the Sukerchakias, whose attack was aided by Sahib Singh of the Bhangi misl. Describing the conflict, the (British) writer of the Gujranwala Gazetteer wrote that besieged for weeks in his fortress, Ghulam Muhammad Chatha eventually surrendered after Maha Singh assured him safe passage to Mecca, but the promise was ‘basely broken’ when Ghulam Muhammad was shot and his fortress razed to the ground. Rasoolnagar (Prophet's city) which belonged to the Chathas was renamed Ramnagar (Ram's city) to humiliate the Muslims. The Gazetteer noted that the treacherous killing of Chatha and his resistance was remembered ‘in many a local ballad’ in Gujranwala. The Bhattis of Hafizabad tehsil, who were Muslim Rajputs, did not cease their resistance to the Sukerchakias until 1801 when their leaders were killed and their possessions captured. Some Bhattis fled to Jhang.
Ranjit Singh, Maha Singh's son and successor who would later go on to establish the Sikh Empire, was born in 1780 in Gujranwala's Purani Mandi market. Ranjit Singh maintained Gujranwala as his capital initially after rising to power in 1792. His most famous military commander Hari Singh Nalwa, who was also from Gujranwala, built a high mud wall around Gujranwala during this era and established the city's new grid street-plan that exists until the present day. Gujranwala remained Ranjit Singh's capital until he captured Lahore from the Durrani Afghans in 1799, at which point the capital was moved there, leading to the relative decline of Gujranwala in favour of Lahore.Jind Kaur, the last queen of Ranjit Singh and mother of Duleep Singh, was born in Gujranwala in 1817.
By 1839, the city's bazaars were home to an estimated 500 shops, while the city had been surrounded by a number of pleasure gardens, including one established by Hari Nalwa Singh that was famous for its vast array of exotic plants.
British
The area was captured by the British Empire in 1848, and rapidly developed thereafter. Gujranwala was incorporated as a municipality in 1867, and the city's Brandreth, Khiyali, and Lahori Gates built atop the site of Sikh-era gates were completed in 1869. A new clocktower was built in central Gujranwala to mark the city's centre in 1906.
Christian missionaries were brought to the region during British colonial rule, and Gujranwala became home to numerous churches and schools. The city's first Presbyterian Church was established in 1875 in the Civil Lines area - a settlement built one mile north of the old city to house Gujranwala's European population. A theological seminary was established in 1877, and a Christian technical school in 1900.
The North-Western Railway connected Gujranwala with other cities in British India by rail in 1881. The major Sikh higher learning institution, Gujranwala Guru Nanak Khalsa College, was founded in Gujranwala in 1889, though it later shifted to Ludhiana. The nearby Khanki Headworks were completed in 1892 under British rule, and helped irrigate 3 million acres in the province. Gujranwala's population, according to the 1901 census of British India, was 29,224. The city continued to grow rapidly for the remainder of British rule.
Riots erupted in Gujranwala following the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar in April 1919. These were some of most violent riots in response to the massacre in all of British India. Riots lead to the damage of the city's railway station and burning of the city's Tehsil Office, Clock Tower, Dak Bangla and city courts. Much of the city's historical record was burnt in the attacked offices. Protestors in the city, nearby villages, and a procession from Dhullay were fired upon with machine-guns mounted to low-flying planes, and subjected to aerial bombardment from the Royal Air Force under the control of Reginald Edward Harry Dyer.
According to the 1941 census, 269,528 out of the Gujranwala District's 912,234 residents were non-Muslim. 54.30% of Gujranwala city residents were Muslims prior to Partition, though non-Muslims controlled much of the city's economy. Hindus and Sikhs together owned two-thirds of Gujranwala's properties. Sikhs were concentrated in the localities of Guru Nanak Pura, Guru Gobind Garh, and Dhullay Mohallah, while Hindus were dominant in Hakim Rai, Sheikhupura Gate area and Hari Singh Nalwa Bazaar. Muslims were concentrated in Rasul Pura, Islam Pura and Rehman Pura.
Partition
Following the Independence of Pakistan and the aftermath of the Partition of British India in 1947, Gujranwala was the site of some of the worst rioting in Punjab. Large swathes of Hindu and Sikh localities were attacked or destroyed. Rioters in the city gained notoriety for attacks, with the city's Muslim Lohar (blacksmiths) particularly carrying out brutal attacks. In retaliation for attacks against a trainload of refugees by Sikh rioters at Amritsar railway station on 22 September that resulted in the deaths of 3,000 Muslims over the course of three hours, rioters from Gujranwala attacked a trainload of Hindus and Sikhs fleeing towards India on 23 September, killing 340 refugees in the nearby town of Kamoke. Partition riots in Gujranwala resulted in systematic violence against the city's minorities, and may constitute an act of ethnic cleansing by modern standards. Gujranwala became home to Muslim refugees who were fleeing from the widespread anti-Muslim pogroms that depopulated eastern Punjab in India of almost its entire Muslim population. Refugees in Gujranwala were mainly those who had fled from the cities of Amritsar, Patiala, and Ludhiana in what had become the Indian state of East Punjab.
Modern
The influx of Muslim refugees into Gujranwala drastically altered the city's form. By March 1948, over 300,000 refugees had been resettled in Gujranwala District. Many refugees found post-Partition Gujranwala lacking in opportunities, causing some to move south to Karachi. The refugee population mostly settled in localities that were mostly non-Muslim, like Gobindgarh, Baghbanpura and Nanakpura.
Suburban districts were rapidly laid, including Satellite Town in 1950, which was designed mostly to house wealthy and upper-middle-class refugees. D-Colony was built in 1956 for poorer Kashmiri refugees, and Model Town in the 1960s. The city experienced strong industrial growth during this period. In 1947, there were only 39 registered factories - a number which rose to 225 by 1961. The city's colonial-era metal-working industry continued to grow, while the city became a centre of hosiery manufacturing that was run by refugees from Ludhiana. The city's jewellery-trade had been run by Hindus but came under the control of refugees from Patiala.
Gujranwala's economy continued to grow into the 1970s and 1980s. New development continues, such as the opening of a 5,774-foot long flyover that functions as an elevated urban expressway, as well as the nearby Sialkot International Airport which serves the entire Golden Triangle region, and is Pakistan's first privately owned commercial airport. Institutions of higher learning have also been established in the city since independence. The Sialkot-Lahore Motorway, opened in 2020, passes near Gujranwala.
Geography
Gujranwala sits at the heart of the Rechna Doab, a strip of land between the Chenab in the north, and Ravi River in the south. Gujranwala is also part of the Majha, a historical region of northern Punjab. The city was built upon the plains of Punjab, and the surrounding region is an unbroken plain devoid of topographical diversity.
Gujranwala is 226 metres (744 ft) above sea level, sharing borders with Ghakhar Mandi and several towns and villages. About south is the provincial capital, Lahore. Sialkot and Gujrat lie to its north. Gujrat connects Gujranwala with Bhimber, Azad Kashmir, and Sialkot connects it with Jammu. About southwest is Faisalabad. To its west are Hafizabad and Pindi Bhattian, which connect Gujranwala to Jhang, Chiniot and Sargodha.
Climate
Gujranwala has a hot semi-arid climate (BSh), according to the Köppen-Geiger system, and changes throughout the year. During summer (June to September), the temperature reaches . The coolest months are usually November to February when the temperature can drop to an average of . The highest precipitation months are usually July and August when the monsoon reaches Punjab. During the other months, the average rainfall is about . October to May have little rainfall.
Urban form
Gujranwala's oldest precincts were laid according to the new city plan devised by Hari Singh Nalwa, following Ranjit Singh's establishment of Gujranwala as his capital in 1792. A street plan based mostly on a grid plan was implemented, with bazaars intersecting one another at 90-degree angles. Some of the blocks are rectangular in shape, resulting in a polygonal shaped old city. This old city was then enclosed by a high mud wall with gates and a fort that was built immediately north of the old city. The city's Sheranwala Bagh was also expanded under Hari Singh Nalwa's direction.
Gujranwala's old city is centred on the Shahi (Royal) Bazaar. The old city is home to many of the city's pre-Partition houses of worship for Hindus and Sikhs. The Hindu Devi Talab temple was once famous for its large water-tank, and remains in good condition despite being used as a residence for a family who fled Patiala. The Sikh Gurdwara Damdama Sahib is located near the Devi Talab Temple, is important in Sikhism for its association with Baba Sahib Singh Bedi, a Sikh saint. An old gurdwara is also located near the Chashma Chowk intersection near Shahi Bazaar.
Gujranwala was also home to a Jain community, called Bhabra in Punjab. In the heart of the town, Lala Mubdas Jain Mandir is present. The samadhi of Jain Acharya Atmaramji (also known as Acharya Vijayanandsuri, who died on 20 May 1896. The samadhi, now being restored, was visited by Jain Acharya Dharmadhurandar Suri in on May 28, 2023, along with other Jain munis and lay Jains after a gap to more than 75 years.
Gujranwala grew rapidly following British rule, and connection of the city to the railways of British India. The city grew outside of the city's walls, requiring new bazaars to be laid, which were done in a radial plan centred on the old city. Some historic structures like the Haveli of Sardar Mahan Singh were torn down by the British and replaced with other structures. The city's Brandreth, Lahori, and Khiyali Gates were built atop the city's demolished original gates, while Mahan Singh's haveli was transformed into a public square named Ranjit Ganj. The city's boundaries remained mostly west of the railways' line prior to 1947.
The Civil Lines neighbourhood was built for European residents approximately one mile north of the old city. The area was characterized by bungalows, large and verdant lawns, and shady tree-lined avenues. Civil Lines is where the city's Presbyterian Church was built in 1875, while the city's Theological Seminary was established here in 1877. The Christian Technical Training Center followed suit in 1900. The city's elite Hindus and Sikhs eventually also settled in small numbers in Civil Lines. Several of their mansions still remain in the area including those of Charan Singh, Banarsi Shah, as well as other buildings such as Islamia College and Khurshid Manzil.
Growth occurred mostly in areas northwest and southeast of the city immediately after independence until 1965 along routes emanating from old Gujranwala. Satellite Town was established on the southwest side in 1950. Areas northeast and southwest of the city were the sites of most growth between 1965 and 1985. The growth grows outwards mostly evenly after 1985 until the present time. Much of the growth has been unplanned due to poor enforcement of development guidelines and lax enforcement of property laws.
Demography
Gujranwala is the 5th largest city in Pakistan by population. Since the 2000s the population growth rate of Gujranwala has averaged at 3.0%. The population growth rate is projected to slow down to 2.51% by 2035.
Economy
Gujranwala is the Pakistan's third largest centre of industrial production, after Karachi and Faisalabad. Gujranwala, along with the nearby industrial cities of Sialkot and Gujrat City, form what is sometimes referred to as the Golden Triangle in reference to their relative prosperity and export-oriented industrial base. The city's industries employ up to 500,000 people, while the city's GDP makes up 5% of Pakistan's overall economy.
An estimated 6,500 small and medium enterprises, 25,000 cottage units, and some large factories, are located in and around the city as of 2002 -and are engaged in the manufacture of a wide variety of goods. The city is the centre for manufacture and export of sanitary fittings and wares in Pakistan, with over 200 producers based in Gujranwala. More than 60 producers of auto parts are found in the city. The city is well known as a centre for manufacturing electric fans - with 150 small and medium enterprises in Gujranwala tied to the electric fan industry. The city is Pakistan's third largest centre for iron and steel manufacturing - reflecting Gujranwala's historic association with metalworking since the migration of the Lohar clan of blacksmiths to the city during the colonial era. The city has been a centre of hosiery-manfuacture since the migration of refugees primarily from Ludhiana in 1947.
Textiles, apparel, yarn, and other textile goods are also produced in Gujranwala. Other manufacturing based in the city include rice, plastic, cutlery, coolers and heaters, agricultural tools and equipment, carpets, glass goods, surgical equipment, leather products, and machinery for military uses, domestic appliances, motorcycles, and food products. The rural regions surrounding Gujranwala are heavily engaged in the production of wheat and are yield more wheat per acre than the national average. Gujranwala District is also the most productive region for rice-growing in Punjab.
In 2010, Gujranwala was rated number 6 out of Pakistan's top 13 cities in order of ease of doing business by the World Bank, and was ranked the second-best in Pakistan for construction permits. Pakistan's electric shortages of the 2010s severely stymied the city's growth. Industrial units in the city suffered an average of 2872 hours per year in Gujranwala in 2012. By the end of 2017, the supply of electricity had drastically improved with augmented electric generation as a result of new power-stations coming online. Improved supplies of electricity contributed to the country's double-digit rise in exports in the second half of 2017.
Transportation
Road
Gujranwala is situated along the historic Grand Trunk Road that connects Peshawar to Islamabad and Lahore. The Grand Trunk Road also provides access to the Afghan border via the Khyber Pass, with onward connections to Kabul and Central Asia via the Salang Pass. The Karakoram Highway provides access between Islamabad and western China, and an alternate route to Central Asia via Kashgar, China.
Gujranwala is connected to Lahore by Sialkot-Lahore Motorway. The motorway passes east of the Grand Trunk Road, and terminates near the Sialkot International Airport. Plans for the motorway's extension farther north to Kharian near Gujrat City were announced in late 2017.
Rail
Gujranwala railway station serves as a stop along Pakistan's -long Main Line-1 railway that connects the city to the port city of Karachi to Peshawar.
The entire Main Line-1 railway track between Karachi and Peshawar is to be overhauled at a cost of $3.65 billion for the first phase of the project, with completion by 2021. Upgrading of the railway line will permit train travel at speeds of 160 kilometres per hour, versus the average 60 to 105 km per hour speed currently possible on existing track.
Air
Gujranwala has no airport of its own. The city is instead served by airports in nearby cities, including the Allama Iqbal International Airport in Lahore that offers non-stop flights to Europe, Canada, Central Asia, East Asia, and Southeast Asia. Gujranwala is also serviced by the nearby Sialkot International Airport - Pakistan's first privately owned commercial airport. Built-in 2007, the airport offers non-stop service to the Middle East, as well as domestic locations.
Public transportation
Gujranwala has a small scale centrally managed public transportation system known as a city tour. It has its routes from Wazirabad to Kamoke mainly extended on GT road only. Uber became available in Gujranwala in early 2017 and was soon followed by Careem.
Administration
Gujranwala and its environs were amalgamated into a district in 1951. The Gujranwala Development Authority was established in 1989 to oversee economic and infrastructure development in the city. The city is currently administered by the City District Government Gujranwala (CDGG) and Gujranwala Metropolitan Corporation, while development is generally under the office of the Gujranwala Development Authority. In 2007, the city was re-classified as a city district with 7 constituent municipalities: Aroop, Kamonke, Khiali Shahpur, Nandipur, Nowshera Virkan, Qila Didar Singh, and Wazirabad Towns.
In December 2019, Gujranwala Municipal Corporation was upgraded into Metropolitan Corporation under Punjab Local Government Act 2019.
Education
Gujranwala city's adult literacy rate in 2008 was 73%, which rose to 87% in the 15–24 age group throughout Gujranwala District, including rural areas. The city is also home to the Gujranwala Theological Seminary which was established in Sialkot in 1877, and moved to Gujranwala in 1912. The Army Aviation School of the Pakistan Air Force was moved to Gujranwala in 1987 from Dhamial. Many institutes are established for higher education such as:
University of Sargodha, Gujranwala Campus
University of Central Punjab, Gujranwala Campus
GIFT University, Gujranwala
University of the Punjab, Gujranwala Campus
Sports
Gujranwala has the multipurpose Jinnah Stadium, which has capacity of 20,000 spectators. It has hosted matches of the 1987 and 1996 Cricket World Cup.
See also
Gujranwala Electric Power Company
List of people from Gujranwala
References
External links
Gujranwala Chamber of Commerce & Industry
Former capital cities in India
Cities and towns in Gujranwala District
Populated places in Punjab, Pakistan
Cities in Punjab (Pakistan)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renovationism
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Renovationism
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Renovationism (; from 'renovation, renewal') – also called Renovated Church (обновленческая церковь) or by metonymy the Living Church (Живая Церковь) –, officially named Orthodox Russian Church (Православная Российская Церковь), and later Orthodox Church in the USSR (Православная Церковь в СССР), was a religious movement that schismed from the Russian Orthodox Church in 1922. The movement ceased to exist in the late 1940s.
This movement originally begun as a grassroots movement among the Russian Orthodox clergy for the reformation of the Church, but was quickly influenced by the support of the Soviet secret services (CheKa, then GPU, NKVD), which had hoped to split and weaken the Russian Church by instigating schismatic movements within it. The beginning of actual schism is usually considered to be in May 1922, when a group of "Renovationist" clergy laid claims to higher ecclesiastical authority in the Russian Church. The movement is considered to have ended with the death of its leader, Alexander Vvedensky, in 1946.
While the entire movement is often known as the Living Church, this was specifically the name of just one of the groups that comprised the larger Renovationist movement. By the time of the "Moscow Council" of 1923, three major groups had formed within the movement, representing different tendencies within Russian Renovationism: The Living Church of Vladimir Krasnitsky lobbied for the interests of married clergy; the Union of the Communities of the Ancient Apostolic Church (Союз общин древнеапостольской церкви - Содац SODATs) of Alexander Vvedensky; and the Union for the Renewal of the Church (Союз церковного возрождения) – the group of bishop Antonin Granovsky, whose interest was in liturgical reform; along with several minor groups.
