Datasets:

devrim
/

wiki-long-subset

Dataset card Data Studio Files Files and versions Community

Split (2)

train · 147k rows

id stringlengths 2 8	url stringlengths 31 206	title stringlengths 1 130	text stringlengths 16.4k 435k
400897	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuben%20Fine	Reuben Fine	Reuben C. Fine (October 11, 1914 – March 26, 1993) was an American chess player, psychologist, university professor, and author of many books on both chess and psychology. He was one of the strongest chess players in the world from the mid-1930s until his retirement from chess in 1951. He was granted the title of International Grandmaster by FIDE in 1950, when titles were introduced. Fine's best result was his equal first place in the 1938 AVRO tournament, one of the strongest tournaments of all time. After the death of world champion Alexander Alekhine in 1946, Fine was one of six players invited to compete for the World Championship in 1948. He declined the invitation, however, and virtually retired from serious competition around that time, although he did play a few events until 1951. Fine won five medals (four gold) in three Chess Olympiads. He won the US Open all seven times he entered (1932, 1933, 1934, 1935, 1939, 1940, 1941). He was the author of several chess books, covering endgame, opening, and middlegame. Early life and family Fine was born in the Bronx, New York City to Russian Jewish parents Jacob and Bertha (Nedner) Fine. He had a sister, Evelyn (born in 1912), and was raised by his mother alone from the age of two. An uncle taught him chess when he was eight. Chess career Teenage master Fine began chess as a young teenager at the famous Manhattan Chess Club, where he hustled for nickels, until he was asked to stop; he used the money to help feed his family. Afterwards he moved to the rival Marshall Chess Club in New York City, stomping grounds for many famous players, such as Bobby Fischer, later on. At this stage of his career, Fine played a great deal of blitz chess, and he eventually became one of the best blitz players in the world. By the early 1930s, he could nearly hold his own in blitz chess against the then world champion Alexander Alekhine, although Fine admitted that the few times he played blitz with Alekhine's predecessor José Raúl Capablanca, the latter beat him "mercilessly". Fine's first significant master-level event was the 1930 New York Young Masters tournament, which was won by Arthur Dake. He narrowly lost a 1931 stakes match to fellow young New York master Arnold Denker. Fine placed second at the 1931 New York State Championship with a score of 8/11, half a point behind Fred Reinfeld. Fine won the 15th Marshall Chess Club Championship of 1931 with 10½/13, half a point ahead of Reinfeld. He defeated Herman Steiner by 5½–4½ at New York 1932; this was the first of three matches between them. U.S. Open Champion At 17, Fine won his first of seven US Opens at Minneapolis 1932 with 9½/11, half a point ahead of Samuel Reshevsky; this tournament was known as the Western Open at the time. Fine played in his first top-class international tournament at Pasadena 1932, where he shared 7th–10th with 5/11; the winner was world champion Alexander Alekhine. Fine repeated as champion in the 16th Marshall Club Championship, held from October to December 1932, with 11½/13, 2½ points ahead of the runner-up. College Fine graduated from City College of New York in 1932, at the age of 18; he was a successful student there. He captained CCNY to the 1931 National Collegiate team title; a teammate was master Sidney Bernstein. This tournament later evolved into the Pan American Intercollegiate Team Chess Championship. Fine then decided to try the life of a chess professional for a few years. Olympiad results Fine won the U.S. team selection tournament, New York 1933, with 8/10. This earned him the first of three national team berths for the chess Olympiads. Fine won five medals (including three team golds) representing the United States; his detailed record follows; his totals are (+20−6=19), for 65.6%. Folkestone 1933: board three, 9/13 (+6−1=6), team gold, board silver Warsaw 1935: board one, 9/17 (+5−4=8), team gold Stockholm 1937: board two, 11½/15 (+9−1=5), team gold, board gold North American successes Fine repeated as champion at the U.S./Western Open, Detroit 1933, with 12/13, half a point ahead of Reshevsky. Fine won the 17th Marshall Club Championship, 1933–34, with 9½/11. He defeated Al Horowitz in a match at New York 1934 by 6–3. Fine shared 1st–2nd at the U.S./Western Open, Chicago 1934, on 7½/9, with Reshevsky. He then shared 1st–3rd at Mexico City 1934, on 11/12, with Herman Steiner and Arthur Dake. At Syracuse 1934, Fine shared 3rd–4th, on 10/14, as Reshevsky won. Fine won his fourth straight U.S./Western Open at Milwaukee 1935, scoring 6½/9 in the preliminary round, and then 8/10 in the finals. European debut Having had outstanding successes in North America, Fine tried his first European individual international tournament at Łódź 1935, where he shared 2nd–3rd with 6/9 behind Savielly Tartakower. Fine won Hastings 1935–36 with 7½/9, a point ahead of Salo Flohr. Narrow misses at U.S. Championship Although Fine was active and very successful in U.S. open tournaments, he was never able to win the U.S. Championship, usually placing behind his great American rival, Samuel Reshevsky. The U.S. Championship was organized in a round-robin format during that era. When in 1936 Frank Marshall voluntarily gave up the American Championship title he had held since 1909, the result was the first modern U.S. Championship tournament. Fine scored 10½/15 in the U.S. Championship, New York City 1936, and tied third–fourth, as Reshevsky won. In the U.S. Championship, New York 1938, Fine placed second with 12½/16, with Reshevsky repeating as champion. In the U.S. Championship, New York 1940, Fine again scored 12½/16 for second place, as Reshevsky won for the third straight time. Then in the 1944 U.S. Championship at New York, Fine scored 14½/17 for second, losing his game to Arnold Denker, and finishing half a point back, as the latter won his only national title. Fine tallied 50/64 in his four U.S. title attempts, for 78.1%, but was never champion. Not being national champion seriously hurt Fine's prospects for making a career from chess. International success However, Fine's international tournament record in the 1930s was superior to Reshevsky's. The former did play many more top-class international events than the latter during that period, and was usually near the top of the table. By the end of 1937, Fine had won a string of strong European international tournaments, and was one of the most successful players in the world. Fine won at Oslo 1936 with 6½/7, half a point ahead of Flohr. Fine captured Zandvoort 1936 with 8½/11, ahead of World Champion Max Euwe, Savielly Tartakower, and Paul Keres. Fine shared 3rd–5th at the elite Nottingham 1936 event with 9½/14, half a point behind winners José Raúl Capablanca and Mikhail Botvinnik. Fine shared 1st–2nd at Amsterdam 1936 on 5/7 with Euwe, half a point ahead of Alekhine. Fine placed 2nd at Hastings 1936–37 with 7½/9, as Alekhine won. The year 1937 was Fine's most successful. He won at Leningrad 1937 with 4/5, ahead of Grigory Levenfish, who shared first in that year's Soviet Championship. Fine won at Moscow 1937 with 5/7. Those two victories make Fine one of a very select group of foreigners to have won on Russian soil. Fine shared 1st–2nd at Margate 1937 with Keres on 7½/9, 1½ points ahead of Alekhine. Fine shared 1st–3rd at Ostend 1937 with Keres and Henry Grob on 6/9. At Stockholm 1937, Fine won with 8/9, 1½ points ahead of Gideon Ståhlberg. Fine then defeated Stahlberg by 5–3 in a match held at Gothenburg 1937. Fine placed 2nd at the elite Semmering/Baden 1937 tournament with 8/14, behind Keres. At Kemeri, Latvia 1937, Fine had a rare relatively weak result, with just 9/17 for 8th place, as the title was shared by Reshevsky, Flohr, and Vladimirs Petrovs. Fine shared 4th–5th at Hastings 1937–38 with 6/9 as Reshevsky won. AVRO 1938 In 1938, Fine tied for first place with Paul Keres in the prestigious AVRO tournament in the Netherlands, scoring 8½/14, with Keres placed first on tiebreak. This was one of the most famous tournaments of the 20th century. It was organized with the hope that the winner of AVRO, a double round-robin tournament, would be the next challenger to world champion Alexander Alekhine. Since Alekhine won the title in 1927, he had been avoiding a rematch with his predecessor, Capablanca, whom many considered the strongest possible challenger. Fine finished ahead of future champion Mikhail Botvinnik, current champion Alekhine, former world champions Max Euwe and Capablanca, and Samuel Reshevsky and Salo Flohr. Fine won both of his games against Alekhine. Fine got out to a tremendous start, scoring five wins and a draw in his first six games, but then lost in round seven to Keres, and this wound up as the decisive game for the tournament victor, providing his tiebreak. Wartime years As World War II interrupted any prospects for a world championship match, Fine turned to chess writing. In 1939, Fine became the first world-class player to edit the classic opening guide Modern Chess Openings. His work on the sixth edition of the book led to a significant increase in sales. In 1941 he wrote Basic Chess Endings, a compendium of endgame analysis which, some 80 years later, is still considered one of the best works on this subject. His book was the most comprehensive on the subject written to that time, included significant original work by Fine, and received worldwide acclaim. His The Ideas Behind the Chess Openings, though now out of date, is still useful for grasping the underlying ideas of many standard chess openings; it was revised in 1989. Fine played a few serious American events during World War II, with international chess at a virtual standstill, and continued his successes with dominant scores. He won the U.S. Open at New York 1939 with 10½/11, half a point ahead of Reshevsky. In the 23rd Marshall Club Championship of 1939, Fine won with 14/16. He won the 1940 U.S. Open at Dallas with a perfect 8/8 in the finals, three points ahead of Herman Steiner. Fine won the New York State Championship, Hamilton 1941, with 8/10, a point ahead of Reshevsky, Arnold Denker and Isaac Kashdan. Fine won the 1941 Marshall Club Championship with 14/15, ahead of Frank Marshall. Fine won the 1941 U.S. Open at St. Louis, with 4/5 in the preliminaries, and 8/9 in the finals. Fine won the 1942 Washington, D.C. Chess Divan title with 7/7. He defeated Herman Steiner in match play for the second time by 3½–½ at Washington 1944. Fine won the U.S. Speed Championships of both 1944 (10/11) and 1945 (10/11). In the Pan-American Championship, Hollywood 1945, Fine placed 2nd with 9/12, behind Reshevsky. He played in the 1945 USA vs USSR Radio team match, scoring ½/2 on board three against Isaac Boleslavsky. Then Fine traveled to Europe one last time to compete, in the 1946 Moscow team match against the USSR, scoring ½/2 on board three against Paul Keres. Declines to enter 1948 World Championship As the World War ended in early September 1945, Fine was 30 years of age, and working on his doctorate in psychology. After World Champion Alekhine died in March 1946, FIDE (the World Chess Federation) organized a World Chess Championship tournament to determine the new champion. Alekhine was the first champion to die as title-holder, creating an unprecedented problem. As co-winner in the AVRO tournament, Fine was invited to participate, but he declined, for reasons that are the subject of speculation even today. Fine had played a third match against Herman Steiner at Los Angeles 1947, winning 5–1; this match was training for his potential world championship appearance. Publicly, Fine stated that he could not interrupt work on his doctoral dissertation in psychology. Negotiations over the tournament had been protracted, and for a long time it was unclear whether this World Championship event would in fact take place. Fine wrote that he didn't want to spend many months preparing and then see the tournament cancelled. However, it has also been suggested that Fine declined to play because he suspected there would be collaboration among the three Soviet participants to ensure that one of them won the championship. In the August 2004 issue of Chess Life, for example, Larry Evans gave his recollection that "Fine told me he didn't want to waste three months of his life watching Russians throw games to each other." Fine's 1951 written statement on the matter in his book The World's Greatest Chess Games was: Unfortunately for the Western masters the Soviet political organization was stronger than that of the West. The U.S. Chess Federation was a meaningless paper organization, generally antagonistic to the needs of its masters. The Dutch Chess Federation did not choose to act. The FIDE was impotent. The result was a rescheduling of the tournament for the following year, with the vital difference that now half was to be played in Holland, half in the U.S.S.R. Dissatisfied with this arrangement and the general tenor of the event, I withdrew. Edward Winter quoted Fine as saying financial, professional and scheduling problems all influenced his decision. Final competitive appearances Once Fine completed his doctorate, he did play some more competitive chess. He won at New York 1948 with 8/9, ahead of Miguel Najdorf, Max Euwe, and Hermann Pilnik. Fine drew a match against Najdorf at 4–4 at New York 1949. He participated for the U.S. in the 1950 radio match against Yugoslavia, drawing his only game. Fine received the title of International Grandmaster in 1950 from FIDE, on its first official list of titled players. Fine's final top-class event was the Maurice Wertheim Memorial, New York 1951, where he scored 7/11 for 4th, as Reshevsky won. Given his pre-war results, Fine was invited to participate 1950 Candidates Tournament at Budapest, but declined his invitation; this tournament was the first to select an official challenger to the World Champion under the auspices of FIDE, the World Chess Federation. Lifetime scores against top players Fine had a relatively short career in top-level chess, but scored well against top players. He faced five World Champions: Emanuel Lasker (+1−0=0); José Raúl Capablanca (+0−0=5, excluding simultaneous games); Alexander Alekhine (+3−2=4); Max Euwe (+2−2=3); and Mikhail Botvinnik (+1−0=2). His main American rivals were Samuel Reshevsky (+3−4=12); Herman Steiner (+21−4=8); Isaac Kashdan (+6−1=6); Albert Simonson (+6−1=1); Al Horowitz (+10−2=7); Arnold Denker (+7−6=7); Fred Reinfeld (+10−5=7); and Arthur Dake (+7−7=5, with three losses as a 16-year-old against Dake in his 20s). Internationally, Fine faced the best of his time, and usually more than held his own, with three exceptions. He struggled against Paul Keres (+1−3=8); Milan Vidmar (+0−1=2); and Isaac Boleslavsky (+0−1=1), but he handled everyone else: Miguel Najdorf (+3−3=5); Savielly Tartakower (+2−1=4); Salo Flohr (+2−0=7); Grigory Levenfish (+1−0=0); George Alan Thomas (+2−0=3); Erich Eliskases (+1−0=2); Viacheslav Ragozin (+1−0=1); Vladimirs Petrovs (+2−1=1); Efim Bogolyubov (+1−0=1); Jan Foltys (+2−0=0); Salo Landau (+4−0=1); George Koltanowski (+2−0=1); Igor Bondarevsky (+1−0=0); Géza Maróczy (+1−0=0); William Winter (+4−0=0); Ernst Grünfeld (+1−0=0); Gideon Ståhlberg (+4−2=5); Andor Lilienthal (+1−0=0); László Szabó (+0−0=1); Vladas Mikėnas (+1−0=1); Rudolph Spielmann (+0−0=1); and Conel Hugh O'Donel Alexander (+1−0=3). Finally, against the new generation of American masters which emerged in the late 1940s, Fine proved he could still perform well: Arthur Bisguier (+1−0=1); Larry Evans (+0−0=2); George Kramer (+1−0=1); and Robert Byrne (+0−0=1). Top ten for eight years Although FIDE, the World Chess Federation, did not formally introduce chess ratings for international play until 1970, it is nevertheless possible to retrospectively rate players' performances from before that time. The site Chessmetrics.com, which specializes in historical ratings throughout chess history, ranks Fine in the world's top ten players for more than eight years, from March 1936 until October 1942, and then again from January 1949 until December 1950. Fine was inducted into the U.S. Chess Hall of Fame in 1986, the charter class. He continued his successful chess writing career for many years after he retired from competition. Notable games Reuben Fine vs. Mikhail Botvinnik, Amsterdam AVRO 1938, French Defence, Winawer/Advance Variation (C17), 1–0 In the final position, "Black does not have a single move, and Rf3 is threatened. A combination of a splendid strategic idea with tactical subtleties." (Botvinnik) Reuben Fine vs. Salomon Flohr, Amsterdam AVRO 1938, French Defence, Winawer/Advance Variation (C17), 1–0 Deep tactics in an unusual variant of French Defense. Reuben Fine vs. Herman Steiner, Pan-American Championship, Hollywood 1945. Queen's Gambit Accepted, Classical (D29), 1–0 Fine sees further than his opponent in a sharp tactical position. Professional life Fine earned a bachelor's degree from the City College of New York in 1932. During World War II, Fine worked for the U.S. Navy, analyzing the probability of German U-boats surfacing at certain points in the Atlantic Ocean. Fine also worked as a translator. After World War II, he earned his doctorate in psychology from the University of Southern California. After receiving his doctorate he abandoned professional chess to concentrate on a new profession as a professor. Fine continued playing chess casually throughout his life (including several friendly games played in 1963 against Bobby Fischer, one of which is included in Fischer's My 60 Memorable Games). In 1956 he wrote an article, "Psychoanalytic Observations on Chess and Chess Masters", for a psychological journal. Later, Fine turned the article into a book, The Psychology of the Chess Player, in which he provided insights steeped in Freudian theory. Fine is not the first person to have examined the mind as it relates to chess: Alfred Binet, the inventor of the IQ test, had studied the mental functionality of good chess players, and found that they often had enhanced mental traits, such as a good memory. He went on to publish A History of Psychoanalysis (1979) and a number of other books on psychology. Journalist Gilbert Cant observed: A great chess player, Manhattan's Reuben Fine, has popularized a psychology of chess studded with phallic symbols, spattered with anal-sadistic impulses and imbued with latent homosexuality. In successive rounds, Fine once defeated Botvinnik, Reshevsky, Euwe, Flohr and Alekhine, and drew with Capablanca. When Fine switched his major interest from chess to psychoanalysis, the result was a loss for chess—and a draw, at best, for psychoanalysis. Many psychologists, some Freudians included, now believe that the sexual symbolism in chess is vastly overdrawn. Fine served as a visiting professor at CCNY, the University of Amsterdam, the Lowell Institute of Technology, and the University of Florence. Fine founded the Creative Living Center in New York City. Personal life Fine married five times, all but the last ending in divorce. He had two biological children and one stepson. Per the Los Angeles Times, he married Charlotte Margoshes in 1937. The New York County registrar lists a marriage certificate for Charlotte Margoshes on October 8, 1936, but the marriage was very short. The New York Times first mentions a marriage to Emma Thea Keesing (1916–1960), whom he met in the Netherlands, married in September 1937, and divorced in 1944. Fine remarried in 1946, to Sonya Lebeaux. They had two children together, a son, Benjamin, and a daughter. He wrote The Teenage Chess Book with Benjamin. His last marriage, to Marcia Fine, lasted to his death in 1993. Books On chess Dr. Lasker's Chess Career, by Reuben Fine and Fred Reinfeld, 1935, . Modern Chess Openings, sixth edition, 1939. Basic Chess Endings, 1941, McKay. Revised in 2003 by Pal Benko. . Chess the Easy Way, 1942. 1986 Paperback re-issue. , . The Ideas Behind the Chess Openings, 1943. Revised in 1948 and 1989. McKay, , . The Middlegame in Chess. . Chess Marches On, 1946. . The World's A Chessboard, 1948. . Practical Chess Openings, 1948. . The World's Great Chess Games, Crown Publishers, Inc. 1951, LOC # 51-12014; Ishi Press, 2012. . Lessons From My Games, 1958, . The Teenage Chess Book, 1965 (assisted by son Benjamin Fine), The Psychology of the Chess Player, 1967. . Bobby Fischer's Conquest of the World's Chess Championship: The Psychology and Tactics of the Title Match, 1973. . On psychology Freud: a Critical Re-evaluation of his Theories (1962). The Healing of the Mind: The Technique of Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy (1971). The Development of Freud's Thought (1973). Psychoanalytic Psychology (1975). The History of Psychoanalysis (1979). The Intimate Hour (1979). The Psychoanalytic Vision (1981). The Logic of Psychology (1983). The Meaning of Love in Human Experience (1985). Narcissism, the Self, and Society (1986). The Forgotten Man: Understanding the Male Psyche (1987). Troubled Men: The Psychology, Emotional Conflicts, and Therapy of Men (1988). Love and Work: The Value System of Psychoanalysis (1990). Troubled Women: Roles and Realities in Psychoanalytic Perspective (1992). See also List of Jewish chess players References Bibliography Aidan Woodger, Reuben Fine: A Comprehensive Record of an American Chess Career, 1929–1951, Jefferson: McFarland & Company, Inc. Publishers, 2004, . External links "Reuben Fine, Chess and Psychology" by Edward Winter, Chess Notes 1914 births 1993 deaths American chess players American chess writers American people of Russian-Jewish descent 20th-century American psychologists Chess grandmasters Chess Olympiad competitors Chess theoreticians City College of New York alumni Jewish chess players People from the Bronx Sportspeople from New York City University of Southern California alumni 20th-century American non-fiction writers 20th-century American male writers American male non-fiction writers 20th-century chess players
400991	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Fraser	Peter Fraser	Peter Fraser (; 28 August 1884 – 12 December 1950) was a New Zealand politician who served as the 24th prime minister of New Zealand from 27 March 1940 until 13 December 1949. Considered a major figure in the history of the New Zealand Labour Party, he was in office longer than any other Labour prime minister, and is to date New Zealand's fourth-longest-serving head of government. Born and raised in the Scottish Highlands, Fraser left education early in order to support his family. While working in London in 1908, Fraser joined the Independent Labour Party, but unemployment led him to emigrate to New Zealand in 1910. On arrival in Auckland, he gained employment as a wharfie and became involved in union politics upon joining the New Zealand Socialist Party. In 1916, Fraser was involved in the foundation of the unified Labour Party. He spent one year in jail for sedition after speaking out against conscription during the First World War. In 1918, Fraser won a Wellington by-election and entered the House of Representatives. Fraser became a cabinet minister in , serving under Michael Joseph Savage. He held several portfolios and had a particular interest in education, which he considered vital for social reform. As Minister of Health, he introduced the Social Security Act 1938, which established a universal health care service. Fraser became the Leader of the Labour Party and Prime Minister in 1940, following Savage's death in office. Fraser is best known for leading the country during the Second World War when he mobilised New Zealand supplies and volunteers to support Britain while boosting the economy and maintaining home front morale. He formed a war cabinet which included several erstwhile political opponents. Labour suffered significant losses in the election, though the party retained its majority. Following the war, Fraser was active in the affairs of the 'new' Commonwealth and is credited with increasing New Zealand's international stature. Fraser led his party to its fourth successive election victory in , albeit with a further reduced majority. The after-effects of the war, including ongoing shortages, were affecting his government's popularity. Labour lost the and Fraser's government was succeeded by the first National Party government. Early life A native of Scotland, Peter Fraser was born in Hill of Fearn, a small village near the town of Tain in the Highland area of Easter Ross. He received a basic education, but had to leave school due to his family's poor financial state. Though apprenticed to a carpenter, he eventually abandoned this trade due to extremely poor eyesight – later in life, faced with difficulty reading official documents, he would insist on spoken reports rather than written ones. Before the deterioration of his vision, however, he read extensively – with socialist activists such as Keir Hardie and Robert Blatchford among his favourites. Becoming politically active in his early teens, he was 16 years old upon attaining the post of secretary of the local Liberal Association, and, eight years later, in 1908, joined the Independent Labour Party. Move to New Zealand In another two years, at the age of 26, after unsuccessfully seeking employment in London, Fraser decided to move to New Zealand, having apparently chosen the country in the belief that it possessed a strong progressive spirit. He gained employment as a stevedore (or "wharfie") on arrival in Auckland, and became involved in union politics upon joining the New Zealand Socialist Party. Fraser worked as campaign manager for Michael Joseph Savage as the Socialist candidate for Auckland Central electorate. He was also involved in the New Zealand Federation of Labour, which he represented at Waihi during the Waihi miners' strike of 1912. He moved to Wellington, the country's capital, shortly afterwards. Savage went on to be Fraser's predecessor in office as the nation's first Labour Prime Minister. In 1913, he participated in the founding of the Social Democratic Party and, during the year, within the scope of his union activities, found himself under arrest for breaches of the peace. While the arrest led to no serious repercussions, it did prompt a change of strategy – he moved away from direct action and began to promote a parliamentary route to power. Upon Britain's entry into the First World War, he strongly opposed New Zealand participation since, sharing the belief of many leftist thinkers, Fraser considered the conflict an "imperialist war", fought for reasons of national interest rather than of principle. Foundation of the Labour Party In 1916, Fraser became involved in the foundation of the New Zealand Labour Party, which absorbed much of the moribund Social Democratic Party's membership. The members selected Harry Holland as the Labour Party's leader. Michael Joseph Savage, Fraser's old ally from the New Zealand Socialist Party, also participated. Later in 1916, the government had Fraser and several other members of the new Labour Party arrested on charges of sedition. This resulted from their outspoken opposition to the war, and particularly their call to abolish conscription. Fraser received a sentence of one year in jail. He always rejected the verdict, claiming he would only have committed subversion had he taken active steps to undermine conscription, rather than merely voicing his disapproval. After his release from prison, Fraser worked as a journalist for the official Labour Party newspaper. He also resumed his activities within the Labour Party, initially in the role of campaign manager for Harry Holland. Local body politics In 1919 Fraser stood on the Labour Party's ticket for the Wellington City Council. He and three others were first Labour candidates to win office on the council since before the war. Fraser led a movement on the council to establish a municipal milk distribution department in Wellington, which was to remain in operation until the 1990s. He was re-elected in 1921, though Labour lost ground only winning two seats. In 1923 Fraser stood for Mayor of Wellington. He adopted an "all or nothing" strategy by standing only for the mayoralty, refusing nomination to stand for the council also. Fraser polled higher than any Labour mayoral candidate in New Zealand history but lost by only 273 votes to Robert Wright in the closest result Wellington had ever seen. Fraser made a comeback on the council when he was persuaded to stand in a 1933 by-election. Wright was his main opponent and was victorious in a heavy polling contest which was dubbed by the media as a "grudge match" repeat of 1923. Fraser was re-elected to the Council in 1935, topping the poll with more votes than any other candidate. The next year he decided to resign from the council in order to focus on his ministerial duties. A by-election was avoided when Andrew Parlane, also the highest polling unsuccessful candidate from 1935, was the only nominated candidate. Early parliamentary career In a 1918 by-election, Fraser gained election to Parliament, winning the electorate of . He soon distinguished himself through his work to counter the influenza epidemic of 1918–19, of which Fraser was himself a survivor. During his early years in parliament, Fraser developed a clearer sense of his political beliefs. Although initially enthusiastic about the Russian October Revolution of 1917 and its Bolshevik leaders, he rejected them soon afterwards, and eventually became one of the strongest advocates of excluding communists from the Labour Party. His commitment to parliamentary politics rather than to direct action became firmer, and he had a moderating influence on many Labour Party policies. Fraser's views clashed considerably with those of Harry Holland, still serving as leader, but the party gradually shifted its policies away from the more extreme left of the spectrum. Fraser soon became convinced that political action via parliamentary process was the only realistic course of action to achieve Labour movement ambitions. As a result, he accepted the inevitable compromises (which Holland did not) that the attainment of parliamentary success required. In 1933, however, Holland died, leaving the leadership vacant. Fraser considered contesting it, but eventually endorsed Michael Joseph Savage, Holland's more moderate deputy. Fraser became the new deputy leader. While Savage represented perhaps less moderate views than Fraser, he lacked the extreme ideology of Holland. With Labour now possessing a "softer" image and the existing conservative coalition struggling with the effects of the Great Depression, Savage's party succeeded in winning the and forming a government. Fraser served as vice-president of the Labour Party in 1919–1920, and as party president in 1920–1921. Cabinet minister In the new administration, Fraser became the Minister of External Affairs, the Minister of Island Territories, Minister of Health, Minister of Education and Minister of Marine. He showed himself extremely active as a minister, often working seventeen hours a day, seven days a week. During his first years in cabinet, his wife, Janet, had an office next to his and worked as his research assistant and adviser in order that she could spend time with him. She would also prepare meals for him during his long days at parliament. He had a particular interest in education, which he considered vital for social reform. His appointment of C.E. Beeby to the Education Department provided him with a valuable ally for these reforms. Fraser held a passionate belief that education had a huge part to play in the social reform he desired. Fraser's narrowly elitist and Anglophile cultural perspectives are illustrated by his crucial role in planning New Zealand's 1940 Centennial celebrations. He used his cultural protege James Shelly, an Englishman who insisted that England was to be the source of New Zealand's cultural life – and by 'cultural' Shelley and Fraser meant so-called high culture sourced from England. As head of the 1940 Centennial Musical Celebrations Shelley followed Fraser in insisting the music would be 'high' culture only. He reassured Fraser that "established Musical Societies, who, throughout New Zealand’s history, have done such magnificent and effective work in developing and keeping alive that appreciation of good music which is so essential to the cultural development of the people of any country." To implement this the Government would import from England "a Musical Adviser and a sufficient number of outstanding Soloists." The result:"a sumtuous feast of good music." Neither Fraser nor Shelley contemplated involving New Zealand born performers and artists. As Minister of Health, Fraser also became the driving force behind the 1938 Social Security Act. The Act proposed a comprehensive health care system, free at the point of use; it faced strong opposition, particularly from the New Zealand branch of the British Medical Association. Eventually, Fraser negotiated effectively enough to force the Association to yield. Fortunately for him, Janet Fraser had long volunteered in the health and welfare fields and was an invaluable adviser and collaborator. When the Second World War broke out in 1939, Fraser had already taken over most of the functions of national leadership. Michael Joseph Savage had been ill for some time and was near death, although the authorities concealed this from the public. Fraser had to assume most of the Prime Minister's duties in addition to his own ministerial ones. Internal disputes within the Labour Party made Fraser's position more difficult. John A. Lee, a notable socialist within the Party, vehemently disapproved of the party's perceived drift towards the political centre, and strongly criticised Savage and Fraser. Lee's attacks, however, became strong enough that even many of his supporters denounced them. Fraser and his allies successfully moved to expel Lee from the Party on 25 March 1940. Prime Minister When Savage died on 27 March, Fraser successfully contested the leadership against Gervan McMillan and Clyde Carr. He had, however, to give the party's caucus the right to elect people to Cabinet without the Prime Minister's approval – a practice which has continued as a feature of the Labour Party . Despite the concession, Fraser remained in command, occasionally alienating colleagues due to a governing style described by some as "authoritarian". Some of his determination to exercise control may have come about due to the war, on which Fraser focused almost exclusively. Nevertheless, certain measures he implemented, such as censorship, wage controls, and conscription, proved unpopular with the party. In particular, conscription provoked strong opposition, especially since Fraser himself had opposed it during the First World War. Fraser replied that fighting in the Second World War, unlike in the First World War, had indeed a worthy cause, making conscription a necessary evil. Despite opposition from within the Labour Party, enough of the general public supported conscription to allow its acceptance. Second World War Fraser was one of the immediate few in New Zealand who instantly grasped that war meant not merely the involvement of the military, but that of the whole country. These implications were not always recognised either by his own party or by the opposition. Fraser further developed somewhat of an authoritarian streak as a result; this reflected his insistence on the overwhelming importance of the war effort above all else. During the war, Fraser attempted to build support for an understanding between Labour and its main rival, the National Party. However, opposition within both parties prevented reaching an agreement, and Labour continued to govern alone. Fraser did, however, work closely with Gordon Coates, a former Prime Minister and now a National-Party rebel – Fraser praised Coates for his willingness to set aside his party loyalty, and appears to have believed that National leader Sidney Holland placed the interests of his party before national unity. In terms of the war effort itself, Fraser had a particular concern with ensuring that New Zealand retained control over its own forces. He believed that the more populous countries, particularly Britain, viewed New Zealand's military as a mere extension of their own, rather than as the armed forces of a sovereign nation. After particularly serious New Zealand losses in the Greek campaign in 1941, Fraser determined to retain a say as to where to deploy New Zealand troops. Fraser insisted to British leaders that Bernard Freyberg, commander of the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force, should report to the New Zealand government just as extensively as to the British authorities. When Japan entered the war in December 1941, Fraser had to choose between recalling New Zealand's forces to the Pacific (as Australia had done) or keeping them in the Middle East (as British Prime Minister Winston Churchill requested). Opinion was divided on the question and New Zealand's manpower resources were already stretched to capacity. Fraser received assurances from U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt that American forces would be made available for New Zealand's defense. The local populace possessed an understandable view that the division's proper place was defending their homes. Fraser weighed up public opinions against the strategic arguments involved and eventually opted to leave New Zealand's Expeditionary Force where it was. In a remarkable display of political acumen and skill, he then persuaded a divided government and Parliament to give their full support [to leave the army in Africa]. It was leadership of the highest order. Fraser had a very rocky relationship with U.S. Secretary of State Cordell Hull, particularly over the Canberra Pact in January 1944. Hull gave Fraser a sharp and rather demeaning dressing-down when Fraser visited Washington D.C. in mid-1944, which resulted in New Zealand's military becoming sidelined to some extent in the conduct of the Pacific War. Furlough Mutiny By early 1943 Fraser faced a major military and strategic problem that also had significant political implications in this New Zealand election year. The New Zealand Division, part of the Eighth Army in North Africa, were now battle-weary. The bulk of the Division had been overseas for almost three years. Nearly 43% of the troops had suffered casualties. "The men were homesick, exhausted and war-weary." In 1943 Fraser arranged for 6,000 men to return home from the Mediterranean theatre for a three-month furlough (period of military leave), anticipating that the grateful men and their families would be more disposed to vote Labour in the general election. Upon arrival, however, many of the veterans were furious at the numbers in reserved occupations, some of whom were making menial goods of no use to the war effort. Moreover, unions had ensured that bonuses and high pay were awarded to munitions workers, far in excess of the money paid to the men in combat. "No man twice before every man first" became one of the returning soldiers' mantras, and several thousand of them secured an exemption from further service due to age or being married. A number of the remainder were court-martialed, sentenced to 90 days' imprisonment and forced to return (though some had deserted and were not able to be found. Further, they were denied a military pension and refused government jobs. Due to censorship, the public heard little of the protests and the affair, known as the "Furlough Mutiny", was omitted from post-war history books for many years. Trans-Tasman relationship Fraser's government also established a far closer working understanding with the Labor government in Australia. He signed the Australian–New Zealand Agreement of 1944, in which Fraser, under pressure by Australia's foreign minister, H. V. Evatt, overplayed his hand seeking to ensure that both Australian and New Zealand interests in the Pacific would not be overlooked in the war or its aftermath. New Zealand and Australia were both anxious to have their input in the planning of the Pacific War, and later in the decisions of the "Great Powers" in the shaping of the post-war world. Post-war After the war ended, Fraser devoted much attention to the formation of the United Nations at the San Francisco conference (UNCIO) in 1945; this "was the apogee of Fraser's career". Noteworthy for his strong opposition to vesting powers of veto in permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, he often spoke unofficially for smaller states. He was elected chairman of one of the main committees which was considering dependent territories, and next year in London was chairman of one of the social-economic committees at the first assembly in London. He earned the respect of many world statesmen through his commitment to principle, his energy, and most of all his skill as a chairman. It was to Fraser's stature that New Zealand would later owe much of its favourable international reputation. Fraser had a particularly close working relationship with Alister McIntosh, the head of the Prime Minister's department during most of Fraser's premiership and then of the Department of External Affairs, created in 1946. McIntosh privately described his frustration with Fraser's workaholism, and with Fraser's insensitivity towards officials' needs for private lives; but the two men had a genuinely affectionate relationship. Fraser also took up the role of Minister of Native Affairs (which he renamed Māori Affairs) in 1947. Fraser had had an interest in Māori concerns for some time, and he implemented a number of measures designed to reduce inequality. The Maori Social and Economic Advancement Act, which he introduced in 1945, allowed Māori involvement and control over welfare programmes and other assistance. New Commonwealth Fraser's Government had proposed to adopt the Statute of Westminster 1931 in its Speech from the Throne in 1944 (two years after Australia adopted the Act), in order to gain greater constitutional independence. During the Address-In-Reply debate, the opposition passionately opposed the proposed adoption, claiming the Government was being disloyal to the United Kingdom. National MP for Tauranga, Frederick Doidge, argued "With us, loyalty is an instinct as deep as religion". The proposal was buried. Ironically, the National opposition prompted the adoption of the Statute in 1947 when its leader and future Prime Minister Sidney Holland introduced a private members' bill to abolish the Legislative Council, the country's upper house of parliament. Because New Zealand required the consent of the Parliament of the United Kingdom to amend the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, Fraser decided to adopt the Statute with the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947. The adoption of the Statute of Westminster was soon followed by the debate on the future of the British Commonwealth in its transformation into the Commonwealth of Nations. In April 1949 Ireland, formerly the Irish Free State, declared itself a republic and ceased to be a member of the Commonwealth. In response to this, the New Zealand Parliament passing the Republic of Ireland Act the following year, which treated Ireland as if it were still a member of the Commonwealth. Meanwhile, newly independent India would have to leave the Commonwealth on becoming a republic also, although it was the Indian Prime Minister's view that India should remain a member of the Commonwealth as a republic. Fraser believed that the Commonwealth could as a group address the evils of colonialism and maintain the solidarity of common defence. To Fraser, the acceptance of India as a republican member would threaten the political unity of the Commonwealth. Fraser knew his domestic audience and was tough on republicanism or defence weakness to deflect criticism from the loyalist and imperialist-minded opposition National Party. Labour had been in office for fourteen years and faced an uphill battle to retain power against National at the general election, which would come just months after the high-profile April 1949 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference. In March 1949 Fraser wrote to the Canadian Prime Minister, Louis St Laurent, stating his frustration and unease over India's position. Saint Laurent had indicated that he would not be able to attend the meeting where the issue of India's republican status would dominate. Fraser argued: Fraser left little doubt New Zealand was opposed to India's membership as a republic when he stated to his colleagues at Downing Street: The conference quashed a proposal of a two-tier structure that would have had the traditional Commonwealth realms, perhaps with defence pacts, on one tier, and the new members which opted for a republic, on the second tier. The final compromise is perhaps best seen from the title finally accepted for the King, as Head of the Commonwealth. Fraser argued that the compromise allowed the Commonwealth dynamism, that would in the future allow former colonies of Africa to join as republics and be stalwarts of this New Commonwealth. It also allowed New Zealand the freedom to maintain its individual status of loyalty to the Crown and to pursue collective defence. Indeed, Fraser cabled a senior minister, Walter Nash, after the decision was taken to accept India that "while the Declaration is not as I would have wished, it is on the whole acceptable and maximum possible, and does not at any rate leave our position unimpaired". Decline and defeat Although he relinquished the role of Minister of Education early in his term as Prime Minister, he and Walter Nash continued to have an active role in developing educational policy with C. E. Beeby. Labour's majority at the was reduced to one seat. The after-effects of the war were affecting his government's popularity. Fraser moved to the Wellington seat of Brooklyn, which he held until his death. From 1940 to 1949 Fraser lived in a house "Hill Haven" at 64–66 Harbour View Road, Northland, Wellington, which had been purchased for the use of the then-ill Savage in 1939. Fraser's domestic policies came under criticism. His slow speed in removing war-time rationing and his support for compulsory military training during peacetime in the 1949 referendum particularly damaged him politically. Some thought this hypocritical compared to Fraser's earlier sentiments on the subject. Much earlier in his career, in 1927 he is noted to have said that compulsory military training was "out of date, inefficient and not worth the money spent on it". With dwindling support from traditional Labour voters, and a population weary of war-time measures, Fraser's popularity declined. At this stage of his career, Fraser relied heavily on the party "machine". As a result, the gap between the party leadership and rank and file members widened to the point where Labour's political enthusiasm dwindled. In the the National Party defeated his government. Leader of the Opposition Following the election defeat, Fraser became Leader of the Opposition, but declining health prevented him from playing a significant role. He died at the age of 66, exactly one year after leaving government. His successor as leader of the Labour Party was Walter Nash. His successor in the electorate, elected in the 1951 Brooklyn by-election, was Arnold Nordmeyer. Personal life On 1 November 1919, a year after his election to parliament, Fraser married Janet Kemp née Munro, from Glasgow and also a political activist. They remained together until Janet's death in 1945, five years before Fraser's own passing. During Fraser's time as Prime Minister, Janet traveled with him and acted as a "political adviser, researcher, gatekeeper and personal support system". Her ideas influenced his political philosophy. The couple had no children, although Janet had a son from her first marriage to George Kemp. Death Fraser died in Wellington on 12 December 1950 from a heart attack following hospitalisation with influenza. His body lay in state in the New Zealand Parliament Buildings for three days and a state funeral service was conducted by the Moderator of the Presbyterian Church. He is buried in the Karori Cemetery. Honours In 1935, Fraser was awarded the King George V Silver Jubilee Medal, and in 1937, he was awarded the King George VI Coronation Medal. He was appointed a Privy Counsellor in 1940 and a Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour in 1946. In 2021, Janet Fraser and Peter Fraser, in recognition of their help for the Polish children were awarded by the President of Poland with Virtus et Fraternitas Medal. Notes References Clark, Margaret (editor) (1998). Peter Fraser: Master Politician. Dunmore Press, Palmerston North (1997 symposium) McGibbon, Ian, ed. (1993). Undiplomatic Dialogue: Letters between Carl Berendsen and Alister McIntosh. Auckland University Press, Auckland External links Prime Minister's Office biography Fraser as Prime Minister by Michael Bassett \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- Prime Ministers of New Zealand New Zealand Labour Party MPs New Zealand foreign ministers New Zealand Labour Party leaders World War II political leaders Scottish politicians Scottish emigrants to New Zealand People from Ross and Cromarty Politicians from Wellington City 1884 births 1950 deaths Leaders of the Opposition (New Zealand) Members of the New Zealand House of Representatives New Zealand education ministers New Zealand MPs for Wellington electorates New Zealand anti–World War I activists New Zealand politicians convicted of crimes New Zealand members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom New Zealand Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour New Zealand socialists Social Democratic Party (New Zealand) politicians Burials at Karori Cemetery Wellington City Councillors Wellington Harbour Board members Recipients of the Virtus et Fraternitas Medal
400993	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastitis	Mastitis	Mastitis is inflammation of the breast or udder, usually associated with breastfeeding. Symptoms typically include local pain and redness. There is often an associated fever and general soreness. Onset is typically fairly rapid and usually occurs within the first few months of delivery. Complications can include abscess formation. Risk factors include poor latch, cracked nipples, use of a breast pump, and weaning. The bacteria most commonly involved are Staphylococcus and Streptococci. Diagnosis is typically based on symptoms. Ultrasound may be useful for detecting a potential abscess. Prevention is by proper breastfeeding techniques. When infection is present, antibiotics such as cephalexin may be recommended. Breastfeeding should typically be continued, as emptying the breast is important for healing. Tentative evidence supports benefits from probiotics. About 10% of breastfeeding women are affected. Types When it occurs in breastfeeding mothers, it is known as puerperal mastitis, lactation mastitis, or lactational mastitis. When it occurs in non breastfeeding women it is known as non-puerperal or nonlactational. Mastitis can, in rare cases, occur in men. Inflammatory breast cancer has symptoms very similar to mastitis and must be ruled out. The symptoms are similar for puerperal and nonpuerperal mastitis but predisposing factors and treatment can be very different. Pregnancy related Puerperal mastitis is the inflammation of the breast in connection with pregnancy, breastfeeding or weaning. Since one of the most prominent symptoms is tension and engorgement of the breast, it is thought to be caused by blocked milk ducts or milk excess. It is relatively common; estimates range depending on methodology between 5–33%. However, only about 0.4–0.5% of breastfeeding mothers develop an abscess. Some predisposing factors are known but their predictive value is minimal. It appears that proper breastfeeding technique, frequent breastfeeding and avoidance of stress are the most important factors that can be influenced. Light cases of mastitis are often called breast engorgement; the distinction is overlapping and possibly arbitrary or subject to regional variations. Non pregnancy related The term nonpuerperal mastitis describes inflammatory lesions of the breast occurring unrelated to pregnancy and breastfeeding. This article includes description of mastitis as well as various kinds of mammary abscesses. Skin related conditions like dermatitis and foliculitis are a separate entity. Names for non-puerperal mastitis are not used very consistently and include mastitis, subareolar abscess, duct ectasia, periductal inflammation, Zuska's disease and others. Periductal mastitis is a form of nonlactational mastitis, and is characterized by inflammation of the subareolar ducts. Although the cause of periductal mastitis is currently unknown, it is predicted that smoking may be related. This condition is mainly seen in young women but can also be seen in men. Signs and symptoms Lactation mastitis usually affects only one breast and the symptoms can develop quickly. It develops into three stages, from the initial stage, the pus formation stage, to the restoration stage. The signs and symptoms usually appear suddenly and they include: Breast tenderness or warmth to the touch General malaise or feeling ill Swelling of the breast Pain or a burning sensation continuously or while breast-feeding Skin redness, often in a wedge-shaped pattern Fever of 101 F (38.3 C) or greater The affected breast can then start to appear lumpy and red. Some women may also experience flu-like symptoms such as: Aches Shivering and chills Feeling anxious or stressed Fatigue Contact should be made with a health care provider with special breastfeeding competence as soon as the patient recognizes the combination of signs and symptoms. Most of the women first experience the flu-like symptoms and just after they may notice a sore red area on the breast. Also, women should seek medical care if they notice any abnormal discharge from the nipples, if breast pain is making it difficult to function each day, or they have prolonged, unexplained breast pain. Breast abscess A breast abscess is a collection of pus that develops in the breast with various causes. During lactation, breast abscess develops only rarely, most sources cite about 0.4–0.5% of breastfeeding women. Known risk factors are age over 30, primiparous and late delivery. No correlation was found with smoking status; however, this may be in part because far fewer smoking women choose to breastfeed. Antibiotics were not shown effective in prevention of lactation abscess but are useful to treat a secondary infection (see the section on the treatment of breast abscess in this article). Keratinizing squamous metaplasia of lactiferous ducts may play a similar role in the pathogenesis of nonpuerperal subareolar abscess. Causes Since the 1980s mastitis has often been divided into non-infectious and infectious sub-groups. However, recent research suggests that it may not be feasible to make divisions in this way. It has been shown that types and amounts of potentially pathogenic bacteria in breast milk are not correlated to the severity of symptoms. Moreover, although only 15% of women with mastitis in Kvist et al.'s study were given antibiotics, all recovered and few had recurring symptoms. Many healthy breastfeeding women wishing to donate breast milk have potentially pathogenic bacteria in their milk but have no symptoms of mastitis. Risk factors Mastitis typically develops when the milk is not properly removed from the breast. Milk stasis can lead to the milk ducts in the breasts becoming blocked, as the breast milk is not being properly and regularly expressed. It has also been suggested that blocked milk ducts can occur as a result of pressure on the breast, such as tight-fitting clothing or an over-restrictive bra, although there is sparse evidence for this supposition. Mastitis may occur when the baby is not appropriately attached to the breast while feeding, when the baby has infrequent feeds or has problems suckling the milk out of the breast. The presence of cracks or sores on the nipples increases the likelihood of infection. Tight clothing or ill-fitting bras may also cause problems as they compress the breasts. There is a possibility that infants carrying infectious pathogens in their noses can infect their mothers; the clinical significance of this finding is still unknown. Mastitis and breast abscesses can also be caused by direct trauma to the breast. Such injury can occur for example during sports activities or due to seat belt injury. Mastitis can also develop due to contamination of a breast implant or any other foreign body, for example after nipple piercing. In such cases, the removal of the foreign body is indicated. Women who are breastfeeding are at risk for developing mastitis especially if they have sore or cracked nipples or have had mastitis before while breastfeeding another baby. Also, the chances of getting mastitis increases if women use only one position to breastfeed or wear a tight-fitting bra, which may restrict milk flow Difficulties in getting a nursing infant to latch on to the breast can also increase the risk for mastitis. Women with diabetes, chronic illness, AIDS, or an impaired immune system may be more susceptible to the development of mastitis. Infection Some women (approximately 15%) will require antibiotic treatment for infection which is usually caused by bacteria from the skin or the baby's mouth entering the milk ducts through skin lesions of the nipple or through the opening of the nipple. Infection is usually caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Infectious pathogens commonly associated with mastitis are Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus spp. and Gram-negative bacilli such as Escherichia coli. Salmonella spp., mycobacteria, and fungi such as Candida and Cryptococcus have been identified in rare instances. Recent research suggests that infectious pathogens play a much smaller role in the pathogenesis than was commonly assumed only a few years ago. Most detected pathogens are very common species that are natural part of the breast fauna and simple detection of their presence is not sufficient to prove a causative role. Furthermore, there are indications that treatment with antibiotics may have minimal impact, and over-all there is insufficient evidence to confirm or refute the effectiveness of antibiotic therapy for treating lactational mastitis. Diagnosis The diagnosis of mastitis and breast abscess can usually be made based on a physical examination. The doctor will also take into account the signs and symptoms of the condition. However, if the doctor is not sure whether the mass is an abscess or a tumor, a breast ultrasound may be performed. The ultrasound provides a clear image of the breast tissue and may be helpful in distinguishing between simple mastitis and abscess or in diagnosing an abscess deep in the breast. The test consists of placing an ultrasound probe over the breast. In cases of infectious mastitis, cultures may be needed in order to determine what type of organism is causing the infection. Cultures are helpful in deciding the specific type of antibiotics that will be used in curing the disease. These cultures may be taken either from the breast milk or of the material aspirated from an abscess. Mammograms or breast biopsies are normally performed on women who do not respond to treatment or on non-breastfeeding women. This type of tests is sometimes ordered to exclude the possibility of a rare type of breast cancer which causes symptoms similar to those of mastitis. Differential diagnosis Breast cancer may coincide with or mimic symptoms of mastitis. Only full resolution of symptoms and careful examination are sufficient to exclude the diagnosis of breast cancer. Lifetime risk for breast cancer is significantly reduced for women who were pregnant and breastfeeding. Mastitis episodes do not appear to influence lifetime risk of breast cancer. Mastitis does however cause great difficulties in diagnosis of breast cancer and delayed diagnosis and treatment can result in worse outcome. Breast cancer may coincide with mastitis or develop shortly afterwards. All suspicious symptoms that do not completely disappear within 5 weeks must be investigated. Breast cancer incidence during pregnancy and lactation is assumed to be the same as in controls. Course and prognosis are also very similar to age matched controls. However diagnosis during lactation is particularly problematic, often leading to delayed diagnosis and treatment. Some data suggest that noninflammatory breast cancer incidence is increased within a year following episodes of nonpuerperal mastitis and special care is required for follow-up cancer prevention screening. So far only data from short term observation is available and total risk increase can not be judged. Because of the very short time between presentation of mastitis and breast cancer in this study it is considered very unlikely that the inflammation had any substantial role in carcinogenesis, rather it would appear that some precancerous lesions may increase the risk of inflammation (hyperplasia causing duct obstruction, hypersensitivity to cytokines or hormones) or the lesions may have common predisposing factors. A very serious type of breast cancer called inflammatory breast cancer presents with similar symptoms as mastitis (both puerperal and nonpuerperal). It is the most aggressive type of breast cancer with the highest mortality rate. The inflammatory phenotype of IBC is thought to be mostly caused by invasion and blocking of dermal lymphatics, however it was recently shown that NF-κB target genes activation may significantly contribute to the inflammatory phenotype. Case reports show that inflammatory breast cancer symptoms can flare up following injury or inflammation making it even more likely to be mistaken for mastitis. Symptoms are also known to partially respond to progesterone and antibiotics, reaction to other common medications can not be ruled out at this point. Treatment In lactation mastitis, frequent emptying of both breasts by breastfeeding is essential. Also essential is adequate fluid supply for the mother and baby. For breastfeeding women with light mastitis, massage and application of heat prior to feeding can help as this may aid unblocking the ducts. However, in more severe cases of mastitis heat or massage could make the symptoms worse and cold compresses are better suited to contain the inflammation. Nonpuerperal mastitis is treated by medication and possibly aspiration or drainage (see in particular treatment of subareolar abscess and treatment of granulomatous mastitis). According to a BMJ best practice report, antibiotics are generally to be used in all nonpuerperal mastitis cases, with replacement of the antibiotics by an antifungal agent such as fluconazole in cases of deep fungal infections, and corticosteroids are to be used in case of granulomatous mastitis (with differential diagnosis to tuberculosis infection of the breast). In idiopathic granulomatous mastitis, successful treatment includes invasive surgical procedures or less invasive treatment with steroid medications. Antibiotics In lactational mastitis, antibiotics are not needed in the overwhelming majority of cases and should be used only for bacterial infections. For people with nonsevere infections, dicloxacillin or cephalexin are recommended. For people with severe infections, vancomycin is recommended. The length of antibiotic treatment ranges anywhere from 5–14 days. The effects of antibiotics has not been well studied as of 2013. Breast abscess An abscess (or suspected abscess) in the breast may be treated by ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration (percutaneous aspiration) or by surgical incision and drainage; each of these approaches is performed under antibiotic coverage. In case of puerperal breast abscess, breastfeeding from the affected breast should be continued where possible. For small breast abscesses, ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration such as to completely drain the abscess is widely recognized as a preferred initial management. One recommended treatment includes antibiotics, ultrasound evaluation and, if fluid is present, ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration of the abscess with an 18 gauge needle, under saline lavage until clear. The exudate is then sent for microbiological analysis for identification of the pathogen and determination of its antibiotic sensitivity profile, which may in turn give an indication for changing the antibiotics. At follow-up, a mammography is performed if the condition has resolved; otherwise the ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration with lavage and microbiological analysis is repeated. If three to five aspirations still do not resolve the condition, percutaneous drainage in combination with placement of an indwelling catheter is indicated, and only if several attempts at ultrasound-guided drainage fail, surgical resection of the inflamed lactiferous ducts (preferably performed after the acute episode is over). It is noted, however, that even the excision of the affected ducts does not necessarily prevent recurrence. Nonpuerperal breast abscesses have a higher rate of recurrence compared to puerperal breast abscesses. There is a high statistical correlation of nonpuerperal breast abscess with diabetes mellitus (DM). On this basis, it has recently been suggested that diabetes screening should be performed on patients with such abscess. Although there are a number of recommendations regarding the treatment of breast abscesses, a 2015 review found insufficient evidence of whether needle aspiration is comparable to incision and drainage, or whether antibiotics should generally be given to women undergoing incision and drainage. Prognosis Temperature and severity of symptoms at presentation do not predict outcome; women with sore or damaged nipples may need special attention. Epidemiology Mastitis is quite common among breastfeeding women. The WHO estimates that although incidences vary between 2.6% and 33%, the prevalence globally is approximately 10% of breastfeeding women. Most mothers who develop mastitis usually do so within the first few weeks after delivery. Most breast infections occur within the first or second month after delivery or at the time of weaning. However, in rare cases it affects women who are not breastfeeding. Terminology Popular usage of the term mastitis varies by geographic region. Outside the US it is commonly used for puerperal and nonpuerperal cases, in the US the term nonpuerperal mastitis is rarely used and alternative names such as duct ectasia, subareolar abscess and plasma cell mastitis are more frequently used. Chronic cystic mastitis is an older name for fibrocystic disease. American usage: mastitis usually refers to puerperal (occurring to breastfeeding mothers) mastitis with symptoms of systemic infection. Lighter cases of puerperal mastitis are often called breast engorgement. In this article, "mastitis" is used in the original sense of the definition as inflammation of the breast with additional qualifiers where appropriate. Etymology and pronunciation The word mastitis () uses combining forms of mast- + -itis. The word mammitis () uses combining forms of mamm- + -itis. They are synonymous in modern usage, and mastitis is the more commonly used synonym. Other animals Mastitis occurs in other animals as in humans, and is especially a concern in livestock, since milk from the affected udders of livestock may enter the food supply and pose a health risk. It is a major condition in some species, like dairy cows. It is the cause of much unwanted suffering for the dairy cows. It is of tremendous economic importance for the dairy industry, and it is also of concern for public health. The same considerations apply to mastitis in sheep and goats and other milk-producing females. It is also of economic importance in the sow, but, in this species, it is not related to public health. In other domestic females (queen, mare, etc.), it is more an individual illness dealt with by veterinary practitioners. References External links Mastitis on mayoclinic.com Australian Breastfeeding Association Breast diseases IgG4-related disease Inflammations Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
401000	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sialkot	Sialkot	Sialkot (Punjabi, ) is a city located in Punjab, Pakistan. It is the capital of the Sialkot District and is the 13th most populous city in Pakistan. The boundaries of Sialkot are joined with Jammu (the winter capital of Indian administered Jammu and Kashmir) in the north east, the districts of Narowal in the southeast, Gujranwala in the southwest and Gujrat in the northwest. Sialkot is believed to be the successor of Sagala, the capital of the Madra kingdom razed by Alexander the Great in 326 BCE, and then made the capital of the Indo-Greek kingdom by Menander I in the 2nd century BCE—a time during which the city greatly prospered as a major center for trade and Buddhist thought. In the 6th century CE, it was again made capital of the Taank Kingdom, which ruled North Punjab for the next two centuries. Sialkot and nearby Kashmir was ruled by the Arabs based in South Punjab after the Islamic conquest in 8th century. Sialkot continued to be a major political centre until it was eclipsed by Lahore around the turn of the first millennium CE. The city rose again in prominence during the British era and is now one of Pakistan's most important industrial centers. The city is also the birthplace of Allama Muhammad Iqbal, Pakistan's national poet. The city has been noted for its entrepreneurial spirit and productive business climate that has made Sialkot an example of a small Pakistani city that emerged as a "world-class manufacturing hub." The relatively small city exported approximately $2.5 billion worth of goods in 2017, or about 10% of Pakistan's total exports. The city has been labelled as the Football manufacturing capital of the World, as it produces over 70% of footballs manufactured in the world. Sialkot is also home to the Sialkot International Airport; Pakistan's first privately owned public airport. Along with the nearby cities of Gujranwala and Gujrat, Sialkot forms part of the so-called "Golden Triangle" of industrial cities with export-oriented economies. Through exports, Sialkot-based industries are obtaining foreign exchange to more than $2.5 billion annually to strengthen the national exchequer. Sialkot has a GDP(nominal) of $13 Billions, which make it 4th largest in Pakistan. History Ancient Founding Sialkot is likely the capital of the Madra Kingdom Sagala, Sakala (), or Sangala () mentioned in the Mahabharata, a Sanskrit epic of ancient India, as occupying a similar area as Greek accounts of Sagala. The city may have been inhabited by the Saka, or Scythians, from Central Asia who had migrated into the Subcontinent. The region was noted in the Mahabharata for the "loose and Bacchanalian" women who lived in the woods there. The city was said to have been located in the Sakaladvipa region between the Chenab and Ravi rivers, now known as the Rechna Doab. Greek The Anabasis of Alexander, written by the Roman-Greek historian Arrian, recorded that Alexander the Great captured ancient Sialkot, recorded as Sagala, from the Cathaeans, who had entrenched themselves there. The city had been home to 80,000 residents on the eve of Alexander's invasion, but was razed as a warning against any other nearby cities that might resist his invasion. Indo-Greek The ancient city was rebuilt, and made capital by the Indo-Greek king Menander I of the Euthydemid dynasty, in the 2nd century BCE. The rebuilt city was shifted slightly from the older city, as rebuilding on exactly the same spot was considered inauspicious. Under Menander's rule, the city greatly prospered as a major trading centre renowned for its silk. Menander embraced Buddhism in Sagala, after an extensive debating with the Buddhist monk Nagasena, as recorded in the Buddhist text Milinda Panha. the text offers an early description of the city's cityscape and status as a prosperous trade centre with numerous green spaces. Following his conversion, Sialkot developed as a major centre for Buddhist thought. Ancient Sialkot was recorded by Ptolemy in his 1st century CE work, Geography, in which he refers to the city as Euthymedia (Εύθυμέδεια). Alchon Huns Around 460 CE, the Alchon Huns invaded the region from Central Asia, forcing the ruling family of nearby Taxila to seek refuge in Sialkot. Sialkot itself was soon captured, and the city was made a significant centre of the Alchon Huns around 515, during the reign of Toramana. During the reign of his son, Mihirakula, the empire reached its zenith. The Alchon Huns were defeated in 528 by a coalition of princes led by Prince Yashodharman Late antiquity The city was visited by the Chinese traveller Xuanzang in 633, who recorded the city's name the She-kie-lo. Xuanzang reported that the city had been rebuilt approximately 15 li, or 2.5 miles, away from the city ruined by Alexander the Great. During this time, Sialkot served as the political nucleus of the North Punjab region. The city was then invaded in 643 by princes from Jammu, who held the city until the Muslim invasions during the medieval era. Medieval Around the year 1000, Sialkot began to decline in importance as the nearby city of Lahore rose to prominence. Following to fall of Lahore to the Ghaznavid Empire in the early 11th century, the capital of the Hindu Shahi empire was shifted from Lahore to Sialkot. Ghaznavid expansion in northern Punjab encouraged local Khokhar tribes to stop paying tribute to the Rajas of Jammu. Sialkot became a part of the medieval Sultanate of Delhi after Muhammad Ghauri conquered Punjab in 1185. Ghauri was unable to conquer the larger city of Lahore, but deemed Sialkot important enough to warrant a garrison. He also extensively repaired the Sialkot Fort around the time of his conquest of Punjab, and left the region in charge of Hussain Churmali while he returned to Ghazni. Sialkot was then quickly laid siege to by Khokhar tribesmen, and Khusrau Malik, the last Ghaznavid sultan, though he was defeated during Ghauri's return to Punjab in 1186. In the 1200s, Sialkot was the only area of western Punjab that was ruled by the Mamluk Sultanate in Delhi. The area had been captured by the Ghauri prince Yildiz, but was recaptured by Sultan Iltutmish in 1217. Around 1223, Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu, the last king of the Khwarazmian dynasty of Central Asia that had fled invasion of Genghis Khan there, briefly captured Sialkot and Lahore, before being driven out by Iltutmish's forces towards Uch Sharif. During the 13th century, Imam Ali-ul-Haq, Sialkot's most revered Sufi warrior-saint, arrived from Arabia, and began his missionary work in the region that successfully converted large numbers of Hindus to Islam, thereby transforming Sialkot into a largely Muslim city. The saint later died in battle, and is revered as a martyr. Sialkot fell to Shaikha Khokhar around 1414. Sialkot's population continued to grow in the 1400s under the rule of Sultan Bahlul Lodi, who had granted custodianship of the city to Jammu's Raja Biram Dev, after he helped Lodhi defeat the Khokhars. Sialkot was sacked during the Lodhi period by Malik Tazi Bhat of Kashmir, who attacked Sialkot after the governor of Punjab, Tatar Khan, had left the city undefended during one of his military campaigns. Sialkot was captured by armies of the Babur in 1520, when the Mughal commander Usman Ghani Raza advanced towards Delhi during the initial conquest of Babur. Babur recorded a battle with Gujjar raiders, who had attacked Sialkot, and allegedly mistreated its inhabitants.<ref>{{blockquote\|29th December: We dismounted at Sialkot. If one enters Hindustan the Jats and Gujjars always pour down in countless hordes from hill and plain for loot of bullocks and buffalo. These ill-omened peoples are senseless oppressors. Previously, their deeds did not concern us because the territory was an enemy's. But they did the same senseless deeds after we had captured it. When we reached Sialkot, they swooped on the poor and needy folk who were coming out of the town to our camp and stripped them bare. I had the witless brigands apprehended, and ordered a few of them to be cut to pieces.'Babur Nama page 250 published by Penguin}}</ref> In 1525–1526, Alam Khan, uncle of Sultan Ibrahim Lodi, invaded from Afghanistan, and was able to capture Sialkot with the aid of Mongol forces. Pre-modern Mughal During the early Mughal era, Sialkot was made part of the subah, or "province", of Lahore. According to Sikh tradition, Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, visited the city, sometime in the early 16th century. He is said to have met Hamza Ghaus, a prominent Sufi mystic based in Sialkot, at a site now commemorated by the city's Gurdwara Beri Sahib. During the Akbar era, Sialkot's pargana territory was placed in the jagir custodianship of Raja Man Singh, who would repair the city's fort, and sought to increase its population and develop its economy. In 1580 Yousuf Shah Chak of Kashmir sought refuge in the city during his exile from the Valley of Kashmir. Paper-makers from Kashmir migrated to the city during the Akbar period, and Sialkot later became renowned as the source of the prized Mughal Hariri paper – known for its brilliant whiteness and strength. The city's metalworkers also provided the Mughal crown with much of its weaponry. During the reign of Jahangir, the post was given to Safdar Khan, who rebuilt the city's fort, and oversaw a further increase in Sialkot's prosperity. Numerous fine houses and gardens were built in the city during the Jehangir period. During the Shah Jahan period, the city was placed under the rule of Ali Mardan Khan. The last Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb, appointed Ganga Dhar as faujdar of the city until 1654. Rahmat Khan was then placed in charge of the city, and would build a mosque in the city. Under Aurangzeb's reign, Sialkot became known as a great centre of Islamic thought and scholarship, and attracted scholars because of the widespread availability of paper in the city. Post-Mughal Following the decline of the Mughal empire after the death of Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707, Sialkot and its outlying districts were left undefended and forced to defend itself. In 1739, the city was captured by Nader Shah of Persia during his invasion of the Mughal Empire. The city was placed under the governorship of Zakariya Khan, the Mughal Viceroy of Lahore, who in return for the city promised to pay tribute to the Persian crown. In the wake of the Persian invasion, Sialkot fell under the control of Pashtun powerful families from Multan and Afghanistan – the Kakayzais and Sherwanis. Sialkot was crept upon by Ranjit Deo of Jammu, who pledged nominal allegiance to the Mughal crown in Delhi. Ranjit Deo did not conquer Sialkot city from the Pashtun families which held the city, but switched allegiance to the Pashtun ruler Ahmed Shah Durrani in 1748, effectively ending Mughal influence in Sialkot. The city and three nearby districts were amalgamated into the Durrani Empire. Sikh Sikh chieftains of the Bhangi Misl state encroached upon Sialkot, and had gained full control of the Sialkot region by 1786, Sialkot was portioned into 4 quarters, under the control of Sardar Jiwan Singh, Natha Singh, Sahib Singh, and Mohar Singh, who invited the city's dispersed residents back to the city. The Bhangi rulers engaged in feuds with the neighbouring Sukerchakia Misl state by 1791, and would eventually lose control of the city. The Sikh Empire of Ranjit Singh captured Sialkot from Sardar Jiwan Singh in 1808. Sikh forces then occupied Sialkot until the arrival of the British in 1849. Modern British Sialkot, along with Punjab as a whole, was captured by the British following their victory over the Sikhs at the Battle of Gujrat in February 1849. During the British era, an official is known as The Resident who would, in theory, advise the Maharaja of Kashmir would reside in Sialkot during the wintertime. During the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, the two Bengal regiments based in Sialkot rebelled against the East India Company, while their native servants also took up arms against the British. In 1877, the Sialkot poet Allama Iqbal, who is credited for inspiring the Pakistan Movement, was born into a Kashmiri family that had converted to Islam from Hinduism in the early 1400s. British India's first bagpipe works opened in Sialkot, and today there are 20 pipe bands in the city. Sialkot's modern prosperity began during the colonial era. The city had been known for its paper making and ironworks prior to the colonial era, and became a centre of metalwork in the 1890s. Surgical instruments were being manufactured in Sialkot for use throughout British India by the 1920s. The city also became a centre for sports goods manufacturing for British troops stationed along with the North West Frontier due to the availability of nearby timber reserves. The British-Raj fought in The Second Boer War. A concentration camp in Sialkot held the detained Boer Prisoners-of-War. As a result of the city's prosperity, large numbers of migrants from Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir came to the city in search of employment. At the end of World War II, the city was considered the second most industrialised in British Punjab, after Amritsar. Much of the city's infrastructure was paid for by local taxes, and the city was one of the few in British India to have its own electric utility company. Partition The first communal riots between Hindus/Sikhs and Muslims took place on 24 June 1946, a day after the resolution calling for the establishment of Pakistan as a separate state. Sialkot remained peaceful for several months while communal riots had erupted in Lahore, Amritsar, Ludhiana, and Rawalpindi. The predominantly Muslim population supported Muslim League and the Pakistan Movement. While Muslim refugees had poured into the city escaping riots elsewhere, Sialkot's Hindu and Sikh communities began fleeing in the opposite direction towards India. They initially congregated in fields outside the city, where some of Sialkot's Muslims would bid farewell to departing friends. Hindu and Sikh refugees were unable to exit Pakistan towards Jammu on account of conflict in Kashmir, and were instead required to transit via Lahore. Post-independence After independence in 1947 the Hindu and Sikh minorities migrated to India, while Muslim refugees from India settled in Sialkot. The city had suffered significant losses as a result of communal rioting that erupted because of Partition. 80% of Sialkot's industry had been destroyed or abandoned, and the working capital fell by an estimated 90%. The city was further stressed by the arrival of 200,000 migrants, mostly from Jammu, who had arrived in the city. Following the demise of industry in the city, the government of West Pakistan prioritised the re-establishment of Punjab's decimated industrial base. The province lead infrastructure projects in the area, and allotted abandoned properties to newly arrived refugees. Local entrepreneurs also rose to fill the vacuum created by the departure of Hindu and Sikh businessmen. By the 1960s, the provincial government laid extensive new roadways in the district, and connected it to trunk roads to link the region to the seaport in Karachi. During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, when Pakistani troops arrived in Kashmir, the Indian Army counterattacked in the Sialkot Sector. The Pakistan Army successfully defended the city and the people of Sialkot came out in full force to support the troops. In 1966, Government of Pakistan awarded a special flag of Hilal-e-Istaqlal to Sialkot, along with Lahore and Sargodha in Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]for showing severe resistance in front of enemy as these cities were target of enemy's advances. Every year on Defence Day, this flag is hoisted in these cities as a symbol of recognition of the will, courage and perseverance of the dwellers of these cities. The armoured battles in the Sialkot sector like the Battle of Chawinda were the most intense since the Second World War. Geography Climate Sialkot features a humid subtropical climate (Cwa) under the Köppen climate classification, with four seasons. The post-monsoon season from mid-September to mid-November remains hot during the daytime, but nights are cooler with low humidity. In the winter from mid-November to March, days are mild to warm, with occasionally heavy rainfalls occurring. Temperatures in winter may drop to , but maxima are very rarely less than . Cityscape Sialkot's core is composed of the densely populated old city, while north of the city lies the vast colonial era Sialkot Cantonment – characterised by wide streets and large lawns. The city's industries have evolved in a "ribbon-like" pattern along the cities main arteries, and are almost entirely dedicated to export. The city's sporting good firms are not concentrated in any part of the city, but are instead spread throughout Sialkot. Despite the city's overall prosperity, the local government has failed to meet Sialkot's basic infrastructure needs. Demographics Religion Economy Sialkot is a wealthy city relative to the rest of Pakistan, with a GDP (nominal) of $13 Billions and a per capita income in 2021 estimated at $18500. The city was considered to be one of British India's most industralised cities, though its economy would later be largely decimated by violence and capital flight following the Partition. The city's economy rebounded, and Sialkot now forms part of the relatively industriazised region of northern Punjab that is sometimes referred to as the Golden Triangle.Sialkot has been noted by Britain's The Economist magazine as a "world-class manufacturing hub" with strong export industries. As of 2017, Sialkot exported US$2.5 billion worth of goods which is equal to 10% of Pakistan's total exports (US$25 billion). 250,000 residents are employed in Sialkot's industries, with most enterprises in the city being small and funded by family savings. Sialkot's Chamber of Commerce had over 6,500 members in 2010, with most active in the leather, sporting goods, and surgical instruments industry. The Sialkot Dry Port offers local producers quick access to Pakistani Customs, as well as to logistics and transportation. Despite being cut off from its historic economic heartland in Kashmir, Sialkot has managed to position itself into one of Pakistan's most prosperous cities, exporting up to 10% of all Pakistani exports. Its sporting goods firms have been particularly successful, and have produced items for global brands such as Nike, Adidas, Reebok, and Puma. Balls for the 2014 FIFA World Cup, 2018 FIFA World Cup and 2022 FIFA World Cup were made by Forward Sports, a Sialkot-based company. Sialkot's business community has joined with the local government to maintain the city's infrastructure, as the local government has limited capacity to fund such maintenance. The business community was instrumental in the establishment of Sialkot's Dry Port in 1985, and further helped re-pave the city's roads. Sialkot's business community also largely funded the Sialkot International Airport—opened in 2011 as Pakistan's first privately owned public airport. Sialkot is also the only city in Pakistan to have its very own commercial airline, Airsial. This airline is managed by the business community of Sialkot based at the Sialkot Chamber of Commerce and Industries and offers direct flights from Sialkot to Bahrain, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. Industry Sialkot is the world's largest producer of hand-sewn footballs, with local factories manufacturing 40–60 million footballs a year, amounting to roughly 60% of world production. Since the 2014 FIFA World Cup, footballs for the official matches are being made by Forward Sports, a company based in Sialkot. Clustering of sports goods industrial units has allowed for firms in Sialkot to become highly specialised, and to benefit from joint action and external economies. There is a well-applied child labour ban, the Atlanta Agreement, in the industry since a 1997 outcry, and the local industry now funds the Independent Monitoring Association for Child Labour to regulate factories. Sialkot is also the world's largest centre of surgical instrument manufacturing. Sialkot was first noted to be a centre of metalwork in the 1890s, and the city's association with surgical instruments came from the need to repair, and subsequently manufacture, surgical instruments for the nearby Mission hospital. By the 1920s, surgical instruments were being manufactured for use throughout British India, with demand boosted by further by World War II. The city's surgical instrument manufacturing industry benefits from a clustering effect, in which larger manufacturers remain in close contact with smaller and specialised industries that can efficiently perform contracted work. The industry is made up of a few hundred small and medium size enterprises, supported by thousands of subcontractors, suppliers, and those providing other ancillary services. The bulk of exports are destined for the United States and European Union. Sialkot first became a centre for sporting goods manufacturing during the colonial era. Enterprises were initially inaugurated for the recreation of British troops stationed along the North West Frontier. Nearby timber reserves served to initially allure the industry to Sialkot. The city's Muslim craftsmen generally manufactured the goods, while Sikh and Hindu merchants of the Sindhi Bania, Arora, and Punjabi Khatri castes acted like middle men to bring goods to market. Sialkot now produces a wide array of sporting goods, including footballs and hockey sticks, cricket gear, gloves that are used in international games comprising the Olympics and World Cups. Sialkot is also noted for its leather goods. Leather for footballs is sourced from nearby farms, while Sialkot's leather workers craft some of Germany's most prized leather lederhosen'' trousers. Sialkot also has a large share in the agricultural sector. It predominantly produces Basmati rice varieties, wheat and sugarcane. Its area is , at least are under cultivation. Potato and sunflower were evident among the minor crops of the district. Public-Private Partnerships Sialkot has a productive relationship between the civic administration and the city's entrepreneurs, that dates to the colonial era. Sialkot's infrastructure was paid for by local taxes on industry, and the city was one of the few in British Raj to have its own electric utility company. Modern Sialkot's business community has assumed responsibility for developing infrastructure when the civic administration is unable to deliver requested services. The city's Chamber of Commerce established the Sialkot Dry Port, the country's first dry-port in 1985 to reduce transit times by offering faster customs services. Members of the Chamber of Commerce allowed paid fees to help resurface the city's streets. The Sialkot International Airport was established by the local businesses community, is the only private airport in Pakistan. Transportation Highways A dual-carriageway connects Sialkot to the nearby city of Wazirabad, with onward connections throughout Pakistan via the N-5 National Highway, while another dual carriageway connects Sialkot to Daska, and onwards to Gujranwala and Lahore. Sialkot and Lahore are also connected through the motorway M11. Rail The Sialkot Junction railway station is the city's main railway station and is serviced by the Wazirabad–Narowal Branch Line of the Pakistan Railways. The Allama Iqbal Express travels daily from Sialkot to Karachi via Lahore, and then back to Sialkot. Air The Sialkot International Airport is located about 20 km from the center of the city near Sambrial. It was established in 2007 by spending 4 billion rupees by Sialkot business community. It is Pakistan's only privately owned public airport, and offers flights throughout Pakistan, with also direct flights to Bahrain, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, France, the UK and Spain. Notable people Dharampal Gulati, Founder of MDH Abdul Hakim Sialkoti, Islamic scholar Allama Muhammad Iqbal, poet Gulzarilal Nanda, Indian Prime Minister and politician Muhammad Ibrahim Mir Sialkoti, Islamic scholar Faiz Ahmed Faiz, poet Faiz-ul Hassan Shah, Islamic religious scholar, orator, poet and writer Akhtar Ali Vario, Politician Rajendra Kumar, actor Usman Dar, politician Zaheer Abbas, cricketer Shahnaz Sheikh, hockey player Shoaib Malik, cricketer Haris Sohail, cricketer Abdullah Shafiq, cricketer Khawaja Asif, politician Firdous Ashiq Awan, politician Armghan Subhani, politician Awards In 1966, the Government of Pakistan awarded a special flag, the Hilal-i-istaqlal to Sialkot (also to Sargodha and Lahore) for showing severe resistance to the enemy during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 as these cities were targets of the Indian aggression. Every year on Defence Day (6 September), this flag is hoisted in these cities in recognition of the will, courage and perseverance of their people. Twin towns – sister cities Sialkot is twinned with: Bolingbrook, Illinois, United States See also Sialkot Chamber of Commerce and Industry List of educational institutions in Sialkot List of cities in Punjab, Pakistan by area Sialkot Stallions Shivala Teja Singh temple Notes References External links Sialkot District Government website Sialkot Chamber of Commerce & Industry List of Sialkot Postal Codes Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 Cities and towns in Sialkot District Cities in Punjab (Pakistan) Populated places in Punjab, Pakistan