History of the Renovationist Church
Beginnings and first period (1920s–1930s)
In 1919-1920, the Cheka officials began actively seeking contacts with those representatives of the Orthodox clergy who, in their opinion, were suitable for the role of destroyers of the unity of the Russian Orthodox Church. The first attempts to introduce an element of disorganization into the church environment, acting through hierarchs (or former hierarchs) from the patriarch's entourage, were not crowned with success. Therefore, the Cheka decided to act through the young white parish clergy, who are revolutionary in relation to possible intra-church transformations, leading the case to eventually quarrel between "the priests and the episcopate", married ("white") and monastic ("black") clergy. The special VI branch of the GPU became the coordinating center of all efforts to split the Church through the GPU/OGPU headed by Yevgeny Tuchkov. The general management of the process of the split of the Church was concentrated (although not immediately) in the hands of the Politburo of the Central Committee (personally responsible - Leon Trotsky). By the spring of 1922, the necessary organizational preparations for striking the Church were completed. The right moment to start was needed.
Such an opportune moment soon presented itself on the occasion of the launch of a campaign to seize church valuables. As a special representative of the Council of People's Commissars, Leon Trotsky headed the work of the Commission on Accounting and Concentration of Values. On January 23, 1922, the members of the Commission agreed that work on the removal of valuables from existing religious institutions should begin in the near future in the two or three most important regions of the country (Moscow, Petrograd, Novgorod). Among the preparatory activities included work with representatives of the Church: "If necessary, individual representatives of the clergy may be involved, who, contrary to the anti-Soviet clergy, would sharply defend the government's measures, thus introducing a split among the clergy." After the events in Shuya on March 15, 1922, where the commission for the seizure of valuables faced massive and stubborn resistance of believers, Leon Trotsky on March 17, 1922, in a letter to Lev Kamenev, Vyacheslav Molotov and Timofei Sapronov, formulated 17 theses containing detailed instructions to the party-Soviet and Chekist bodies regarding the forms and methods of expropriation of church valuables (the leadership of the campaign henceforth focused on in the hands of party organs). Among other things, it was proposed to "decisively split the clergy" by taking under the protection of state power those clergy who openly advocate the transfer of church wealth to the state.
In the same month, the so-called "Petrograd Group of Progressive Clergy" was formed. The first program document of the group was the declaration on famine relief dated March 24, 1922, was signed by 12 clergymen. The participants of the Petrograd group immediately launched an active activity: Alexander Vvedensky and Alexander Boyarsky made reports almost daily, urging them to give away church values. Vladimir Krasnitsky did not make reports, but he tied ties with various institutions, in particular with the Cheka, which was then located on Gorokhovaya Street, 2. It was Krasnitsky who became the main organizer among the participants of the Petrograd group. Under his leadership, which, however, was disputed by Vvedensky and Boyarsky, the Petrograd group became the center of the nascent renovationist movement.
This move was quickly (18 June 1922) denounced by Agathangel as unlawful and uncanonical. However, for a brief time it seemed that the Renovationists had gotten the upper hand. The Renovationists, with full support of Soviet authorities, seized many church buildings and monasteries, including the famous Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow. In many dioceses, the "white" (married) clergy was encouraged to take church government into their own hands, without approval of their diocesan bishops. Simultaneously, these bishops were often threatened and pressed to recognize the authority of the HCA. In effect, this resulted in "parallel" church administrations existing in one diocese and one city, one supporting the HCA and the other supporting the canonical bishop.
This campaign of terror had its effects: by the summer of 1922, more than 20 hierarchs had recognized the canonical authority of HCA, the most notorious of whom was Metropolitan Sergius (Stragorodsky) of Nizhny Novgorod, the future Patriarch. In many large cities, all of Orthodox church properties were in the hands of Renovationists. Before convening any general council to discuss their measures, the Renovationists began to implement radical reforms aimed at what they perceived to be the interests of the married clergy. Among the measures, changing the traditional order of ecclesiastic life were:
Permission for monastics (including bishops) to marry, while retaining their episcopal and clerical ranks;
Permission for the Clergy to marry after their ordination, to remarry or to marry widows;
Permission for the married priests to be consecrated as bishops (Christian Orthodox tradition is that only monastics may be Bishops).
The last decision sparked a number of consecrations of "married bishops" throughout the country, especially in Siberia. As a result of its promulgation, of 67 bishops that arrived to the Second Moscow Council in April 1923, only 20 had been ordained before the schism. The consecration of the "married bishops" without waiting for a conciliar decision on changing appropriate Canons met with opposition even among many Renovationist leaders and those "married bishops" later received a second laying on of hands before the Council opened.
The I Renovationist or "II All-Russian" Council met in Moscow between 29 April and 8 May 1923. It mostly confirmed the decisions concerning changes in the canonical rules of ordinations and clerical marriage, which had already been implemented in many dioceses. Its most controversial and infamous decision was to put Patriarch Tikhon (who was under house arrest, awaiting trial) on ecclesiastic trial in absentia for his opposition to Communism, and to strip him of his episcopacy, priesthood and monastic status. The Council then resolved to abolish the Patriarchate altogether and to return to the "collegial" form of church government. Considering Russian historical practices, this would have made the Church officially a department of the government. Patriarch Tikhon refused to recognize the authority of this Council and the validity of the "court" decision, due to many irregularities in canonical procedure: essentially, the decision had no effect on the life of the Patriarchal or "Tikhonite" Church.
The telling blow against Renovationism was the return of Patriarch Tikhon to active duty in June 1923 when, under international pressure, he was released from house arrest. Already by that time, large passive resistance to the Renovationists, especially in rural areas, had undermined their efforts to "take over" the Russian Church. On 15 July 1923, the Patriarch declared all Renovationist decrees, as well as all their sacramental actions (including ordinations) to be without grace, due to the "trickery" by which they tried to seize power in the Church and to their complete disregard for the canons. In August 1923, the council of Russian Orthodox bishops, returned from exile and imprisonment, confirmed Tikhon’s decision, proclaiming the Renovationist hierarchy as "unlawful and without grace". Some of the churches were returned to the "Tikhonites" (as Renovationists called the "Patriarchal" Church at that time), and many bishops and priests who had been pressed to support the schism, repented and were received back into communion.
In August 1923, a power struggle among the factions of the Renovationist Synod resulted in the forced resignation of Metropolitan Antonin Granovsky. Antonin retired to the church in Moscow that was occupied by his group ("Union of Church Renewal") and, reverting to his previous title of "bishop", engaged in a series of radical liturgical experiments: e.g., moving the altar table to the middle of the church, etc. He made one of the first translations of the Divine Liturgy into modern Russian. Eventually, he broke communion with the Renovationist church at large and died unreconciled with both sides of the schism. His group disintegrated after his death in 1927.
In addition to ecclesiological experimentation, the 1920s, the Renovationist Church had some activity in the fields of education and apologetics. Particularly, in 1924 the church was allowed to open two institutions of higher learning: the Moscow Theological Academy and the Theological Institute in Leningrad. Some contacts were made with other portions of the Christian East: thus, the II Renovationist Council (a.k.a. III All-Russian Council), convened in Moscow in 1–9 October 1925, was marked by the presence of the representatives from the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Alexandria who concelebrated the eucharist with other members of the Renovationist Synod.
In the second half of the 1920s, the canonical Russian Orthodox Church started making steps toward some form of rapprochement with the Soviet regime. Significantly, in 1927, the Deputy Patriarchal Locum Tenens, Metropolitan Sergius Stragorodsky issued a "Declaration" proclaiming absolute loyalty of the Church to the Soviet government and its interests. Subsequently, a Synod formed by Sergius, received recognition from the Soviets. This had effectively put the Renovationist Synod out of place as the chief spokesman for the alliance between the Church and the Soviet state, and it was then that the Renovationist movement began its rapid decline.
Decline (1930s–1940s)
By the mid-1930s the general failure of the movement had become evident. Having failed to attract the majority of the faithful, the movement ceased to be useful for the Soviet regime and, consequently, both the "Patriarchal" Church and the Renovationists suffered fierce persecution at the hands of Soviet secret services: church buildings were closed down and often destroyed; active clergy and laity were imprisoned and sometimes executed. At the same time, trying to "win back" more traditional Russian Orthodox, the church had abandoned all attempts at ecclesiastical or liturgical reform, with the exception of the concessions previously made to married clergy. Instead, the Renovationist Church made attempts at imitating external liturgical and organizational forms of their opponents from the "Patriarchal" Church.
In 1934, the Renovationist Synod issued an infamous decision declaring the "allegiance to the old church" (староцерковничество), i.e., the Patriarchal Church, to be a "heresy" and a "schism". The mastermind behind that decision, Metropolitan Nikolai (Platonov) of Leningrad resigned from episcopacy in 1938, publicly denounced the faith and became an infamous propagator of atheism. The Renovationist church continued to dwindle in numbers; the process intensified starting in 1939, when the Synod forbade the diocesan bishops to do any priestly ordinations without its approval.
The final blow to the movement came with the beginning of the Second World War in 1941. The Metropolitan’s residence had to be relocated due to evacuation. Therefore, the Synod had difficulties contacting and controlling its clergy in the parishes. More importantly, in its efforts to seek moral and financial support from the Eastern Orthodox Church, Joseph Stalin decided to turn to the more popular and traditional Russian Orthodox Church led by Sergius, rather than to its largely unsuccessful rivals. On 8 September 1943, Stalin met with three chief hierarchs of the "Patriarchal" Church and promised to make concessions to the Church and religion in general in exchange for its allegiance and support.
One of the effects of this unlikely concordat was that the days of the Renovationist movement were numbered. What followed was a deluge of Renovationist clerics seeking reconciliation with Sergius. As a general rule, the Patriarchal Church considered all sacraments celebrated by Renovationists "null and void", hence these receiving clergy were received in those orders in which they happened to be upon the moment when they joined the schism (i.e. 1922). The only exception was made for Metropolitan Alexander Vvedensky, who was regarded as the ‘father-founder’ of the schism. Vvedensky refused to come into the Moscow Patriarchy as a layman, and died unreconciled.
In 1943, the Renovationist church had 13 active hierarchs and 10 more bishops, retired or in exile. By 1945 only three bishops remained, one of whom was retired. In Moscow, only one church remained under Renovationist control; the rest of the church properties had been returned by the Soviet government to the Moscow Patriarchy while Vvedensky was in evacuation. Vvedensky died of a stroke on July 8, 1946, with his church in complete disarray. This date is generally considered to be the end of the Renovationist schism.
Leadership and administration
The central administrative body of the Renovationist Church, as well as its entire administration, was in a state of constant flux and changed names several times in the 28-year period of its existence. Initially it was called the Higher Church Administration (Высшее церковное управление), then Higher Church Council (1922–23). Thereafter it assumed a more traditional style: The Holy Synod of the Orthodox Church in the USSR (1923–1933). Its President was usually considered a chief hierarch of the church, regardless of the see that he occupied.
In its later years, the Renovationist administration started to lean more toward more "traditionalist" titles. In 1933, the position of the First Hierarch (Первоиерарх) was introduced, in opposition to the "Tikhonite" Church, which was not to have a Patriarch until 1943. The position was given to the then-President of Synod Vitaly Vvedensky; however, since the mid-1920s all power in the Renovationist Church had consolidated in the hands of its actual leader, Metropolitan Alexander Vvedensky. Toward the latter part of the 1930s, A. Vvedensky bore a very peculiar conglomerate of titles, invented specially for him: Metropolitan - Apologete - Evangelizer and Deputy First Hierarch. In the fall of 1941 he himself assumed the title of the First Hierarch and made an abortive attempt to declare himself a Patriarch of all Orthodox Churches in the USSR. The attempt was not received well by his fellow clergy, and in December 1941 he reverted to his previous titles.
The Chief Hierarchs of the Renovationist Church
The hierarchs in the position of official leaders of the Renovationist Church in 1922–1946 were:
Chairman of Supreme Church Administration
Metropolitan Antonin (Granovsky) (15 May 1922 – 25 June 1923)
Chairman of the Supreme Church Council
Metropolitan Yevdokim (Meschersky) (13 April – 8 August 1923)
President of the Holy Synod
Metropolitan Yevdokim (Meschersky) (8 August 1923 – 9 April 1925)
Metropolitan Benjamin (Muratovsky) (February 1925 – 6 May 1930)
Metropolitan Vitaly (Vvedensky) (10 May 1930 – 29 April 1935)
First Hierarchs
Metropolitan Vitaly (Vvedensky) (5 May 1933 - 6 October 1941)
Metropolitan Alexander (Vvedensky) (10 October 1941 – 8 August 1946) "Patriarch" (?) October–December 1941
Metropolitan Philaret (Yatsenko) (1946-1951) de facto
See also
Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union
USSR anti-religious campaign (1921–1928)
References
Bibliography
A. Levitin-Krasnov and V. Shavrov. Ocherki po istorii russkoi cerkovnoi smuty [Essays from the History of Russian Church Turmoils]. First edition – Zürich: Institut Glaube in der 2. Welt, 1977; second ed. – Materially po istorii Cerkvi (= MPIC) 9. Moscow - Künsnacht, 1996. Online .
A. Levitin-Krasnov. Likhie gody, 1925- 1941 [Turbulent Years, 1925-1941]. Paris: YMCA-Press, 1977; available online . Anatoly Levitin (1915–1991) was a former Renovationist deacon and a friend of Vvedensky; in the 1970s he became a well-known Soviet human rights activist.
Maszkiewicz Mariusz, Mistyka i rewolucja. Aleksandr Wwiedeński i jego koncepcja roli cerkwi w państwie komunistycznym, Nomos, Kraków 1995
M. V. Shkarovsky. Obnovlencheskoe dvizhenie v Russkoi Pravoslavnoi Cerkvi XX veka [The Renovationist Movement in the Russian Orthodox Church in the 20th century]. St. Petersburg, 1999.
I. V. Soloviev, ed. Obnovlencheskii Raskol: Materially dlia tserkovno-istoricheskoi i kanonicheskoi kharakteristiki [The Renovationist Schism: the materials for its religious, historical and canonical characterization] MPIC 27. Moscow, 2002.
Mikhail Shkarovsky. The ‘Renovationists’ and the Soviet State // Orthodox Christian Renewal Movements in Eastern Europe, Christianity and Renewal — Interdisciplinary Studies / A. Djurić Milovanović and R. Radić (eds.). — Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017. — p. 67-76.
Further reading
History of the Russian Orthodox Church
Independent Eastern Orthodox denominations
Christian clerical marriage
Eastern Orthodoxy in the Soviet Union
1922 establishments in Russia
Christian organizations established in 1922
1946 disestablishments in the Soviet Union
Organizations disestablished in 1946
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaken%20baby%20syndrome
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Shaken baby syndrome
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Shaken baby syndrome (SBS), also known as abusive head trauma (AHT), is a medical condition in children younger than five years old, generally caused by blunt trauma, vigorous shaking, or a combination of both. SBS is the leading cause of fatal head injuries in children under two, with a risk of death of about 25%. The most common symptoms include retinal bleeds, multiple fractures of the long bones, and subdural hematomas (bleeding in the brain).
The condition is often caused as a result of a parent or caregiver becoming frustrated due to the child crying. Diagnosis can be difficult as symptoms may be nonspecific. A CT scan of the head is typically recommended if a concern is present. If there are concerning findings on the CT scan, a full work-up for child abuse should occur, including an eye exam and skeletal survey. Retinal hemorrhage is highly associated with AHT, occurring in 78% of cases of AHT versus 5% of cases of non-abusive head trauma.
Diagnosing the syndrome has proven to be both challenging and contentious for medical professionals because objective witnesses to the initial trauma are generally unavailable. This is said to be particularly problematic when the trauma is deemed 'non-accidental'. Some medical professionals propose that SBS is the result of respiratory abnormalities leading to hypoxia and swelling of the brain. The courtroom has become a forum for conflicting theories with which generally accepted medical literature has not been reconciled. Often there are no outwardly visible signs of trauma, despite the presence of severe internal brain and eye injury. Complications include seizures, visual impairment, cerebral palsy, cognitive impairment, and death.
Educating new parents appears to be beneficial in decreasing rates of the condition. SBS is estimated to occur in three to four per 10,000 babies a year. These signs have evolved through the years as accepted and recognized signs of child abuse. Medical professionals strongly suspect shaking as the cause of injuries when a young child presents with retinal bleed, fractures, soft tissue injuries, or subdural hematoma that cannot be explained by accidental trauma or other medical conditions.
Retinal hemorrhage (bleeding) occurs in around 85% of SBS cases and the severity of retinal hemorrhage correlates with severity of head injury. The type of retinal bleeds are often believed to be particularly characteristic of this condition, making the finding useful in establishing the diagnosis.
Fractures of the vertebrae, long bones, and ribs may also be associated with SBS. Dr. John Caffey reported in 1972 that metaphyseal avulsions (small fragments of bone torn off where the periosteum covering the bone and the cortical bone are tightly bound together) and "bones on both the proximal and distal sides of a single joint are affected, especially at the knee".
Infants may display irritability, failure to thrive, alterations in eating patterns, lethargy, vomiting, seizures, bulging or tense fontanels (the soft spots on a baby's head), increased size of the head, altered breathing, and dilated pupils.
Risk factors
Caregivers that are at risk for becoming abusive often have unrealistic expectations of the child and may display "role reversal", expecting the child to fulfill the needs of the caregiver. Substance abuse and emotional stress, resulting for example from financial troubles, are other risk factors for aggression and impulsiveness in caregivers. Caregivers of any gender can cause SBS. Although it had been previously speculated that SBS was an isolated event, evidence of prior child abuse is a common finding. In an estimated 33–40% of cases, evidence of prior head injuries, such as old intracranial bleeds, is present.
Mechanism
Effects of SBS are thought to be diffuse axonal injury, oxygen deprivation and swelling of the brain, which can raise pressure inside the skull and damage delicate brain tissue, although witnessed shaking events have not led to such injuries.
Traumatic shaking occurs when a child is shaken in such a way that its head is flung backwards and forwards. In 1971, Guthkelch, a neurosurgeon, hypothesized that such shaking can result in a subdural hematoma, in the absence of any detectable external signs of injury to the skull. The article describes two cases in which the parents admitted that for various reasons they had shaken the child before it became ill. Moreover, one of the babies had retinal hemorrhages. The association between traumatic shaking, subdural hematoma and retinal hemorrhages was described in 1972 and referred to as whiplash shaken infant syndrome. The injuries were believed to occur because shaking the child subjected the head to acceleration–deceleration and rotational forces.
Force
There has been controversy regarding the amount of force required to produce the brain damage seen in SBS. There is broad agreement, even amongst skeptics, that shaking of a baby is dangerous and can be fatal.
A biomechanical analysis by F. A. Bandak published in 2005 reported that "forceful shaking can severely injure or kill an infant, this is because the cervical spine would be severely injured and not because subdural hematomas would be caused by high head rotational accelerations... an infant head subjected to the levels of rotational velocity and acceleration called for in the SBS literature, would experience forces on the infant neck far exceeding the limits for structural failure of the cervical spine. Furthermore, shaking cervical spine injury can occur at much lower levels of head velocity and acceleration than those reported for SBS." Other authors were critical of the mathematical analysis by Bandak, citing concerns about the calculations the author used concluding "In light of the numerical errors in Bandak's neck force estimations, we question the resolute tenor of Bandak's conclusions that neck injuries would occur in all shaking events." Other authors critical of the model proposed by Bandak concluding "the mechanical analogue proposed in the paper may not be entirely appropriate when used to model the motion of the head and neck of infants when a baby is shaken." Bandak responded to the criticism in a letter to the editor published in Forensic Science International in February 2006.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis can be difficult as symptoms may be nonspecific. A CT scan of the head is typically recommended if a concern is present. It is unclear how useful subdural haematoma, retinal hemorrhages, and encephalopathy are alone at making the diagnosis.
Triad
While the findings of SBS are complex and many, they are often incorrectly referred to as a "triad" for legal proceedings; distilled down to retinal hemorrhages, subdural hematomas, and encephalopathy.
SBS may be misdiagnosed, underdiagnosed, and overdiagnosed, and caregivers may lie or be unaware of the mechanism of injury. Commonly, there are no externally visible signs of the condition. Examination by an experienced ophthalmologist is critical in diagnosing shaken baby syndrome, as particular forms of ocular bleeding are strongly associated with AHT. Magnetic resonance imaging may also depict retinal hemorrhaging but is much less sensitive than an eye exam. Conditions that are often excluded by clinicians include hydrocephalus, sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), seizure disorders, and infectious or congenital diseases like meningitis and metabolic disorders. CT scanning and magnetic resonance imaging are used to diagnose the condition. Conditions that often accompany SBS/AHT include classic patterns of skeletal fracturing (rib fractures, corner fractures), injury to the cervical spine (in the neck), retinal hemorrhage, cerebral bleed or atrophy, hydrocephalus, and papilledema (swelling of the optic disc).
The terms non-accidental head injury or inflicted traumatic brain injury have been used in place of "abusive head trauma" or "SBS".
Classification
The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention identifies SBS as "an injury to the skull or intracranial contents of an infant or young child (< 5 years of age) due to inflicted blunt impact and/or violent shaking". In 2009, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommended the use of the term abusive head trauma (AHT) to replace SBS, in part to differentiate injuries arising solely from shaking and injuries arising from shaking as well as trauma to the head.
The Crown Prosecution Service for England and Wales recommended in 2011 that the term shaken baby syndrome be avoided and the term non accidental head injury (NAHI) be used instead.
Differential diagnosis
Vitamin C deficiency
Some authors have suggested that certain cases of suspected shaken baby syndrome may result from vitamin C deficiency. This contested hypothesis is based upon a speculated marginal, near scorbutic condition or lack of essential nutrient(s) repletion and a potential elevated histamine level. However, symptoms consistent with increased histamine levels, such as low blood pressure and allergic symptoms, are not commonly associated with scurvy as clinically significant vitamin C deficiency. A literature review of this hypothesis in the journal Pediatrics International concluded the following: "From the available information in the literature, concluded that there was no convincing evidence to conclude that vitamin C deficiency can be considered to be a cause of shaken baby syndrome."
The proponents of such hypotheses often question the adequacy of nutrient tissue levels, especially vitamin C, for those children currently or recently ill, bacterial infections, those with higher individual requirements, those with environmental challenges (e.g. allergies), and perhaps transient vaccination-related stresses. At the time of this writing, infantile scurvy in the United States is practically nonexistent. No cases of scurvy mimicking SBS or sudden infant death syndrome have been reported, and scurvy typically occurs later in infancy, rarely causes death or intracranial bleeding, and is accompanied by other changes of the bones and skin and invariably an unusually deficient dietary history.
In one study vaccination was shown not associated with retinal hemorrhages.
Gestational problems
Gestational problems affecting both mother and fetus, the birthing process, prematurity and nutritional deficits can accelerate skeletal and hemorrhagic pathologies that can also mimic SBS, even before birth.
Prevention
Interventions by neonatal nurses include giving parents information about abusive head trauma, normal infant crying and reasons for crying, teaching how to calm an infant, and how to cope if the infant was inconsolable may reduce rates of SBS.
Treatment
Treatment involves monitoring intracranial pressure (the pressure within the skull). Treatment occasionally requires surgery, such as to place a cerebral shunt to drain fluid from the cerebral ventricles, and, if an intracranial hematoma is present, to drain the blood collection.
Prognosis
Prognosis depends on severity and can range from total recovery to severe disability to death when the injury is severe.
One third of these patients die, one third survives with a major neurological condition, and only one third survives in good condition; therefore shaken baby syndrome puts children at risk of long-term disability. The most frequent neurological impairments are learning disabilities, seizure disorders, speech disabilities, hydrocephalus, cerebral palsy, and visual disorders.
Epidemiology
Small children are at particularly high risk for the abuse that causes SBS given the large difference in size between the small child and an adult. SBS usually occurs in children under the age of two but may occur in those up to age five. In the US, deaths due to SBS constitute about 10% of deaths due to child abuse.
History
In 1971, Norman Guthkelch proposed that whiplash injury caused subdural bleeding in infants by tearing the veins in the subdural space. The term "whiplash shaken infant syndrome" was introduced by Dr. John Caffey, a pediatric radiologist, in 1973, describing a set of symptoms found with little or no external evidence of head trauma, including retinal bleeds and intracranial bleeds with subdural or subarachnoid bleeding or both. Development of computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging techniques in the 1970s and 1980s advanced the ability to diagnose the syndrome.
Legal issues
The association of diagnosed SBS with deliberate assault is a matter of legal and medical contention, with conflicting opinions as to whether one necessarily implies the other.
The President's Council of Advisers on Science and Technology (PCAST) noted in its September 2016 report that there are concerns regarding the scientific validity of forensic evidence of abusive head trauma that "require urgent attention". Similarly, the Maguire model, suggested in 2011 as a potential statistical model for determining the probability that a child's trauma was caused by abuse, has been questioned. A proposed clinical prediction rule with high sensitivity and low specificity, to rule out Abusive Head Trauma, has been published.
In July 2005, the Court of Appeal of England and Wales heard four appeals of SBS convictions: one case was dropped, the sentence was reduced for one, and two convictions were upheld. The court found that the classic triad of retinal bleeding, subdural hematoma, and acute encephalopathy are not 100% diagnostic of SBS and that clinical history is also important. In the Court's ruling, they upheld the clinical concept of SBS but dismissed one case and reduced another from murder to manslaughter. In their words: "Whilst a strong pointer to NAHI [non-accidental head injury] on its own we do not think it possible to find that it must automatically and necessarily lead to a diagnosis of NAHI. All the circumstances, including the clinical picture, must be taken into account."
The court did not believe the "unified hypothesis", proposed by British physician J. F. Geddes and colleagues, as an alternative mechanism for the subdural and retinal bleeding found in suspected cases of SBS. The unified hypothesis proposed that the bleeding was not caused by shearing of subdural and retinal veins but rather by cerebral hypoxia, increased intracranial pressure, and increased pressure in the brain's blood vessels. The court reported that "the unified hypothesis [could] no longer be regarded as a credible or alternative cause of the triad of injuries": subdural haemorrhage, retinal bleeding and encephalopathy due to hypoxemia (low blood oxygen) found in suspected SBS.
On 31 January 2008, the Wisconsin Court of Appeals granted Audrey A. Edmunds a new trial based on "competing credible medical opinions in determining whether there is a reasonable doubt as to Edmunds's guilt." Specifically, the appeals court found that "Edmunds presented evidence that was not discovered until after her conviction, in the form of expert medical testimony, that a significant and legitimate debate in the medical community has developed in the past ten years over whether infants can be fatally injured through shaking alone, whether an infant may suffer head trauma and yet experience a significant lucid interval prior to death, and whether other causes may mimic the symptoms traditionally viewed as indicating shaken baby or shaken impact syndrome."
In 2012, Norman Guthkelch, the neurosurgeon often credited with "discovering" the diagnosis of SBS, published an article "after 40 years of consideration," which is harshly critical of shaken baby prosecutions based solely on the triad of injuries. Again, in 2012, Guthkelch stated in an interview, "I think we need to go back to the drawing board and make a more thorough assessment of these fatal cases, and I am going to bet ... that we are going to find in every – or at least the large majority of cases, the child had another severe illness of some sort which was missed until too late." Furthermore, in 2015, Guthkelch went so far as to say, "I was against defining this thing as a syndrome in the first instance. To go on and say every time you see it, it's a crime... It became an easy way to go into jail."
Teri Covington, who runs the National Center for Child Death Review Policy and Practice, worries that such caution has led to a growing number of cases of child abuse in which the abuser is not punished.
In March 2016, Waney Squier, a paediatric neuropathologist who has served as an expert witness in many shaken baby trials, was struck off the medical register for misconduct. Shortly after her conviction, Squier was given the "champion of justice" award by the International Innocence Network for her efforts to free those wrongfully convicted of shaken baby syndrome.
Squier denied the allegations and appealed the decision to strike her off the medical register. As her case was heard by the High Court of England and Wales in October 2016, an open letter to the British Medical Journal questioning the decision to strike off Squier, was signed by 350 doctors, scientists, and attorneys. On 3 November 2016, the court published a judgment which concluded that "the determination of the MPT is in many significant respects flawed". The judge found that she had committed serious professional misconduct but was not dishonest. She was reinstated to the medical register but prohibited from giving expert evidence in court for the next three years.
In 2022, Channel 4 in the UK broadcast a documentary called The Killer Nanny: Did She Do It? concerning Louise Woodward case. In it, civil rights lawyer Clive Stafford Smith stated, "shaken baby syndrome is bullshit".
See also
References
External links
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – Abusive head trauma
Neurotrauma
Child abuse
Infancy
Syndromes
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louise%20of%20Mecklenburg-Strelitz
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Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
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Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (Luise Auguste Wilhelmine Amalie; 10 March 1776 – 19 July 1810) was Queen of Prussia as the wife of King Frederick William III. The couple's happy, though short-lived, marriage produced nine children, including the future monarchs Frederick William IV of Prussia and Wilhelm I, German Emperor.
Her legacy became cemented after her extraordinary 1807 meeting with French Emperor Napoleon I at Tilsit – she met with the emperor to plead unsuccessfully for favorable terms after Prussia's disastrous losses in the Napoleonic Wars. She was already well loved by her subjects, but her meeting with Napoleon led Louise to become revered as "the soul of national virtue". Her early death at the age of thirty-four "preserved her youth in the memory of posterity", and caused Napoleon to reportedly remark that the king "has lost his best minister". The Order of Louise was founded by her grieving husband four years later as a female counterpart to the Iron Cross. In the 1920s, conservative German women founded the Queen Louise League.
Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (1776–1793)
Duchess Luise Auguste Wilhelmine Amalie of Mecklenburg-Strelitz ("Louise" in English) was born on 10 March 1776 in a one-storey villa, just outside the capital in Hanover. She was the fourth daughter and sixth child of Duke Charles of Mecklenburg and his wife Princess Friederike of Hesse-Darmstadt. Her father Charles was a brother of Queen Charlotte and her mother Frederike was a granddaughter of Louis VIII, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt. Her maternal grandmother, Landgravine Marie Louise of Hesse-Darmstadt, and her paternal first-cousin Princess Augusta Sophia of the United Kingdom served as sponsors at her baptism; her second given name came from Princess Augusta Sophia.
At the time of her birth, Louise's father was not yet the ruler of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (he would not succeed his brother as Duke until 1794), and consequently she was not born in a court, but rather in a less formal home. Charles was field marshal of the household brigade in Hanover, and soon after Louise's birth he was made Governor-General of that territory by his brother-in-law George III, king of the United Kingdom and Hanover (husband of his sister, Queen Charlotte). The family subsequently moved to Leineschloss, the residence of Hanoverian kings, though during the summer they usually lived at Herrenhausen.
Louise was particularly close to her sister Frederica, who was two years younger, as well as with their only brother George. Louise and her siblings were under the care of their governess Fräulein von Wolzogen, a friend of their mother's. When Louise was only six years old, her mother died in childbirth, leaving a permanent mark on the young duchess; she would often give away pocket change to other children who experienced similar losses, stating "she is like me, she has no mother". After Duchess Friederike's death, the family left Leineschloss for Herrenhausen, sometimes called a "miniature Versailles". Duke Charles remarried two years later to his first wife's younger sister Charlotte, producing a son, Charles. Louise and her new stepmother became close until Charlotte's early death the year after their marriage. The twice widowed and grieving duke went to Darmstadt, where he gave the children into the care of his mother-in-law and Louise's grandmother, the widowed Landgravine Marie Louise.
Education
Their grandmother preferred to raise them simply, and they made their own clothes. A new governess from Switzerland, Madame Gelieux, was appointed, giving the children lessons in French; as was common for royal and aristocratic children of the time, Louise became fluent and literate in the language, while neglecting her own native German. She received religious instruction from a clergyman of the Lutheran Church. Complementary to her lessons was an emphasis on charitable acts, and Louise would often accompany her governess when visiting the houses of the poor and needy. Louise was encouraged to give out as much as was in her means, although she often got into trouble with her grandmother for donating too much for charity. From the age of ten until her marriage at 17, Louise spent most of her time in the presence of her grandmother and governess, both well-educated and refined. When only nine years old, Louise was present when the poet Friedrich Schiller read from the first act of "Don Carlos" for the entertainment of the assembled court, thus sparking her love for German as a literary language, especially works of Schiller. Louise loved history and poetry, and not only enjoyed reading Schiller, but also came to like the works of Goethe, Paul, Herder and Shakespeare, as well as ancient Greek tragedies.
In 1793, Marie Louise took the two youngest duchesses with her to Frankfurt, where she paid her respects to her nephew King Frederick William II. Louise had grown up into a beautiful young woman, possessing "an exquisite complexion" and "large blue eyes," and was naturally graceful. Louise's uncle, the Duke of Mecklenburg, hoped to strengthen ties between his house and Prussia. Consequently, on one evening carefully planned by the Duke, seventeen-year-old Louise met the king's son and heir, Crown Prince Frederick William. The crown prince was twenty-three, serious-minded, and religious. She made such a charming impression on Frederick William that he immediately made his choice, desiring to marry her. Frederica caught the eye of his younger brother Prince Louis Charles, and the two families began planning a double betrothal, celebrating a month later, on 24 April 1793 in Darmstadt. Frederick and Louise were subsequently married on 24 December that same year, with Louis and Frederica marrying two days later.
Crown Princess of Prussia (1793–1797)
In the events leading up to her marriage, Louise's arrival in Berlin, the Prussian capital, caused quite a sensation, and she was greeted with a grand reception by the city's joyful citizens. When she broke protocol and stopped to pick up and kiss a child, Prussian writer Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué remarked that "The arrival of the angelic Princess spreads over these days a noble splendor. All hearts go out to meet her, and her grace and goodness leaves no one unblessed." Another wrote "The more perfectly one becomes acquainted with the Princess the more one is captivated by the inner nobility, and the angelic goodness of her heart."
Louise's father-in-law King Frederick William II gave the couple Charlottenburg Palace, but the crown prince and his new wife preferred to live at Paretz Palace, just outside Potsdam, where Louise kept herself busy with household affairs. Paretz was far from the bustle of court, as the couple were most content in the "rural retirement" of a country life. The marriage was happy, and Louise was well-beloved by the king, who called her "the princess of princesses" and gave her a palace in Oranienburg. The crown princess saw it as her duty to support her husband in all his pursuits, and the couple enjoyed singing together and reading from Shakespeare and Goethe. Louise soon became pregnant, giving birth to a stillborn girl on 1 October 1794 at the age of eighteen. Nine healthy children would follow in quick succession, though two died in childhood: Crown Prince Frederick William (1795), Prince William (1797), Princess Charlotte (1798), Princess Frederica (1799), Prince Charles (1801), Princess Alexandrine (1803), Prince Ferdinand (1804), Princess Louise (1808), and Prince Albert (1809). The couple also used the Crown Prince's Palace in the capital.
Louise's charitable giving continued throughout her life, and on one occasion, while attending a harvest festival, she purchased presents and distributed them to local children. On her first birthday after her marriage in Berlin, when King Frederick William II asked his daughter-in-law what she desired for a present, Louise replied she wanted a handful of money to let the city's people share her joy; he smilingly gave her a large quantity for the task.
Queen consort of Prussia (1797–1810)
On 16 November 1797, her husband succeeded to the throne of Prussia as King Frederick William III after the death of his father. Louise wrote to her grandmother, "I am now queen, and what rejoices me most is the hope that now I need no longer count my benefactions so carefully." The couple had to abandon their solitude at Paretz and begin living under the restraints of a royal court. They began a tour of the country's eastern provinces for two purposes: the king wanted to acquaint himself with their new subjects, and despite the unusualness of a consort accompanying the king further than the capital, Frederick William wanted to introduce the queen as well to their people. Louise was received everywhere with festivities. For the first time in Prussian history, the queen emerged as a celebrated public personality in her own right, as she occupied a much more prominent role than her predecessors. Louise's presence on her husband's eastern journey was a break from the traditional role of the consort – importantly however the queen's power and enduring legacy did not stem from holding a separate court and policy than her husband's, but rather the opposite: she subordinated her formidable intelligence and skill for her husband's sole advantage. She also became a fashion icon, for instance starting a trend by wearing a neckerchief to keep from getting ill.