401012	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice%20Yam%C3%A9ogo	Maurice Yaméogo	Maurice Nawalagmba Yaméogo (31 December 1921 – 15 September 1993) was the first President of the Republic of Upper Volta, now called Burkina Faso, from 1959 until 1966. "Monsieur Maurice" embodied the Voltaic state at the moment of independence. However, his political ascension did not occur without difficulties. As a member of the colonial administration from 1946, Maurice Yaméogo found a place for himself in the busy political landscape of Upper Volta thanks to his skill as a speaker. In May 1957, during the formation of the first Upper Voltaic government instituted under the Loi Cadre Defferre, he joined the coalition government formed by Ouezzin Coulibaly, as minister for agriculture and a member of the Voltaic Democratic Movement (MDV). In January 1958, threatened by a vote of censure, Coulibaly enticed Maurice Yaméogo and his allies in the assembly to join the Voltaic Democratic Union-African Democratic Assembly (UDV-RDA) in exchange for promises of promotion within the government. Maurice Yaméogo rose to be his second in command, with the portfolio of the Interior, a position which allowed him to assume the role of interim head of government, following Coulibay's death in September 1958. His rather shaky political ascendancy was reinforced by circumstances. After the proclamation of the Republic of Upper Volta on 11 December 1958, he made a surprising volte-face with respect to the Mali Federation advocated by Léopold Sédar Senghor. The Voltaic assembly supported Upper Volta's membership in the Federation, but Yaméogo opted for political sovereignty and limited economic integration with the Conseil de l'Entente. Then, by means of controversial manoeuvres, Yaméogo eliminated all parliamentary opposition. The UDV-RDA was purged of his enemies and he imposed a one party system. Upper Volta found itself under a dictatorship even before its independence on 5 August 1960. In foreign policy, Yaméogo envied and admired the international success of his colleague Félix Houphouët-Boigny, the President of Côte d'Ivoire, who defied the anti-communists by establishing an ephemeral customs union (1961–1962) with the "progressivist" Ghana of Kwame Nkrumah. Houphouët-Boigny nevertheless remained his closest ally and in December 1965, Yaméogo signed an agreement with him to extend dual nationality to citizens of both countries. However, this project did not reach fruition. On 3 January 1966, as a result of severe financial austerity measures, Yaméogo's corrupt regime was overthrown by a peaceful protest organised by the unions, traditional chieftains and the clergy. In 1993, he died after having been rehabilitated by President Blaise Compaoré. Early life According to his official biography, Maurice Yaméogo was born on 31 December 1921 at Koudougou, a town 98 km west of Ouagadougou, along with his twin sister Wamanegdo. He was the son of Mossi peasants, whom he described as a "heathen family, completely given to a whole mob of superstitions." They gave him the name Naoua Laguemba (also spelt Nawalagma) which means "he comes to unite them.". From a very young age, Naoua Laguemba was very interested in Christianity. This inclination resulted in a great deal of bullying from his family. It is reported that the young Yaméogo received an emergency baptism on 28 July 1929, a year before schedule, after being struck by lightning. The priest Van der Shaegue who performed the baptism gave him Maurice as a patron saint. His mother died three days later, supposedly from the shock. After these events, he adopted the name Maurice Yaméogo, intending to become a priest. After spending a few years at school in his village, Maurice Yaméogo was admitted to the Minor Seminary of Pabré. On 5 September 1934, he left his family to pursue his studies. Pabré was one of the most prestigious institutions in the country; aside from the fact that it produced most of the country's priests, the Minor Seminary's students also filled the very highest ranks of public and private administration. As a result, he met many of the rising stars of Upper Volta, such as Joseph Ki-Zerbo, Joseph Ouédraogo, and Pierre Tapsoba, with whom he formed a close friendship. But his relationships strayed far from the ecclesiastical standard. Yaméogo wanted to be a priest, but he was very keen on women and parties. In 1939, he left the Minor Seminary of Pabré, without graduating. Professional career Despite failing to graduate, Yaméogo's education allowed him to gain a public role as a shipping clerk for the French Colonial Administration. This extremely prestigious post meant success, security and prestige. In this period he increased his involvement with women. He became enamoured of a mixed-race woman, Thérèse Larbat, whose father refused to allow him to marry her because he was an African and was not "civilised enough" to maintain her well-being. Yaméogo was offended by this, but eventually, he resigned himself to marrying an educated woman from Koudougou, Félicité Zagré. Together they presented themselves as the "evolved" couple of Koudougou; Félicité was the only African in the town who dressed like a European. In 1940, as part of the World War II war effort, Yaméogo was sent to Abidjan in lower Côte d'Ivoire, a paradise for "evolved" Africans. Regular parties were held there in which Yaméogo sought to increase his social standing. He sought among other things to make many friends among the "evolved" non-Voltaic people. In Abidjan Yaméogo was shocked by the fact that some Voltaic businessmen were illegally trafficking workers in order to supply huge plantations with workers. In Upper Volta, Maurice also worked as a clerk for the Administrative, Accounting and Finance Services (SAFC) of the French Colonial Administration. For this purpose, he was appointed in towns like Dedougou and Koudougou. Yaméogo was later appointed the head of the CFTC syndicate (French Confederation of Christian Workers) of his corporation, and vice-president of CFTC Upper-Volta. Early political career On his return to his native town after the war, he was elected to the first territorial assembly of Côte d'Ivoire as the general councillor for Koudougou on 15 December 1946. Upper Volta had ceased to exist after 1932, being divided up between Côte d'Ivoire, French Sudan and Niger. This did not please the people of Upper Volta, who elected Philippe Zinda Kaboré to the French National Assembly in November 1946 with a mandate to restore Upper Volta. Yaméogo joined Kaboré's entourage in the hope of thereby accelerating his own rise. When Kaboré died on 24 May 1947, Yaméogo positioned himself as his spiritual heir. On 4 September 1947, Upper Volta was restored with its 1932 borders. Subsequently, a French law of 31 March 1948 instituted the Territorial Assembly of Upper Volta. This assembly contained fifty seats, thirty-four of which were to be held by the general counsellors elected while Upper Volta was partitioned. Yaméogo was part of this group and planned to sit as part of Kaboré's Voltaic Democratic Party (PDV), the local branch of the African Democratic Assembly (RDA). However, the PDV-RDA suffered an electoral set-back. In the partial elections between 30 May and 20 June, it secured only three of the sixteen seats up for election, losing the other thirteen to the Voltaic Union (UV). Then, on 27 June 1948, the PDV-RDA suffered a defection to the UV, led by Henri Guissou. Yaméogo too joined the UV, swearing that he would never again be a member of the RDA. Grand counsellor of the AOF (1948–1952) When the assembly finally met, the general counsellors elected senators to the Council of the Republic, the counsellors of the French Union and the Grand Counsellors who would sit on the Grand Council of French West Africa (AOF) in Dakar. In the discussions, Yaméogo had been left to one side. Outraged, he attempted to make his voice heard within the party, but he was judged too ambitious and his requests were not heeded. Thus he decided to appeal directly to Father Goarnisson, a European who had been chosen by the college of natives for one of the grand counsellor posts. The priest was persuaded by him to withdraw his candidacy and support Yaméogo. Thus, on 28 July 1948, Yaméogo was elected grand counsellor of French West Africa for Upper Volta. This was a great achievement; Yaméogo was barely twenty-six years old. Portraits of him as Grand Counsellor decorated the houses of his parents and friends. At Dakar, his wife Félicité enjoyed the role of mistress of the house, hosting the governor-general Paul Béchard with pomp, organising receptions for the "evolved" and Yaméogo's colleagues, who included deputy mayor Lamine Gueye, president of the Grand Council. At Dakar, Yaméogo once more slid towards the RDA. At the legislative elections of 17 June 1951, the PDV-RDA presented a single list with the doctor Ali Barraud, while the UV was caught up in internal dissension. Joseph Conombo organised the main party list, Union for the Defense of the Interests of Upper Volta, which received 146,861 votes out of 249,940 and thus obtained three of the four seats up for election. The left wing of the UV, led by the outgoing deputy Nazi Boni, also presented a list, The Economic and Social Action of the Interests of Upper Volta, which secured the fourth seat with 66,986 votes. Meanwhile, the two grand counsellors, Bougouraoua Ouédraogo and Maurice Yaméogo, issued an independent list, which did not meet with any success. Setback (1952–1957) The electoral setbacks continued in the territorial elections of 30 March 1952. Yaméogo returned to his private role as a shipping clerk on the orders of governor Albert Mouragues. The governor of Upper Volta was known for his repressive policy towards the RDA, which, despite its rupture with the French Communist Party (PCF) in October 1950, was still suspected of communist sympathies. The uncertain relationship between Yaméogo and the RDA was surely responsible for his reassignment to Djibo in the Sahel. Less than a year later, he returned to Ouagadougou to oversee the health service. He participated in the establishment of a club of officials. Then, hoping to relaunch his political career, Yaméogo re-entered the UV thanks to the support of his old school friend from Pabré, who had become president of the General Council, Joseph Ouédraogo. On stage with the latter, he was named joint-secretary during the first congress of the territorial union of the French Confederation of Christian Workers (CFTC) in 1954, in spite of He. In the same year, the two wings of the UV clashed. On one side, deputy Nazi Boni founded the Popular Movement for African Development (MPEA) on 27 October 1954. On the other side, the leaders of the party terminated the UV in order to create the Social Party for the Education of the African Masses (PSEMA) in December 1954. Yaméogo once again tried t set up a separate group centred around himself, but without success. His list at the legislative elections of 2 January 1956, which included his friend Pierre Tapsoba, suffered a defeat. So too did his request to the newly elected mayor of Ouagadougou, Joseph Ouédraogo, for the post of general secretary of the mayor. Minister of Upper Volta under the Loi Cadre Defferre (1957–1958) On 29 September 1956, PSEMA merged with the PVD-RDA to form the United Democratic Party (PDU). Despite his links with both of these parties, Yaméogo joined a new party in July 1956, the Voltaic Democratic Movement (MDV), founded by Gérard Kango Ouédraogo and the French captain Michel Dorange, in which he took on the role of financial controller. In the territorial elections of 30 March 1957, the MDV list led by Maurice Yaméogo at Koudougou, which included his cousin Denis Yaméogo and the Haitian-Arab Nader Attié scored a surprising victory over the PDU list led by Henri Guissou, winning all six of the seats which were up for election. This victory was certainly due to Yaméogo's "American style campaign," characterised by numerous meetings in the markets. As a result of the elections, 70 territorial deputies were elected. The PDU held 39 of them, the MDV had 26 and the MPEA of Nazi Boni had 5. These elections, which followed the entry into force of the Loi Cadre Defferre of 1956, were intended to produce a new local government. Rather than rule alone, the leader of the PDU, Ouezzin Coulibaly chose to establish a coalition government, with seven PDU ministers and five MDV ministers. Maurice Yaméogo took the portfolio of agriculture in the first government, under Yvon Bourges, the last French Governor in Upper-Volta. Very quickly, tensions broke out in the PDU. During investigative meetings in September 1957, the former leader of PSEMA, Joseph Conombo, repudiated the affiliation of his party to the RDA under the control of Ouezzin Coulibaly. Conombo left the coalition government with six other deputies in order to re-establish PSEMA. Coulibay on the other hand transformed the PDU into the Voltaic Democratic Union (UDV) and affiliated it with the RDA. After these events, the UDV-RDA took an absolute majority in the assembly, while an anti-Ouezzin parliamentary group formed in December 1957, consisting of PSEMA, the MPEA and the MDV. Thus, from being a member of government, Yaméogo found himself in the parliamentary opposition. On 17 December, Joseph Conombo submitted a motion to name a new parliamentary group, a motion of no confidence in the government, which passed. Coulibaly refused to resign: the Loi Cadre Defferre explicitly state that in the case of a vote of no confidence, the government "could" resign, not that it "was removed", from office. Upper Volta faced a political crisis. In January 1958, Coulibaly resolved the situation by poaching Maurice Yaméogo, who brought the MDV deputies from Koudougou with him (Nader Attié, Gabriel Traoré et Denis Yaméogo) and some other counsellors like Mathias Sorgho. With this new majority, the UDV-RDA established a new government on 22 January 1958. In the new cabinet of 6 February, composed solely of members of UDV-RDA, Yaméogo was promoted to the second highest ranking position in the government, with the strategi position of Minister of the Interior, while his cousin Denis took the portfolio of Labour and Social Affairs. Ouezzin Coulibaly was taken to Paris for health reasons on 28 July 1958 and Yaméogo was placed in charge in his absence. On 4 September 1958, Oezzin Coulibaly died and Maurice Yaméogo assumed the role of acting head of government. President of Upper Volta (1958–1966) Establishment of personal power After the people of Upper Volta had approved the constitution of the French Community on 28 September 1958, and therefore reinforced their state's autonomy, the territorial assembly met on 17 October 1958 to designate Ouezzin Coulibaly's successor.<ref name="yg10082">Yénouyaba Georges Madiéga and Oumarou Nao, Burkina Faso : cent ans d'histoire, 1895-1995: actes du premier colloque international sur l'histoire du Burkina, Ouagadougou, 12-17 décembre 1996 (Université De Ouagadougou, 2003), p.1008</ref> On that day, Moro Naba Kougri made an unsuccessful attempt to install a constitutional monarchy. Kougri, who had the support of Colonel Chevreau, the commander of the French Army in Upper Volta, gathered around 3,000 of his supporters around the assembly and attempted to influence the choice of the new president of the council. Yaméogo's quick response to this demonstration certainly played in his favour during the rescheduled vote of the assembly on the 20 October, at which he was elected as president of the council. Elimination of parliamentary opposition From April 1958, the opposition in the territorial assembly was united as the Voltaic Regroupment Movement (MRV), the local branch of the African Regroupment Party (PRA), the new international African opposition to the African Democratic Rally (RDA). After Moro Naba Kougri's attempted coup, the MRV-PRA approached Yaméogo, who formed a union government consisting of seven UDV-RDA ministers and five MRV-PRA ministers on 10 December 1958. The next day, the Republic of Upper Volta was proclaimed and the Territorial Assembly assumed legislative and constituent powers. Yaméogo retained his post as president of the council and also became Minister of Information and secretary of the youth section of the UDV-RDA. After received special powers from the assembly on 29 January 1959, Yaméogo used his new prerogatives to dissolve the assembly on 28 February. A new division of electoral districts had taken place. A majority list ballot was adopted in the two least populated districts and a proportional representation system was adopted in the two most populated districts. This manoeuvre allowed the UDV-RDA to win 64 (or 66) seats in the legislative elections of 19 April. THE MRV-PRA won only 11 (or 9) seats. Turnout was 47%. On 25 April, the new assembly confirmed Yaméogo in his position as President of the council. He became minister of justice and minister for veterans on the same day. On 1 May, he formed a homogenous UDV-RDA government. Soon the opposition consisted of only three members, following defections in favour of the majority. The internal position of the president of the council was reinforced on the 25th and 26 August, following the expulsion of the old RDA spokesman Ali Barraud and the party's secretary general Joseph Ouédraogo from the UDV-RDA. This was followed by a decree on 29 August, dissolving the municipal council of Ouagadougou, which was led by Joseph Ouédraogo. An administration committee led by Joseph Conombo replaced it. No one seemed able to resist the man who was now nicknamed "Monsieur Maurice." Even the most intractable members of the opposition, led by Gérard Kango Ouédraogo finally rejoined the UDV-RDA in Autumn 1959, officially putting an end to the MRV. There was no longer any parliamentary opposition. On 11 December 1959, Yaméogo was elected as the first President of the Republic of Upper Volta without opposition. Extremely distrustful, Yaméogo entrusted power during his overseas absences to the only European on his staff, the administrator of colonies Michel Frejus. Single party system On 22 May 1959, Yaméogo received a new grant of special powers for six months. This exceptional measure allowed him to compose a legislative arsenal against the opposition. Then, on 6 October 1959, Nazi Boni established the Voltaic National Party as a local branch of the Party of the African Federation (PFA) and Yaméogo dissolved it on the grounds that the reference to the PFA was unconstitutional. Two days later, Boni tried again, establishing the Republican Liberty Party (PRL). This was banned on 6 January 1960, on the grounds that the flag of the Federation of Mali (which Yaméogo had broken away from) had been flown at Boni's house. After protesting this decision publicly, Nazi Boni was subjected to a judicial investigation. On 22 February, it was the turn of Gérard Kango Ouédraogo, member of the UDV-RDA, who attempted to create a new Party of Peasant Action (PAP). Yaméogo vetoed this party with an official declaration. The one-party system was entrenched. On 12 March, the President of the Republic invited Nazi Boni and Joseph Ouédraogo to a reconciliation meeting. They declined. On 28 June, an open letter criticising the government's actions was signed by both of them, as well as Diongolo Traoré, Edouard Ouédraogo et Gabriel Ouédraogo, in the hope of organising a roundtable discussion. In response, Yaméogo had them arrested on 2 July and imprisoned at Gorom-Gorom, except for Nazi Boni who once more went into exile. When the country became independent on 5 August 1960, all forms of opposition had been silenced. The dictatorship was affirmed by the proclamation of 30 November of a new constitution which conferred extended powers on Yaméogo. This constitution had been adopted by the National Assembly on 6 November and approved by the people in a referendum on 27 November. As dictator, Yaméogo remained easy-going. Attempting to spare his main opponents, he used diplomatic means to remove some of them, like Gérard Kango Ouédraogo, whom he appointed ambassador to Great Britain, or Henri Guissou, whom he dispatched to Paris. The few political prisoners were released in exchange for a simple declaration of support for the regime. Joseph Ouédraogo requested to rejoin the party in February 1962 at the second UDV-RDA party congress. In the course of this congress, Yaméogo was removed as president of the party and instead appointed secretary general, a role which he held as leader of the movement. Paranoia, ministerial instability and corruption Yaméogo became more paranoid after the 13 January 1963 coup in neighboring Togo resulted in the death of President Sylvanus Olympio. Two days after the coup, Joseph Ouédraogo was arrested again along with the union leader Pierre-Claver Tiendrébéogo, party official Ali Soré, and Ambassador to the UN Frédéric Guirm. A Security Court was established, with the accused appearing there without the right to be defended by attorneys. A police inquiry refuted the existence of a plot against Yaméogo. His cousin, interior minister Denis Yaméogo, was arrested for providing him with false statements. After an imprisonment, Denis Yaméogo was reinstated to his duties in 1965. The investigation, according to Guirma, proved that the informants were men of Maxime Ouédraogo, Minister of Public Service and Labour. In June 1963, Maxime Ouédraogo was removed from office and arrested. This demonstrated one of the characteristics of Yaméogo regime: ministerial instability. Each year many hasty ministerial changes were made. Depending on his moods, the President of the Republic announced on the radio, without prior consultation, appointment or removal of ministers. Maxime Ouédraogo was officially imprisoned for theft and misappropriation of the funds of the Central Cooperative of Upper Volta (CCCHV). Embezzlement was a common practice in the nation's government. Maurice Yaméogo was well known for this. His wife Félicité spared no expense in fur coats and valuable cosmetics while her children bought sports cars. Meanwhile, the president spent more than half a year abroad in sumptuous villas and thermal spas. Nonetheless, the President's way of life did not improve his mood. Beginning in 1964, he became obsessed about the establishment of a single union subservient to a single institutional party. Already, at the Congress of the UDV-RDA in 1962, he invited the legislators of the country to achieve unity within the National Union of workers of Upper Volta (UNST-HV). Since this did not happen, the National Assembly voted on 27 April 1964 to pass a law requiring unions to join the Organization of African Trade Union Unity (OATUU), under penalty of immediate dissolution. In its charter OATUU allowed only one union per country: for Upper Volta this was the UNST-HV. All unions which refused to join the UNST-HV, were labeled "illegal" and suffered state repression. Maurice Yaméogo became the subject of a cult of personality as evidenced by stamps printed with his image. He was the sole leader of the Republic of Upper Volta and was the only candidate for the presidential election on 3 October 1965. He was "triumphantly" reelected with 99.97% of votes. During the parliamentary elections of 7 November, where the participation rate was 41%, the single list of candidates he imposed won 99.89% of votes. On 5 December, Yaméogo loyalists were also victorious in the municipal elections, as the UDV-RDA swept all positions. Foreign affairs Reversal on the Mali Federation (1958–1959) After his election as President of the council on 20 October 1958, Maurice Yaméogo faced the question of whether or not to integrate Upper Volta into the Mali Federation. He showed some hesitation on this issue, although the Voltaic political elite seemed to be generally favourable. On 12 January 1959, his lack of enthusiasm changed dramatically. By chance, one of the members of the Voltaic delegation to the federal assembly in Dakar for the 14th to 17 January died and Yaméogo replaced him. In Dakar, very skillfully, he had himself elected vice-president of the Federal Assembly. On 28 January, in his role as head of government, he demanded that the Voltaic Assembly ratify the federal constitution. Although the 59 deputies present approved this unanimously, there was fear of a new coup attempt by Moro Naba Kougri with the anti-federalist deputy Michel Dorange. Taking advantage of this threat, Yaméogo successfully obtained the extension of his emergency powers. According to the then high commissioner Paul Masson, Yaméogo had changed his mind about the Federation in the course of these events and sought Masson's assistance in legally extracting Upper Volta from its engagements. On his advice, the Voltaic civil service and French jurists elaborated a new constitution which he had 40 hastily reconvened deputies ratify on 28 February, threatening to use his emergency powers to dissolve the Assembly if they refused. Afraid that they would not be re-elected, the deputies did as they were told. At the end of the meeting, Yaméogo dissolved the Assembly anyway. To justify his actions, Yaméogo organised a referendum on the constitution on 15 March, which passed with 69% of the votes. Completing this volte-face, Yaméogo co-founded an organisation hostile to the Mali Federation, the Conseil de l'Entente, on 29 May 1959, with Félix Houphouët-Boigny of Côte d'Ivoire, Hamani Diori of Niger, and Hubert Maga of Dahomey. The deputies elected in April acknowledged and ratified Upper Volta's membership of this organisation on 27 June. Collapse of relations with Côte d'Ivoire and France (1960-1961) Within the Conseil de l'Entente, a quarrel about "leadership" developed between Yaméogo and Félix Houphouët-Boigny. Initially the dispute was simply about the division of customs revenues, which Yaméogo considered unfair. However, Yaméogo's pride rapidly became the true reason for the tensions. Yaméogo held the presidency of the Conseil de l'Entente from 1960 to 1961, but Houphouët-Boigny, who was favoured by Paris, continued to direct the Entente's discussions and negotiations on his own and to get all the kudos. On 12 February 1961, Yaméogo unexpectedly announced his refusal to sign the defence agreements which Houphouët-Boigny had negotiated with France on behalf of the four members of the Entente. This decision led to a deterioration of relations between Côte d'Ivoire and Upper Volta. Relations between Upper Volta and France were also harmed by this and deteriorated further after Yaméogo expelled the French High Commissioner Paul Masson on false charges of conspiracy.Gabriel Massa, et Y. Georges Madiéga (dir.), op. cit., p.498 For the Burkinabe historian Yacouba Zerbo, the causes of Yaméogo's refusal lie in a desire for independence, combined with his lack of confidence in the French troops; on 17 October 1958, the French colonel Chevrau had given his support to Moro Naba Kougri. On 24 April 1961, Yaméogo signed an accord about technical military assistance with France alone. Subsequently, he demanded the surrender of the French base at Bobo-Dioulasso by 31 December 1961, in favour of the Voltaic Armed Forces (FAV) which had been created on 1 November. Rapprochement with the Casablanca Group (1961–1962) Maurice Yaméogo was a fervent anti-communist. In December 1960, he co-founded the Brazzaville group with the "moderate" leaders of Francophone Africa, which combined with Anglophone leaders in May 1961 as the Monrovia Group. The Brazzaville and Monrovia Groups were strongly opposed to the "progressivist" Casablanca Group. In March 1961, the Brazzaville Group created the African and Malagasy Union (UAM), a resolutely anti-communist organisation which included a defense pact. On 9 September 1961, Yaméogo succeeded in having Ouagadougou designated as the seat of the UAM's defense council and in having the Voltaic Albert Balima appointed secretary general. In June 1961, Yaméogo was the first African head of state to visit Israel, with which he signed a treaty of friendship and alliance. This did not mean an open break with the members of the Casablanca Group. Perhaps he saw this as a means of attracting American aid to his country. In any case, Ahmed Sékou Touré of Guinea was received at the capital in May 1961, and Modibo Keïta of Mali in March 1962. Relations with Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana were a top goal; Yaméogo went to Accra in May 1961 and hosted Nkrumah on 16 June. In the resulting Tamalé accords, Upper Volta and Ghana agreed to a customs union similar to that which had been made with Côte d'Ivoire.Bernard Gérardin, Le développement de la Haute-Volta: avec un avant-propos de G. de Bernis, Paris, Institut de science économique appliquée, 1963, p.39 Yaméogo enthusiastically called for a shared constitution for the two countries and declared "Long live the future United States of Africa!" Analysing the situation, the American ambassador to Upper Volta concluded that "Yaméogo is fairly pro-American, but he wants to be independent of France, which is to say that he needs American economic assistance." He thought in particular that Yaméogo was attempting to end the French economic monopoly; French goods cost several times the price of the Japanese goods which could be imported through Ghana. The friendship between Yaméogo and Nkrumah was short lived. Yaméogo made up with Félix Houphouët-Boigny and the border controls with Ghana were re-established on 31 July 1962. In July 1963, following a territorial dispute, Yaméogo denounced the "blatant expansionism" of Ghana. A little later, relations with Mali deteriorated over the question of the border to the north of Gorom-Gorom. Return to the Ivoirien orbit (1962–1966) On returning to the Ivoirien orbit, Yaméogo became a zealous supporter of Félix Houphouët-Boigny. In June 1965, after Sékou Touré of Guinea had called Houphouët-Boigny a supporter of French imperialism hostile to African unity, Yaméogo appeared live on radio for close to an hour attacking the Guinean leader. He declared: A warming of relations with France came to fruition in 1964, with the signing of two military agreements, the second of which, signed on 24 October, granted France "the triple right of flight over, encampment in, and transit through, Voltaic territory.". The following year in March and April, Yaméogo was the first African head of state invited to the White House by President Lyndon Johnson. This honour, a complete surprise, was partially due to the fact that Yaméogo had a farm and so it was supposed that he would appreciate being hosted by Johnson on his ranch. Taking advantage of the situation, Presidents Félix Houphouët-Boigny and Hamani Diori asked Yaméogo to submit a request for American financial aid to the president on their behalf. Yaméogo returned from the United States with three billion CFA Francs to be split equally between himself, Houphouët-Boigny and Diori. On Houphouët-Boigny's advice he placed his billion in a private Swiss bank account. He used these funds to finance the legislative election campaign of 7 November 1965. During his trip, Houphouët-Boigny had also entrusted him with another task. Taking advantage of the fact the Yaméogo was the only member of the Entente without a full defensive treaty with the French, he instructed Yaméogo to request a military treaty with the United States which would cover Côte d'Ivoire and Niger as well as Upper Volta in the event of a Chinese invasion, a threat which France was seeking to ignore. Yaméogo and Houphouët-Boigny also worked on a project of double nationality between Ivory Coast and Upper Volta. However, when Yaméogo left the presidency on January 3, 1966, Houphouët-Boigny abandoned this project of double nationality. On October 17, 1965, Yaméogo married Suzanne de Monaco, a young Ivorian woman. Félix Houphouët-Boigny (President of Ivory Coast) and Hamani Diori (President of Niger) were the witnesses at his marriage. However, this union did not last long and Maurice married a third time with Jeannette. Yaméogo had many children. Internal affairs under Yaméogo Degradation of the social climate With a strong Christian outlook, Yaméogo's dictatorial regime initially enjoyed the support of the Voltaic Catholic church. In 1964, subsidies were removed for private schools (almost all of which were Catholic schools). The clergy, whose finances were thereby threatened, became more critical. The rupture became definitive in 1965. In that year, Yaméogo imprisoned his wife Félicité, divorced her and married his mistress "Miss Côte d'Ivoire" Nathalie Monaco on 17 October in a sumptuous ceremony, at which President Félix Houphouët-Boigny of Côte d'Ivoire and Hamani Diori of Niger served as groomsmen. The happy couple honeymooned in the Caribbean and Brazil. At the instruction of the head of the Voltaic church, cardinal Paul Zoungrana, the church invested all its moral authority in discrediting Yaméogo. The religious climate declined still further when Yaméogo returned from his honeymoon and clumsily attacked charlatans and marabouts by radio, provoking the indignation of Muslims. Throughout his presidency, Yaméogo took measures against traditional chieftainship – undoubtedly motivated by republican ideals. In January 1962, a decree forbade the display of all insignia recalling the customary chieftainships of the colonial period. On 28 July 1964, a decree stated that should any village chieftainship fall vacant, it should be replaced by an election in which all inhabitants of the village on the electoral roll would be allowed to participate. On 11 January 1965, a new decree ended government subsidies for chiefs. These decisions were very well received in the west of the country where chiefs had not existed until introduced by the French. In the east on the other hand, they provoked anger against Yaméogo. In turn, Yaméogo lost the support of the traditional elite, the unions, and the clergy. His excessive spending, such as the construction of a Party Palace, did not help a situation which grew more dire in March and April 1965, when a measles epidemic struck the country as a result of a vaccine shortage. In October, the shortage of classrooms and teachers made the beginning of the school year particularly difficult. Many students had to be refused education, although the enrolment rate was only 8%. In December 1965, Yaméogo's project with Houphouët-Boigny to grant dual nationality to all citizens of Upper Volta and Côte d'Ivoire brought an end to his popularity. For most inhabitants of Upper Volta, this project implied a return to exploitation by Ivoiriens. Economic weakness At independence, Upper Volta's economy was amongst the weakest in the world. The annual GDP was around 40 billion CFA francs, almost entirely derived from subsistence activities. 94% of the country's 3,600,000 inhabitants worked in agriculture, of which 85% focussed on the cultivation of food. The tiny industrial sector employed around 4,000 people in some forty factories focussed on food processing. There were only two power stations at this time, one in Ouagadougou and the other at Bobo-Dioulasso, with a maximum power of 3.5 megawatts and 3,000 customers. Upper Volta has a total of 509 km of railway and 15,000 km of roads (only tar-sealed in a few urban centres). Despite efforts undertaken by the French authorities after 1954, Voltaic agriculture remained unproductive. The planned establishment of a mentoring system and construction of hydro-electric dams between 1958 and 1962, co-financed by the French Aid and Cooperation Funds (FAC) and the Republic of Upper Volta, fell disappointingly short of its goals. Undiscouraged, the state encouraged the establishment of co-operatives and credit unions, and established a five-year plan for the period 1963 to 1967. This ambitious plan predicted a sustained increase in agricultural production of 4.7% per year. However, the cost of the plan, estimated at 1.5 billion CFA francs, prevented its implementation. Yaméogo turned to Franco-Voltaic co-operation agreements to obtain aid from French companies for rural development. These companies introduced new agricultural techniques for the cultivation of foodstuffs. Improvement in nutrition was observed in areas of dietary deficit. These efforts, along with a guaranteed, pre-announced price for agriculture, led to an increase in the production of cotton from 8,000 tonnes in 1963 to 20,000 tonnes in 1967. Cotton had a growing role in Upper Volta's exports, which reached 3.68 billion CFA francs in 1965. Two-thirds of their value derived from livestock. Despite being fairly mineral poor, the country exported 687 million CFA francs of unrefined gold between 1961 and 1963. It is notable that Upper Volta was the only country in Africa whose main export partners were other African states. Its main export partner was Côte d'Ivoire, although Ghana took the role in 1963 with 40.5% of Upper Volta's exports, before being relegated to second place in 1965 with 17.6%. France, the third most important export partner of Upper Volta, was the source of 52% of the 9.169 billion CFA francs worth of imported products in 1965. In 1965 the balance of trade was very negative, with a deficit of 5.489 billion CFA francs. Austerity plans Throughout his presidency, Yaméogo sought every opportunity to obtain extra resources, much of which he was granted free of charge. Through subsidies, the French treasury gifted him 1.7 billion CFA francs. Ghana advanced him a customs rebate of 1.1177 billion in 1961. The Central Bank of West African States (BCEAO) granted him 600 million in budgetary support. But all this was insufficient to meet the state's budgetary shortfall, which increased after the departure of French troops in 1961. Yaméogo met this with loans and the treasury's cash reserves. At the end of 1965, after five years of independence, Upper Volta's budget deficit exceeded 4.5 billion CFA francs. Therefore, in 1964, austerity measures were introduced. An allowance has been made on special duty allowances, foreign embassies were reduced, and the representational allowance of the president was reduced from 18 to 9 million CFA francs. The resulting savings came to 250 million CFA francs. For the 1965 budget, Yaméogo decided to take more draconian measures. Payments to chiefs and subsidies for private schools were cancelled. Monthly family allowances were reduced from 2,500 to 1,500 CFA francs per child and limited to families with less than six children. These unpopular measures allowed him to reduce the budget deficit by 4.5%. Encouraged by these results, Yaméogo appointed a young, French-educated technocrat, Raphaël Medah, in charge of finance on 8 December 1965. He intended to: increase the budgetary revenue by levying a 10% flat tax on income (IFR) and suppressing the preferential tariff on Ivoirien imports. reduce state expenditures, by suppressing all the chiefs of cabinet, blocking all pay increases for two years, and limiting government cars to ministers alone. reduce the budget deficit by cutting the pensions of old veterans by 16% and lowering family grants from 1,500 ti 750 CFA francs. But the true measure was the reduction by 20% of all the salaries of civil servants with the fall by 10% of scheduled taxes. This financial austerity plan was, ultimately the cause of the regime's downfall. Fall from power Popular uprising on 3 January 1966 Although autonomous unions had officially been resolved in May 1964, they reformed in December 1965 as an inter-union front led by Joseph Ouédraogo, in order to denounce Yaméogo's austerity plans. Yaméogo was then in Côte d'Ivoire to discuss the dual nationality agreement. As the situation escalated, the director of the cabinet, Adama André Compaoré called Yaméogo to inform him. He did not recognise the seriousness of the situation and assumed that there was no reason to worry. On 31 December, the unionists organised a meeting at the labour council, where they called for a general strike on 3 January 1966. This gathering had been forbidden by the minister of the interior, Denis Yaméogo, and was dispersed by the police forces. Maurice Yaméogo returned to Upper Volta on the same day and celebrated New Year's Eve without concern for the mounting troubles. On 1 January 1966, Yaméogo finally decided to proclaim a state of emergency: all protests were forbidden and the strikes were declared illegal. In order to discredit the inter-union front's actions, Joseph Ouédraogo was accused of espionage on behalf of the communists. Officials were threatened with collective dismissal if they participated in the movement. Finally, he demanded that religious authorities intervene to calm the situation. They refused since they were not on good terms with Yaméogo. Along with the traditional elite, they gave their support to the movement. Even so, the 1st and 2 January were relatively calm. It was only on the night of the 2nd that events began to come to a head. Yaméogo failed in his efforts to arrest the leaders of the inter-union front at the labour council. He ordered several armoured cars to be stationed around the palace and garrisoned the key public buildings, particularly the radio stations. The protest began in the morning of 3 January. It seems to have been Jacqueline Ki-Zerbo, the wife of Joseph Ki-Zerbo, who opened the protests with her schoolgirls. Carrying signs calling for "Bread, water, and democracy," they were soon joined by the students of the Philippe Zinda Kaboré high school. These students were soon joined by more than 100,000 people of Ouagadougou, including numerous officials calling for the cancellation of the 20% cut to their salaries. The protest was not violent. Allegedly, the police themselves took part in the protests. Late in the afternoon, Yaméogo made it known to the protesters by means of his chief of staff, lieutenant-colonel Sangoulé Lamizana, that he would cancel the 20% cut and retain the existing rate of subsidies. But the situation had moved beyond the demands of Joseph Ouédraogo's unionists and the crowd, led by the historian Joseph Ki-Zerbo called for the resignation of the President, who was cut off in camp Guillaume Ouédraogo. Finally, to resolve the situation, the leading protesters appealed to the army to take power. Resignation After several hours of negotiations, Maurice Yaméogo went on the radio at 4 pm and announced his decision to hand power over to lieutenant-colonel Sangoulé Lamizana: The Army was in control; the Constitution was suspended, the National Assembly was dissolved, and Lt. Col. Sangoulé Lamizana was placed at the head of a government essentially run by senior army officers. The army remained in power for four years, and on June 14, 1970, the Voltans ratified a new Constitution that established a four-year transition period toward complete civilian rule. Lamizana remained in power throughout the 1970s as president of military or mixed civil-military governments. After a conflict arising over the 1970 Constitution, a new constitution was written and approved in 1977, and Lamizana was reelected through open elections in 1978. There are two different accounts of Yaméogo's decision to resign. According to Frédéric Guirma who interviewed Sangoulé Lamizana in 1967, Maurice Yaméogo had ordered the chief of the FAV to restore order by firing on the crowd. Lamizana's reported to have replied that before an army would ever fire on its people, the order must be made in writing. Yaméogo refused to do this and continued to insist that the chief do as instructed. Lamizana then consulted with his officers, the majority of which were opposed. Yaméogo then decided to announce a "transfer of competences" in ambiguous terms, intending to resume control once the crisis was over. But as a result of popular pressure, he had to resign himself to signing his full resignation. Yaméogo told the historian Ibrahim Baba Kaké that he had resigned in order to prevent any bloodshed.Lefaso.net. (2009). Général Sangoulé Lamizana: Un non-assoiffé de pouvoir Retrieved December 11, 2009 from http://www.lefaso.net/spip.php?article7545 On the radio broadcast of Alain Foka's Archives d’Afrique, dedicated to Maurice Yaméogo, Sangoulé Lamizana declared that he had never received an order to fire on the protesters, supporting Yaméogo's account of events. Lamizana, in tears, had reluctantly agreed to take power. After the presidency Imprisonment and disenfranchisement (1966–1970) Against the advice of the unionists, Lamizana had the deposed president escorted to Koudougou. A little later, his supporters decided to enter the capital in order to contest the decision. A military force was immediately sent out to maintain order. Finally, to prevent any further incidents, the government placed Yaméogo under house arrest in Ouagadougou on 6 January. Yaméogo took this detention very badly, to the point of attempting to take his own life in December 1966. His friend Félix Houphouët-Boigny was moved by this and put active pressure on the French government to demand Yaméogo's release. On 28 April 1967, Yaméogo was brought before a special tribunal charged with investigating his years in power. On 5 August 1967, his son Hermann Yaméogo attempted to launch a coup d'état to free him, which failed. After these events, Charles de Gaulle boycotted Sangoulé Lamizana in order to obtain Yaméogo's release. He received a promise. But time passed and in January 1968, Yaméogo made a second attempt at suicide by drinking a strong dose of Nivaquine. Finally, on 8 May 1969, Yaméogo was condemned in a closed court to five years of forced labour and banishment for life with the loss of all civil rights. A few days after this verdict, Lamizana issued a presidential pardon and on 5 August 1970, Yaméogo was set free. In the course of these events, Yaméogo's property had been seized. This included the palace which he had built in his hometown of Koudougou in 1964, officially as a result of the alleged seizure of his villa in the French Riviera and thanks to a French private bank loan. The palace had cost 59 million CFA francs. After his fall, Yaméogo's wife Nathalie Monaco had left him. he remarried for a third time to Jeannette Ezona Kansolé. Final success, imprisonment and rehabilitation (1970–1993) Maurice Yaméogo continued to participate in the political life of his country using his son Hermann Yaméogo as an intermediary. In 1977 he created the National Union for the Defense of Democracy (UNDD), based on nostalgia for the first republic. In the legislative elections of 1977, the UNDD became the second-largest political party in the country after the UDV-RDA. In the presidential elections of 1978, the party fielded the banker Macaire Ouédraogo as their candidate, since Maurice Yaméogo was barred from running due to his disenfranchisement and Hermann Yaméogo was too young to run. Ouédraogo was defeated by Lamizana in the second round on 28 May 1978. In 1980, Upper Volta suffered several coups d'état. In May 1983, Maurice Yaméogo organised a protest in favour of president Jean-Baptiste Ouédraogo. On 4 August 1983, Ouédraogo was overthrown by the National Council of the Revolution (CNR) commanded by Thomas Sankara. The country was renamed Burkina Faso. On 9 November 1983, Yaméogo was brought to the Conseil de l'Entente by Sankara's men in order to be shot. He survived thanks to Blaise Compaoré who proposed his imprisonment at the Pô military camp. On the first anniversary of Sankara's revolution in 1984, Maurice Yaméogo was set free. On this occasion, he declared his allegiance to Thomas Sankara on radio. After some time in Koudougou, Yaméogo settled in Côte d'Ivoire in spring 1987. He enjoyed a role as an intermediary between the government of Burkina Faso and president Félix Houphouët-Boigny. In May 1991, Blaise Compaoré, now president of Burkina Faso, ordered his rehabilitation. This decision followed a letter written to him by Yaméogo in 1987 seeking the final settlement of the confiscation of his property. Yaméogo recovered his civil rights and his property. In September 1993, Yaméogo became very sick and was taken to Paris to receive treatment. Because of the seriousness of his condition, he decided to return to Koudougou in order to live out his last days. He died on 15 September on the flight home. His funeral on 17 September was attended by many of the region's political personalities, including Alassane Ouattara (Prime Minister of Ivory Coast) and Laurent Dona Fologo (Secretary general of PDCI-RDA). See also List of heads of state of Burkina Faso Decolonisation of Africa References Bibliography Charles Kabeya Muase, Syndicalisme et démocratie en Afrique noire: l'expérience du Burkina Faso (1936-1988), Paris, Éditions Karthala, 1989, 252 p. Frédéric Guirma, Comment perdre le pouvoir ? Le cas de Maurice Yameogo, Paris, Éditions Chaka, coll. « Afrique contemporaine », 1991, 159 p. Pascal Zagré, Les politiques économiques du Burkina Faso: une tradition d'ajustement structurel, Paris, Éditions Karthala, 1994, 244 p. Gabriel Massa and Y. Georges Madiéga (ed.), La Haute-Volta coloniale: témoignages, recherches, regards, Paris, Éditions Karthala, 1995, 677 p. Frédéric Lejeal, Le Burkina Faso, Paris, Éditions Karthala, 2002, 336 p. Roger Bila Kaboré, Histoire politique du Burkina Faso: 1919-2000, Paris, Éditions L’Harmattan, 2002, 667 p. Yénouyaba Georges Madiéga and Oumarou Nao (ed.), Burkina Faso cent ans d’histoire, 1895-1995, 2 volumes, Paris, Éditions Karthala, 2003, 3446 p. Pierre-Michel Durand, L’Afrique et les relations franco-américaines des années soixante'', Paris, Éditions L’Harmattan, 2007, 554 p. 1921 births 1993 deaths People from Centre-Ouest Region People of French West Africa Burkinabé politicians Heads of state of Burkina Faso Foreign ministers of Burkina Faso Burkinabé Roman Catholics Rassemblement Démocratique Africain politicians French Confederation of Christian Workers members Leaders ousted by a coup Heads of government who were later imprisoned Mossi people Converts to Roman Catholicism from animism
401013	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed%20F-94%20Starfire	Lockheed F-94 Starfire	The Lockheed F-94 Starfire was a first-generation jet powered all-weather day/night interceptor aircraft designed and produced by Lockheed Corporation. It was the first operational United States Air Force (USAF) fighter equipped with an afterburner as well as being the first jet-powered all-weather fighter to enter combat during the Korean War. The F-94 was developed to fulfil a specification issued by the USAF in 1948, seeking a new interceptor capable of day and night operations to replace its piston-engined types in light of recent military advances made by the Soviet Union. The F-94 was derived from the successful Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star trainer; being a relatively simple conversion from an established aircraft led to USAF officials viewing it as a low risk option and opting to procure the type. Maintaining a high level of parts commonality with the preceding aircraft, the majority of the F-94's external changes were related to the adoption of a larger nose that accommodated multiple guns, radar, and an automatic fire control system. Engine thrust was also bolstered by adding an afterburner to the Allison J33 powerplant used. On 16 April 1949, the prototype YF-94 conducted its maiden flight. While teething problems were encountered, these were overcome relatively quickly. During May 1950, the F-94A reached operational service with Air Defense Command (ADC), its principal operator, where the type soon replaced the piston-engined North American F-82 Twin Mustang in the all-weather interceptor role. It was soon followed by the F-94B, a refined model that proved to have greater engine reliability and a more spacious cockpit; the F-94C equipped with a thinner wing, a more powerful Pratt & Whitney J48 engine, and a new Hughes E-5 fire control system also followed. Further models, including a dedicated aerial reconnaissance variant, were proposed but ultimately not pursued. In the interceptor role, the F-94 proved to have less endurance and greater reliance upon Ground Control Interception methods than some of its piston-engined predecessors. Beyond its use by ADC, it was also operated by the Far East Air Force, which used the type against various Soviet-supplied aircraft during the Korean War of the early 1950s. The Alaskan Air Command (AAC) and the Air National Guard (ANG) also operated the F-94. It had a relatively brief operational life, the replacement process commencing in the mid-1950s in favor of more advanced fighters such as the Northrop F-89 Scorpion and North American F-86D Sabre. The last aircraft was withdrawn from USAF service in 1958, the ANG opted to retire its F-94s only one year later. Design and development Background On 8 October 1948, the United States Air Force (USAF) issued a new general operating requirement that called for a radar-equipped interceptor to replace the aging Northrop F-61 Black Widow and North American F-82 Twin Mustang. This new interceptor was specifically designed to counter the emergence of new Soviet aircraft such as the Tupolev Tu-4 bomber (reverse engineered from the Boeing B-29 Superfortress). The Curtiss-Wright XF-87 Blackhawk had been developed with the intention of becoming the USAF's first jet-powered night fighter, but its performance was subpar. Accordingly, Lockheed was approached by the service with a request to design a jet night fighter on a crash program basis. The resulting aircraft was derived from the TF-80C (later designated T-33A Shooting Star) which was a two-seat trainer version of the F-80 Shooting Star. Designated F-94 Starfire, it was redesigned with a lengthened nose area to accommodate the addition of guns, radar, and an automatic fire control system. In November 1948, the P-94 was met with the approval of James Forrestal, United States Secretary of Defense. Having observed the conversion to be relatively straightforward, USAF officials chose to issue a letter contract to Lockheed during January 1949. Months later, a definitive contract for 150 production aircraft was received. By December 1949, the number on order had risen to 368 aircraft. Into flight On 16 April 1949, the first YF-94 prototype performed its maiden flight. To accelerate development, these early test aircraft were converted from existing T-33s; they maintained roughly 75% commonality in terms of components with those used in the earlier F-80 and T-33As. Flight testing determined the test aircraft to possess adequate performance. By the end of 1949, the program had been restructured to fulfil pressure from the USAF for more capable fighters; an more austere model, the F-94A, would be delivered quickest while a more capable and ambitious model, the F-94C, was produced. The fire control system selected for the F-94 was the Hughes E-1; this unit incorporated an AN/APG-33 radar (derived from the AN/APG-3, which directed the Convair B-36 Peacemaker's tail guns) and a Sperry A-1C computing gunsight. Due to the short range of this onboard radar system, it was useful only during the terminal phases of the interception mission; instead, the F-94 would largely be directed through traditional ground-controlled interception, akin to the preceding aircraft that it would replace. The additional electronic equipment increased the weight of the aircraft, thus it required a more powerful engine. The Allison J33A-35 centrifugal turbojet engine, which had been installed as standard on the T-33A, was replaced with a more powerful afterburner-equipped model, the J-33-A-33. The F-94 was to be the first US production jet with an afterburner. The J33-A-33 had standard thrust of , and with water injection this was increased to and with afterburning a maximum of thrust. The combination of added weight and the use of an afterburner considerably reduced the F-94's internal fuel capacity. The YF-94A's afterburner suffered numerous teething problems, typically related to its igniter and the flame stabilization system. Production versions F-94A The initial production model was the F-94A, which entered operational service in May 1950. Its armament was four 0.50 in (12.7 mm) M3 Browning machine guns mounted in the fuselage with the muzzles exiting just behind the radome. Two drop tanks, as carried by the F-80 and T-33, could be carried beneath the wingtips. Alternatively, these could be replaced by bombs, giving the aircraft a secondary fighter bomber role. 109 F-94As were produced. This model was only in operational service for a brief time as it was originally built and was not received well by its aircrews. The main source of complaints was its somewhat unreliable J33 engine, which frequently necessitated ground aborts and had been deemed by many crews to be unsafe. In flight, the aircraft was often judged to be unstable and difficult to maneuver when flown at high altitude by its pilots. The pilot and radar operator commonly found that the cockpit was too narrow for them to be able to quickly enter and exit the aircraft, which was routinely expected during alerts and scrambles. Furthermore, the clearance for the ejection seats was too small, resulting in several tragic accidents during emergency ejections. F-94B During January 1951, the improved F-94B entered service; it was outwardly virtually identical to the F-94A. The Allison J33 engine had received several modifications to make it considerably more reliable. The pilot was also provided with a more roomy cockpit while the canopy was replaced by a redesigned unit with a bow frame in the center between the two crew members, along with a new Instrument Landing System (ILS). 356 F-94Bs were completed. It proved to be a fairly reliable aircraft, particularly in comparison to its predecessor, and encountered relatively few problems during its service life. This improved model quickly replaced the F-94As in service with the active-duty squadrons, after which these older aircraft were temporarily returned to Lockheed to be re-engined and rebuilt to F-94B standards. These upgraded F-94A/B aircraft were also modified with a twin-gun pod under each wing for two additional 0.50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns each, bringing the total to eight. These aircraft were then passed along to Air National Guard units where they served until the end of the 1950s. F-94C The F-94C Starfire was extensively modified from the early F-94 variants. In fact, it was initially designated F-97 before officials decided that it would be treated as a new version of the F-94 instead. At the time, USAF interest in the aircraft was allegedly lukewarm, thus Lockheed opted to fund development themselves, converting two F-94B airframes into YF-94C prototypes for evaluation. To improve performance, a completely new and much thinner wing was designed, along with a swept tail surface. The J33 engine was replaced with a more powerful Pratt & Whitney J48, a license-built version of the afterburning Rolls-Royce Tay, which dramatically increased power over the J33, producing a dry thrust of and approximately with afterburning. The fire control system was upgraded to the new Hughes E-5 with an AN/APG-40 radar, a change which required the use of a much larger nose. All of the guns were removed and replaced with all-rocket armament consisting of four groups of six rockets in a ring around the nose. These rockets were carried in four panels that could be hinged upwards and outwards for ground reloading. In flight, these rockets were normally hidden aft of four inwards-folding doors that surrounded the nose cone. According to Lockheed test pilot Tony LeVier, the F-94C was capable of supersonic flight in a steep dive with afterburner engaged. The F-94C was the only variant to be officially named Starfire. With time, the entire F-94 family has adopted the name. The first production F-94C aircraft were delivered in July 1951, 387 examples being delivered before May 1954. The largest problem discovered in service was the nose-mounted rockets, which blinded the crew with their smoke and fire. The most severe problem associated with firing the nose-mounted rockets was that the exhaust could cause a flameout of the jet engine, which could lead to the loss of the aircraft. After the 100th aircraft, mid-wing rocket pods were added to the leading edges, similar in concept to the previous gun pods, holding 12 rockets apiece and fitted with a frangible aerodynamic nose cap which was discarded when firing the rockets. Most of the time, the nose rockets were not fitted, and the mid-wing pod rockets were the sole armament. This version of the aircraft was extensively used within the Semi Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) air defense system. F-94D An F-94D model was proposed as a single-seat fighter bomber, being armed with both bombs and rockets under the wings as well as eight nose-mounted machine guns. A single prototype was built, but the model was not ultimately accepted for production. The prototype was later used as a testbed for the 20 mm (0.79 in) M61 Vulcan cannon subsequently used on the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter and many other combat aircraft. Operational history Air Defense Command The primary users of the F-94 were the squadrons of Air Defense Command (ADC), eventually equipping 26 squadrons of interceptors. The first F-94As were assigned to the 325th Fighter-All Weather Group at McChord AFB and Moses Lake AFB, Washington. It replaced the propeller-driven F-82F Twin Mustangs that were in use by its 317th, 318th, and 319th squadrons. The F-82s had been pressed into interceptor service in 1949 after the Soviet Union displayed the Tupolev Tu-4 strategic bomber, a reversed-engineered version of the B-29 Superfortress, some of which had landed and were impounded in the Soviet Far East during World War II. The F-82Fs proved to be an excellent day/night all-weather interceptor, with long range, but it lacked any logistics support which resulted in a chronic shortage of parts. The jet-powered F-94As, however, had shorter legs than the F-82s and relied more on Ground Control Interception Radar (GCI) sites to vector them to intruding aircraft. Once the 317th was equipped in the Pacific Northwest, ADC then re-equipped its 52d Fighter-All Weather Group at McGuire AFB, New Jersey which also flew F-82Fs and provided air defense of the Northeastern United States. However, it was during this period that Air Defense Command began dispersing its Fighter-Interceptor squadrons away from their parent groups to individual bases. During 1950 and 1951, ADC sent F-94As to squadrons of the 56th Fighter Group in the upper Midwest to replace its obsolete F-47 Thunderbolts, F-51 Mustangs, as well as F-80 Shooting Star and F-86A Sabre day jet interceptors. In March 1951, upgraded F-94Bs were received from Lockheed by the 33d Fighter Wing at Otis AFB, Massachusetts, replacing their F-86A Sabres, although the last squadron of the wing didn't replace its Sabres until May 1952. Three Federalized Air National Guard units, the 121st FIS (DC ANG), 142nd FIS (Maine ANG), and 148th FIS (Pennsylvania ANG), received F-94Bs while they served on active duty during the Korean War call-up to defend the airspace over Washington, D.C. However, these F-94s were retained by the USAF when these ANG squadrons returned to State control in 1952. Also seven more squadrons received F-94Bs as part of the roll out from Lockheed. Three additional squadrons (84th, 436th, and 479th FIS) received F-94Bs in 1953, although these were passed down from squadrons receiving F-94Cs. Beginning in the summer of 1951, the F-94Cs began coming off the production line, with six squadrons being equipped by May 1954. Five more squadrons were equipped in FY 54-55 which ended the production run for the interceptor by Lockheed. Far East Air Force In the Pacific, Far East Air Force (FEAF) equipped three squadrons with F-94Bs, and Air Defense Command deployed the 319th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron to South Korea to provide a jet air-defense umbrella over the Seoul area. The first shipment of F-94Bs arrived in Japan in March 1951, being assigned to the 339th Fighter-All Weather Squadron at Johnson Air Base. Also arriving was a mobile training unit from Chanute AFB, Illinois to provide transition training for the F-82G Twin Mustang pilots into the new jet interceptor. In May, F-94Bs began to re-equip the 68th FAWS at Itazuke Air Base, while rotating pilots and radar operators to Suwon Air Base in South Korea where they flew combat missions over North Korea with the F-82Gs as well as air defense alert over Seoul. In July, the 4th FAWS began receiving the F-94As at Naha Air Base, Okinawa. Training for the squadrons proceeded through the summer and in August, the first Fifth Air Force Operational Readiness Test was held by the 339th FAWS with the F-94. Various issues with the aircraft, as well as issues with the Ground Control Interception radar graded the test as "fair". In early December 1951, the appearance of Communist MiG-15 jets over Seoul raised alarm bells at FEAF Headquarters. The only interceptors over Seoul were about six F-82Gs along with some Marine Grumman F7F Tigercats. FEAF ordered the 68th to move two F-94Bs to Suwon to supplement the F-82Fs. The Twin Mustangs along with the F7Fs would continue their armed reconnaissance and weather missions against North Korean targets, while the F-94s would fly interception missions over South Korea and the Yellow Sea. Care was taken to not fly the Starfires anywhere that a crash would allow the communists access to the wreck if it were shot down. During January 1952, ADC was ordered to deploy the 319th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron from the 25th Air Division at Larson AFB, Washington to Japan, and to relieve the 68th FIS at Itazuke. A detachment of the ADC squadron was sent to Misawa AB to fly air defense missions over Northern Honshu and Hokkaido against any intruding Soviet aircraft from Sakhalin Island or the Vladivostok area. At Suwon, the 68th had a total of fifty-eight interceptions during February during nighttime hours. It was in February 1952 that the first F-94 was lost in a night interception while pursuing an unknown aircraft over the Yellow Sea. The cause of the loss was unknown. However, a B-26 pilot observed an explosion in the air between the island of Taeyonp'yong-do and the city of Haeju in North Korea. A search was made for the aircraft and crew, which continued for almost three months. It was finally concluded the aircraft had crashed and broken up over the Yellow Sea, with the wreckage settling in deep water with the classified equipment lost at sea. In March 1952, the 319th FIS began flying operational missions at Suwon, providing Combat Air Patrols (CAPs) for Boeing B-29 Superfortress missions at night. The 68th was relieved and reassigned to Japan, but would remain on one-hour alert for possible combat duty over Korea. In June, the first F-94 contacts against enemy jets was made and the interceptor crews believed at the time that the communists were testing radar-warning equipment. On several occasions just when they were ready to fire on the enemy aircraft, it would start evasive action that indicated the MiGs were equipped with a form of warning radar (as the F-94s were). Other intercepts would take place over North Korea and the F-94 was credited with several air-to-air victories, including the first jet-vs.-jet night victory against a MiG-15. One F-94 was listed as lost due to enemy action, six more to non-enemy causes on combat missions, two were declared as missing on a combat mission and three were lost in accidents. One F-94 was lost when it slowed to during pursuit of a Po-2 biplane. Following the Armistice in Korea in June 1953, the F-94s continued to fly air defense missions over Japan and South Korea. Beginning in 1954, the F-86D Sabre began replacing it in operational service. By the end of 1954, the Starfires had been returned to the United States for Air National Guard duty. Alaskan Air Command Immediately after World War II ended, most of the Eleventh Air Force in Alaska was withdrawn, and its assets were concentrated at two bases, Ladd AFB near Fairbanks and Elmendorf AFB near Anchorage. With the advent of the Soviet Tu-4 and its possession of the atomic bomb, US air defense assets were deployed to Alaska to guard against a Soviet attack on the United States coming from Siberia. Chains of Ground Control Radar sites were established under Alaskan Air Command (AAC), the postwar successor to Eleventh Air Force, and P-61 Black Widows were sent in 1948 as long distance interceptor aircraft. The F-82H Twin Mustang replaced the war-weary P-61s during 1949. These propeller-driven interceptors were augmented in 1950 when the 449th Fighter-All Weather Squadron at Ladd AFB began receiving F-94As in mid-1950s. The squadron was divided into the F-82 flight and the F-94 flight as the jet interceptors doubled the squadron in size. In Anchorage, the 57th Fighter Group at Elmendorf AFB began sending its F-80C Shooting Stars back to the Continental United States in batches of four or five as they were replaced by the F-94As. Elmendorf AFB, being located close to the Gulf of Alaska in the south had much more moderate weather than Ladd AFB, located in Central Alaska where winter temperatures often fell below . Hydraulic fluids would turn to jelly, and the engines in the jets would have starting problems. Extreme cold weather training for Air Force personnel assigned to Ladd AFB was mandatory in the event of an emergency ejection or even just being outside in the winter, losing a glove, and dropping a wrench or tool. Skin would freeze upon touching bare metal, and mechanics would have tools "welded" to their fingers at times. The 449th utilized its F-82Hs as long-range reconnaissance aircraft along the Siberian coastline and the Chukchi Peninsula. Also the F-82s were flown in a ground support role during maneuvers with the Army forces. They would also drop bombs on frozen rivers to break up ice floes. For these missions, the F-94 was totally unsuitable and it also did not have the range for the long distance reconnaissance flights necessary to monitor the Siberian coast. Alaska was divided into two areas, the northern part under the 11th Air Division, headquartered at Ladd AFB, and had control of the GCI sites in the northern half of the territory. The 57th Fighter Group, based at Elmendorf AFB, was responsible for everything south. In April 1953, the 57th FIG was inactivated and the three squadrons F-94s at Elmendorf AFB became part of the 10th Air Division. Both the 449th FIS and the 57th FIG deployed the F-94s to advance airfields at Marks AFB, near Nome, along with King Salmon Airport and Galena AFB where it stood alert to respond to GCI intruder alerts for unknown aircraft detected intruding on Alaskan airspace. The F-82Hs at Ladd were retired in the summer of 1953 when due to lack of logistics support, the aircraft became too unreliable to keep in the air. The 449th flew the F-94A until F-94Bs became available as hand-me-downs from Elmendorf AFB the 57th FIG was inactivated replaced by the 10th Air Division. There, the 10th AD received new North American F-86D Sabre interceptors. The 449th at Ladd sent their F-94As back to the CONUS and Air National Guard Service. By the end of 1954, it also was being re-equipped with F-86Ds, with the last of the Starfires also being sent to the Air National Guard. Northeast Air Command Northeast Air Command (NEAC) was a command formed in 1950 to administer US-controlled bases in the Maritime Provinces of Canada, that were under long-term lease going back to World War II. It was responsible for the defense of the northern approaches to North America and also to support transient aircraft of MATS and SAC, all of which came under the collective command and control of the 64th Air Division. During 1952, F-94Bs were sent to the 59th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron at Goose AFB, Labrador from Otis AFB, Massachusetts; furthermore, a detachment of the 59th was sent to Thule Air Base, Greenland to provide air defense of the area, although it was still under construction to back up the DEW Line. Thule was a staging base at the time for the SAC B-36 Peacemaker intercontinental bomber, which would proceed from there in wartime to targets in the Soviet Union using the great circle route over the North Pole. This was both the first F-89 squadron assigned to Canada and also the first squadron assigned to NEAC. After the end of the Korean War, the 319th FIS, which was deployed from ADC to Japan in 1952, was transferred to NEAC in June 1953 and replaced the detachment of the 59th FIS at Thule. The third and last F-94 squadron assigned to NEAC was the 61st Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, which moved from Selfridge AFB, Michigan to Ernest Harmon AFB, Newfoundland in August 1953. Beginning in 1954, and continuing until 1957, the Starfires of NEAC were slowly replaced with versions of the F-89 Scorpion, although the Northrop interceptor didn't fully replace the Starfires until the 318th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron left Thule in April 1957. Keflavik Airport, Iceland, although controlled by Military Air Transport Service (MATS), received F-94Bs as part of the 82d Fighter-Interceptor Squadron in April 1953. It provided air defense of Iceland until being relieved in October 1954 when it was reassigned to Presque Isle AFB, Maine. The Starfires were replaced by the 57th FIS and F-89C Scorpions. Retirement Beginning in mid-1954, the F-94A/B models were gradually replaced in the active-duty Air Force's inventory by a combination of the Northrop F-89C/D Scorpion and the North American F-86D Sabre interceptors. Withdrawn aircraft were typically sent to various Air National Guard (ANG) units where they replaced F-80C Shooting Stars and F-51D/H Mustangs, which in most cases marked the end of operational use for the venerable Mustang in United States military service. Prior to being delivered to the ANG, the F-94As were sent to Lockheed, where they received modifications to render them equivalent to F-94B standards, after which they entered use with the ANG. During the late 1950s, F-94Cs were progressively transferred across to the ANG as well, where they initially supplemented and eventually replaced the F-94A/B models. At the height of operations, a total of 22 ANG Fighter-Interceptor squadrons were equipped with Starfires. During November 1957, the final F-94C was retired by the active-duty Air Force, the last examples being operated by the 319th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron at Bunker Hill Air Force Base, Indiana, before it converted to the F-89J Scorpion interceptor. The last F-94C Starfires were phased out of ANG service by the 179th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron at the Duluth Municipal Airport, Minnesota during the summer of 1959 when it converted to the F-89J Scorpion; the last aircraft being sent to AMARC in December 1959. Variants YF-94 TF-80Cs converted into YF-94 prototypes, two built. F-94A Initial production version, 109 built. YF-94B One F-94A modified on the production line with new flight director, modified hydraulic systems, and two enlarged wingtip tanks. F-94B Production model based on YF-94B, 355 built. YF-94C F-94Bs modified with Pratt and Whitney J48 engine, leading edge rocket pods, and swept tailplane, originally designated YF-97A, two modified. F-94C Starfire Production version of the YF-94C with longer nose, gun armament replaced with nose mounted rockets, and provision for underfuselage JATO rockets, originally designated F-97A, 387 built. EF-94C Test aircraft for proposed aerial reconnaissance variant YF-94D Prototype single-seat close support fighter version based on the F-94C, one partly built but construction was abandoned when program was cancelled. F-94D Production version of the YF-94D, 112 on order cancelled, none built. YF-97A Original designation of the YF-94C. F-97A Original designation of the F-94C. Operators see: F-94 Starfire units of the United States Air Force United States Air Force Air National Guard Aircraft on display YF-94A 48-356 – Air Force Flight Test Museum at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Formerly used as a gate guard at Lackland Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas, currently in storage on Edwards AFB awaiting restoration and future display. F-94A 0-80645 Mountain View Missouri. on view in veterans park. 49-2498 – National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base near Dayton, Ohio. It was transferred from active inventory to the Museum in May 1957. 49-2517 – Burlington Air National Guard Base at Burlington International Airport in Burlington, Vermont. Formerly displayed at the Pima Air and Space Museum adjacent to Davis-Monthan Air Force Base in Tucson, Arizona. YF-97C/F-94C 50-0877 – stored for future display at Hancock Field Air National Guard Base, Syracuse, New York. 50-0980 – National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base near Dayton, Ohio. It is displayed as 50-1054. 50-1006 – Peterson Air & Space Museum at Peterson Air Force Base in Colorado Springs, Colorado. 51-5576 – American Legion Post 243 at Bessemer City, North Carolina. 51-5605 – North Dakota Air National Guard at Fargo Air National Guard Base, Hector International Airport, Fargo, North Dakota. Was moved from Duluth, Minnesota Memorial Park in October 1996. In Duluth from May 1960 to October 1996 marked as AF Ser. No. 51-3556. 51-5623 – Pima Air and Space Museum adjacent to Davis-Monthan Air Force Base in Tucson, Arizona 51-5671 – Erie County Memorial Gardens cemetery at Erie, Pennsylvania. It was first put on display in 1971. It was refurbished in 2005 and repainted again in 2021. 51-13563 – Minnesota Air National Guard Museum at Minneapolis, Minnesota. 51-13570 – American Legion Post 247 at the Iron World Discovery Center in Chisholm, Minnesota. 51-13575 – Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum in McMinnville, Oregon. It was previously on display at the New England Air Museum in Windsor Locks, Connecticut and moved to Evergreen in 2010. Specifications (F-94C Starfire) See also References Notes Citations Bibliography United States Air Force Museum Guidebook. Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio: Air Force Museum Foundation, 1975. External links F-94 Serial Number Project Homepage ACIG F-94 I Flew With Our Jet Defenders by Devon Francis large 1951 article of operation of first F-94A unit with rare photos aerofiles.com Rare Photo of partially constructed YF-94D before being canceled – never flew F-094 Starfire 1940s United States fighter aircraft Single-engined jet aircraft Low-wing aircraft Aircraft first flown in 1949