After her husband's accession, Louise developed many ties to senior ministers and became a powerful figure within the government as she began to command universal respect and affection. The queen went out of her way to stay informed about political developments at court, and from the very beginning of his reign the new king consulted Louise on matters of state. Frederick William was hesitant and cautious, and hated war, stating in 1798, "I abhor war and... know of nothing greater on earth than the preservation of peace and tranquility as the only system suited to the happiness of human kind". In keeping with the later foreign policy of his father's, Frederick William favored neutrality during the early years of the conflict with the revolutionary French First Republic, which evolved into the Napoleonic Wars (1803–15); he refused the various pressures to pick a side in the War of the Second Coalition. Louise supported this view, warning that if Prussia were to side with the coalition powers of Austria, Great Britain, and Russia, it would lead to dependence on the latter power for military support. She foresaw that because Prussia was by far the weakest of the great powers, and it would not have been able to ensure it benefited from the results of such an alliance. French aggression caused the king to eventually consider entering the wars, but his indecision prevented him from choosing a side, either France or the coalition powers. He consulted the many differing opinions of Queen Louise and his ministers, and was eventually compelled into an alliance with Napoleon, who was recently victorious from the Battle of Austerlitz (1805).
Baron vom Stein, a member of the bureaucracy, having abhorred the country's former neutrality, sought to reform the organization of the government from favor-based cronyism into a responsible ministerial government. He prepared a document for the king detailing in strong language what administrative reforms were needed, such as establishing clearer lines of responsibility among ministers; this work however never reached Frederick William, as Stein passed it first to General Ernst von Rüchel, who in turn passed it onto the queen in the spring of 1806. Though Louise agreed with its contents, she thought it "too violent and passionate" for the king, and consequently helped suppress it.
War with France
Among the king's advisers, members of his family, such as the queen (an open advocate of war) and Prince Louis Ferdinand, led the militaristic faction in favor of war against France; those against neutrality but in favor of reform were led by Baron vom Stein and Karl August von Hardenberg. Knowing the temperament of the king, Hardenberg appealed directly to the queen for desired reform – wisely as it turned out, as Frederick William viewed the demands to remove his trusted advisers in the Kabinett as a "mutiny" similar to the Fronde.
Though Prussia had not fought in a war since 1795, its military leaders confidently expected that they could win against Napoleon's troops. After a small incident concerning an anti-French pamphlet occurred, King Frederick William was finally pressured by his wife and family to break off his uneasy peace and enter the war against the French emperor. Prussian troops began mobilizing, culminating in the October 1806 Battle of Jena-Auerstedt, which was a disaster for Prussia, as the ability of its armed forces to continue the war were effectively wiped out. The king and queen had accompanied their troops into battle at Jena (with Louise apparently dressed "like an Amazon"), but had to flee from French troops.
Napoleon himself occupied Berlin, causing the king, queen and the rest of the royal family to flee, despite Louise's illness, in the dead of winter to Memel in the easternmost part of the kingdom. On the journey there, there was no food or clean water, and the king and queen were forced to share the same sleeping arrangements in "one of the wretched barns they call houses", according to one witness traveling with them.
After various events took place, Napoleon demanded, from a highly superior position, peace terms in what was to be called the Peace of Tilsit (1807). In the midst of these negotiations, the emperor agreed to keep half of Prussia intact. The men were joined by Queen Louise; Frederick William had sent for his wife, then pregnant with her daughter Princess Louise, to beg for a better settlement for Prussia, with Louise advising her husband, "For God's sake no shameful peace...[Prussia] should at least not go down without honor." As the king felt that her presence might put Napoleon in a "more relaxed mood"; Louise reluctantly agreed to meet the emperor at Tilsit, but only to save Prussia. Napoleon had previously attempted to destroy her reputation by questioning Louise's marital fidelity, but the queen met him anyway, attempting to use her beauty and charm to flatter him into more favorable terms. Formerly Louise had regularly referred to him as "the Monster", but nevertheless made a request for a private interview with the emperor, whereon she threw herself at his feet; though he was impressed by her grace and determination, Napoleon refused to make any concessions, writing back to his wife Empress Joséphine that Louise "is really charming and full of coquettishness toward me. But don't be jealous...it would cost me too dearly to play the gallant." Napoleon's attempts to destroy Louise's reputation failed however, and they only made her more beloved in Prussia. Queen Louise's efforts to protect her adopted country from French aggression secured for her the admiration of future generations.
Remaining years
Harsh restrictions were imposed on Prussia, such as a massive indemnity of one hundred and twenty million francs and the quartering of troops. At the time, one hundred and twenty million francs was equivalent to the entire yearly budget of Prussia. As the perceived symbol of Prussia's former grandeur and pride, the French occupation of Prussia had a particularly devastating effect upon Louise, as the queen endured personal insults – Napoleon himself gave her a backhanded compliment when he called her "the only real man in Prussia". The queen recognized that her adopted country depended on her for moral strength, and as a consequence Louise regained her old sense of optimism, often taking time to prepare their eldest son for his future role as king. In the following few years Louise supported the reforming efforts of government carried out by Stein and Hardenberg, as well as those of Gerhard von Scharnhorst and August Neidhardt von Gneisenau, to reorganize the army. After the disaster at Tilsit, Louise was instrumental in Stein's reappointment (the king had previously dismissed him), telling Frederick William "[Stein] is my last hope. A great heart, an encompassing mind, perhaps he knows remedies that are hidden to us."
By 1808 it was still considered unsafe to return to Berlin, and the royal family consequently spent the summer near Königsberg; Louise believed that the hard trials of her children's early lives would be good for them: "If they had been reared in luxury and prosperity they might think that so it must always be." In the winter of 1808, Tsar Alexander I invited the king and queen to St. Petersburg, where she was treated to sumptuously decorated rooms; "Nothing dazzles me anymore", she exclaimed on her return to Germany. Near the birth of her youngest child Princess Louise in 1809, Louise wrote to her father, "Gladly...the calamities which have befallen us have not forced their way into our wedded and home life, rather have strengthened the same, and made it even more precious to us." Louise was sick for much of that year, but returned with the king to Berlin near the end of it after an absence of three years; the queen arrived in a carriage accompanied by her two daughters Charlotte and Alexandrine and younger son Charles, and was greeted by her father at Charlottenburg Palace – the residence was ransacked however, as Napoleon and his commanders had stripped its rooms of paintings, statues, manuscripts, and antiquities. Returning to a much different Prussia than she left, a preacher observed that "our dear queen is far from joyful, but her seriousness has a quiet serenity... her eyes have lost their former sparkle, and one sees that they have wept much, and still weep".
On 19 July 1810, while visiting her father in Strelitz, the Queen died in her husband's arms from an unidentified illness. Lieutenant-General Baron De Marbot, in his Memoirs, records that the Queen in later life always wore a thick wrapping around her neck. It was to conceal a botched operation for goitre, which left an open sore, which eventually killed her. The queen's subjects attributed the French occupation as the cause of her early death. "Our saint is in heaven", exclaimed Prussian general Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher. Louise's untimely death left her husband alone during a period of great difficulty, as the Napoleonic Wars and need for reform continued.
Louise was buried in the garden of Charlottenburg Palace, where a mausoleum, containing a fine recumbent statue by Christian Daniel Rauch, was built over her grave. Frederick William did not remarry until 1824, when he entered into a morganatic marriage with his mistress Auguste von Harrach, explaining "Womanly companionship and sympathy have become necessary to me, therefore I must marry again." After his death on 7 June 1840, Frederick William was buried by her side.
Legacy
Queen Louise was revered by her subjects as the "soul of national virtue", and some historians have written that Louise was "Prussian nationalism personified." According to Christopher Clark, Louise was "a female celebrity who in the mind of the public combined virtue, modesty, and sovereign grace with kindness and sex appeal, and whose early death in 1810 at the age of only thirty-four preserved her youth in the memory of posterity." Her reputation as a loving and loyal supporter of her husband became crucial to her enduring legacy; the cult that eventually surrounded Louise became associated with the "ideal" feminine attributes: prettiness, sweet nature, maternal kindness, and wifely virtue.
On the anniversary of her birth, in 1814, the widowed King Frederick William instituted the Order of Louise (Luisenorden) as a complementary decoration for the Iron Cross. Its purpose was to be given to those women who had made a significant contribution to the war effort against Napoleon, though it was subsequently awarded to future members of the House of Hohenzollern unrelated to the French emperor, such as her granddaughter-in-law, Empress Victoria of Germany, and her great-granddaughter, Queen Sophia of Greece. In 1880 a statue of Queen Louise was erected in the Tiergarten in Berlin.
Louise inspired the establishment of a conservative women's organization known as Königin-Luise-Bund, often shortened to Luisenbund ("Queen Louise League") in which her person achieved an almost cult-like status. The group's main purpose was to promote patriotic feelings among German women, and it emphasized the family and German morality. The Königin-Luise-Bund was active during the time of the Weimar Republic and the first years of Nazi Germany. Despite having actively supported the National Socialist movement since its early stages all through their accession to power in 1933, the Queen Louise League was nonetheless disbanded by the Nazis in 1934, as they viewed it as a hostile organization.
Popular culture
The character of Queen Louise was the popular subject of countless films released in German cinema. These included Der Film von der Königin Luise (1913), Die elf schillschen Offiziere (1926), and Vivat – Königin Luise im Fichtelgebirge (2005), Luise – Königin der Herzen (2010 documentary). She was played by Mady Christians in the 1927 silent film Queen Louise, by Henny Porten in Louise, Queen of Prussia (1931) and by Ruth Leuwerik in the 1957 film Queen Louise.
She was also briefly portrayed in an extremely reverential manner in the 1945 propaganda film Kolberg. The 1951 film The African Queen involves a British covert mission to sink the Königin Luise ("Queen Louise"), a German warship patrolling Lake Victoria at the start of World War I.
Louise became the subject of a series of novels by 19th century German historical fiction writer Luise Mühlbach, which included Louisa of Prussia and her Times and Napoleon and the Queen of Prussia.
Issue
By Frederick William III of Prussia (3 August 1770 – 7 June 1840); married on 24 December 1793.
Ancestry
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
In German
Günter de Bruyn: Preußens Luise. Vom Entstehen und Vergehen einer Legende. Siedler, Berlin 2001, (with bibliography and index of illustrations)
Further reading
online free to borrow
External links
Louise's death mask , from the Laurence Hutton Collection
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1810 deaths
Nobility from Hanover
People from Mecklenburg-Strelitz
Consorts of Brandenburg
Queens consort of Prussia
Princesses of Neuchâtel
House of Hohenzollern
German people of the Napoleonic Wars
Burials at the Charlottenburg Palace Park Mausoleum, Berlin
Prussian princesses
Duchesses of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
Electresses of Brandenburg
Protestant monarchs
Daughters of monarchs
Women who experienced pregnancy loss
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History of Seattle (1940–present)
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History of Seattle, Washington from 1940 to the present
WWII and the Boeing era: 1945–1970
From World War II until 1970, Seattle underwent what amounted to a long, sustained economic boom, although not without occasional reverses. Boeing was hiring, the economy was booming, and while there had been no successful regional planning, the city had not yet grown quite large enough.
The Boeing airplane company grew out of the fortune of William "Bill" Boeing's boat company and his fascination with airplanes and flying. In 1917, before American entry into World War I, Boeing employed only 28 people, but when the war orders started coming in, Boeing grew to "an enterprising firm with the one customer airplane builders had in those days, the federal government. Employing about four thousand people, with sales just under ten million dollars a year, it was a good if unspectacular business for Seattle." The company struggled through the period between the wars, and "began to build dressers, counters and furniture for a corset company and a confectioner's shop, as well as flat-bottomed boats called sea sleds." However, when World War II started, the government suddenly desired tens of thousands of planes a year, and Boeing was positioned to provide them. Working under fixed-fee contracts, Boeing churned out airplanes and became by far the largest employer in Seattle.
However, Boeing spawned few local spin-off industries; only 5% of the subcontracted work was in the Puget Sound. Boeing was, by intention, a place where engineers designed the planes and line workers assembled parts that were imported from all over the world. Ostensibly, this would reduce the dependency of Seattle's economy on the fortunes of the airline business. The problem was that Seattle was still dependent on the airline business, without enjoying any of the spin-off industries that might have diversified the economy. When the war ended, "the military canceled its bomber orders; Boeing factories shut down and 70,000 people lost their jobs," and initially it appeared that Seattle had little to show for the wartime Boeing boom. While the war was on, almost all production went either towards Boeing factories or Boeing planes. After the war, the crash ensured that no one would have much money for new local development.
This period of stagnation soon ended with the rise of the jet airplane and Boeing's reincarnation as the world's leading producer of commercial passenger planes. With the Boeing 707-120, Seattle became Boeing's company town; "in 1947 Boeing employed about one out of every five of King County's manufacturing workers, in 1957 about every other one." As Boeing boomed, so did Seattle. From 1940 to 1950, the population increased 99,289 or 27% from 368,302 to 467,591. From 1950 to 1960, the population increased 89,496 or 20% to 557,087. All of those people had to live somewhere, and the Fifties saw a huge housing boom. Population density all over Seattle exploded as people filled the boundaries of settlement in the city and began to move north. Most of the development was in single-family houses, since land was plentiful.
At the same time, the freeways were being built to compensate for all this new growth. The community of Mercer Island, the "Eastside" (east of Lake Washington) communities of Bryn Mawr, Newport, Bellevue, Clyde Hill, Hunts Point, Medina, Juanita, and the northern suburbs of Kenmore, Lake Forest Park, and Lake Hills all came into being during the Boeing boom. Interstate 5 (I-5) cut the city in half on a north–south axis, while I-90 crossed east–west, connecting with Mercer Island via the floating Lacey V. Murrow Memorial Bridge. SR 520 skirted the north end of Montlake just south of the Montlake Cut, and paralleled I-90 with its own floating bridge. I-5 neatly cut off Downtown Seattle from Capitol Hill, First Hill, and even from part of the historic downtown, including the Tony Sorrento Hotel, which was left stranded on the "wrong" side of the freeway. I-90 was perhaps less disruptive (unless, of course, you were living in its path), since it is partly routed through a tunnel and skirts a more-or-less unbuildable edge of Beacon Hill, avoiding slicing the city into north and south halves. Freeway Park was eventually built over I-5 in 1976, restoring something of a link between Downtown and First Hill, but was not heavily enough used to provide much mitigation. The R.H. Thompson Expressway, planned to connect SR 520 with I-90 and SR 167 via the Central District, and the Bay Freeway, connecting I-5 with the Seattle Center via Mercer Street, were canceled by citizen referendums as part of nationwide freeway revolts.
With all this postwar growth came growing pollution of the lakes and rivers that provided much of the beauty that had been Seattle's appeal to its recent immigrants. Also, the sprawl constantly demanded more roads, since the ones already built had terrible traffic. (Naturally, new roads simply led to new development and were soon as snarled as those they were intended to relieve.) A group of Seattle natives, anxious to preserve the city in which they grew up, came together to institute the Metropolitan Problems Committee, or METRO, intended to manage and plan the metropolitan area. The driving force behind this movement was Jim Ellis, who headed the committee and repeatedly brought the planning issue before the voters and city governments. The logic was that a regional transit system would require a regional political body; the same held for regional sewage and pollution control or regional growth planning. The original, comprehensive METRO regional plan was defeated in a vote by suburbanites who seemed to view the problem not as one of pollution, transit, sprawl, or lack of planning: in what some Seattleites referred to as the "Pave the Lake" strategy, they just wanted more bridges across Lake Washington.
METRO came back, scaled down to a sewage treatment and transport organization, and prevailed with an overwhelming majority in Seattle and a decent showing in the suburbs. METRO, despite repeated attempts by Jim Ellis, never did manage to get authority for planning, and to this day there is no single body responsible for planning the Seattle metropolitan area and its transportation systems. (METRO was eventually merged into the King County government.) Seattle and King County have, at times, seemed better at coming up with money for stadiums and other large public works than for broader projects.
During this period, Seattle's downtown was in decline (as were many other downtowns across the nation, for much the same reason): people shopped in the suburbs, not in the city. The market for goods in the city's center was drying up. Seattle's solution was to host the Century 21 Exposition, the 1962 World's Fair. The area directly north of downtown was slumping very badly—some of it to the point of being known as the "Warren Avenue slum"—and the city owned a lot of property almost adjacent to that "slum". The fair, given a futuristic science theme, was designed to leave behind a civic center, now known as Seattle Center, containing arts buildings, a food court, museums, and the like and serving also as a fairground. The United States Science Pavilion (now the Pacific Science Center) was one of the central attractions. Boeing performed one of its few altruistic public actions: they "created and installed in the United States Science Pavilion a space age Spacearium, a permanent addition to the center and one of the most attractive features of the fair."
In conjunction with the fair, a demonstration monorail line was constructed, running from the center of downtown to the fair, a distance of 0.9 miles; it was constructed at no cost to the city and was paid for out of ticket sales, and then turned over to the city for $600,000. (See Seattle Center Monorail). It is currently the only monorail in the United States to turn a profit. It is now almost exclusively a tourist attraction, as the distance covered is too small to be of much practical use unless you are living in a hotel downtown and visiting the Seattle Center. The World's Fair also granted Seattle the landmark Space Needle, also a continuing tourist attraction. Seattle also acquired an Opera House, a Coliseum, and a refurbished Arena (all of which have since been replaced or significantly remodeled), and a great location for future carnivals and fairs. Today, Seattle Center is host to the Bite of Seattle, Bumbershoot, a music and art festival that draws crowds in the hundreds of thousands every Labor Day Weekend, Northwest Folklife Festival on Memorial Day Weekend, a comparably large folk music and folk culture festival, which somehow manages to stay in the black despite being free to all comers, and PrideFest, a finali of the much larger event Seattle Gay Pride Parade like many other cities every year in late June in honor of the 1969 Stonewall Riots proudly flying the pride flag atop the Space Needle for the first time in 2010. The Pacific Science Center continues to draw crowds, along with a small amusement park that operates all summer – *Needs updating, amusement park removed years ago as part of the Experience Music Project (now Mo-Pop, Musium of Pop Culture) construction on the site. The World's Fair arguably reenergized the downtown of Seattle, and was generally a smashing success, even finishing with a profit.
After the war, the University of Washington also took a step forward, finally fulfilling the promise of its name. Charles Odegaard, as president of the University, used his office to press for the creation of community colleges and other four-year colleges in Washington, so that the University of Washington could concentrate on research. By the time Odegaard retired, the UW was second only to MIT in the size of its federal grants, and the number of students attending had swelled. Because the University of Washington campus is open, its impact on the University District as well as the rest of the city was quite significant; "In remaining a largely commuter school, the university has diminished its ability to withdraw as a community in itself and has maintained thereby its ability to the larger and more amorphous community."
Counterculture
Starting in the late 1950s, Seattle was one of the centers of the emergence of the American counterculture and culture of protest. Before grunge there were beats, fringies (a local Seattle term), hippies, and batcavers. Opened in 1967, one counterculture haven in Seattle was the Last Exit on Brooklyn coffeehouse located near the University of Washington. At the University itself, Parrington Lawn became known as "Hippie Hill", due in part to UW President Charles Odegaard's "outstandingly tolerant attitude toward the hippie element on and near his jurisdiction's campus, as well as his ongoing refusal to allow Seattle city police onto UW property."
The Seattle counterculture played a role in early urban environmentalism. In the early 1970s, the Northwest Tilth Association promoted alternative modes of production and consumption of food, laying the foundation for an organic food economy in the Pacific Northwest region.
Political emergence of non-white minorities
Despite Seattle being one of the "whitest" major cities in the United States, it has had an African-American mayor (Norm Rice), at least four African-American city council members, and at least half a dozen Asian-American city council members including Wing Luke, the first Asian American elected to public office in Washington (in 1962). It has also been the political base for figures such as former King County Executives Gary Locke—who went on to be the first Chinese-American governor of a U.S. state—and Ron Sims, an African American who went on to become the Deputy Secretary of the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development. After World War II, many African-Americans moved into the Central District. This neighborhood began to gentrify in the 1990s and today, the city's African American population is more focused on the South End of the city.
Boeing bust: 1970–1985
Due to changing external demand and the cancellation of the SST program, "the Boeing workforce was cut from 80,400 to 37,200 between early 1970 and October 1971". After 1973, Seattle was in good company for its recession, since the rest of the country was also experiencing the energy crisis. However, Seattle was hit harder than most cities due to its over-reliance on Boeing as an employer, and had the worst post-Depression unemployment for any major US city, nearly 12%. As with most periods of downturn, there was not much private investment or construction. However, despite the crushing unemployment and the infamous billboard saying "Will the last person leaving Seattle – Turn out the lights," the outflux of people was "never more than 15% of those laid off," and was promptly countered by new arrivals taking advantage of the now-underpriced housing stock.
Quite likely, Seattle evaded the fate of Detroit through being a port city with a large number of highly educated, skilled workers. Seattle industry did slightly better than the national average during the rest of the 1970s; nonetheless the boom decades of the 1950s and 1960s had been brought to a decisive end.
The Pike Place Market, arguably Seattle's most significant tourist attraction, gained its modern form in the aftermath of the Boeing crash. The market had been founded in 1907 with a great deal of early success, but, like most public markets in America, had suffered a decline as corporations took over food distribution. The deportation of the Japanese from Seattle during World War II hit the market particularly hard, since 80% of its "wet stall" vendors had been ethnically Japanese. The city council wanted to make a "Pike Place Plaza" by demolishing the mostly derelict market and replacing it with "a new hotel, a 32-story apartment building, four 28-story office buildings, a hockey arena, and a 4,000-car parking garage." A "Keep the Market" initiative, led by architect Victor Steinbrueck, was passed in 1971, pushing for adaptive reuse. A promotional committee was created, historical district status attained, and vendors were convinced to move in and sell wares. The project was wildly successful, and today the Pike Place Market pulls nine million visitors each year.
A similar story occurred with Pioneer Square. An old neighborhood, largely built after the Great Seattle Fire, it had fallen into derelict status after the war. However, with a reenergized downtown, businesses started to look for buildings that could be acquired cheaply. When offices moved into renovated buildings, suddenly there was a market for facilities to service them, leading to a "flood of other restaurants, galleries, boutiques." Seattle was definitely recovering from the blow dealt by the Boeing recession, refilling areas that had threatened to become slums.
Silicon Forest: 1985–present
Bill Gates and Paul Allen, founders of Microsoft Corporation, attended the Lakeside School, a private middle and high school in Haller Lake, at the northern Seattle city limits. This turned out to have rather dramatic consequences for the entire Seattle area. Microsoft's first product, Microsoft BASIC, came out in 1976. The company was incorporated in New Mexico the same year. By 1978 sales exceeded one million dollars a year. In 1979, Microsoft moved its offices back to Redmond from Albuquerque, New Mexico—they had gone to New Mexico to be near a client who no longer dominated their business, Gates and Allen wanted to go back where they were from, and it was easier to entice quality programmers to the Seattle area than the deserts of New Mexico. By 1985, sales were over $140 million, by 1990, $1.18 billion, and by 1995, Microsoft was the world's most profitable corporation, Allen and Gates were billionaires, and literally thousands of their past and present employees were millionaires. Microsoft had grown from a two-man operation to a company with 11,000 employees in 1992 and 48,030 (about half of them in the Seattle area) in 2001.
Microsoft spawned a host of other companies in the Seattle area: millionaire employees often left to found their own companies, and Allen, after his own departure from Microsoft, became a major investor in new companies. Seattle-area companies that owe their origins at least indirectly to Microsoft include RealNetworks, Attachmate, InfoSpace, and a host of others. Quite unlike Boeing, Microsoft has served as a catalyst for the creation of a whole realm of industry. Microsoft has also taken a much more active hand than Boeing in public works in the area, donating software to many schools (including the University of Washington).
During this era, Seattle has also experienced quite good growth in the biotechnology and coffee sectors, and Seattle-based Nordstrom became a national brand.
Paul Allen, whose fortune was made through Microsoft though he has long since ceased to be an active participant in the company, has been a major force in Seattle politics. He attempted a voter initiative to build the Seattle Commons, a huge park in South Lake Union and the Cascade District, and even offered to put up his own money to endow a security force for the park, but it was defeated at the polls. (Allen is now the leader of the movement to redevelop this same area as a biotech center.) He did get a football stadium for the Seattle Seahawks through a successful statewide ballot initiative, and founded the Experience Music Project (originally intended as a Jimi Hendrix museum) on the grounds of Seattle Center.
One other piece of urban design in this era is the Washington State Convention and Trade Center, completed in 1988 and expanded in 2003, which bridges the freeway and adjoins Freeway Park, connecting First Hill to downtown. Arguably, the convention center has helped fuel further downtown growth and has (at least to some extent) reconnected both sides of the freeway. Paralleling the Microsoft and Internet boom, Downtown Seattle underwent a revival; at the height of the boom, downtown office space was described as "Number four or five on the national hit parade [of real estate prices], and climbing." After an increase in vacancy to double-digit levels in the Internet Bust, occupancy began to return. The return of the downtown retail district appears to be a more lasting phenomenon, although at the expense of having a retail district dominated by national chain stores, many of them gathered in mall complexes. The growth of the tech industry such as Amazon and its expansion to the downtown area also resulted in a record level construction boom following the Great Recession, with a total of 68 major projects underway from Sodo to South Lake Union at the end of 2016, the most since 2005. Much of the development was residential which comprise up to 2/3 of all projects, most of which were centered at South Lake Union. As a result, twice as many apartments in Seattle opened in 2017 than any other year in the city's history. The pace of development is expected to increase slightly until 2019.
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Seattle's bid for the world stage by hosting the World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of 1999 did not play out as planned. Instead, the city became the site of the first great street confrontation between the anti-globalization movement and the World Trade Organization on November 30, 1999. While many of those in the streets, and most of those in the suites, were from out of town or even out of country, much of the groundwork of Seattle hosting both the event and the protests against it can be attributed to local forces.
Music
Seattle has long had a rich musical heritage, as many of rock's top names since the '60s have hailed from the area.
In the mid-20th century the thriving jazz scene in the city's Skid Road and Central Districts launched the careers of musicians including Ray Charles and Quincy Jones. Both Jones and, later, Jimi Hendrix attended Garfield High School, and in the '60s, such garage rock/proto punk bands as the Sonics and the Wailers emerged, and in the '70s, Heart. The '80s saw such Seattle heavy metal acts as Queensrÿche and Metal Church gain popularity, while Seattle native Duff McKagan went on to massive success with Guns N' Roses after relocating to Los Angeles. But it was perhaps the early '90s grunge movement for which Seattle is best known from a musical perspective. During this time such acts as Mother Love Bone, Nirvana, Pearl Jam, Soundgarden, Temple of the Dog, Alice in Chains, and Mudhoney scored massive worldwide hits, and turned the musical tide from glam metal to a style that borrowed equally from garage rockers (the Sonics), punk (the Stooges), and '70s heavy metal (Black Sabbath).
Environmental sustainability
In 1971, Weldon Robison along with Ron Ralph established a community based non-profit glass recycling effort in the Eastlake Community of Seattle. It was simply called "The Glass Barrel" and was registered and incorporated as a non-profit enterprise with the City of Seattle. Three sites were established on Fairview Ave East and one above the houseboats on Portage Bay. Glass was separated in three colors and deposited in three separate oil drums.
Seattle was voted the United States' most "green" city by the NRDC (Natural Resources Defense Council), which gave the following reasons for the designation (among others):
Seattle mayor Greg Nickels founded the United States Conference of Mayors' Climate Agreement in 2005. Since then over 900 cities have signed on. The charter of the Agreement is to reduce the environmental impact of U.S. cities on the environment and meet the Kyoto environmental protocols, sidestepping the Bush administration's refusal to sign on.
Over 90% of the city's electric demand is fed by hydroelectric power.
Comprehensive recycling and sustainable resource use practices.
The most successful car- and van-pool program in the country.
Expansion of the city's light rail system.
The city's populace is also environmentally conscious, stemming from the natural beauty and landscape surrounding the area. Land use policies and natural geography have led to an increase in property value as the aforementioned boom in population with the arrival of Microsoft, new business for Boeing, and the foundation of Starbucks as a global corporation, has put a strain on availability of single family home property.
See also
Timeline of Seattle, 1950s-present
Notes
References
Much of the content of this page is from "Seattle: Booms and Busts", by Emmett Shear; Shear has granted blanket permission for material from that paper to be reused in Wikipedia.
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External links
HistoryLink provides an unparalleled collection of articles on Seattle and Washington State history.
University of Washington Libraries: Digital Collections:
Seattle Photographs Ongoing database of over 1,700 historical photographs of Seattle with special emphasis on images depicting neighborhoods, recreational activities including baseball, the Great Seattle Fire of 1889, "The Great Snow of 1916", theaters and transportation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Seattle%20before%201900
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History of Seattle before 1900
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Two conflicting perspectives exist for the early history of Seattle. There is the "establishment" view, which favors the centrality of the Denny Party (generally the Denny, Mercer, Terry, and Boren families), and Henry Yesler. A second, less didactic view, advanced particularly by historian Bill Speidel and others such as Murray Morgan, sees David Swinson "Doc" Maynard as a key figure, perhaps the key figure. In the late nineteenth century, when Seattle had become a thriving town, several members of the Denny Party still survived; they and many of their descendants were in local positions of power and influence. Maynard was about ten years older and died relatively young, so he was not around to make his own case. The Denny Party were generally conservative Methodists, teetotalers, Whigs and Republicans, while Maynard was a drinker and a Democrat. He felt that well-run prostitution could be a healthy part of a city's economy. He was also on friendly terms with the region's Native Americans, while many of the Denny Party were not. Thus Maynard was not on the best of terms with what became the Seattle Establishment, especially after the Puget Sound War. He was nearly written out of the city's history until Morgan's 1951 book Skid Road and Speidel's research in the 1960s and 1970s.
Founding
What is now Seattle has been inhabited since at least the end of the last glacial period (—10,000 years ago). Archaeological excavations at what is now called West Point in Discovery Park, Magnolia confirm settlement within the current city for at least 4,000 years and probably much longer. The area of ("herring house") and later ("where there are horse clams") at the then-mouth of the Duwamish River in what is now the Industrial District had been inhabited since the 6th century CE. The Dkhw'Duw'Absh (People of the Inside), and the Xachua'bsh (People of the Large Lake), of the (Skagit-Nisqually) Lushootseed Coast Salish Native American Nations occupied at least 17 villages in the mid-1850s (13 within what are now the city limits), living in some 93 permanent longhouses (khwaac'ál'al) along the lower Duwamish River, Elliott Bay, Salmon Bay, Portage Bay, Lake Washington within what is now Seattle, as well as Lake Sammamish, and the Duwamish, Black, and Cedar Rivers in what is now metropolitan Seattle. The Dkhw'Duw'Absh and Xachua'bsh are today represented by the Duwamish Tribe.
George Vancouver was the first European to visit the Seattle area in May 1792 during his 1791–95 expedition to chart the Pacific Northwest; the first White forays for sites in the area were in the 1830s.
The founding of Seattle is usually dated from the arrival of the Denny Party on November 13, 1851, at Alki Point. The group had travelled overland from the Midwest to Portland, Oregon, then made a short ocean journey up the Pacific coast into Puget Sound, with the express intent of founding a town. The next April, Arthur A. Denny abandoned the original site at Alki in favor of a better-protected site on Elliott Bay, near the south end of what is now downtown Seattle. Around the same time, Doc Maynard began settling the land immediately south of Denny's. Charles C. Terry and others hung on at Alki for a few more years, but eventually it became clear that Maynard and Denny had chosen the better location.
The first plats for Seattle were filed on May 23, 1853. Nominal legal land settlement was provisionally established in 1855 (with treaty terms for what is now Seattle not implemented). Doc Maynard's land claim lay south of today's Yesler Way, encompassing most of today's Pioneer Square Historical District and the International District. He based his street grid on strict compass bearings. The more northerly plats of Arthur A. Denny and Carson D. Boren encompassed Pioneer Square north of what is now Yesler Way; the heart of the current downtown; and the western slope of First Hill. These had street grids that more or less followed the shoreline. The downtown grid from Yesler Way north to Stewart Street is oriented 32 degrees west of north; from Stewart north to Denny Way the orientation is 49 degrees west of north. The result is a tangle of streets where the grids clash. (See also Street layout of Seattle.)
Both Alki and the settlement that was to become Seattle relied in their early decades on the timber industry, shipping out logs (and, later, milled timber) to build and rebuild San Francisco which, as Bill Speidel points out, kept burning down. Seattle and Alki offered plenty of trees to build San Francisco and plenty of hills to slide them down to water. A climax forest of trees up to 1,000–2,000 years old and towering as high as nearly covered much of what is now Seattle. Today, none of that size remain anywhere in the world.
Relations with the natives
This section draws heavily on Bill Speidel, Sons of the Profits (1967) and Doc Maynard (1978). Doc Maynard and Murray Morgan, Skid Road (1951, 1960, 1982) are especially useful on the events regarding resistance nominally led by Kamiakim in the January 1856 attack on the town.
Generally before the Point Elliott Treaty
The early Seattle settlers had a sometimes rocky relationship with the local Native Americans. There is no question that the settlers were steadily taking away native lands and, in many cases, treating the natives terribly. There were numerous deadly attacks by settlers against natives and by natives against settlers.
Bill Speidel writes in Sons of the Profits, "The general consensus of the community was that killing an Indian was a matter of no graver consequence than shooting a cougar or a bear..." Against this background, Doc Maynard stands out for his excellent relations with the natives. He and Chief Seattle were friends and allies: Maynard certainly profited greatly from this friendship, but that should not diminish the fact that during the outbreak of violent hostilities in 1856 he risked the wrath of his fellow settlers by protecting neutral Indians. However, outside of some old-time trappers and traders, he was almost unique in his attitude.
Denny and Edward Lander (the latter was the first local federal judge) also stood out in that they believed that the law should be applied fairly and equally: to them, murder was murder, regardless of the race of the victim. However, it was impossible to get this view upheld by a jury. In Sons of the Profits Speidel recounts a case of two vigilantes who had hanged a native man. After a series of (possibly deliberate) irregularities in their trial, the jury acquitted these obviously guilty men on a technicality.
Territorial Governor Isaac Stevens probably did more damage to relations between settlers and natives than any one other person. He put a bounty on scalps of "bad Indians". He declared martial law to prevent Lander from issuing writs of habeas corpus for people who were held in jail for little other reason than sympathizing with the natives. On at least two occasions, he actually had Lander himself jailed.
Perhaps worst of all in its consequences for relations, he dealt dishonestly in treaties, among other things making oral promises that were not matched by what was written down. The local natives had at least a thirty-year history of dealing with the Hudson's Bay Company, who had developed a reputation for driving a hard bargain, but sticking honestly to what they agreed to, and for treating Whites and Indians impartially. This continued through the dealings of the local Bureau of Indian Affairs Superintendent General, Joel Palmer, who (along with Maynard's brother-in-law, Indian Agent Mike Simmons) was among the few even-handed men in the BIA.