401017	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbaland	Timbaland	Timothy Zachery Mosley (born March 10, 1972), known professionally as Timbaland, is an American record producer. He has received widespread acclaim for his innovative production work and distinctive "stuttering" rhythmic style. In 2007, Entertainment Weekly stated that "just about every current pop trend can be traced back to him—from sultry, urban-edged R&B songstresses [...] to the art of incorporating avant-garde sounds into No. 1 hits." Timbaland's first full credit production work was in 1996 on Ginuwine...the Bachelor for R&B singer Ginuwine. Further work on Aaliyah's second studio album One in a Million (1996) and Missy Elliott's debut studio album Supa Dupa Fly (1997) made him a prominent producer for R&B and hip hop artists. As a rapper he initially released several albums with fellow rapper Magoo, followed by his debut solo album Tim's Bio in 1998. In 2002, Timbaland produced the hit single "Cry Me a River" for Justin Timberlake and went on to produce a bulk of Timberlake's subsequent LPs, such as FutureSex/LoveSounds (2007) and The 20/20 Experience (2013), along with their respective hit singles. The Timbaland-owned imprint label, Mosley Music Group, featured artists such as Nelly Furtado, whose Timbaland-produced album Loose (2006) was a commercial and critical success. In 2007, Timbaland released a solo album, Shock Value, which was followed by Shock Value II in 2009. Timbaland's production credits during the 2000s also include work with Jay-Z, Nas, Ludacris, Missy Elliott, Bubba Sparxxx, Madonna, Rihanna, Justin Timberlake, Nelly Furtado, OneRepublic, Brandy, Drake, and Björk, among others. As a songwriter, he has written 85 UK hits and 99 US hits, as of 2014. With Swizz Beatz, he created the popular webcast series Verzuz in 2020. Early life Timothy Zachery Mosley was born on March 10, 1972, in Norfolk, Virginia, to Latrice, who ran a homeless shelter, and Garland Mosley, an Amtrak employee. He graduated from Salem High School of Virginia Beach. During his time as a DJ, he was known as "DJ Tim" or "DJ Timmy Tim". His brother, Sebastian, is reportedly around nine years younger. His sister Courtney Rashon is a makeup artist and an author from New Jersey. While attending high school, Timbaland began a long-term collaboration with rapper Melvin (Magoo) Barcliff. The teenage Mosley also joined the production ensemble S.B.I. (which stood for 'Surrounded By Idiots') which also featured Neptunes producer, his cousin, Pharrell Williams. Mosley was also high school friends with brothers Terrence and Gene Thornton, who would become known as Pusha T and Malice of the rap group Clipse, respectively. In 1986, when Timbaland was 14 years old, he was accidentally shot by a co-worker at a local Red Lobster restaurant and was partially paralyzed for nine months. During this time, he began to learn how to DJ using his left hand. Career 1994–2005 Rapper Missy Elliott heard his material and began working with him. She and her R&B group, Sista, auditioned for DeVante Swing, a producer and member of the successful R&B act Jodeci. DeVante signed Sista to his Swing Mob record label and Elliott brought Mosley and Barcliff along with her to New York, where Swing Mob was based. It was DeVante who renamed the young producer Timbaland, after the Timberland brand of construction boots. He and Magoo became part of SCI Zakys School stable of Swing Mob signees known as "Da Bassment" crew, joining artists such as R&B singer Ginuwine, male vocal group Playa (Smoke E. Digglera, Static Major and Digital Black), and the girl group Sugah. Timbaland did production work on a number of projects with DeVante, including the 1995 Jodeci LP The Show, The After-Party, The Hotel, and Sista's (unreleased) début LP 4 All the Sistas Around da World. Elliott began receiving recognition as a songwriter for artists such as R&B girl group 702 and MC Lyte. Due to Timbaland's connection with her, he was often contacted to produce remixes of her songs. Timbaland began his producing career for R&B acts. In the early to mid-1990s, he produced a few songs for R&B acts such as Jodeci and Sista. In 1996, he made his mainstream breakthrough by producing the majority of both Aaliyah's second album One in a Million and Ginuwine's debut album Ginuwine...the Bachelor. This included the major hit singles "If Your Girl Only Knew" by Aaliyah and "Pony" by Ginuwine. While Timbaland was initially producing for R&B artists, his trademark sound was very much rooted in hip-hop with its fast-paced nature and clear drum breaks. He was taking a hip-hop sound and applying it to R&B, and in this way his sound was instrumental in blurring the distinction between hip-hop and R&B production. In 1997, he fully produced Supa Dupa Fly, the debut album of Missy Elliott, who had been a childhood friend of Mosley. In this album Timbaland continued with his now trademark electronic production style, but since Missy frequently rapped the music was considered hip-hop. Also in 1997, he released his first album with his partner Magoo, Welcome to Our World, also a hip-hop album. In the late 1990s, his hip-hop production sound would become very influential and common as he produced for many high-profile hip-hop artists including Jay-Z, Nas, and The LOX. In 1999, he scored a major hit with Jay-Z and rap group UGK with the hit "Big Pimpin'. He also fully produced Missy's second album in 1999, Da Real World. During this time, Timbaland continued to produce primarily for R&B artists. He continued to produce for Ginuwine and Aaliyah, as well as contributing significantly to albums by Xscape, Nicole, Playa, and Total. He remixed Usher's major hit "You Make Me Wanna". In the early 2000s Timbaland produced songs including Ludacris' "Roll Out (My Business)", Jay-Z's "Hola' Hovito", Petey Pablo's "Raise Up", and Beck's cover of David Bowie's "Diamond Dogs" during this period. He also contributed three songs, all eventually released as singles, to Aaliyah’s self-titled third album, the exotic lead single "We Need a Resolution" (featuring himself rapping a verse), "More than a Woman", and the ballad "I Care 4 U". He also makes an appearance in Aaliyah's single "Try Again", which he also produced and co-wrote. Timbaland & Magoo’s second album together was slated for release in November 2000. Indecent Proposal was to feature appearances by Beck, Aaliyah, as well as new Timbaland protégés—some from his new Beat Club Records imprint--Ms. Jade, Kiley Dean, Sebastian (Timbaland's brother), Petey Pablo, and Tweet (who was a member of Sugah during the Swing Mob days). The album was delayed for an entire year, finally released in November 2001. It was a commercial disappointment. Beck’s vocals for the track "I Am Music" were not included on the last version, which instead featured Timbaland singing along with Steve "Static" Garrett of Playa and Aaliyah. The first release on Beat Club was the début album by Bubba Sparxxx in September 2001, Dark Days, Bright Nights. The loss of Aaliyah deeply affected Timbaland. In a phone call to the MTV show Total Request Live, Timbaland said: Timbaland contributed three tracks to Tweet's debut album, Southern Hummingbird, and produced most of Missy Elliott's fourth and fifth LPs, Under Construction and This Is Not a Test! He also produced tracks for artists such as Lil' Kim ("The Jump Off") and southern rapper Pastor Troy during this period. Collaborating with fellow producer Scott Storch, Timbaland also worked on a number of tracks on former *NSYNC lead singer Justin Timberlake’s solo debut, Justified, including the song "Cry Me a River". Late in 2003, Timbaland delivered the second Bubba Sparxxx album, Deliverance, and the third Timbaland & Magoo album, Under Construction, Part II Both albums were released to little fanfare or acclaim even though Deliverance was praised by reviews and embraced by the internet community. In 2004, Timbaland produced singles for LL Cool J, Xzibit, Fatman Scoop, and Jay-Z, and he produced the bulk of Brandy’s fourth album, Afrodisiac. Timbaland co-wrote two tracks ("Exodus '04" and "Let Me Give You My Love") and produced three tracks of the American-Japanese Pop star Hikaru Utada’s second English album, Exodus. He continued working on tracks for Tweet and for Elliott’s sixth album, The Cookbook: "Joy (feat. Mike Jones)", and "Partytime" and continued to expand his reach with production for The Game and Jennifer Lopez ("He'll Be Back" from her fourth studio album, Rebirth). 2006–2010 Timbaland started a new label, Mosley Music Group along with old friend and legendary Australian music producer John Servedio, also known as his stage name 'ServidSounds' who helped Timbaland bring in some talent from his former Beat Club Records label. On the new label were Nelly Furtado, Keri Hilson, and rapper D.O.E. In 2006 he produced Justin Timberlake's second solo studio album FutureSex/LoveSounds. His vocals feature on the songs "SexyBack", "Sexy Ladies", "Chop Me Up", "What Goes Around... Comes Around" and on the prelude to "My Love" entitled "Let Me Talk to You". Timbaland provided vocals on several singles: The Pussycat Dolls' "Wait a Minute", Nelly Furtado's "Promiscuous", "Ice Box" by Omarion and Justin Timberlake's "SexyBack". In an interview published in August 2006 in the UK Timbaland revealed he was working on a new LP by Jay-Z and that he had worked on tracks with Coldplay's Chris Martin. Timbaland worked on seven songs for Björk's 2007 album, Volta, including "Earth Intruders", "Hope", and "Innocence" and he later worked on tracks for the new Duran Duran album, Red Carpet Massacre, including one featuring his frequent collaborator Justin Timberlake. Later in the year, Timbaland produced songs for Bone Thugs-n-Harmony's LP, Strength & Loyalty and the song "Ayo Technology" on 50 Cent’s album Curtis. Timbaland also produced most of the tracks on Ashlee Simpson's third CD, Bittersweet World, including the song "Outta My Head (Ay Ya Ya)". On April 3, 2007, Timbaland released a collaboration album featuring artists including 50 Cent, Dr. Dre, Elton John, Fall Out Boy, Nelly Furtado, Missy Elliott, and others called Timbaland Presents Shock Value. A rivalry flared up between Timbaland and record producer Scott Storch in early 2007. The tension initially started on the single "Give It to Me", when Timbaland anonymously backlashed Storch: "I'm a real producer and you['re] just the piano man". In an interview, Timbaland confirmed that he was talking about Storch. The dispute partly stemmed from controversy regarding writing credits for Timberlake's "Cry Me a River". Timbaland helped produce many albums for various artists in 2008, including Madonna's Hard Candy, Ashlee Simpson's Bittersweet World, Keri Hilson's In a Perfect World, Flo Rida's Mail on Sunday, Letoya Luckett's Lady Love, Lindsay Lohan's Spirit in the Dark, Chris Cornell's Scream, JoJo's All I Want Is Everything, Nicole Scherzinger's Her Name Is Nicole, Missy Elliott's Block Party, Matt Pokora's MP3, Keithian's Dirrty Pop, The Pussycat Dolls's Doll Domination, Busta Rhymes's B.O.M.B, Lisa Maffia's Miss Boss, Teairra Mari's Pressed for Time, Jennifer Hudson's début album, Dima Bilan's Believe, Samantha Jade's My Name Is Samantha Jade, New Kids on the Block's The Block, and Keshia Chanté's Night & Day. Timbaland produced the Russian entry for the Eurovision Song Contest 2008, "Believe" by Dima Bilan, which was co-written by Bilan and Jim Beanz. The song then won the contest when it was held in Belgrade, Serbia in May 2008. In February 2008 the first Fashion Against AIDS collection -an initiative of Designers Against AIDS and sold in H&M stores in 28 countries- was launched, for which Timbaland designed a T-shirt print, posed for the campaign and spoke out in a video, to help raise HIV/AIDS awareness among urban youth and to advocate safe sex. On February 8, 2008, it was announced that Timbaland would be releasing an album exclusively for Verizon Wireless's V CAST cell phone service and was designated its very first "Mobile Producer in Residence". Timbaland was to be joined by Mosley Music Group/Zone 4 singer and songwriter Keri Hilson to begin work on the mobile album's first track aboard the fully equipped Mobile Recording Studio. The only track to surface so far is Garry Barry Larry Harry "Get It Girl". In Timbaland's first effort within the video game industry, he worked with Rockstar Games to produce Beaterator, a music mixing game for the PlayStation Portable, PlayStation Network, and iOS released in the September 2009. Timbaland spoke to MTV's Shaheem Reid back in July 2008 to confirm that he was working on the follow-up to his platinum selling Shock Value. At the time he confirmed that he had one track with Madonna which although recorded for her album Hard Candy it had not been used and could end up on this album instead. He was insistent that he would also collaborate with Jordin Sparks, Beyoncé, Rihanna, Jonas Brothers, Miley Cyrus and T.I. However, none of these collaborations (except Miley Cyrus) made it to the final track list. He also said that alongside T-Pain who would definitely appear, he hoped to get Jay-Z on board, although he ultimately failed to do so. Timbaland began working on the sequel to Shock Value in July 2008. In March 2009, he filed a lawsuit against his label, Blackground Records, alleging that they attempted to blackball him after he decided to move from music performance into production. In September 2009, Timbaland announced that Shock Value II will be released on November 23, in Europe and November 24, in North America. However, it was pushed back to December 8, preceded by the first single which features a new recording artist named SoShy entitled "Morning After Dark". New featured guest appearances on the album include DJ Felli Fel, Justin Timberlake, JoJo, Bran'Nu, Drake, Chad Kroeger, Sebastian, Miley Cyrus, Melody Thornton, Nelly Furtado, Katy Perry, Esthero, The Fray, Jet, Daughtry, OneRepublic, Keri Hilson, Attitude and D.O.E.. Ultimately Madonna, Jonas Brothers, Rihanna, Usher, Jay-Z, Beyoncé, Kanye West, Linkin Park, The All-American Rejects, Paramore, Gucci Mane, T-Pain, T.I. and Akon never appeared on Shock Value II. Shock Value II is infamous for its use of over-the-top vocal effects. "Morning After Dark" featuring SoShy and Nelly Furtado is the lead single from Timbaland's third studio album. The song was written by Tim Mosley, Jerome Harmon, Deborah Epstein, Michelle Bell, Keri Hilson, Nelly Furtado, James Washington, John Maultsby and produced by Timbaland and Jroc. The single premiered on October 16, 2009, on Ryan Seacrest's KIIS-FM radio show, On-Air with Ryan Seacrest with Timbaland describing it as the kick-off song from the project. Following her performance, the song was sent for radio adds on May 25. The song peaked in the top 10 of the Billboard Hot 100. With this success, the song became Sparks' fifth consecutive top 20 hit and third nonconsecutive top 10 hit. On May 24, Sparks headed to Europe to begin promotion for the single. "Say Something" featuring Canadian rapper Drake was released to US iTunes on November 3, 2009. It was officially sent to U.S. radio on January 5, 2010. It is the album's second single and reached number 23 on the Hot 100, making it the second most successful single on the album. "Carry Out" featuring Justin Timberlake is the third single from the album but was initially only released in the U.S. It was sent to US radio on December 1, 2009. It is the most successful single on the album, peaking at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100. The music video premiered on February 18, 2010. It was released as the third UK single on April 26, 2010. "If We Ever Meet Again" featuring Katy Perry is the album's fourth single. The music video premiered on January 18, 2010. In the UK, it was released February 15, 2010. Timbaland produced Chris Cornell's 2009 album Scream. Shakira was asked to record vocals on the song "Give It Up to Me" to be included on Timbaland's forthcoming album but it was placed on her third studio album She Wolf and released as the second US single instead. One of the songs Timbaland had produced for Beyoncé's 2008 album I Am... Sasha Fierce was reworked by Keri Hilson and Jay-Z for Shock Value II but not included. He was a guest host of WWE's Raw on December 28, 2009. Timbaland appeared on March 25, 2010, episode (titled "Blowback") of FlashForward as an evidence agent. His songs "Morning After Dark" and "Symphony" appear on the video game Def Jam: Underground. In April 2010, a feud arose between the producer and R&B singer Ginuwine, after Timbaland failed to make an appearance at the singer's music video shoot of "Get Involved". Later in April, Timbaland released a new single featuring T-Pain and Billy Blue titled "Talk That". In June 2010, when questioned by RWD magazine about the UK music scene he made the bold claim to be the inspiration for the dub-step music scene. "The UK scene... they’re always telling me that I started it. You have Dub-bass...". When questioned further about it he went on to say: "It’s funny cos they went back to some of my old music that really created that sound and just, instead of going fast, they went slow with more bass." In August 2010, a "possible suicide attempt" APB was put out for Timbaland after his home was burgled. When his family were unable to contact him, they called 911 and a manhunt began. Police eventually found his car and brought him back home, where paramedics examined him, before declaring he was not a threat to himself. When questioned, Timbaland said he only took a drive to think about the burglary, as he thought the possible thief could have been someone close whom he trusted. In 2010, Timbaland split with longtime label Blackground Records, but stayed with Interscope Records. Later in the year, Timbaland was featured on the deluxe edition of Chris Brown's album, F.A.M.E., producing the songs "Paper, Scissors, Rock" (feat. Big Sean) and the Japan-only bonus track, "Talk Ya Ear Off". Timbaland was also featured on David Guetta's LP, Nothing But the Beat, on "I Just Wanna F" with Dev and Afrojack. Timbaland also worked with teen star Demi Lovato; he produced and had a small feature in her song "All Night Long" on Lovato's Unbroken album. In November 2010, Timbaland announced that he would be releasing a new song every Thursday, called Timbo Thursdays; a copy of the initiative shown by artists such as Kanye West (via G.O.O.D. Fridays), and Swizz Beatz (via Monster Mondays). In an interview with Rap-Up.com Timbaland stated, "So, my brother told me Kanye is puttin' out a new song every Friday called G.O.O.D. Fridays, Swizz got Mondays, I don't know if they are on Twitter but can you hit them up, and tell them reserve that Thursday for Timbo the king baby. We’ll call it Timbo Thursday, cool?" 2011–2019 On January 13, 2011, Timbaland began his Timbaland Thursdays free music initiative, with the first song released being "Take Ur Clothes Off", featuring Missy Elliott. The first official single from Shock Value III, "Pass at Me" featuring American rapper Pitbull, with uncredited production by French DJ David Guetta, was released on September 13, 2011, after having been previously used to promote a book titled Culo. The album's second single, "Break Ya Back" featuring American singer Dev, was released on April 17, 2012. For the fourth installment in the Step Up franchise, Step Up Revolution, Timbaland released a track called "Hands In the Air", which features American singer Ne-Yo. On January 30, 2013, Timbaland signed to Jay-Z's label Roc Nation. Later that year, Timbaland would serve as the main producer of Justin Timberlake's recent LP, The 20/20 Experience, including the album's singles: "Suit & Tie" and "Mirrors". Timbaland also produced Beyoncé's song "Grown Woman" which was featured in her Pepsi commercial and 2013 tour, The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour, and the song "I Don't Have To Sleep to Dream" on Cher's 2013 album Closer to the Truth. In April 2011, Timbaland and long time friend and business partner Mike Evans signed a deal to with Sony/ATV Music Publishing's Extreme Music to create 75 new urban pop tracks for the production music house. In August 2013, Timbaland revealed that he was working on a project featuring unreleased material by Michael Jackson, with a lead single called "Love Never Felt So Good". On September 24, 2013, Timbaland collaborated with T.I. for his new co-produced Indonesian artist, AGNEZ MO, in her song titled Coke Bottle. The premiere launch event of the single became a worldwide trending topic on Twitter. On November 15, 2013, Timbaland released his first single for his fourth album, Opera Noir, called "Know Bout Me" featuring Drake, Jay-Z, and James Fauntleroy. By 2014, it was originally announced that both Timbaland and Missy Elliott would be an essential component per production of Kat Dahlia's debut album, My Garden, however neither of the duo's contributions saw the light of day. On January 7, 2015, Timbaland received production credit for his involvement with the musical score of Lee Daniels and Danny Strong's television project Empire, which premiered on FOX. Constructively, Timbaland and his team, including Jim Beanz, Raphael Saadiq, and others, compose the series' songs based on material given to them by the show's writing team per each episode. In February 2016, Timbaland and Missy Elliott teamed up to produce the track "Somebody Else Will" for longtime associate, Tweet, for her third studio album Charlene. In June 2016, Timbaland and Andy Rubinhas teamed up with SubPac, a Los Angeles-based startup working on a wearable sound device. There is still no release date for his new album Textbook Timbo. On December 15, 2017, Timbaland released the song "Grab the Wheel", which features 6lack on vocals. The song also has a music video which was released on the same day. In 2019, Timbaland began teaching through Masterclass, providing an instructional series on production and beatmaking. 2020–present In March 2020, Timbaland, along with Swizz Beatz, launched the Verzuz Instagram webcast series. In 2021, for their work on Verzuz, both Timbaland and Swizz Beatz appeared on the Time 100, Times annual list of the 100 most influential people in the world. In August 2021, Blackground rebranded as Blackground 2.0, with Barry Hankerson remaining as founder. Blackground 2.0 signed a distribution deal with Empire Distribution, which will re-release the label's catalogue on CD, cassette and vinyl, onto digital download sites and, for the first time ever, streaming services. Aaliyah's catalogue began its re-release in chronological order, starting with One In a Million on August 20, 2021. Timbaland's 1998 LP Tim's Bio: Life from da Bassment and Timbaland & Magoo albums Welcome to Our World, Indecent Proposal and Under Construction, Part II were re-released August 27, 2021. On 1 September 2023, Timbaland released the single "Keep Going Up", in collaboration with Furtado and Timberlake. On 20 October 2023, Timbaland released the single "My Way" with singer Anna Margo. Legacy and influence An important figure in the creation of American R&B's "stuttering kick-drums template", Timbaland's influence extended beyond the U.S. and crossed international borders, especially in UK garage and rave culture. Timbaland, as an R&B producer, created a distinctive, rhythmic sound using breakbeats, which break up the smooth flow of tracks to create moments of tension and release. This technique that Timbaland pioneered would later serve to create "bootleg" garage tracks, which was essential in the rise of UK garage. What began as an underground movement soon grew in popularity, with bootleg remixes selling upwards of 20,000 copies, something unheard of at the time. One such example is the remix of Brandy & Monica's "The Boy Is Mine". Timbaland is credited along with other Virginia artist such as The Clipse, Pharrell Williams and Missy Elliot with establishing Virginia as one of the East Coast’s strongholds in Hip Hop. Plagiarism accusations In January 2007, Timbaland was alleged to have plagiarized several elements (both motifs and samples) in the song "Do It" on the 2006 album Loose by Nelly Furtado without giving credit or compensation. The song itself was released as the fifth North American single from Loose in July 2007. Timbaland's legal troubles continued. In lieu of a copyright lawsuit over the song "Throw It on Me" from his Shock Value album, Timbaland and David Cortopassi, the composer of "Spazz", a song originally recorded by The Elastik Band and released by ATCO/Atlantic and EMI, reached a settlement agreement in July 2009. The terms of the settlement remained undisclosed at the time. "Spazz", noted as being "one of the most tasteless records ever made", was initially banned by radio stations and even pulled mid-stream while on air when first released in 1967, with the DJ even apologizing to his listeners for playing the record. Aaliyah's 2001 self-titled album, produced by Timbaland, also contained an uncredited sample of "Alouli Ansa" by Mayada El-Hennawy in "More Than a Woman". In January 2014, the Swiss newspaper Basler Zeitung revealed another plagiarism case concerning the track "Versus" by Jay-Z, which was produced by Timbaland. The track's instrumental is very similar to, if not directly sampled from "On the Way" by Swiss musician Bruno Spoerri. According to Swiss newspaper Tages-Anzeiger, the plagiarism case was settled by March 2015. Jay-Z and Timbaland were to pay 50% from the song's revenue to Spoerri as royalties for the music, with Jay-Z retaining 50% for the lyrics. Discography Studio albums Tim's Bio: Life from da Bassment (1998) Shock Value (2007) Shock Value II (2009) Awards and nominations References External links Timbaland at Yahoo! Music [ Timbaland] at Billboard.com 1972 births Living people 20th-century American rappers 21st-century American rappers African-American Christians African-American DJs African-American male rappers American male rappers African-American male singers African-American record producers American contemporary R&B singers American hip hop DJs American hip hop record producers American hip hop singers American male pop singers American multi-instrumentalists American shooting survivors Atlantic Records artists Epic Records artists Grammy Award winners for dance and electronic music Interscope Records artists Musicians from Norfolk, Virginia Musicians from Virginia Beach, Virginia People involved in plagiarism controversies Pop rappers Rappers from Virginia Record producers from Virginia Roc Nation artists Singers from Virginia Songwriters from Virginia Swing Mob artists
401021	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Cone	David Cone	David Brian Cone (born January 2, 1963) is an American former Major League Baseball (MLB) pitcher, and current color commentator for the New York Yankees on the YES Network and WPIX as well as for ESPN on Sunday Night Baseball. A third round draft pick of the Kansas City Royals in 1981 MLB Draft, he made his MLB debut in 1986 and continued playing until 2003, pitching for five different teams. Cone batted left-handed and threw right-handed. Cone pitched the sixteenth perfect game in baseball history in 1999. On the final game of the 1991 regular season, he struck out 19 batters, tied for second-most ever in a game. The 1994 Cy Young Award winner, he was a five-time All-Star and led the major leagues in strikeouts each season from 1990 to 1992. A two-time 20 game-winner, he set the MLB record for most years between 20-win seasons with 10. He was a member of five World Series championship teams — with the Toronto Blue Jays and , , and with the New York Yankees. His 8–3 career postseason record came over 21 games and 111 innings pitched, with an earned run average (ERA) of 3.80; in World Series play, his ERA was 2.12. Cone is the subject of the book, A Pitcher's Story: Innings With David Cone, by Roger Angell. Cone and Jack Curry co-wrote the autobiography Full Count: The Education of a Pitcher, which was released in May 2019 and made The New York Times Best Seller list shortly after its release. Early years Cone was born in Kansas City, Missouri, the son of Joan (née Curran; 1936–2016) and Edwin Cone (1934–2022). He attended Rockhurst High School, a Jesuit school, where he played quarterback on the football team, leading them to the district championship. He was also a point guard on the basketball team. Because Rockhurst did not have a baseball team, Cone instead played summer ball in the Ban Johnson League, a college summer league in Kansas City. At 16, he reported to an invitation-only tryout at Royals Stadium and an open tryout for the St. Louis Cardinals. He was also recruited to play college football and baseball. Upon graduation, he enrolled at the University of Missouri and was drafted by his hometown Kansas City Royals in the third round of the 1981 Major League Baseball draft. Professional baseball career Minor leagues and MLB debut: Kansas City Royals (1981–1986) Cone went 22–7 with a 2.21 earned run average in his first two professional seasons. He sat out 1983 with an injury, and went 8–12 with a 4.28 ERA for the Double-A Memphis Chicks when he returned in 1984. During his second season with the Class AAA Omaha Royals (1986), Cone was converted to a relief pitcher, and he made his Major League debut on June 8, 1986, in relief of reigning Cy Young Award winner Bret Saberhagen. He made three more appearances out of the Royals' bullpen before returning to Omaha, where he went 8–4 with a 2.79 ERA. He returned to Kansas City when rosters expanded that September. New York Mets (1987–1992) Prior to the 1987 season, Cone was traded with Chris Jelic to the New York Mets for Ed Hearn, Rick Anderson and Mauro Gozzo. Cone went 5–6 with a 3.71 ERA and 68 strikeouts in 21 appearances (13 starts) his first season in New York City. Cone began the 1988 season in the bullpen, but was added to the starting rotation by the first week of May. His first start was a complete game shutout over the Atlanta Braves, and he went on to post a 9–2 record with a 2.52 ERA in the first half of the season to earn his first All-Star nod. For the season, Cone went 20–3 with a 2.22 ERA to finish third in National League Cy Young Award balloting. The Mets ran away with the National League East by fifteen games over the Pittsburgh Pirates, and were heavy favorites over the Los Angeles Dodgers, against whom they had a 10–1 record during the regular season, in the 1988 National League Championship Series. Cone became a newspaper commentator on the playoffs for the New York Daily News, and incited controversy after the Mets' 3–2 victory in game one by saying Dodgers game one starter Orel Hershiser "was lucky for eight innings", and ripping closer Jay Howell: After Cone provided the Dodgers with bulletin board material, Los Angeles jumped on Cone for five runs in two innings in the second game of the playoffs to tie the series at a game apiece. The Mets persuaded Cone to stop writing the column, and he came back with a scoreless ninth inning in a Game 3 Mets win and a complete-game victory in Game 6; however, series MVP and 1988 Cy Young Award winner Orel Hershiser came back in game seven with the complete game shutout to lead the Dodgers to the 1988 World Series against the Oakland Athletics. In a well-known incident on April 30, 1990, against the Atlanta Braves, Cone covered first base on a throw from second baseman Gregg Jefferies, which should have retired batter Mark Lemke. Umpire Charlie Williams mistakenly ruled Lemke safe. Arguing with Williams, and thinking time had been called, Cone held the ball while two Braves' runners (Dale Murphy and Ernie Whitt) scored. Cone spent over five seasons in his first stint with the New York Mets, most of the time serving as the team's co-ace alongside Dwight Gooden while leading the National League in strikeouts in 1990 and 1991. In 1991, Cone switched from uniform number 44 to 17 in honor of former teammate Keith Hernandez. On August 30, he struck out all three batters on nine total pitches in the fifth inning of a 3–2 win over the Cincinnati Reds, becoming the 16th National League pitcher and the 25th pitcher in major-league history to accomplish an immaculate inning. Cone tied a National League record on October 6, in the season finale, by striking out 19 rival Philadelphia Phillies batters in a 7–0, three-hit shutout at Philadelphia. His 19 strikeouts was the second-highest total ever recorded in a nine-inning game just behind the 20-strikeout games recorded by Kerry Wood, Roger Clemens (twice), Randy Johnson and Max Scherzer, and tying Tom Seaver's single-game club record, making the Mets the only team with two pitchers to achieve the feat. Cone was the lone Mets representative at the 1992 Major League Baseball All-Star Game, going 9–4 with a 2.56 ERA at the All-Star break. With a 56–67 record, and fourteen games behind the first place Pirates, the infamous "worst team money could buy" traded Cone to the Toronto Blue Jays for Jeff Kent and Ryan Thompson on August 27, 1992, after the non-waiver trading deadline. Toronto Blue Jays (1992) With Toronto, Cone was 4–3 with a 2.55 ERA and 47 strikeouts. Combined with the 214 strikeouts he had with the Mets, his 261 strikeouts led the major leagues and were career-highs. Cone headed to the postseason for the second time in his career as the Blue Jays won the American League East. The Jays defeated the Oakland Athletics in the 1992 American League Championship Series, and the Atlanta Braves in the World Series, to give Cone his first World Series ring, and become the first Canadian team to win the World Series. For his part, Cone went 1–1 with a 3.22 ERA in the postseason. Cy Young Award: Return to Kansas City Royals (1993–1994) Cone returned to his hometown Kansas City Royals as a free agent for the 1993 season. Despite an 11–14 record, Cone had an impressive 1993, pitching 254 innings with a 3.33 ERA, or 138 ERA+. He improved to go 16–5 with a 2.94 ERA (171 ERA+) in the strike-shortened 1994 season to win the American League Cy Young Award, and finish ninth in MVP voting. Cone was a Major League Baseball Players Association representative in negotiations with Major League Baseball in events that surrounded the 1994 baseball strike. Toronto Blue Jays, second stint (1995) Four days after the strike ended, the Royals traded Cone back to the Blue Jays for Chris Stynes, David Sinnes and Tony Medrano. Cone was 9–6 with a 3.38 ERA for Toronto, however, the Jays were 35–47 and in fifth place when they struck a deal with the second-place New York Yankees. On July 28, 1995, the Blue Jays sent Cone to the Yankees for Marty Janzen, Jason Jarvis and Mike Gordon. New York Yankees (1995–2000) When the Yankees acquired Cone, they were on a six-game winning streak, though still trailing the Boston Red Sox for the division lead. Cone instantly became the team's ace and would post a 9–2 record as the Yankees won the wild card in the first season of the new three division, wild card format. In his third postseason, Cone won the first game of the 1995 American League Division Series against the Seattle Mariners, and left game five with the score tied at four. The Mariners won the game in extra innings to eliminate the Yankees from the playoffs. The Yankees re-signed Cone in the offseason to a three-year contract worth $19.5 million. Cone was 4–1 with a 2.02 ERA when he was diagnosed with an aneurysm in his arm in 1996 and went on the disabled list for the majority of the year. In his comeback start that September against the Oakland Athletics, Cone pitched a no-hitter through seven innings before he had to leave due to pitch count restrictions. Mariano Rivera allowed an infield single, ending the no-hit bid. The Yankees returned to the postseason for the second of thirteen consecutive seasons. After losing to the Texas Rangers in game one of the 1996 American League Division Series, and a no decision in the 1996 American League Championship Series, Cone came back in game three of the World Series against the Atlanta Braves with a six inning, one run performance to give the Yankees their first win of the Series on their way to their first World Championship in eighteen years. Cone went 20–7 in 1998, setting a Major League record for the longest span between twenty-win seasons at 11, surpassing the record of 8 set by Jim Kaat in 1974. Cone won the 1998 American League Division Series clinching game against the Rangers, the 1998 American League Championship Series clinching game against the Indians, and Game Three of the 1998 World Series against the San Diego Padres. Cone finished fourth in the AL Cy Young voting. He re-signed with the Yankees for the 1999 season for $8 million. He went 12–9 in 1999, pitching the sixteenth perfect game in baseball history on July 18 against the Montreal Expos. It was the last no-hitter by a Yankee until 2021, and also the first in a regular season interleague perfect game. Making the game even more remarkable was that it was "Yogi Berra Day" at Yankee Stadium. After a long feud with owner George Steinbrenner, Berra agreed to return to the stadium that day. Yogi caught the ceremonial first pitch from Don Larsen, who threw a perfect game for the Yankees in the 1956 World Series; that game had been caught by Yogi Berra. Larsen could be seen smiling in the press box after the final out of Cone's perfect game was recorded. After the game, Cone was met at his clubhouse locker by Larsen and Berra, who together wrapped him in a bear hug. After the perfect game, he seemed to suddenly lose effectiveness. It was the last shutout he would throw in his career. In 2000, he posted the worst record of his career, 4–14, while seeing his ERA balloon to 6.91, more than double his mark the previous year. In spite of his ineffectiveness, Cone was brought in during game four of the 2000 World Series to face the Mets' Mike Piazza, a controversial decision at the time — Denny Neagle had given up a home run to Piazza in his previous at-bat, but was pitching with a lead and only needed to retire Piazza to go the minimum five innings to be eligible for a win. Cone induced a pop-up to end the inning. It was the only batter he faced in the entire Series. Boston Red Sox (2001) Cone recognized after the 2000 season that his tenure with the Yankees was over. In 2001 Cone pitched for the rival Boston Red Sox, performing with mixed but mostly positive results, including a 9–7 win–loss record and a 4.31 ERA. His 2001 season included a suspenseful 1–0 loss against Yankees ace Mike Mussina wherein Cone pitched innings giving up one unearned run, keeping the game close even as Mike Mussina came within one strike of completing a perfect game, which would have made Cone the first pitcher to pitch a perfect game and be the losing pitcher in another. Comeback with New York Mets (2003) Cone sat out the 2002 season, but attempted a comeback with the Mets in 2003. Cone went 1–3 in four starts for the Mets with a 6.50 ERA. He announced his retirement soon after his last appearance for the Mets on May 28, citing a chronic hip problem. Pitching style Cone modeled his pitching after Luis Tiant. By emulating Tiant's pitching style, it helped him conserve his arm. The drawback is that it put much wear and tear on his hips. Career statistics Cone's .606 won-lost percentage ranks 95th on MLB all-time list; 7.77 hits allowed per nine innings pitched ranks 60th on MLB's all-time list; 8.28 strikeouts per nine innings pitched ranks 17th; 2,668 strikeouts ranks 21st, and 419 games started ranks 97th on the MLB all-time list. Cone: Is the New York Yankees' all-time leader in strikeouts per 9 innings pitched (8.67). Holds the New York Yankees' single-season record for most strikeouts per 9 innings pitched (10.25 in 1997). Struck out 19 batters in one game, October 6, 1991. Is the only pitcher to have a 20-win season with both the Mets (1988) and the Yankees (1998). Post-playing career Upon retiring from baseball in 2001, Cone became a color commentator on the YES Network during its inaugural season. However, his comeback attempt with the crosstown rival Mets in 2003 infuriated Yankees owner George Steinbrenner and Cone was told he would not be welcomed back. After his second retirement from baseball, Cone was offered a broadcasting position with the Mets, but declined. In 2008, Cone rejoined the YES Network as an analyst and host of Yankees on Deck. He left the YES Network during the 2009–10 offseason in order to "spend more time with my family". He was replaced by former Yankees first baseman Tino Martinez. On April 19, 2011, Cone returned to the Yankees broadcast booth in Toronto, working as analyst for a Yankees-Blue Jays series along with Ken Singleton. As an announcer, he is known for making references to sabermetric statistics, referencing some websites such as Fangraphs.com. Cone is currently the Yankees' lead color commentator, alongside former teammate Paul O'Neill. The two are paired with Michael Kay as the Yankees' regular broadcast team. After the 2021 season, Cone began co-hosting the podcast "Toeing the Slab" with Justin Shackil for Jomboy Media. In 2022, Cone was announced to be part of the Sunday Night Baseball broadcast team on ESPN along with Karl Ravech, Eduardo Pérez, and Buster Olney. On July 17, 2009, Cone testified as a witness (representing the Democratic Party) before the Senate Judiciary Committee during the Supreme Court nomination hearings for Judge Sonia Sotomayor. Cone read a prepared statement in support of Sotomayor's nomination which chronicled Major League Baseball's labor dispute of 1994 and the impact of the judge's decision which forced the disputants back to the bargaining table. Cone said, "It can be a good thing to have a judge in district court or a justice on the United States Supreme Court who recognizes that the law cannot always be separated from the realities involved in the disputes being decided." Personal life During his career in New York, Cone was known for his embrace of the city's nightlife. He was falsely accused of rape in 1991, but within 72 hours the police found the claim to be without merit. In 1991, three women accused Cone of having threatened their lives at the ballpark. Cone said he had cursed them out for harassing the wife of teammate Sid Fernandez, but never threatened them. The three women later amended their lawsuit against Cone, accusing him of having lured them into the bullpen area at Shea Stadium in 1989 and masturbating in their presence. Two of the women's claims were unsuccessful. One of the women settled her claims out of court based upon Cone calling her a "groupie"; all sexual accusations were dismissed. Cone married Lynn DiGioia, an interior designer, on November 12, 1994. The couple had a son, Brian, on March 23, 2006. David and Lynn Cone divorced in 2011. Cone's former partner is real estate broker and investor Taja Abitbol. They have a son, Sammy, who was born on December 15, 2011. See also Kansas City Royals award winners and league leaders List of athletes who came out of retirement List of Major League Baseball career bases on balls allowed leaders List of Major League Baseball career hit batsmen leaders List of Major League Baseball career strikeout leaders List of Major League Baseball career Wins Above Replacement leaders List of Major League Baseball no-hitters List of Major League Baseball perfect games List of Major League Baseball single-game strikeout leaders List of New York Yankees no-hitters List of people from Kansas City, Missouri List of World Series starting pitchers References External links BaseballLibrary.com Hickok Sports Ultimate Mets Database 1963 births Living people Missouri Democrats YES Network ESPN people Cy Young Award winners National League All-Stars National League strikeout champions American League All-Stars American League wins champions Boston Red Sox players Kansas City Royals players New York Mets players New York Yankees announcers New York Yankees players Toronto Blue Jays players American expatriate baseball players in Canada Major League Baseball broadcasters Major League Baseball pitchers Baseball players from Kansas City, Missouri Major League Baseball pitchers who have pitched a perfect game Gulf Coast Royals players Fort Myers Royals players Charleston Royals players Memphis Chicks players Omaha Royals players Tidewater Tides players Norwich Navigators players Sarasota Red Sox players St. Lucie Mets players
401032	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic%20F-84%20Thunderjet	Republic F-84 Thunderjet	The Republic F-84 Thunderjet was an American turbojet fighter-bomber aircraft. Originating as a 1944 United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) proposal for a "day fighter", the F-84 first flew in 1946. Although it entered service in 1947, the Thunderjet was plagued by so many structural and engine problems that a 1948 U.S. Air Force review declared it unable to execute any aspect of its intended mission and considered canceling the program. The aircraft was not considered fully operational until the 1949 F-84D model and the design matured only with the definitive F-84G introduced in 1951. In 1954, the straight-wing Thunderjet was joined by the swept-wing F-84F Thunderstreak fighter and RF-84F Thunderflash photo reconnaissance aircraft. The Thunderjet became the USAF's primary strike aircraft during the Korean War, flying 86,408 sorties and destroying 60% of all ground targets in the war as well as eight Soviet-built MiG fighters. Over half of the 7,524 F-84s produced served with NATO nations, and it was the first aircraft to fly with the U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds demonstration team. The USAF Strategic Air Command had F-84 Thunderjets in service from 1948 through 1957. The F-84 was the first production fighter aircraft to utilize inflight refueling and the first fighter capable of carrying a nuclear weapon, the Mark 7 nuclear bomb. Modified F-84s were used in several unusual projects, including the FICON and Tom-Tom dockings to the B-29 Superfortress and B-36 bomber motherships, and the experimental XF-84H Thunderscreech turboprop. The F-84 nomenclature can be somewhat confusing. The straight-wing F-84A to F-84E and F-84G models were called the Thunderjet. The F-84F Thunderstreak and RF-84F Thunderflash were different airplanes with swept wings. The XF-84H Thunderscreech (not its official name) was an experimental turboprop version of the F-84F. The F-84F swept wing version was intended to be a small variation of the normal Thunderjet with only a few different parts, so it kept the basic F-84 number. Production delays on the F-84F resulted in another order of the straight-wing version; this was the F-84G. Design and development In 1944, Republic Aviation's chief designer, Alexander Kartveli, began working on a turbojet-powered replacement for the P-47 Thunderbolt piston-engined fighter aircraft. The initial attempts to redesign the P-47 to accommodate a jet engine proved futile due to the large cross-section of the Thunderbolt's fuselage. Instead, Kartveli and his team designed a new aircraft with a much-slimmer fuselage housing an axial compressor turbojet engine in the rear fuselage, and an air intake in the nose of the fuselage, with air ducts running from the nose to the engine and taking up much of the fuselage volume. Fuel was mainly stored in tanks in the thick, but laminar flow airfoil, unswept wings. On 11 September 1944, the USAAF released General Operational Requirements for a day fighter with a top speed of , a combat radius of , and armament of either eight or six machine guns. In addition, the new aircraft had to use the General Electric TG-180 axial turbojet which entered production as the Allison J35. These specifications proved to be too ambitious, however, and the radius requirement was reduced to and the armament suite was reduced to six .50-caliber or four .60-caliber machine guns in order to reduce weight. On 11 November 1944, Republic received an order for three prototypes of the new XP-84 — known to Republic as the Model AP-23. Since the design promised superior performance to the Lockheed-built P-80 Shooting Star and Republic had extensive experience in building single-seat fighters, no competition was held for the contract. The name "Thunderjet" was chosen to continue the Republic Aviation tradition started with the P-47 Thunderbolt, while emphasizing the new method of propulsion. On 4 January 1945, even before the aircraft took to the air, the USAAF placed an additional order for 25 service test YP-84As and 75 production P-84Bs (later modified to 15 YP-84A and 85 P-84B). Meanwhile, wind tunnel testing by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics revealed longitudinal instability and stabilizer skin buckling at high speeds. The weight of the aircraft, a great concern given the low thrust of early turbojets, was growing so quickly that the USAAF had to set a gross weight limit of . The results of this preliminary testing were incorporated into the third prototype, designated XP-84A, which was also fitted with a more powerful J35-GE-15 engine with of thrust. The first prototype XP-84 was rolled out in December 1945, but availability of suitable engines delayed flight testing. The first prototype was transferred to Muroc Army Air Field (present-day Edwards Air Force Base) where it flew for the first time on 28 February 1946 with Major Wallace A. "Wally" Lien at the controls. It was joined by the second prototype in August, both aircraft flying with J35-GE-7 engines producing . On 8 September 1946, the second XP-84 set a US national airspeed record of , but failed to match the world speed record of set the day before by a British Gloster Meteor. The effort to break the speed record delayed the test program with the second prototype. The 15 YP-84As, which were delivered to Patterson Field (present-day Wright-Patterson Air Force Base) for service tests from January 1947, differed from XP-84s by having an upgraded J35-A-15 engine, carrying six 0.50 in M2 Browning machine guns (four in the nose and one in each wing root), and having the provision for wingtip fuel tanks holding each. Due to delays with delivery of jet engines and production of the XP-84A, the Thunderjet had undergone only limited flight testing by the time production P-84Bs began to roll out of the factory in 1947. In particular, the impact of wingtip tanks on the aircraft's structure was not thoroughly studied. This proved problematic later. After the creation of the United States Air Force by the National Security Act of 1947, the "Pursuit" designation was replaced with "Fighter", and the P-84 became the F-84. Operational history The F-84B, which differed from the YP-84A only in having faster-firing M3 machine guns (later F-84s also had provision to carry eight High Velocity Aircraft Rockets (HVAR) underwing), became operational with 14th Fighter Group at Dow Field, Bangor, Maine, in December 1947. Flight restrictions followed immediately, limiting maximum speed to Mach 0.8 due to control reversal, and limiting maximum acceleration to 5.5 g-force (54 m/s2) due to wrinkling of the fuselage skin. To compound the problem, parts shortages and maintenance difficulties earned the aircraft the nickname, "Mechanic's Nightmare". On 24 May 1948, the entire F-84B fleet was grounded due to structural failures in the aircraft's wings. The F-84C featured a somewhat more reliable J35-A-13C engine of the same power as the A-15-C used by the F-84B, and modified fuel and electrical systems. Beyond these modifications, the F-84C was virtually identical to the F-84B, and suffered from the same defects. A 1948 review of the F-84 program discovered that none of the F-84B or F-84C aircraft could be considered operational or capable of executing any aspect of their intended mission. The program was saved from cancellation because the F-84D, whose production was well underway, had satisfactorily addressed the major faults. A fly-off against the F-80 revealed that while the Shooting Star had a shorter takeoff roll, better low altitude climb rate and superior maneuverability, the F-84 could carry a greater bomb load, was faster, had better high altitude performance and greater range. As a compromise, the USAF in 1949 committed US$8 million to implement over 100 upgrades to all F-84Bs and F-84Cs, most notably reinforcing the wings to a similar standard to the F-84D. Despite the resultant improvements, both the F-84B and F-84C were withdrawn from service during 1952. The structural improvements were factory-implemented in the F-84D, which entered service in 1949. Wings were covered with thicker aluminum skin, the fuel system was winterized and capable of using JP-4 fuel, and a more powerful J35-A-17D engine with was fitted. It had been discovered that the untested wingtip fuel tanks contributed to wing structural failures by inducing excessive twisting during high-g maneuvers. To correct this, small triangular fins were added to the outside of the tanks. The F-84D was phased out of USAF service in 1952 and left Air National Guard (ANG) service in 1957. The first effective and fully capable Thunderjet was the F-84E model which entered service in 1950. The aircraft featured the J35-A-17 engine, further wing reinforcement, a fuselage extension in front of the wings and extension aft of the wings to enlarge the cockpit and the avionics bay, an A-1B gunsight with AN/APG-30 range-finding radar, and provision for an additional pair of fuel tanks to be carried on underwing pylons. The latter increased the combat radius from to over . One improvement to the original F-84 design was rocket racks that folded flush with the wing after the 5-inch HVAR rockets were fired, which reduced drag over the older fixed mounting racks. This innovation was adopted by other US jet fighter-bombers. Despite the improvements, the in-service rates for the F-84E remained poor with only half of the aircraft operational in April 1950. This was primarily due to a severe shortage of spares for the Allison engines. The expectation was that F-84Es would fly 25 hours per month, accumulating 100 hours between engine overhauls. The actual flight hours for Korean War and NATO deployments rapidly outpaced the supply and Allison's ability to manufacture new engines. The F-84E was withdrawn from USAF service in 1956, serving with the Air Force Reserve until 1957 and lingering with ANG units until 1959. The final straight-wing F-84 was the F-84G, intended as a stop-gap until the swept wing F-84F entered service, but ordered in large numbers to build-up NATO air forces. It introduced a refueling boom receptacle in the left wing, autopilot, Instrument Landing System, J35-A-29 engine with of thrust, a distinctive framed canopy (also retrofitted to earlier types), and the ability to carry a single Mark 7 nuclear bomb. The F-84G entered service in 1951, although deliveries were slowed by shortages of engines. Production continued until July 1953 with 3,025 F-84Gs delivered, with 789 going to the USAF and 2,236 to US allies as part of US military aid. The F-84G was retired from the USAF in mid-1960. Flying the Thunderjet Typical of most early jets, the Thunderjet's takeoff performance left much to be desired. In hot Korean summers with a full combat load, the aircraft routinely required of runway for takeoff even with the help of RATO bottles (two or four of these were carried, each producing 1,000 lbf (4.4 kN) of thrust for 14 seconds). All but the lead aircraft had their visibility obscured by the thick smoke from the rockets. F-84s had to be pulled off the ground at 160 mph (140 kn, 260 km/h) with the control stick held all the way back. Landings were made at a similar speed. For comparison, the North American P-51 Mustang landed at approximately 120 mph (100 kn, 190 km/h). Despite the "hot" landing speeds, the Thunderjet was easy to fly on instruments and crosswinds did not present much of a problem. Thanks to the thick straight wing the Thunderjet rapidly reached its Mach 0.82 limitation at full throttle and low altitude. The aircraft had sufficient power to fly faster, but exceeding the Mach limit at low altitudes resulted in a violent pitch-up and structural failure causing the wings to break off. Above , the F-84 could be flown faster but at the expense of severe buffeting. However, the airspeed was sufficiently easy to control to make safe dive bombing from 10,000 ft possible. The top speed limitation proved troublesome against Soviet Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15s in Korea. Slower than the MiG, the F-84 was also unable to turn tightly with a maximum instantaneous-turn load of only 3 gs followed by rapid loss of airspeed. One F-84E pilot credited with two MiG kills achieved his second victory by intentionally flying his aircraft into pitch-up. The MiGs chasing him were unable to follow the violent maneuver and one crashed into the ground. Luckily for the F-84E pilot, the aircraft did not disintegrate but the airframe did suffer heavy warping. The F-84 was a stable gun platform and the computing gunsight aided in accurate gunnery and bombing. Pilots praised the aircraft for Republic's legendary ruggedness. Pilots nicknamed the Thunderjet "The Lead Sled". It was also called "The Iron Crowbar", "a hole sucking air", "The Hog" ("The Groundhog"), and "The World's Fastest Tricycle", "Ground Loving Whore" as a testament to its long takeoff rolls. F-84 lore stated that all aircraft were equipped with a "sniffer" device that, upon passing takeoff safety speed, would look for the dirt at the end of the runway. As soon as the device could smell the dirt, the controls would turn on and let the pilot fly off the ground. In the same vein, it was suggested a bag of dirt should be carried in the front landing gear well. Upon reaching takeoff safety speed, the pilot would dump the dirt under the wheels, fooling the sniffer device. Korean War The Thunderjet had a distinguished record during the Korean War. After the entry of the People's Republic of China into the war in October 1950, the US Fifth Air Force requested that a wing of F-84s be sent to Korea. While the F-84B and F-84C could not be deployed overseas because their J35 engines had a service life of only 40 hours, the F-84D and F-84E were more suitable, and so the F-84E-equipped 27th Fighter Escort Group was sent to the Far East aboard the aircraft carrier , which arrived in Japan on 30 November 1950. After maintenance, the F-84s moved to Taegu airfield (known as K-2), flying its first operational missions on 7 December 1950. The aircraft were initially tasked with escorting the B-29 Superfortress bombers. The first Thunderjet air-to-air victory was scored on 21 January 1951 at the cost of two F-84s. The F-84 was outmatched by the swept-wing Soviet Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15, which was both faster and more manoeuvrable, and the MiG counter-air mission was soon given to the F-86 Sabre. The F-84 switched to the ground attack role at which it excelled. The number of units operating the F-84 over Korea gradually increased, both by bringing over Air National Guard Groups from the US, and converting F-80 squadrons already in theater. The F-84 flew a total of 86,408 missions, dropping 55,586 tons (50,427 metric tons) of bombs and 6,129 tons (5,560 metric tons) of napalm, and firing 22,154 rockets. The USAF claimed F-84s were responsible for 60% of all ground targets destroyed in the war. Notable F-84 operations included the 1952 attack on the Sui-ho Dam. During the war, the F-84 became the first USAF fighter to utilize aerial refueling. In aerial combat, F-84 pilots were credited with eight MiG-15 kills against a Soviet-claimed loss of 64 aircraft. The total losses were 335 F-84D, E and G models. According to the USAF FY1953 statistical digest, during the Korean war, 305 F-84s were lost, including 249 in combat missions and 56 non-combat losses. Western Europe Air battle over Merklín - A notable incident occurred on 10 March 1953, when two Czech MiG 15 fighters intercepted two US Air Force F-84Es that were claimed to have strayed from German to Czechoslovakian airspace and shot one down. It crashed on the German side of the border and the pilot successfully ejected. Portugal Portugal received its first F-84s in January 1953, with 25 new build F-84Gs later supplemented by USAFE stocks and from other European operators, with deliveries eventually reaching 125 F-84Gs. They were the Força Aérea Portuguesa's first operational jet fighters. Two squadrons were formed in Portugal, operating the F-84 in both air-defense and ground attack roles, with the Thunderjet also equipping an aerobatic display team, the Dragões. In 1960, the two operational F-84 squadrons were disbanded and the remaining F-84s transferred to training units. In 1961, however, an uprising against Portuguese rule began in Angola, and as a result, 25 F-84Gs were refurbished by OGMA and sent to Angola, with the first aircraft arriving at Luanda in August that year. There, they formed the Esquadra 91 (91st Squadron), carrying out bomb, rocket and gun attacks against separatist forces. In 1966, after Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence, and the imposition of the Beira Patrol by the British Royal Navy to attempt to stop the flow of fuel to Rhodesia via the port of Beira, Mozambique, a detachment of eight F-84s was sent from Luanda to Mozambique to guard against potential clashes with British forces, with the aircraft returning to Angola when the threat of military action receded. Attrition of the F-84s was heavy, and by 1973, only five F-84s remained operational, with the last examples withdrawn from use that year, although the F-84G nominally remained in Portuguese service until October 1975. Republic of China The Republic of China Air Force received surplus F-84Gs from the USAF from 1953, and during the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis in 1958, its F-84s engaging in air-to-air combat against People's Liberation Army Air Force MiG-15s and MiG-17 fighters, with losses on both sides. The Republic of China replaced its Thunderjets with F-100s from later that year. Notable achievements The F-84 was the first aircraft flown by the U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds, which operated F-84G Thunderjets from 1953 to 1955 and F-84F Thunderstreaks from 1955 to 1956. The F-84E was also flown by the team of United States Air Forces Europe (USAFE). On 7 September 1946, the second XP-84 prototype set a national speed record of 607.2 mph (527.6 kn, 977.2 km/h), slightly slower than the world record 612.2 mph (532.0 kn, 985.2 km/h) held by the British Gloster Meteor. None of these records exceeded the April 1941 wartime achievement of an Me 163A rocket plane at some 624.2 mph; itself first exceeded by the American Douglas D-558-1 Skystreak in August 1947, using basically the same Allison J35 turbojet engine as the F-84. On 22 September 1950, two EF-84Es, flown by David C. Schilling and Col. William Ritchie, refuelled using the probe and drogue system from Avro Lincoln tankers operated by the British company Flight Refuelling Limited, flew across the North Atlantic from Great Britain to the United States. Ritchie's aircraft ran out of fuel over Newfoundland, but the other successfully made the crossing, which took 10 hours and 2 minutes and three aerial refuelings. The flight demonstrated that large numbers of fighters could be rapidly moved across the Atlantic. The F-84G was the first fighter with built-in aerial refueling capability and the first single-seat aircraft capable of carrying a nuclear bomb. On 20 August 1953, 17 F-84Gs of the 508th Strategic Fighter Wing using aerial refueling flew from the United States to the United Kingdom. The journey was the longest-ever nonstop flight by jet fighters at the time. In 1955, an F-84G became the first aircraft to be zero-length launched from a trailer. Costs Notes: The costs are 1950 estimates and have not been adjusted for inflation. Variants Straight-wing variants XP-84 The first two prototypes. Powered by J-35-GE-7 engine, and armed with four .50 in (12.7mm) machine guns. XP-84A The third prototype with a more powerful () J35-GE-15 engine. This airframe was subsequently modified with a pointed fairing over the intake and lateral NACA intakes were installed into the intake trunks. YP-84A Service test aircraft with J35-A-15 engines and six guns; 15 built. P-84B (F-84B)First production version, J35-A-15 engine; 226 built. F-84C Reverted to the more reliable J35-A-13 engine, improved fuel, hydraulic and electrical systems; 191 built. F-84D J35-A-17 engine, various structural improvements. The pitot tube was moved from the tail fin to the splitter in the air intake with fins added to the wingtip fuel tanks; 154 built. EF-84D Two F-84Ds, EF-84D 48-641 and EF-84D 48-661 were modified with wing-tip coupling devices to allow them to link in-flight with the wingtips of a B-29 bomber and extend the range of the fighters. The B-29 and one of the EF-84s were lost in an accident on 24 April 1953, when the F-84s automatic flight controls were activated after link-up. F-84E J35-A-17D engine, Sperry AN/APG-30 radar-ranging gunsight, retractable attachments for RATO bottles, inboard wing hardpoints made "wet" to permit carrying an additional pair of . Stretched fuselage and enlarged cockpit. Most aircraft were retrofitted with F-84G-style reinforced canopies. 843 built. Some aircraft used as interim reconnaissance aircraft, with cameras in the wingtip fuel tanks, by Netherlands and Norway until RF-84Fs became available. EF-84E F-84Es modified for testing - examples included testing of air-to-air refuelling systems, use as a FICON test aircraft with a B-36 host and use as test aircraft for the ZELMAL (Zero-length launch, Mat landing) experiments for operations away from airfields vulnerable to nuclear attack using the booster rocket from the MGM-1 Matador cruise missile. F-84G Single-seat fighter-bomber capable of delivering the Mark 7 nuclear bomb using the LABS, J35-A-29 engine, autopilot, capable of inflight refueling using both the boom (receptacle in left wing leading edge) and drogue (probe fitted to wingtip fuel tanks), introduced the multi-framed canopy which was later retrofitted to earlier straight-winged F-84s. A total of 3,025 were built (789 for the USAF for other users under MAP). Some used by Belgium, Denmark, France Italy and Yugoslavia as interim reconnaissance aircraft with cameras in the wingtip fuel tanks. F-84KX Conversion of ex-USAF F-84Bs into target drones for the United States Navy. Sometimes claimed that 80 aircraft converted but programme may have been cancelled prior to conversion or use of the aircraft. Tip-Tow See EF-84D above, did not become operational. See FICON project Tom-Tom Two RF-84K and B-36 wingtip coupling experiment, did not become operational. See FICON project FICON F-84E and GRB-36D trapeze system, became operational. See FICON project Swept-wing variants YF-96A aka YF-84F aka YRF-84K F-84E 49-2430 converted to swept wing configuration, and powered by J35-A35. The "first prototype" for the F-84F Thunderstreak. YF-84F Modified prototypes with Wright J65 engine and deeper fuselage. Two built. F-84F Thunderstreak Production version with swept wing and J65 engine. RF-84F Thunderflash Reconnaissance version of the F-84F, 715 built. RF-84K FICON project Reconnaissance version of the F model, 25 built to hang from the Consolidated B-36 Peacemaker. XF-84H Thunderscreech Experimental supersonic-turboprop version. YF-84J Two conversions with the General Electric J73 engine. Operators Belgian Air Force operated 21 F-84Es and 192 F-84Gs, with deliveries from April 1951. Replaced by F-84Fs and RF-84Fs in 1956. 54 Thunderjets were destroyed in crashes in Belgian service, with 23 pilots killed. Danish Air Force operated 240 Republic F-84G from April 1952 until January 1962 and 6 Republic F-84E. French Air Force received about 140 F-84E and F-84Gs. Royal Hellenic Air Force received about 200 F-84Gs from 1952 until June 1960. Iran Imperial Iranian Air Force operated 34 Republic F-84G from May 1957 until February 1965. Italian Air Force operated 254 Republic F-84Gs. Netherlands Air Force operated 21 F-84Es and 179 F-84Gs. They equipped the 306, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315 and 316 Squadrons. Norwegian Air Force operated 6 F-84Es and 200 Republic F-84G from 1951 to 1960. Portuguese Air Force operated 125 Republic F-84Gs from January 1953 until 1973. Republic of China Air Force operated F-84Gs from 1953 until 1964. Royal Thai Air Force operated 31 F-84Gs from 1956 until 1966. Turkish Air Force operated 479 F-84Gs from 1952 United States Air Force operated 226 F-84Bs, 191 F-84Cs, 154 F-84Ds, 743 F-84Es and 789 F-84Gs. Yugoslavian Air Force operated 219 F-84Gs from June 1953 until 1974. In May 1963 one Thunderjet crashed and exploded on a building in Slavina, Postojna. Two people and a pilot died in the incident. It is the only military airplane incident in Slovenia after the end of World war 2. Major USAF operational F-84 units 12th Fighter Escort Wing/Group: F-84E/G 14th Fighter Group: P/F-84B (1947–1949) 20th Fighter Bomber Wing/Group:F-84B/C/D/E/G 27th Fighter Escort Wing/Group: F-84E/G 31st Fighter Escort Wing/Group: F-84C/E/G 33rd Fighter Group: F-84C 36th Fighter-Bomber Wing: F-84E/G 48th Fighter-Bomber Wing: F-84G 49th Fighter Bomber Wing/Group: F-84E/G 58th Fighter Bomber Group: F-84E/G 78th Fighter Group/78th Fighter Interception Wing: F-84D (1949–1952) 86th Fighter-Bomber Wing: F-84E/G 113th Fighter-Interceptor Wing: F-84C 116th Fighter Bomber Wing: F-84E 122nd Fighter-Interceptor Wing: F-84C 123rd Fighter Bomber Wing: F-84B/D/E 132nd Fighter Bomber Wing: F-84B 136th Fighter Bomber Wing/Group: F-84E/D 137th Fighter-Bomber Wing: F-84B/C/D 312th Fighter Bomber Group: F-84E/G (1954–1955) 406th Fighter-Bomber Wing:F-84E 474th Fighter Bomber Wing: F-84E/G 506th Strategic Fighter Wing: F-84G 508th Strategic Fighter Wing: F-84G 4702d Fighter-Interceptor Wing: F-84D 4709th Fighter-Interceptor Wing: F-84G 4710th Fighter-Interceptor Wing 4925th Test Group (Atomic): F-84E/G Royal Netherlands Air Force operational F-84 units 306 Squadron: F-84E 311 Squadron: F-84E 312 Squadron: F-84G 313 Squadron: F-84E 314 Squadron: F-84G 315 Squadron: F-84G 316 Squadron: F-84G Aircraft on display Specifications (F-84G Thunderjet) See also References Citations Bibliography . United States Air Force Museum Guidebook''. Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio: Air Force Museum Foundation, 1975. External links "Our Jets Can Support the Guys On the Ground", Popular Science, September 1950, large article on the public debate about the F-84 in the close air support role, with photos and drawings. F-084 1940s United States fighter aircraft Single-engined jet aircraft Low-wing aircraft Cruciform tail aircraft Aircraft first flown in 1946
401045	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic%20F-105%20Thunderchief	Republic F-105 Thunderchief	The Republic F-105 Thunderchief is an American fighter-bomber that served with the United States Air Force from 1958 to 1984. Capable of Mach 2, it conducted the majority of strike bombing missions during the early years of the Vietnam War; it was the only American aircraft to have been removed from combat due to high loss rates. It was originally designed as a single-seat, nuclear-attack aircraft; a two-seat Wild Weasel version was later developed for the specialized Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD) role against surface-to-air missile sites. The F-105 was commonly known as the "Thud" by its crews. As a follow-on to the Mach 1 capable North American F-100 Super Sabre, the F-105 was also armed with missiles and a rotary cannon; however, its design was tailored to high-speed low-altitude penetration carrying a single nuclear weapon internally. First flown in 1955, the Thunderchief entered service in 1958. The single-engine F-105 could deliver a bomb load greater than some American heavy bombers of World War II such as the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress and Consolidated B-24 Liberator. The F-105 was one of the primary attack aircraft of the Vietnam War; over 20,000 Thunderchief sorties were flown, with 382 aircraft lost including 62 operational (non-combat) losses (out of the 833 produced). Although less agile than smaller MiG fighters, USAF F-105s were credited with 27.5 kills. During the conflict, the single-seat F-105D was the primary aircraft delivering heavy bomb loads against the various military targets. Meanwhile, the two-seat F-105F and F-105G Wild Weasel variants became the first dedicated SEAD platforms, fighting against the Soviet-built S-75 Dvina (NATO reporting name: SA-2 Guideline) surface-to-air missiles. Two Wild Weasel pilots were awarded the Medal of Honor for attacking North Vietnamese surface-to-air missile sites, with one shooting down two MiG-17s the same day. The dangerous missions often required them to be the "first in, last out", suppressing enemy air defenses while strike aircraft accomplished their missions and then left the area. When the Thunderchief entered service it was the largest single-seat, single-engine combat aircraft in history, weighing approximately . It could exceed the speed of sound at sea level and reach Mach 2 at high altitude. The F-105 could carry up to of bombs and missiles. The Thunderchief was later replaced as a strike aircraft over North Vietnam by both the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II and the swing-wing General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark. However, the "Wild Weasel" variants of the F-105 remained in service until early 1984, at which point they were replaced by the specialized F-4G "Wild Weasel V". Development Design phase Republic Aviation started work on what would become the Thunderchief during 1951. It was conceived of as an internal project to produce a replacement for the RF-84F Thunderflash, which first used the characteristic wing-root air intakes to make room for cameras in the nose section. The design team led by Alexander Kartveli examined some 108 configurations before settling on a large, single-engine AP-63FBX (Advanced Project 63 Fighter Bomber, Experimental), specifically AP-63-31. The new aircraft was intended primarily for supersonic, low altitude penetration to deliver a single, internally carried nuclear bomb. The emphasis was placed on low-altitude speed and flight characteristics, range, and payload. The aircraft would be fitted with a large engine, and a relatively small wing with a high wing loading for a stable ride at low altitudes, and less drag at supersonic speeds. Traditional fighter attributes such as maneuverability were a secondary consideration. During April 1952, Republic made its contractor proposal, which contained many of the features that the United States Air Force (USAF) would have liked the RF-84F to have been outfitted with had it been technically possible; one month, the Air Staff endorsed its development over that of further developing the RF-84F. The USAF promptly issued Republic with an initial contract covering preproduction engineering, tooling, as well as the production of 199 aircraft, the first of which was to be operationally ready by 1955. However, by March 1953, the USAF had reduced the order to 37 fighter-bombers and nine tactical reconnaissance aircraft, citing the approaching end of the Korean War. In October 1953, the F-105 mock-up was inspected; no major changes were recommended. By this point, the aircraft had grown so large that the Allison J71 turbojet intended for it was abandoned in favor of the more powerful Pratt & Whitney J75. Anticipating a protracted development of the engine, it was expected that the first aircraft would use the smaller Pratt & Whitney J57. Near the end of 1953, the entire program was suspended by the USAF due to a number of delays and uncertainties regarding the aircraft. However, on 28 June 1954, the USAF officially ordered 15 F-105s (two YF-105As, four YF-105Bs, six F-105Bs, and three RF-105Bs) under the Weapon System designation WS-306A. Initial flights On 22 October 1955, the YF-105A prototype performed its maiden flight; after 22 hours of flight time, this prototype was returned to the factory for repairs after sustaining major damage. The second YF-105A made its first flight on 28 January 1956. Despite being powered by a less potent J57-P-25 engine with of afterburning thrust, the first prototype attained the speed of Mach 1.2 on its maiden flight. (The J75 was expected to generate with afterburner.) Both aircraft featured conventional wing root air intakes and slab-sided fuselages typical of the early jets; Republic viewed the prototypes as not being representative of the true capability of the aircraft due to numerous changes that were enacted prior to production. Specifically, insufficient power and aerodynamic problems with transonic drag, as well as Convair's experience with their F-102, had led to a redesign of the fuselage to conform to the area rule, giving it a characteristic "wasp waist". In combination with the distinctive forward-swept variable-geometry air intakes which regulated airflow to the engine at supersonic speeds and the J75 engine, this redesign enabled the F-105B to attain Mach 2.15. During March 1956, the USAF placed a further order for 65 F-105Bs and 17 RF-105Bs. In order to conduct the nuclear mission, an MA-8 fire control system, AN/APG-31 ranging radar, and K-19 gunsight to allow for toss bombing were integrated. On 26 May 1956, the first pre-production YF-105B made its maiden flight. Five of the F-105C trainer variant were added to the procurement plan in June 1956, before being canceled during 1957. The RF-105 reconnaissance variant was canceled in July 1956. The first production F-105B was accepted by the USAF on 27 May 1957. In June 1957, Republic Aviation requested that the F-105 be named Thunderchief, continuing the sequence of the company's Thunder-named aircraft: P-47 Thunderbolt, F-84 Thunderjet, and F-84F Thunderstreak. The USAF made this name official one month later. Later development To fulfill the USAF's requirement for an all-weather attack aircraft, Republic proposed the F-105D variant during 1957. This version featured an enlarged nose and radome housing the AN/ASG-19 Thunderstick bombing/navigation system. The AN/ASG-19 was designed around the Autonetics R-14A radar, which operated in both air-to-air and air-to-ground modes, and the AN/APN-131 Doppler navigation radar. In the cockpit, the F-105D featured vertical-tape instrument displays for adverse weather operation. The ability to carry the TX-43 nuclear weapon was also added. On account of these myriad changes, Republic noted the difficulty of using the same production line as had been used for the F-105B; production times would also be extended from 144 days to 214 days. Development of the RF-105 reconnaissance model was restarted during the late 1950s, for a time based on the F-105D, before work on the model was cancelled for the final time on 23 December 1960. On 18 March 1959, the planned F-105E twin-seater was also cancelled due to its high cost; it was replaced on a one-to-one basis by additional F-105Ds. On 9 June 1959, the first F-105D took its maiden flight. Flight testing of the F-105D was somewhat less troubled than the less advanced F-105B, to the point where the D-model was ready for operational service ahead of its predecessor. Category II flight testing in late 1959 identified various key deficiencies on the F-105B, particularly with the MA-8 fire control system and autopilot of this variant. While eventually rectified successfully, it took time to develop and deploy appropriate modifications, putting the production programme further behind. By the start of 1960, none of the 56 F-105Bs that had been delivered were considered to be operationally ready. At one point, there were plans in progress to procure in excess of 1,500 F-105Ds; however, production schedules continued to be missed, in part due to strikes by Republic's workforce, that impacted the USAF's plans for the type. Production of the F-105 was heavily impacted by the decision taken by Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara to equip no more than seven combat wings with the type. During November 1961, production of the type was cut in favor of the USAF adopting the Navy's F-4 Phantom II, and in the longer term, the General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark of the TFX program. While considerations towards reopening production of the F-105 were discussed in 1967, this interest did not ultimately see any such revival. The final 143 Thunderchiefs built were of the two-seat F-105F trainer variant. Based on the F-105D, this model was 31 inches (79 cm) longer to provide room for the rear cockpit; otherwise, the aircraft had similar flight performance to the preceding F-105D. A total of 833 F-105s were completed before production ended in 1964. The F-105 had been designed for a short nuclear campaign, leading to shortcomings that became evident in a lengthy conventional war, such as a poor hydraulics layout and fuel tanks that were not self-sealing. Subsequent upgrades improved the reliability and weapons capacity of the existing F-105Ds. In response to the surface-to-air missile (SAM) threat experienced in the skies above Vietnam, dozens of F-105Fs were converted into anti-radar "Wild Weasel" aircraft, culminating with the F-105G. Design Overview The F-105 was a mid-wing monoplane with a 45° swept wing and tail surfaces. The single engine was fed by two intakes in the wing roots, leaving the nose free for a radome housing the multi-mode radar. Its fuselage provided room for of fuel and an internal bomb bay. The bomb bay measured by by ; it was originally designed to carry a single nuclear weapon but typically held an additional fuel tank. It featured four under-wing and one centerline pylon; the two inner wing and centerline pylons were capable of accepting fuel from drop tanks. Two outer dry stations were wired for missiles or bombs. One M61 Vulcan (initially designated T-171E3) 20 mm 6-barrel Gatling-style cannon was installed in the left side of the nose. A short-range AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missile could be carried on each of the outer wing pylons. The F-105 was designed primarily for low-level interdiction and its low-altitude speed was its greatest asset when dealing with enemy fighters such as the MiG-17/J-5s and MiG-21. The F-105 managed 27.5 air-to-air victories. Based on combat experience, the F-105D was updated with a better ejection seat, additional armor, improved gun sights, and Electronic Counter Measures (ECM) pods on the wings. Flight characteristics Former North American F-86 Sabre pilot Jerry Noel Hoblit recalled being in awe of the F-105's size after seeing it for the first time; he could not manage to reach the air intake lip even with a running jump. The F-105 had a spacious cockpit with good visibility and layout (particularly after the introduction of "tape" instruments); the advanced electronics were easy to learn and operate. Takeoffs and landings were often performed in the range. The spoilers provided good roll control at all speeds and the distinctive four-petal airbrakes (which also opened slightly when the afterburner was engaged to allow for the larger flow of exhaust gases) were highly effective even at supersonic speeds. Loss of control due to a spin or complications of adverse yaw required deliberate effort from the pilot and spontaneous spin recovery was rapid. The initial reaction of the fighter pilot community to their new aircraft was lukewarm. Between its massive dimensions and troubled early service life, the F-105 had garnered a number of uncomplimentary nicknames. In addition to the aforementioned "Thud", nicknames included the "Squat Bomber", "Lead Sled", and the "Hyper Hog" and/or "Ultra Hog". The latter two names arose from the F-105's predecessors, the Republic F-84 Thunderjet and F-84F Thunderstreak, nicknamed "Hog" and "Super Hog", respectively. According to F-105 pilots and crews, the "Thud" nickname was inspired by the character "Chief Thunderthud" from the Howdy Doody television series. The aircraft's offensive capabilities were sarcastically referred to as a "Triple Threat"—it could bomb you, strafe you, or fall on you. Positive aspects, such as the F-105's responsive controls, strong performance at high speed and low altitude, and its outfit of electronics won over some pilots. For some, "Thud" was a term of endearment; retroactively the RF-84F Thunderflash became known as "Thud's Mother". F-105 pilot Colonel Jack Broughton said of the nickname: "The Thud has justified herself, and the name that was originally spoken with a sneer has become one of utmost respect through the air fraternity". Special modifications Commando Nail The rear cockpits of several two-seat F-105Fs were modified under project Commando Nail with an R-14A radar and a radar scope that offered high resolution. These aircraft were used for all-weather and night low-level strikes against especially dangerous targets by a unit from the 13th Tactical Fighter Squadron (1966–1975) dubbed "Ryan's Raiders" starting in April 1967. Some of these aircraft were later converted to the Wild Weasel III standard. In an effort to thwart MiG attacks, several F-105Fs were also fitted with Hallicrafters QRC-128 communication jamming system under project Combat Martin. The North Vietnamese interceptor force followed Soviet air-defense doctrine, with pilots under rigid direction of ground controllers over radio links. The QRC-128, nicknamed "Colonel Computer", filled up the rear cockpit of the F-105F. It bounced voice communications over the radio channel back out after a delay, resulting in an obnoxious garble. However, the first time the Combat Martin was used, the US National Security Agency (NSA), in charge of US strategic signals intelligence, ordered the Air Force to cease and desist immediately, since the NSA believed that the intelligence obtained by monitoring the channels outweighed the benefits of jamming them. Thunderstick II Experience in Vietnam demonstrated the need for a better visual and blind bombing capability. In March 1968, the Air Force ordered development of an upgraded bombing/navigation system, incorporating a Singer-General Precision inertial navigation system, improvements to the AN/APN-131 navigation radar, and solid-state circuitry for the R-14A radar, which was redesignated R-14K. Furthermore, the digital AN/ARN-92 long-range navigation receiver replaced the problematic AN/ARN-85 receiver. The additional avionics were housed in a long, raised dorsal spine. The modified bombing/navigation system was known as Thunderstick II. F-105s with this system could achieve a bombing circular error of probability (CEP) of from an altitude of . Although the first Thunderstick II aircraft flew in 1969, they were not used in Vietnam. A total of 30 F-105Ds received this modification. Wild Weasel In 1965, the USAF began operating two-seat North American F-100F Super Sabres specially equipped for Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD) missions in Vietnam. Nicknamed the Wild Weasel, these aircraft achieved a number of victories against North Vietnamese surface-to-air missile radars. The second crew member was a Navigator trained as an Electronic Warfare Officer (EWO) to decipher sensor information and guide the pilot towards the targets. However, the F-100F was an interim solution, since its limited payload often required multiple aircraft to conduct a successful strike; it also lacked the speed and endurance to effectively protect the F-105. The resulting EF-105F Wild Weasel III (the EF designation was popularly used but unofficial) supplemented its sensors and electronic jamming equipment with AGM-45 Shrike anti-radiation missiles and conventional bombs, giving it an offensive capability lacking in the F-100F. The first of these aircraft flew on 15 January 1966 and they began arriving in Southeast Asia in May, flying their first mission on 6 June 1966, with five assigned to the 13th TFS at Korat RTAFB and six more to the 354th TFS at Takhli RTAFB. In a typical early mission, a single EF-105F would accompany one or two flights of F-105Ds to provide protection from enemy ground fire. While this strategy was effective in reducing F-105D losses, the Weasel aircraft suffered heavy casualties with five of the first 11 lost in July and August 1966. Attacks into high-risk environments saw the Weasels operating in "Iron Hand" hunter-killer flights of mixed single-seat and two-seat Thunderchiefs, suppressing sites during attacks by the strike force and attacking others en route. In the fall of 1967, EF-105Fs began to be upgraded to the definitive Wild Weasel Thunderchief, the F-105G. The F-105G incorporated a considerable amount of new SEAD-specific avionics, including an upgraded Radar Homing and Warning (RHAW) system which required a redesign of the wingtips. To free outboard hardpoints for additional weapons, the Westinghouse AN/ALQ-105 electronic countermeasures were permanently installed in two long blisters on the underside of the fuselage. Thirty aircraft were fitted with pylons to carry the AGM-78 Standard anti-radiation missile. On a typical mission, the F-105G carried two Shrikes on outboard pylons, a single Standard on an inboard pylon balanced by a fuel tank on the other side, and a centerline fuel tank. Costs Operational history Introduction The F-105B entered USAF service with the Tactical Air Command's 335th Tactical Fighter Squadron of the 4th Tactical Fighter Wing in August 1958, although the squadron did not become fully operational until 1959. On 11 December 1959, an F-105B piloted by Brig Gen Joseph Moore (commander of the 4th Tactical Fighter Wing) set a world record of over a circuit. Difficulties with its avionics and the MA-8 fire-control system were experienced early on; typically the F-105 required 150 hours of maintenance for each flying hour. Most of these problems were addressed under Project Optimize. The lack of spares resulted in the entire F-105B fleet being briefly grounded in 1960. In 1964, modified F-105Bs with ballast replacing the cannon, fuselage and wing reinforcement for aerobatics, and the addition of a smoke generator, briefly flew with the United States Air Force Thunderbirds demonstration team. After only six shows, a fatal accident from overstressing the airframe led to the reintroduction of the F-100 Super Sabre. By 1964, the F-105B was relegated to USAF Air National Guard (ANG) squadrons. It was replaced in frontline service by the definitive F-105D whose advanced NASARR R-14A radar and AN/ASG-19 Thunderstick fire-control system gave it all-weather capability. The R-14A radar also added a terrain-avoidance radar capability, while a completely new instrument panel was fitted, replacing dial-type instrument with vertical tape instruments which were easier to read in combat. In order to accommodate the new radar, with a much larger radar dish, the forward fuselage was redesigned, increasing overall length by . The F-105D entered service with the 335th TFS in September 1960, although it was not fully operational on the F-105D until early 1961. The first overseas F-105 units formed in West Germany in 1961, with the 36th Tactical Fighter Wing at Bitburg Air Base in May and the 49th Tactical Fighter Wing at Spangdahlem Air Base in October. Both wings had a primary tactical nuclear strike role for NATO. The F-105D was also deployed to the Pacific, with the 18th Tactical Fighter Wing at Kadena in Okinawa converting in 1962 and the 8th Tactical Fighter Wing converting from 1963. Like the F-105B, the F-105D's early career was plagued with maintenance problems and in-flight failures. The origins of the nickname "Thud" were obscure; some claim that it stood for the sound of an F-105 crashing into the ground. The entire F-105D fleet was grounded in December 1961 and then again in June 1962. Many of the issues were worked out during the production run and by 1964, early F-105Ds were upgraded with these fixes under Project Look Alike, although engine failures and fuel system problems persisted until 1967. Meanwhile, the USAF was gradually changing the anticipated F-105 mission from nuclear interdiction to conventional bombing. The Look Alike upgrades increased the aircraft's capacity from four to 16 conventional bombs on underwing and fuselage centerline hardpoints and added the equipment to launch AGM-12 Bullpup air-to-ground missiles. In June 1961, an F-105D delivered of conventional bombs during a USAF test—at the time a record for a single-engine aircraft with a payload three times heavier than American four-engine heavy bombers of World War II such as the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress and the Consolidated B-24 Liberator, though aerial refueling would be required for long missions. One of the F-105Ds was named Memphis Belle II after the famed World War II B-17. Vietnam War In spite of a troubled early service life, the F-105 became the dominant attack aircraft early in the Vietnam War. The F-105 could carry more than twice the bomb load farther and faster than the F-100, which was used mostly in South Vietnam. In a foreshadowing of its Wild Weasel role, the first F-105D combat mission of the war involved an attack on 14 August 1964 against an anti-aircraft artillery site on Plaine des Jarres. This mission was carried out by aircraft of the 36th TFS, 6441st Tactical Fighter Wing deployed from Yokota Air Base, Japan to Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand. The first Thunderchief lost in the war also occurred during this mission, although the pilot managed to return the aircraft to Korat. The first strike mission took place on 13 January 1965 with the destruction of the Ban Ken bridge in Laos. In early 1965 additional F-105 squadrons were deployed to Korat and Takhli air bases in Thailand. At the start of Operation Rolling Thunder in March 1965, large numbers of F-105Ds were shipped to these bases to participate in intense bombing missions. On 3 April 1965, a total of 79 aircraft, including 45 F-105 Thunderchiefs, were sent against the Thanh Hoa Bridge, nicknamed "Dragon's Jaw". The next day, enemy MiGs were encountered during a second run upon the bridge; a total of eight MiG-17s faced 46 F-105s escorted by a MiGCAP flight of 21 F-100 Super Sabres. The MiG-17s evaded the escorts using altitude and cloud cover, instead focusing upon the bomb-laden Thunderchiefs. Two Thunderchiefs were lost to the MiG-17s; a third, thought to be lost to ground fire, was later claimed by the North as downed by a MiG-17. One F-105 piloted narrowly escaped. USAF Chief of Staff General John P. McConnell was "hopping mad" to hear that two F-105s had been shot down by Korean War-era subsonic North Vietnamese MiGs. The Thanh Hoa Bridge proved resistant to aerial bombing; multiple missions were flown to damage the bridge both by F-105s and U.S. Navy aircraft. On 24 July 1965, four U.S. Air Force McDonnell F-4C Phantoms took part in an airstrike against the Dien Ben Phu munitions storage depot and the Lang Chi munitions factory west of Hanoi. One was shot down and three were damaged by SA-2 missiles. After two days, President Johnson gave the order to attack all known SA-2 positions which had been discovered outside the 30-mile exclusion zone. On the morning of 27 July, 48 F-105s participated in the Operation Spring High attack. But the Vietnamese knew U.S. aircraft were coming and set up many 23mm and 37mm anti-aircraft guns at the site. These anti-aircraft guns were lethal at close range and the Vietnamese shot down six aircraft, while more than half of the remaining U.S aircraft suffered damage from ground fire. Both SAM sites were devoid of missiles and equipment, and the Vietnamese had substituted white-painted bundles of bamboo for the real SA-2s. Operation Spring High destroyed two worthless targets at the cost of six aircraft and five pilots. In December 1966, the Vietnam People's Air Force (VPAF)'s MiG-21 pilots of the 921st Regiment claimed to have downed 14 F-105s without any losses. On a typical combat mission into North Vietnam, the F-105D carried two wing-mounted fuel tanks, a fuel tank in the bomb bay, and five or six bombs, and required inflight refueling going to and sometimes returning from Hanoi distant. F-105s flying in the vicinity of Hanoi would routinely travel around mountainous terrain nicknamed Thud Ridge to evade the air defenses surrounding the city. Colonel Jack Broughton, an F-105 pilot in Vietnam, noted the demands of flying close to Hanoi gave "simply no room for error". On 11 August 1967, F-105Ds from 335th Tactical Fighter Squadron with support from F-105 Wild Weasels from 338th Tactical Fighter Squadron made the first of many successful attacks on the Paul Doumer bridge over the Red River. Flying low-altitude missions and conducting dive bombings forced the F-105s into range of North Vietnamese anti-aircraft guns, sometimes coming under heavy fire. USAF F-105s were escorted by F-4s to protect them against enemy fighters. However, the Thunderchief was officially credited with 27.5 air-to-air victories against VPAF aircraft at the cost of 17 aircraft lost to enemy fighters (North Vietnamese pilots claimed to have shot down an additional 23 F-105s but none have been confirmed by USAF). All victories were against MiG-17s. Of these 24.5 were shot down with cannon fire (one victory was shared with an F-4), and three with AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles. One F-105F is unofficially credited with downing three MiGs—one by air-to-air missile, the second by cannon fire and the third by jettisoning the centerline rack full of bombs directly into the path of a surprised MiG. On 31 May 1968, a dedication ceremony took place at the United States Air Force Academy to honor graduates who had served in Vietnam. An F-105, which had been assembled using parts from ten different F-105s that had seen service in Vietnam, was placed on permanent static display. The ceremony included the entire cadet wing, the superintendent and commandant of cadets of the USAFA, a representative of Republic Aircraft, members of the press, among others. To conclude the ceremony, a flight of four F-105s from McConnell AFB were to fly over in formation at 1,000 feet above the ground and then fly over singly at 250 feet. The formation portion happened as planned. But the flight leader, Lt Col James "Black Matt" Matthews, came back for the single-file pass and exceeded the speed of sound at less than 100 feet. The ensuing sonic boom broke hundreds of windows and fifteen people sustained cuts. Medal of Honor recipients Two Wild Weasel pilots received the Medal of Honor: USAF Captain Merlyn H. Dethlefsen was awarded the Medal of Honor and Capt Kevin "Mike" Gilroy the Air Force Cross for an F-105F Wild Weasel mission on 10 March 1967, flying F-105F, serial number 63-8352. After their aircraft was damaged by ground fire, Dethlefsen and Gilroy elected to stay in the skies above the steel works at Thai Nguyen until the SAM site was found and destroyed. USAF Captain Leo K. Thorsness was awarded the Medal of Honor and Capt Harold Johnson the Air Force Cross for an F-105F Wild Weasel mission on 19 April 1967, flying F-105F, serial number 63-8301. Thorsness and Johnson protected an attempted rescue of another Wild Weasel crew that had been shot down, in the process destroying two MiG-17s. After running out of ammunition, Thorsness and Johnson continued to act as decoys to draw the MiGs away from the rescue aircraft. Phase-out and retirement As production of F-105s had ended, the type was replaced in the Vietnam War by other aircraft, primarily the F-4 Phantom II. In October 1970, the 355th Tactical Fighter Wing, which was based at Takhli RTAFB, Thailand, and was the last F-105D unit in Southeast Asia, began to return to the U.S. The F-105G Wild Weasel versions soldiered on until the end of the war. They were gradually replaced by F-4G Wild Weasel IVs. The Thunderchief was rapidly withdrawn from USAF service after the end of the Vietnam War. Of the 833 F-105s built, a combined 395 F-105s were lost in Southeast Asia, including 334 (296 F-105Ds and 38 two-seaters) lost to enemy action and 61 lost in operational accidents. Following the war the USAF began transferring the remaining aircraft to Air Force Reserve (AFRES) and Air National Guard (ANG) units. By the late 1970s, these aging Thunderchiefs were becoming difficult to maintain. The last F-105Gs with the 128th Tactical Fighter Squadron of the Georgia ANG were retired on 25 May 1983. The last flight of the F-105 Thunderchief was by the AFRES 466th Tactical Fighter Squadron with F-105Ds on 25 February 1984. Variants YF-105A Two pre-production prototypes with P&W J57 engine model. YF-105B Four pre-production aircraft with P&W J75 engine. F-105B Initial production model with AN/APN-105 navigational radar, 71 built. JF-105B Test aircraft built from re-allocated RF-105B airframes; three built. RF-105B Proposed reconnaissance version of the F-105B; none built. Three were ordered but completed as JF-105Bs. F-105C Proposed dual-control trainer; canceled in 1957, none built. F-105D The definitive production model, all-weather capability because of advanced avionics, including AN/APN-131 navigational radar; 610 built. RF-105D Proposed reconnaissance version of the F-105D; none built. F-105E Proposed trainer version of F-105D; cancelled in 1959, none completed. F-105F Two-seat trainer version of F-105D with lengthened forward fuselage. It was fully combat-capable and had dual controls, taller fin, and increased takeoff weight; its first flight took place on 11 June 1963. A total of 143 were built. EF-105F Initial designation for a Wild Weasel/Defense suppression version, 54 converted from F-105Fs. F-105G Two-seat Wild Weasel, improved version of the EF-105F. F-105H Proposed upgraded two-seat variant based on the F-105F with a larger wing with folding wing tips, nose, larger vertical tail, larger stabiliator, and modified landing gear. Never built. Operators United States Air Force United States Air Force Thunderbirds Air Force Reserve Air National Guard Surviving aircraft Specifications (F-105D) See also References Notes Citations Bibliography External links USAF Museum F-105D Factsheet and USAF Museum F-105F/G Factsheet on nationalmuseum.af.mil Republic F-105 Thunderchief on Greg Goebel's AIR VECTORS The F-105 Thud, a legend flown by legends on talkingproud.us Craig Baker's F-105 Site on burrusspta.org Republic F-105 Thunderchief In Combat Thud Ridge Web, via web.archive.org F-105 Thunderchief page on break-left.org F-105 Thunderchief Walk Around on primeportal.net F-105 profile on Aerospaceweb.org Twenty-five hour day (thumbnails); film primarily covering an F-105 attack over North Vietnam; plenty of Thud footage, and coverage of the support required for such an operation List of F-105 Thunderchiefs on display in the US on aero-web.org , a 1959 Flight advertisement for the F-105. flightglobal.com There Is A Way, documentary on the 421st TFS "Fighting Cavaliers" who flew from Korat, via YouTube Republic F-105 Thunderchief Aircraft first flown in 1955 Mid-wing aircraft F-105 Second-generation jet fighters Single-engined jet aircraft
401079	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiyuan	Taiyuan	Taiyuan (; ; ; Mandarin pronunciation: ; also known as (), ()) is the capital and largest city of Shanxi Province, People's Republic of China. Taiyuan is the political, economic, cultural and international exchange center of Shanxi Province. It is an industrial base focusing on energy and heavy chemicals. Throughout its long history, Taiyuan was the capital or provisional capital of many dynasties in China, hence the name (). As of 2021, the city will govern 6 districts, 3 counties, and host a county-level city with a total area of 6,988 square kilometers and a permanent population of 5,390,957. Taiyuan is located roughly in the centre of Shanxi, with the Fen River flowing through the central city. Taiyuan belongs to the warm temperate continental monsoon climate, with long, dry and cold winters, hot and humid summers, short and windy spring and autumn, and distinct dry and wet seasons. Etymology and names The two Chinese characters of the city's name are (, "great") and (, "plain"), referring to the location where the Fen River leaves the mountains and enters a relatively flat plain. Throughout its long history, the city had various names, including () (from which the city's abbreviated single-character name () is derived), () and (). During the Tang dynasty and subsequent Five Dynasties, the status of the city of Taiyuan was elevated to be the Northern Capital, hence the name (), and (, different from present-day Beijing). History Taiyuan is an ancient city with more than 2500 years of urban history, dating back from 497 BC. It was the capital or secondary capital (, ) of Zhao, Former Qin, Eastern Wei, Northern Qi, Northern Jin, Later Tang, Later Jin, Later Han, Northern Han. Its strategic location and rich history make Taiyuan one of the economic, political, military, and cultural centers of Northern China. Pre-Qin dynasty history From about 859 BC the area around modern-day Taiyuan was occupied by the Rong people. In 662 BC the Rong were driven out by the Di people. During the Spring and Autumn period, the state of Jin emerged to the south of Taiyuan. In 541 BC, the Jin army led by General (), drove out the Di Tribes, and Taiyuan became part of the state of Jin. In 497 BC, the first ancient city of Jinyang was built around the southern Jinyuan District of present-day Taiyuan, by Dong Anyu (), who was a steward of (), an upper-level official of the state of Jin. During the Battle of Jinyang in 453 BC, Zhi Yao diverted the flow of the Fen River to inundate the city of Jinyang, caused significant damage to the Zhao. Later, Zhao Xiangzi alerted Wei and Han, who both decided to ally with Zhao. On the night of 8 May 453 BC, Zhao troops broke the dams of the Fen River and let the river flood the Zhi armies, and eventually annihilated the Zhi army, with the help from Wei and Han. The Tripartition of Jin happened in 403 BC, when the state of Jin, then a strong power in Northern China, was divided into three smaller states of Han, Zhao and Wei. This event is the watershed between the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods in Chinese history. Jinyang, was chosen as the capital of Zhao, by Zhao Ji. Later, the capital of Zhao was moved to Handan in modern Hebei. Qin dynasty In 248 BC, the state of Qin attacked Zhao under General Meng'ao, and obtained the area around Jinyang from Zhao. Qin set up the Commandery of Taiyuan (), with the city of Jinyang as its administrative center. Although, the name Taiyuan had appeared in historic records before, potentially referring to different regions in nowadays southern and central Shanxi, this was the first time Taiyuan was officially used to refer to present-day Taiyuan. In 246 BC, there was an uprising in Jinyang, and it was quickly quelled by Meng'ao. Between 229 and 228 BC, Qin General Li Xin lead two armies that marched from the cities of Taiyuan and Yunzhong to attack Zhao's northern commandery of Dai. Three months after General Li Mu’s death; Wang Jian, Li Xin & Qiang Lei conquered Zhao. In 221 BC, Qin conquered the rest of China, and officially started the first imperial dynasty of China. Qin established thirty-six commanderies on its territory, and Taiyuan was one of them. Also, the capital of commandery of Taiyuan was Jinyang. Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms In 206 BC, Emperor Gaozu Liu Bang established the Han dynasty. During that period, the Qin administrative system of commanderies was abolished, the two Commanderies of Taiyuan and Yanmen were combined as the vassal state of Han () under the rule of King Xin of Han (). Later, King Xin of Han moved the capital from Jinyang to Mayi (present-day Shuozhou) with the approval from the emperor Gaozu. However, King Xin of Han conspired with the Xiongnu against Gaozu, and attacked Han for many years. In 196 BC, King Xin of Han was killed after he lost a battle. And the vassal state of Han was replaced by the vassal state of Dai, with Jinyang as the administrative center of Dai. During the tumultuous Three Kingdoms, the population of Taiyuan decreased significantly due to constant warfares. Taiyuan was ruled by Gongsun Zan, Yuan Shao, and then by Cao Cao, and was part of Cao Wei afterwards. Jin dynasty and Sixteen Kingdoms During the Jin dynasty, Taiyuan was again changed into a vassal state. Following the ending of the Jin dynasty, ethnic minority peoples settled a series of short-lived sovereign states in northern China, commonly referred to as Sixteen Kingdoms. Taiyuan was part of Former Zhao, Later Zhao, Former Qin, Former Yan, Former Qin again, Western Yan, and Later Yan chronologically. In 304, Liu Yuan founded the Xiongnu state of Former Zhao, whose army raided the area around Taiyuan for years and eventually obtained Taiyuan in 316. In 319, Taiyuan became part of Later Zhao, founded by Shi Le. Later, Taiyuan was obtained by Former Yan in 358, and by Former Qin in 370. Former Qin was founded by Fu Jian in 351 with capital of Chang'an. Fu Jian died in 384. His son Fu Pi declared himself an emperor in 385, with Jinyang (central city of Taiyuan) as the capital. But the next year, Fu Pi was defeated by the Western Yan prince Murong Yong in 386, and Taiyuan became part of Western Yan. In 394, Taiyuan was conquered by Later Yan army. Southern and Northern Dynasties In 386, Tuoba Gui founded Northern Wei. In 396, Northern Wei expanded to Taiyuan. In 543, Eastern Wei was founded by Gao Huan, with the capital at the city of Ye, and Taiyuan as the alternative capital (), where the Mansion of the "Great Chancellor" Gao Huan () was located. In 550, Northern Qi was founded by Gao Yang, who maintained his father Gao Huan's choice of Taiyuan as the alternative capital. The Buddhist Tianlongshan Grottoes of Taiyuan started during this period, and continued for many centuries afterwards. In 577, Taiyuan was conquered and became part of Northern Zhou. Sui dynasty In 581, Emperor Wen of Sui founded Sui dynasty. Jinyang was first the administrative center of Bing Zhou (), which was changed into Taiyuan Commandery. In 617, Li Yuan rose in rebellion based in Taiyuan, and expanded quickly. Tang dynasty In 618, Li Yuan founded Tang dynasty, which is generally considered a golden age of Chinese civilization. Taiyuan expanded significantly during the Tang dynasty, partly because Taiyuan was the military base of the founding emperors Li Yuan and Li Shimin. As Li Shimin wrote in 619: "Taiyuan, the base of the imperial regime and the foundation of the state." () In 690, Wu Zetian set Taiyuan as the Northern Capital, (), one of the three capitals, along with Chang'an and Luoyang, as depicted in the poem by Li Bai: "The king of the heaven has three capitals, the Northern capital is one of them." (""). In 742 AD, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang changed its name further to Beijing (). During the Tang dynasty, the title Northern Capital to Taiyuan had been endowed or abolished multiple times. Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms In 923, Li Cunxu, son of Li Keyong, founded Later Tang with capital of Daming, and soon conquered most of North China, and ended Later Liang. Afterwards, Li Cunxu moved the capital from Daming to Luoyang, and Taiyuan was set as a provisional capital, titled "Beidu" (北都, literally 'Northern Capital'). In 936, Shi Jingtang established Later Jin in Taiyuan with the help from Khitan Liao dynasty. The next year, Shi Jingtang moved the capital from Taiyuan to Luoyang, and then to Kaifeng, and Taiyuan became a provisional northern capital ("Beijing") again. Song dynasty Zhao Kuangyin (Emperor Taizu of Song ) established the Song dynasty and embarked on the campaign of re-unification of China. Using a power struggle at the Northern Han court Taizu moved against it in the late 968. By early 969 his armies encircled Taiyuan and defeated the reinforcements sent by the Khitan. However, an attempt to flood the city failed. The siege was lifted after three months, as heavy rains caused diseases in the besieging army, the supplies were running low, and another Khitan relief force was advancing towards the city. Taizu launched the second invasion of Northern Han in September 969, but the armies were recalled after his death (November 14,969). Taizu's brother Taizong subjugated the last independent kingdoms in the south of China by 978, and in 979 launched the third campaign against the Northern Han and its overlord the Khitan state of Liao. Using the north-western route instead of the southern (used in the previous campaigns) the armies of Taizong defeated a major Liao force. Isolated, the Northern Han resisted for only fifteen days before surrendering. In contrast to the mild policies of his brother, Taizong dealt harshly with the city. He ordered the flooding of Taiyuan by releasing the Fen River, and set the city on fire. The former capital was downgraded from prefecture to county town status. It was not until 982 that a new city was founded on the banks of the Fen River. The oldest existing building in Taiyuan today is the Temple of the Goddess () inside the Jin Ci Complex. It was originally built in 1023 and reconstructed in 1102. From 1027 one of the two private markets for Tangut goods, particularly salt, operated in Taiyuan. During the Song period many people, including the family of chancellor Wang Anshi, migrated south. Jin dynasty The Jurchen Jin dynasty was founded in 1115, and in 1125, Taiyuan was conquered by Jin. Yuan dynasty The Mongol empire emerged in 1206 under the leadership of Genghis Khan, and it expanded quickly. In 1218, Taiyuan was conquered by the Mongol army led by General Muqali. Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty in 1271, and the administrative area of Taiyuan Lu () was expanded. The Taoist Longshan Grottoes was built in early Yuan dynasty, initiated by Taoist monk Song Defang (). Ming dynasty In 1368, Hongwu Emperor established the Ming dynasty, and Taiyuan was obtained from Yuan, by General Xu Da. The Ming dynasty installed Nine Military Garrisons to defend the northern territory during the reign of the Hongzhi Emperor, which included the Garrison of Taiyuan (). Shanxi merchants became prominent in Chinese business history since the beginning of Ming dynasty, thanks to the logistic requirements of the military around the borders of northern Shanxi to defend Ming against the remnant Mongol Northern Yuan dynasty. In the ending period of Ming dynasty, the rebel leader Li Zicheng conquered Taiyuan, and Taiyuan became part of Great Shun temporarily in 1644. Qing dynasty In 1644, Shunzhi founded the Qing dynasty and defeated the Great Shun Army in Taiyuan in the same year. Throughout the Qing dynasty, the international trade with Russia, especially of tea, and the creation and development of so-called draft banks, or Piaohao, boosted the central Shanxi basin to become the financial center of Qing China. Even though most of these Piaohao were based in different neighboring counties of Qi County, Taigu, and Yuci, Taiyuan became a significant trading center, due to its political and economical status in Shanxi. In 1900, the Taiyuan Massacre occurred, during which a number of Western missionaries were killed. Republic of China The warlord Yan Xishan retained control of Shanxi from the Xinhai Revolution in 1911 to the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949. Taiyuan consequently flourished as the center of his comparatively progressive province and experienced extensive industrial development. It was linked by rail both to the far southwest of Shanxi and to Datong in the north. Until the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949, Yan's arsenal in Taiyuan was the only factory in China sufficiently advanced to produce field artillery. Because Yan succeeded in keeping Shanxi uninvolved in most of the major battles between rival warlords that occurred in China during the 1910s and 1920s, Taiyuan was never taken from Yan by an invading army until the Japanese conquered it in 1937. Yan was aware of the threat posed by the Japanese; and, in order to defend against the impending Japanese invasion of Shanxi, Yan entered into a secret "united front" agreement with the Communists in November 1936. After concluding his alliance with the Communists, he allowed agents under Zhou Enlai to establish a secret headquarters in Taiyuan. Yan, under the slogan "resistance against the enemy and defense of the soil", attempted to recruit young patriotic intellectuals to his government from across China. By 1936 Taiyuan became a gathering point for anti-Japanese intellectuals who had fled from Beijing, Tianjin, and Northeast China. A representative of the Japanese army, speaking of the final defense of Taiyuan, said that "nowhere in China have the Chinese fought so obstinately". From the Japanese occupation of Taiyuan to the Japanese surrender in 1945, the Japanese continued to exploit Taiyuan's industries and resources to supply the Japanese army. After the Japanese army in Shanxi surrendered to Yan Xishan, 10,000–15,000 Japanese troops, including both enlisted men and officers, decided to fight for Yan rather than return to Japan. Yan also retained the services of experienced and foreign-educated Japanese technicians and professional staff brought into Taiyuan by the Japanese to run the complex of industries that they had developed around Taiyuan. Taiyuan was the last area in Shanxi to resist Communist control during the final stages of the Chinese Civil War. The city was taken by the Communists on 22 April 1949, after they surrounded Taiyuan and cut it off from all means of land and air supply, and taking the city required the support of 1,300 pieces of artillery. Many Nationalist officers committed suicide when the city fell to a Communist army. Geography Taiyuan lies on the Fen River in the north of its fertile upper basin. The city is located at the center of the province with an east–west span of and a north–south span of . It commands the north–south route through the province, as well as important natural lines of transportation through the Taihang Mountains to Hebei in the east and to northern Shaanxi in the west. Natural resources Taiyuan is abundant in natural resources such as coal, iron, marble, silica, bauxite, limestone, graphite, quartz, phosphorus, gypsum, mica, copper, and gold. It boasts high production of coal, iron, silica and marble. The western satellite city of Gujiao is the largest production site of metallurgical coal in China. The tree population in Taiyuan is dominated by coniferous forest, pine, white pine, spruce, and cypress. Climate Taiyuan experiences a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification BSk). Taiyuan has a temperate monsoon climate. Spring is dry, with occasional dust storms, followed by early summer heat waves. Summer tends to be warm to hot with most of the year's rainfall concentrated in July and August. Winter is long and cold, but dry and sunny. Because of the aridity, there tends to be considerable diurnal variation in temperature, except during the summer. The weather is much cooler than comparable-latitude cities, such as Shijiazhuang, due to the moderately high altitude. The monthly 24-hour average temperature range from in January to in July, while the annual mean is . With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 51 percent in July to 61 percent in May, there are 2,493 hours of sunshine annually. Environment The municipality of Taiyuan is . Taiyuan has a forest area of 146,700 hectares. and total grassland area of in 2007. The forest area coverage rate in the six urban districts has been increased to 21.69% in 2015. Air pollution Taiyuan had suffered from severe air pollution, especially in the 1990s, and the first decade of the 21st century, and once it was even listed among the ten most air-polluted cities in the world. Recently, the air quality has been gradually improved with increasing public awareness of air quality control and stricter and more detailed rules for pollution applied. However, according to the 2014 statistical book issued by the National Bureau of Statistics, even though no longer among the worst polluted cities in China, Taiyuan still has below-average ambient air quality, compared with other major Chinese cities. A 2019 study estimated that in 2016, there were 228,000 households in the city burning coal, burning a total of 1,096,000 tons that year alone. The authors of the study suggested that the local government should do more to transition from coal energy to gas energy, provide more electrical heating infrastructure, and transition to more renewable energy sources. In recent years, the city has taken further action to combat air pollution, creating a "coal-free zone" of 1,460 km2 in 2017. This zone prevents most people and organizations from buying, selling, storing, transporting, burning, or using coal. In 2019, the Taiyuan City Government expanded the size of this zone slightly, to a total of 1,574 km2. Administrative divisions Demographics As of the 2020 census, Taiyuan prefecture had a total population of 5,304,061 inhabitants on , from whom 4,529,141 lived in the 6 urban districts on . Economy Consistent with China's economic expansion throughout the 2010s, Taiyuan's economy has shown consistent growth in recent years. In 2018, Taiyuan's GDP was worth 388.450 billion Yuan, more than double what it was in 2010. Disposable income per capita was reported to be 31,031 Yuan in 2018, a 7.2% increase from 2017. In 2015, Taiyuan imported 4,085.130 million USD worth of goods, and exported 6,592.250 million USD worth. Taiyuan's primary, secondary, and tertiary industries were worth 3.9 billion yuan, 105.2 billion yuan, and 132.2 billion yuan respectively in 2007. Shanxi produces a quarter of China's coal, and Taiyuan is the location of the China Taiyuan Coal Transaction Center, which began trading in 2012. Transportation Taiyuan is one of the transportation hubs in North China, with highways linking neighboring provincial capitals, and airlines to most other major Chinese cities and some international cities. Public Transportation The Taiyuan Metro is still under construction. Line 1 is set to open in 2024, while Line 2 has been operating since 26 December 2020. In early 2016 the city began the conversion of all its 8000 taxi fleet into purely electric vehicles, initially using BYD Auto model E6. Air The primary airport of the city is Taiyuan Wusu International Airport. It has been expanded for the landing of Airbus A380. The airport has domestic airlines to major cities including Beijing, Shanghai, and coastal cities such as Dalian. International flights to Taipei and Da Nang are available. Highway Taiyuan has a number of major roads, Including the G5, G20 (including Shitai Expressway), G55, G2001 (Ring Highway around Taiyuan), G307, G108, G208. A 45-kilometer Middle Ring Highway circles the metropolis of Taiyuan. Two highways on the banks of Fen River run through the center of the city. Nine Riverside highways along the nine branches of Fen River, including the Southern Shahe river, Northern Shahe river, etc., comprise an expressway system, connecting the central Fen River bank with surrounding areas of urban Taiyuan. The southern part of Taiyuan has three "East-West" direction highways: South Middle Ring Street, Huazhang Street and Yingbin Road, and five "North-South" direction highways: West Middle Ring Road, Binhe West Road, Binhe East Road, Dayun Road, Jianshe Road & Taiyu Road. The western S56 Taiyuan-Gujiao Highway links Taiyuan with the western satellite city of Gujiao, and further connects Loufan. The northern Yangxing Highway connects downtown Taiyuan with the northern suburb of Yangqu County. Railway Taiyuan is one of the main national hubs for the high-speed railway system of Northern China. Major high-speed railways passing Taiyuan, including the Shijiazhuang–Taiyuan high-speed railway and Datong–Xi'an high-speed railway. By high-speed trains, the travel time between Taiyuan and Beijing is less than three hours on a distance of . The main high-speed railway station is Taiyuan South railway station. The conventional-speed Taiyuan–Zhongwei–Yinchuan railway, opened in 2011, provides a direct connection with western Shanxi, northern Shaanxi, Ningxia, and points further west. Food Taiyuan's local specialities include: Tomato egg noodles () Tijian () Dao Xiao noodles () Tounao (): Contains mutton, rice wine and vegetables in the soup. This dish was first created by Chinese polymath Fu Shan, who was proficient in medicine, for his old and illness-ridden mother as a food substitute for the ancient medicine Bazhen Tang (literally "Soup of Eight Treasures") using only locally available food materials that have similar effects as the original medicine. Lao Chen Cu mature vinegar () Yuci Flour Sausage () Fried Pork with vegetables () Mutton Soup () Sports The Shanxi Brave Dragons of the Chinese Basketball Association play at Riverside Sports Arena. The football club Shanxi Metropolis, currently playing in China League Two, plays in the Shanxi Sports Centre Stadium. Tourism Taiyuan is a modern city with just a few historic buildings remaining in the centre. The remnants of old Taiyuan can be found west of the central station, north of Fudong Street and close to Wuyi Road. One of the main tourist destinations is Shanxi Museum located in West Binhe Road, downtown Taiyuan, which is among the largest museums in China. The Twin Towers in Yongzuo Temple, which are featured in the emblem of the city, have been regarded as a symbol of Taiyuan for a long time. Yongzuo Temple is at southeast of the city centre, also famous for its peony garden and martyrs cemetery. The Chongshan Monastery, Longtan Park, and Yingze Park (just off Yingze Street), in the city centre, are popular tourist destinations. Jinci Temple also called Tangshuyu Temple, located in Jinyuan District of southern Taiyuan, dates back to the Zhou dynasty. In Jinci, there are three treasures: the Nanlao Spring, the Beauty Status and the Queen status. The Flying Bridge Across the Fish Pond was built during the Song dynasty, which is famous for its cross-shaped structure. Along the West Mountain range in western Taiyuan, tourists can find Tianlongshan Grottoes, which were gradually built over many centuries, from the northern Qi dynasty, and contains thousands of Buddhist statues and artwork. The grottoes exist today in a damaged state with many of the sculptures now missing, that visitors to the caves cannot imagine how they looked in the past. Many of the sculptures from the caves are now in museums around the world. However, though the sculptures may be preserved and displayed, visitors to museums cannot understand them in their original historical, spatial, and religious contexts. Researchers at the University of Chicago initiated the Tianlongshan Caves Project in 2013 to pursue research and digital imaging of the caves and their sculptures. Not far from the Tianlongshan Grottoes are the Longshan Grottoes, which is the only Taoist grottoes site in China. The main eight grottoes were carved in 1234~1239 during the Yuan dynasty. Education and research Taiyuan is a major city for research appearing among the top 200 cities in the world by scientific research outputs as of 2022, as tracked by the Nature Index and home to Taiyuan University of Technology, the national key university in China and other public universities including Shanxi University, Taiyuan University of Science and Technology and North University of China. Colleges and universities Taiyuan University of Technology () Shanxi University () North University of China () Shanxi Medical University () Taiyuan University of Science and Technology () Taiyuan Normal University () Shanxi University of Finance and Economics () Shanxi College of Traditional Chinese Medicine Major high schools The Affiliated High School of Shanxi University () Taiyuan No. 5 Secondary School () Shanxi Experimental Secondary School () Taiyuan Foreign Language School () Shanxi Modern Bilingual School () Taiyuan Chengcheng Secondary School () Taiyuan No. 12 Secondary School () International relations Taiyuan has a friendship pairing with the following cities: Launceston, Tasmania, Australia (Established relations on 28 November 1995) Douala, Cameroon (Established relations on 12 October 1999) Chemnitz, Saxony, Germany (Established relations on 17 May 1995) Saint-Denis, Réunion, France (Established relations formally on 2 March 2012) Himeji, Hyōgo, Japan (Established relations on 19 May 1987) Saratov and Syktyvkar, Russia (Established relations on 8 December 1995 and 1 September 1994) Khujand, Tajikistan (Established relations on 31 August 2017) Donetsk, Ukraine (Established relations formally on 25 August 2012) Nashville, Tennessee, United States (Established relations on 18 April 2007) See also Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center References External links Taiyuan Government website Cities in Shanxi Populated places established in the 1st millennium BC Provincial capitals in China
401088	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drizzt%20Do%27Urden	Drizzt Do'Urden	Drizzt Do'Urden () is a fictional character appearing in the Forgotten Realms campaign setting for the Dungeons & Dragons fantasy role-playing game. Drizzt was created by author R. A. Salvatore as a supporting character in the Icewind Dale Trilogy. Salvatore created him on a whim when his publisher needed him to replace one of the characters in an early version of the first book, The Crystal Shard. Drizzt has since become a popular heroic character of the Forgotten Realms setting, and has been featured as the main character of a long series of books, starting chronologically with The Dark Elf Trilogy. As an atypical drow (dark elf), Drizzt has forsaken both the evil ways of his people and their home in the Underdark, in the drow city of Menzoberranzan. Drizzt's story is told in Salvatore's fantasy novels in The Icewind Dale Trilogy, The Dark Elf Trilogy, the Legacy of the Drow series, the Paths of Darkness series, The Hunter's Blades Trilogy, the Transitions series, and the Neverwinter Saga, as well as in the short stories "The Dowry", "Dark Mirror", and "Comrades at Odds". All of the novels featuring Drizzt have made The New York Times Best Seller list. A number of the novels have been adapted into graphic novels by Devil's Due Publishing. Drizzt has also been featured in D&D-based role-playing video games, including the Baldur's Gate series and Forgotten Realms: Demon Stone. Concept and creation Drizzt Do'Urden's stories are set in the Forgotten Realms campaign setting for Dungeons & Dragons. The character has been a mainstay for author R. A. Salvatore, appearing in his novels for over 30 years. Drizzt is a drow who acts against the drow stereotype, favoring friendship and peace over hatred and violence. His unusual personality creates the conflict that allows Salvatore to create so many novels with stories about courage and friendship. Drizzt therefore fights the dark traits that are inherent in the drow. Salvatore uses Drizzt to represent issues of racial prejudice, particularly in The Dark Elf Trilogy. For instance, Drizzt is concerned that if he and his love Cattie-Brie (a human) have children, their offspring will face hostility from both races. Drizzt is also troubled by the lifespan discrepancy between himself and Cattie-Brie. Drizzt was created by happenstance. In 1987 R. A. Salvatore sent Mary Kirchoff, then managing editor of TSR's book department, a manuscript for what would become his 1990 novel Echoes of the Fourth Magic. She liked it, but asked if he could rewrite it to take place in the Forgotten Realms. She sent him Darkwalker on Moonshae by Douglas Niles, the only novel at the time set in the Forgotten Realms. Salvatore sent her a proposal for a sequel to Darkwalker, but Kirchoff sent back a large map of the Forgotten Realms and told him she wanted a new story set in a different part of the Realms. After two weeks of phone calls, Salvatore found a spot on the map that was not already designated for another project, and he located Icewind Dale there. According to Salvatore, the book was "set on the Moonshae Isles, because at the time I thought that was the Realms. When I found out how big the Realms were, I moved the story a thousand miles to the north." Salvatore created Drizzt on the spur of the moment. He was under pressure to create a sidekick for Wulfgar in the Icewind Dale series. Salvatore had sent an early version of The Crystal Shard (what would become his first published novel) to TSR, and one day Kirchoff called him. She was on her way to a marketing meeting concerning the book, and informed him that they could not use one of the characters. He asked for time to think, but she was already late for the meeting. Off the top of his head, Salvatore said he had a Dark Elf. Kirchoff was skeptical, but Salvatore convinced her it would be fine because he was just a sidekick. She asked his name, and he replied Drizzt Do'Urden. She asked if he could spell it, and he said "not a chance". Recalling Drizzt's creation in an interview, Salvatore said, "I don't know where it came from. I guess that Gary Gygax just did such an amazing job in creating the drow elves that something about them got stuck in the back of my head. Thank God!" Although many readers have assumed that Drizzt is based on one of the many Dungeons & Dragons role-playing campaigns that the author has played, this is not the case. Salvatore's main influences were classical literature and works of J. R. R. Tolkien. "I like to think of Drizzt as a cross between Daryth from Darkwalker on Moonshae and Aragorn from The Lord of the Rings." Salvatore calls Drizzt "the classic romantic hero—misunderstood, holding to a code of ideals even when the going gets tough, and getting no appreciation for it most of the time." Publication history Drizzt's story begins in the novel Homeland, the start of The Dark Elf Trilogy and published in 1990 as a prequel to The Icewind Dale Trilogy, which was published between 1988 and 1990. In the book, Drizzt is born in Menzoberranzan as the third son to Matron Malice, the leader of House Do'Urden (a type of family akin to a Scottish clan). His father is Zaknafein, a weapons master who secretly hates drow society and teaches Drizzt his martial skills as he reinforces Drizzt's innate moral code. The 1996 short story "The Fires of Narbondel", in the Realms of the Underdark anthology, describes unrelated events involving Zaknafein as the main character, and a young Drizzt plays a supporting role. During a raid against a group of surface elves, Drizzt finds himself unable to participate in the slaughter with his fellow drow. He pretends to kill an elf child, but actually helps her to escape. When the deception is discovered, Zaknafein is sacrificed in Drizzt's stead to appease Lolth, the drow's goddess. Following a war against another House, Drizzt curses his family and the evil drow ways and escapes Menzoberranzan into the Underdark. At this time he also acquires the statuette that allows him to summon the magical panther Guenhwyvar. Guenhwyvar travels by Drizzt's side as he makes his way across the Realms. Drizzt fights off the resurrected spirit-wraith of his father in Exile, the second book in the Dark Elf Trilogy and also published in 1990. Sojourn picks up the story when Drizzt leaves the Underdark for the surface, where he meets a blind human ranger named Montolio Debrouchee. When Montolio begins teaching him the ways of the ranger, Drizzt realizes that, unknowingly, he had been following those very principles his entire life. From then on Drizzt's patron goddess is Mielikki, the Faerûnian goddess of the forest and of rangers. Montolio eventually dies, and Drizzt travels the Realms in search of a new home. He eventually finds himself in Icewind Dale where he meets dwarven king Bruenor Battlehammer, and Bruenor's adopted human daughter, Catti-brie. The fourth book chronologically in the series, although the first published, is The Crystal Shard (1988), the first in The Icewind Dale Trilogy. It describes Drizzt's meeting with the barbarian Wulfgar and the halfling Regis, and their adventures as they stop Akar Kessel, a mage possessed by the sentient artifact Crenshinibon (the book's eponymous Crystal Shard), from gaining control of the region. Streams of Silver (1989), tells the story of the group as they journey to Mithral Hall, Bruenor's boyhood home. Artemis Entreri, a recurring character in the series, also makes his first appearance. In later books, Artemis is Drizzt's equal in combat, and they clash often due to their conflicting views and goals. In the 1990 book The Halfling's Gem, Artemis kidnaps Regis while in the employ of a powerful crime lord. Drizzt and Wulfgar chase the assassin by sea, with the help of Captain Deudermont, to recover Regis. Drizzt ends up in combat with Artemis Entreri, who leaves the battle wounded. At the end of the book the group finds Regis, and Guenhwyvar kills Artemis's employer. Legacy of the Drow is a tetralogy, unlike the previous two trilogies. The 1993 short story, Dark Mirror, in the Realms of Valor anthology, describes events just prior to the series. The first three books, The Legacy, Starless Night, and Siege of Darkness, describe a drow attack on Mithril Hall. Wulfgar is seemingly slain by a yochlol, and Drizzt returns to Menzoberranzan to prevent his friends from being further attacked by dark elves. The drow launch a second attack against Mithril Hall during the Time of Troubles. It is eventually repelled and Drizzt returns to his friends. Passage to Dawn, the final book in the Legacy of the Drow series and published two years after Siege of Darkness, picks up the story six years after the drow attack. Drizzt and Catti-Brie work with Captain Deudermont on his pirate-hunting ship, with the Companions of the Hall ultimately fighting the powerful demon Errtu who is aided by the Crystal Shard, which had previously been buried under a mountain of snow. Wulfgar, never truly dead, returns to life from the Abyss as the demon who had held his soul was destroyed. Drizzt is the main character in only two books of the Paths of Darkness series. The Silent Blade (1998) describes the group's journey to permanently destroy the Crystal Shard. Sea of Swords (2001) continues Drizzt's story after the events of The Spine of the World (1999), which focuses on Wulfgar, and Servant of the Shard (2000), which has Artemis Entreri and Jarlaxle as the main characters. Sea of Swords covers the companions' search for Wulfgar's lost magical warhammer, Aegis-fang, and the reunion of the group after an extended separation. Drizzt returns as the main character throughout The Hunter's Blades Trilogy. In The Thousand Orcs (2002), Drizzt and his friends encounter the powerful orc Obould Many-Arrows, who has employed frost giants to aid him in gaining control of the region. After a battle at the town of Shallows, Drizzt believes the other Companions of the Hall to have fallen in battle, and he sets off into the wilderness to fight all orcs in vengeance. The Lone Drow (2003) continues this storyline as the still-living Companions protect Mithril Hall from orc attacks without the aid of Drizzt. He is reunited with his friends in The Two Swords (2003). R. A. Salvatore's next series of Forgotten Realms books, The Sellswords Trilogy, focus on the further adventures of Artemis Entreri and Jarlaxle, with Drizzt only being mentioned in them. However, Drizzt is once again the main character in the Transitions trilogy, consisting of The Orc King, The Pirate King, and The Ghost King. Drizzt is the main character, along with Bruenor, in R. A. Salvatore's next series in the Forgotten Realms, Neverwinter Saga; the first book in this series, Gauntlgrym, was released October 5, 2010. The second book in the series Neverwinter, was released October 4, 2011, with the third installment entitled Charon's Claw released August 7, 2012. The fourth book in the series "The Last Threshold", was released March 5, 2013. Other media Drizzt Do'Urden has been featured in several accessories and one book for the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons fantasy role-playing game. The Hall of Heroes accessory for the second edition of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons, published in 1989, features a four-page description and game statistics for Drizzt and Guenhwyvar, written by R. A. Salvatore. The Heroes' Lorebook accessory, published in 1996 and written by Dale Donovan and Paul Culotta, features an update and revision of Drizzt's information from Hall of Heroes. The 1999 accessory Drizzt Do'Urden's Guide to the Underdark by Eric L. Boyd, details the cities and civilizations of Faerûn's Underdark through the perspective of the title character. The Forgotten Realms Campaign Setting hardcover for the game's third edition features a brief description and game statistics for Drizzt for this edition, under the section on the Sword Coast North. Drizzt has also appeared in a number of graphic novels and video games, and as a miniature figure. Beginning in 2005, Devil's Due Publishing began releasing comic book adaptations of the Drizzt novels, covering each book in a three-issue mini-series along with a trade paperback collection. To date, Homeland, Exile, Sojourn, The Crystal Shard, Streams of Silver, The Halfling's Gem, The Legacy, and Starless Night have been released. The character has appeared in several video games. He is part of the story and a party member in the 1994 SSI game for PC Menzoberranzan. In Forgotten Realms: Demon Stone he is a playable character in the game's seventh stage, described by a writer for Imagine Games Network (IGN) as "cool but utterly ineffective." Drizzt appears in Baldur's Gate fighting some gnolls; it is possible for a skilled player to kill him or pickpocket his items, and a friendly or hostile version of Drizzt can be spawned with a cheat code. Drizzt also appears in the sequel Baldur's Gate II and will react negatively if the player has imported characters from the first game that killed Drizzt or have any of his unique items. He will also react negatively to any elven character with a low reputation with the same name, challenging them to a duel of honor. He is also an unlockable playable character in Baldur's Gate: Dark Alliance and Baldur's Gate: Dark Alliance II. Drizzt is also included in the Dungeons and Dragons Miniatures game, in the Legend of Drizzt Scenario Pack that also includes Wulfgar and the dragon Icingdeath. An enclosed booklet lets players recreate the battle between Drizzt, Wulfgar, and the dragon. The boxed set was nominated for Best Miniature Product at the 2008 ENnies. A special Icewind Dale adventure was featured as the centerpiece at the November 3, 2007, Worldwide Dungeons and Dragons Game Day event, in honor of the 20th anniversary of the creation of Drizzt. Drizzt made a brief cameo in the 2011 one-off comic Unit:E, produced by Hasbro as a potential concept for crossing over many of the franchises they owned; he is seen in a splash page amongst many other Hasbro-owned characters (including characters from G.I. Joe, Transformers, M.A.S.K., Jem and the Holograms, Micronauts, Action Man, Battleship Galaxies, and even Candy Land), as summoned for Micronauts characters Biotron and Acroyear by the alien AI Synergy (a reimagined version of the AI from Jem). Drizzt features prominently in the D&D Adventure System Cooperative Play board game The Legend of Drizzt, released October 18, 2011. Drizzt has also been seen in the game Neverwinter by Cryptic Studios. He appears as part of the Neverwinter: Underdark expansion that allows players to travel to the drow city of Menzoberranzan and play several quests written by R. A. Salvatore. In 2021, Drizzt was featured on two cards in the Adventures in the Forgotten Realms line from the Magic: The Gathering collectible card game. Sleep Sound (2021) is a poem by R. A. Salvatore which received an animated short to promote the "Summer Of Drizzt" marketing campaign. The short features scenes from the story of Drizzt; it was narrated by Benedict Cumberbatch and animated by The Sequence Group. Reception and legacy According to PopMatters' Andrew Welsh, Drizzt is Salvatore's attempt to create a multifaceted character who faces internal struggles, in hopes of standing out from the drow, and fantasy fiction in general. Welsh feels that Salvatore fails in this regard, saying "any blood Drizzt finds on his hands is quickly justified and most 'internal' conflict is superficial at best." A review for Pyramid refers to Drizzt as the "most famous denizen" of Menzoberranzan, identifying him and the city as "some of the most famous pieces of the Realms". Rob Bricken of Kotaku called Drizzt "one of the Mary Sue-iest characters in all of fiction". The Drizzt Do'Urden books are popular with fantasy fans, and the Drizzt character is author R. A. Salvatore's best known creation. All 34 novels featuring Drizzt by Salvatore have made The New York Times Best Seller list, starting with The Crystal Shard. The Orc King, which marked the 20th anniversary of the character, made it to #7 on the list, as well as #9 on The Wall Street Journal list, #6 on the Publishers Weekly bestseller list, and #36 on the USA Today list of top sellers. The Two Swords peaked at #4 on The New York Times Best Seller list in 2004. It reached the top of The Wall Street Journal'''s hardcover bestseller list after only two weeks, a record for its publisher Wizards of the Coast. It also debuted at #4 on The New York Times's bestseller list and #2 on Publishers Weekly bestseller list.The Lone Drow debuted at #7 on The New York Times Best Seller list in October 2003. Publishers Weekly felt that The Lone Drow was clichéd, but that some of the characters did achieve "some complexity". They singled out two characters for praise: Innovindel, an elf who talks "pensively" of her long life in contrast to the short lived humans, and Obould the orc king. Drizzt Do'Urden was #3 on Game Rant's 2020 "10 Must-Have NPCs In Dungeons & Dragons Lore To Make Your Campaigns Awesome" list — the article states that "A skilled ranger in his own right, Drizzt remains equally-adept in conversation. He's always wary of danger, strives for perfection, and held himself to the highest standard. Meeting one of the most iconic figures in D&D could help make players feel important in their campaign." In the Io9 series revisiting older Dungeons & Dragons novels, in his review of The Crystal Shard, Rob Bricken referred to Drizzt as "arguably the most famous and beloved D&D character of all time" and noted that Wizards of the Coast had finally begun combatting the stereotype of the drow as a "super-evil, subterranean race", which Drizzt forsakes "to become a noble Ranger on the surface world". Bricken noted that "Drizzt ends up overshadowing almost everyone and everything" but comments that "Drizzt and Wulfgar are so preternaturally badass they beat 25 giants by themselves (well, with help from Drizzt's magic panther Guenhwyvar, because of course he has a magic panther pal)". In his review of Homeland, Bricken explained that "when Salvatore introduced Drizzt in 1988's The Crystal Shard'', players/readers who hadn't been bothered this by were forced to acknowledge the correlation because characters in the Forgotten Realms judged Drizzt by the color of his skin. He was distrusted, despised, and discriminated against, often even by those he helped." References External links Dark Party Review An Interview with R. A. Salvatore about Drizzt Fantasy (genre) adventurers Fictional elves Fictional swordfighters in literature Forgotten Realms characters Literary characters introduced in 1988 pl:Lista postaci ze świata Forgotten Realms#Drizzt Do'Urden