Consequently, when Stevens, in drafting treaties, acted in a manner that Judge James Wickerson would characterize forty years later as "unfair, unjust, ungenerous, and illegal", some natives, quite unprepared for such behavior by the official representatives of the white man's power, were angered to the point of war. The unjust and deliberately confusing Western Washington treaties such as that of Medicine Creek (December 26, 1854) and Point Elliott (now Mukilteo) (January 22, 1855) were followed by the yet more provocative Treaty of Walla Walla (May 21, 1855), as Stevens pointedly ignored federal government instructions to stick to sorting out the areas where natives and settlers found themselves immediately adjacent to one another, or, from the other perspective, where settlers moved right in on Native places.
Generally after the Point Elliott Treaty
By the time of the Treaty of Point Elliott, Maynard had already made an ally of Chief Seattle by arranging to have him somewhat compensated for the use of his name for the new town. Chief Seattle's ancestral religion and Coast Salish culture have beliefs opposed to speaking or using a person's name after that person's death and prior to protocols, so this was not a simple matter, although Chief Seattle soon converted to a somewhat eclectic Roman Catholicism. (See also Duwamish). At Point Elliott, Maynard cemented this alliance (and greatly benefited his emerging town) by getting Chief Seattle and the Duwamish a separate, more favorable treaty, which, in exchange for a relatively large reservation (promised, not yet ever fulfilled), Natives abandoned all aboriginal title to , constituting an area almost identical to the eventual twentieth-century city limits of the City of Seattle, for nearly nothing at the time.
With Stevens in Eastern Washington sowing discord, Secretary of State Charles Mason was left in charge of the state government. Yakama Chief Kamiakim had effectively declared war and told nations such as the Duwamish that they could either join him or would be treated as enemies. By autumn, there had been an exchange of massacres by Whites and settlers, in which both sides seemed ready to kill whichever people of the other race were at hand, with no regard for whether these particular individuals had in any way previously wronged them. (This cycle of retaliatory violence would reach its logical conclusion two years after the war, when si'ab Lescay (Chief Leschi) was tried and condemned to death for a murder, and hanged before his appeal could be properly heard.)
Maynard got Mike Simmons to deputize him as a Special Indian Agent, then—in a complex, multi-way transaction—cemented a relationship with acting governor Mason and some other key figures by selling them some prime Seattle real estate at a good price. He then used the money from the transaction to buy supplies and a boat to ferry Chief Seattle and his Duwamish to what was effectively a privately funded reservation at Port Madison, west of Puget Sound. He also, at enormous personal risk, spent the first several weeks of November 1855 traveling around eastern King County, which was already penetrated by some of Kamiakim's men, informing several hundred other neutral natives that there was a safe place they could go. Most of them took him up on it. Induced fear effected abandonment of places Natives were otherwise loath to leave.
(In Doc Maynard, Bill Speidel reports that not all of the Seattle businessmen were pleased with his getting the local Indians out of the way. Henry Yesler and others found themselves deprived of much of their labor force and wrote letters of protest to the territorial government.)
Shortly before Stevens returned to Olympia January 16, 1856, Captain E.D. Keyes had managed an uneasy informal truce by communicating with, among others, Chief Leschi. Stevens promptly undercut the truce, saying of the natives, "Nothing but death is mete punishment for their perfidy".
On January 25, 1856, Stevens announced, "The town of Seattle is in as much danger of an Indian attack as are the cities of San Francisco or New York".
On January 26, 1856, natives attacked the Seattle settlement. Friendly Indians permitted to stay in Seattle had warned the Whites, and sentries had been put on patrol. In the morning, acting on tip, a shell was lobbed into the forest above the town, what is now First Hill. First fire. The Indians fired back, small arms. Settlers rushed from their cabins to the blockhouse. The defenses were based on a large wooden blockhouse, a five-foot-high wood-and-earth breastworks, various ravines—and the cannon just offshore zeroed (bearing and range laid in). The settlement was defended at the time by the 150 man, 566 ton, 16 gun sloop-of-war Decatur, the bark Bronte, seven out-of-town civilian volunteers, fifty local volunteers, and at least 6 Marines from the Decatur The number of attackers is impossible to establish: estimates range from a mere thirty to 2000 with more than a hundred killed, another hundred wounded. Not so much as a single Indian body was ever found, not even a sign of blood. The Indians had made no attempt to storm the stockade. No one in the blockhouse was much interested in venturing out on attack. Both sides had paused for dinner. There were two known fatalities: a young volunteer and a 14-year-old boy, both of whom had neglected to stay behind cover. No one who kept inside the stockade was wounded. A few things do seem clear in this fog of war: nearly all of the local volunteers hardly left the blockhouse, the Navy took no combat casualties in this land battle, and Kamiakim's forces were successfully driven off, but also took few (if any) fatalities. Still, they seem to have drawn the conclusion that attacking a major settlement wasn't worth the trouble. The only remaining major battle of the war was to occur March 10 at Connell's Prairie near Puyallup.
After the skirmish "Battle of Seattle"
The cessation of general hostilities did not diminish Stevens' crusading zeal against the natives. He encouraged fratricidal war by offering the "good Indians" a bounty for scalps of the "bad Indians". The largest collector of such rewards was Chief Seattle's sworn rival, Chief Patkanim, a leader among the Snoqualmie and Snohomish. According to Speidel, Patkanim was not above killing and scalping his own slaves as a means of generating income. Speidel also narrates (in Sons of the Profits) that on one occasion this led to a native being killed and scalped in Stevens' own office.
Stevens continually attempted to recruit Chief Seattle and the Duwamish to this cause. Maynard and Chief Seattle, who had already gone to great lengths to help keep the Duwamish at a safe distance from Patkanim, never actually refused the Governor's request, but instead maintained a successful pattern of stalling and passive resistance to avoid ever providing any Duwamish fighters to further Stevens' scheme.
The 1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic killed roughly half of the native population. Documentation in archives and historical epidemiology demonstrates that Governmental policies furthered the progress of the epidemic among the natives.
The Seattle Establishment, including 'Doc' Maynard, petitioned the Territorial Delegate to Congress in 1866 to deny treaty rights to the Duwamish. The commitments made by the United States government in the Point Elliott Treaty have not yet been met.
Yesler's Mill
At first, Alki was larger than Seattle. "It was platted into six blocks of eight lots... and most of them had buildings on them that were in use. There weren't eight level, usable blocks in all of Seattle". However, when Henry Yesler brought "financial backing from a Massillon, Ohio capitalist, John E. McLain, to start a steam sawmill once he had isolated the perfect location for such a structure", he chose a Seattle location, on the waterfront where Maynard and Denny's plats met. Thereafter, Seattle would dominate the lumber industry.
Yesler selected this location because of a critical flaw with Alki as a port: "During the winter, the north wind, building up the tides in front of it, comes sweeping down the Sound out of Canada, piling mighty waves on Alki Point. Beginning with Terry... nobody has been able to build anything out in the water at Alki that will withstand those waves".
The road leading down the hill to that mill, later called Mill Street and now known as Yesler Way, was originally known as the Skid Road, the route for skidding logs down to the mill, hence the term "Skid Road" or corrupted as "Skid Row" for a rundown or dilapidated urban area as the mill declined and the area collapsed with the Crash and Great Depression.
Via the bargaining power of his mill, Yesler wrangled about of prime land from some of the original settlers. Besides his mill, Yesler started a cookhouse that "did more to 'set' the heart of the city in the middle of Yesler's property holdings than anything else Henry did. Henry never did make a lot of money out of his mill. It was the strategic location of his land that made him a millionaire". Like many of Seattle's early entrepreneurs, Yesler was not always the most scrupulous about how he made his money; he borrowed $30,000 at 8% interest to build the mill, and repaid McLain only after McLain took Yesler to court three times.
A city grows
The first Seattle fortunes were founded on logs, and later milled timber, shipped south for the construction of buildings in San Francisco. Seattle itself, in the early years, was, of course, also a place of wooden buildings, and remained so until the Great Fire of June 6, 1889. Even the early system of delivering water to the settlement used hollowed-out logs for pipes. Seattle in its early years relied on the timber industry, shipping logs (and, later, milled timber) to San Francisco.
Terry sold out Alki (which, after his departure barely held on as a settlement), moved to Seattle and began acquiring land. He either owned or partially owned the first ships that allowed Seattle's timber industry to exist by providing a means to move the product to market. He eventually gave a land grant to the University of the Territory of Washington that housed its original campus and today makes the University of Washington a downtown landlord collecting rents of more than $1 million a year. He worked in politics to establish street grades, a water system, and a host of other services (which, not coincidentally, benefited him as one of the city's largest landholders).
Meanwhile, Arthur Denny became the second richest man in town, after Yesler, and got himself elected to territorial legislature. From that position, he tried unsuccessfully to get the territorial capital moved to Seattle from its then supposedly temporary location in Olympia. The other potential money prizes were the territorial penitentiary and the territorial university. When the politics all played out, Vancouver wound up as the proposed capital, Port Townsend was supposed to get the penitentiary, and Seattle got the university. Apparently, Seattle was the only real winner in this deal: to this day, Olympia remains the capital of Washington; the main state penitentiary is in Walla Walla.
The legislature had tacked on the requirement that a grant of of land would be required for the university to be built, which they presumably thought would be sufficient to prevent its construction. However, Denny wanted his town to grow and donated the land, creating what would be "one of the biggest and most effective central core properties in the United States". The University of the Territory of Washington (later the University of Washington) opened on November 4, 1861. There were barely enough students to run it as a high school, let alone as a university, but over time it grew into its originally grandiose name.
The logging town developed rapidly into a small city. Despite being officially founded by the Methodists of the Denny Party, Seattle quickly developed a reputation as a wide-open town, a haven for prostitution, liquor, and gambling. Some attribute this, at least in part, to Maynard, who arrived separately from the Denny Party, and who had a rather different view of what it would take to build a city, based on his experience in growing Cleveland, Ohio. By selling some of his land cheaply on condition that businesses be soon built upon them, he recruited professionals, such as blacksmiths and purveyors of vice, who enhanced the value of his remaining land. The city's first brothel dated from 1861 and was founded by one John Pinnell (or Pennell), who was already involved in similar business in San Francisco. Real estate records show that nearly all of the city's first 60 businesses were on, or immediately adjacent to, Maynard's plat.
Seattle was incorporated as a town January 14, 1865. The incorporators were Charles C. Terry, Henry L. Yesler, David T. Denny, Charles Plummer and Hiram Burnett, manager of the largest Puget Sound lumber company predecessor to Pope & Talbot. That charter was voided January 18, 1867, in response to unrest. Seattle was re-incorporated as a city on December 2, 1869. At the times of incorporation, the population was approximately 350 and 1,000, respectively.
Railroad rivalry and encroaching civilization
On July 14, 1873, the Northern Pacific Railway announced that they had chosen the then-small town of Tacoma over Seattle as the Western terminus of their transcontinental railroad. The railroad barons appear to have been gambling on the advantage they could gain from being able to buy up the land around their terminus cheaply instead of bringing the railroad into a more established Pacific port town.
Unwilling to be bypassed, the citizens of Seattle chartered their own railroad, the Seattle & Walla Walla, to link with the Union Pacific Railroad in eastern Washington. The S&WW never got beyond Renton, but that was far enough to connect with new coal mines, fueling industry in Seattle. The later Seattle, Lake Shore & Eastern Railway was only moderately more successful, although it did provide a route for logs to come to the city from as far away as Arlington, Washington, boost development of towns, and help Seattle hit the jackpot with the Northern Pacific. The Great Northern Railway chose Seattle as the terminus for its transcontinental road in 1893, winning Seattle a place in competition for freight traffic to California and across the Pacific. The Seattle, Lake Shore & Eastern was, over the years, incorporated into the Northern Pacific and then the Burlington Northern railways. The line was abandoned as a railroad in 1971 with the general decline in rail, and became in 1978 a foot and bicycle route renamed the Burke-Gilman Trail, then gradually greatly extended.
As has been remarked, Seattle in this era was an "open" and often relatively lawless town. Although it boasted two English-language newspapers (and, for a while, a third in Norwegian), and telephones had arrived in town, lynch law sometimes prevailed (there were at least four lynchings in 1882), schools barely operated, and indoor plumbing was a rare novelty. In the low mud flats where much of the city was built, sewage was almost as likely to come in on the tide as to flow away. Potholes in the street were so bad that legend has it there was at least one fatal drowning.
The 1882 lynchings are well described in Murray Morgan's book Skid Road. The events involved a mob defying an armed sheriff, successfully disarming the sheriff's deputies, and assaulting Judge Roger Sherman Greene, who attempted to slash the ropes by which the lynching victims were to be hanged. Judge Greene, while not doubting the actual guilt of the lynched men, was later to write that "the lynchers were co-criminal with the lynched".
In an era during which the Washington Territory was one of the first parts of the U.S. to (briefly) allow women's suffrage, Seattle women attempted to counter these trends and to be a civilizing influence. On April 4, 1884, 15 Seattle women founded The Ladies Relief Society to address "the number of needy and suffering cases within the limits of the city". This eventually resulted in the founding of the Seattle Children's Home, still in operation today.
Other signs of encroaching civilization were the city's first bathtub with plumbing in 1870, and first streetcar in 1884, followed by a cable car from downtown over First Hill to Leschi Park in 1887. In 1885, the city passed an ordinance requiring attached sewer lines for all new residences. In 1886, the city got its first YMCA gymnasium, and in 1888 the exclusive Rainier Club was founded. On December 24, 1888, ferry service was inaugurated, connecting Seattle to West Seattle, near the location of the Denny Party's first attempt at settling at Alki and reviving that settlement. A year later, a bridge was built across Salmon Bay, providing a land route to the nearby town of Ballard, which after 17 years would be annexed to Seattle.
The relative fortunes of Seattle and Tacoma clearly show the nature of Seattle's growth. Though both Seattle and Tacoma grew at a rapid rate from 1880 to 1890, based on the strength of their timber industries, Seattle's growth as an exporter of services and manufactured goods continued for another two decades, while Tacoma's growth dropped almost to zero. The reason for this lies in Tacoma's nature as a company town and Seattle's successful avoidance of that condition.
Both Seattle and Tacoma in the 1880s were essentially lumber towns, built on the resulting export income. All over the Puget Sound there are communities that started with the same assets, timber and a port. However, Seattle's early lead with Yesler's mill and other enterprises meant that its economy was based on manufacturing as well as lumber, and was thus far more diversified than Tacoma's. The Northern Pacific Railway terminus only increased Tacoma's lumber trade instead of diversifying the economy. Meanwhile, Seattle became the hub for the region and the railroad had to come.
Relations between whites and Chinese
Chinese first arrived in Seattle around 1860. The Northern Pacific Railway completed the project of laying tracks from Lake Superior to Tacoma, Washington, in 1883, leaving many Chinese laborers without employment. In 1883, Chinese laborers played a key role in the first effort at digging the Montlake Cut to connect Lake Union's Portage Bay to Lake Washington's Union Bay.
Seattle's Chinese district, located near the present day Occidental Park, was a mixed neighborhood of residences over stores, laundries, and other retail storefronts. In fall 1885, with a shortage of jobs in the West, many workers turned violently anti-Chinese, complaining of overly cheap labor competition. In the Pacific Northwest, this had the unusual character that the anti-Chinese mobs included significant numbers of the native Indians as well as European-Americans.
The first massacre of Chinese occurred at Rock Springs, Wyoming, September 2, 1885. On September 7, Chinese hop-pickers were massacred in the Squak valley near present-day Issaquah. Similar incidents occurred in the nearby mining camps at Coal Creek and Black Diamond. Many Chinese headed from these isolated rural areas into the cities, but it did them little good: on October 24, a mob burned a large portion of Seattle's Chinatown; on November 3, a mob of 300 expelled the Chinese in Tacoma (loading them into boxcars with surprisingly little actual violence) before moving on to force similar expulsions in smaller towns.
Violent opposition to the Chinese at this time was inseparable from labor union organizing. The pro-labor Seattle Call routinely described the Chinese in brutally racist terms; leading figures in the anti-Chinese movement included Knights of Labor organizer Dan Cronin and Seattle socialist agitator Mary Kenworthy; the utopian socialist George Venable Smith was also of this party. Nor did the Chinese have many strong defenders among the wealthier classes, who, however, mostly favored a more orderly departure of the Chinese to massacre and riot (the policy of Henry Yesler, who was serving as mayor at this time).
Among the few defenders of the rule of law were the Methodist Episcopal Ministers' Association and Judge Thomas Burke. Burke, an Irish immigrant and generally a friend of labor, was nonetheless a stronger defender of the Constitution; he also spoke out that his fellow Irish should identify with the Chinese as fellow immigrants, a view which fell almost entirely on deaf ears.
On February 7, 1886, well-organized anti-Chinese "order committees" descended on Seattle's Chinatown, claiming to be health inspectors, declaring Chinese-occupied buildings to be unfit for habitation, rousting out the residents and herding them down to the harbor, where the Queen of the Pacific was docked. The police were willing to intervene only to the point of preventing the Chinese from being physically harmed, not to challenging the mob. It is quite probable that if ship's captain Jack Alexander had been willing simply to board the Chinese and take them away, the mob would entirely have ruled the day; however, he was not in the business of hauling non-paying passengers. The mob raised several hundred dollars, 86 Chinese were boarded, but this delay gave the mayor, Judge Burke, the U.S. Attorney, and others time both to rally the Home Guard and to serve Alexander with a writ of habeas corpus. A plot to deport the Chinese by rail was foiled when Sheriff McGraw threatened to prosecute the railroad superintendent for kidnapping.
The following day, Judge Greene made it clear that those Chinese who wished to remain would be protected, but by now, after what they had been through, all but sixteen preferred to leave. Alexander, by now, "was anxious to keep his operations strictly legal", and would board only the 196 passengers for which his ship was rated, slightly more than half of the Chinese who were ready to leave. Possibly due to poor communication, the anti-Chinese faction were unsatisfied; a resulting scuffle resulted in one dead and four others wounded among the anti-Chinese faction, and martial law was imposed. Ultimately, the bulk of the Chinese remained in Seattle, and the U.S. government "out of humane consideration and without reference to liability" paid out $276,619.15 to the Chinese government, but nothing to the victims themselves.