401102	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zulfikar%20Ali%20Bhutto	Zulfikar Ali Bhutto	Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (5 January 1928 – 4 April 1979) was a Pakistani barrister, politician and statesman who served as the fourth president of Pakistan from 1971 to 1973, and later as the ninth prime minister of Pakistan from 1973 to 1977. He was the founder of the Pakistan People's Party (PPP) and served as its chairman until his execution. Born in Sindh and educated at the University of California, Berkeley and the University of Oxford, Bhutto trained as a barrister at Lincoln's Inn, before entering politics as one of president Iskandar Ali Mirza's cabinet members, and was assigned several ministries during president Muhammad Ayub Khan's military rule from 1958. Appointed Foreign Minister in 1963, Bhutto was a proponent of Operation Gibraltar in Kashmir, leading to war with India in 1965. After the Tashkent Declaration ended hostilities, he fell out with Khan and was sacked from government. Bhutto founded the PPP in 1967 on an Islamic socialist platform, and contested the general election held by president Yahya Khan in 1970. The Awami League won an absolute majority overall, though the PPP won a majority of seats in West Pakistan (where the Awami League won no seats); the two parties were unable to agree on the power transfer and a new constitution. In particular, the Awami League's Six Point Movement was seen by many in West Pakistan, including Bhutto and president Yahya Khan, as a way to break up the country. The refusal of Bhutto and Yahya to accept a Bengali as the Prime Minister of Pakistan led to uprisings in East Pakistan, and the counter-steps taken by the Army ordered by Yahya Khan and supported by Bhutto ultimately led to the creation of Bangladesh. In the wake of Pakistan losing the war against Bangladesh-allied India in December 1971, Bhutto took the presidency in December 1971 and emergency rule was imposed. He led the country after Bangladesh's secession and end of thirteen years of military rule. As president, Bhutto recovered 93,000 prisoners of war and of Indian-held territory after signing the Simla Agreement. He strengthened ties with China and Saudi Arabia, recognized Bangladesh, and hosted the second Organisation of the Islamic Conference in Lahore in 1974. His government drafted the current constitution of Pakistan, in 1973, upon which he appointed Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry president and switched to the newly empowered office of prime minister. Bhutto played an integral role in initiating the country's nuclear programme. However, Bhutto's nationalisation of much of Pakistan's fledgling industries, healthcare, and educational institutions was met with economic stagnation. After dissolving provincial feudal governments in Balochistan was met with unrest, Bhutto also ordered an army operation in the province in 1973, causing thousands of civilian casualties. Despite civil disorder, the People's Party won the 1977 parliamentary elections by a wide margin. However, the opposition alleged widespread vote rigging, and violence escalated across the country. On 5 July that same year, Bhutto was deposed in a military coup by his appointed army chief Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, before being controversially tried and executed by the Supreme Court of Pakistan in 1979 for authorising the murder of a political opponent, Muhammad Ahmad Kasuri. Bhutto's legacy remains contentious; he is hailed by supporters for his nationalism and secular internationalist agenda. He is denounced by critics for political repression, impoverished economy, and human rights abuses in Balochistan. Bhutto is often considered one of Pakistan's greatest leaders, and his party, the PPP, remains among Pakistan's largest, with his daughter Benazir Bhutto being twice elected Prime Minister, while his son-in-law and Benazir's husband, Asif Ali Zardari, served as president. Early life Zulfikar Ali Bhutto belonged to a Sindhi Bhutto family, he was born to Shah Nawaz Bhutto and Khursheed Begum near Larkana. Khursheed Begum was born Lakhi Bai into a Hindu Rajput family of Kutchi background but converted to Islam when she married Shah Nawaz. Zulfikar was their third child—their first one, Sikandar Ali, had died from pneumonia at age seven in 1914, and the second, Imdad Ali, died of cirrhosis at age 39 in 1953. His father was the dewan of the princely state of Junagadh, and enjoyed an influential relationship with the officials of the British Raj. As a young boy, Bhutto moved to Worli Seaface in Bombay to study at the Cathedral and John Connon School, later St. Xavier's College, Mumbai. He then also became an activist in the Pakistan Movement. In 1943, his marriage was arranged with Shireen Amir Begum. In 1947, Bhutto was admitted to the University of Southern California to study political science. In 1949, as a sophomore, Bhutto transferred to the University of California, Berkeley, where he earned a B.A. (honours) degree in political science in 1950. A year later on 8 September 1951 he married a woman of Iranian Kurdish origin— Nusrat Ispahani, popularly known as Begum Nusrat Bhutto. During his studies in University of California, Berkeley, Bhutto became interested in the theories of socialism, delivering a series of lectures on their feasibility in Islamic countries. During this time, Bhutto's father played a controversial role in the affairs of Junagadh. Coming to power in a palace coup, he secured the accession of his state to Pakistan, which was ultimately negated by Indian intervention in December 1947. In June 1950, Bhutto travelled to the United Kingdom to study law at Christ Church, Oxford and received a BA in jurisprudence, followed by an LLM degree in law and an M.Sc. (honours) degree in political science. Upon finishing his studies, he served as a lecturer in international law at the University of Southampton in 1952 and he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1953. Political career In 1957, Bhutto became the youngest member of Pakistan's delegation to the United Nations. He addressed the UN Sixth Committee on Aggression that October and led Pakistan's delegation to the first UN Conference on the Law of the Sea in 1958. That year, Bhutto became Pakistan's youngest cabinet minister, taking up the reins of the Ministry of Commerce by President Iskander Mirza, pre-coup d'état government. In 1960, he was promoted to Minister of Water and Power, Communications and Industry. Bhutto became trusted ally and advisor of Ayub Khan, rising in influence and power despite his youth and relative inexperience. Bhutto aided his president in negotiating the Indus Water Treaty in India in 1960 and next year negotiated an oil-exploration agreement with the Soviet Union, which agreed to provide economic and technical aid to Pakistan. Foreign Minister Bhutto was a Pakistani nationalist and socialist, with particular views on the type of democracy needed in Pakistan. On becoming foreign minister in 1963, his socialist viewpoint influenced him to embark on a close relationship with neighbouring China. At the time, many other countries accepted Taiwan as the legitimate single government of China, at a time when two governments each claimed to be "China". In 1964, the Soviet Union and its satellite states broke off relations with Beijing over ideological differences, and only Albania and Pakistan supported the People's Republic of China. Bhutto staunchly supported Beijing in the UN, and in the UNSC, while also continuing to build bridges to the United States. Bhutto's strong advocacy of developing ties with China came under criticism from the United States. President Lyndon B. Johnson wrote to Bhutto, warning him that further overtures to China would jeopardize congressional support for aid to Pakistan. Bhutto addressed his speeches in a demagogic style and headed the foreign ministry aggressively. His leadership style and his swift rise to power brought him national prominence and popularity. Bhutto and his staff visited Beijing and were warmly received by the Chinese, and Bhutto greeted Mao Zedong with great respect. There, Bhutto helped Ayub negotiate trade and military agreements with the Chinese regime, which agreed to help Pakistan in several military and industrial projects. Bhutto signed the Sino-Pakistan Boundary Agreement on 2 March 1963 that transferred 750 square kilometres of territory from Gilgit Baltistan to Chinese control. Bhutto asserted his belief in non-alignment, making Pakistan an influential member in non-aligned organisations. Believing in pan-Islamic unity, Bhutto developed closer relations with the likes of Indonesia and Saudi Arabia. Bhutto significantly transformed Pakistan's hitherto pro-West foreign policy. While maintaining a prominent role for Pakistan within the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization and the Central Treaty Organization, Bhutto began asserting a foreign policy course for Pakistan that was independent of U.S. influence. Meanwhile, Bhutto visited both East and West Germany and established a strong link between two countries. Bhutto proceeded economical, technological, industrial and military agreements with Germany. Bhutto strengthened Pakistan's strategic alliance with Germany. Bhutto addressed a farewell speech at the University of Munich, where he cited the importance of Pakistan and German relations. Bhutto then visited Poland and established diplomatic relations in 1962. Bhutto used Pakistan Air Force's Brigadier-General Władysław Turowicz to establish the military and economical link between Pakistan and Poland. Bhutto sought and reached to the Polish community in Pakistan and made a tremendous effort for a fresh avenues for mutual cooperation. In 1962, as territorial differences increased between India and China, Beijing was planning to stage an invasion in northern territories of India. Premier Zhou Enlai and Mao invited Pakistan to join the raid to rest the State of Jammu and Kashmir from India. Bhutto advocated for the plan, but Ayub opposed the plan: he was afraid of retaliation by Indian troops. Instead Ayub proposed a "joint defence union" with India. Bhutto was shocked by such statements and felt Ayub Khan was unlettered in international affairs. Bhutto was conscious that despite Pakistan's membership of anti-communist western alliances, China had refrained from criticising Pakistan. In 1962, the U.S. assured Pakistan that “Kashmir issues” will be resolved according to the wishes of Pakistanis and the “Kashmiris”. Therefore, Ayub did not participate in the Chinese plans. Bhutto criticised the U.S. for providing military aid to India during and after the 1962 Sino-Indian War, which was seen as an abrogation of Pakistan's alliance with the United States. Meanwhile, Ayub Khan, on Bhutto's counsel, launched Operation Gibraltar in a bid to "liberate" Kashmir. It ended in a fiasco and the Indian Armed Forces launched a successful counter-attack on West Pakistan (Indo-Pakistani War of 1965). This war was an aftermath of brief skirmishes that took place between March and August 1965 on the international boundaries in the Rann of Kutch, Jammu and Kashmir and Punjab. Bhutto joined Ayub in Uzbekistan to negotiate a peace treaty with the Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri. Ayub and Shastri agreed to exchange prisoners of war and withdraw respective forces to pre-war boundaries. This agreement was deeply unpopular in Pakistan, causing major political unrest against Ayub's regime. Bhutto's criticism of the final agreement caused a major rift between him and Ayub. Initially denying the rumours, Bhutto resigned in June 1966 and expressed strong opposition to Ayub's regime. During his term, Bhutto was known to be formulating aggressive geostrategic and foreign policies against India. In 1965, Bhutto's friend Munir Ahmad Khan informed him of the status of India's nuclear programme. Bhutto reportedly said, "Pakistan will fight, fight for a thousand years. If.. India builds the (atom) bomb.... (Pakistan) will eat grass or (leaves), even go hungry, but we (Pakistan) will get one of our own (atom bomb).... We (Pakistan) have no other Choice!". In his 1969 book The Myth of Independence Bhutto argued that it was the “necessity” for Pakistan to acquire the fission weapon, and start a so-called deterrence programme to be able to stand up to the industrialised states, and against a nuclear armed India. Bhutto obtained a manifesto and made a future policy on how the programme would be developed and which individual scientists would start the program. Bhutto selected Munir Ahmad Khan for this Pakistan People's Party Following his resignation as foreign minister, large crowds gathered to listen to Bhutto's speech upon his arrival in Lahore on 21 June 1967. Tapping a wave of anger against Ayub, Bhutto traveled across Pakistan to deliver political speeches. In October 1966 Bhutto made explicit the beliefs of his new party, "Islam is our faith, democracy is our policy, socialism is our economy. All power to the people." On 30 November 1967, at the Lahore residence of Mubashir Hassan, a gathering that included Bhutto, political activist Sufi Nazar Muhammad Khan, Bengali communist J. A. Rahim and Basit Jehangir Sheikh founded the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP), establishing a strong base in Punjab, Sindh and amongst the Muhajirs. Mubashir Hassan, an engineering professor at UET Lahore, was the main brain and hidden hand behind the success and the rise of Bhutto. Under Hassan's guidance and Bhutto's leadership, the PPP became a part of the pro-democracy movement involving diverse political parties from all across Pakistan. The PPP activists staged large protests and strikes in different parts of the country, increasing pressure on Ayub to resign. Dr. Hassan and Bhutto's arrest on 12 November 1969, sparked greater political unrest. After his release, Bhutto, joined by key leaders of PPP, attended the Round Table Conference called by Ayub Khan in Rawalpindi, but refused to accept Ayub's continuation in office and the East Pakistani politician Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's Six point movement for regional autonomy. 1970 elections Following Ayub's resignation, his successor, General Yahya Khan promised to hold parliamentary elections on 7 December 1970. Under Bhutto's leadership the democratic socialists, leftists, and marxist-communists gathered and united into one party platform for the first time in Pakistan's history. The Socialist-Communist bloc, under Bhutto's leadership, intensified its support in Muhajir and poor farming communities in West Pakistan, working through educating people to cast their vote for their better future. Gathering and uniting the scattered socialist-communist groups in one single center was considered Bhutto's greatest political achievement and as a result, Bhutto's party and other leftists won a large number of seats from constituencies in West-Pakistan. However, Sheikh Mujib's Awami League won an absolute majority in the legislature, receiving more than twice as many votes as Bhutto's PPP. Bhutto strongly refused to accept an Awami League government and infamously threatened to "break the legs" of any elected PPP member who dared to attend the inaugural session of the National Assembly. On 17 January 1971 President Yahya visited Bhutto at his baronial family estate, Al-Murtaza, in Larkana, Sindh, accompanied by Lt. General S. G. M. Pirzada, Principal Staff Officer to President Yahya, and General Abdul Hamid Khan, Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army and Deputy Chief Martial Law Administrator. On February 22, 1971 the generals in West Pakistan took a decision allegedly to crush the Awami League and its supporters. Capitalizing on West Pakistani fears of East Pakistani separatism, Bhutto demanded that Sheikh Mujibur Rahman form a coalition with the PPP. And at some stage proposed "idhar hum, udhar tum", meaning he should govern the West and Mujib should Govern the East. President Yahya postponed the meeting of the national assembly which fueled a popular movement in East Pakistan. Amidst popular outrage in East Pakistan, on 7 March 1971, Sheikh Mujib called the Bengalis to join the struggle for "Bangladesh". According to historical references and a report published by leading Pakistani newspaper The Nation, "Mujib no longer believed in Pakistan and is determined to make Bangladesh". Many also believed that Bhutto wanted power in the West even at the expense of separation of the East. However, Mujib still kept doors open for some sort of settlement in his speech of 7 March. Bangladesh Liberation War Yahya started a negotiating conference in Dhaka presumably to reach a settlement between Bhutto and Mujib. The discussion was being expected to be "fruitful" until the president left for West Pakistan on the evening of 25 March. On that night of 25 March 1971, the army initiated Operation Searchlight, which had been planned by the military junta of Yahya Khan presumably to suppress political activities and movements by the Bengalis. Mujib was arrested and imprisoned in West Pakistan. Genocide and atrocities by the military against the Bengali population were alleged during the operation Bhutto stayed in Dacca on the night of 25 March and commented that Pakistan had been saved by the army before leaving on the 26th. While supportive of the army's actions and working to rally international support, Bhutto distanced himself from the Yahya Khan regime and began to criticize Yahya Khan for mishandling the situation. He refused to accept Yahya Khan's scheme to appoint Bengali politician Nurul Amin as Prime Minister, with Bhutto as deputy prime minister. Soon after Bhutto's refusal and continuous resentment toward General Yahya Khan's mishandling of situation, Khan ordered Military Police to arrest Bhutto on charges of treason, quite similar to Mujib. Bhutto was imprisoned in the Adiala Jail along with Mujib, where he was set to face the charges. The army crackdown on the Bengalis of East Pakistan fueled an armed resistance by the Mukti-Bahini (a guerrilla force formed for the campaign of an independent Bangladesh and trained by the Indian army). Pakistan launched an air attack on India in the western border that resulted in the Indian intervention in East Pakistan which led to the very bitter defeat of Pakistani forces, who surrendered on 16 December 1971. Consequently, the state of People's Republic of Bangladesh was born and Bhutto and others condemned Yahya Khan for failing to protect Pakistan's unity. Isolated, Yahya Khan resigned on 20 December and transferred power to Bhutto, who became president, commander-in-chief and the first civilian chief martial law administrator. Bhutto was the country's first civilian chief martial law administrator since 1958, as well as the country's first civilian president. With Bhutto assuming the control, the leftists and democratic socialists entered the country's politics, and later emerged as power players in the country's politics. And, for the first time in the country's history, the leftists and democratic socialists had a chance to administer the country with the popular vote and widely approved exclusive mandate, given to them by the West's population in the 1970s elections. In a reference written by Kuldip Nayar in his book "Scoop! Inside Stories from the Partition to the Present", Nayar noted that "Bhutto's releasing of Mujib did not mean anything to Pakistan's policy as in if there was no liberation war. Bhutto's policy, and even as of today, the policy of Pakistan continues to state that "she will continue to fight for the honor and integrity of Pakistan. East Pakistan is an inseparable and unseverable part of Pakistan". When Bhutto set about rebuilding Pakistan, he stated his intention was to "rebuild confidence and rebuild hope for the future". Presidency (1971–1973) A Pakistan International Airlines flight was sent to fetch Bhutto from New York, who at that time was presenting Pakistan's case before the United Nations Security Council on the East Pakistan Crises. Bhutto returned home on 18 December 1971. On 20 December, he was taken to the President House in Rawalpindi, where he took over two positions from Yahya Khan, one as president and the other as first civilian Chief Martial Law Administrator. Thus, he was the first civilian Chief Martial Law Administrator of the dismembered Pakistan. By the time Bhutto had assumed control of what remained of Pakistan, the nation was completely isolated, angered, and demoralized. Bhutto addressing the nation through radio and television said: My dear countrymen, my dear friends, my dear students, labourers, peasants... those who fought for Pakistan... We are facing the worst crisis in our country's life, a deadly crisis. We have to pick up the pieces, very small pieces, but we will make a new Pakistan, a prosperous and progressive Pakistan, a Pakistan free of exploitation, a Pakistan envisaged by the Quaid-e-Azam. As president, Bhutto faced mounting challenges on both internal and foreign fronts. The trauma was severe in Pakistan, a psychological setback and emotional breakdown for Pakistan. The two-nation theory—the theoretical basis for the creation of Pakistan—lay discredited, and Pakistan's foreign policy collapsed when no moral support was found anywhere, including long-standing allies such as the U.S. and China. However this is disputed even by Bangladeshi academics who insist that the two-nation theory was not discredited. Since her creation, the physical and moral existence of Pakistan was in great danger. On the internal front, Baloch, Sindhi, Punjabi, and Pashtun nationalisms were at their peak, calling for their independence from Pakistan. Finding it difficult to keep Pakistan united, Bhutto launched full-fledged intelligence and military operations to stamp out any separatist movements. By the end of 1978, these nationalist organizations were brutally quelled by Pakistan Armed Forces. Bhutto immediately placed Yahya Khan under house arrest, brokered a ceasefire and ordered the release of Sheikh Mujib, who was held prisoner by the Pakistan Army. To implement this, Bhutto reversed the verdict of Mujib's earlier court-martial trial, in which Brigadier-General Rahimuddin Khan had sentenced Mujib to death. Appointing a new cabinet, Bhutto appointed Lieutenant-General Gul Hasan as Chief of Army Staff. On 2 January 1972 Bhutto announced the nationalisation of all major industries, including iron and steel, heavy engineering, heavy electricals, petrochemicals, cement and public utilities. A new labour policy was announced increasing workers' rights and the power of trade unions. Although he came from a feudal background himself, Bhutto announced his first reforms in 1972 which is also called Martial Law Regulation (MLR-115). As Bhutto came as Populist leader, his charismatic politics was evident. Consequently, he put ceiling on land ownership wherein no one can hold more than 200 acres irrigated and more than 300 acres non-irrigated land. Bhutto also dismissed the military chiefs on 3 March after they refused orders to suppress a major police strike in Punjab. He appointed General Tikka Khan as the new Chief of the Army Staff in March 1972 as he felt the general would not interfere in political matters and would concentrate on rehabilitating the Pakistan Army. Bhutto convened the National Assembly on 14 April, rescinded martial law on 21 April and charged the legislators with writing a new constitution. Bhutto visited India to meet Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and negotiated a formal peace agreement and the release of 93,000 Pakistani prisoners of war. The two leaders signed the Simla Agreement, which committed both nations to establish a new-yet-temporary Line of Control in Kashmir and obligated them to resolve disputes peacefully through bilateral talks. Bhutto also promised to hold a future summit for the peaceful resolution of the Kashmir dispute and pledged to recognise Bangladesh. Although he secured the release of Pakistani soldiers held by India, Bhutto was criticised by many in Pakistan for allegedly making too many concessions to India. It is theorised that Bhutto feared his downfall if he could not secure the release of Pakistani soldiers and the return of territory occupied by Indian forces. Bhutto established an atomic power development programme and inaugurated the first Pakistani atomic reactor, built in collaboration with Canada in Karachi on 28 November. On 30 March, 59 military officers were arrested by army troops for allegedly plotting a coup against Bhutto, who appointed then-Brigadier Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq to head a military tribunal to investigate and try the suspects. The National Assembly approved the new 1973 Constitution, which Bhutto signed into effect on 12 April. The constitution proclaimed an "Islamic Republic" in Pakistan with a parliamentary form of government. On 10 August, Bhutto turned over the post of president to Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry, assuming the office of prime minister instead. Nuclear weapons program Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto was the founder of Pakistan's atomic bomb programme, and due to his administration and aggressive leadership of this programme, he is often known as the Father of Nuclear deterrence programme. Bhutto's interest in nuclear technology was said to have begun during his college years in the United States when Bhutto attended a course in political science, discussing the political impact of the U.S.'s first nuclear test, Trinity, on global politics. While at Berkeley, Bhutto witnessed the public panic when the Soviet Union first exploded their bomb, codename First Lightning in 1949, prompting the U.S. government to launch their research on 'hydrogen' bombs. However, long before in 1958, as Minister for Fuel, Power, and National Resources, Bhutto played a key role in setting up the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) administrative research bodies and institutes. Soon, Bhutto offered a technical post to Munir Ahmad Khan in PAEC in 1958, and lobbied for Abdus Salam to be appointed as Science Adviser in 1960. Before being elevated to Foreign Minister, Bhutto directed the funds for key research in nuclear weapons and related science. In October 1965, as the Foreign Minister Bhutto visited Vienna, where nuclear engineer Munir Ahmad Khan was working at a senior technical post at the IAEA. Munir Khan informed him of the status of the Indian nuclear programme and the options Pakistan had to develop its own nuclear capability. Both agreed on the need for Pakistan to develop a nuclear deterrent to counter India. While, Munir Khan had failed to convince Ayub Khan, Bhutto had said to Munir Khan: "Don't worry, our turn will come". Shortly after the 1965 war Bhutto, at a press conference, declared that "even if we have to eat grass, we will make nuclear bomb. We have no other choice." as he saw India was making its way toward developing the bomb. In 1965, Bhutto lobbied for Salam and succeeded in appointing Salam as the head of Pakistan's delegation at IAEA, and helped Salam to lobby for acquiring nuclear power plants. In November 1972, Bhutto advised Salam to travel to the United States to evade the war, and advised him to return with the key literature on nuclear weapons history. By the end week of December 1972, Salam returned to Pakistan, loaded with literature on the Manhattan Project in huge suitcases. In 1974, Bhutto launched a more aggressive and serious diplomatic offensive on the United States and the Western world over the nuclear issues. Writing to the world and Western leaders, Bhutto made it clear and maintained: Roughly two weeks after experiencing the 1971 winter war, on 20 January 1972 Bhutto rallied a conference of nuclear scientists and engineers at Multan. While at the Multan meeting scientists were wondering why the President, who had so much on his hands in those trying days, was paying so much attention to the scientists and engineers in the nuclear field. At the meeting Bhutto slowly talked about the recent war and the country's future, pointing out the existence of the country was in great mortal danger. While the academicians listened to Bhutto carefully, Bhutto said: "Look, we're going to have the bomb". Bhutto asked them: "Can you give it to me? And how long will it take it to make a bomb?" Many of senior scientists had witnessed the war, and were emotionally and psychologically disturbed, therefore, the response was positive when the senior academic scientists replied: "Oh...Yes.. Yes... You can have it." There was a lively debate on the time needed to make the bomb, and finally one scientist dared to say that maybe it could be done in five years. Prime Minister Bhutto smiled, lifted his hand, and dramatically thrust forward three fingers and said: "Three years, I want it in three years." The atmosphere suddenly became electric. It was then that one of the junior scientist Siddique Ahmad Butt (a theoretical physicist), who under Munir Khan's guiding hand would come to play a major role in making the fission weapon possible – jumped to his feet and clamoured for his leader's attention. Siddique Ahmad Butt replied: "It can be done in three years." When Bhutto heard Butt's reply, Bhutto was very much amused and said: "Well.... Much as I appreciate your enthusiasm, this is a very serious political decision, which Pakistan must make, and perhaps all Third World countries must make one day, because it is coming. So can you boys do it?". Nearly all senior scientists replied in one tone: Yes... We can do it, given the resources and given the facilities." Bhutto ended the meeting by simply saying: "I shall find you the resources and I shall find you the facilities." Before the 1970s, the nuclear deterrence was long established under the government of Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, but was completely peaceful and devoted to civilian power needs. Bhutto, in his book The Myth of Independence in 1969 wrote that: After India's nuclear test – codename Smiling Buddha—in May 1974, Bhutto sensed and saw this test as final anticipation for Pakistan's death. In a press conference, held shortly after India's nuclear test, Bhutto said, "India's nuclear program is designed to intimidate Pakistan and establish "hegemony in the subcontinent". Despite Pakistan's limited financial resources, Bhutto was so enthusiastic about the nuclear energy project, that he is reported to have said "Pakistanis will eat grass but make a nuclear bomb." The Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission's militarisation was initiated on 20 January 1972 and, in its initial years, was implemented by Pakistan Army's Chief of Army Staff General Tikka Khan. The Karachi Nuclear Power Plant (KANUPP-I) was inaugurated by Bhutto during his role as the President of Pakistan at the end of 1972. The nuclear weapons programme was set up loosely based on the Manhattan Project of the 1940s under the administrative control of Bhutto. And, senior academic scientists had direct access to Bhutto, who kept him informed about every inch of the development. Bhutto's Science Advisor, Abdus Salam's office was also sat up in Bhutto's Prime minister Secretariat. On Bhutto's request, Salam had established and led the Theoretical Physics Group (TPG) that marked the beginning of the nuclear deterrent programme. The TPG designed and developed the nuclear weapons as well as the entire programme. Later, Munir Ahmad Khan had him personally approved the budget for the development of the programme. Wanting a capable administrator, Bhutto sought Lieutenant-General Rahimuddin Khan to chair the commission, which Rahimuddin declined, in 1971. Instead, in January 1972, Bhutto chose a U.S.-trained nuclear engineer, Munir Khan, as chairman of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) as Bhutto realised he wanted an administrator who understood the scientific and economical needs of this technologically ambitious programme. Since 1965, Munir Khan had developed an extremely close and trusted relationship with Bhutto, and even after his death, Benazir and Murtaza Bhutto were instructed by their father to keep in touch with Munir Khan. In spring of 1976, Kahuta Research Facility, then known as Engineering Research Laboratories (ERL), as part of codename Project-706, was also established by Bhutto, and brought under nuclear scientist Abdul Qadeer Khan and the Pakistan Army Corps of Engineers' Lieutenant-General Zahid Ali Akbar. Because Pakistan, under Bhutto, was not a signatory or party of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), Commissariat à l'énergie atomique (CEA), and British Nuclear Fuels (BNFL) had immediately cancelled fuel reprocessing plant projects with PAEC. And, according to Causar Nyäzie, the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission officials had misled Bhutto and he sought on a long journey to try to get nuclear fuel reprocessing plant from France. It was on the advice of A. Q. Khan that no fuel existed to reprocess and urged Bhutto to follow his pursuit of uranium enrichment. Bhutto tried to show he was still interested in that expensive route and was relieved when Kissinger persuaded the French to cancel the deal. Bhutto had trusted Munir Ahmad Khan's plans to develop the programme ingeniously, and the mainstream goal of showing such interest in French reprocessing plant was to give time to PAEC scientists to gain expertise in building its own reprocessing plants. By the time France's CEA cancelled the project, the PAEC had acquired 95% of the detailed plans of the plant and materials. Munir Ahmad Khan and Ishfaq Ahmad believed that since PAEC had acquired most of the detailed plans, work, plans, and materials, the PAEC, based on that 95% work, could build the plutonium reprocessing reactors on its own, Pakistan should stick to its original plan, the plutonium route. Bhutto did not disagree but saw an advantage in establishing another parallel programme, the uranium enrichment programme under Abdul Qadeer Khan. Both Munir Khan and Ahmed had shown their concern over on Abdul Qadeer Khan's suspected activities but Bhutto backed Khan when Bhutto maintained that: "No less than any other nation did what Abdul Qadeer Khan (is) doing; the Soviets and Chinese; the British and the French; the Indians and the Israelis; stole the nuclear weapons designs previously in the past and no one questioned them but rather tend to be quiet. We are not stealing what they (illegally) stole in the past (as referring the nuclear weapon designs) but we're taking a small machine which is not useful for making the atomic bomb but for a fuel". International pressure was difficult to counter at that time, and Bhutto, with the help of Munir Ahmad Khan and Aziz Ahmed, tackled the intense heated criticism and diplomatic war with the United States at numerous fronts—while the progress on nuclear weapons remained highly classified. During this pressure, Aziz Ahmed played a significant role by convincing the consortium industries to sell and export sensitive electronic components before the United States could approach to them and try and prevent the consortium industries to export such equipments and components. Bhutto slowly reversed and thwarted United States' any attempt to infiltrate the programme as he had expelled many of the American diplomatic officials in the country, under Operation Sun Rise, authorised by Bhutto under ISI. On the other hand, Bhutto intensified his staunch support and eye-blindly backed Abdul Qadeer Khan to quietly bring the Urenco's weapon-grade technology to Pakistan, keeping the Kahuta Laboratories hidden from the outside world. Regional rivals such as India and Soviet Union, had no basic intelligence on Pakistan's nuclear energy project during the 1970s, and Bhutto's intensified clandestine efforts seemed to be paid off in 1978 when the programme was fully matured. In a thesis written in The Myth of Independence, Bhutto argued that nuclear weapons would allow India to use its Air Force warplanes with small battlefield nuclear devices against the Pakistan Army cantonments, armoured and infantry columns and PAF bases and nuclear and military industrial facilities. The Indian Air Force would not meet with an adverse reaction from the world community as long as civilian casualties could be kept to a minimum. This way, India would defeat Pakistan, force its armed forces into a humiliating surrender and occupy and annexe the Northern Areas of Pakistan and Azad Kashmir. India would then carve up Pakistan into tiny states based on ethnic divisions and that would be the end of the "Pakistan problem" once and for all. By the time Bhutto was ousted, this crash programme had fully matured in terms of technical development as well as scientific efforts. By the 1977, PAEC and KRL had built their uranium enrichment and plutonium reprocessing plants, and selection for test sites, at Chagai Hills, was done by the PAEC. The feasibility reports were submitted by both organisations on their works. In 1977, the PAEC's Theoretical Physics Group had finished the designing of the first fission weapon, and KRL scientists succeeded in electromagnetic isotope separation of Uranium fissile isotopes. In spite of this, still little had been done in the development of weapons, and Pakistan's nuclear arsenal were actually made by General Zia-ul-Haq's military regime, under the watchful eyes of several Naval admirals, Army and Air Force's generals including Ghulam Ishaq Khan. In 1983, Bhutto's decision later proved to be right, when PAEC had conducted a cold test, near Kirana Hills, evidently made from non-fissioned plutonium. It has been speculated recently in the press that Dr. Khan's uranium enrichment designs were used by the Chinese in exchange for uranium hexafluoride (UF6) and some highly enriched weapons grade uranium. Later on this weapons grade uranium was offered back to the Chinese as the Pakistanis used their own materials. In all, Bhutto knew that Pakistan had become a nuclear weapon state in 1978 when his friend Munir Ahmad Khan paid a visit to him in his jail cell. There, Munir Ahmad Khan told Bhutto that the process of weapon designing is finished and a milestone in the complex and difficult enrichment of weapon-grade fuel has been achieved by the PAEC and dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan of ERL. Bhutto called for an immediate nuclear test to be conducted, no response was issued by General Zia or any member of his government. Prime Minister of Pakistan Bhutto was sworn in as the prime minister of the country on 14 August 1973, after he had secured 108 votes in a house of 146 members. Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry was elected as the president under the new constitution. During his five years of government, the Bhutto government made extensive reforms at every level of government. Pakistan's capital and Western reforms that were begun and built in 1947 throughout the 1970s, were transformed and replaced with socialist system. His policies were seen as people-friendly but did not produce long-lasting effects as the civil disorder against Bhutto began to take place in 1977. Constitutional reforms Bhutto is considered the main architect of 1973 constitution as part of his vision to put Pakistan to road to parliamentary democracy. One of the major achievements in Bhutto's life was drafting of Pakistan's first ever consensus constitution to the country. Bhutto supervised the promulgation of 1973 constitution that triggered an unstoppable constitutional revolution through his politics wedded to the emancipation of the downtrodden masses, by first giving people a voice in the Parliament, and introducing radical changes in the economic sphere for their benefit. During his period in office the government carried out seven major amendments to the 1973 Constitution. The First Amendment led to Pakistan's recognition of and diplomatic ties with Bangladesh. The Second Amendment in the constitution declared the Ahmadis as non-Muslims, and defined the term non-Muslim. The rights of the detained were limited under the Third Amendment while the powers and jurisdiction of the courts for providing relief to political opponents were curtailed under the Fourth Amendment. The Fifth Amendment passed on 15 September 1976, focused on curtailing the power and jurisdiction of the Judiciary. This amendment was highly criticised by lawyers and political leaders. The main provision of the Sixth Amendment extended the term of the Chief Justices of the Supreme Court and the High Courts beyond the age of retirement. This Amendment was made in the Constitution to favour the then Chief Justice of the Supreme Court who was supposed to be a friend of Bhutto. Industrial reforms The Bhutto government carried out a number of reforms in the industrial sector. His reforms were twofold: nationalization, and the improvement of workers' rights. In the first phase, basic industries like steel, chemical and cement were nationalized. This was done in 1972. The next major step in nationalization took place on 1 January 1974, when Bhutto nationalised all banks. The last step in the series was the nationalization of all flour, rice and cotton mills throughout the country. This nationalisation process was not as successful as Bhutto expected. Most of the nationalized units were small businesses that could not be described as industrial units, hence making no sense for the step that was taken. Consequently, a considerable number of small businessmen and traders were ruined, displaced or rendered unemployed. In the concluding analysis, nationalisation caused colossal loss not only to the national treasury but also to the people of Pakistan. The Bhutto government established a large number of rural and urban schools, including around 6,500 elementary schools, 900 middle schools, 407 high schools, 51 intermediate colleges and 21 junior colleges. Bhutto also abandoned the Western education system and most of the literature was sent back to Western world; instead his government encouraged the local academicians to publish books on their respected fields. Though the local books were made cheaper to the public, these reforms came with controversy. His government made Islamic and Pakistan studies compulsory in schools. Book banks were created in most institutions and over 400,000 copies of text-books were supplied to students. Bhutto is credited for establishing the world class Quaid-e-Azam University and Allama Iqbal Open University in Islamabad in 1974, as well as establishing Gomal University Dera Ismail Khan in 1973. In his role as Foreign Minister, and in 1967 with the help of Abdus Salam, established the Institute of Theoretical Physics. As Prime Minister, Bhutto made revolutionary efforts to expand the web of education. Bhutto established the Allama Iqbal Medical College in 1975. In 1974, with the help of Abdus Salam, Bhutto gave authorisation of the International Nathiagali Summer College on Contemporary Physics (INSC) at the Nathiagali and as even as of today, INSC conference is still held on Pakistan, where thousands of scientists from all over the world are delegated to Pakistan to interact with Pakistan's academic scientists. In 1976, Bhutto established the Engineering Council, Institute of Theoretical Physics, Pakistan Academy of Letters and Cadet college Razmak in North Waziristan. A further four new Universities which have been established at Multan, Bahawalpur, and Khairpur. The People's Open University is another innovative venture which has started functioning from Islamabad. The Government's Education Policy provides for the remission of fees and the grant of a number of scholarships for higher education to the children of low-paid employees Seven thousand new hostel seats were planned to be added to the existing accommodation after the 1977 election. Bhutto said in 1975 he was aware "of the difficulties and deficiencies faced by college students in many of the existing hostels. Directions have, therefore, been issued that fans, water-coolers and pay-telephones must be provided in each and every hostel in as short a time as physically possible." Land, flood and agriculture reforms During his period as prime minister, a number of land reforms were also introduced. The important land reforms included the reduction of land ceilings and introducing the security of tenancy to tenant farmers. The land ceiling was fixed to of irrigated land and of non-irrigated land. Another step that Bhutto took was to democratise Pakistan's Civil Service. In Balochistan, the pernicious practice of Shishak and Sardari System was abolished. In 1976, the Bhutto government carried out the establishment of Federal Flood Commission (FFC), and was tasked to prepare national flood protection plans, and flood forecasting and research to harness floodwater. Bhutto later went on to upgrade a number of dams and barrages built in Sindh Province. Bhutto was a strong advocate of empowering small farmers. He argued that if farmers were weak and demoralised then Pakistan's agricultural strength would be fragile, believing that farmers would not feel psychologically safe unless the country achieved self-sufficiency in food. Therefore, the Bhutto government launched programs to put the country on road to self-sufficiency in rice hulling, sugar-milling and wheat husking industries. Bhutto's government intensified the control of rice hulling, sugar and wheat husking factories, initially believing that public sector involvement would reduce the influence of multi-national corporations creating monopolies. The Government initiated schemes for combating water logging and salinity. Tax exceptions were also introduced for small landowners to encourage the growth of agriculture. His nationalisation of Sindh-based industries heavily benefited the poor, but badly upset the influential feudal lords. Economic policy Bhutto introduced socialist economics while working to prevent any further division of the country. Major heavy mechanical, chemical, and electrical engineering industries were immediately nationalised by Bhutto, and all of the industries came under direct control of government. Industries, such as Karachi Electric Supply Corporation (KSEC) were under complete government control with no private influence in KESC decision. Bhutto abandoned Ayub Khan's state capitalism policies, and introduced socialist policies in a move to reduce income inequality. Bhutto also established the Port Qasim, Pakistan Steel Mills, the Heavy Mechanical Complex (HMC) and several cement factories. However, the growth rate of economy relative to that of the 1960s when East Pakistan was still part of Pakistan and large generous aid from the United States declined, after the global oil crises in 1973, which also had a negative impact on the economy. Despite the initiatives undertaken by Bhutto's government to boost the country's economy, the economical growth remained at equilibrium level. But Bhutto's policy largely benefited the poor and working class when the level of absolute poverty was sharply reduced, with the percentage of the population estimated to be living in absolute poverty falling from 46.50% by the end of 1979–80, under the General Zia-ul-Haq's military rule, to 30.78%. The land reform programme provided increased economic support to landless tenants, and development spending was substantially increased, particularly on health and education, in both rural and urban areas, and provided "material support" to rural wage workers, landless peasants, and urban wage workers. Bhutto's nationalisation policies were initiated with an aim to put workers in control of the tools of production and to protect workers and small businesses. However, economical historians argued that the nationalisation program initially effected the small industries and had devastating effects on Pakistan's economy shrunk Bhutto's credibility. Conservative critics believed the nationalisation policies had damaged investor's confidence and government corruption in nationalised industries grew, although no serious corruption cases were ever proved against Bhutto by the military junta. In 1974, Bhutto maintained that foreign companies and industries in Pakistan were except from nationalisation policies and his government would be willing to receive foreign investment to put up factories. While commenting on his policies in 1973, Bhutto told the group of investors that belonged to the Lahore Chamber of Commerce and Industry (LCCI) that "activity of public sector or state sector prevents the concentration of economic power in few hands, and protects the small and medium entrepreneurs from the clutches of giant enterprises and vested interests." Bhutto's shift away from some socialist policies badly upset his democratic socialist alliance and many in the Pakistan Peoples Party, many of his colleagues, most notable Malik Meraj Khalid left Bhutto and departed to Soviet Union after resigning from Law Minister. Continuous disagreement led the government's socialist alliance to collapse and further uniting with secular Independence Movement led by Asghar Khan. As part of his investment policies, Bhutto founded the National Development Finance Corporation (NDFC). In July 1973, this financial institute began operation with an initial government investment of 100 million PRs. It aim was finance public sector industrial enterprises but, later on, its charter was modified to provide finance to the private sector as well. The NDFC is currently the largest development finance institution of Pakistan performing diversified activities in the field of industrial financing and investment banking. 42 projects financed by NDFC have contributed Rs. 10,761 million to Pakistan's GDP and generated Rs. 690 million after-tax profits and 40,465 jobs. By the mid-1990s NDFC had a pool of resources amounting to US$878 million The Bhutto government increased the level of investment, private and public, in the economy from less than Rs. 7,000 million in 1971–72 to more than Rs. 17,000 million in 1974–75. Banking and Export expansion Banking reforms were introduced to provide more opportunities to small farmers and business such as forcing banks to ensure 70% of institutional lending should be for small land holders of 12.5 acres or less, which was a revolutionary idea at a time when banks only clients were the privileged classes. The number of bank branches rose by 75% from December 1971 to November 1976, from 3,295 to 5,727. It was one of the most radical move made by Bhutto, and the Bank infrastructure was expanded covering all towns and villages with a population of 5,000 in accordance with targets set after the nationalisation of banks. By end of the Bhutto government concentration of wealth had declined compared to height of the Ayub Khan era when 22 families owned 66% of industrial capital, and also controlled banking and 97% of insurance. Measures taken in the first few months of 1972 set a new framework for the revival of the economy. The diversion of trade from East Pakistan to international markets was completed within a short period. By 1974, exports exceeded one billion dollars, showing a 60% increase over the combined exports of East and West Pakistan before separation, it was achieved and benefited from when the world was in the midst of the major 1973 oil crisis and in the middle of global recession the national income of Pakistan increased by 15% and industrial production by as much as 20% in four years. Balochistan Military operation Following the secession of East Pakistan, calls for the independence of Balochistan by Baloch nationalists grew immensely. Surveying the political instability, Bhutto's central government sacked two provincial governments within six months, arrested the two chief ministers, two governors and forty-four MNAs and MPAs, obtained an order from the Supreme Court banning the National People's Party on the recommendation of Akbar Bugti, and charged everyone with high treason to be tried by a specially constituted Hyderabad tribunal of hand-picked judges. In January 1973, Bhutto ordered the Pakistan Armed Forces to suppress a rising insurgency in the province of Balochistan. He dismissed the governments in Balochistan and the North-West Frontier Province once more. Following the alleged discovery of Iraqi arms in Islamabad in February 1973, Bhutto dissolved the Provincial Assembly of Balochistan. The operation, under General Tikka Khan, soon took shape in a five-year conflict with the Baloch separatists. The sporadic fighting between the insurgency and the army started in 1973 with the largest confrontation taking place in September 1974. Later on, Pakistan Navy, under Vice-Admiral Patrick Julius Simpson, also jumped in the conflict as it had applied naval blockades to Balochistan's port. The Navy began its separate operations to seized the shipments sent to aid Baloch separatists. Pakistan Air Force also launched air operations, and with the support of navy and army, the air force had pounded the mountainous hidden havens of the Separatists. The Iranian military, also fearing a spread of the greater Baloch resistance in Iran, aided the Pakistani military as well. Among Iran's contribution were 30 Huey cobra attack helicopters and $200 million in aid. Iraqi intervention Iraq under Sunni President Saddam Hussein sent Iraqi made weapons to Pakistan's warm water ports. Pakistan's navy mounted an effective blockade. Saddam's government provided support for Baluchi separatists in Pakistan, hoping their conflict would spread to rival Iran. In 1973, Iraq provided the Baluchis with conventional arms, and it opened an office for the Baluchistan Liberation Front (BLF) in Baghdad. This operation was supposed to be covert, but in 1973, the operation was exposed by M.I. when senior separatist leader Akbar Bugti defected to Bhutto, revealing a series of arms stored in the Iraqi Embassy. On the midnight of 9 February 1973, Bhutto launched an operation to seize control of the Iraqi Embassy, and preparation for siege was hastily prepared. The operation was highly risky and a wrong step could have started a war between the two countries. The operation was carefully analysed and at 0:00hrs (12:00 am), the SSG Division accompanied by Army Rangers stormed the Embassy. Military Police arrested the Iraqi Ambassador, the military attaché, and Iraq's diplomatic staff. Following the incident, authorities discovered 300 Soviet sub-machine guns with 50,000 rounds of ammunition and a large amount of money that was to be distributed amongst Baluchi separatist groups. Bhutto was angered and frustrated. Without demanding an explanation, he ordered the Military Police to immediately expel the Iraqi Ambassador and his staff as persona non grata on the first available flight. The government announced the Iraqi plan to further dismember the country, and Bhutto's successful diplomatic offensive against Iraq isolated Saddam internationally with global condemnation. This incident caused Pakistan to support Iran during the Iran–Iraq War in the 1980s. Aftermath In order to avoid a replay of the East-Pakistan war, Bhutto launched economic and political reforms in the midst of the conflict. Bhutto government abolished the feudal system, the feudal lords continued to appropriate to themselves a generous share of government developmental funds whilst at the same time, they opposed and blackmailed the government whenever they could. Gradually the tribesmen started coming out of the Sardars' quarantine. Modern amenities, for instance medical aid, automobiles for passenger transport and schooling of children became available in the interior of Baluchistan for the first time, since 1947. The Bhutto government also constructed 564 miles of new roads, including the key link between Sibi and Maiwand creating new trade and commerce centres. Passport reforms The Bhutto government gave the right of a passport to every citizen of Pakistan and facilitated millions of skilled and non-skilled Pakistanis to seek employment in the Gulf countries through signing a series of bilateral agreements. From Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, alone 35,000 workers were given the opportunity to work in the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia. Bhutto used the Pakistani community of London to lobby and influence European governments to improve the rights of expatriate Pakistani communities in Europe. The remittances from overseas Pakistanis, which now total around $US25 billion per annum, constitute a dependable source of foreign exchange for Pakistan. Labour policy and social security The labour policy was among the most important cornerstones of Bhutto's government and a comprehensive labour reforms initiated by the Bhutto government. Shortly after assuming control, Bhutto's government imposed some conditions on the dismissal of workers. In 1973, the government instituted Labour Courts for the speedy redress of workers' grievances and the government also introduced a scheme for workers' participation in management, through the nationalisation policy. This scheme provided for 20% participation by workers in management committees set up at factory level. The Government abolished the workers' contribution to the Social Security Fund; instead, the employers were made to increase their contribution from 4 to 6%. The government enhanced compensation rates under the Worker's Compensation Act. In 1972 the Bhutto government initially provided for some old age benefits for workers through group insurance, increased rates of compensation and higher rates of gratuity. However, the policy did not benefited immediately, therefore, the government introduced a pension scheme of old age benefits which would provide a payment of Rs.75 a month to workers after retirement at the age of 55 for men and 50 for women, on condition that the worker had completed a minimum of 15 years insurable employment. This applied to all factories, industries, and establishments employing ten or more workers drawing monthly wages up to Rs. 1,000. Skilled workers who become invalid after five years of insurable employment were also made entitled to benefits under this scheme. Bhutto did not want to go for the western model where workers generally contribute along with the employers towards their old age benefits. In view of Pakistan's conditions, Bhutto's government did not wish the financial burden of this scheme to fall even partly on the worker. It was decided that the scheme be founded through a contribution from employers to the extent of 5% of the wage bill. Foreign policy After assuming power, Bhutto sought to diversify Pakistan's relations away from the United States and, soon Pakistan left CENTO and SEATO. Bhutto developed close and strengthened the Arab relations, and Sino-Pak relations. Bhutto believed in an independent Foreign Policy which had hitherto been the hand maiden of the Western Power, particularly independent from the United States' sphere of influence. With Bhutto as Foreign minister, and Prime minister, Pakistan and Iran had cemented a special relationship, as Iran had provided military assistance to Pakistan. The Sino-Pak relations were immensely improved, and Pakistan, under Bhutto, had built a strategic relationship with People's Republic of China, when PRC was isolated. In 1974, Bhutto hosted the second Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC) in 1974 where he delegated and invited leaders from the Muslim world to Lahore, Punjab Province of Pakistan. Bhutto was a strong advocate of Afro-Asian Solidarity and had cemented ties with Afro-Asian and Islamic countries and by 1976 had emerged as the Leader of the Third World. Bhutto sought a peace agreement—Simla Agreement—with Indira Gandhi, Premier of India, and brought back 93,000 P.O.Ws to Pakistan and secured held by India without compromising on Kashmir stance or recognising Bangladesh which were the key Indian demands. Negotiating with a power that has dismembered the country was an open-challenge to Bhutto who smoothly convinced India to return the territory and the POWs back to Pakistan. Before this conference, Bhutto and his colleagues did the comprehensive homework as Bhutto had realised that Arabs had still not succeeded in regaining territory lost in the 1967 war with Israel. Therefore, capturing of land does not cry out for international attention the same way as the prisoners do. According to Benazir Bhutto, Bhutto demanded the control of the territory in the first stage of the Agreement which surprised and shocked the Indian delegation. In Bhutto's point of view, the POW problem was more of a humanitarian problem that could be tackled at any time, but the territorial problem was something that could be integrated in India as time elapses. Indian Premier Gandhi was stunned and astonished at Bhutto's demand and reacted immediately by refusing Bhutto's demand. However, Bhutto calmed her and negotiated with economic packages dealt with Gandhi. Bhutto's knowledge and his intellectualism impressed Gandhi personally that Gandhi agreed to give the territory back to Bhutto in a first stage of the agreement. Signing of this agreement with Pakistan paying small price is still considered Bhutto's one of the huge diplomatic success. His vast knowledge, intelligence, and keen awareness of post-World War II, and the nuclear history, enabled him to craft the foreign policy which brought unmatched undivideds in Pakistan's foreign policy history. Elements of his policy were continued by the successive governments to play a vital role in world's politics. In 1974, Bhutto and his Foreign minister Aziz Ahmed brought a U.N. resolution, recommending and calling for the establishment of nuclear-weapon free zone in South Asia, whilst he and Aziz Ahmed aggressively attacked the Indian nuclear programme. While Abdul Qadeer Khan was tasked with bringing the gas-centrifuge technology through the means of atomic proliferation, the goal of the resolution was achieved when Bhutto put India on the defensive position and promoted Pakistan as a non-proliferationist. East Asia Since the 1960s, Bhutto had been an anti-SEATO and preferred a non-aligned policy. Soon after assuming the office, Bhutto took a lengthy foreign trip to Southeast Asia, seeking closer and tighter relations with Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Burma, and North Korea. His policy largely followed a tight and closer relations with China, normalised relationships with Soviet Union, built an Islamic bloc, and advocated a creation of new economical alliance largely benefiting the third and second world countries. All of these initiations and implications had disastrous effects on Japan, prompting Japan to oppose Bhutto, although Bhutto was a great admirer of Japan even though Japan was not a constituent part of Bhutto's foreign policy. In the 1970s, Japan made several attempts to get close to Bhutto, sending its military officials, scientists, and parliamentary delegations to Pakistan. Hence Japan went far by condemning India for carrying out a nuclear test, Smiling Buddha, in 1974, and publicly supported Pakistan's non-nuclear weapon policy and pledged to build several new nuclear power plants. In 1970, Bhutto advised Japan not to be party of NPT, but Japan signed it but later regretted for not being properly progressed. In Bhutto's view, Japan had been under the United States' influence, and much bigger role of Japan in Asia would only benefit American interests in the region. By the 1970s, Japan completely lost its momentum in Pakistan as Pakistan followed a strict independent policy. Bhutto envisioned Pakistan's new policy as benefiting the economic relations rather than the military alliance which also affected Japan's impact on Pakistan. However, much of the foreign policy efforts were reverted by General Zia-ul-Haq and ties were finally restored after Bhutto's execution. Arab world and Israel Bhutto sought to improve Pakistan's ties with the Arab world, and sided with the Arab world during the Arab-Israeli conflict. Colonel Gaddafi of former Socialist Libya considered Bhutto as one of his greatest inspirations and was said to be very fond of Bhutto's intellectualism. In 1973, during the Yom Kippur War, Pakistan's relations with the Arab world represented a watershed. In both Pakistan and the Arab world, Pakistan's swift, unconditional and forthright offer of assistance to the Arab states was deeply appreciated. In 1974, pressured by other Muslim nations, Pakistan eventually recognised Bangladesh as Mujib stated he would only go to the OIC conference in Lahore if Pakistan recognised Bangladesh. Pakistan established full diplomatic relations with Bangladesh on 18 January 1976 and relations improved in the following decades. Bhutto aided the Syrian and Egyptian Air Force by sending the Pakistan Air Force and Navy's top fighter pilots where they flew combat missions against Israel. However, Iraq was not benefited with Bhutto policies. In early 1977, Bhutto decided to use ISI to provide the credible intelligence on Iraqi nuclear program that Pakistan and the ISI had secretly gained. The government passed intel that identified Iraqi nuclear program and the Osirak Nuclear Reactor at Osirak to Israel's Mossad. Helping Israel to infiltrate Iraqi nuclear program was also continued by General Zia-ul-Haq as their policy to teach Iraq and Saddam Hussein a lesson for supporting the Baloch liberation fronts and movements. United States and Soviet Union In 1974, India carried out a nuclear test, codenamed Smiling Buddha, near Pakistan's eastern border. Bhutto unsuccessfully lobbied for the United States to impose economic sanctions on India. However, at the request of Bhutto, Pakistan's Ambassador to the United States convened a meeting with Secretary of State Henry Kissinger. Kissinger told Pakistan's ambassador to Washington that the test is "a fait accompli and that Pakistan would have to learn to live with it," although he was aware this was a "little rough" on the Pakistanis. In 1976, the ties were further severed with Bhutto as Bhutto had continued to administer the research on weapons, and in 1976, in a meeting with Bhutto and Kissinger, Kissinger had told Bhutto, "that if you [Bhutto] do not cancel, modify or postpone the Reprocessing Plant Agreement, we will make a horrible example from you". The meeting was ended by Bhutto as he had replied: For my country's sake, for the sake of people of Pakistan, I did not succumb to that black-mailing and threats. After this meeting, Bhutto intensified Pakistan's foreign policy towards more onto Movement of Non-Aligned Countries, and sought to develop relations with both Soviet Union and the United States. Bhutto was keenly aware of Great Britain's policy of "divide and rule", and American policy of "unite and rule". In 1974, Bhutto, as Prime minister, visited Soviet Union. Prime Minister Bhutto deliberately undertook to improve relations with the Soviet Union and the Communist bloc. The foundation stone for Pakistan Steel Mills was laid on 30 December 1973 by Bhutto. The Soviet Union sent advisors and experts to supervise the construction of the mega-project. Although Richard Nixon enjoyed friendly relations with Bhutto, Pakistan's relationship with United States deteriorated under the Presidency of Jimmy Carter, as the US opposed Pakistan's nuclear programme. Carter tightened the embargo placed on Pakistan and placed pressure through the United States Ambassador to Pakistan, Brigadier-General Henry Byroade. Bhutto's socialist orientation upset the United States, which feared Pakistan's loss as an ally in the Cold war. When Carter was elected in 1976, he announced in his inaugural speech that he would seek the ban of nuclear weapons. With Carter's election, Bhutto lost the links to the United States administration that he had enjoyed through Nixon. Although Carter placed an embargo on Pakistan, Bhutto continued to obtain materials to develop Pakistan's atomic bomb project, leading to the failure of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. Afghanistan and Central Asia In 1972, Bhutto initially tried to build friendly ties with Afghanistan but such attempts where rebuffed in 1973. In 1974, Afghanistan began covert involvement in Pakistan's Khyber Pakhtunkhwa which became increasingly disturbing for Bhutto's government. Afghan President Dawood Khan's controversial Pashtunisation policies resulted in Pakistan with gruesome violence and civil disturbances. The ISI quickly pointed out that President Daud was providing safe havens and training camps to anti-Pakistan militants and its intelligence agency had been a main arm of supporting the actions inside Pakistan, including providing support to Baloch separatists. Therefore, Bhutto's government decided to retaliate, and Bhutto launched a covert counter-operation in 1974 under the command of Major-General Naseerullah Babar, who was then Director-General of the M.I. Directorate-General for Western Fronts (DGWI). According to General Baber, it was an excellent idea and it had hard-hitting impact on Afghanistan. The aim of this operation was to arm the Islamic fundamentalists and to instigate an attack in different parts of Afghanistan. In 1974, Bhutto authorised a covert operation in Kabul and the Pakistan Air Force and the members of AI and the ISI successfully extradited Burhanuddin Rabbani, Jan Mohammad Khan, Gulbadin Hekmatyar, and Ahmad Shah Massoud to Peshawar, amid fear that Rabbani may be assassinated. By the end of 1974, Bhutto gave final authorisation of covert operation to train Afghan mujaheddin to take on Daoud Khan's government. This operation was an ultimate success. By 1976 Daud had become concerned about his country's over dependence on the Soviet Union and the rising insurgency. On 7 June 1976, Bhutto paid a three-day state visit to Afghanistan, followed by a five-day visit of Daud Khan to Pakistan in August 1976. On 2 March 1977, an agreement on the resumption of air communications between Afghanistan and Pakistan was reached, as relations continued to improve. Bhutto and Daud made an exchange of official visits to force Afghanistan to accept the Durand Line as the permanent border. However, these developments were interrupted as Bhutto was removed and Daud Khan was also overthrown in a military coup shortly after. Western experts viewed Bhutto's policy as "astute policy" in regards to the border question, as it increased pressure on Afghanistan and very likely helped stimulate Afghan government's move towards accommodation. The Deputy Afghan Foreign Minister Abdul Samad Ghaus also admitted that before the compromise Afghanistan had been heavily involved inside Pakistan. Downfall and overthrow Popular unrest Bhutto began facing considerable criticism and increasing unpopularity as his term progressed. Initially targeting the opposition leader Abdul Wali Khan and his National Awami Party (NAP), a democratic socialist party, the socialist and communist mass who gathered under Bhutto's leadership began to disintegrate, thus dividing and allying with secular fronts. Despite the ideological similarity of the two parties, clashes between them became increasingly farcical. This started with the federal government's ousting of the NAP provincial government in Balochistan for alleged secessionist activities, and ended with the ban on the NAP. Subsequently, much of the NAP top leadership was arrested, after Bhutto's confidant Hyatt Scherpaoi was killed in a Peshawar bomb blast. Another notable figure, Chief Justice Hamoodur Rahman died due to a cardiac arrest while in the office. Between the 1974 and 1976, many of Bhutto's original members had left Bhutto due to political differences or natural death causes. In 1974, Bhutto's trusted Science Advisor Abdus Salam also left Pakistan when Parliament declared Ahmadis as non-Muslims. With Salam's departure, the research on nuclear weapons slowed down the progress as Dr. Mubashir Hassan, now Bhutto's appointed Science Advisor, would focus on politics more than the science research. Many civil bureaucrats and military officers loyal to Bhutto were replaced by new faces. Bhutto found himself with new advisers and collaborators. Dissidence also increased within the PPP and the murder of dissident leader Ahmed Raza Kasuri's father led to public outrage and intra-party hostility as Bhutto was accused of masterminding the crime. Powerful PPP leaders such as Ghulam Mustafa Khar, former Governor of Punjab, openly condemned Bhutto and called for protests against his regime. The political crisis in the North-West Frontier Province and Balochistan intensified as civil liberties remained suspended and an estimated 100,000 troops deployed there were accused of human rights abuses and killing large numbers of civilians. On 8 January 1977, the opposition organized into the Pakistan National Alliance (PNA), a nine-party coalition against the government of Bhutto and his allies. Bhutto called fresh elections, but the PNA did not obtain a clear majority. The PNA faced defeat but did not accept the results, accusing their opponents of rigging the election. The dissidents ultimately claimed that 40 seats in the national assembly were rigged, and boycotted the provincial elections. In the face of the resulting low voter turnout, the PNA declared the newly elected Bhutto government as illegitimate. Hard-line Islamist leaders such as Maulana Maududi called for the overthrow of Bhutto's regime. Mubashir Hassan, Science Advisor of Bhutto, feared a possible coup against Bhutto. Hassan entered the dispute and made an unsuccessful attempt to reach an agreement with PNA. Most Islamists refused to meet with Hassan as they saw him as the architect of Bhutto's success. The same year, an intensive crackdown was initiated on the Pakistan Muslim League, a conservative front. The People's National Party's President and former Leader of the Opposition Khan Vali Khan saw Bhutto's actions as his last stand against PNA, the Armed Forces and Bhutto, including his colleagues, were isolated. In an open public seminar, Vali Khan quoted that "There is one possible grave for two people ... let us see who gets in first". The Federal Security Force allegedly either arrested or extrajudicially killed members of the Muslim League. Following this, amid protest and civil distress felt in Lahore, and People's Party lost the administrative control over the city. Military coup On 3 July 1977, military general Khalid Mahmud Arif secretly met Bhutto, revealing that the planning of a coup had been taking place in the General Combatant Headquarters (GHQ). At this secret meeting, General Arif encouraged Bhutto to "rush the negotiation with the PNA, before it's too late". Intensifying political and civil disorder prompted Bhutto to hold talks with PNA leaders, which culminated in an agreement for the dissolution of the assemblies and fresh elections under a government of national unity. However, on 5 July 1977 Bhutto and members of his cabinet were arrested by troops under the order of General Zia. It is generally believed that the coup took place on the pretext of unrest despite Bhutto having reached an agreement with the opposition. Bhutto had good intelligence within the Army, and officers such as Major-General Tajamül Hussain Malik were loyal to him until the end. However, General Zia-ul-Haq ordered a training programme with the officers from Special Air Service (SAS). General Zia-ul-Haq ordered many of Bhutto's loyal officers to attend the first course. However, classes for senior officers were delayed until the midnight. None of the officers were allowed to leave until late in the evening before the coup. During this time, arrangements for the coup were made. General Zia announced that martial law had been imposed, the constitution suspended and all assemblies dissolved and promised elections within ninety days. Zia also ordered the arrest of senior PPP and PNA leaders but promised elections in October. Bhutto was released on 29 July and was received by a large crowd of supporters in his hometown of Larkana. He immediately began touring across Pakistan, delivering speeches to very large crowds and planning his political comeback. Bhutto was arrested again on 3 September before being released on bail on 13 September. Fearing yet another arrest, Bhutto named his wife, Nusrat, president of the Pakistan People's Party. Bhutto was imprisoned on 16 September and a large number of PPP leaders, notably Dr. Mubashir Hassan and activists were arrested and disqualified from contesting the elections. Observers noted that when Bhutto was removed from power in July 1977, thousands of Pakistanis cheered and were delighted. Trial and execution On 5 July 1977 the military, led by General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, staged a coup. Zia relieved prime minister Bhutto of power, holding him in detention for a month. Zia pledged that new elections would be held in 90 days. He kept postponing the elections and publicly retorted during successive press conferences that if the elections were held in the presence of Bhutto his party would not return to power again. Upon his release, Bhutto travelled around the country amid adulatory crowds of PPP supporters. He used to take the train from the south to the north, and en route would address public meetings at different stations. Several of these trains were late, some by days, in reaching their respective destinations and as a result Bhutto was banned from traveling by train. The last visit he made to the city of Multan in the province of Punjab marked the turning point in Bhutto's political career and ultimately, his life. In spite of the administration's efforts to block the gathering, the crowd was so large that it became disorderly, providing an opportunity for the administration to declare that Bhutto, along with Dr. Hassan, had been taken into custody because the people were against him and it had become necessary to protect him from the masses for his own safety. On 3 September, the Army arrested Bhutto again on charges of authorising the murder of a political opponent in March 1974. (The charge has been called "questionable" by at least one scholar (Vali Nasr). A 35-year-old politician Ahmed Raza Kasuri and his family had been ambushed, leaving Kasuri's father, Nawab Muhammad Ahmad Khan Kasuri, dead. Kasuri claimed that he was the actual target, accusing Bhutto of orchestrating the attack. Kasuri later claimed that he had been the target of 15 assassination attempts. Bhutto's defenders have claimed Kasuri was "so inconsequential a figure as to have hardly been a rival or a political threat". Bhutto's wife Nusrat Bhutto assembled a team of top Pakistani lawyers for Bhutto's defence, led by Fakhruddin G. Ebrahim, Yahya Bakhtiar and Abdulhafiz Pirzada. Bhutto was released 10 days after his arrest after a judge, Justice KMA Samdani, found the evidence to be "contradictory and incomplete." As a result, Justice Samdani was immediately removed from the bench and placed at the disposal of the law ministry. Three days later Zia arrested Bhutto again on the same charges, this time under "martial law." When the PPP organised demonstrations among Bhutto's supporters, Zia cancelled the upcoming elections. Bhutto was arraigned before the High Court of Lahore instead of in a lower court, thus depriving him of one level of appeal. The judge who had granted him bail had been removed. Five new judges were appointed, headed by Chief Justice of Lahore High Court Maulvi Mushtaq Hussain. Hussain had previously served as Bhutto's Foreign secretary in 1965, and was alleged to have strongly disliked and distrusted Bhutto. Hussain was not only a Zia appointee but also hailed from his home Jullundur district. The trial lasted five months, and Bhutto appeared in court in a dock specially built for the trial. Proceedings began on 24 October 1977. Masood Mahmood, the director general of the Federal Security Force (since renamed the Federal Investigation Agency), testified against Bhutto. Mahmood had been arrested immediately after Zia's coup and had been imprisoned for two months prior to taking the stand. In his testimony, he claimed Bhutto had ordered Kasuri's assassination and that four members of the Federal Security Force had organised the ambush on Bhutto's orders. The four alleged assassins were arrested and later confessed. They were brought into court as "co-accused" but one of them recanted his testimony, declaring that it had been extracted from him under torture. The following day, the witness was not present in court and the prosecution claimed that he had suddenly "fallen ill". Bhutto's defence team fought the case efficiently and challenged the prosecution with evidence from an army logbook the prosecution had submitted. It showed that the jeep allegedly driven during the attack on Kasuri was not even in Lahore at the time. The prosecution had the logbook disregarded as "incorrect". During the cross-examination by the defence of witnesses, the bench often interrupted questioning. The 706-page official transcript contained none of the objections or inconsistencies in the evidence pointed out by the defence. Former U.S. Attorney General Ramsey Clark, who witnessed the trial, found numerous irregularities: When Bhutto began his testimony on 25 January 1978, Chief Justice Maulvi Mushtaq closed the courtroom to all observers. Bhutto responded by refusing to say any more. Bhutto demanded a retrial, accusing the Chief Justice of bias, after Mushtaq allegedly insulted Bhutto's home province. The court refused his demand. Death sentence and appeal On 18 March 1978, Bhutto was declared guilty of murder, and was sentenced to death. Bhutto's former Legal Minister, Abdul Hafiz Pirzada petitioned the Supreme Court for the release of Bhutto's Science Adviser, Mubashir Hassan, and to review Bhutto's death sentence based on the split decision. The Supreme Court denied Hassan's release because he was held by Military Police, but the court agreed to hear the arguments. After 12 days of proceedings, the Supreme Court concluded that the President of Pakistan can change a death sentence into life imprisonment. Pirzada filed an application to then-Chief Martial Law Administrator. However, General Zia-ul-Haq did not act immediately and claimed that the application had gone missing. Emotionally shattered, Pirzada informed Bhutto about the development and General Zia-ul-Haq's intention. Therefore, Bhutto did not seek an appeal. While he was transferred to a cell in Rawalpindi central jail, his family appealed on his behalf, and a hearing before the Supreme Court commenced in May. Bhutto was given one week to prepare. Bhutto issued a thorough rejoinder to the charges, although Zia blocked its publication. Chief Justice S. Anwarul Haq adjourned the court until the end of July 1978, supposedly because five of the nine appeal court judges were willing to overrule the Lahore verdict. One of the pro-Bhutto judges was due to retire in July. Chief Justice S. Anwarul Haq presided over the trial, despite being close to Zia, even serving as Acting President when Zia was out of the country. Bhutto's lawyers managed to secure Bhutto the right to conduct his own defence before the Supreme Court. On 18 December 1978, Bhutto made his appearance in public before a packed courtroom in Rawalpindi. By this time he had been on death row for 9 months and had gone without fresh water for the previous 25 days. He addressed the court for four days, speaking without notes. The appeal was completed on 23 December 1978. On 6 February 1979, the Supreme Court voted 4-3 to issue a guilty verdict. Bhutto defender Ramsey Clark notes that during the appeal "not one‐witness was re‐examined, nor did the court rectify" what Clark called "the glaring defects of the lower court's proceedings". He also notes that two of the Supreme Court's nine justices were absent from the decision, and both showed signs of being manipulated away from participation. One who Of course, if they had been present and voted not guilty in a 5-4 decision, Bhutto would have gone free. The Bhutto family had seven days in which to appeal. The court granted a stay of execution while it studied the petition. By 24 February 1979 when the next court hearing began, appeals for clemency arrived from many heads of state. Zia said that the appeals amounted to "trade union activity" among politicians. On 24 March 1979 the Supreme Court dismissed the appeal. Zia upheld the death sentence. Bhutto was hanged at Central Jail Rawalpindi, on 4 April 1979, after suffering severe torture in jail which resulted in vomiting and severe pain in chest, and was buried at his family mausoleum in Garhi Khuda Baksh. During his imprisonment, Bhutto's children Murtaza and Benazir worked on rallying the international support for the release of their father. Libya's Colonel Gaddafi sent his Prime Minister Abdus Salam Jalloud on an emergency trip to Pakistan to hold talks with Pakistan's military establishment for the release of Bhutto. In a press conference, Jalloud told the journalists that Gaddafi had offered General Zia to exile him to Libya, and Prime Minister Jalloud stayed in the Islamabad International Airport where the specially designated Presidential aircraft waited for Bhutto. However, after a week of staying at the airport, General Zia rejected Prime Minister Jalloud's request and upheld the death sentence. Much of the Muslim world was shocked at Bhutto's execution. Before being hanged, Bhutto made a final speech and his last words were: "Oh Lord, help me for... I am innocent." Re-opening of the Bhutto trial On 2 April 2011, 32 years after Bhutto's trial and execution, the PPP (the ruling party at that time) filed a petition at the Supreme Court to reopen Bhutto's trial. At the Geo News, senior journalist Iftikhar Ahmad aired a series of televised interviews with those who played a major and often controversial role in Bhutto's death. A legal team was organized by the Prime Minister Yusuf Raza Gilani's cabinet seeking to reopen the trial. President Asif Ali Zardari gave his consent to the resulting presidential order named Article 186 of the Constitution, the Supreme Court taking up the petition on 13 April 2011. Chief Justice Iftikhar Chaudhry eventually presided the three-judge-bench (although it was expanded with law experts from four provinces of Pakistan), while Minister of Law Babar Awan counseled Bhutto's case. With immediate effect, Babar Awan resigned as Law Minister, even leaving the Justice Ministry entirely in order to legally counsel Bhutto's case completely independently. In his noting remarks, Chief Justice Chaudhry praised and appreciated the move by the senior PPP leadership and remarked the gesture as "historic". In a crucial advancement, the Supreme Court ordered the decision on the legal status of Bhutto's execution to a to-be-formed larger bench. After a series of hearings at the Supreme Court, the case was adjourned and dismissed after the PPP approved the suspension of Babar Awan on 2 May 2012. Personal life Bhutto was a Muslim. Bhutto's first marriage took place in 1943, to his cousin Shireen Amir Begum, however they separated. On 8 September 1951 Zulfiquar Ali Bhutto married Nusrat Ispahani of Iranian Kurdish origin, popularly known as Begum Nusrat Bhutto in Karachi. Their first child, Benazir, was born in 1953. She was followed by Murtaza in 1954, Sanam in 1957 and Shahnawaz in 1958. Reception and legacy Bhutto remains a controversial and widely discussed figure in Pakistan. While he was hailed for his nationalism, Bhutto was roundly criticized for intimidating his political opponents. By the time Bhutto was given the control of his country in 1971, Pakistan was in a state of disrepair and demoralization after a bloody civil war. His political rivals had blamed his socialist policies for slowing down Pakistan's economic progress, as they caused poor productivity and high costs; however, Bhutto countered that he was merely addressing the massive inequality built up over the Ayub Khan (General) years. Bhutto is blamed by some quarters for causing the Bangladesh Liberation War. In 1977, General Zia-ul-Haq released former general Yahya Khan from prison and his Lieutenant-General Fazle Haq gave him the honorary guard of honor when the former general died in 1980. After being released from house arrest after the 1977 coup Yahya said, "It was Bhutto, not Mujib, who broke Pakistan. Bhutto's stance in 1971 and his stubbornness harmed Pakistan's solidarity much more than Sheikh Mujib's six-point demand. It was his high ambitions and rigid stance that led to rebellion in East Pakistan. He riled up the Bengalis and brought an end to Pakistan's solidarity. East Pakistan broke away." Other army men who lay blame for 1971 on Bhutto include future President Pervez Musharraf and East Pakistan's former Martial Law Administrator Syed Mohammad Ahsan. Bhutto is also often criticised for human-rights abuses in Baluchistan by hardline Islamists as well as conservatives. Bhutto's actions during the 1970s operation in Balochistan are also criticised for failing to bring about a lasting peace in the region. Bhutto's international image is more positive, casting him as a secular internationalist. Domestically, despite the criticism, Bhutto still remains Pakistan's most popular leader. During his premiership, Bhutto succeeded in uniting all the parties in getting the 1973 constitution enacted. His determined and aggressive embrace of nuclear weapons for Pakistan has made him regarded as the father of Pakistan's nuclear-deterrence programme, which he pursued in spite of Pakistan's limited financial resources and strong opposition from the United States. In 2006, The Atlantic described Bhutto as demagogic and extremely populist, but still Pakistan's greatest civilian leader. Even though Henry Kissinger developed differences with Bhutto, in his 1979 memoir White House Years he conceded that Bhutto was "brilliant, charming, of global stature in his perception, a man of extraordinary abilities, capable of drawing close to any country that served Pakistan's national interests". While, Bhutto's former Law Minister Mairaj Muhammad Khan described Bhutto as "a great man but cruel". His family remained active and influential in politics, with first his wife and then his daughter becoming leader of the PPP political party. His eldest daughter, Benazir Bhutto, was twice Prime Minister of Pakistan, and was assassinated on 27 December 2007, while campaigning for 2008 elections. His son, Murtaza Bhutto, was the leader of al-Zulfikar, a Pakistani left-wing militant organization, following his father’s death. He was controversially shot dead alongside six others in a police encounter on September 20, 1996. His son Shahnawaz Bhutto also died under mysterious circumstances in Nice, France on July 18, 1985 at the age of 26. Roedad Khan, former statesman who served under Bhutto, further wrote in his book, Pakistan - A Dream Gone Sour (1997), that after 1971, Bhutto started extremely well, bringing the isolated, angered, apprehended, and dismembered nation back into her feet and gave the respectable place in the world, in a shortest period... With a gift of giving the nation a parliamentary system and furthermore the ambitious successful development of atomic bomb programme in a record time, are his greatest achievements in his life, for Pakistan and her people, but sadly deteriorated at the end". Bhutto remains highly influential in country's public, scientific, and political circles; his name yet continues to resonate in Pakistan's collective memory. With all the criticism and opposition, Bhutto remained highly influential and respected figure even after his death. Bhutto is widely regarded as being among the most influential men in the history of Pakistan. His daughter Benazir Bhutto later led the PPP and served as the 11th and 13th Prime Minister of Pakistan; his grandson Bilawal Bhutto Zardari is the current chairman of the PPP, and is serving as the Foreign Minister of Pakistan. Eponyms Shaheed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and Technology, a science and engineering institute named after Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, located in Karachi, Sindh of Pakistan. ZA Bhutto Agricultural College, an agriculture engineering and science college named after Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, located at Larkana, Sindh, Pakistan. Zulfiqarabad, a planned city in Larkana District of Sindh, Pakistan. The city is named in memory of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto. Books Peace-Keeping by the United Nations, Pakistan Publishing House, Karachi, 1967 Political Situation in Pakistan, Veshasher Prakashan, New Delhi, 1968 The Myth of Independence, Oxford University Press, Karachi and Lahore, 1969 The Great Tragedy, Pakistan People's Party, Karachi, 1971 Marching Towards Democracy, (collections of speeches), 1972 Politics of the People (speeches, statements and articles), 1948–1971 The Third World: New Directions, Quartet Books, London, 1977 My Pakistan, Biswin Sadi Publications, New Delhi, 1979 If I am Assassinated, Vikas, New Delhi, 1979 on-line My Execution, Musawaat Weekly International, London, 1980 New Directions, Narmara Publishers, London, 1980 See also Ghinwa Bhutto Jumo Faqir Nusrat Bhutto List of presidents of Pakistan List of prime ministers of Pakistan Movement for the Restoration of Democracy Notes References Bibliography External links Official web site of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Biography with brief video clip from TV address on 18 November 1970 Manifestos of Pakistan Peoples Party 1970 & 1977 Zulfikar Ali Bhutto at Encyclopedia Sindhiana \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- 1928 births 1979 deaths 1974 crimes 20th-century executions by Pakistan Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford Alumni of the Inns of Court School of Law St. Xavier's College, Mumbai alumni Zulfikar Ali Cathedral and John Connon School alumni Causes and prelude of the Bangladesh Liberation War Defence Ministers of Pakistan Executed Pakistani people Executed people from Larkana Executed presidents Executed prime ministers Foreign Ministers of Pakistan Interior ministers of Pakistan Members of Lincoln's Inn Nuclear history of Pakistan Pakistan Army civilians Pakistan People's Party politicians Pakistani democracy activists Pakistani people convicted of murder Pakistani socialists People convicted of murder by Pakistan People executed by Pakistan by hanging People executed for murder People from Larkana District Presidents of Pakistan Prime Ministers of Pakistan Members of the Pakistan Philosophical Congress Project-706 Sindhi people Speakers of the National Assembly of Pakistan Trials in Pakistan University of California, Berkeley alumni University of Southern California alumni Leaders ousted by a coup Pakistani political party founders Recipients of Hilal-i-Pakistan Muslim socialists Heads of government who were later imprisoned
401133	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preston%20Sturges	Preston Sturges	Preston Sturges (; born Edmund Preston Biden; August 29, 1898 – August 6, 1959) was an American playwright, screenwriter, and film director. Sturges took the screwball comedy format of the 1930s to another level, writing dialogue that, heard today, is often surprisingly naturalistic and mature, despite the farcical situations. It is not uncommon for a Sturges character to deliver an exquisitely turned phrase and take an elaborate pratfall within the same scene. Prior to Sturges, other figures in Hollywood (such as Charlie Chaplin, D. W. Griffith, and Frank Capra) had directed films from their own scripts; however, Sturges is often regarded as the first Hollywood figure to establish success as a screenwriter and then move into directing his own scripts, at a time when those roles were separate. He sold the story for The Great McGinty to Paramount Pictures for $10 in exchange for directing it. Anthony Lane writes that "To us, that seems old hat, one of the paths by which the ambitious get to run their own show, but back in 1940, when The Great McGinty came out, it was very new hat indeed; the opening credits proclaimed 'Written and directed by Preston Sturges,' and it was the first time in the history of talkies that the two passive verbs had appeared together onscreen. From that conjunction sprang a whole tradition of filmmaking: literate, spiky, defensive, markedly personal, and almost always funny." For that film, Sturges was the first person to win the Oscar for Best Original Screenplay. Sturges went on to receive Oscar nominations for The Miracle of Morgan's Creek (1944) and Hail the Conquering Hero (1944). He also wrote and directed The Lady Eve (1941), Sullivan's Travels (1941) and The Palm Beach Story (1942), each considered classic comedies, appearing on the American Film Institute's 100 Years...100 Laughs. Early life Sturges was born in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Mary Estelle Dempsey (later known as Mary Desti or Mary D'Este) and traveling salesman Edmund C. Biden. His maternal grandparents, Catherine Campbell Smyth and Dominick d'Este Dempsey, were immigrants from Ireland, and his father was of English descent. When Sturges was two years old, his eccentric mother left America to pursue a singing career in Paris, where she annulled her marriage with Preston's father. Returning to America, Dempsey met her third husband, the wealthy stockbroker Solomon Sturges, who adopted Preston in 1902. According to biographers, Solomon Sturges was "diametrically opposite to Mary and her bohemianism". This included her close friendship with Isadora Duncan, as the young Sturges would sometimes travel from country to country with Duncan's dance company. Mary also carried on a romantic affair with Aleister Crowley and collaborated with him on his magnum opus Magick. As a young man, Sturges bounced back and forth between Europe and the United States. As Sturges spent much of his childhood and youth in France, he ended up fluent in French and a Francophile who always considered France his "second home". In 1916, he worked as a runner for New York stock brokers, a position he obtained through Solomon Sturges. The next year, he enlisted in the United States Army Air Service, and graduated as a lieutenant from Camp Dick in Texas without seeing action. While at camp, Sturges wrote an essay, "Three Hundred Words of Humor", which was printed in the camp newspaper, becoming his first published work. Returning from camp, Sturges picked up a managing position at the Desti Emporium in New York, a store owned by his mother's fourth husband. He spent eight years (1919–1927) there, until he married the first of his four wives, Estelle De Wolfe. Sturges's 1928 turn to playwriting was accidental. While on a date with a young actress of certain renown, the actress informed Sturges that while she had pretended to find him witty and charming, she actually considered him a bore. "The only reason I'm going out with you, sir, is for the same reason that a scientist embraces a guinea pig; I just like to try my situations out on you to see how they turn out." She claimed that the dramatic research was for a play she was writing. Outraged, Sturges told her that if she could write a play, he could write a play, but that his would be better and run longer. Within two months, he had written his first play: The Guinea Pig, only to find out that she wasn't writing a play at all, and that she was surprised and flattered that he had taken her ravings so seriously. Career From Broadway to Hollywood In 1928, Sturges performed on Broadway in Hotbed, a short-lived play by Paul Osborn, and Sturges's first produced play, The Guinea Pig, opened in Massachusetts. The play was a success and Sturges moved it to Broadway the following year, a turning point in his career. That same year also saw the opening of Sturges's second play, the hit Strictly Dishonorable. Written in just six days, the play ran for sixteen months and earned Sturges over $300,000, a staggering amount at the time. It attracted interest from Hollywood, and Sturges was writing for Paramount by the end of the year. Three other Sturges stage plays were produced from 1930 to 1932, one of them a musical, but none of them were hits. By the end of the year, he was working more in Hollywood as a writer-for-hire, operating on short contracts, for Universal, MGM, and Columbia studios. He also sold his original screenplay for The Power and the Glory (1933) to Fox, where it was filmed as a vehicle for Spencer Tracy. The film told the story of a self-involved financier via a series of flashbacks and flash-forwards, and was an acknowledged source of inspiration for the screenwriters of Citizen Kane. Fox producer Jesse Lasky had been prepared to customarily pass Sturges's screenplay along to other writers for rewriting, but said, "It was the most perfect script I'd ever seen ... Imagine a producer accepting a script from an author and not being able to make one change." Lasky paid Sturges $17,500 plus 7% of the profits above $1 million. It was a then-unprecedented deal for a screenwriter, which instantly elevated Sturges's reputation in Hollywood – although the lucrative deal irritated as many as it impressed. Sturges later recalled, "The film made a lot of enemies. Writers at that time worked in teams, like piano movers. And my first solo script was considered a distinct menace to the profession." For the remainder of the 1930s, Sturges operated under the strict auspices of the studio system, working on a string of scripts, some of which were shelved, sometimes with screen credit and sometimes not. While he was highly paid, earning $2,500 a week, he was unhappy with the way directors were handling his dialogue, and he resolved to take creative control of his own projects. He accomplished this goal in 1939 by trading his screenplay for The Great McGinty (written six years earlier) to Paramount in exchange for the chance to direct it. Paramount promoted the unusual deal as part of the film's publicity, saying that Sturges had received just ten dollars. Sturges's success quickly paved the way for similar deals for such writer–directors as Billy Wilder and John Huston. Sturges said, "It's taken me eight years to reach what I wanted. But now, if I don't run out of ideas – and I won't – we'll have some fun. There are some wonderful pictures to be made, and God willing, I will make some of them." Screenwriting heights Sturges won the first-ever Academy Award for Writing Original Screenplay for The Great McGinty, at which time he was one of the highest paid men in Hollywood. He also received two screenwriting Academy Award nominations in the same year, for 1944's Hail the Conquering Hero and The Miracle of Morgan's Creek, a feat since matched by Frank Butler, Francis Ford Coppola, and Oliver Stone. (In the second Academy Awards, under a different nomination process, eleven screenplays were considered, including two by Bess Meredyth, two by Tom Barry, two by Hanns Kräly and four by Elliott J. Clawson.) Though he had a thirty-year Hollywood career, Sturges's greatest comedies were filmed in a furious five-year burst of activity from 1939 to 1944, during which he turned out The Great McGinty, Christmas in July, The Lady Eve, Sullivan's Travels, The Palm Beach Story, The Miracle of Morgan's Creek and Hail the Conquering Hero, for each of which he served as both screenplay writer and the director. Half a century later, four of these – The Lady Eve, Sullivan's Travels, The Palm Beach Story and The Miracle of Morgan's Creek – were chosen by the American Film Institute as being among the 100 funniest American films. The film critic Ephraim Katz wrote that Sturges films "...parodied with pungent wit various aspects of American life from politics and advertising to sex and hero worship. They were marked by their verbal wit, opportune comic timing, and eccentric, outrageously funny camo characterizations." Film critic Andrew Sarris wrote, "Sturges repeatedly suggested that the lowliest boob could rise to the top with the right degree of luck, bluff, and fraud." Critic Andrew Dickos wrote that "the touchstone of Preston Sturges' screenwriting lies in the respect paid to the play and density of verbal language" and "establishes the standard of eloquence as one of poetry, of a cacophony of Euro-American vernacularisms and utterances, peculiarly—and appropriately—spoken with scandalous indifference." Sturges's rich writing style has been described as that of "a lowbrow aristocrat, a melancholy wiseguy." His scripts were almost congenitally unable to deliver a single mood. In Hail the Conquering Hero, the series of lies, crimes, and embarrassments all somehow bolster the film's theme of patriotism and duty. Sometimes this attitude could be conveyed in a single line of dialogue, such as in The Lady Eve when Jean Harrington (Barbara Stanwyck) vows revenge on Charles Pike (Henry Fonda), declaring, "I need him like the axe needs the turkey." In recent years, film scholars such as Alessandro Pirolini have also argued that Sturges's cinema anticipated more experimental narratives by contemporary directors such as Joel and Ethan Coen, Robert Zemeckis, and Woody Allen, along with prolific The Simpsons writer John Swartzwelder: "Many of [Sturges's] movies and screenplays reveal a restless and impatient attempt to escape codified rules and narrative schemata, and to push the mechanisms and conventions of their genre to the extent of unveiling them to the spectator. See for example the disruption of standardized timelines in films such as The Power and the Glory and The Great McGinty or the way an apparently classical comedy such as Unfaithfully Yours (1948) shifts into the realm of multiple and hypothetical narratives." In 1942, in his review of The Palm Beach Story, critic Manny Farber wrote: He is essentially a satirist without any stable point of view from which to aim his satire. He is apt to turn his back on what he has been sniping at to demolish what he has just been defending. He is contemptuous of everybody except the opportunist and the unscrupulous little woman who, at some point in every picture, labels the hero a poor sap. That the invariable fairy godfather of each picture is not only expressive of his own cold-blooded cynicism but of typical Hollywood fantasy is an example of how this works. Another phase of his attack is shrouding in slapstick the fact that the godfather pays off not for perseverance or honesty or ability but merely from capriciousness. Studio battles Production on these films did not always go smoothly. The Miracle of Morgan's Creek was being written by Sturges at night even as the production was being filmed in the daytime, and Sturges the screenwriter was rarely more than 10 pages ahead of the cast and crew. Despite box office success for The Lady Eve and The Miracle of Morgan's Creek, conflict with Paramount's studio bosses increased. In particular, executive producer Buddy DeSylva never really trusted his star writer-director and was wary (and arguably jealous) of the independence Sturges enjoyed on his projects. One of the sources of conflict was that Sturges liked to reuse many of the same character actors in his films, thus creating what amounted to a regular troupe he could call upon within the studio system. Paramount feared that the audience would tire of repeatedly seeing the same faces in Sturges productions. But the director was adamant, stating, "[T]hese little players who had contributed so much to my first hits had a moral right to work in my subsequent pictures." The way Sturges wrote and directed these actors created a succession of what film critic Andrew Sarris later called "self-expressive cameos of aggressive individualism." Members of Sturges's unofficial "stock company" included: George Anderson, Al Bridge, Georgia Caine, Chester Conklin, Jimmy Conlin, William Demarest, Robert Dudley, Byron Foulger, Robert Greig, Harry Hayden, Esther Howard, Arthur Hoyt, J. Farrell MacDonald, George Melford, Torben Meyer, Charles R. Moore, Frank Moran, Jack Norton, Jane Buckingham, Franklin Pangborn, Emory Parnell, Victor Potel, Dewey Robinson, Harry Rosenthal, Julius Tannen, Max Wagner and Robert Warwick. In addition, Sturges re-used other actors, such as Sig Arno, Luis Alberni, Eric Blore, Porter Hall and Raymond Walburn, and even stars such as Joel McCrea and Rudy Vallee, who both made three films with Sturges, and Eddie Bracken, who did two. The prolonged clashes between Sturges and Paramount came to a head as the end of his contract approached. He had filmed The Great Moment and The Miracle of Morgan's Creek in 1942 and Hail the Conquering Hero in 1943, but Paramount was suffering from a surfeit of films. Indeed, some of the studio's finished movies were sold off to United Artists, which needed films to distribute. The studio held onto Sturges's three films, since he was their star filmmaker at the time, but did not immediately release them. Internally, studio heads expressed serious reservations about them, as did the censors at the Breen Office. Sturges managed to get The Miracle of Morgan's Creek released with only minor changes, but The Great Moment and Hail the Conquering Hero were taken out of his control and tinkered with by DeSylva. When the revamped Hail the Conquering Hero had a disastrous preview, Paramount allowed Sturges – who by that time had left the studio – to come back and fix the film. Sturges did some rewriting, shot some new scenes, and re-edited the film back to his original vision, all without pay. He was unable to similarly rescue The Great Moment, however. The historical biography about the dentist who discovered the use of ether for anesthesia ended up being Sturges's only flop during this period. More significantly, it marked the onset of a downturn from which Sturges did not fully recover. Independence and decline Preston Sturges was a temperamental talent who fully recognized his own worth. He had invested in entrepreneurial projects, such as an engineering company, and The Players, a popular restaurant and nightclub at 8225 Sunset Boulevard, projects which were both net losses. At one point the third highest paid man in America – for writing, directing, producing, and numerous other Hollywood projects – he was often known to borrow money (from his stepfather and studio, amongst others). Millionaire Howard Hughes, who had formed a friendship with Sturges, offered to bankroll him as an independent filmmaker. In early 1944, Sturges and Hughes formed a partnership called California Pictures. The deal represented a major pay cut for Sturges, but it established him as a writer-producer-director, the only one in Hollywood besides Charles Chaplin and one of only four in the world, along with England's Noël Coward and France's René Clair. The status led, again, to widespread admiration and envy among his Hollywood peers. However, this career peak also marked the beginning of Sturges's professional decline as Hughes proved an unstable and mercurial partner. While the startup California Pictures was being created and structured, it was three years until Sturges's next release. That film, a Harold Lloyd vehicle entitled The Sin of Harold Diddlebock (1947), for which Sturges had coaxed the silent film icon out of retirement, went over budget and far behind schedule, and was poorly received when it was released. Hughes, who had promised not to interfere in the film's production, stepped in and pulled the movie from distribution in order to re-edit it, taking almost four years to do so. Released in 1950 by RKO, which was by that time owned by Hughes, the retitled Mad Wednesday was no more successful than Sturges's original version. In the meantime, California Pictures had put another film into production, Vendetta. At Hughes's behest, Sturges had written the script as a vehicle for Hughes' protégé, Faith Domergue. Max Ophüls was hired to direct, but after only a few days of filming, Hughes demanded that Sturges fire Ophüls and take over the direction himself. Seven weeks later, Sturges himself was fired or quit (accounts differ). The promising partnership between the two iconoclasts was dissolved after just one completed picture. As Sturges later recalled, "When Mr. Hughes made suggestions with which I disagreed, as he had a perfect right to do, I rejected them. When I rejected the last one, he remembered he had an option to take control of the company and he took over. So I left." Coming on the heels of the failure of The Great Moment, these further flops, disappointments and setbacks served to tarnish the once stellar reputation of the golden boy of Hollywood. Sturges was left professionally adrift. Accepting an offer from Darryl Zanuck, he landed at Fox where he wrote, directed, and produced two films. The first, Unfaithfully Yours (1948), was not initially well received by either reviewers or the public, though its critical reputation has since improved. However, his second Fox film, The Beautiful Blonde from Bashful Bend (1949), was the first serious flop in star Betty Grable's career, and Sturges was again on his own. He built a theater at his Players restaurant, but the project did not pan out. Over the next several years, Sturges continued to write, but many of the projects were underfunded or stillborn, and those that emerged did not approach the same success as his earlier triumphs. His 1951 Broadway musical, Make a Wish, underwent extensive rewriting by Abe Burrows and ran for only a few months. His next Broadway project, Carnival in Flanders, a musical which Sturges wrote and directed in 1953, closed after six performances. Sturges was having no better luck in Hollywood, where his clout was gone. Katharine Hepburn, who had starred in the 1952 Broadway production of the George Bernard Shaw play, The Millionairess got Sturges to agree to adapt the script and direct. But she could not get a single Hollywood studio to back the project. A 1953 lien by the Internal Revenue Service, with whom he had been having tax problems, cost Sturges the Players nightclub and other assets. Sturges put a brave public face on the situation, writing, "I had so very much for so very long, it is quite natural for the pendulum to swing the other way for a while, and I really cannot and will not complain." However, his drinking became heavy, and his marriage and many of his relationships continued to deteriorate. Sturges began spending more time in Europe, as he had as a young man. His last directorial effort took place there when he wrote and directed Les Carnets du Major Thompson, an adaptation of a popular French novel. The film was released in France in 1955 and two years later in the U.S., under the title The French, They Are a Funny Race. It failed to register with critics or the audience. Sturges made four brief onscreen appearances during his career: in two of his own films – Christmas in July and Sullivan's Travels – in the Paramount all-star extravaganza Star Spangled Rhythm, and, in the years of his decline, in the Bob Hope comedy Paris Holiday, which was filmed in France and would be the last film he worked on. Two decades earlier, Sturges had been a writer on one of Hope's earliest film successes, Never Say Die. In 1959, Sturges summed up his career: Between flops, it is true, I have come up with an occasional hit, but compared to a good boxer's record, for instance, my percentage has been lamentable. I fought a draw in my first fight, stupified everyone by winning the championship in my second, got a couple of wins with picture rights, then was knocked out three times in a row. Dragging my weary carcass to Hollywood, I was immediately knocked out again, won a big fight some six months later, then marked time for six years as an ordinary ham-and-beaner, picking up what I could. Suddenly I saw a chance and offered to fight for the world championship for a dollar. To everyone's astonishment, I won that championship and defended it successfully for a number of years, winning nine times by knockout, fighting three draws, losing twice and getting one no-decision in Europe. I have just come over to America for a fight, but it was called off at the last moment, one of the promoters having gone nuts and having to have been locked up. Why I'm not walking on my heels after all this, I don't know. Maybe I am walking on my heels. It would be surprising if I weren't. Style and influence Sturges took the screwball comedy format of the 1930s to another level, writing dialogue that, heard today, is often surprisingly naturalistic, mature, and ahead of its time, despite the farcical situations. It is not uncommon for a Sturges character to deliver an exquisitely turned phrase and take an elaborate pratfall within the same scene. Such versatility and dexterity can be seen in The Lady Eve, where a tender love scene takes place between Henry Fonda and Barbara Stanwyck, which is enlivened by a horse as it repeatedly pokes its nose into Fonda's head. Filmmakers who have acknowledged being influenced by Sturges include the Coen brothers, Wes Anderson, James Mangold, Peter Bogdanovich and John Lasseter. Personal life Sturges married four times and had three sons: Estelle deWolfe Mudge – married in December 1923, separated in 1927, divorced in 1928 Eleanor Close Hutton (a daughter of Marjorie Merriweather Post) – eloped on April 12, 1930, marriage annulled on April 12, 1932 Louise Sargent Tevis – married on November 7, 1938, in Reno, Nevada, separated in April 1946, divorced in November 1947 son Solomon Sturges IV (b. June 25, 1941) – actor Anne Margaret "Sandy" Nagle (a lawyer and former actress) – married on April 15, 1951, marriage ended in 1959 with Sturges's death, mother of his two younger sons Preston Sturges Jr. (b. February 22, 1953) – screenwriter Thomas Preston Sturges (b. June 22, 1956) – music executive Death Sturges died of a heart attack at the Algonquin Hotel while writing his autobiography (which, ironically, he had intended to title The Events Leading Up to My Death), and was interred in the Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York. His book, Preston Sturges by Preston Sturges: His Life in His Words, was published in 1990. In 1975, he became the first writer to be given the Screen Writers Guild's Laurel Award posthumously. He has a star dedicated to him on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, at 1601 Vine Street. Filmography Films Other film work The Big Pond (1930; dialogue) Fast and Loose (1930; additional dialogue) The Invisible Man (1933; contributing writer) The Power and the Glory (1933; screenplay, dialogue director) Imitation of Life (1934; contributing writer) We Live Again (1934; co-screen adaptation) Thirty Day Princess (1934; co-screenplay) The Good Fairy (1935; screenplay) Diamond Jim (1935; screenplay) Love Before Breakfast (1936; contributor to treatment) Next Time We Love (1936; contributor to screenplay construction) Easy Living (1937; screenplay) Hotel Haywire (1937; original story, screenplay) If I Were King (1938; screenplay) Port of Seven Seas (1938; screenplay) College Swing (1938; contributing writer) Never Say Die (1939; co-screenplay) Remember the Night (1940; screenplay) I Married a Witch (1942; producer) Vendetta (1950; uncredited director) The Birds and the Bees (1956, co-screenplay) Source: Actor Christmas in July (1940) - Man at Shoeshine Stand (uncredited) Sullivan's Travels (1941) - Studio Director (uncredited) Star Spangled Rhythm (1942) - Himself Paris Holiday (1958) - Serge Vitry (final film role) Adaptations Three of Sturges's films, Christmas in July, The Great McGinty and Remember the Night, were restaged for NBC's Lux Video Theater. The 1956 George Gobel movie The Birds and the Bees was a remake of The Lady Eve. Paul Jones produced both movies. The 1958 Jerry Lewis vehicle Rock-A-Bye Baby was loosely based on Sturges's The Miracle of Morgan's Creek. The 1984 Dudley Moore feature Unfaithfully Yours was a remake of Sturges's 1948 original. Published screenplays Five Screenplays () collects The Great McGinty, Christmas in July, The Lady Eve, Sullivan's Travels, and Hail the Conquering Hero Four More Screenplays () collects The Miracle of Morgan's Creek, The Palm Beach Story, Unfaithfully Yours, and The Great Moment Three More Screenplays () collects The Power and the Glory, Remember the Night, and Easy Living See also List of actors who frequently worked with Preston Sturges References Informational notes Citations Bibliography Dickos, Andrew (2013) Intrepid Laughter: Preston Sturges And The Movies. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. Further reading Jacobs, Dianne (1992) Christmas in July: The Life and Art of Preston Sturges. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. Smedley, Nick and Sturges, Tom (2019) Preston Sturges: The Last Years of Hollywood's First Writer-Director. Intellect, Ltd. Spoto, Donald (1990) Madcap: The Life of Preston Sturges. New York: Little, Brown. Ursini, James (1973) The Fabulous Life & Times of Preston Sturges: An American Dreamer. Curtis Books. External links Timeline Preston Sturges at Film Reference Preston Sturges at Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database Preston Sturges at American Masters Preston Sturges bibliography at UC Berkeley Media Resources Center Preston Sturges at Reel Classics Films: James Harvey's essay on The Lady Eve Todd McCarthy's essay on Sullivan's Travels Jonathan Lethem's essay on Unfaithfully Yours 1898 births 1959 deaths 20th-century American dramatists and playwrights 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American screenwriters American autobiographers American comedy writers American film directors American film producers American male non-fiction writers American male screenwriters American people of English descent American people of Irish descent Best Original Screenplay Academy Award winners Burials at Ferncliff Cemetery Comedy film directors Film directors from Illinois Film producers from Illinois United States Army Air Service pilots of World War I Screenwriters from Chicago
401150	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoreceptor%20cell	Photoreceptor cell	A photoreceptor cell is a specialized type of neuroepithelial cell found in the retina that is capable of visual phototransduction. The great biological importance of photoreceptors is that they convert light (visible electromagnetic radiation) into signals that can stimulate biological processes. To be more specific, photoreceptor proteins in the cell absorb photons, triggering a change in the cell's membrane potential. There are currently three known types of photoreceptor cells in mammalian eyes: rods, cones, and intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells. The two classic photoreceptor cells are rods and cones, each contributing information used by the visual system to form an image of the environment, sight. Rods primarily mediate scotopic vision (dim conditions) whereas cones primarily mediate to photopic vision (bright conditions), but the processes in each that supports phototransduction is similar. A third class of mammalian photoreceptor cell was discovered during the 1990s: the intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells. These cells are thought not to contribute to sight directly, but have a role in the entrainment of the circadian rhythm and pupillary reflex. Photosensitivity Each photoreceptor absorbs light according to its spectral sensitivity (absorptance), which is determined by the photoreceptor proteins expressed in that cell. Humans have three classes of cones (L, M, S) that each differ in spectral sensitivity and 'prefer' photons of different wavelengths (see graph). For example, the peak wavelength of the S-cone's spectral sensitivity is approximately 420 nm (nanometers, a measure of wavelength), so it is more likely to absorb a photon at 420 nm than at any other wavelength. Light of a longer wavelength can also produce the same response from an S-cone, but it would have to be brighter to do so. In accordance with the principle of univariance, a photoreceptor's output signal is proportional only to the number of photons absorbed. The photoreceptors can not measure the wavelength of light that it absorbs and therefore does not detect color on its own. Rather, it is the ratios of responses of the three types of cone cells that can estimate wavelength, and therefore enable color vision. Histology Rod and cone photoreceptors are found on the outermost layer of the retina; they both have the same basic structure. Closest to the visual field (and farthest from the brain) is the axon terminal, which releases a neurotransmitter called glutamate to bipolar cells. Farther back is the cell body, which contains the cell's organelles. Farther back still is the inner segment, a specialized part of the cell full of mitochondria. The chief function of the inner segment is to provide ATP (energy) for the sodium-potassium pump. Finally, closest to the brain (and farthest from the field of view) is the outer segment, the part of the photoreceptor that absorbs light. Outer segments are actually modified cilia that contain disks filled with opsin, the molecule that absorbs photons, as well as voltage-gated sodium channels. The membranous photoreceptor protein opsin contains a pigment molecule called retinal. In rod cells, these together are called rhodopsin. In cone cells, there are different types of opsins that combine with retinal to form pigments called photopsins. Three different classes of photopsins in the cones react to different ranges of light frequency, a differentiation that allows the visual system to calculate color. The function of the photoreceptor cell is to convert the light information of the photon into a form of information communicable to the nervous system and readily usable to the organism: This conversion is called signal transduction. The opsin found in the intrinsically photosensitive ganglion cells of the retina is called melanopsin. These cells are involved in various reflexive responses of the brain and body to the presence of (day)light, such as the regulation of circadian rhythms, pupillary reflex and other non-visual responses to light. Melanopsin functionally resembles invertebrate opsins. Retinal mosaic Most vertebrate photoreceptors are located in the retina. The distribution of rods and cones (and classes thereof) in the retina is called the retinal mosaic. Each human retina has approximately 6 million cones and 120 million rods. At the "center" of the retina (the point directly behind the lens) lies the fovea (or fovea centralis), which contains only cone cells; and is the region capable of producing the highest visual acuity or highest resolution. Across the rest of the retina, rods and cones are intermingled. No photoreceptors are found at the blind spot, the area where ganglion cell fibers are collected into the optic nerve and leave the eye. The distribution of cone classes (L, M, S) are also nonhomogenous, with no S-cones in the fovea, and the ratio of L-cones to M-cones differing between individuals. The number and ratio of rods to cones varies among species, dependent on whether an animal is primarily diurnal or nocturnal. Certain owls, such as the nocturnal tawny owl, have a tremendous number of rods in their retinae. Other vertebrates will also have a different number of cone classes, ranging from monochromats to pentachromats. Signaling The path of a visual signal is described by the phototransduction cascade, the mechanism by which the energy of a photon signals a mechanism in the cell that leads to its electrical polarization. This polarization ultimately leads to either the transmittance or inhibition of a neural signal that will be fed to the brain via the optic nerve. The steps that apply to the phototransductuion pathway from vertebrate rod/cone photoreceptors are: The Vertebrate visual opsin in the disc membrane of the outer segment absorbs a photon, changing the configuration of a retinal Schiff base cofactor inside the protein from the cis-form to the trans-form, causing the retinal to change shape. This results in a series of unstable intermediates, the last of which binds stronger to a G protein in the membrane, called transducin, and activates it. This is the first amplification step – each photoactivated opsin triggers activation of about 100 transducins. Each transducin then activates the enzyme cGMP-specific phosphodiesterase (PDE). PDE then catalyzes the hydrolysis of cGMP to 5' GMP. This is the second amplification step, where a single PDE hydrolyses about 1000 cGMP molecules. The net concentration of intracellular cGMP is reduced (due to its conversion to 5' GMP via PDE), resulting in the closure of cyclic nucleotide-gated Na+ ion channels located in the photoreceptor outer segment membrane. As a result, sodium ions can no longer enter the cell, and the photoreceptor outer segment membrane becomes hyperpolarized, due to the charge inside the membrane becoming more negative. This change in the cell's membrane potential causes voltage-gated calcium channels to close. This leads to a decrease in the influx of calcium ions into the cell and thus the intracellular calcium ion concentration falls. A decrease in the intracellular calcium concentration means that less glutamate is released via calcium-induced exocytosis to the bipolar cell (see below). (The decreased calcium level slows the release of the neurotransmitter glutamate, which excites the postsynaptic bipolar cells and horizontal cells.) ATP provided by the inner segment powers the sodium-potassium pump. This pump is necessary to reset the initial state of the outer segment by taking the sodium ions that are entering the cell and pumping them back out. Hyperpolarization Unlike most sensory receptor cells, photoreceptors actually become hyperpolarized when stimulated; and conversely are depolarized when not stimulated. This means that glutamate is released continuously when the cell is unstimulated, and stimulus causes release to stop. In the dark, cells have a relatively high concentration of cyclic guanosine 3'-5' monophosphate (cGMP), which opens cGMP-gated ion channels. These channels are nonspecific, allowing movement of both sodium and calcium ions when open. The movement of these positively charged ions into the cell (driven by their respective electrochemical gradient) depolarizes the membrane, and leads to the release of the neurotransmitter glutamate. Unstimulated (in the dark), cyclic-nucleotide gated channels in the outer segment are open because cyclic GMP (cGMP) is bound to them. Hence, positively charged ions (namely sodium ions) enter the photoreceptor, depolarizing it to about −40 mV (resting potential in other nerve cells is usually −65 mV). This depolarization current is often known as dark current. Bipolar cells The photoreceptors (rods and cones) transmit to the bipolar cells, which transmit then to the retinal ganglion cells. Retinal ganglion cell axons collectively form the optic nerve, via which they project to the brain. The rod and cone photoreceptors signal their absorption of photons via a decrease in the release of the neurotransmitter glutamate to bipolar cells at its axon terminal. Since the photoreceptor is depolarized in the dark, a high amount of glutamate is being released to bipolar cells in the dark. Absorption of a photon will hyperpolarize the photoreceptor and therefore result in the release of less glutamate at the presynaptic terminal to the bipolar cell. Every rod or cone photoreceptor releases the same neurotransmitter, glutamate. However, the effect of glutamate differs in the bipolar cells, depending upon the type of receptor imbedded in that cell's membrane. When glutamate binds to an ionotropic receptor, the bipolar cell will depolarize (and therefore will hyperpolarize with light as less glutamate is released). On the other hand, binding of glutamate to a metabotropic receptor results in a hyperpolarization, so this bipolar cell will depolarize to light as less glutamate is released. In essence, this property allows for one population of bipolar cells that gets excited by light and another population that gets inhibited by it, even though all photoreceptors show the same response to light. This complexity becomes both important and necessary for detecting color, contrast, edges, etc. Advantages Phototransduction in rods and cones is somewhat unusual in that the stimulus (in this case, light) reduces the cell's response or firing rate, different from most other sensory systems in which a stimulus increases the cell's response or firing rate. This difference has important functional consequences: the classic (rod or cone) photoreceptor is depolarized in the dark, which means many sodium ions are flowing into the cell. Thus, the random opening or closing of sodium channels will not affect the membrane potential of the cell; only the closing of a large number of channels, through absorption of a photon, will affect it and signal that light is in the visual field. This system may have less noise relative to sensory transduction schema that increase rate of neural firing in response to stimulus, like touch and olfaction. there is a lot of amplification in two stages of classic phototransduction: one pigment will activate many molecules of transducin, and one PDE will cleave many cGMPs. This amplification means that even the absorption of one photon will affect membrane potential and signal to the brain that light is in the visual field. This is the main feature that differentiates rod photoreceptors from cone photoreceptors. Rods are extremely sensitive and have the capacity of registering a single photon of light, unlike cones. On the other hand, cones are known to have very fast kinetics in terms of rate of amplification of phototransduction, unlike rods. Difference between rods and cones Comparison of human rod and cone cells, from Eric Kandel et al. in Principles of Neural Science. Development The key events mediating rod versus S cone versus M cone differentiation are induced by several transcription factors, including RORbeta, OTX2, NRL, CRX, NR2E3 and TRbeta2. The S cone fate represents the default photoreceptor program; however, differential transcriptional activity can bring about rod or M cone generation. L cones are present in primates, however there is not much known for their developmental program due to use of rodents in research. There are five steps to developing photoreceptors: proliferation of multi-potent retinal progenitor cells (RPCs); restriction of competence of RPCs; cell fate specification; photoreceptor gene expression; and lastly axonal growth, synapse formation and outer segment growth. Early Notch signaling maintains progenitor cycling. Photoreceptor precursors come about through inhibition of Notch signaling and increased activity of various factors including achaete-scute homologue 1. OTX2 activity commits cells to the photoreceptor fate. CRX further defines the photoreceptor specific panel of genes being expressed. NRL expression leads to the rod fate. NR2E3 further restricts cells to the rod fate by repressing cone genes. RORbeta is needed for both rod and cone development. TRbeta2 mediates the M cone fate. If any of the previously mentioned factors' functions are ablated, the default photoreceptor is a S cone. These events take place at different time periods for different species and include a complex pattern of activities that bring about a spectrum of phenotypes. If these regulatory networks are disrupted, retinitis pigmentosa, macular degeneration or other visual deficits may result. Ganglion cell photoreceptors Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) are a subset (≈1–3%) of retinal ganglion cells, unlike other retinal ganglion cells, are intrinsically photosensitive due to the presence of melanopsin, a light-sensitive protein. Therefore they constitute a third class of photoreceptors, in addition to rod and cone cells. In humans the ipRGCs contribute to non-image-forming functions like circadian rhythms, behavior and pupillary light reflex. Peak spectral sensitivity of the receptor is between 460 and 482 nm. However, they may also contribute to a rudimentary visual pathway enabling conscious sight and brightness detection. Classic photoreceptors (rods and cones) also feed into the novel visual system, which may constribute to color constancy. ipRGCs could be instrumental in understanding many diseases including major causes of blindness worldwide like glaucoma, a disease that affects ganglion cells, and the study of the receptor offered potential as a new avenue to explore in trying to find treatments for blindness. ipRGCs were only definitively detected ipRGCs in humans during landmark experiments in 2007 on rodless, coneless humans. As had been found in other mammals, the identity of the non-rod non-cone photoreceptor in humans was found to be a ganglion cell in the inner retina. The researchers had tracked down patients with rare diseases wiping out classic rod and cone photoreceptor function but preserving ganglion cell function. Despite having no rods or cones the patients continued to exhibit circadian photoentrainment, circadian behavioural patterns, melanopsin suppression, and pupil reactions, with peak spectral sensitivities to environmental and experimental light matching that for the melanopsin photopigment. Their brains could also associate vision with light of this frequency. Non-human photoreceptors Rod and cone photoreceptors are common to almost all vertebrates. The pineal and parapineal glands are photoreceptive in non-mammalian vertebrates, but not in mammals. Birds have photoactive cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)-contacting neurons within the paraventricular organ that respond to light in the absence of input from the eyes or neurotransmitters. Invertebrate photoreceptors in organisms such as insects and molluscs are different in both their morphological organization and their underlying biochemical pathways. This article describes human photoreceptors. See also Visual phototransduction G protein-coupled receptor Sensory system Photosensitive Photosensitive ganglion cell Horizontal cell Bipolar cell Amacrine cell References Bibliography External links NIF Search – Photoreceptor Cell via the Neuroscience Information Framework Human eye anatomy Histology
401190	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan%20Octavian%20Hume	Allan Octavian Hume	Allan Octavian Hume, CB ICS (4 June 1829 – 31 July 1912) was a British political reformer, ornithologist, civil servant and botanist who worked in British India. He supported the idea of self-governance by Indians and founded the Indian National Congress. A notable ornithologist, Hume has been called "the Father of Indian Ornithology" and, by those who found him dogmatic, "the Pope of Indian Ornithology". As an administrator of Etawah, he saw the Indian Rebellion of 1857 as a result of misgovernance and made great efforts to improve the lives of the common people. The district of Etawah was among the first to be returned to normalcy and over the next few years Hume's reforms led to the district being considered a model of development. Hume rose in the ranks of the Indian Civil Service but like his father Joseph Hume, a radical member of parliament, he was bold and outspoken in questioning British policies in India. He rose in 1871 to the position of secretary to the Department of Revenue, Agriculture, and Commerce under Lord Mayo who was assassinated a year later. He did not get along as well with subsequent viceroys, and his criticism of Lord Lytton's policies led to his removal from the Secretariat in 1879. He founded the journal Stray Feathers in which he and his subscribers recorded notes on birds from across India. He built up a vast collection of bird specimens at his home in Shimla by making collection expeditions and obtaining specimens through his network of correspondents. Following the loss of manuscripts that he had long worked on in the hope of producing a magnum opus on the birds of India, he abandoned ornithology and gifted his collection to the Natural History Museum in London, where it continues to be the single largest collection of Indian bird skins. He was briefly a follower of the theosophical movement founded by Madame Blavatsky. He worked for Indian self-governance through the Indian National Congress that he founded. He left India in 1894 to live in London from where he continued to take an interest in the Indian National Congress. He maintained an interest in English botany and founded the South London Botanical Institute towards the end of his life. Early life Hume was born in Westminster, London and baptized at St Mary's, Bryanston Square, a younger son (and the eighth child in a family of nine) of Joseph Hume, the Radical Scottish member of parliament, by his marriage to Maria Burnley. Until the age of eleven he was privately tutored growing up at the town house at 6 Bryanston Square in London and at their country estate, Burnley Hall in Norfolk. He was educated at University College Hospital, where he studied medicine and surgery and was then nominated to the Indian Civil Services which led him to study at the East India Company College, Haileybury. Early influences included his friend John Stuart Mill and Herbert Spencer. He briefly served as a junior midshipman aboard a navy vessel in the Mediterranean in 1842. Civil service Etawah (1849–1867) Hume sailed to India in 1849 and on reaching Calcutta, he stayed with his cousin James Hume, The following year, he joined the Bengal Civil Service at Etawah in the North-Western Provinces, in what is now Uttar Pradesh. His career in India included service as a district officer from 1849 to 1867, head of a central department from 1867 to 1870, and secretary to the Government from 1870 to 1879. He married Mary Anne (26 May 1824, Meerut – 30 March 1890, Simla), daughter of Rivers Francis Grindall (1786–1832) in 1853. He had a home, possibly used in summer, in Mussoorie in 1853. It was only nine years after his entry to India that Hume faced the Indian Rebellion of 1857 during which time he was involved in several military actions for which he was created a Companion of the Bath in 1860. Initially it appeared that he was safe in Etawah, not far from Meerut where the rebellion began but this changed and Hume had to take refuge in Agra fort for six months. Nonetheless, all but one Indian official remained loyal and Hume resumed his position in Etawah in January 1858. He built up an irregular force of 650 loyal Indian troops and took part in engagements with them. Hume blamed British ineptitude for the uprising and pursued a policy of "mercy and forbearance" when dealing with the captured rebels. Only seven persons were executed at the gallows on his orders. The district of Etawah was restored to peace and order in a year, something that was not possible in most other parts. Shortly after 1857, he set about in a range of reforms. As a District Officer in the Indian Civil Service, he began introducing free primary education and held public meetings for their support. He made changes in the functioning of the police department and the separation of the judicial role. Noting that there was very little reading material with educational content, he started, along with Koour Lutchman Singh, a Hindi language periodical, Lokmitra (The People's Friend) in 1859. Originally meant only for Etawah, its fame spread. Hume also organized and managed an Urdu journal Muhib-i-riaya. He took up the cause of education and founded scholarships for higher education. He wrote, in 1859, that education played a key role in avoiding revolts like the one in 1857: … assert its supremacy as it may at the bayonet's point, a free and civilized government must look for its stability and permanence to the enlightenment of the people and their moral and intellectual capacity to appreciate its blessings. In 1863 he moved for separate schools for juvenile delinquents rather than flogging and imprisonment which he saw as producing hardened criminals. His efforts led to a juvenile reformatory not far from Etawah. He also started free schools in Etawah and by 1857 he established 181 schools with 5186 students including two girls. The high school that he helped build with his own money is still in operation, now as a junior college, and it was said to have a floor plan resembling the letter "H". This, according to some was an indication of Hume's imperial ego. Hume found the idea of earning revenue earned through liquor traffic repulsive and described it as "The wages of sin". With his progressive ideas on social reform, he advocated women's education, was against infanticide and enforced widowhood. Hume laid out in Etawah, a neatly gridded commercial district that is now known as Humeganj but often pronounced Homeganj. Commissioner of Customs (1867–1870) In 1867 Hume became Commissioner of Customs for the North West Province, and in 1870 he became attached to the central government as Director-General of Agriculture. In 1879 he returned to provincial government at Allahabad. His work on reducing the burden involved in the maintenance of the customs department controlling the movement of salt, which included the 2500 mile-long Inland Customs Line, the so-called great hedge, led to his promotion by Lord Mayo who rewarded him with Secretaryship and was moved in 1871 to the Department of Revenue and Agriculture. Secretary to the Department of Revenue, Agriculture and Commerce (1871–1879) Hume was very interested in the development of agriculture. He believed that there was too much focus on obtaining revenue and no effort had been spent on improving the efficiency of agriculture. He found an ally in Lord Mayo who supported the idea of developing a complete department of agriculture. Hume noted in his Agricultural reform in India that Lord Mayo had been the only Viceroy who had any experience of working in the fields. Hume made a number of suggestions for the improvement of agriculture placing carefully gathered evidence for his ideas. He noted the poor yields of wheat, comparing them with estimates from the records of Emperor Akbar and yields of farms in Norfolk. Lord Mayo supported his ideas but was unable to establish a dedicated agricultural bureau as the scheme did not find support from the Secretary of State for India, but they negotiated the setting up of a Department of Revenue, Agriculture and Commerce despite Hume's insistence that Agriculture be the first and foremost aim. The department had charge on land revenue, settlements, advances for works in agricultural improvement, horticulture, livestock breeding, silk, fiber, forests, commerce and trade, salt, opium, excise, stamps, and industrial art. It also collected data and was in charge of censuses, the gazetteers, surveys, geology, and meteorology. Hume was made Secretary of this department in July 1871 leading to his move to Shimla. With the murder of Lord Mayo in the Andamans in 1872, Hume lost patronage and support for his work. He however went about reforming the department of agriculture, streamlining the collection of meteorological data (the meteorological department was set up by order number 56 on 27 September 1875 signed by Hume) and statistics on cultivation and yield. Hume proposed the idea of having experimental farms to demonstrate best practices to be set up in every district. He proposed to develop fuelwood plantations "in every village in the drier portions of the country" and thereby provide a substitute heating and cooking fuel so that manure (dried cattle dung was used as fuel by the poor) could be returned to the land. Such plantations, he wrote, were "a thing that is entirely in accord with the traditions of the country – a thing that the people would understand, appreciate, and, with a little judicious pressure, cooperate in." He wanted model farms to be established in every district. He noted that rural indebtedness was caused mainly by the use of land as security, a practice that had been introduced by the British. Hume denounced it as another of "the cruel blunders into which our narrow-minded, though wholly benevolent, desire to reproduce England in India has led us." Hume also wanted government-run banks, at least until cooperative banks could be established. The department also supported the publication of several manuals on aspects of cultivation, a list of which Hume included as an appendix to his Agricultural Reform in India. Hume supported the introduction of cinchona and the project managed by George King to produce quinine in India and deliver malaria medication across India through the postal department at low cost. Hume was very outspoken and never feared to criticize when he thought the Government was in the wrong. Even in 1861, he objected to the concentration of police and judicial functions in the hands of police superintendents. In March 1861, he took a medical leave due to a breakdown from overwork and departed for Britain. Before leaving, he condemned the flogging and punitive measures initiated by the provincial government as 'barbarous ... torture'. He was allowed to return to Etawah only after apologizing for the tone of his criticism. He criticized the administration of Lord Lytton before 1879 which according to him, had cared little for the welfare and aspiration of the people of India. Lord Lytton's foreign policy according to Hume had led to the waste of "millions and millions of Indian money". Hume was critical of the land revenue policy and suggested that it was the cause of poverty in India. His superiors were irritated and attempted to restrict his powers and this led him to publish a book on Agricultural Reform in India in 1879. Hume noted that the free and honest expression was not only permitted but encouraged under Lord Mayo and that this freedom was curtailed under Lord Northbrook who succeeded Lord Mayo. When Lord Lytton succeeded Lord Northbrook, the situation worsened for Hume. In 1879 Hume went against the authorities. The Government of Lord Lytton dismissed him from his position in the Secretariat. No clear reason was given except that it "was based entirely on the consideration of what was most desirable in the interests of the public service". The press declared that his main wrongdoing was that he was too honest and too independent. The Pioneer wrote that it was "the grossest jobbery ever perpetrated" ; the Indian Daily News wrote that it was a "great wrong" while The Statesman said that "undoubtedly he has been treated shamefully and cruelly." The Englishman in an article dated 27 June 1879, commenting on the event stated, "There is no security or safety now for officers in Government employment." Demoted, he left Shimla and returned to the North-West Provinces in October 1879, as a member of the Board of Revenue. It has pointed out that he was victimized as he was out of step with the policies of the Government, often intruding into aspects of administration with critical opinions. Demotion and resignation (1879–1882) In spite of the humiliation of demotion, he did not resign immediately from service and it has been suggested that this was because he needed his salary to support the publication of The Game Birds of India that he was working on. Hume retired from the civil service only in 1882. In 1883 he wrote an open letter to the graduates of Calcutta University, having been a fellow of the University of Calcutta from 1870, calling upon them to form their own national political movement. This led in 1885 to the first session of the Indian National Congress held in Bombay. In 1887, writing to the Public Commission of India, he made what was then a statement unexpected from a civil servant — I look upon myself as a Native of India. Return to England 1894 Hume's wife Mary died on 30 March 1890 and news of her death reached him just as he reached London on 1 April 1890. Their only daughter Maria Jane Burnley ("Minnie") (1854–1927) had married Ross Scott at Shimla on 28 December 1881. Maria became a member of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, another occult movement, after moving to England. Ross Scott had been the founding secretary of the Simla Eclectic Theosophical Society, and was sometime Judicial Commissioner of Oudh before his death in 1908. Hume's grandson Montague Allan Hume Scott served with the Royal Engineers in India, and received a Military Cross in 1917. Hume left India in 1894 and settled at The Chalet, 4 Kingswood Road, Upper Norwood in south London. He died at the age of eighty-three on 31 July 1912. His ashes were buried in Brookwood Cemetery. The bazaar in Etawah was closed on hearing of his death and the Collector, H. R. Nevill, presided over a memorial meeting. The Indian postal department issued a commemorative stamp with his portrait in 1973 and a special cover depicting Rothney Castle, his home in Shimla, was released in 2013. Indian National Congress Hume was noted for his pro-Indian activities. He believed that the British regime had failed in India, not from any lack of good attention but rather because of insufficient knowledge. There were agrarian riots in the Deccan and Bombay, and Hume, according to some early writers like Pattabhi Sitaramayya, suggested that an Indian Union would be a good safety valve and outlet to avoid further unrest. This so-called "safety valve" theory of the origin of the Congress, first introduced by W.C. Bonnerjee, has been refuted on the basis that the seven volumes of the secret report were fictional. They were created by William Wedderburn to portray Hume as a British patriot. After retiring from the civil services and towards the end of Lord Lytton's rule, Hume observed that the people of India had a sense of hopelessness and wanted to do something, noting "a sudden violent outbreak of sporadic crime, murders of obnoxious persons, robbery of bankers and looting of bazaars, acts really of lawlessness which by a due coalescence of forces might any day develop into a National Revolt." Of the British government, he stated that "a studied and invariable disregard, if not actually contempt for the opinions and feelings of our subjects, is at the present day the leading characteristic of our government in every branch of the administration." On 1 March 1883, Hume wrote a letter to the graduates of the University of Calcutta: In 1886 he published a pamphlet The Old Man's Hope in which he examined poverty in India, questioning charity as a solution for the problem. Here he makes a case for Richard Cobden's Anti-Corn Law League as a model for the struggle in India through the formation of a representative body. His poem Awake published in Calcutta in 1886 also captures the sentiment: Sons of Ind, why sit ye idle, Wait ye for some Deva's aid? Buckle to, be up and doing! Nations by themselves are made! Yours the land, lives, all, at stake, tho ' Not by you the cards are played; Are ye dumb? Speak up and claim them! By themselves are nations made! What avail your wealth, your learning, Empty titles, sordid trade? True self-rule were worth them all! Nations by themselves are made! Whispered murmurs darkly creeping, Hidden worms beneath the glade, Not by such shall wrong be righted! Nations by themselves are made! Are ye Serfs or are ye Freemen, Ye that grovel in the shade? In your own hands rest the issues! By themselves are nations made! Sons of Ind, be up and doing, Let your course by none be stayed; Lo! the Dawn is in the East; By themselves are nations made! The idea of the Indian National Union took shape and Hume initially had some support from Lord Dufferin for this, although the latter wished to have no official link to it. Dufferin's support was short-lived and in some of his letters he went so far as to call Hume an "idiot", "arch-impostor", and "mischievous busy-body." Dufferin's successor Lansdowne refused to have any dialogue with Hume. Other supporters in England included James Caird (who had also clashed with Lytton over the management of famine in India) and John Bright. Hume also founded an Indian Telegraph Union to fund the transfer of news of Indian matters to newspapers in England and Scotland without interference from British Indian officials who controlled telegrams sent by Reuters. It has been suggested that the idea of the congress was originally conceived in a private meeting of seventeen men after a Theosophical Convention held at Madras in December 1884 but no evidence exists. Hume took the initiative, and it was in March 1885, when a notice was first issued to convene the first Indian National Union to meet at Poona the following December. He attempted to increase the Congress base by bringing in more farmers, townspeople and Muslims between 1886 and 1887 and this created a backlash from the British, leading to backtracking by the Congress. Hume was disappointed when Congress opposed moves to raise the age of marriage for Indian girls and failed to focus on issues of poverty. Some Indian princes did not like the idea of democracy and some organizations like the United Indian Patriotic Association went about trying to undermine the Congress by showing it as an organization with a seditious character. There was also major rifts along religious lines within the Congress on issues such as the Age of Consent Bill. In 1892, he tried to get the members to act, warning of a violent agrarian revolution but this only outraged the British establishment and frightened the Congress leaders. Disappointed by the continued lack of Indian leaders willing to work for the cause of national emancipation, Hume left India in 1894. Many Anglo-Indians were against the idea of the Indian National Congress. The press in India tended to look upon it negatively, so much so that Hume is said to have held a very low opinion of journalists even later in life. A satirical work on native rule, India in 1983, published (anonymously but thought to be written by T. Hart Davies) in 1888 included a character derisively called "A. O. Humebogue". The organizers of the 27th session of the Indian National Congress at Bankipur (26–28 December 1912) recorded their "profound sorrow at the death of Allan Octavian Hume, C.B., father and founder of the Congress, to whose lifelong services, rendered at rare self-sacrifice, India feels deep and lasting gratitude, and in whose death the cause of Indian progress and reform sustained irreparable loss." Contribution to ornithology and natural history From early days, Hume had a special interest in science. Science, he wrote: and of natural history he wrote in 1867: During his career in Etawah, he built up a personal collection of bird specimens, however the first collection that he made was destroyed during the 1857 rebellion. After 1857 Hume made several expeditions to collect birds both on health leave and where work took him. He was Collector and Magistrate of Etawah from 1856 to 1867 during which time he studied the birds of that area. Around 1867 he transferred about 2500 specimens from his collection to a museum in Agra. His most systematic work however began after he moved to Shimla. He later became Commissioner of Inland Customs which made him responsible for the control of of coast from near Peshawar in the northwest to Cuttack on the Bay of Bengal. He travelled on horseback and camel in areas of Rajasthan to negotiate treaties with various local maharajas to control the export of salt, and during these travels he took note of the birdlife. Hume appears to have planned a comprehensive work on the birds of India around 1870 and a "forthcoming comprehensive work" finds mention in the second edition of The Cyclopaedia of India (1871) by his cousin Edward Balfour. His systematic plan to survey and document the birds of the Indian Subcontinent began in earnest after he started accumulating the largest collection of Asiatic birds in his personal museum and library at home in Rothney Castle on Jakko Hill, Simla. Rothney Castle, originally Rothney House was built by Colonel Octavius Edward Rothney (1824–1881) and later owned by P. Mitchell, C.I.E. from whom Hume bought it and converted it into a palatial house with the hope that it might be bought by the Government as a Viceregal residence since the Governor-General then occupied Peterhoff, a building too small for large parties. Hume spent over two hundred thousand pounds on the grounds and buildings. He added enormous reception rooms suitable for large dinner parties and balls, as well as a magnificent conservatory and spacious hall with walls displaying his superb collection of Indian horns. He used a large room for his bird museum. He hired a European gardener, and made the grounds and conservatory a perpetual horticultural exhibition, to which he courteously admitted all visitors. Rothney Castle could only be reached by a steep road, and was never purchased by the British Government. Hume made several expeditions almost solely to study ornithology, the largest being an expedition to the Indus area begun in late November 1871 and continued until the end of February 1872. He was assisted here by Sir W. Merewether and Francis Day. In March 1873, he visited the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal along with geologists Dr. Ferdinand Stoliczka and Valentine Ball of the Geological Survey of India and James Wood-Mason of the Indian Museum in Calcutta. They were also accompanied by Surgeon-Major Joseph Dougall, medical superintendent at Port Blair, six native trappers-skinners, and supported by others like Jeremiah Nelson Homfray, superintendent of the Andaman orphanage. In 1875, he made an expedition to the Laccadive Islands aboard the marine survey vessel IGS Clyde under the command of Staff-Commander Ellis and accompanied by surgeon-naturalist James Armstrong of the Marine Survey. The official purpose of the visit was ostensibly to examine proposed sites for lighthouses. During this expedition Hume collected many bird specimens, apart from conducting a bathymetric survey to determine whether the island chain was separated from continental India by a deep canyon. And in 1881 he made his last ornithological expedition to Manipur, a visit in which he collected and described the Manipur bush quail (Perdicula manipurensis), a bird that has remained obscure with few reliable reports since. Hume spent an extra day with his assistants cutting down a large tract of grass so that he could obtain specimens of this species. This expedition was made on special leave following his demotion from the Central Government to a junior position on the Board of Revenue of the North Western Provinces. Apart from personal travel, he also sent out a trained bird-skinner to accompany officers travelling in areas of ornithological interest such as Afghanistan. Around 1878 he was spending about £1500 a year on his ornithological surveys. Hume was a member of the Asiatic Society of Bengal from January 1870 to 1891 and admitted Fellow of the Linnean Society on 3 November 1904. After returning to England in 1890 he also became president of the Dulwich Liberal and Radical Association. Collection Hume used his vast bird collection to good use as editor of his journal Stray Feathers. He also intended to produce a comprehensive publication on the birds of India. Hume employed William Ruxton Davison, who was brought to notice by Dr. George King, as a curator for his personal bird collection. Hume trained Davison and sent him out annually on collection trips to various parts of India as he himself was held up with official responsibilities. In 1883 Hume returned from a trip to find that many pages of the manuscripts that he had maintained over the years had been stolen and sold off as waste paper by a servant. Hume was completely devastated and he began to lose interest in ornithology due to this theft and a landslip, caused by heavy rains in Simla, which had damaged his museum and many of the specimens. He wrote to the British Museum wishing to donate his collection on certain conditions. One of the conditions was that the collection was to be examined by Dr. R. Bowdler Sharpe and personally packed by him, apart from raising Dr. Sharpe's rank and salary due to the additional burden on his work caused by his collection. The British Museum was unable to heed his many conditions. It was only in 1885, after the destruction of nearly 20,000 specimens, that alarm bells were raised by Dr. Sharpe and the museum authorities let him visit India to supervise the transfer of the specimens to the British Museum. Sharpe visited Hume's private ornithological museum at home and oversaw the packing of specimens for England.: He noted later that: The Hume collection of birds was packed into 47 cases made of deodar wood constructed on site without nails that could potentially damage specimens and each case weighing about half a ton was transported down the hill to a bullock cart to Kalka and finally the port in Bombay. The material that went to the British Museum in 1885 consisted of 82,000 specimens of which 75,577 (258 being type specimens) were finally placed in the museum. A breakup of that collection is as follows (old names retained). Hume had destroyed 20,000 specimens prior to this as they had been damaged by dermestid beetles. In addition his donations included 223 game trophies and 371 mammal skins. 2830 birds of prey (Accipitriformes)... 8 types 1155 owls (Strigiformes)...9 types 2819 crows, jays, orioles etc....5 types 4493 cuckoo-shrikes and flycatchers... 