The Great Seattle Fire
The early Seattle era came to a stunning halt with the Great Seattle Fire of June 6, 1889. It burned 29 city blocks, destroying most of the central business district; no one, however, perished in the flames, and the city quickly rebounded from the destruction. Thanks in part to credit arranged by Jacob Furth (as well as, according to Speidel, brothel-owner Lou Graham), Seattle rebuilt from the ashes with astounding rapidity. A new zoning code resulted in a downtown of brick and stone buildings, rather than wood. In the single year after the fire, the city grew from 25,000 to 40,000 inhabitants, largely because of the enormous number of construction jobs suddenly created.
Labor history in 19th century Seattle
The Pacific Northwest economy during the nineteenth century was heavily rooted in extractive industries, mainly logging. Still, Seattle was becoming a city, and union organizing arrived first in the form of a skilled craft union. In 1882, Seattle printers formed the Seattle Typographical Union Local 202. Dockworkers followed in 1886, cigarmakers in 1887, tailors in 1889, and both brewers and musicians in 1890. Even the newsboys unionized in 1892, followed by more organizing, mostly of craft unions.
According to various analyses and as evident through general readings in news coverage of the time, the history of labor in this period is inseparable from the issue of anti-Chinese vigilantism, as discussed above. A rough-and-ready approach to labor organizing was typical of the period, and there is no question that white Seattle-area laborers at this time saw cheap Chinese labor as their prime competition and strove to eliminate it by eliminating the Chinese immigrants.
The Klondike Gold Rush
Seattle, as well as the rest of the nation, was hard hit by the Panic of 1893 and, to a lesser extent, the Panic of 1896. Unlike many other cities, it soon found salvation in the form of becoming the main transportation and supply center for stampeders heading for the Klondike gold rush. When the steamer SS Portland arrived at Schwabacher's Wharf in Seattle July 17, 1897, the Seattle Post-Intelligencer scooped all other U.S. newspapers with the story that a "ton of gold" had arrived from Alaska. A publicity campaign engineered largely by Erastus Brainerd successfully convinced the world that Seattle was the place to be outfitted for the journey to Alaska, and Seattle became a household name, literally overnight. The miners mined the gold. Seattle mined the miners.
Seattle's relationship with Alaska during this period was generally one of rapacity. Besides the mining, on October 18, 1899 in Pioneer Square, a Chamber of Commerce "Committee of Fifteen", just back from a goodwill visit to Alaska, proudly unveiled a totem pole from Fort Tongass. The problem was, the pole had been stolen from the Tlingit village of Gaash on Cape Fox. A federal grand jury in Alaska indicted eight of Seattle's most prominent citizens for theft of government property. A nominal fine was assessed. The village was repaid when the original burned and the Chamber of Commerce commissioned a replacement—and paid twice. "Thank you for the check", wrote the Gaash village leaders. "That was payment for the first one. Send another check for the replacement".
See also
Duwamish tribe
Mother Damnable
Rock Springs massacre
Timeline of Seattle, 19th century
Notes and references
Much of the content of this page is from "Seattle: Booms and Busts", by Emmett Shear; Shear has granted blanket permission for material from that paper to be reused in Wikipedia.
Bibliography
and
Page links to Village Descriptions Duwamish-Seattle section. Dailey referenced "Puget Sound Geography" by T. T. Waterman. Washington DC: National Anthropological Archives, mss. [n.d.] [ref. 2]; Duwamish et al. vs. United States of America, F-275. Washington DC: US Court of Claims, 1927. [ref. 5]; "Indian Lake Washington" by David Buerge in the Seattle Weekly, 1–7 August 1984 [ref. 8]; "Seattle Before Seattle" by David Buerge in the Seattle Weekly, 17–23 December 1980. [ref. 9]; The Puyallup-Nisqually by Marian W. Smith. New York: Columbia University Press, 1940. [ref. 10]. Recommended start is "Coast Salish Villages of Puget Sound"
2d edition of vol. I of III
Lange referenced a very extensive list. Summary article
Lange referenced Lange, "Smallpox Epidemic of 1862 among Northwest Coast and Puget Sound Indians" , HistoryLink.org Online Encyclopedia of Washington State History. Accessed 8 December 2000.
Speidel provides a substantial bibliography with extensive primary sources.
Speidel provides a substantial bibliography with extensive primary sources.
.
Wilma referenced "Petition: To the Honorable Arthur A. Denny, Delegate to Congress from Washington Territory," n.d., National Archives Roll 909, "Letters Received by the Office of Indian Affairs, 1824-81"; Pioneer Association of the State of Washington, "A Petition to Support Recognition of The Duwamish Indians as a 'Tribe', June 18, 1988, in possession of Ken Tollefson, Seattle, Washington.
Wilam referenced Paul Dorpat, Seattle Now and Then Vol. 2 (Seattle: Tartu Publications, 1984), 32-35; Joseph H. Wherry, The Totem Pole Indians, (New York: Wilfred Funk, Inc., 1964), 64, 89; William C. Speidel, Sons of the Profits (Seattle: Nettle Creek Publishing Co., 1967), 329-331; Viola Garfield, Seattle's Totem Poles (Bellevue, WA: Thistle Press, 1996), 9; Seattle Department of Parks and Recreation, Data on the History of Seattle Park System Vol. 4 (Seattle: Seattle Parks Department, 1978); James William Clise, "Personal Memoirs 1855-1935" Mimeograph, Altadena, California, 1935, Seattle Public Library.
Further reading
HistoryLink.org Encyclopedia of Washington State History provides a collection of articles on Seattle and Washington State history, unparalleled in its niche.
Seattle Museum of History and Industry. With the Seattle Room at the Seattle Public Library, these host the most extensive archives about Seattle.
Washington State History Museum, Washington State Historical Society
University of Washington Libraries: Digital Collections:
Boyd and Braas Photographs 88 photographs, c. 1888–1893, of early Seattle, including the waterfront and street scenes, Madrona and Leschi parks, Native American hop pickers, scenes of the aftermath of the Great Seattle Fire of June 6, 1889, and portraits of Seattle pioneers.
Frank La Roche Photographs. 312 photographs c. 1888-1910 depicting scenes of the 1898 Klondike Gold Rush, A small photograph album (ca. 1891) used as a sales tool. Photographed by Frank La Roche, it contains an historical photographic record of early Seattle and its expansion northwards along the shores of Lake Union, Seattle, Washington state, Alaska, western United States, and Canada.
Theodore E. Peiser Photographs. 140 images from the later part of the 19th century to about 1907. Among his subjects were images of troops preparing to embark from Fort Lawton to China in 1900, the Territorial University (later University of Washington), and early Seattle scenes.
Prosch Seattle Views Album. 169 images by Thomas Prosch, one of Seattle's earliest pioneers, documenting the early history of Seattle and vicinity, c. 1851–1906.
Seattle Photographs Ongoing database of over 1,700 historical photographs of Seattle with special emphasis on images depicting neighborhoods, recreational activities including baseball, the Great Seattle Fire of 1889, "The Great Snow of 1916", theaters and transportation.
Arthur Churchill Warner Photographs. Images by the pioneer photographer A.C. Warner, from the late 19th and early 20th centuries, of Seattle conventional street scenes, waterfront activity, city parks, and regrading of downtown.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maggie%20Gyllenhaal
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Maggie Gyllenhaal
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Margalit Ruth Gyllenhaal (; born November 16, 1977) is an American actress and filmmaker. Part of the Gyllenhaal family, she is the daughter of filmmakers Stephen Gyllenhaal and Naomi Achs, and the older sister of actor Jake Gyllenhaal.
She began her career as a teenager with small roles in several of her father's films, and appeared with her brother in the cult favorite Donnie Darko (2001). She then appeared in Adaptation, Confessions of a Dangerous Mind (both 2002), and Mona Lisa Smile (2003). Gyllenhaal received critical acclaim for her leading performances in the erotic romantic comedy drama Secretary (2002) and the drama Sherrybaby (2006), each of which earned her a Golden Globe Award nomination. After several commercially successful films in 2006, including World Trade Center, she received wider recognition for playing Rachel Dawes in the superhero film The Dark Knight (2008).
For her performance as a single mother in Crazy Heart (2009), she received a nomination for Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. She subsequently starred in the comedies and dramas: Nanny McPhee and the Big Bang (2010), Hysteria (2011), and Won't Back Down (2012). Her other roles include a Secret Service agent in the action-thriller White House Down (2013), a musician in Frank (2014), and the title role in the drama The Kindergarten Teacher (2018). In 2021, Gyllenhaal made her writing and directing debut with the psychological drama The Lost Daughter, for which she won the Venice International Film Festival's Best Screenplay Award and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay.
Gyllenhaal has also appeared in five stage productions since 2000, including making her Broadway debut in a revival of The Real Thing. She has starred in several television series, including the BBC political-thriller miniseries The Honourable Woman. For her performance, she won a Golden Globe award for Best Actress, and was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award. She also produced and starred in the HBO period drama series The Deuce (2017–19). Gyllenhaal has been married to actor Peter Sarsgaard since 2009 and they have two children together.
Early life
Gyllenhaal was born in Manhattan, the daughter of Naomi Achs and Stephen Gyllenhaal. The first name on Maggie's birth certificate is "Margalit", which she did not discover until 2013, when adopting her husband's surname. Margalit () is a Hebrew word meaning "pearl"; some news stories have spelled it "Margolit". She has a younger brother, actor Jake Gyllenhaal, and a half-brother, Luke, from their father's second marriage.
Her father is a film director and poet, and her mother is a screenwriter and director. Her father, a member of the noble Gyllenhaal family, is of Swedish and English ancestry, and was raised in the Swedenborgian religion. Her last native Swedish ancestor was her great-great-grandfather Anders Leonard Gyllenhaal, a descendant of Leonard Gyllenhaal, a leading Swedenborgian who supported the printing and spreading of Swedenborg's writings.
Her mother was born in New York City (growing up in Brooklyn), and is Jewish, from Ashkenazi Jewish families that emigrated from Russia and Poland. Her mother's first husband was Eric Foner, a noted historian and history professor at Columbia University. Gyllenhaal has stated that she "grew up mostly Jewish, culturally", and she identifies as Jewish, though she did not attend Hebrew school. Her parents married in 1977, and filed for divorce in October 2008.
Gyllenhaal grew up in Los Angeles and studied at the Harvard–Westlake prep school. She spent four months as a student at The Mountain School, a semester school for high school juniors in Vermont. In 1995, she graduated from Harvard–Westlake and moved to New York to attend Columbia University, where she studied literature and Eastern religions. She also studied acting for a summer term at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA) in London, England.
Career
1992–2001: Early work
At the age of 15, she made a brief appearance in her father's film Waterland (1992). Soon, she had supporting roles in A Dangerous Woman (1993) and Homegrown (1998), which were directed by her father, which also featured her brother Jake. With their mother, she and Jake appeared in two episodes of Molto Mario, an Italian cooking show on the Food Network. After graduating from college, she had supporting roles in films including Cecil B. Demented (2000) and Riding in Cars with Boys (2001). Gyllenhaal later achieved recognition in her own right playing her real brother's on-screen sister in the indie cult favorite Donnie Darko (2001).
She made her theatrical debut in the Berkeley Repertory Theatre production of Patrick Marber's Closer, for which she received favorable reviews. Production started in May 2000 and ended in mid-July of that year. Gyllenhaal has performed in several other plays, including The Tempest, Antony and Cleopatra, The Butterfly Project, and No Exit.
2002–2005: Film breakthrough
Gyllenhaal's breakout role was in the black comedy, Secretary (2002), a film about two people who embark on a mutually fulfilling BDSM lifestyle. The New York Times critic Stephen Holden noted: "The role of Lee, which Maggie Gyllenhaal imbues with a restrained comic delicacy and sweetness, should make her a star." Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote: "Maggie Gyllenhaal, as the self-destructive secretary, is enigmatic and, at moments, sympathetic." The film received generally favorable reviews, and Gyllenhaal's performance earned her the Best Breakthrough Performance by an Actress award from the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures, her first Golden Globe nomination, and an Independent Spirit Award nomination. Secretary was Gyllenhaal's first film role which featured full frontal nudity. Impressed with the script, she initially had reservations about doing the film, which she believed could deliver an anti-feminist message. However, after carefully discussing the script with the film's director, Steven Shainberg, she agreed to join the project. Although insisting Shainberg did not exploit her, Gyllenhaal has said she felt "scared when filming began" and that "in the wrong hands ... even in just slightly less intelligent hands, this movie could say something really weird." Since then, she is guarded about discussing her role in the film, saying only that "despite myself, sometimes the dynamic that you are exploring in your work spills over into your life."Next, she had a supporting role in the comedy-drama Adaptation (2002), a film that tells the story of screenwriter Charlie Kaufman's struggle to adapt The Orchid Thief into a film. She later appeared in the unauthorized biography Confessions of a Dangerous Mind (2002), part of an ensemble cast that included Sam Rockwell, Drew Barrymore, George Clooney, and Julia Roberts. The movie grossed US$33 million worldwide. That same year, she had a small role in the comedy 40 Days and 40 Nights. In 2003, she co-starred with Julia Roberts in Mona Lisa Smile in the role of Giselle. In an interview with The Daily Telegraph, she revealed the reason for accepting the role was "to play somebody who feels confident in herself as a sexy, beautiful woman". The film generated mostly mixed reviews, with Manohla Dargis of the Los Angeles Times describing it as "smug and reductive". Her next roles were in smaller independent films: Casa de los Babys (2003), is a story about six American women impatiently waiting out their lengthy residency requirements in a South American country before picking up their adoptive babies, and Criminal (2004), a remake of the Argentinian film Nine Queens, with John C. Reilly and Diego Luna. Gyllenhaal plays an honest hotel manager forced to help her crooked brother (Reilly) by seducing one of his victims.
She starred in the HBO film Strip Search (2004), in which she portrayed an American student in China suspected of terrorism. For her role, Gyllenhaal had to perform multiple scenes of full-frontal nudity as the film tackled issues of strip searches. In 2004, Gyllenhaal returned to theater in a Los Angeles production of Tony Kushner's Homebody/ Kabul as Priscilla, the Homebody's daughter, who spends most of the play searching for her elusive mother in Kabul, Afghanistan. Kushner gave her the role in Homebody/ Kabul on the strength of her performance in Closer. Ben Brantley of The New York Times wrote: "Ms. Gyllenhaal provides the essential bridge between the parts of the play's title." John Heilpern of The New York Observer noted that Gyllenhaal's performance was "compelling". Finally in 2004, Gyllenhaal was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Viewed as a sex symbol, she was ranked in the "Hot 100 List" by Maxim magazine in 2004 and 2005.
Gyllenhaal's next film role was in the 2005 comedy-drama Happy Endings, in which she played an adventuress singer who seduces a young gay musician (Jason Ritter) as well as his rich father (Tom Arnold). She recorded songs for the film's soundtrack, calling the role the "roughest, scariest acting ever" and adding she is more natural when singing on screen than when acting. Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly declared Gyllenhaal's performance "as wonderfully, naturally slouchy-sexy as her character is artificial".
2006–2009: Comedies, dramas and theatre
Following Happy Endings, Gyllenhaal appeared in five films releases in 2006: Trust the Man, Stranger than Fiction, Monster House, World Trade Center, and Sherrybaby. In Trust the Man, featuring Julianne Moore, David Duchovny, and Billy Crudup, she played Elaine, who has been dating Tobey, Crudup's character, for seven years and has begun to feel that it is time for her to settle down and start a family. The film was critically and financially unsuccessful. Ethan Alter of Premiere felt that the performances by Gyllenhaal and Duchovny were "much more at ease" and concluded with "that's probably because they're played these characters many times before". In Stranger than Fiction, Gyllenhaal played a love interest of Harold Crick, played by Will Ferrell. Her performance in the film received favorable reviews; Mike Straka of Fox News wrote: "Gyllenhaal has never been sexier in any film before and her interplay with Ferrell will propel her to more A-list films, leaving her indie-darling days behind, no doubt." She voiced Elizabeth "Zee" in the computer animated horror film Monster House. Gyllenhaal played Allison Jimeno, the wife of Port Authority officer Will Jimeno, in Oliver Stone's World Trade Center, based on the September 11 attacks in New York City. She regarded this as "one of the films she most enjoyed making". The film received favorable reviews and proved to be an international success, earning US$162 million worldwide.
In Sherrybaby, Gyllenhaal played a young drug-addicted thief trying to put her life in order after prison so she can reconcile with her daughter. During promotion of the film, she noted of her portrayal of the character: "I think she's in such dire straits that all she has are these kind of naive, fierce hopes. And while I was playing the part I was looking for pleasure and hope in everything, even in these really bleak things. And so it was really mostly after I finished the movie that I felt pain." Her performance in the film was well-received; David Germain of the Associated Press wrote, "Gyllenhaal humanizes her so deeply and richly ... that Sherry elicits sympathy even in her darkest and weakest moments", and Dennis Harvey of Variety magazine called her performance "naturalistic". For her performance, Gyllenhaal earned a second Golden Globe Best Actress nomination and won the Best Actress category award at the 2006 Stockholm International Film Festival.