21 types 4670 thrushes and warblers...28 types 3100 bulbuls and wrens, dippers, etc....16 types 7304 timaliine birds...30 types 2119 tits and shrikes...9 types 1789 sun-birds (Nectarinidae) and white-eyes (Zosteropidae)...8 types 3724 swallows (Hirundiniidae), wagtails and pipits (Motacillidae)...8 types 2375 finches (Fringillidae)...8 types 3766 starlings (Sturnidae), weaver-birds (Ploceidae), and larks (Alaudidae)...22 types 807 ant-thrushes (Pittidae), broadbills (Eurylaimidae)...4 types 1110 hoopoes (Upupae), swifts (Cypseli), nightjars (Caprimulgidae) and frogmouths (Podargidae)...8 types 2277 Picidae, hornbills (Bucerotes), bee-eaters (Meropes), kingfishers (Halcyones), rollers(Coracidae), trogons (trogones)...11 types 2339 woodpeckers (Pici)...3 types 2417 honey-guides (Indicatores), barbets (Capiformes), and cuckoos (Coccyges)...8 types 813 parrots (Psittaciformes)...3 types 1615 pigeons (Columbiformes)...5 types 2120 sand-grouse (Pterocletes), game-birds and megapodes(Galliformes)...8 types 882 rails (Ralliformes), cranes (Gruiformes), bustards (Otides)...6 types 1089 ibises (Ibididae), herons (Ardeidae), pelicans and cormorants (Steganopodes), grebes (Podicipediformes)...7 types 761 geese and ducks (Anseriformes)...2 types 15,965 eggs The Hume Collection contained 258 type specimens. In addition there were nearly 400 mammal specimens including new species such as Hadromys humei. The egg collection was made up of carefully authenticated contributions from knowledgeable contacts and on the authenticity and importance of the collection, E. W. Oates noted in the 1901 Catalogue of the Collection of Birds' Eggs in the British Museum (Volume 1) that the collection was made up of specimens of known provenance and not accumulated through indiscriminate purchases as tended to be the case with many other collectors. Hume and his collector Davison took an interest in plants as well. Specimens were collected even on the first expedition to the Lakshadweep in 1875 were studied by George King and later by David Prain. Hume's herbarium specimens were donated to the collection of the Botanical Survey of India at Calcutta. Taxa described Hume described many species, some of which are now considered as subspecies. A single genus name that he erected survives in use while others such as Heteroglaux Hume, 1873 have sunk into synonymy since. In addition to birds, he described a species of goat as Ovis blanfordi in 1877 based on a variation in the horns. It is now considered a variant of the urial (Ovis vignei). In his concept of species, Hume was an essentialist and held the idea that small but constant differences defined species. He appreciated the ideas of speciation and how it contradicted divine creation but preferred to maintain a position that did not reject a Creator. Genera Ocyceros Hume, 1873 Species Anas albogularis (Hume, 1873) Perdicula manipurensis Hume, 1881 Arborophila mandellii Hume, 1874 Syrmaticus humiae (Hume, 1881) Puffinus persicus Hume, 1872 Ardea insignis Hume, 1878 Pseudibis davisoni (Hume, 1875) Gyps himalayensis Hume, 1869 Spilornis minimus Hume, 1873 Buteo burmanicus Hume, 1875 Sternula saundersi (Hume, 1877) Columba palumboides (Hume, 1873) Phodilus assimilis Hume, 1877 Otus balli (Hume, 1873) Otus brucei (Hume, 1872) Strix butleri (Hume, 1878) Heteroglaux blewitti Hume, 1873 Ninox obscura Hume, 1872 Tyto deroepstorffi (Hume, 1875) Caprimulgus andamanicus Hume, 1873 Aerodramus maximus (Hume, 1878) Psittacula finschii (Hume, 1874) Hydrornis oatesi Hume, 1873 Hydrornis gurneyi (Hume, 1875) Rhyticeros narcondami Hume, 1873 Megalaima incognita Hume, 1874 Podoces hendersoni Hume, 1871 Podoces biddulphi Hume, 1874 Pseudopodoces humilis (Hume, 1871) Mirafra microptera Hume, 1873 Alcippe dubia (Hume, 1874) Stachyridopsis rufifrons (Hume, 1873) Cyornis olivaceus Hume, 1877 Oenanthe albonigra (Hume, 1872) Dicaeum virescens Hume, 1873 Pyrgilauda blanfordi (Hume, 1876) Ploceus megarhynchus Hume, 1869 Spinus thibetanus (Hume, 1872) Carpodacus stoliczkae (Hume, 1874) Gampsorhynchus torquatus Hume, 1874 Sylvia minula Hume, 1873 Sylvia althaea Hume, 1878 Phylloscopus neglectus Hume, 1870 Horornis brunnescens (Hume, 1872) Yuhina humilis (Hume, 1877) Pteruthius intermedius (Hume, 1877) Certhia manipurensis Hume, 1881 Calandrella acutirostris Hume, 1873 Pycnonotus fuscoflavescens (Hume, 1873) Pycnonotus erythropthalmos (Hume, 1878) Subspecies The use of trinomials had not yet gone into regular usage during Hume's time. He used the term "local race". The following subspecies are current placements of taxa that were named as new species by Hume. Alectoris chukar pallida (Hume, 1873) Alectoris chukar pallescens (Hume, 1873) Francolinus francolinus melanonotus Hume, 1888 Perdicula erythrorhyncha blewitti (Hume, 1874) Arborophila rufogularis tickelli (Hume, 1880) Phaethon aethereus indicus Hume, 1876 Gyps fulvus fulvescens Hume, 1869 Spilornis cheela davisoni Hume, 1873 Accipiter badius poliopsis (Hume, 1874) Accipiter nisus melaschistos Hume, 1869 Rallina eurizonoides telmatophila Hume, 1878 Gallirallus striatus obscurior (Hume, 1874) Sterna dougallii korustes (Hume, 1874) Columba livia neglecta Hume, 1873 Macropygia ruficeps assimilis Hume, 1874 Centropus sinensis intermedius (Hume, 1873) Otus spilocephalus huttoni (Hume, 1870) Otus lettia plumipes (Hume, 1870) Otus sunia nicobaricus (Hume, 1876) Bubo bubo hemachalanus Hume, 1873 Strix leptogrammica ochrogenys (Hume, 1873) Strix leptogrammica maingayi (Hume, 1878) Athene brama pulchra Hume, 1873 Ninox scutulata burmanica Hume, 1876 Lyncornis macrotis bourdilloni Hume, 1875 Caprimulgus europaeus unwini Hume, 1871 Aerodramus brevirostris innominatus (Hume, 1873) Aerodramus fuciphagus inexpectatus (Hume, 1873) Hirundapus giganteus indicus (Hume, 1873) Lacedo pulchella amabilis (Hume, 1873) Pelargopsis capensis intermedia Hume, 1874 Halcyon smyrnensis saturatior Hume, 1874 Megalaima asiatica davisoni Hume, 1877 Dendrocopos cathpharius pyrrhothorax (Hume, 1881) Picus erythropygius nigrigenis (Hume, 1874) Falco cherrug hendersoni Hume, 1871 Pericrocotus brevirostris neglectus Hume, 1877 Pericrocotus speciosus flammifer Hume, 1875 Dicrurus andamanensis dicruriformis (Hume, 1873) Rhipidura aureola burmanica (Hume, 1880) Garrulus glandarius leucotis Hume, 1874 Dendrocitta formosae assimilis Hume, 1877 Corvus splendens insolens Hume, 1874 Corvus corax laurencei Hume, 1873 Coracina melaschistos intermedia (Hume, 1877) Coracina fimbriata neglecta (Hume, 1877) Remiz coronatus stoliczkae (Hume, 1874) Alauda arvensis dulcivox Hume, 1872 Alaudala raytal adamsi (Hume, 1871) Galerida cristata magna Hume, 1871 Pycnonotus squamatus webberi (Hume, 1879) Pycnonotus finlaysoni davisoni (Hume, 1875) Alophoixus pallidus griseiceps (Hume, 1873) Hemixos flavala hildebrandi Hume, 1874 Hemixos flavala davisoni Hume, 1877 Ptyonoprogne obsoleta pallida Hume, 1872 Aegithalos concinnus manipurensis (Hume, 1888) Leptopoecile sophiae stoliczkae (Hume, 1874) Prinia crinigera striatula (Hume, 1873) Prinia inornata terricolor (Hume, 1874) Prinia sylvatica insignis (Hume, 1872) Orthotomus atrogularis nitidus Hume, 1874 Rhopocichla atriceps bourdilloni (Hume, 1876) Pomatorhinus hypoleucos tickelli Hume, 1877 Pomatorhinus horsfieldii obscurus Hume, 1872 Pomatorhinus ochraceiceps austeni Hume, 1881 Stachyridopsis rufifrons poliogaster (Hume, 1880) Alcippe poioicephala brucei Hume, 1870 Pellorneum albiventre ignotum Hume, 1877 Pellorneum ruficeps minus Hume, 1873 Turdoides caudata eclipes (Hume, 1877) Garrulax caerulatus subcaerulatus Hume, 1878 Trochalopteron chrysopterum erythrolaemum Hume, 1881 Trochalopteron variegatum simile Hume, 1871 Minla cyanouroptera sordida (Hume, 1877) Minla strigula castanicauda (Hume, 1877) Heterophasia annectans davisoni (Hume, 1877) Chrysomma altirostre griseigulare (Hume, 1877) Rhopophilus pekinensis albosuperciliaris (Hume, 1873) Zosterops palpebrosus auriventer Hume, 1878 Yuhina castaniceps rufigenis (Hume, 1877) Aplonis panayensis tytleri (Hume, 1873) Sturnus vulgaris nobilior Hume, 1879 Sturnus vulgaris minor Hume, 1873 Copsychus saularis andamanensis Hume, 1874 Anthipes solitaris submoniliger Hume, 1877 Cyornis concretus cyaneus (Hume, 1877) Ficedula tricolor minuta (Hume, 1872) Myophonus caeruleus eugenei Hume, 1873 Geokichla sibirica davisoni (Hume, 1877) Dicaeum agile modestum (Hume, 1875) Cinnyris asiaticus intermedius (Hume, 1870) Cinnyris jugularis andamanicus (Hume, 1873) Aethopyga siparaja cara Hume, 1874 Aethopyga siparaja nicobarica Hume, 1873 Passer ammodendri stoliczkae Hume, 1874 Lonchura striata semistriata (Hume, 1874) Lonchura kelaarti jerdoni (Hume, 1874) Linaria flavirostris montanella (Hume, 1873) An additional species, the large-billed reed-warbler Acrocephalus orinus was known from just one specimen collected by him in 1869 but the name that he used, magnirostris, was found to be preoccupied and replaced by the name orinus provided by Harry Oberholser in 1905. The status of the species was contested until DNA comparisons with similar species in 2002 suggested that it was a valid species. It was only in 2006 that the species was seen in the wild in Thailand, with a match to the specimens confirmed using DNA sequencing. Later searches in museums led to several other specimens that had been overlooked and based on the specimen localities, a breeding region was located in Tajikistan and documented in 2011. My Scrap Book: Or Rough Notes on Indian Oology and Ornithology (1869) This was Hume's first major work on birds. It had 422 pages and accounts of 81 species. It was dedicated to Edward Blyth and Dr. Thomas C. Jerdon who, he wrote "[had] done more for Indian Ornithology than all other modern observers put together" and he described himself as "their friend and pupil". He hoped that his collation, which he noted as being of a poor quality, would form a "nucleus round which future observation may crystallize" and that others around the country could help him "fill in many of the woeful blanks remaining in record". Stray Feathers Hume started the quarterly journal Stray Feathers in 1872. At that time the only journal for the Indian region that published on ornithology was the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal and Hume published only two letters in 1870, mainly being a list of errors in the list of Godwin-Austen which had been reduced to an abstract. Several other papers that he submitted to the Ibis had not been published. In his preface he also examined if there was merit to start a new journal and in that idea was supported by Stoliczka, who was also an editor for the Journal of the Asiatic Society: The President of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Thomas Oldham, in the annual address for 1873 wrote - "We could have wished that the author had completed the several works which he had already commenced, rather than started a new publication. But we heartily welcome at the same time the issue of 'Stray Feathers.' It promises to be a useful catalogue of the Editor's very noble collection of Indian Birds, and a means of rapid publication of novelties or corrections, always of much value with ornithologists." Hume used the journal to publish descriptions of his new discoveries. He wrote extensively on his own observation as well as critical reviews of all the ornithological works of the time and earned himself the nickname of Pope of Indian ornithology. He critiqued a monograph on parrots, Die Papageien by Friedrich Hermann Otto Finsch suggesting that name changes (by "cabinet naturalists") were aimed at claiming authority to species without the trouble of actually discovering them. He wrote: Hume in turn was attacked, for instance by Viscount Walden, but Finsch became a friend and Hume named a species, Psittacula finschii, after him. In his younger days Hume had studied some geology from the likes of Gideon Mantell and appreciated the synthesis of ideas from other fields into ornithology. Hume included in 1872, a detailed article on the osteology of birds in relation to their classification written by Richard Lydekker who was then in the Geological Survey of India. The early meteorological work in India was done within the department headed by Hume and he saw the value of meteorology in the study of bird distributions. In a work comparing the rainfall zones, he notes how the high rainfall zones indicated affinities to the Malayan fauna. Hume sometimes mixed personal beliefs in notes that he published in Stray Feathers. For instance he believed that vultures soared by altering the physics ("altered polarity") of their body and repelling the force of gravity. He further noted that this ability was normal in birds and could be acquired by humans by maintaining spiritual purity, claiming that he knew of at least three Indian Yogis and numerous saints in the past with this ability of "aethrobacy". Network of correspondents Hume corresponded with a large number of ornithologists and sportsmen who helped him by reporting from various parts of India. More than 200 correspondents are listed in his Game Birds alone and they probably represent only a fraction of the subscribers of Stray Feathers. This large network made it possible for Hume to cover a much larger geographic region in his ornithological work. During the lifetime of Hume, Blyth was considered the father of Indian ornithology. Hume's achievement which made use of a large network of correspondents was recognised even during his time. James Murray noted of Hume that "the palm is his as an authority above the rest" when it came to the birds of India and that all future work would be built upon his work. Many of Hume's correspondents were eminent naturalists and sportsmen who were posted in India. Leith Adams, Kashmir Lieut. H. E. Barnes, Afghanistan, Chaman, Rajpootana Captain R. C. Beavan, Maunbhoom District, Shimla, Mount Tongloo (1862) Colonel John Biddulph, Gilgit George Bidie, Madras Major C. T. Bingham, Thoungyeen Valley, Burma, Tenasserim, Moulmein, Allahabad W. Blanford Edward Blyth Dr. Emmanuel Bonavia, Lucknow W. Edwin Brooks (father of Allan Brooks, the Canadian bird artist) Sir Edward Charles Buck, Gowra, Hatu, near Narkanda (in Himachal Pradesh), Narkanda, (about north of Shimla) Captain Boughey Burgess, Ahmednagar (1822-1897) Colonel E. A. Butler, Belgaum (1880), Karachi, Deesa, Abu Miss Cockburn (1829–1928), Kotagiri James Davidson, Satara and Sholapur districts, Khandeish, Kondabhari Ghat Colonel Godwin-Austen, Shillong, Umian valley, Assam Brian Hodgson, Nepal Duncan Charles Home, 'Hero of the Kashmir Gate' (Bulandshahr, Aligarh) John Duncan Inverarity, barrister, Bombay T. C. Jerdon, Tellicherry Harold Littledale, Baroda college Colonel C. H. T. Marshall, Bhawulpoor, Murree Colonel G. F. L. Marshall, Nainital, Bhim tal James A. Murray, Karachi Museum Eugene Oates, Thayetmo, Tounghoo, Pegu Captain Robert George Wardlaw Ramsay, Afghanistan, Karenee hills Frederik Adolph de Roepstorff, Andaman and Nicobar Islands G. P. Sanderson (Chittagong) Major and later Sir O. B. St. John, Shiraz, Persia Ferdinand Stoliczka, geologist Robert Swinhoe, Hong Kong Charles Swinhoe, S. Afghanistan Colonel Samuel Tickell Colonel Robert Christopher Tytler, Dacca, 1852 Valentine Ball, Rajmahal hills, Subanrika (Subansiri) Richard Lydekker, geologist G. W. Vidal, civil servant in South Konkan, Bombay Frederick "Mountaineer" Wilson, Gangothri Hume exchanged skins with other collectors. A collection made principally by Hume that belonged to the Earl of Northbrook was gifted to Oxford University in 1877. One of his correspondents, Louis Mandelli from Darjeeling, stands out by claiming that he was swindled in these skin exchanges. He claimed that Hume took skins of rarer species in exchange for the skins of common birds but the credibility of the complaint has been doubted. Hume named Arborophila mandelli after Mandelli in 1874. The only other naturalist to question Hume's veracity was A.L. Butler who met a Nicobar islander whom Hume had described as diving nearly stark naked and capturing fish with his bare hands. Butler found the man in denial of such fishing techniques. Hume corresponded and stayed up to date with the works of ornithologists outside India including R. Bowdler Sharpe, the Marquis of Tweeddale, Père David, Henry Eeles Dresser, Benedykt Dybowski, John Henry Gurney, J. H. Gurney, Jr., Johann Friedrich Naumann, Nikolai Severtzov and Dr. Aleksandr Middendorff. He helped George Ernest Shelley with specimens from India aiding the publication of a monograph on the sunbirds of the world (1876–1880). Collector's Vade Mecum (1874) Hume's vast collection from across India was possible because he began to correspond with coadjutors across India. He ensured that these contributors made accurate notes, and obtained and processed specimens carefully. The Vade Mecum was published to save him the trouble of sending notes to potential collaborators who sought advice. Materials for preservation are carefully tailored for India with the provision of the local names for ingredients and methods to prepare glues and preservatives with easy to find equipment. Apart from skinning and preservation, the book also covers matters of observation, keeping records, the use of natives to capture birds, obtain eggs and the care needed in obtaining other information apart from care in labelling. Game Birds of India, Burmah and Ceylon (1879–1881) This work was co-authored by C. H. T. Marshall. The three volume work on the game birds was made using contributions and notes from a network of 200 or more correspondents. Hume delegated the task of getting the plates made to Marshall. The chromolithographs of the birds were drawn by W. Foster, E. Neale, (Miss) M. Herbert, Stanley Wilson and others and the plates were produced by F. Waller in London. Hume had sent specific notes on colours of soft parts and instructions to the artists. He was dissatisfied with many of the plates and included additional notes on the plates in the book. This book was started at the point when the government demoted Hume and only the need to finance the publication of this book prevented him from retiring from service. He had estimated that it would cost £4000 to publish it and he retired from service on 1 January 1882 after the publication. Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds (1883) This was another major work by Hume and in it he covered descriptions of the nests, eggs and the breeding seasons of most Indian bird species. It makes use of notes from contributors to his journals as well as other correspondents and works of the time. Hume also makes insightful notes such as observations on caged females separated from males that would continue to lay fertile eggs through the possibility of sperm storage and the reduction in parental care by birds that laid eggs in warm locations (mynas in the Andamans, river terns on sand banks). A second edition of this book was made in 1889 which was edited by Eugene William Oates. This was published when he had himself given up all interest in ornithology, an event precipitated by the loss of his manuscripts through the actions of a servant. He wrote in the preface: This nearly marked the end of Hume's interest in ornithology. Hume's last piece of ornithological writing was part of an Introduction to the Scientific Results of the Second Yarkand Mission in 1891, an official publication on the contributions of Dr. Ferdinand Stoliczka, who died during the return journey on this mission. Stoliczka in a dying request had asked that Hume edit the volume on ornithology. Taxa named after Hume A number of birds are named after Hume, including: Hume's ground tit, Pseudopodoces humilis Hume's wheatear, Oenanthe albonigra Hume's boobook, Ninox obscura Hume's short-toed lark, Calandrella acutirostris Hume's leaf warbler, Phylloscopus humei Hume's whitethroat, Sylvia althaea Hume's treecreeper, Certhia manipurensis Specimens of other animal groups collected by Hume on his expeditions and named after him include the Manipur bush rat, Hadromys humei (Thomas, 1886) while some others like Hylaeocarcinus humei, a land crab from the Narcondam Island collected by Hume was described by James Wood-Mason, and Hume's argali, Ovis ammon humei Lydekker 1913 (now treated as Ovis ammon karelini, Severtzov, 1873) are no longer considered valid. Theosophy Hume's interest in theosophy took root around 1879. An 1880 newspaper reports the initiation of his daughter and wife into the movement. Hume did not have great regard for institutional Christianity, but believed in the immortality of the soul and in the idea of a supreme ultimate. Hume wanted to become a chela (student) of the Tibetan spiritual gurus. During the few years of his connection with the Theosophical Society Hume wrote three articles on Fragments of Occult Truth under the pseudonym "H. X." published in The Theosophist. These were written in response to questions from Mr. W.H. Terry, an Australian Theosophist. He also privately printed several Theosophical pamphlets titled Hints on Esoteric Theosophy. The later numbers of the Fragments, in answer to the same enquirer, were written by A.P. Sinnett and signed by him, as authorized by Mahatma K. H., A Lay-Chela. Hume also wrote under the pseudonym "Aletheia". Madame Blavatsky was a regular visitor at Hume's Rothney castle at Simla and an account of her visit may be found in Simla, Past and Present by Edward John Buck (whose father Sir Edward Charles Buck succeeded Hume as secretary to the Revenue and Agricultural Department). A long story about Hume and his wife appears in A.P. Sinnett's book The Occult World, and the synopsis was published in a local paper of India. The story relates how at a dinner party, Madame Blavatsky asked Mrs Hume if there was anything she wanted. She replied that there was a brooch, her mother had given her, that had gone out of her possession some time ago. Blavatsky said she would try to recover it through occult means. After some interlude, later that evening, the brooch was found in a garden, where the party was directed by Blavatsky. According to John Murdoch (1894), the brooch had been given by Mrs. Hume to her daughter who had given it to a man she admired. Blavatsky had happened to meet the man in Bombay and obtained the brooch in return for money. Blavatsky allegedly planted it in the garden before directing people to the location through what she claimed as occult techniques. After the incident, Hume too had privately expressed grave doubts on the powers attributed to Madame Blavatsky. He subsequently held a meeting with some of the Indian members of the Theosophical Society and suggested that they join hands with him to force the resignation of Blavatsky and sixteen other members for their role as accomplices in fraud. Those present could however not agree to the idea of seeking the resignation of their founder. Hume also tried to write a book on the philosophical basis of Theosophy. His drafts were strongly disapproved by many of the key Theosophists. One ("K.H"=Koot Humi) wrote: Hume soon fell out of favour with the Theosophists and lost all interest in the theosophical movement in 1883. Hume's interest in theosophy brought him into contact with many independent Indian thinkers like Gopal Krishna Gokhale who also had nationalist ideas and this led to the idea of creating the Indian National Congress. Hume's immersion into the theosophical movement led him to become a vegetarian and also to give up killing birds for their specimens. South London Botanical Institute After the loss of his manuscript containing his lifetime of ornithological notes, Hume gave up ornithology and took great interest in horticulture around his home in Shimla. ... He erected large conservatories in the grounds of Rothney Castle, filled them with the choicest flowers, and engaged English gardeners to help him in the work. From this, on returning to England, he went on to scientific botany. But this, as Kipling says, is another story, and must be left to another pen. Hume took an interest in wild plants and especially on invasive species although his botanical publishing was sparse with only three short notes between 1901 and 1902 including one on a variety of Scirpus maritimus, and another on the flowering of Impatiens roylei. Hume contacted W.H. Griffin in 1901 to help develop a herbarium of botanical specimens. Hume would arrange his plants on herbarium sheets in artistic positions before pressing them. The two made many botanical trips including one to Down in Kent to seek some of the rare orchids that had been collected by Darwin. In 1910, Hume bought the premises of 323 Norwood Road, and modified it to have a herbarium and library. He called this establishment the South London Botanical Institute (SLBI) with the aim of "promoting, encouraging, and facilitating, amongst the residents of South London, the study of the science of botany." One of the aims of the institute was to help promote botany as a means for mental culture and relaxation, an idea that was not shared by Henry Groves, a trustee for the institute. Hume objected to advertisement and refused to have any public ceremony to open the institute. The first curator was W.H. Griffin and Hume endowed the institute with £10,000. Frederick Townsend, F.L.S., an eminent botanist, who died in 1905, had left instructions that his herbarium and collection was to be given to the institute, which was then only being contemplated. Hume left £15,000 in his will for the maintenance of the botanical institute. In the years leading up to the establishment of the institute, Hume built up links with many of the leading botanists of his day. He worked with F. H. Davey and in the Flora of Cornwall (1909), Davey thanks Hume as his companion on excursions in Cornwall and Devon, and for help in the compilation of the 'Flora', publication of which was financed by Hume. The SLBI has since grown to hold a herbarium of approximately 100,000 specimens mostly of flowering plants from Europe including many collected by Hume. The collection was later augmented by the addition of other herbaria over the years, and has significant collections of Rubus (bramble) species and of the Shetland flora. Works My Scrap Book: Or Rough Notes on Indian Oology and Ornithology (1869) List of the Birds of India (1879) The Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds (3-volumes) (3-volumes, 1879–1881) Hints on Esoteric Theosophy Agricultural Reform in India (1879) Lahore to Yarkand. Incidents of the Route and Natural History of the Countries Traversed by the Expedition of 1870 under T. D. Forsyth Stray Feathers (11-volumes + index by Charles Chubb) References Further reading Bruce, Duncan A. (2000) The Scottish 100: Portraits of History's Most Influential Scots, Carroll & Graf Publishers. Mearns and Mearns (1988) Biographies for Birdwatchers. Academic Press. Mehrotra, S. R. (2005) Towards India's Freedom and Partition, Rupa & Co., New Delhi. Mehrotra, S. R.; Edward C. Moulton (Eds) (2004) Selected Writings of Allan Octavian Hume: District Administration in North India, Rebellion and Reform, Volume One: 1829–1867. Oxford University Press. Moxham, Roy (2002) The Great Hedge of India. External links Works My scrap book: or rough notes on Indian oology and ornithology (1869) List of the birds of India (1879) The Indian Ornithological Collector's Vade Mecum (1874) The Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds: Volume 1 Volume 2 Volume 3 Game birds of India, Burmah and Ceylon: Volume 1 Volume 2 Volume 3 Hints on Esoteric Theosophy Agricultural Reform in India (1879) Lahore to Yarkand. Incidents of the Route and Natural History of the countries traversed by the expedition of 1870 under T. D. Forsyth Stray Feathers – volumes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Index 1–11 Biographical sources Biographies of ornithologists Hume-Blavatsky correspondence South London Botanical Institute The Victorian Web Botany Botanical Society of the British Isles Herbarium specimens collected by Hume Search archives Works by Allan Octavian Hume at Hathi Trust 1829 births 1912 deaths 19th-century Indian botanists 19th-century Indian zoologists 20th-century Indian botanists 20th-century Indian zoologists Alumni of the UCL Medical School Anglo-Scots Companions of the Order of the Bath Fellows of the Zoological Society of London Indian ornithologists Indian political party founders Indian independence activists Indian Civil Service (British India) officers Indian National Congress Indian National Congress politicians Naturalists from British India People associated with the British Museum People associated with the Vegetarian Society People from Etawah People from St Mary Cray Scottish ornithologists Burials at Brookwood Cemetery British people of the Indian Rebellion of 1857
401192	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halesowen	Halesowen	Halesowen ( ) is a market town in the Metropolitan Borough of Dudley, in the county of West Midlands, England. Historically an exclave of Shropshire and, from 1844, in Worcestershire, the town is around from Birmingham city centre, and from Dudley town centre. The population of the town, as measured by the United Kingdom Census 2011, was 58,135.<ref>[https://www.citypopulation.de/php/uk-england-westmidlands.php?cityid=E35000476 City Population Portal] Retrieved 29 May 2017</ref> Halesowen is included in the Halesowen and Rowley Regis constituency which is held by the Conservative James Morris. Geography and administration Halesowen was a detached part of the county of Shropshire but was incorporated into Worcestershire in 1844 by the Counties (Detached Parts) Act. Since the local government reorganisation of 1974 it has formed a part of the West Midlands Metropolitan county and Conurbation, in the Dudley Metropolitan Borough, which it joined at the same time as neighbouring Stourbridge, which had also been in Worcestershire until that point. Halesowen borders the Birmingham suburbs of Quinton and Bartley Green to the east. To the south is Romsley and Worcestershire, to the north is Cradley Heath and to the west is Stourbridge. Although predominantly urban or suburban in character, Halesowen borders on green belt land with excellent access to the countryside, for example the Clent Hills. It has extensive road links including Junction 3 of the M5 motorway, which allow easy commuting to Birmingham, other areas of the Black County or nationwide. The centre of Birmingham is approximately 30 minutes away by car and reachable by the number 9 or X10 buses, which are run by National Express West Midlands. The centre of Halesowen is home to a Norman church, a football ground (where non-league Halesowen Town play) and Halesowen College which was founded in 1939. Most of the housing stock in Halesowen is privately owned and was built in the 30 years which followed the end of the Second World War, although some parts of the town are still made up of Victorian and Edwardian terraced houses. The town centre was almost completely rebuilt during the 1960s and 1970s. Suburbs In 1974, Dudley Metropolitan Borough Council identified six historical suburbs within Halesowen, which they signed accordingly with a series of gateway signs. In addition to the town centre, these are listed below. A separate sign for Illey was added many years later. Cradley Hasbury Hawne Hayley Green Hill & Cakemore Lapal Climate As with the rest of the British Isles and West Midlands, Halesowen experiences a maritime climate with cool summers and mild winters. A weather station provides local climate data for the period 1981–2010. Temperature extremes at Halesowen have ranged from December 13, 1981 up to on July 19, 2022. The coldest daily maximum temperature was on January 12, 1987, and the warmest daily minimum was on July 2, 2009. Records have meteorological variables have been kept since January 1956, in that time the wettest day on record has been June 16, 2016 with a total fall of . In addition, June 2016 is the wettest month of any, with a total fall of . 2014 is the wettest year on record, with a rainfall of ; 2011, with is the driest. The most new snow to accumulate on one day was on February 25, 1981; the snowiest year on record is 1979 with and the least snowy are 2002 and 2019, both with . History Halesowen is recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 as being larger than Birmingham. The manor and town was known as Hala (from the Anglo-Saxon word "halh", meaning nook or remote valley), until it was given by King Henry II to Welsh Prince Dafydd ab Owain and became known as Halas Owen. The parish of Halesowen, which incorporated other townships later to become independent parishes, was an exclave of the county of Shropshire, but grew to become a town and was transferred to the jurisdiction of Worcestershire by the Counties (Detached Parts) Act 1844. Included in the boundaries was the ancient village of Brettle. In the 1220s, Halesowen had a market and fair and, by 1270, it had been granted a charter of liberties by its lord, the Premonstratensian Abbey of Halesowen. By 1300, it is estimated that the population was around 600. The court rolls for Halesowen survive from 1272 and show that the majority of migrants to Halesowen in the 14th century were women at 75%. Little was done to remove them and many went on to become small retailers in the area. The village is well known by medieval historians for the conflict that took place around this time. In 1279, as the Abbot attempted to increase labour services for his tenants (which had been fixed in 1244), the peasants attempted to plead their case in the King's Court, a privilege forbidden to unfree villeins. The Abbot thus fined them £10 which was a large sum at the time, and resistance, led by Roger Ketel, heightened. The conflict was snuffed out in 1282 as Ketel and Alice Edrich (the pregnant wife of another prominent rebel) were murdered by thugs hired by the abbey. During the 18th century Halesowen developed rapidly as a result of the Industrial Revolution. The manufacture of nails was the staple trade in the town and many mills were used for slitting and iron production. Coal had been mined in the area from at least the reign of Edward I. Dating to 1893, Coombes Wood was the largest colliery in the town; at its peak in 1919 Halesowen had 130 working mines. During the French Revolutionary War Halesowen raised a troop of volunteer cavalry by 1798, which in 1814 became part of the South Shropshire Yeomanry Cavalry. Halesowen became the centre of a poor law union in the 19th century, which later became established as a rural sanitary district and later the Halesowen Rural District in 1894. Oldbury was included into the area of Halesowen under an Act of 1829. With increasing urbanisation of the area, in the early 20th century, it became the Halesowen Urban District in 1925, and obtained a grant of charter to become a municipal borough in 1936. In 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, Halesowen was incorporated into the new Dudley Metropolitan Borough, in the Metropolitan county of the West Midlands. Halesowen was once served by a railway line – in reality two lines which met at an end-on junction at the station. The first was a branch of the Great Western Railway from Old Hill to Halesowen, opened in 1878, followed in 1883 by a section jointly owned by the Great Western and the Midland Railway (though worked mostly by the latter), linking the town with Northfield on the Midland Railway's Birmingham to Bristol main line, with intermediate stations at Rubery, Hunnington, and a workmen's halt at Longbridge serving the car factories (not to be confused with the present Longbridge station). Being largely rural in character, the line failed to attract much traffic and regular passenger services ended between Halesowen and Northfield as far back as 1919, and between Old Hill and Halesowen in 1927, though the workmen's trains continued to serve Longbridge until 1960. The line is now lifted, but the track-bed can be seen close to the town, although there is no sign of the station. The goods shed remained until recently, serving as an industrial unit though it has now been demolished. In the 1960s, the town centre underwent vast redevelopment which saw most of the older buildings demolished. The high street was pedestrianised and a shopping precinct (called "The Precinct") was developed, housing many new retail units as well as a new public library. The centre was refurbished in the late 1980s and placed under cover, being renamed The Cornbow Centre at this time. Trade in the town centre declined between 1985 and 1990 as the Merry Hill Shopping Centre some away at Brierley Hill was developed, although not as severely as it declined in Stourbridge and in particular Dudley. The only high-profile casualty was the J Sainsbury supermarket, which closed in 1992 due to the popularity of the store which had opened at Merry Hill three years earlier to succeed the Dudley store – combined with the onset of the recession at the start of the 1990s. A further upgrading of the town centre took place in 2007 and 2008, with part of the Cornbow Centre (including a petrol station and several smaller retail units) being demolished to make way for a new Asda superstore which opened on 24 November 2008. The bus station was also rebuilt. This 18-month £30 million project was completed in December 2008 and the town received a commendation for the work by the Retail Property Organisation. Landmarks In the eastern part of Halesowen is Leasowes Park, which is considered to be one of the first natural landscape gardens in England. The 18th-century poet William Shenstone designed the garden, beginning works in 1743 and continuing until his death in 1763, transforming existing farmland he had inherited after his parents' death. Today, the parkland is Grade One Listed, as it is of national importance. The local theatre and a Wetherspoon's public house are both named after William Shenstone as are at least two roads in the locality. The Parish Church of St John the Baptist was founded by Roger de Montgomery and stands on the site of an even earlier Anglo-Saxon church. Several extensions have been made including the outer south aisle which was added in 1883 by John Oldrid Scott although there is still much evidence of the original Norman work. A Medieval cross stands in the churchyard, having previously stood in Great Cornbow until it was blown down by a gale in 1908. Nearby are the ruins of Halesowen Abbey, founded in 1215 by Peter des Roches, Bishop of Winchester. The Dissolution of the Monasteries saw the Abbey pass into private hands in 1538. The Abbey was the subject of an archaeological evaluation by Birmingham Archaeology and is now owned and managed by English Heritage. Most of the town centre was rebuilt in the 1960s to create a modern shopping area that incorporated a new library as well as many supermarkets and shops centred around the Cornbow Centre. This was refurbished in the late 1980s to create a covered shopping area. In 2007–08, Halesowen underwent a £30 million regeneration of part of its town centre, which has included the construction of a new Asda supermarket located in the Cornbow Centre, together with a new multi-storey car park, a rebuilt bus station and improvements to the road layout. Economy The principal industry of Halesowen was traditionally nail making, an industry that was performed on a small scale individually in the backyards of a large number of nail makers. Halesowen also had, along with most other areas of the Black Country, a large number of above and underground coal mines. In more recent years, the arrival of a junction of the motorway network allowed Halesowen to attract a number of large organisations to the town. Sandvik's UK headquarters are located here as well as Somers Forge, mFortune, SomersTotalKare and the Mucklow Group. Communicourt are the leading providers of Non-registered Intermediaries to the criminal and family courts and its headquarters are in Halesowen. Transport Transport in the town is overseen by Transport for West Midlands, the county's transport authority. Halesowen, as mentioned above, is no longer served by a railway station. It is however served by a fairly comprehensive bus network, and is on the Hagley Road Bus Corridor from Birmingham to Stourbridge (route 9), the Merry Hill Shopping Centre (route 002,13, 17, 142/142A and X10) and Dudley (route 14). Service 4H operates from Hayley Green to Walsall via Blackheath and West Bromwich. Halesowen Bus Station is located on Queensway, next to the Asda supermarket and Job Centre Plus. Most services are operated by National Express West Midlands and Diamond Bus. Halesowen is considered one of the largest towns in the United Kingdom without a railway station. The nearest railway stations are Rowley Regis, Stourbridge Junction, Cradley Heath and Old Hill. Education There are currently 15 primary schools, 3 secondary schools and a further education college situated within the district of Halesowen. Newfield Park Primary School primary school located in Halesowen, was built during the 1960s to serve the expanding local area of Hawne. In 1972, when still a borough in its own right, Halesowen Council abolished the traditional infant and junior schools and replaced them with first schools for ages 5 to 9 and middle schools for the 9 to 13 age group, but this system was abolished in 1982 and reverted to the previous infant schools for 5 to 7 year olds and junior schools for ages 7 to 11. It was one of the first instances of three-tier education being abolished in favour of a return to traditional age ranges, though most areas which adopted the system have since reverted to the traditional age ranges. The rest of the Dudley Metropolitan Borough consisted of 5–8 first and 8–12 middle schools (barring Stourbridge and Kingswinford, which had both retained the traditional 5–7 infant and 7–11 junior schools) until following the suit of Halesowen and reverting to the traditional ranges in 1990. Primary schools Caslon Primary School Colley Lane Primary School Cradley Church of England Primary School Halesowen Church of England Primary School Hasbury Church of England Primary School Howley Grange Primary School Huntingtree Primary School Hurst Green Primary School Lapal Primary School Lutley Primary School Manor Way Primary School Newfield Park Primary School Olive Hill Primary School Our Lady and St. Kenelm Roman Catholic Primary School Tenterfields Primary School Special needs school Halesbury Special School Secondary schools Windsor High School Leasowes High School Earls High School Further education Halesowen College Windsor High School Sixth Form Defunct schools Richmond Boys School and Walton Girls School were merged in September 1983 to form Windsor High School, a mixed 11-16 comprehensive school based at an expanded Richmond site, while the Walton site was annexed into Halesowen College until it was sold off for a housing development 18 years later. Media Halesowen is served by local editions of two regional evening papers, the Birmingham-based Evening Mail and the Wolverhampton-based Express & Star. There are two local free weekly newspapers delivered to every household in Halesowen, The Halesowen News and The Halesowen Chronicle''. The Halesowen area is served by the following local and regional radio stations: BBC WM: local FM station broadcasting local news, sport and music from the BBC studios at the Mailbox in Birmingham Free Radio West Midlands: local FM commercial CHR music station for Birmingham and the Black Country and Shropshire broadcast from studios in Birmingham and Manchester Heart West Midlands: regional FM commercial Hot AC music station broadcast from studios in Birmingham and London Smooth Radio West Midlands: regional FM adult contemporary commercial music station broadcast from studios in Birmingham and London Capital Midlands: local FM commercial contemporary hit music station for Birmingham broadcast from studios in Birmingham and London Black Country Radio: local FM community station broadcast from studios in Stourbridge Greatest Hits West Midlands: regional FM station broadcasting music from across the decades from studios in Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester and London Radio XL: regional AM Asian station broadcast from studios in Birmingham BBC Asian Network: national digital Asian station available on AM in the West Midlands Sport and leisure Halesowen has a rugby union club called Old Halesonians and a hockey club also named Old Halesonians. Halesowen Town F.C. are the town's non-league football club and play their home matches at The Grove on Old Hawne Lane. The first team transferred from the Southern League Division One Central to the Northern Premier League Division One Midlands for the 2021/2022 season. Halesowen Cricket Club are based at Seth Somers Park just off the A456 Manor Way. The club operates four teams competing in the Birmingham and District Premier League and the Worcestershire County League. The Manor Abbey Sports Ground on Manor Way is the home of Halesowen Athletics & Cycling Club. Facilities include a 400 metres outdoor cycling velodrome and a four lane 350 metres athletics track. The grounds also include a weights room, indoor training room and clubhouse. Halesowen Tennis Club is also based at the Manor Abbey Sports Ground with four floodlit, artificial clay courts available for use by members. Halesowen Leisure Centre on Pool Road includes a swimming pool and gym and is used by a number of local clubs, including Halesowen Swimming Club, Halesowen Triathlon Club and Cobra Running and Triathlon Club. Notable residents Alexander of Hales, English scholastic theologian and writer Dolly Allen, comedian, singer and performer Thomas Attwood (1783–1856), British economist and campaigner for electoral reform Chris Crudelli, television presenter Sir Benjamin Hingley, 1st Baronet, Liberal MP Tommy Mundon, comedian Bill Oddie, television actor and presenter Robert Plant, rock singer Morgan Rogers, professional footballer Lee Sharpe, professional and international footballer William Shenstone, poet and landscape gardener Frank Skinner, comedian and television presenter Julian Smith, saxophonist Les Smith, professional footballer Walter Somers, ironmaster Philip Tibbetts, HM March Pursuivant Extraordinary - The Court of the Lord Lyon (2021-) Glenn Tipton, guitarist of Judas Priest Jordanne Whiley, wheelchair tennis player Rex Williams, billiards player Francis Brett Young, novelist and poet Notes References External links Towns in the West Midlands (county) Areas of Dudley Unparished areas in the West Midlands (county)
401204	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle%20of%20Wight%20Festival%201970	Isle of Wight Festival 1970	The Isle of Wight Festival 1970 was a music festival held between 26 and 31 August 1970 at Afton Down, an area on the western side of the Isle of Wight in England. It was the last of three consecutive music festivals to take place on the island between 1968 and 1970 and often acknowledged as the largest musical event of its time, with a larger attendance than Woodstock. Although estimates vary, Guinness World Records estimated 600,000 to 700,000 people attended. It was organised and promoted by local brothers, Ron and Ray Foulk through their company Fiery Creations Ltd and their brother Bill Foulk. Ron Smith was site manager and Rikki Farr acted as compere. The preceding Isle of Wight Festivals, also promoted by the Foulks, had already gained a good reputation in 1968 and 1969 by featuring acts such as Jefferson Airplane, Tyrannosaurus Rex, the Move, the Pretty Things, Joe Cocker, the Moody Blues (performed at the 1969 festival), the Who, and Bob Dylan in his first performance since his 1966 motorcycle accident. Many excerpts from this festival have appeared on record and video. Artists lineup The 1970 version, following Woodstock in the previous year, set out to move one step forward and enlisted Jimi Hendrix. With Hendrix confirmed, artists such as Rory Gallagher, Cactus, Chicago, the Doors, Lighthouse, the Moody Blues, the Who, Miles Davis, Joan Baez, Joni Mitchell, Jethro Tull, Sly and the Family Stone, Ten Years After, Emerson, Lake & Palmer and Free also took part. The event had a magnificent but impractical site, since the prevailing wind blew the sound sideways across the venue, and the sound system had to be augmented by the Who's own PA. Organizers also faced the logistical problems involved in transporting some 600,000 people onto an island with a population of fewer than 100,000. The Island's transport services were already stretched by the annual influx of summer holiday-makers at the same time. French anarchists armed with knives were already causing trouble on the ferry crossing. Political and logistical difficulties resulted in the organisers eventually realising that the festival would not make a profit and declaring it to be "a free festival", although the majority of the audience had paid for tickets in advance, and the event was filmed contemporaneously. The commercial failings of the festival ensured it was the last event of its kind on the Isle of Wight for thirty-two years. Planning difficulties The opposition to the proposed 1970 festival from the residents of the Isle of Wight was much better coordinated than it had been in previous years. The Isle of Wight was a favoured retirement destination of the British well-heeled, and a haven of the yachting set, and many of the traditional residents deplored the huge influx of "hippies" and "freaks". This led to the introduction of sections to the "Isle of Wight County Council Act 1971" designed to control any further large overnight gatherings. Renting a few acres of suitable farmland to hold a music festival had in earlier years been a simple commercial matter between the promoters and one of the local farmers, but by 1970 this had become subject to approval decisions from several local council committees who were heavily lobbied by residents' associations opposing the festival. As a result of this public scrutiny, the preferred ideal location for the third Festival was blocked, and the promoters in the end had no choice but to accept the only venue on offer by the authorities: East Afton Farm, Afton Down. One unintended result of this choice of location was that, since it was overlooked by a large hill, a significant number of people were able to watch the proceedings for free. Performances 26 Wednesday Judas Jump: A heavy progressive rock band featuring Andy Bown and Henry Spinetti of the Herd and Allan Jones of Amen Corner. Kathy Smith: A Californian singer-songwriter, signed to Richie Havens' label, "Stormy Forest", was well received. Rosalie Sorrels: Another folk musician, accompanied by David Bromberg on guitar. David Bromberg: Bromberg was not on the bill, but he performed a set. "Mr. Bojangles" was included on the album The First Great Rock Festivals of the Seventies. Kris Kristofferson: Performed a controversial set. Due to poor sound, the audience was unable to hear his set, and it appeared that they were jeering him. He was eventually booed off the stage because the audience could not properly hear his song "Blame It on the Stones" and ignorant members of the audience assumed he was criticising the Rolling Stones and the whole youth movement. "It was a total disaster," Kristofferson recalled. "They just hated us. They hated everything. They booed us, Joni Mitchell, Joan Baez, Sly Stone; they threw shit at Jimi Hendrix. At the end of the night, they were tearing down the outer walls, setting fire to the concessions, burning their tents, shouting obscenities. Peace and love it was not." Mighty Baby: psychedelic rock band. 27 Thursday Gary Farr: The brother of festival promoter Rikki Farr, Gary had been the front man of the T-Bones, an R&B combo that featured Keith Emerson on keyboards. By this time, he had become a solo artist, and his second album, Strange Fruit, for CBS Records, had been released in 1970. Supertramp: Their eponymous debut album was released a month prior to the festival. Andy Roberts' Everyone Ray Owen: Ray Owen ex-Juicy Lucy vocalist Howl: Scottish hard-rock band formerly known as the Stoics, featuring Frankie Miller Black Widow: a British band that wrote songs about Satan worship in their 1970 debut LP, Sacrifice Groundhogs: English blues rockers Terry Reid: The English singer performed with David Lindley. The set was released on CD in 2004. Gilberto Gil and Caetano Veloso: Brazilian Tropicália musicians . Gracious!: A British progressive rock band. 28 Friday Fairfield Parlour: They had recorded a single called "Let The World Wash In", released under the name I Luv Wight, which they hoped would become the festival's theme song. They had also previously recorded as Kaleidoscope. Arrival: Their set included a Leonard Cohen song. Lighthouse: This Canadian act performed two sets at the festival. Taste: Guitarist Rory Gallagher had a blues trio from 1966 to 1970. This was one of their final shows, which was filmed and recorded. An album, Live at the Isle of Wight, was released of their set in 1971. Their set is featured on the Taste: What's Going on – Live at the Isle of Wight 1970 DVD & Blu-ray released in 2016. Tony Joe White: Performed hits including "Polk Salad Annie"; his drummer was Cozy Powell. Tony Joe's entire set was released in 2006 on Swamp Music, a Rhino Handmade collection of his Monument recordings. Chicago: Their set included "25 or 6 to 4," "Beginnings" and "I'm a Man." Their entire set was released as part of the box set Chicago: VI Decades Live (This is What We Do) (2018) and separately on Chicago: Live at the Isle of Wight Festival (2018). Family: Their set included "The Weaver's Answer," which had become their signature song. Procol Harum: Frontman Gary Brooker commented that it was a cold night. "Salty Dog" was included on The First Great Rock Festivals of the Seventies album. The Voices of East Harlem: An ensemble of singing school children from East Harlem in New York City. Their set received several standing ovations. Cactus: Two songs from their set were featured on the LP The First Great Rock Festivals of the Seventies. A showing of the Murray Lerner film Festival. 29 Saturday John Sebastian: Performed an 80-minute set, during which former Lovin' Spoonful guitarist Zal Yanovsky made a surprise guest appearance. Shawn Phillips: This American folk musician performed an impromptu solo set following John Sebastian. Lighthouse (second set) Joni Mitchell: Played a controversial set; following her performance of "Woodstock", a hippie named Yogi Joe interrupted her set to make a speech about the people at the festival in an encampment built of straw bales known as Desolation Row. When Joe was hauled off by Joni's manager, the audience began to boo until Mitchell interrupted her own set to chastise the audience and make an emotional appeal to "give us [the artists] some respect". Contrary to popular belief, Joe was not the man who was ranting about a "psychedelic concentration camp". That was another incident that took place the previous day. After the crowd quieted down, Mitchell closed her set with "Both Sides Now" and returned to the stage for an encore singing two more songs for an appreciative crowd. Her set is featured on the DVD Joni Mitchell Both Sides Now: Live at the Isle of Wight Festival 1970, released in 2018. Tiny Tim: His rendition of "There'll Always Be an England" can be seen in the film Message to Love. Miles Davis: A DVD of his complete set was released in 2004. "Call It Anythin'" was included on The First Great Rock Festivals of the Seventies album. Ten Years After: British blues rockers performing what was basically a reprise of their famous Woodstock set. Highlights included "I'm Going Home" and "I Can't Keep From Crying Sometimes," which was featured on the album The First Great Rock Festivals of the Seventies and the film Message to Love. Emerson, Lake & Palmer: This was their second gig. Pictures at an Exhibition, which featured the Moog synthesizer, was the centerpiece of their historic set. Commercially released as Live at the Isle of Wight Festival 1970 in 1997. The Doors: Their set was shrouded in darkness due to Jim Morrison's unwillingness to have movie spotlights on the band. Their performances of "The End" and "When the Music's Over" are featured in Message to Love. As described in Morrison's biography, No One Here Gets Out Alive, wind, bad weather, and the cold made their performance even harder. Bootleg recordings of the performances and audio exist, alongside a 2015 remastered release by Doxy Records which has been made available on Spotify. A live version of "Break On Through (To the Other Side)" was featured in the soundtrack for When You're Strange. Their set is featured on the Doors: Live at the Isle of Wight Festival 1970 in a combo DVD/CD – Blu-ray/CD & DVD – Blu-ray released in 2018. The Who: Their entire set, including the rock opera Tommy, was released in 1996 on CD (Live at the Isle of Wight Festival 1970). Two years later their set appeared on DVD with significant cuts from Tommy and a few other songs (such as "Naked Eye") missing. Sly and the Family Stone: The showstoppers of Woodstock performed to a tired audience on the early morning of Sunday. However, the audience woke up for spirited renditions of "I Want to Take You Higher", "Dance to the Music" and "Thank You (Falettinme Be Mice Elf Agin)", which featured Sly on guitar. "Stand" and "You Can Make it if You Really Try" appeared on the album The First Great Rock Festivals of the Seventies. Prior to their encore, another political militant decided it was time to make a speech and the booing audience started to throw beer cans onto the stage. Freddie Stone was hit by a flying can and an angry Sly decided to skip the encore. He did promise a second appearance, but this never occurred. Melanie: This Woodstock veteran played a well-received set as the sun rose. Prior to her set, Keith Moon of the Who offered her some moral support and encouragement. Not until afterwards did Melanie realise who he was. Her performance of her own song, "What Have They Done to My Song Ma", was included in a 2010 French documentary, spanning the 1970 and 2010 I.O.W. festivals, called From Wight to Wight and first shown on TV station ARTE, on 30 July 2010. 30 Sunday Good News: American acoustic duo with Larry Gold on cello and Michael Bacon on guitar. Kris Kristofferson (second set). For his second set he was warmly received. He came on with a bigger band and joked when he took the stage: 'Well, I'm back but this time I've brought some bodyguards'. Two of his songs from his sets were included on the album The First Great Rock Festivals of the Seventies. Ralph McTell: Despite an enthusiastic reception from the audience, he did not play an encore, and the stage was cleared for Donovan. Heaven: British jazz-influenced rock band, managed by Rikki Farr. Free: Their set list consisted of "Ride on a Pony", "Mr. Big", "Woman", "The Stealer", "Be My Friend", "Fire & Water", "I'm a Mover", "The Hunter", their classic hit "All Right Now", and concluded with a cover of Robert Johnson's "Crossroads". Donovan: He first performed an acoustic set, and then an electric set with his band Open Road. Pentangle: British folk band. A German woman interrupted their set to deliver a political message to the audience. The Moody Blues: A popular British act and veterans of the 1969 festival. Their rendition of "Nights in White Satin" can be seen in Message to Love. Their set is featured on Threshold of A Dream Live at the Isle of Wight 1970. Jethro Tull: Their set is featured on Nothing Is Easy: Live at the Isle of Wight 1970. During Sunday morning the audience were entertained by a rehearsal/sound-check by Jethro Tull. Jimi Hendrix: Performed in the early hours of 31 August with Mitch Mitchell on drums and Billy Cox on bass. Throughout Hendrix was beset by technical problems (during "Machine Gun" the security personnel's radio is clearly heard through Hendrix's amplifier). David Gilmour claims to have helped mix the sound that night. The set has been released on CD and video in various forms. "Power to Love", "Midnight Lightning" and "Foxy Lady" received top billing on the album The First Great Rock Festivals of the Seventies. Joan Baez: Her version of "Let It Be" can be seen in the film Message to Love. Leonard Cohen: Backed by his band the Army, his tune "Suzanne" can be seen in the film Message to Love. "Tonight Will Be Fine" were included on the album The First Great Rock Festivals of the Seventies. In October 2009, audio and video (both DVD and Blu-ray) recording of his set, Live at the Isle of Wight 1970 was released. Richie Havens: The musician who opened Woodstock closed this festival with a set during the morning of 31 August. As Havens performed his version of "Here Comes the Sun", a cloudy dawn broke after four days of cloudless sky, so he changed the lyrics to "Here Comes the Dawn". Havens' set, which is available as an audience recording, also included "Maggie's Farm" by Bob Dylan, "Freedom", "Minstrel from Gault" and the Hare Krishna mantra. Canvas City performances Hawkwind (on Thursday) Pink Fairies (on Thursday) T2 On the bill, but did not perform: Cat Mother Spirit The Everly Brothers Redbone Mungo Jerry Films and albums The First Great Rock Festivals of the Seventies (1971) This three-LP set on CBS Records devoted the first disk to Second Annual Atlanta International Pop Festival, and two disks to the later Isle of Wight. Teo Macero is credited as the producer for the Isle of Wight disks. It featured in order billed: Jimi Hendrix, Sly and the Family Stone, Ten Years After, Miles Davis, Kris Kristofferson, Procol Harum, Cactus, Leonard Cohen and David Bromberg. Message to Love: The Isle of Wight Festival All the performances at the festival were professionally filmed by award-winning film director Murray Lerner. with a view to releasing a documentary film but due to financial difficulties, nothing was released until 27 years after the event. Finally, Lerner distilled material from the festival into the film Message to Love: The Isle of Wight Festival which was premiered at a San Jose film festival in 1995 and released in 1997. A CD of the soundtrack was also issued by Castle Communications/Sony Legacy in 1997. The film puts a negative slant on the 1970 event by splicing in footage of violent incidents preceding the festival itself. Chief Constable, Hampshire Constabulary, Sir Douglas Osmond emphasised the peaceful nature of the event in his evidence given to the Stevenson Report, 1971 (submitted to parliament as evidence in favour of future Isle of Wight Festivals). By the end of the festival, the press representatives became almost desperate for material and they seemed a little disappointed that the patrons had been so well behaved. Other films and albums "Let The World Wash In" by "I Luv Wight" was the festival official theme song that was soon replaced with "Amazing Grace" by "The Great Awakening" A number of other performances were later released on various formats: VHS, LaserDisc, cassette tape, CD, DVD, Blu-ray & Vinyl records: The Who: Live at the Isle of Wight Festival 1970 (1996 – 2 CD) (2004 – 3 x Vinyl LP) Listening to You (1996)(1998)(2004) (1 LaserDisk/1 DVD/1 Blu-ray) Emerson, Lake & Palmer: Live at the Isle of Wight Festival 1970 (1997) (1 CD) The Birth of a Band: (2006) (1 DVD/ 2-Sided Disc: CD+DVD) Jimi Hendrix: Blue Wild Angel: Live at the Isle of Wight (2002) 3 x Vinyl LP, (2014) (2 CD/1 DVD/1 Blu-ray) Jimi Hendrix: (1990) "At the Isle of Wight" VHS, LaserDisc, CD (1971) "Isle of Wight" (1 x vinyl LP) Miles Davis: Miles Electric: A Different Kind of Blue (2004) (1 DVD) (2009) "Isle of Wight" CD n°39 from "The Complete Columbia Album Collection" boxset Miles Davis: (1987) "Isle of Wight" 1 x Vinyl LP, (2011) "Bitches Brew Live" 2 x Vinyl LP, (2007) "Isle of Wight concert" (Unofficial release) 1 x Vinyl LP) Jethro Tull: Nothing Is Easy: Live at the Isle of Wight 1970 (2005) (1 DVD/ 1CD/ 2 x Vinyl LP) (2002) "By a Benefit of Wight" (1 CD) Unofficial release Free: Free Forever (2006) (2 DVD) () Free "Live at the Isle of Wight Festival 30/08/70" Fan club release 1 x CD 2 bonus track from the 1969 festival – (2019) "Live at the Isle of Wight 1970" (1 x CD 1 x Vinyl LP) The Moody Blues: Threshold of a Dream: Live at the Isle of Wight Festival 1970 (2009) (1 CD/1 DVD/1 Blu-ray) (2008) (1 x Vinyl LP) Leonard Cohen: Leonard Cohen: Live at the Isle of Wight 1970 (2009) (1 CD/1 DVD/1 Blu-ray 2 x Vinyl LP) Taste: What's Going on: Live at the Isle of Wight 1970 (2015) (1 CD/1 DVD/1 Blu-ray 2 x Vinyl LP) (1971) "Live at the Isle of Wight" 1 x Vinyl LP release on CD in 1992 The Doors: Live at the Isle of Wight Festival 1970 (2018) (1 CD/1 DVD/ 1 Blu-ray, (2019) 2 x Vinyl LP Ltd edition of 11,000) The Doors Unofficial release: (1982) "Get Fat And Die" 1 x Vinyl LP, "First Flah of Eden" 1 x Vinyl LP, (2009) "When The Music's Over" 1 x Vinyl LP, (2011) "Last Screams of the Butterfly" 2 x Vinyl LP, (1997) "Palace of Exile" (1 x CD) Jim Morrison: "The Ultimate Collected Spoken Words 1967–1970" 2 x CD – CD 1 track 2 The Isle of Wight Festival Interview (in full) also available on vinyl LP (2020) Joni Mitchell: Both Sides Now. Live at the Isle of Wight Festival 1970 (2018) (1 DVD, 1 Blu-ray) Chicago: (2018) "Live at the Isle of Wight Festival" 2 x Vinyl LP, "Live Chicago" (VI Decades Live) 4 x CD + 1 x DVD boxset (CD 1&2 recorded at the Festival). Tony Joe White: (2006) "Swamp Music" 4 x CD Boxset Ltd edition to 5000 with 1 CD containing 5 songs recorded at the Festival. Terry Reid: (2004) "Silver White Light" Live at Isle of Wight 1970, 1 x CD Donovan unofficial release: (year unknown) "Diving For Pearls In The Sea" Volume2, 3 x CD set with booklet, Disc 1: With Open Road The Complete Isle of Wight August 30, 1970. Sly & the Family Stone: (2013) "Higher" 4 x CD set, CD 3, 4 tracks recorded live from the Isle of Wight, "I Want to Take You Higher" Numbered Ltd edition 1 x Vinyl LP. Coca-Cola Bullshit: (1970) 1 x Vinyl LP (unofficial), Side A: Kralingen (Rotterdam June 1970) Side B: Isle of Wight: 1 Melanie, Birthday of the Rain 2 Fairfield Parlour, Soldiers of Flesh (credited as: Taste, Soldiers of Flash) 3 Joan Baez, Joe Hill 4 Ten Years After, Sweet Sixteen 5 Joni Mitchell, Real Good For Free 6 Tiny Tim, Two Time a Day/Loveship Kralingen – Isle of Wight: 1 x Vinyl LP (unofficial), Side A: Kralingen (Rotterdam June 1970) Side B: Isle of Wight: 1 Jethro Tull, Bouree – 2 The Doors, Break on Through – 3 Richie Havens, I'm a Stranger Here – 4 Arrival, Not Right Now 5 Jimi Hendrix, God Save the Queen/Sgt Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band/Spanish Castle Magic Extremes: (2017) 1 CD + bonus DVD. Festival scenes: "Welcome to the Isle of Wight Music Festival" (10mn), "Naughty Naked People Celebrate Being Alive on the Beach " (5mn), "Meanwhile, Back at the Isle of Wight" (4mn), "Dancing in the Sea, Letting It All Hang Out" (9mn) Other audience/soundboard recordings in different audio formats are circulating, among others are: Ten Years After, John Sebastian, Joan Baez, Richie Havens, Joni Mitchell, Procol Harum, Family, Kris Kristofferson, Pentangle ... Influence The founders/main instigators of the Glastonbury (1971), Windsor (1972–74) and Stonehenge (1974) Free Festivals were all at IOW 1970, respectively Andrew Kerr, Ubi Dwyer and Wally Hope, inspired by the anarchistic nature of the breakdown of control by the original organisation and the subsequent freedom of the last days of the event. For the 50th anniversary of the event, a re-enactment was scheduled in the same location, with John Lodge, Ten Years After, Pentangle, The Pretty Things and Nik Turner all confirmed. However, this was postponed due to the coronavirus pandemic. Publications The Last Great Event: with Jimi Hendrix & Jim Morrison, by Ray Foulk (Organiser) & Caroline Foulk, 364 pages, Medina Publishing 2016, Hardback & Paperback Nights in Wight Satin: "An illustrated history of the Isle of Wight festivals" (1968,1969 & 1970) by Brian Hinton, 72 pages, 1990 – Message To Love: "The Isle of Wight Festivals 1968 – 1969 – 1970", by Brian Hinton, 191 pages, 1995 – The Last Great Event: "The 1970 Isle of Wight Festival" by Chris Weston, 152 pages, Ltd edition of 950 copies, Privately Published 2009 Six Days That Rocked The World: "Isle of Wight Festival 1970" by Bob Aylott, (40th anniversary 1970 – 2010), 144 pages, Ltd edition of 1000 copies, 2009 The Press Photographers Galery – My Best Seller Isle of Wight Festival 1970 I Luv Wight: "The Isle of Wight Festival 1970", "The Band – The Theme Song – The Broken Dream" by Peter Daltrey, 119 pages, 2012 Chelsea Records Book Division Isle of Wight 1970: "The Last Great Festival" A picture record by Rod Allen,published September 1970 by Clipper Press, London. Festival de Wight: "Un Festival de Légende" by Bernard Rouan (photographer) Hardback photo book (400 copies) – 80 b/w full page photos, 96 pages, 2016 Édition des Galeries & Musées Rocking the Isle of Wight: "How Three Totland Brothers Invented The British Rock Festival" By Alan Stroud and Tom Stroud. limited edition softback, 272 pages including 32 pages of unpublished colour photographs. 2020 Now and Then Books The Cameron Life Festival Experience: "1970 IoW Music Festival 40th Anniversary Exhibition Catalogue" A personal photographic account of the 1970 Isle of Wight Festival. Limited edition 1000 copies, 18 pages, 59 colour photographs by Charles Everest. Copyright © 2010 Cameronlife Link: Isle of Wight 1970: "The View From The Crowd" By Alan Stroud and Tom Stroud. Limited edition softback, 136 pages photo album containing over 120 large format colour photos. 2021 Now and Then Books Isle of Wight Festival 1969 - 1970: Café Royal Books 36 pages, 29 b/w photographs by David Hurn. © 2022 David Hurn & Café Royal Books - ISSN 2752-5619 References External links UK rock festivals (Isle of Wight 1970) Cameronlife photo library Memorabilia from the Original Isle of Wight Festivals 1968-69-70 History of the Isle of Wight 1970 1970 in British music 1970 in England Counterculture festivals 20th century on the Isle of Wight 1970 music festivals August 1970 events in the United Kingdom
401209	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Pokryshkin	Alexander Pokryshkin	Alexander Ivanovich Pokryshkin (; – 13 November 1985) was a Soviet fighter pilot in World War II, and later a Marshal of Aviation. He was one of the highest-scoring Soviet aces, and the highest-scoring pilot ever to fly an American aircraft, having achieved the great majority of his kills in the Lend-Lease Bell P-39 Airacobra. During the war Pokryshkin earned the title Hero of the Soviet Union three times: 24 May 1943, 24 August 1943, and 19 August 1944. After the war, he served in the Soviet Air Defense Forces, reaching the rank of Marshal of Aviation; he retired in 1981. During the war, he strongly promoted training in and use of improved aerial combat techniques, such as vertical maneuvers that newer fighter aircraft were capable of carrying out, and he spent much of his time studying aerobatics for combat situations. Early years Pokryshkin was born in Novonikolayevsk (now Novosibirsk) in Tomsk Governorate, son of a Russian peasant-turned-factory worker. He grew up in a poor, crime-ridden part of town, but unlike most of his peers he was more interested in learning than in fighting and petty crime. His nickname in his early teens was Engineer. He caught the "aviation bug" when he was 12 years old at a local air show, and the dream never left him. In 1928, after seven years of school, he found work as a construction worker. In 1930, despite his father's protests, he left home and entered a local technical college, where he received a degree in 18 months and worked for six more as a steel worker at a local munitions factory. Subsequently, he volunteered for the army and was sent to an aviation school. His dream finally seemed to be coming true. Unfortunately the flight school was suddenly closed, and all students were instead transferred to be trained as aircraft mechanics. Dozens of official requests were denied with a simple explanation: "Soviet aviation needs mechanics just as badly". Pokryshkin still strived to excel as a mechanic. Graduating in 1933, he quickly rose through the ranks. By December 1934, he became the Senior Aviation Mechanic of the 74th Rifle Division. He stayed in that capacity until November 1938. During that time his creative nature became clearly visible: he invented improvements to the ShKAS machine gun and the R-5 reconnaissance aircraft among other things. Finally, during his vacation in the winter of 1938, Pokryshkin was able to circumvent the authorities by passing a yearly civilian pilot program in only 17 days. This automatically made him eligible for flight school. Without even packing a suitcase, he boarded a train to flight school. He graduated with top honors in 1939, and with the rank of senior lieutenant he was assigned to the 55th Fighter Regiment. World War II Early experiences He was stationed in the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic in June 1941, close to the border, and his airfield was bombed on 22 June, the first day of the war. His first involvement in air combat was a disaster. Seeing an aircraft in the air of a type he had never seen before, he attacked and shot it down, only to notice as it was going down that it had Soviet red stars on the wings. It was a Soviet Su-2 light bomber of the 211th Bomber Aviation Regiment, piloted by squadron commander Mikhail Gudzenko. This was a new bomber type that was kept secret even from other Soviet pilots. He then frantically flew in front of all the other MiG-3 pilots who were lining up on the other Sukhoi bombers, thwarting any other Soviet losses by other pilots of his unit. Luckily, Gudzenko survived, although the navigator was killed. He claimed his first shootdown of an enemy aircraft when he shot down a Bf 109 the next day, while he and his wingman were on a reconnaissance mission, and were jumped by five enemy fighters. On 3 July, having claimed several more victories, he was shot down by German flak behind enemy lines and spent four days getting back to his unit. During the first weeks of the war, Pokryshkin began to see very clearly how outdated the Soviet combat doctrine was, and started slowly drafting his own ideas in his meticulous notebooks. He carefully recorded all details of all air engagements in which he and all his friends were involved, and came up with detailed analysis of each. He fought in very complicated conditions: constant retreat, poor- to no-controlling and communication from HQ, and overwhelming odds versus a superior opponent. He later said "one who hasn't fought in 1941–1942 has not truly tasted war". Pokryshkin survived several close calls during this time. A machine gun round drove through the right side of the cockpit, cut his shoulder straps, ricocheted off the left side and scratched his chin, covering the entire windscreen in blood. Twice, unexploded bombs landed between his feet, one time during a dramatic low-level raid on his airfield by a pair of Ju 88s. Pokryshkin tried to defend his fighter, one of the very few remaining serviceable aircraft, by removing a flexible machine gun from the nearby bomber and placing it on top of his fighter's fuselage. One of the German bombers saw Pokryshkin firing the only machine gun in the area and flew straight at him, dropping small bombs in a shallow dive. Pokryshkin watched a string of explosions running up to him, but the bomb that landed immediately next to him did not explode. The Ju 88 had dropped it too low; the bomb had insufficient time to arm itself before hitting the ground. In the autumn of 1941 Pokryshkin, flying a MiG-3 (possibly winter-camouflaged), took off in sleet and rain conditions after two other pilots had crashed on takeoff. His mission was to locate von Kleist's 1st Panzer Group, which had been stopped in front of Shakhty, and then their position lost by the Soviet forces. After some time flying at low altitude, low on gasoline, in bad weather, he finally found them, and was able to return safely to base with this critical information. For the successful completion of this mission, he was awarded the Order of Lenin. When the German summer offensive of 1942 began, part of 16th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment had been re-equipped with the Yakovlev Yak-1 fighter, including Pokryshkin's squadron. In that period Pokryshkin flew missions escorting Su-2 and Il-2 Shturmovik aircraft, and frequently was engaged by German fighters. On 17 July 1942, during a dogfight with Bf 109s, he became separated from his wingman Konstantin Figichov, and was jumped by a Rotte of Bf 109G-2 "Gustavs" flown by the experte Feldwebel Hans Dammers and his wingman Unteroffizier Kurt Keiser (7./JG 52). Initially Pokryshkin dived to escape, but realizing that the heavier and faster Gustavs would catch him, he performed a chandelle and then a barrel roll. This caused the Germans to overshoot, and then Pokryshkin shot down (and killed) Keiser at short range. Dammers attacked Pokryshkin shortly afterwards, damaging his Yak-1. But once more Pokryshkin performed a barrel roll, forced Dammers to slide forward, and then shot down the German ace. In the late summer of 1942, his regiment was recalled from the front lines to convert to a new fighter type, the Bell P-39 Airacobra. While training in the rear, Pokryshkin frequently clashed with the regiment's new commander, Isayev (the former regimental navigator), who could not stand his criticism of Soviet air combat doctrine. Isayev fabricated a court-martial case, accusing Pokryshkin of cowardice, insubordination, and disobeying orders. Pokryshkin was grounded, removed from the regiment's headquarters, and had his Party membership cancelled. However, he was helped by his squadron mates, the regimental political commissar, and the divisional commanders, and he was soon vindicated. The 216 Fighter Aviation Division's leadership dismissed the case against him, and had him reinstated. Kuban Pokryshkin's most significant contribution to the war effort and the most impressive kill record came during the battle for the Kuban region in 1943. The area east of the Crimean peninsula had seen vicious air combat in the months that led to the Soviet assault on Crimea itself, where the Kuban-based Soviet air regiments flew against Crimea-based Luftwaffe Geschwader. Pokryshkin's regiment fought against such renowned German fighter units as JG 52 and JG 3 'Udet'. The area saw some of the most fierce fighting on the Eastern Front, with daily engagements of up to 200 aircraft in the air. Pokryshkin's innovative tactics of using different fighter types stacked in altitude, the so-called 'pendulum' flight pattern for patrolling the airspace, and the use of ground-based radar, forward based controllers, and an advanced central ground control system, contributed to the first great Soviet Air Force victory over the Luftwaffe. In the summer of 1942, the 4th Air Army in which Pokryshkin served received their first mobile radar stations. They were tested in directing interceptions of German and Romanian aircraft over water, and they proved highly successful. In early January 1943, 16th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment was sent to 25th Depot Fighter Aviation Regiment, a unit tasked with checking that Soviet-made and Lend-Lease aircraft were ready for combat service near the Iranian border, to re-equip with new aircraft, and also to receive new pilots. Many of these planes had to be ferried in from Iran. Whilst there were delays in assembly by the Americans in Iran, the Soviet pilots involved felt that the Americans were willfully impeding the war effort It was at this time that the unit converted to the P-39 Airacobra which, when all had arrived, transformed the unit into a 3-squadron regiment. 16th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment received 14 P-39L-1s, seven P-39Ks (the very last of which was assigned to Pokryshkin) and 11 P-39D-2s. The unit returned to action on 8 April 1943. During the remainder of the month, Pokryshkin was credited with 11 Bf 109s and one Ju 88 destroyed. He was credited with a Bf 109 destroyed on his very first Airacobra mission, on 9 April 1943, and scored four Bf 109 kills on 12 April 1943, one of his more successful days. He scored again on 15, 16, 20, 21, and 24 April – one Bf 109 on each day, adding a Ju 88 (probably in fact an He 111) on 29 April, plus one more Bf 109 on 30 April. On 4 May 1943 Pokryshkin gained three confirmed kills two Ju 87 and a Bf 109. In most subsequent fights, Pokryshkin would usually take the most difficult role, attacking the German flight leader, who was often an aggressive experte. He had learned in 1941–42 that shooting down the flight leader would demoralise the enemy and often cause them to scramble home. Taking that into account, several such experten were almost certainly among his kills during the month of May that year. On 6 May 1943 Pokryshkin shot down a Bf 109, probably the plane of 9-kills ace Unteroffizier Heinz Scholze (4./JG 52), who crashed while trying to land at Kuteinikovo. Two days later, his victim may have been the Bf 109G-4 of Leutnant Helmut Haberda (an experte of 5./JG 52 with 58 victories to his credit), though the Luftwaffe credited the loss to Soviet flak. Pokryshkin received his first 'Hero of the Soviet Union' award on 24 May 1943, and was promoted to major in June, having become commanding officer of his squadron. On 23 June, he exchanged his old P-39K-1 USAAF Serial Number 42-4421, "White 13", for the famous P-39N USAAF S.N. 42-9004, "White 100". He flew aircraft designated 100 for the rest of the war, such as P-39N-5 42-19185, after 42-9004 was damaged in August or September 1943, except for the test of the Berlin autobahn as a runway in Konstantin Sukhov's "White 50", which was much photographed. The Campaign in Ukraine In mid-July the 216 Fighter Aviation Division (then redesignated 9 Guards Fighter Aviation Division) was deployed in southern Ukraine to help take the Donbass area. There he continued to defeat German aces – on 23 July 1943 Pokryshkin shot down the 56-kills experte Uffz. Hans Ellendt, of 4./JG 52. Occasionally his P-39s also escorted the Pe-2 bombers. In that role, he used his nickname Sotka ("One Hundred") – his radio call sign), because he knew very well that the Luftwaffe ordered its airmen to stay on the ground if they knew he was in the air. A Pe-2 pilot of the 36 Bomber Aviation Regiment, Timofey P. Puniov, recalled that because of the heavy casualties inflicted by the German fighters, the 16th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment was tasked to escort them. Puniov clearly remembers that twice Pokryshkin violated radio silence saying openly in the frequency: "Vnimanie! Ya – sotka. Poedu na rabotu!" (Attention! I'm "100". I'm going to work!). Neither on those two occasions nor after did the German fighters try to intercept the 36th Bomber Aviation Regiment. On 20 August, Isaev, who had been the Unit Navigator, and then Commanding Officer, and with whom Pokryshkin had strong differences, took measures to have Pokryshkin stripped of his Hero of the Soviet Union, expelled from the regiment, and hauled before a tribunal. From 10 PM that night at least through the following day, Pokryshkin, 298th Fighter Aviation Regiment's Major Taranyenko, and the 16th Guards' Commissar, Gubarevim, and some "Osobists" (NKVD people) completed interrogations and investigations. Gubarevim, with difficulty, was able to clear Pokryshkin's name and reputation, and "Sasha" was thereupon awarded his second Hero of the Soviet Union on 24 August 1943. On 21 September 1943, Pokryshkin was involved in another high-profile air engagement. This one happened at low altitudes right over the front line. It was witnessed by dozens of journalists and representatives of the high command. Pokryshkin shot down three Junkers Ju 88s in a single pass, overcome by hatred, as he had just found out that the entire family of Zhmud, his mechanic, had been killed in German-occupied territories. Only two kills were confirmed, the third Ju 88 being recorded as brought down by the explosion of the second one and not because of Pokryshkin's gunfire. All three Junkers are confirmed by German loss records – they were Ju 88A-4s of 5./RummKGr. Earlier that same day Pokryshkin had added two more Junkers Ju 87s to his tally, almost certainly Ju 87D-5s of 6./StG 1. 1944–1945 In February 1944, Pokryshkin was offered a promotion and an easy desk job managing new pilot training. He immediately rejected this offer, and stayed at his old regiment and his old rank. However, he did not fly nearly as much as before. Pokryshkin had been made a famous hero by the propaganda machine, and he was not allowed to fly as often because of fear of him being killed. Instead, Pokryshkin spent a lot of time in the radio bunker, directing his regiment's fights over the radio. In June 1944, Pokryshkin was promoted to colonel and given command of 9th Guards Air Division. On 19 August 1944, for 550 front-line sorties and 53 official kills, Pokryshkin was awarded the Gold Star of the Hero of the Soviet Union for the third time. He was the first person ever to receive the award three times, and he is the only Soviet soldier to receive the award three times during wartime. Pokryshkin was forbidden to fly altogether, but managed to circumvent the rule a few times and still continued to score an occasional kill. One of such occasions occurred on 30 May 1944 near Jassy, Romania. The whole 16th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment engaged a large formation of Ju 87s heading towards the Soviet ground forces escorted by Fw 190s and Bf 109s. In the ensuing melée, the Airacobra pilots claimed to shoot down five Stukas, three Focke-Wulfs and one Messerschmitt without losses – three Ju 87s were shot down by Pokryshkin himself. The next time Pokryshkin scored victories was on 16 July, when he got credit for two more Stukas and one Hs 129 of 10.(Pz)/SG 9, probably the Henschel Hs 129B-2 of Hauptmann Rudolf-Heinz Ruffer, credited with 80 tank-kills. His last victory was another Ju 87, downed on 14 January 1945. Out of his official score of 65 victories, only six were scored in the last two years of the war. The bulk of Pokryshkin's victories came during the time when the Soviet Air Force was still fighting at a disadvantage, and he was among the most successful Soviet pilots during the most difficult first year of the war. In the Victory Parade, Pokryshkin participated as the standard bearer of the 1st Ukrainian Front. After the war In 1948 he graduated from the Frunze Military Academy. in 1949–1955 he acted as deputy commander of the 33rd Fighter Air Defense and commander of the 88th Fighter Aviation Corps in Rzhev. He was repeatedly passed-over for promotion, possibly because he was just too intelligent (or honest) for Stalin's comfort. Only after Stalin's death did he find himself back in favor and finally promoted to Air Marshal. In 1957 he graduated from the General Staff Academy. After graduation he served as Chief of Fighter Aircraft of the North Caucasian Military Defense. From 1959, he served in the 8th Independent Air Defense Army Air (Kiev), and from 1961 to 1968 acted as Commanding General of the 8th Army Air Defense and deputy commander of the Kiev Military District Air Defense Forces. In 1968 he became Deputy Chief of the Air Defense Forces. His highest position was as president of DOSAAF (1972–1981), a mostly civilian organization that was largely tasked with training young civilians and preparing them for service with the Air Force. Pokryshkin again found himself ostracized for his honesty. Despite strong pressure, he never wrote about or supported glorification of Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev's role in the battle of Kuban, where Brezhnev was a minor general. Pokryshkin died on 13 November 1985 at the age of 72, and was buried at Novodevichy Cemetery. In Novosibirsk, a street, a square, and a subway station are named in his honor. He wrote several books in Russian about his wartime experiences. He appeared in the documentary TV Series The Unknown War, in episode 9, entitled "War in the Air", and, at the beginning and end of the episode, he spoke to the host and narrator, Burt Lancaster. There are two Soviet-made documentaries about Alexander Pokryshkin: Pokryshkin in the Sky (1945), and Russian Ace Alexander Pokryshkin (1985). Aircraft flown by Pokryshkin Pokryshkin started the war flying the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-3 fighter, in which he scored almost twenty victories. The unit was given the honor "16th Guards Fighter Regiment" in March 1942. At this time or soon after, the unit received some Yak-1s, in which Pokryshkin also scored victories, but which are neither identified, nor illustrated, in any known way. In January 1943, his regiment converted to Lend-Lease Bell P-39 Airacobras. Soviet pilots liked this aircraft, and found it quite competitive with the Messerschmitt Bf 109 and superior to the Focke-Wulf Fw 190 at the low air combat altitudes common on the Eastern Front. Pokryshkin enjoyed the 37 mm cannon's destructive firepower, as well as the two upper nose-mounted .50 caliber machine guns, synchronized to fire through the propeller (airscrew), in addition to the pair of .30 caliber machine guns mounted in each wing. He claimed that the cannon's trigger, positioned at the top of the joystick, was impossible to push without moving the pilot's hand, which made the aircraft deviate from the gunsight, so finally he had his regiment's aircraft rigged so that a single button simultaneously fired cannon and machine guns. In his memoirs he describes many enemy aircraft immediately disintegrating upon being hit by a salvo. Pokryshkin and his regiment were repeatedly asked to convert to new Soviet fighters such as the La-5 and Yak-3. However, Pokryshkin found the Yak-3's firepower insufficient, and personally disliked Yakovlev, so the squadron remained with the P-39. Finally, in 1944, he found an aircraft that he deemed a worthy heir: the Lavochkin La-7. However, one of his close friends, Soviet ace Alexander Klubov, was killed in a landing mishap while converting to the La-7. The crash was blamed on the malfunction of the plane's hydraulic system. Pokryshkin subsequently cancelled his regiment's conversion, and there are multiple reports that they instead began flying the Bell P-63 Kingcobra. Through the Lend-Lease agreement with United States, the Soviet Union was not allowed to use P-63s against Germany; they were given only to be used in the eventual battle with Japan. Thus it is quite understandable that no mention of this appears in any official records. However, personal accounts of German pilots and flak crewmen include encounters with P-63s in the skies of eastern Prussia, and P-63 operations are mentioned in the memoirs of a pilot in Pokryshkin's squadron. It is reported that 9th Fighter Aviation Division was given approximately 36 P-63s but these were not used while the fighting was still in progress. The designations of MiG-3 aircraft used by Pokryshkin were, in the likeliest order of use, "7", "4", "01", "White-5" (with "GVARDIYA" on the intakes – likely dating to when the unit was awarded this designation), and finally "67". He then flew Yak-1 fighters when the unit partially re-equipped with them. He flew P-39K-1 "White-13" 42-4421 over the Kuban. He converted in late June to P-39N-0 42-9004 "White 100". "White 100" was damaged in August or September 1943. The only known photograph of 42-9004 dates from around this time: it shows the nose resting on a saw horse with the nose wheel main leg hyper-extended so the nose wheel rests on the ground. According to a VVS color scheme research website, 42-9004 was struck by inadvertent gunfire from a badly damaged Il-2 that had a rough landing, and on one of its last bounces the guns went off and, among other things, the gunfire struck, such as the aircrew dugout, hit the parked Airacobra. About this time Pokryshkin changed to P-39N-5 42-19158 (or possibly a different N-5). which was also designated "White-100". (This is according to the document for an award to an aircraft mechanic assigned to 42-19158, for keeping it airworthy and ready to fly combat missions for 100 flights in a row.) On 28 May 1943, Pokryshkin flew P-39D-2 41-38520 ("White-17") for a single mission. There is a photo of him post-mission bending to remove his parachute straps in front of the nose of 41-38520. In the famous photo taken of him using a stretch of German "autobahn" as a runway, he was flying a P-39Q-15 designated "White-50", with the serial number painted out (the same aircraft was originally assigned to K. V. Sukhov). He used five La-7 aircraft with the inscription, "From the Workers of Novosibirsk to Hero of the Soviet Union Alexander Ivanovich Pokhryshkin", but did not fly in them himself. A La-7-equipped unit was, in 1945, made a part of the 9th Guards Division, making it a four-regiment division. At one point in 1944, he was apparently given a La-5FN for his personal use, pending the hoped-for Lavochkin conversion of the entire unit. The unit apparently flew P-63A or C Kingcobras after the war, and Pokryshkin would have again numbered his aircraft "100". Finally, one or more of the 9th Guards Fighter Division units may have eventually converted to the Yak-9P before his attendance at the War College in 1948. After his appointment as DOSAAF director in the early 1950s, he had use of a MiG-15, and, later, of an Il-12 or Il-14. Final tally Pokryshkin's score is heavily disputed among historians. Overclaiming was not uncommon in World War II, and Pokryshkin's claims in his memoir are much higher than recent estimates by historians and official records, and recent estimates are generally lower than older estimates. In 1986 Oleg Levchenko claimed that Pokryshkin in fact shot down 94 enemy aircraft, damaged 19 and destroyed three more on the ground, and said that no less than 15 victories scored in 1941 were not taken into account, because the documents confirming them were destroyed during the hurried withdrawal from encirclement during the Battle of Uman. However, Levchenko's claims are generally disputed in 21st century estimates, which tend to place Pokryshkin's tally in the mid 40s. Thomas Polak and Christopher Shores credited him with 53 solo and 6 shared victories in their 1999 book, however the bibliography of the book cites Pokryshkin's memoirs instead of any official documents, and the tallies of several other aviators are heavily inflated to match the official Soviet claims. Russian historian Mikhail Bykov credited him with 43 individual and 3 shared victories in a 2014 book; a decade earlier, in an article titled Мутное Небо 1941 года ("The Murky Sky of 1941") with Aleksandr Rodionov he claimed that Pokryshkin tried to steal Rechkalov's kills during 1941. Andrey Simonov and Nikolai Bodrikhin credited him with 45 solo and 4 shared shootdowns in a 2017 book. Honours and awards Soviet awards Three times Hero of the Soviet Union (24 May 1943 – № 993, 24 August 1943 – II № 10, 19 August 1944 – III № 1) Six Orders of Lenin (22 December 1941 – № 7086; 24 May 1943 – № 9600; 24 August 1943 – № 124904; 21 October 1967 – № 344099; 21 February 1978 – № 429973; 5 March 1983 – № 400362) Order of the October Revolution (5 March 1973 – № 1793) Order of the Red Banner, four times (22 April 1943 – № 66983; 18 July 1943 – № 8305 / 2; 24 December 1943 – № 448 / 3; 20 April 1953 – № 1392 / 4) Order of Suvorov, 2nd class, twice (6 April 1945 – № 1484; 29 May 1945 – № 1662) Order of the Patriotic War, 1st class (11 March 1985 – № 537 850) Order of the Red Star, twice (6 November 1947 – № 2762070; 4 June 1955 – № 3341640) Order for Service to the Homeland in the Armed Forces of the USSR, 3rd class (30 April 1975 – № 0039) Medal for Combat Service (3 November 1944) Medal "For Development of the Virgin Lands" (5 November 1964) Medal "Veteran of the Armed Forces of the USSR" (30 April 1984) Medal "For Strengthening Military Cooperation" (31 May 1980) Campaign, jubilee and commemorative medals Honorary Citizen of: Novosibirsk, Mariupol and Bălți Novosibirsk airport Tolmachevo, russian:(Аэропо́рт Толмачёво)(IATA: OVB, ICAO: UNNT)(Ob, Russia) was named after him. Foreign awards Distinguished Service Medal (USA) Order of the People's Republic of Bulgaria, 1st class (Bulgaria) Order of Tudor Vladimirescu, 2nd and 3rd classes (Romania) Order of Karl Marx (East Germany) Silver Cross of the Virtuti Militari (Poland) Knight's Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta (Poland) Order of Sukhbaatar (Mongolia) Order of the Red Banner (Mongolia) References Bibliography External links Biography of Pokryshkin warheroes.ru Pokryshkin's tactics drawings Pokryshkin's tactics drawings (continued) Documentary series The Unknown War, hosted and narrated by Burt Lancaster Episode 9: "War in the Air", 1978. 1913 births 1985 deaths Military personnel from Novosibirsk People from Tomsk Governorate Candidates of the Central Committee of the 25th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Candidates of the Central Committee of the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Members of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union Russian aviators Russian people of World War II Soviet Air Force marshals Soviet World War II flying aces Heroes of the Soviet Union Foreign recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (United States) Recipients of the Virtuti Militari (1943–1989) Recipients of the Order of Polonia Restituta (1944–1989) Recipients of the Order of Lenin Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner Recipients of the Order "For Service to the Homeland in the Armed Forces of the USSR", 3rd class Recipients of the Order of Suvorov, 2nd class Recipients of the Silver Cross of the Virtuti Militari Knights of the Order of Polonia Restituta Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army) Frunze Military Academy alumni Military Academy of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Soviet Union alumni