She appeared in The Dark Knight (2008), the sequel to Batman Begins (2005), in which she replaced Katie Holmes as Assistant District Attorney, Rachel Dawes. Gyllenhaal acknowledged her character was a damsel in distress to an extent, but said director Christopher Nolan sought ways to empower her character, so "Rachel's really clear about what's important to her and unwilling to compromise her morals, which made a nice change" from the many conflicted characters she had previously portrayed. The Dark Knight was a critical and commercial success, setting a new opening weekend box office record for North America. With revenue of $1 billion worldwide, it became the fourth-highest-grossing film of all time, and remains Gyllenhaal's most commercially successful feature to date. In a Salon magazine review of the film, Stephanie Zacharek called Gyllenhaal's character "a tough cookie in a Stanwyck-style bias-cut dress" and stated that "the movie feels smarter and more supple when she's on-screen". IGN film critic Todd Gilchrist wrote, "Gyllenhaal adds real depth and energy to Rachel Dawes".
In addition to film, Gyllenhaal played Yelena Andreevna in the Classic Stage Company's 2009 Off-Broadway production of Anton Chekhov's Uncle Vanya in New York City. The cast also included her husband Peter Sarsgaard. The production, directed by Austin Pendleton, began previews on January 17 and ended its limited run on March 1. Joe Dziemianowicz of the New York Daily News was unenthusiastic about her performance, writing "Gyllenhaal, who was so dynamic as a druggie in the film Sherrybaby, plays Yelena with a slow-mo saunter and monotonous pasted-on smile that makes it seem as if she's been in Sherry's stash." However, Malcolm Johnson of the Hartford Courant was complimentary, noting that she "ultimately blossoms" as the character.
Gyllenhaal agreed to star in the comedy Away We Go (2009), in which she plays a bohemian college professor who is an old friend of John Krasinski's character. The film generated broadly mixed reviews, with Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly describing Gyllenhaal's subplot as "over-the-top". However, A. O. Scott of The New York Times praised Gyllenhaal and co-star Allison Janney for their performances, writing that "both [are] quite funny". Scott concluded with, "Ms. Gyllenhaal's line about sex roles in 'the seahorse community' is the screenplay's one clean satirical bull's-eye". Her next role came in the musical-drama Crazy Heart, in which she played journalist Jean Craddock, who falls for musician Bad Blake, played by Jeff Bridges, whose performance won the Academy Award for Best Actor. The film was acclaimed, as was Gyllenhaal's performance. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone observed that Gyllenhaal was "funny, touching and vital as Jean" and that her part was "conventionally conceived, but Gyllenhaal plays it with a tough core of intelligence and feeling." Her performance earned her an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress.
2010–2020: The Deuce and other work
In addition to acting, she presented 13 episodes of the PBS television series Independent Lens between 2009 and 2010. The program presents documentary films made by independent filmmakers. In 2010, Gyllenhaal appeared in Nanny McPhee and the Big Bang with co-star Emma Thompson, the sequel to the 2005's Nanny McPhee. She played Isabel Green, which required her to speak with an English accent. The feature received generally positive reviews; review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the film an approval rating of 76% based on 119 critics. The Sydney Morning Herald complimented Gyllenhaal's realistic accent and ability to capture her English character with ease. It was a reasonable success at the box office, earning $93 million worldwide.
For her next film, Gyllenhaal starred in the biographical romance Hysteria (2011), which focuses on the events that led to the creation of the vibrator during the Victorian era. The film received a mixed reception; writing for The Guardian, David Cox noted the film's stereotypes and "yelps of delight", and praised Gyllenhaal's English accent. In February 2011, Gyllenhaal starred in another Anton Chekhov Off-Broadway production as the character Masha in Austin Pendleton's Three Sisters at the Classic Stage Company. The play focused on the Prozorov sisters (Gyllenhaal, Jessica Hecht, and Juliet Rylance), who are "unlucky in love, unhappy in the provinces and longing to return to Moscow", as summarized by Bloomberg's Jeremy Gerard. The production began preview performances on January 12, with a limited engagement through March 6.
In 2012, she played mother Jaime Fitzpatrick in the drama Won't Back Down, about a group of parents involved in a parent trigger takeover of a failing school. Next, she appeared alongside Channing Tatum and Jamie Foxx, as a Secret Service agent in the action-thriller White House Down (2013). The film was met with mixed reviews and under-performed at the box office. A year later, she starred in the musical comedy Frank, about a man who joins an odd band with a group of bizarre musicians. Gyllenhaal, who also plays a musician, said she initially turned down the role because she did not understand it. However, she changed her mind after the story "stuck with her". The film premiered at the 2014 Sundance Film Festival to favorable opinions; Slant magazine's critic opined that Gyllenhaal has "passive and palpable screen presence". Also that year, she played Hathfertiti in Matthew Barney and Jonathan Bepler's River of Fundament, loosely based on the 1983 novel Ancient Evenings by Norman Mailer.
Gyllenhaal played the lead role as Baroness Nessa Stein, a British-Israeli businesswoman heiress in the BBC political spy thriller television miniseries, The Honourable Woman. The series was well received; Kevin Fallon wrote in the Daily Beast: "Gyllenhaal delivers what might be the most towering, complex, best performance of her career in the miniseries." Time magazine praised the series' pacing, themes, settings, and called Gyllenhaal's performance "remarkable". At the 72nd Golden Globe Awards, she won Best Actress in a Miniseries or Television Film for her performance. The Honourable Woman appeared in a list of The Guardian critics' 30 best television shows of 2014.
In 2016, Gyllenhaal narrated Leo Tolstoy's novel Anna Karenina; it was made available for purchase on Amazon's Audible store. In an interview, Gyllenhaal said "Making this, doing this, I feel like it's one of the major accomplishments of my work life." In February 2017, she served as a member of the jury for the 2017 Berlin Film Festival. Returning to film in 2018, Gyllenhaal starred in The Kindergarten Teacher, a drama in which her character becomes obsessed with a student whom she believes is a child prodigy. The film premiered at the 2018 Sundance Film Festival, and was distributed via Netflix. It is a remake of the 2014 Israeli film of the same name. The feature opened to mainly popular reviews; The Daily Telegraph critic gave the film 4 out of 5 stars, and thought Gyllenhaal was well-cast, writing "[her] earnest intensity as an actress, gift for fatigue and slightly holier-than-thou authority are key assets here." Although Dennis Harvey of Variety magazine praised her performance, he thought the film lacked "psychological insight".
She served as a producer and starred in the HBO drama series The Deuce, which aired from 2017 to 2019. Gyllenhaal played Eileen "Candy" Merrell, a sex worker during the Golden Age of Porn. The Deuce earned her a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress.
2021–present
In 2021, Gyllenhaal made her feature directorial debut with the psychological drama The Lost Daughter, which she also produced and wrote. The film received critical acclaim, and had its premiere at the 78th Venice International Film Festival, where Gyllenhaal won the Best Screenplay Award. It received four awards, including Best Feature and Breakthrough Director, as well as one further nomination at the 2021 Gotham Awards. At the 79th Golden Globe Awards, Gyllenhaal received a nomination for Best Director. She then received a Best Adapted Screenplay nomination at the 75th British Academy Film Awards, and the second Academy Award nomination of her career also for Best Adapted Screenplay at the 94th Academy Awards.
Personal life
In 2002, Gyllenhaal began a relationship with actor Peter Sarsgaard. The couple became engaged in April 2006, and married on May 2, 2009, in a small chapel in Brindisi, Italy. They have two daughters, born October 2006 and April 2012.
Political views
At the 18th Independent Spirit Awards in 2003, she spoke out against the Iraq war, stating the reason for the invasion was "oil and imperialism". In 2005, Gyllenhaal drew controversy for her statement that the September 11 attacks were "an occasion to be brave enough to ask some serious questions about America's role in the world ... It is always useful as individuals or nations to ask how we may have knowingly or unknowingly contributed to this conflict." Gyllenhaal took part in Artists United to Win Without War, a campaign started by Robert Greenwald that aimed to advance progressive causes and voicing opposition to the Iraq War.
She and her brother Jake filmed a commercial for Rock the Vote, and visited the University of Southern California to encourage students to vote in the 2004 U.S. presidential election, in which she supported John Kerry. Gyllenhaal supported Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential election. She has campaigned on behalf of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), an organization her family strongly supports. In June 2013, Gyllenhaal and numerous other celebrities appeared in a video showing support for whistleblower Chelsea Manning.
Philanthropy
Gyllenhaal is a supporter of Witness, a non-profit organization that uses video and online technologies to expose human rights violations. She co-hosted a benefit dinner with founder Peter Gabriel in November 2007. Gyllenhaal helped raise funds for TrickleUp.org, another non-profit that helps people in poverty to start a micro-enterprise. For one of the fundraisers, Gyllenhaal helped design and promote a necklace that sold for US$100; all proceeds from sales went to the charity. Since 2008, Gyllenhaal has been supporting the Hear the World Foundation as ambassador. In her role, she advocates for equal opportunities and better quality of life for people with hearing loss. In October 2008, she hosted a fashion show called "Fashionably Natural", which was presented by Gen Art and SoyJoy in Los Angeles. The show featured new designers who worked only with natural and eco-friendly fabrics and materials. Gyllenhaal is an advocate of Planned Parenthood; in 2012 she said, "Women's health is very important to me. It has become such a politicized issue and so I will make every effort to elect officials who believe as strongly as I do that all women [...] have access to quality health care and information."
Filmography
Film
Television
Theatre
Awards and nominations
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Award / Organization
! Category
! Nominated work
! Result
!
|-
| rowspan=14| 2003
| Boston Society of Film Critics
| Best Actress
| rowspan=14 style="text-align:center"| Secretary
|
|
|-
| Empire Awards
| Best Actress
|
|
|-
| Golden Globe Awards
| Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Comedy or Musical
|
|
|-
| Independent Spirit Awards
| Best Female Lead
|
|
|-
| MTV Movie Awards
| Best Breakthrough Performance
|
|
|-
| National Board of Review
| Best Breakthrough Performance
|
|
|-
| National Society of Film Critics
| Best Actress
|
|
|-
| rowspan=2| Online Film Critics Society
| Best Breakthrough Performance
|
|
|-
| Best Actress
|
|
|-
| Chicago Film Critics Association
| Most Promising Performer
|
|
|-
| Satellite Awards
| Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy
|
|
|-
| Toronto Film Critics Association
| Best Actress
|
|
|-
| Vancouver Film Critics Circle
| Best Actress
|
|
|-
| Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association
| Best Actress
|
|
|-
| 2005
| Independent Spirit Awards
| Best Supporting Female
| style="text-align:center" | Happy Endings
|
|
|-
| rowspan=5| 2006
| Chicago Film Critics Association
| Best Actress
| rowspan=4 style="text-align:center"| Sherrybaby
|
|
|-
| Golden Globe Awards
| Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama
|
|
|-
| London Film Critics' Circle
| Actress of the Year
|
|
|-
| Satellite Awards
| Best Actress – Motion Picture
|
|
|-
| Saturn Awards
| Best Actress
| style="text-align:center" | Stranger than Fiction
|
|
|-
|2007
| Annie Awards
| Outstanding Voice Acting in a Feature Production
| style="text-align:center" | Monster House
|
|
|-
| rowspan=2| 2008
| Critics' Choice Movie Awards
| Best Acting Ensemble
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:center"| The Dark Knight|
|
|-
| Saturn Awards
| Best Actress
|
|
|-
| rowspan=2| 2009
| Academy Awards
| Best Supporting Actress
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:center"| Crazy Heart|
|
|-
| Dallas–Fort Worth Film Critics Association
| Best Supporting Actress
|
|
|-
| rowspan=4| 2014
| British Independent Film Awards
| Best Supporting Actress
| style="text-align:center" | Frank|
|
|-
| Golden Globe Awards
| Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film
| rowspan=5 style="text-align:center"| The Honourable Woman|
|
|-
| Screen Actors Guild Awards
| Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie
|
|
|-
| Satellite Awards
| Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film
|
|
|-
| rowspan=2|2015
| Primetime Emmy Awards
| Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie
|
|
|-
| Critics' Choice Television Awards
| Best Actress in a Movie/Miniseries
|
|
|-
| 2018
| Golden Globe Awards
| Best Actress – Television Series Drama
| style="text-align:center" | The Deuce|
|
|-
| rowspan=10 | 2021
| Venice Film Festival
| Best Screenplay
| rowspan=39 style="text-align:center"| The Lost Daughter|
|
|-
| SCAD Savannah Film Festival
| Rising Star Director Award
|
|
|-
| rowspan=3 | Gotham Awards
| Best Feature
|
| rowspan=3 |
|-
| Breakthrough Director
|
|-
| Best Screenplay
|
|-
| New York Film Critics Circle
| Best First Film
|
|
|-
| Boston Society of Film Critics
| Best New Filmmaker
|
|
|-
| rowspan=2 | Chicago Film Critics Association
| Best Adapted Screenplay
|
| rowspan=2 |
|-
| Breakthrough Filmmaker
|
|-
| Florida Film Critics Circle
| Best First Film
|
|
|-
| rowspan=29 | 2022
| Golden Globe Awards
| Best Director
|
|
|-
| San Diego Film Critics Society
| Best Director
|
|
|-
| rowspan=2 | San Francisco Bay Area Film Critics Circle
| Best Director
|
| rowspan=2 |
|-
| Best Adapted Screenplay
|
|-
| Austin Film Critics Association
| Best First Film
|
|
|-
| Toronto Film Critics Association
| Best First Feature
|
|
|-
| rowspan=2 | Online Film Critics Society
| Best Adapted Screenplay
|
| rowspan=2 |
|-
| Best Debut Feature
|
|-
| rowspan=5 | Alliance of Women Film Journalists
| Best Film
|
| rowspan=5 |
|-
| Best Director
|
|-
| Best Adapted Screenplay
|
|-
| Best Woman Director
|
|-
| Best Woman Screenwriter
|
|-
| International Cinephile Society
| Best Debut Feature
|
|
|-
| rowspan=2 | London Film Critics Circle
| Film of the Year
|
| rowspan=2 |
|-
| Screenwriter of the Year
|
|-
| colspan=2 | USC Scripter Awards
|
|
|-
| rowspan=2 | Hollywood Critics Association
| Best Adapted Screenplay
|
| rowspan=2 |
|-
| Best First Feature
|
|-
| rowspan=3 | Independent Spirit Awards
| Best Feature
|
| rowspan=3 |
|-
| Best Director
|
|-
| Best Screenplay
|
|-
| Vancouver Film Critics Circle
| Best Screenplay
|
|
|-
| Directors Guild of America Awards
| Outstanding Directing – First-Time Feature Film
|
|
|-
| British Academy Film Awards
| Best Adapted Screenplay
|
|
|-
| Critics' Choice Movie Awards
| Best Adapted Screenplay
|
|
|-
| rowspan=2 | Satellite Awards
| Best Motion Picture – Drama
|
| rowspan=2 |
|-
| Best Adapted Screenplay
|
|-
| Academy Awards
| Best Adapted Screenplay
|
|
|}
References
Book sources
Further reading
Berkshire, Geoff. "'Dark Knight' Q&A: Maggie Gyllenhaal." Chicago Metromix. July 13, 2008. Accessed December 15, 2008.
Blanks, Tim. "Maggie Gyllenhaal." Interview Magazine. November 17, 2008. Accessed January 13, 2009.
Brinton, Jessica. "Maggie Gyllenhaal's rising star." The Times. July 20, 2008. Accessed February 22. 2022.
DiLiberto, Rebecca. "Finding her place in a new world order." The Boston Globe. July 22, 2008. Accessed February 22, 2022.
Fischer, Paul. "Maggie Gyllenhaal Dark Knight Interview." Femail. Accessed October 9, 2008.
Freydkin, Donna. "'Dark Knight' puts spotlight on publicity-shunning Gyllenhaal." USA Today. July 13, 2008. Accessed February 22. 2022.
Freydkin, Donna. "Gyllenhaal does something for herself: Star in 'Crazy Heart'." USA Today. January 3, 2010. Accessed February 22. 2022.
Head, Steve. "Happy Endings for Ms. Gyllenhaal." IGN. January 3, 2005. Accessed February 22, 2022.
Heyman, Marshall. "The Pictures: Sad-Eyed Siblings." New York Magazine. July 22, 2002. Accessed February 22, 2022.
Lawrence, Will. "Lady of the Knight." Sunday Herald. September 27, 2008. Accessed February 22. 2022.
Kelly, Nick. "A light that never goes out." Irish Independent. July 25, 2008. Accessed February 22, 2022.
Lytal, Cristy. "THEPERFORMANCE." Los Angeles Times. July 17, 2008. Accessed February 22, 2022.
Rees, Serena. "Maggie Gyllenhaal: Romantic chemistry." The Daily Telegraph. May 9, 2007. Accessed September 27, 2008.
Riggs, Jonathan. "Maggie Begins." Instinct Magazine. August 1, 2005. Accessed December 14, 2008.
Rosen, Alison. "The Hot Seat–Maggie Gyllenhaal." Time Out New York. Issue 570: August 31 – September 6, 2006. Accessed December 14, 2008.
Schwartz, Missy. "Maggie, Maybe...." Entertainment Weekly. July 28, 2006. Accessed May 28, 2009.
Snook, Raven. "Features–Maggie Gyllenhaal interview." Time Out New York Kids. Issue 38: December 1–30, 2008.
Stewart, Sara. "Maggie Gyllenhaal." New York Post. July 6, 2008. Accessed February 22, 2022.
Wolf, Jeanne. "Maggie Gyllenhaal Is No Stay At Home Mom." Parade''. July 11, 2008. Accessed February 22, 2022.
External links
1977 births
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from Los Angeles
Actresses from New York City
Alumni of RADA
American anti–Iraq War activists
American child actresses
American film actresses
American people of English descent
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
American people of Swedish descent
American Shakespearean actresses
American stage actresses
American television actresses
Audiobook narrators
Best Miniseries or Television Movie Actress Golden Globe winners
Directors Guild of America Award winners
Independent Spirit Award for Best Director winners
Columbia College (New York) alumni
Maggie
Harvard-Westlake School alumni
Jewish American actresses
Living people
New York (state) Democrats
People from Greenwich Village
Activists from New York (state)
People from Park Slope
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