401225	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20City%20on%20the%20Edge%20of%20Forever	The City on the Edge of Forever	"The City on the Edge of Forever" is the twenty-eighth and penultimate episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek. It was written by Harlan Ellison; contributors to and/or editors of the script included Steven W. Carabatsos, D. C. Fontana and Gene L. Coon. Gene Roddenberry made the final re-write. The episode was directed by Joseph Pevney and first aired on NBC on April 6, 1967, with a repeat broadcast on August 31, 1967. In the episode, Doctor Leonard McCoy (DeForest Kelley) accidentally overdoses himself with a dangerous drug. He transports himself down to a mysterious planet while not in his right mind and is pursued by a rescue party led by Captain Kirk (William Shatner) and Spock (Leonard Nimoy), who soon come across the Guardian of Forever, a sentient time portal. McCoy travels back in time while impaired and changes history to such an extent that the Federation of Planets no longer exists, and Kirk and Spock follow him to Depression-era New York City to attempt to fix the damage. While in the past, Kirk falls in love with Edith Keeler (Joan Collins), a soup kitchen operator who dreams of a future much like his own 23rd Century. However, he and Spock eventually realize that to save their timeline, they must allow Keeler to die. The episode received widespread critical acclaim and has been frequently stated to be the best episode of the entire Star Trek franchise. Elements such as the tragic ending were highlighted by several reviewers. It won several awards, including the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Episodic Drama on Television (Ellison, 1967) and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation (Ellison and Pevney, 1968). Plot While the USS Enterprise orbits a mysterious planet causing time distortions, Chief Medical Officer Leonard McCoy is treating an injured Lt. Sulu when the Enterprise is rocked by another time wave and McCoy accidentally injects himself with a huge dose of cordrazine, a dangerous drug. Driven into a mad frenzy, McCoy screams "Killers! Assassins! I won't let you!" and flees from the bridge and beams himself down to the planet. Captain James T. Kirk follows with a search party that includes first officer Mr. Spock, chief engineer Mr. Scott, and communications officer Lt. Uhura. On the planet's surface, they come across an ancient glowing ring which turns out to be a sentient object called the "Guardian of Forever", a portal capable of sending them to any time and place. The Guardian offers to send them back to Earth's past and plays a series of images of historical times which Spock records on his tricorder for research purposes. While the others are distracted, the still-frenzied Dr. McCoy bursts out from his hiding place and jumps through the portal. The landing party instantly loses contact with the Enterprise, and the Guardian explains that McCoy has altered the past to such an extent that the Enterprise and the reality they knew no longer exists. The Guardian says that it's possible to fix the damage, so Kirk requests that it replay the historical period it was showing when McCoy passed through. He and Spock attempt to jump through at a point in time just before McCoy's arrival and find themselves in New York City during the Great Depression. They steal clothes from a fire escape to blend in, and while fleeing from a policeman, hide in the basement of the 21st Street Mission. There they meet the soup kitchen's operator, Edith Keeler. She senses something odd about the intruders but nevertheless offers to pay them to clean up the basement and finds them a place to stay. Later, Spock attempts to discover how McCoy changed history by accessing the recordings on his tricorder. This is a difficult task using the available technology of 1930, which Spock likens to "stone knives and bear skins". While Spock works on the engineering problem, Kirk pays their expenses by doing odd jobs at the 21st Street Mission, where he falls in love with Keeler. Unknown to Kirk and Spock, McCoy finally arrives in a highly agitated state and stumbles into the mission, where Keeler nurses him back to health. Spock completes his work and discovers that Keeler was supposed to die in a traffic accident but was somehow saved by the arrival of McCoy, creating an altered timeline in which she founded a pacifist movement on the eve of World War II. It grew powerful enough to cause the United States to delay its entrance into the war, allowing Nazi Germany time to develop the first atomic bomb and use it to conquer the world. Kirk is shaken by this revelation and admits his love for Keeler, to which Spock responds that she must die to prevent millions of deaths and restore the future. While walking to a movie with Kirk the next evening, Keeler casually mentions McCoy. Shocked, Kirk tells her to stay right there while he runs to tell Spock the news. McCoy happens to emerge from the mission at the same time, and the trio reunite on the sidewalk. Observing this, Keeler begins to cross the street to join them and does not notice an oncoming truck. Kirk instinctively turns to save her, but a shout from Spock freezes him in his tracks, and Kirk grabs McCoy so he can't save her, either. Keeler is struck and killed, and a stunned McCoy asks Kirk if he knows what he just did. "He knows, doctor," replies Spock. "He knows." Kirk, Spock, and McCoy return through the Guardian and rejoin the landing party, where they find the Enterprise is restored. Mr. Scott is taken aback, explaining that for him and the rest of the landing party, Spock and Kirk had only left "a moment ago" even though the two spent several weeks in the past. A grim-looking Kirk ignores questions about what happened, and when the Guardian declares that "many such journeys are possible", he simply states, "Let's get the hell out of here," and the landing party beams up to the Enterprise. Production Writing The writing of this episode took over ten months, from the initial pitch by Harlan Ellison to the final re-write by Gene Roddenberry. Steven W. Carabatsos and D. C. Fontana, both story editors on the show, undertook re-writes of the teleplay, and changes have also been attributed to producer Gene L. Coon. The experience led to animosity between Ellison and Roddenberry for the rest of the latter's life, in particular over a claim by Roddenberry that Ellison had the character Scotty dealing drugs in one version of the script. The episode went over budget by more than $50,000 and overran the production schedule. Mistakes were made in the set design with an instruction for "runes" misconstrued as a request for "ruins". With Matt Jefferies ill, Rolland Brooks designed the set and the Guardian of Forever, to the surprise of Jefferies on his return. Initial pitch and outlines Harlan Ellison was one of the first writers recruited by Gene Roddenberry for Star Trek. Roddenberry was aiming to have the best science fiction writers produce scripts for the show, and had identified Ellison immediately; at the time, Ellison had been nominated for the 1965 Writers Guild of America Award for Outstanding Script for a Television Anthology with his script for The Outer Limits episode "Demon with a Glass Hand"; he went on to win. Rather than being assigned a pre-written premise, Ellison was allowed to develop his own and propose it in a 10-page outline. Ellison had read a biography of evangelist Aimee Semple McPherson, and thought that it would be an interesting idea to have Kirk travel back in time and fall in love with a similar woman of good intent, but someone who must die in order to preserve the future. Ellison considered that it would have a heartrending effect on Kirk. In March 1966, Ellison pitched the idea to Roddenberry, who accepted it. A week later, he turned in his first script treatment. Producer Robert H. Justman later recalled that he thought it was brilliant. When writing it, Ellison did not have as many restrictions as some of the later writers; he was hired prior to the series bible being created. The first version introduced Lieutenant Richard Beckwith, who is sentenced to death after he kills a fellow crewman when he is threatened with the exposure of his involvement in the illegal drug trade. Ellison had included this element, since he expected the starship to be like any other military unit, having at least some unlawful people. Beckwith is then escorted to the surface of a nearby planet alongside Kirk, with Spock to carry out the execution by firing squad. Because of the planet's atmosphere, they have to wear environmental suits. On arriving, they find an ancient civilization and the remains of a city — this was Ellison's "city on the edge of forever". It is inhabited by several men, the Guardians of Forever, who protect an ancient time machine. Kirk then asks to see the history of the United States on the machine, and as it reaches the Great Depression of the 1930s, Beckwith dives into the projection and vanishes. The guardians inform Kirk that history has been altered, and upon returning to the Enterprise, they discover that the vessel is now crewed by renegades. They fight their way back to the transporter room and return to the planet, where the Guardians allow Kirk and Spock to pursue Beckwith into the past. They are informed by the Guardians that Beckwith prevented the death of Edith Koestler, and as in the final version, Kirk falls in love with her; in this version, however, he does so knowing that she must die in the end. Emotionally, he cannot stop Beckwith from attempting to save Koestler – Spock has to do it. Roddenberry had asked for the ship specifically to be placed in danger, and so Ellison added the renegade element in response. Beckwith is captured but again escapes into the projection and ends up in an endless loop of an exploding Nova sun – he screams, and dies forever without end. Roddenberry disagreed with some of Kirk's actions in the first draft, and he asked Ellison to rewrite the treatment without pay. The redraft took a further five weeks, after which Roddenberry gave more notes and Ellison took another two weeks to respond. There were still plans to film the episode in the first half of the season at that point, as a version included Yeoman Janice Rand (Grace Lee Whitney). When a version was received on May 13, Roddenberry and the executives at Desilu and NBC were all relieved—there had been concerns over the amount of time taken, as scripts were being pitched, written, and approved in the time taken for Ellison to revise his outline. This version dropped the environmental suits due to cost, and rewrote the information given to Kirk by the Guardians, making it more general and less Earth-specific. It also changed Edith Koestler's surname to Keeler. However, the majority of the plot points were unchanged. Development of the teleplay Justman registered immediate concerns over the potential cost of attempting to film the treatment. He had particular concerns about a time portal effect, a scene involving a mammoth and the number of exterior and night shoots that would be required. Despite this, Roddenberry asked Ellison to turn it into a shooting script and set aside a desk for him in the assistant director's room, expecting him to attend the office every day until he finished it. Ellison ended up with a smaller office of his own at his request but disliked it sufficiently that he spent the majority of his time on set. He would play loud rock and roll music in the office, and then leave it for the set. On one occasion story editor John D. F. Black caught him on set during the filming of "Mudd's Women" and had him escorted back to the office. The music went on, and Black went back to tell Ellison to turn it down, but the writer had already climbed out the window and left. On other occasions, he worked late into the night and slept on the couch in Justman's office. As the delays added up, the slots assigned to "The City on the Edge of Forever" were reallocated to other episodes. Although this period was later claimed to be of various lengths, Ellison completed the first draft teleplay in three weeks, handing it to Justman on June 7. Black later said that Ellison always had "40 things going" in reference to him doing multiple assignments at once. In response, Ellison said that doing multiple assignments at the same time was simply how screenwriters earned a living in the 1960s. Justman's initial glee at receiving the script was short-lived. He realized quickly that it was unfilmable due to cost, and the characters were not behaving as per the writer's guide. One such exchange between Kirk and Spock had the Vulcan character accusing humans of being barbaric, while Kirk saying Spock was ungrateful because humans were more advanced than Vulcans. Justman thought it was a good script, but could never be re-written and filmed in time for the first season. Ellison was asked to revise it once more, with the problems blamed on requests from NBC, and submitted a further version a week later. The production team was starting to lose patience, as he was not revising it in accordance to their requests, and he began arguing with Justman over the budget difficulties. On August 15 Ellison turned in a second revised draft to Justman, titled "final draft" on the front cover. Justman wrote a memo immediately to fellow producer Gene L. Coon, saying that after five months, Ellison had failed to reduce the budget requirements for the episode to something that could be filmed. Roddenberry and Justman both spoke to Ellison, seeking further changes, but failed to convince him. William Shatner was sent to Ellison's house to try to get the writer to reconcile. He claimed he was shouted at and thrown off the property, but Ellison said that Shatner had read the script through while sitting on a couch and had left to tell Roddenberry that he liked it. Ellison suggested that Shatner had a personal interest in having the script revised because Leonard Nimoy had more lines than he did in Ellison's version, and had spent the time on the couch counting lines. Meanwhile, Steve Carabatsos replaced Black as story editor on the show and was told by Coon to fix the script. Carabatsos replaced the new characters with an accident involving McCoy and an overdose of adrenalin and removed the Guardians of Forever, replacing them with a time travel portal. Ellison subsequently accused him of "taking a chainsaw" to the script. Roddenberry disliked the new version sufficiently that he convinced Ellison to come back and rewrite it again. On December 19 Ellison submitted a further revised teleplay, dated December 1. Justman suggested in a memo that Roddenberry might be able to rewrite the latest version to one that could be usable. He said that although it was a "fine story" and Ellison was an "extremely talented writer", he felt that it needed to be either rewritten by someone else or scrapped altogether. Taking this advice in hand, Roddenberry rewrote the script over the Christmas–New Year period, handing in a new version on January 9, 1967. His changes included the elimination of the evil version of the Enterprise and the addition of some comedy elements. Justman was pleased with Roddenberry's changes and told Coon that it was close to being filmable but that he still expected it to exceed the budget for a single episode. Dorothy Fontana was hired as a new story editor, replacing Carabatsos. She had previously been Roddenberry's secretary and was well aware of the script's problems from reading the previous versions. When she arrived at work for her first day in her new role, Roddenberry gave her a copy of his revision and told her to try rewriting it. She later referred to that day as "walking into a hornets' nest", and the script itself as a "live grenade". Among the changes in her version was the introduction of the drug cordrazine. Ellison specifically criticized this change, as his most recent version of the script called for an alien creature's venom to cause the symptoms in McCoy. He said that "Gene [Roddenberry] preferred having an accomplished surgeon act in such a boneheaded manner that he injects himself with a deadly drug!" Justman praised Fontana's version, saying that it was the version that was most likely to be shot. But he suggested that it had now lost the "beauty and mystery inherent in the screenplay as Harlan originally wrote it". He said that he felt bad, because if he had not seen Ellison's earlier versions then he would probably have been "thrilled" with Fontana's version. Still unsatisfied with the script, Roddenberry set about rewriting it once more, titling the result, dated February 1, the final draft. Ellison later called elements of the dialogue in this version "precisely the kind of dopey Utopian bullshit that Roddenberry loved", and added that Roddenberry had "about as much writing ability as the lowest industry hack". Shatner later came to believe that it was actually re-written by Gene L. Coon and only supervised by Roddenberry. Ellison requested via his agent that he be credited on the script only as Cordwainer Bird. In response, Roddenberry threatened to have Ellison blacklisted by the Writers Guild of America, and the writer was eventually convinced to be credited by name. None of the other writers involved in the work chose to seek credit for the script, since they agreed with Roddenberry that it was important for Star Trek to be associated with writers such as Ellison. Direction and casting Joseph Pevney was assigned as the director of this episode. He had previous experience in directing full-length films, and later explained that "The City on the Edge of Forever" was the closest episode in Star Trek to that same level of work and challenge, stating that he treated it as a film. But he was critical of Ellison's version of the script, saying that he "had no sense of theater" and it was fortunate that Roddenberry re-wrote it. He praised Ellison's level of detail in the 1930s setting, and for the general idea behind the episode. The crew were surprised when actress Joan Collins expressed an interest in appearing in the series. After her agent asked her if she wanted to appear on the show, Collins, who had never heard of it, mentioned it to her children. When her oldest daughter was enthusiastic about the show, Collins decided to accept the offer from the studio. Casting director Joe D'Agosta called her a "notorious actress", but said that at the time they saw approaches from a wide range of actors and actresses who wanted to appear on the series. Pevney said "Joan Collins was very good in it. She enjoyed working on the show and Bill and Leonard were both very good to her.... Using her was a good choice." Collins later incorrectly recalled Keeler as a Nazi sympathiser, an error that has been repeated in biographies of the actress. Ellison said in response that this was not an intended character trait. John Harmon appeared as a hobo in "The City on the Edge of Forever" and returned in a more prominent role in "A Piece of the Action". Although some sources have credited the voice of the Guardian to James Doohan, it was actually performed by Bartell LaRue. The actor later appeared onscreen in the episode "Bread and Circuses", and provided further voiceover work in "The Gamesters of Triskelion", "Patterns of Force" and "The Savage Curtain". Also returning to Star Trek in this episode were David L. Ross as Lt. Galloway and John Winston as Lt. Kyle. Filming and post production Filming began on February 3, 1967, with an expectation that it would take six days to film. The shoot was completed a day and a half behind schedule on February 14. The overall cost was $245,316, compared to the budget of $191,000 for this episode. The normal budget for episodes during the first season were $185,000. Roddenberry later claimed that around $257,000 was spent on the episode, and said that he could have saved a further $20,000 if he had not insisted on high-quality casting and sets. He also claimed that the original Ellison version would have cost a further $200,000 on top of what was already spent. The shoot began on location at the Desilu Forty Acres, with Pevney aiming to complete all the location filming in a single day in order to complete the episode in the allocated six days. The site had been used previously for the episodes "Miri" and "The Return of the Archons". None of the producers expected him to do so, but with the series already $74,507 in the red and with two more episodes left to film, Desilu had to appear to NBC to be trying to keep to budget. Extensive work was completed during the daylight hours, on the set that had been used for other series such as The Andy Griffith Show, with Floyd's barbershop appearing in some of the shots. The filming continued into the night, and with Pevney running out of time, he was not sure when to stop. The problem was that other series such as Rango and Gomer Pyle had the sets booked up for the next several days, and they were unsure whether they would have time to return and film the missing scenes. After a weekend break, filming resumed on the Desilu Gower Street sets, where My Three Sons was normally shot. These were used to represent the interior of the mission where Keeler nurses McCoy back to health. DeForest Kelley felt that McCoy should also fall for Keeler; so Pevney shot the scenes with that element included but never included it in the final cut. The following two days were spent on the same sets, while on day 5 the action moved to the bridge set for the Enterprise. This day's shoot was meant to include scenes in the transporter room and in the Enterprise corridors, but by now the production was a full day behind and these were pushed to the following day. Partway through day 6, the filming moved to a neighboring set for the exterior ruin shots and the Guardian of Forever, which was used for the next two and a half days. The montage of historical footage was all taken from the Paramount film library, as was the footage of the Brooklyn Bridge. Harlan Ellison long maintained that the ancient ruins were the result of someone's misreading his description in the script of the city as "covered with runes". When informed that the word "runes" did not appear in any version of his treatments or script (or any rewrites), Ellison responded in Edge Words, the letter column of IDW's comic book adaptation of his original script, by admitting that his memory was faulty and that he actually told Matt Jefferies that the set should appear "Ancient, incredibly ancient, with runes everywhere..." He surmises that he perhaps slurred the word "runes" and Jefferies misheard him. Music There are a number of musical pieces reused from earlier episodes in "The City on the Edge of Forever", including sufficient use of the scores from "The Cage", "Where No Man Has Gone Before" and "The Naked Time" that Alexander Courage received an "additional music by" credit. Further pieces came from "Shore Leave", "Charlie X" and "The Enemy Within". A partial score was created by Fred Steiner, his final work of the first season. His work on Star Trek tended to focus on the use of violins and cellos to highlight romantic moments, and he did not use violas in any of his works on the series. This episode originally featured the 1931 song "Goodnight Sweetheart", which was originally composed by Ray Noble with lyrics by Jimmy Campbell and Reg Connelly. For the version used in the episode, the lyrics were recorded by an unknown session musician. It had been licensed to appear in the episode, and at first, Steiner sought to use motifs from "Goodnight, Sweetheart" as the basis of his score. He wanted this to be subtle and introduce the melody of the song over time, but Justman realized what Steiner was attempting and rejected it on the basis that he did not want the song introduced too early in the episode. Another work of Steiner's that was rejected for "The City on the Edge of Forever" was an alternative main title track using saxophone and celesta, which he had hoped would set the episode in the tone of the 1930s. The music recorded specifically for "The City on the Edge of Forever" was recorded in stereo, which was unusual for the series. This was rediscovered when a 15-disc soundtrack of The Original Series was being compiled by La-La Land Records, which they hypothesized was because the accompanying vocals appeared on a separate track. By the time "The City on the Edge of Forever" was released in the 1980s for home media use, such as on VHS and Laserdisc, the license for the use of "Goodnight, Sweetheart" had lapsed and was instead picked up by a different studio. A new score was composed to replace the song where it was used in the episode; however, the new pieces did not match the existing Steiner works as they used a different orchestral arrangement. Steiner was not contacted or informed of the changes to the soundtrack requirements, and this was instead composed by J. Peter Robinson. The original intention was not to restore "Goodnight, Sweetheart" to the DVD release, and issue the DVD with a disclaimer on the box, "Some music has been changed for this DVD." However, the original "Goodnight, Sweetheart" portion was erroneously included and Paramount reportedly had to pay royalties. Since the royalties had been paid, all subsequent releases have included the original "Goodnight, Sweetheart" music and with the 1980s scores omitted. Reception Broadcast "The City on the Edge of Forever" was first broadcast in the United States on April 6, 1967, on NBC. A 12-city overnight Trendex report compiled by Nielsen ratings showed that during the first half-hour, it held second place in the ratings behind Bewitched on ABC with 11.64 million viewers compared to Bewitcheds 15.04 million. The episode beat My Three Sons on CBS. During the second half-hour it remained in second place with 28.4 percent of the audience share, behind the 32.1 percent for Love on a Rooftop, also on ABC. A high-definition remastering of "The City on the Edge of Forever", which introduced new special effects and starship exteriors as well as enhanced music and audio, was shown for the first time on October 7, 2006, in broadcast syndication in the United States. It was the fifth remastered episode to be shown. This meant that the episode was made available to over 200 local stations across the United States with the rights to broadcast Star Trek, and depending on the station it was broadcast either on October 7 or 8. Cast and crew response This episode has been held in high regard by those who have worked on Star Trek. Roddenberry ranked it as one of his 10 favorite episodes, and said it was his favorite alongside "The Menagerie" and the second pilot, "Where No Man Has Gone Before". In the final interview before he died, he said it was his favorite outright. Fontana said it was one of her two favorite episodes that she was not credited for, along with "The Trouble with Tribbles". Members of the main cast have also said it was among their favorites. Shatner has often chosen either this or "The Devil in the Dark" as the best episode, saying, "'City' is my favorite of the original Star Trek series because of the fact it is a beautiful love story, well told." Nimoy described it as one of his favorites, along with "The Devil in the Dark", "Amok Time", "Journey to Babel", "This Side of Paradise" and "The Naked Time". In his 1995 book, I Am Spock, Nimoy said that episodes such as "The City on the Edge of Forever" and "Amok Time" were "just as powerful and meaningful to today's audiences as they were to viewers back in the 1960s". Kelley said it was his favorite, adding, "I thought it was one of the most dramatic endings ever seen on a television show." Karl Urban, who plays McCoy in the 2009 Star Trek and the sequels, said that "The City on the Edge of Forever" was one of his favorite episodes along with "The Corbomite Maneuver", "Amok Time" and "Arena". Critical acclaim "The City on the Edge of Forever" has been frequently cited as the best episode of all the Star Trek series and movies. In a preview of the episode in the Albuquerque Journal, it was said to be a "surprise variation of the 'time tunnel' theme" and was described as "an absorbing tale, a bit hard to take at times, but imaginative nonetheless". After Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home, in which time travel was an integral part of the plot, was released in 1986, Luis Aguilar of The Washington Post said that "The City on the Edge of Forever" was superior to the film, calling it a "brilliant, beautifully executed story". For the franchise's 30th anniversary, it was ranked as the best Star Trek episode. "The City on the Edge of Forever" has placed highly in many "best of" lists of Star Trek episodes. In a special edition of Entertainment Weekly during the fall of 1994, "The City on the Edge of Forever" was ranked number one in a comprehensive listing of all 79 episodes. The article described the episode as "Cosmic themes, effective acting, and a heart-wrenching ending makes this the undisputed Uber-Trek". 2000s onwards In their 2003 book, Beyond the Final Frontier: An Unauthorised Review of Star Trek, Mark Jones and Lance Parkin described "The City on the Edge of Forever" as "Rightly regarded as the highlight of original Star Trek" and the "epitome of what Star Trek does best". They said that having Kirk allow Keeler to die was "horrifying and heart-rending, adding another dimension to his character". Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave the episode an 'A' rating in 2009, describing it as "a justly revered classic". But he said that McCoy's accidental overdose was a "stretch" and gave the episode "a surprisingly awkward start, with little indication of the greatness that is to follow". He called the ending "brutal" and praised the conundrum that Kirk is placed in, faced with the death of Keeler. Handlen suggested that it would have made a better final episode of the season, instead of "Operation: Annihilate". Also in 2009, it was reviewed by Torie Atkinson and Eugene Myers for Tor.com, where they gave it a rating of six out of six. They were concerned that the episode might not live up to the memory when they re-watched it, but said "it remains an incredible episode, often imitated but rarely surpassed in science fiction in any medium." They said that both the tragic and comedic moments helped to balance the episode, and said that the ending was abrupt but fitting because of the change in Kirk despite the Guardian's announcement of "all is as it was before". Keith DeCandido gave the episode a rating of ten out of ten when he reviewed it for Tor.com in 2015. He said that the episode centered on people, which he saw as a common theme among the great episodes of Star Trek. DeCandido supported the view of Spock, that while Keeler's compassionate nature was to be applauded, it was at the wrong time and as war with Nazi Germany was the only way. Darren Franich compared "The City on the Edge of Forever" to the 12 Monkeys television series in 2015, calling the episode "one of the great episodes of television". However, he criticised it as well, saying "complete crock of pseudo-scientific claptrap. It's wacky like only old science-fiction is wacky – and it's slow like only old television is slow." He listed nine "leaps of narrative logic" that a viewer must overcome to accept the plot. But he felt that it was fearless in comparison to modern science fiction, in that there was no attempt to make it self-aware, nor introduce a comedic character to ground it. Franich said that the ending was "one of the all-time great moments in Star Trek history". IGN ranked it as number one out of their "Top 10 Classic Star Trek Episodes" in 2009. It said "This beautiful story poignantly establishes the maxim later explored in Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan: the needs of the many outweigh the needs of the few, or the one. Kirk's reaction before beaming up at the end of the episode is one of William Shatner's most moving moments in all of Trek." In the Radio Times, David Brown listed it as the second best episode for non-Star Trek fans to watch on Netflix in 2016, calling it a "tragic Back to the Future" and that "seeing as the bulk of the drama takes place during the depression of the 1930s, there's not much in the way of sci-fi gubbins to confuse a newcomer". Jeremy Fuster at Yahoo! TV included it on a list of ten episodes to watch prior to the launch of the 2017 television series, calling it "one of the most heartbreaking episodes" of the series. In 2009, while writing for Time Magazine, John Cloud rated "The City on the Edge of Forever " as one of the top ten moments of Star Trek overall including films up to that time. Cloud noted "The City on the Edge of Forever" as "a tightly wound episode that sets the standard for time-travel sci-fi". Specific elements of the episode led to other rankings, such as Comic Book Resources (CBR) placing it as the tenth-best romantic relationship of the Star Trek franchise up to that time, between Kirk and Edith Keeler. In a listing of the best time-travel episode of all Star Trek series by CBR, it was placed first; it was placed in the same position on a similar list by Nerdist. The episode remained popular throughout the 2010s, with British Magazine SciFiNow ranking it as the best episode of The Original Series in 2010. The A.V. Club called it one of the top ten "must see" episodes in 2012, as did Newsweek in 2016. It was named as one of the 25 essential episodes of the franchise by Vox in 2016. In 2017, Business Insider ranked "The City on the Edge of Forever" the second best episode of the original series; as did PopMatters a year later. Awards Harlan Ellison's original version of the teleplay won the annual Writers Guild of America Award for Best Episodic Drama on Television. Justman later said that the submission of the original unfilmed version was out of spite, and Roddenberry said in response to the victory "many people would get prizes if they wrote scripts that budgeted out to three times the show's cost." The WGA rules allow only the credited writers to submit scripts for consideration, who may submit whichever draft of theirs that they may choose. It was up against another Star Trek episode, nominated by the production team; "The Return of the Archons". Coon reportedly said at the time: "If Harlan wins, I'm going to die", and that "there are two scripts up tonight for the Writers' Guild Award, and I wrote them both." On that night, Roddenberry and several of the crew were seated at a table that Desilu had purchased, while Ellison was at another. When he won, the Star Trek party rose to their feet and applauded, since they believed it would bring credibility to the series. Herbert Franklin Solow later recalled that this elation turned to horror when Ellison began talking about the interference of studio executives in the writing process, before holding aloft a copy of the original script and yelling "Remember, never let them rewrite you!" Ellison walked past the Desilu table as he left the podium, and shook the copy of the script at Roddenberry and his party. When Glen A. Larson claimed that it was Coon who had rewritten the original script and it was this version that was submitted to the Writer's Guild, Ellison said that "pandas will fly out of Glen Larson's ass!". He explained that as the credited writer, he had the option of which version of the script to submit to the Guild. A further claim was made by writer Don Ingalls, who said that Ellison had admitted in a drunken stupor to him late one night in a bar that he had tidied up and improved the script further prior to submitting it; this was then published in Justman and Solow's Inside Star Trek: The Real Story. Ellison repudiated Ingalls' claim, pointing out that he never drank since he did not like the taste and had never been drunk and so this could not have occurred. Upon being informed, Solow promised to add a note refuting the claim in a future paperback edition, but then decided to agree with Ingalls' version of the story. "The City on the Edge of Forever" was awarded the Hugo Award in 1968 for the "Best Dramatic Presentation" at that year's World Science Fiction Convention. This was based on the filmed version, and not Ellison's original. But since the script remained credited to Ellison, he won the award once more. It was 25 years before another "Star Trek" television program won that award again, the next occasion being for the episode "The Inner Light" from Star Trek: The Next Generation. Roddenberry later claimed that he was present at the Hugo Awards, and said that Ellison rushed past him up onto the stage. However, he was not present. Ellison remarked afterwards when talking about the Hugo win for the filmed version of the script, "I would like to be arrogant enough to think that the script was so good that even butchering it couldn't hurt it" and that compared to the other episodes of Star Trek that it was "a pretty good show". Roddenberry claimed, in response to Ellison's awards wins for the episode, that he had won a Nebula Award for his work on it. However, this was untrue, and the Dramatic Presentation category was not created until 1974. Home media release and other adaptations The first adaptation of "The City on the Edge of Forever" was as a re-working into a short story by author James Blish in the novel Star Trek 2. He attempted to combine elements of both the televised version with aspects of Ellison's original version after being sent a copy of the original script by Ellison. The front cover of the British release of the book featured the Guardian of Forever. This was republished in 2016 alongside the Blish short stories of 44 other episodes in a single volume as Star Trek: The Classic Episodes. The first home media release of "The City on the Edge of Forever" was on Compact Cassette from Startone productions in 1982. A LaserDisc of the episode, alongside "The Alternative Factor" was released in 1985. Further releases of all episodes of the series were made on VHS and Betamax. "The City on the Edge of Forever" was released on DVD paired with "Errand of Mercy" as part of the general release of the series in 2000, and as part of the season one DVD set in 2004. The episode was included in the remastered season one release on DVD and Blu-ray in 2009. The remastered version included revamped and expanded special effects by CBS Digital under the guidance of Dave Rossi, as well as Mike and Denise Okuda. Changes included an expanded field of ruins on the Guardian's planet, as well as updated visuals of the planet from space. Rossi explained that they sought to tie the purple cloth backdrop used in the original version into the redesign, but was concerned that the "giant purplish desert flats" as seen from space were instead misconstrued as oceans. "The City on the Edge of Forever" was also featured in several DVD sets featuring compilations of episodes, including the Star Trek: Fan Collective: Captain's Log, as selected by Shatner, and Captain Kirk's Boldest Missions in 2015. Legacy Ellison–Roddenberry feud During the period in which the script was being developed, Roddenberry asked Ellison for his help in saving the show. In response, Ellison agreed with other science fiction writers, including Richard Matheson, Theodore Sturgeon and Frank Herbert to form "The Committee". Ellison wrote on their behalf to the combined membership of the recent World Science Fiction Convention to ask them to write in to NBC to save the show. Shatner later credited Ellison for saving the show during the first season. But after the work was completed on the episode, Roddenberry and Ellison did not speak for several years. Ellison said he felt used, while Roddenberry said he was being unfair and had unjustly condemned the episode, loudly and in public. Ellison sold copies of his original script at conventions, while Roddenberry's Lincoln Enterprises sold the filmed version. In 1975, Ellison copyrighted the version of the first draft script as it was returned to him with notes, which was then published in Six Science Fiction Plays by Simon & Schuster. By this time, he and Roddenberry had taken conciliatory steps toward each other, and he was invited to pitch a story idea for a late 1970s Star Trek film, despite calling Star Trek "dead" in an interview with The Washington Post when the film project was first announced. This did not last. Roddenberry claimed in an interview with Video Review magazine that Ellison wrote into the script that he had Scotty dealing drugs and when asked to remove it, Ellison claimed that Roddenberry had "sold out". At no point in any of the versions of the outlines or scripts did Scotty deal or take drugs. Roddenberry repeated this claim around the same period in 1987, including to Ben Harnson in an interview for Cinefantastique magazine, and on the convention lecture circuit. Two issues later, writer Alan Brennert wrote into the letters page of Video Review asserting that Scotty had never sold drugs in any version of the script. In response, Roddenberry wrote to Brennert, dated March 25, 1987, and admitted to mistakenly attributing the drug dealing to Scotty. Despite this, other publications have repeated the incorrect claim by Roddenberry. Roddenberry also claimed to have created the Edith Keeler character and based her on his father, a police officer, in an interview with Humanist magazine in March 1991. Until approached by TV Guide in December 1994, Ellison did not discuss the issues with the episode in print other than the introduction in Six Science Fiction Plays. He was reluctant to discuss it for the magazine, and to make them go away, asked for a sum of money he believed was five times more than the magazine had ever paid for an interview. To his surprise, the magazine agreed. So he wrote the article, which immediately generated a backlash from Star Trek fans. In his 1996 book, Harlan Ellison's The City on the Edge of Forever, Ellison claimed to have never received more than a "pittance" from working on the episode. He said "every thug and studio putz and semi-literate bandwagon-jumper and merchandiser has grown fat as a maggot in a corpse off what I created." He said that was the reason why he wrote the book. On March 13, 2009, Ellison filed a lawsuit against CBS Television Studios, seeking 25% of net receipts from merchandising, publishing and other income from the episode since 1967; the suit also named the Writers Guild of America for repeatedly failing to act on Ellison's behalf on the matter. In a press statement, Ellison said, "It ain't about the 'principle,' friend, it's about the money! Pay me! I'm doing it for the 35-year-long disrespect and the money!" On October 22, 2009, the lawsuit was settled with Ellison claiming he was satisfied with the outcome. Guardian of Forever The Guardian of Forever, the time portal portrayed in the original series episode, is an irregular ring (or torus) shaped structure around wide. The Guardian's next on-screen appearance was in the Star Trek: The Animated Series episode "Yesteryear" (1973), in which the Guardian's voice was provided by James Doohan (who portrays Chief Engineer Montgomery Scott). A return for the Guardian in The Next Generation was proposed by Trent Christopher Ganino and Eric A. Stillwell during the writing of the episode "Yesterday's Enterprise". This would have seen a team of Vulcan scientists led by Sarek studying the Guardian, and accidentally travelling back in time to the history of their planet where they cause the death of Surak, the founder of Vulcan logic. After they return, they discover that their people had allied with the Romulans and were at war with the Federation. In response, Sarek elects to return to the past and take on the role of Surak to restore the timeline. Producer Michael Piller wanted the plot to be centered on the cast of The Next Generation, so Sarek and the Guardian were dropped from the story. The Guardian returned in the third season of Star Trek: Discovery in the two-part story "Terra Firma" episodes 9–10. In those episodes, the Guardian has relocated itself to another planet, Dannus V, to prevent itself from being weaponized in the Temporal Wars. It also has the ability to project a humanoid avatar, named Carl (Paul Guilfoyle), which it uses to hide its true nature until it trusts any individuals that encounter it. The Guardian tests Philippa Georgiou before sending her back to a time that she can survive in. Non-canonical novels and short stories The Guardian of Forever has also appeared in several Star Trek novels. The first appearance was in Star Trek: The New Voyages, a 1976 compilation of short stories that was the first anthology of Star Trek fiction. The short story "Mind Sifter" by Shirley S. Maiewski saw Captain Kirk stranded on 1950s Earth in a mental hospital, having been abducted by Kor, subjected to a Klingon mind sifter, and transported through the Guardian of Forever. In A.C. Crispin's 1983 novel Yesterday's Son, the Guardian is used by Kirk, Spock and McCoy to visit Sarpeidon in the past from the episode "All Our Yesterdays". There they discover that the subject of Spock's romantic liaison, Zarabeth, had died years before but she had given birth to his son, Zar. An audio recording by Nimoy and George Takei was subsequently released. After the success of the book, Crispin was asked to write a sequel, Time for Yesterday in 1988, in which the Guardian is malfunctioning and the Enterprise crew must seek the help of Zar to communicate and repair it. Peter David decided to base his 1992 novel Imzadi on the same premise as the end of Ellison's version of "The City on the Edge of Forever", except in this case it was William Riker who went back in time using the Guardian deliberately to save the life of Deanna Troi. He felt that if Ellison was not allowed to use the idea in the episode, he could instead feature the premise in a novel. The Guardian was also central to the plot of Judith and Garfield Reeves-Stevens' 1994 novel Federation as it recites three historical events to Captain Kirk. Brett Hudgins short story Guardians was featured in the seventh volume of Star Trek: Strange New Worlds in 2004, an annually published work of fan stories. In the story, the Horta from "The Devil in the Dark" colonise the Guardian's "Time Planet" and end up acting as its protectors for the following generations over the following 50,000 years. David R. George III decided to include the Guardian and spin-off from events in "The City on the Edge of Forever" in his 2006 trilogy, "Crucible." In Provenance of Shadows, the installment of the trilogy based on McCoy, part of the book is based in the reality where McCoy is trapped in the past and no-one comes to rescue him. The events of "The City on the Edge of Forever" are also recounted in the fictional The Autobiography of James T. Kirk by David A. Goodman; the author said that the effects of the episode and the loss of Keeler would affect Kirk for a long time and may have been why the character never entered into a serious ongoing relationship. Non-canonical comics and computer games In the Gold Key Comics Star Trek line, the Guardian of Forever appeared in the story "No Time Like the Past" by George Kashdan and Al McWilliams and appearing in issue 56, published October 1978. Kirk, Spock and McCoy must correct history after another traveller uses the Guardian to travel to the second century BC, and they confront both Hannibal and the Romans. In the second volume of DC Comics run of Star Trek comics, the Guardian appears in issues 53 through 57 within the story "Timecrime" by Howard Weinstein, Rod Whigham, Rob Davis, and Arne Starr. IDW Publishing published Ellison's script as a comic book under the title of Star Trek: Harlan Ellison's Original The City On The Edge Of Forever Teleplay in 2014. Chief Creative Officer and Editor-in-Chief Chris Ryall said "Presenting Harlan Ellison's brilliant original script for 'City on the Edge' has been a goal of ours since IDW first began publishing Star Trek comics in 2007". Ellison worked alongside IDW on the comic, with artwork by J.K. Woodward and additional writing by Scott Tipton and David Tipton. Ellison said of the format, "To read a graphic novel is to engage your imagination is to engage all five of your senses and to picture what the creator dreamed. And that's what this book does for me." A reprint collection was released in 2015 (ISBN 978-1631402067). In the massively multiplayer online role-playing game Star Trek Online, the mission "City on the Edge of Never" involved the player character using the Guardian to travel through time to 2270 to stop Klingons intent on altering history. The episode features the USS Kirk, and has the Guardian projecting a time portal into space, allowing the player to take their vessel through to the past. It featured voice acting by Nimoy and was well received by reviewers with Kotaku writer Mike Fahey saying "This mission might have just made the entire game for me. Everything about it was simply perfect. If Star Trek Online fails for some reason, this mission will always be remembered. The mission as it was is no longer available." "Let's get the hell out of here," Nazis, and other influences Kirk's final line in the episode, "Let's get the hell out of here," caused problems for the crew as the network did not want the word "hell" to appear in television episodes. Both Shatner and Roddenberry fought for the line to remain, with Roddenberry claiming to NBC that no other word would be suitable to be used instead. The studio executives agreed that it could be left in, and it was one of the first occasions in which the word "hell" was used as profanity on television. The episode was also the first time that the Nazis were mentioned in Star Trek. They featured more prominently in the second-season episode "Patterns of Force" as well as a pair of two-part episodes, one each from other Trek franchises: one from Star Trek: Voyager as "The Killing Game" and the other from Star Trek: Enterprise as "Storm Front". When a Star Trek film was being developed in the late 1970s, one of the ideas proposed by Roddenberry was to have the crew travel back to the 1960s and prevent the assassination of John F. Kennedy. This idea was based on "The City on the Edge of Forever", due to the episode's popularity among fans by that time. The episode was also suggested by Robert F. Moss in The New York Times as later influencing the plot of Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home. When Nimoy met Harve Bennett to discuss proposed plots for the film, it was Bennett's love of "The City on the Edge of Forever" that led to him suggesting that they should include a time travel element in the film. This led to the duo discussing the potential plot with Ellison. A reference to "The City on the Edge of Forever" was included in the two-part Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "Past Tense", with a boxing poster appearing in a scene set in the 1930s featuring Kid McCook and Mike Mason. There was a similar poster advertising a match at Madison Square Garden in "The City on the Edge of Forever", while the one in "Past Tense" stated that it was a rematch in San Francisco. See also Men Behaving Badly series 6, episode 4 revolves around its characters watching, commenting on, and reacting to this episode. Hypothetical Axis victory in World War II Annotations Notes References External links Guardian of Forever at MemoryBeta (the Star Trek wiki for licensed works) 1967 American television episodes Alternate history television episodes Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation winning works Star Trek: The Original Series (season 1) episodes Star Trek time travel episodes Television episodes set during the Great Depression Television episodes written by Harlan Ellison Television episodes about World War II alternate histories Fiction set in 1930 Television episodes set in New York City Television episodes directed by Joseph Pevney
401278	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Trouble%20with%20Tribbles	The Trouble with Tribbles	"The Trouble with Tribbles" is the fifteenth episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek. Written by David Gerrold and directed by Joseph Pevney, it was first broadcast on December 29, 1967. In this comic episode, the starship Enterprise visits a space station that soon becomes overwhelmed by rapidly reproducing small furry creatures called "tribbles." It is claimed the short story "Pigs Is Pigs" by Ellis Parker Butler inspired the episode, but strong similarities to sections of the novel The Rolling Stones led the producers to seek a waiver from author Robert A. Heinlein. The original episode has had several produced follow-ups. The first, "More Tribbles, More Troubles", was originally pitched for the show's third season but not accepted; it was ultimately produced for Star Trek: The Animated Series. To celebrate the 30th anniversary of Star Trek in 1996, the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "Trials and Tribble-ations" used digital techniques to insert the Deep Space Nine actors into the events of "The Trouble with Tribbles". Plot The Enterprise is summoned to Deep Space Station K7 by undersecretary Nilz Baris to guard a shipment of quadrotriticale grain. Captain James Kirk is annoyed at Baris's use of a high-priority distress call for a seemingly trivial matter, and complies minimally. The Enterprise crew enjoy shore leave on the station, as does the crew of a Klingon ship under the command of Captain Koloth. Interstellar trader Cyrano Jones arrives with goods for sale, among them purring balls of fluff called tribbles. He gives one to Lt. Uhura, who brings it onboard the Enterprise. On both the Enterprise and the station, the tribbles begin reproducing rapidly. They make soothing cooing noises and are loved by the Enterprise crew, even the stoic Spock. However, tribbles jump and screech in disgust when around Klingons. On the station, a drunken Klingon insults the Enterprise, her crew, and her captain. The resulting brawl between humans and Klingons forces Kirk to cancel shore leave. Baris is terrified of possible Klingon interference with the grain project, and suspects Jones of being a Klingon agent. Doctor Leonard McCoy and Spock are concerned that the increasing number of tribbles threatens to consume all the food aboard the Enterprise. Kirk realizes that the tribbles on the station could be a threat to the grain shipment. He is too late, however; when he opens an overhead storage compartment, he is buried chest-deep in grain-gorged tribbles. Spock and McCoy discover that many of the tribbles in the hold are dead or dying, suggesting the grain has been poisoned. Infuriated, Baris vows to see Kirk punished for the fiasco, while an equally outraged Koloth demands an apology from Kirk for what he considers disrespectful treatment of his crew. Their arguments are cut short, however, when Baris's assistant Arne Darvin walks into the room and the tribbles react as if in the presence of a Klingon. McCoy reveals Darvin to be a Klingon disguised as a human; Darvin confesses to having poisoned the grain. Jones is ordered to remove the tribbles from the station (a task that Spock estimates will take 17.9 years), or he may face charges for transporting dangerous life-forms. Just before the Klingons depart, all the tribbles aboard the Enterprise are transported onto the Klingon vessel by Chief Engineer Scott, where, in his words, "they'll be no tribble at all." Production Writing The episode was the first professional work of writer David Gerrold, and went through a variety of drafts before it reached the screen. Because his typewriter used a less common, smaller size font, an approved screenplay version needed to be reduced by twenty pages before filming. Gerrold had been a fan of science fiction since he was a child. When Star Trek was first broadcast, he was concerned that it might turn into something similar to Lost in Space, which he has described as "one full-color hour of trash reaching into millions of homes". His first story outline was sent in to Star Trek after his agent suggested that he wait until the shows started to air under the theory that the show might drop an existing episode in favor of a better script. The story was entitled "Tomorrow Was Yesterday" (not to be confused with the Star Trek episode "Tomorrow Is Yesterday") and concerned the Enterprise coming across a generation ship which had degenerated into a two-tier class system. His agent received a rejection letter from producer Gene L. Coon dated October 3, 1966. The letter stated that the "outline was by no means inadequate. It is, as a matter of fact, very adequate." It went on to say that it would require a budget larger than that available to television, but would have made a good film treatment. Coon offered to meet with Gerrold and explain what they were looking for, because they were not purchasing scripts at that time. Coon suggested that Gerrold should wait until the following February to see if the show was renewed for a second season. They also discussed several story ideas, including some small furry creatures that bred too quickly. Coon thought it was a cute idea but would be too expensive as they'd have to build each creature. In preparation for the second series submission, by January, Gerrold had put together five premises to pitch. He had his best hopes on two treatments called "Bandi" and "The Protracted Man", but decided to submit his fifth story despite Coon's earlier dismissal of the idea. It was called "The Fuzzies". The idea was based on the introduction of rabbits in Australia in 1859, whose population grew extraordinarily fast owing to a lack of predators. The initial premise placed the story on a space station to avoid the ecological damage that the creatures would have on a planet. However, Gerrold's agent was concerned that requiring a miniature of the station to be built as well as the additional sets would cause it to be too expensive for a single episode. Because of his agent's comments, Gerrold modified the pitch to place the action on a colony planet instead. This pitch included the plot points such as the creatures getting into a poisoned grain storage, but omitted the Klingons; and Cyrano Jones was called Cyrano Smith. The five pitches were submitted by Gerrold's agent in February 1967, and received a response in June. At the time the show had already purchased too many scripts for the second season, but story editor D. C. Fontana suggested that they should purchase the story and assign it to a staff writer as it was better than some of the other stories they already had. At the time that Coon got in touch, Gerrold had just been employed at CBS as a typist working on scripts such as the pilot of Hawaii Five-O. As soon as he got the response, he quit the job. Gerrold and Coon met once more, and revealed that the network had recently made a request for more episodes based on other planets. Coon told Gerrold to work up a further pitch. This version of the story added the Klingons, and moved the action from planetside to a space station. During a visit to the set, Gerrold had the opportunity to speak to Leonard Nimoy and ask his advice on how to write for Spock and was allowed to watch the dailies from each day's shoot of the episode "The Doomsday Machine" which was being filmed at the time. This version of the story was entitled "A Fuzzy Thing Happened to Me...", which was purchased by Coon as a plot outline. He offered Gerrold a chance to write the script himself, by promising not to hand it to another writer for a month. However, Coon made it clear that he was not offering Gerrold a script assignment, but was giving him the option of submitting a draft. Gerrold turned around the first draft script in two and a half days. Both Coon and associate producer Robert Justman gave feedback on the script, and pointed out a few gaps such as there needing to be some way in the plot for the crew to discover that Darvin was a Klingon agent. The following draft had Cyrano Jones discover that Darvin was an agent, which Coon thought was not "punchy" enough. It was then re-written so that the fuzzies were allergic to Klingons. Both Gerrold and Coon thought the idea was "trite... shtick... hokey" and "had been done before". but Coon agreed that it was the direction the story should go. The re-write of the script took a further week. On a further visit to the set, Gerrold was called into Coon's office. He was informed that he needed to change the name of the fuzzies, as the legal department was concerned about similarities in the name with H. Beam Piper's 1962 novel Little Fuzzy. He subsequently came up with a variety of alternative names. Through a process of elimination, he ended up with the name "tribble". Gerrold's submitted script was within the standard page count for an episode, but, when it was retyped for distribution by the production's mimeo department, it ballooned from 60 to 80 pages due to Gerrold's having used a typewriter with 12-pitch rather than the 10 characters per inch Pica standard of the TV and film industry. This meant that some twenty pages needed to be cut from the script. Scenes which were cut from the script included the Enterprise chasing after Jones in his vessel, and resulted in the scene where Kirk has tribbles tumbling onto him while in the grain locker. Gerrold felt that this enforced editing process "tightened up the story and made for a better series of gags". Nichelle Nichols said to Gerrold "I've never seen a script go through so many changes – and stay so much the same". Coon's participation in terms of suggestions and edits was such that Gerrold thought he should have been given a co-writing credit. The producers liked the resulting script so much that Gerrold was later tasked with re-writing the script for "I, Mudd". During script development the Kellam de Forest Research firm cautioned that the tribbles and the events involving them strongly resembled the Martian flat cats in Robert A. Heinlein's 1952 novel The Rolling Stones, and suggested that the rights to the novel should be purchased. Gerrold became concerned that he had inadvertently plagiarized the novel which he had read fifteen years before. Coon phoned Heinlein, who, according to Gerrold, only asked for a signed copy of the script and later sent a note to Gerrold after the show aired to thank him for the script. Heinlein’s own recollections were at odds with this account. In his authorized biography Heinlein said he was called by Gene Coon who gave him a "sob story" about the issue and asked him to waive claim to the "similarity" to his flat cats. Heinlein states he agreed because he’d just been through one costly plagiarism lawsuit against Roger Corman and did not wish to embroil himself in another "chump's game". He had misgivings upon seeing the actual script but let it go, an action he later regretted: "If that matter had simply been dropped after that one episode was filmed, I would have chalked it up wryly to experience. But the 'nice kid' did not drop it; 'tribbles' (i.e. my 'flat cats') have been exploited endlessly… Well that’s one that did 'larn me.' Today if J. Christ phoned me on some matter of business, I would simply tell him: 'See my agent. The fictional quadrotriticale's real-world antecedent, the grain triticale, was a fairly new invention at the time of the episode. Filming The use of live animals to represent the tribbles was immediately ruled out. According to Gerrold's account, as their similarity to Heinlein's flat cats was not yet discovered, the inspiration for the form of the tribble instead came from a fluffy keyring owned by Holly Sherman. Sherman's Planet in this episode was subsequently named after her. The design came from Wah Chang, but they were individually sewn by Jacqueline Cumeré. She was paid $350 to sew five hundred tribbles from synthetic fur and stuff them with foam rubber. Six ambulatory tribbles were made using the mechanisms of walking toy dogs, which were quite noisy and required the dialogue to be looped in during editing. Other tribbles were created by Jim Rugg out of beanbags for when it was required for one to sit on a person or object, and the breathing tribbles were hollow with surgical balloons inserted. Some of these tribbles were later displayed at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum in Washington D.C. in 1992. The sale at Christie's auction house in 2006 included tribbles from this episode as part of a larger Star Trek sale. Because of the synthetic fur technology of the 1960s, relatively few original tribbles exist as of 2010 because the fur fell out over time and they went bald. An original tribble was sold at auction in 2003 for $1,000. Filming began during the second week of August 1967. Three temporary sets and a portion of corridor were constructed for specific use in this episode, which included the large trading post set. The chairs in that set were a problem, as the set designers wanted 24 matching chairs and decided that folding ones would not do. John M. Dwyer sourced them from a local company, but the numbers required meant that they had to be pulled out of showrooms from all over the county. When it came to the fight scene in the episode, Dwyer warned director Joseph Pevney not to damage the chairs. That scene was filmed twice after a cameraman with a handheld camera wandered onto the set. The scene where Kirk is covered with tribbles in the grain container needed to be filmed eight times, using all five hundred sewn tribbles. Gerrold had expected that scene to be cut at some point during production, as he thought that William Shatner would not agree to it. He said that Shatner was the "consummate professional and I believe he was eager to show off his comic abilities". The scene was later described as "solidifying "The Trouble of Tribbles" in the pop culture lexicon". Pevney was pleased with the outcome of the shoot, calling the episode "a delightful show from beginning to end". In addition to directing, Pevney also sourced some of the parts to create the tribbles and was directly responsible for the casting of Stanley Adams. He had pushed for the episode to be made as he recalled that there was some resistance at the time against making a comedy-style episode. These types of episodes were unusual for the series, as only "The Trouble with Tribbles" and "A Piece of the Action" were considered to be comedic episodes from season two. Pevney was one of the two most prolific Original Series directors alongside Marc Daniels, and directed fourteen episodes of the show. The cast responded favorably to the script. Nichelle Nichols was particularly pleased as it allowed Uhura to be a woman and took her off the bridge. It was one of her largest roles in any single episode in the series. The special effects design for the K-7 Space Station in the episode was based on actual 1959 design by Douglas Aircraft Corporation for the space station. Casting William Campbell had previously appeared in the first season episode "The Squire of Gothos" as Trelane. In "The Trouble with Tribbles", he portrayed the Klingon Captain Koloth. At various points Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry claimed it was his intention to bring back Koloth during the third season of The Original Series, as Kirk's recurring Klingon adversary. Some internal production documents contradict this story. Although Koloth returned in Star Trek: The Animated Series, Campbell did not voice the role. He returned to the role in 1994 for an episode of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, entitled "Blood Oath". At the time of casting, William Schallert had just finished filming the ABC sitcom The Patty Duke Show. He described himself not as a fan, and had not read any science fiction since 1948. He thought that the role of Nilz Baris was just another guest spot, and considered Baris to be just "a rather stuffy bureaucrat, not the most appealing character". He did not remember the character's name, only learning it when he first attended a Star Trek convention at a hotel near Los Angeles Airport, as the fans called it out when he entered the lobby. He was later cast in the role of the Bajoran musician Varani in the DS9 episode "Sanctuary". Whit Bissell, who played the station manager, Lurry, was better known at the time in the main cast role of Lt. Gen. Heywood Kirk in the ABC science fiction television series The Time Tunnel. Michael Pataki, who portrayed the Klingon Korax, went on to play Karnas in Star Trek: The Next Generation first season episode "Too Short a Season". Charlie Brill portrayed the Klingon agent Arne Darvin. Brill had previously been a sketch comedy artist with his wife Mitzi McCall, and had appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show when The Beatles made their first appearance. Reception While initial fan reaction to the episode was mixed, it was more popular with the general public. Critical response to the episode was positive, and it was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation which instead went to fellow Star Trek episode "The City on the Edge of Forever". It has since been included in several "best of" episode lists and features, including as part of the Best of DVD collection alongside three other episodes. It has also been released as part of the season two DVD box set. Broadcast "The Trouble with Tribbles" was first broadcast in the United States on December 29, 1967 on NBC. The initial fan reaction was undecided, but the episode connected better with the mass market. This effect was later explained in 2012 when Jordon Hoffman on StarTrek.com described "The Trouble with Tribbles" as "quite possibly, the first episode of Star Trek you ever saw". It entered popular culture and remained well-known to the public outside of the Star Trek community. Retrospective critiques The New York Times described the scene with Kirk and the tribbles in the grain container as one of the "best-remembered moments" of the series. Time magazine ranked "The Trouble with Tribbles" as the sixth best moment in Star Trek. IGN ranked it as the fifth best episode of The Original Series, while TechRepublic ranked it as the fourth best. The A.V. Club included "The Trouble with Tribbles" in a list of ten must-see episodes, and USA Today listed as one of the three best. In 1998, "The Trouble with Tribbles" was listed as the eighth best cult moment of all time by The Times newspaper. In a list of the top 100 episodes of the Star Trek franchise, "The Trouble with Tribbles" was placed sixth by Charlie Jane Anders at io9. Zack Handlen's July 2009 review for The A.V. Club gave the episode a grade of A. Cyrano Jones was Handlen's least favorite part of the episode, and with the exception of that character, it was one of the better scripts seen in The Original Series. He thought that despite the lack of a sense of real danger, the plot all comes together neatly and praised the story's effects on Kirk, saying "The way the episode unfolds means Kirk's constantly dealing with things he does not really want to deal with, and there's a surprising amount of enjoyment to be had in seeing him complain about it to Spock." Michele Erica Green, writing for TrekNation in March 2006, said she thought that the episode would have been dated, but found it was "as funny as ever." She thought that Scotty's lines were "unforgettable" and the scenes between McCoy and Spock were "priceless". Eugene Myers and Torie Atkinson reviewed the episode for Tor.com in April 2010. They described it as "easily the most celebrated episode of the entire Original Series (if not the whole franchise)". They went on to describe it as a "perfect episode", and both gave it maximum scores of six out of six. In 2009, Time rated "The Trouble with Tribbles" as one of the top ten moments of Star Trek, including television series and films up to that time. In 2017, Space.com ranked "The Trouble with Tribbles" the second best episode of all Star Trek television, including all Star Trek television series episodes prior to Star Trek: Discovery. IO9 ranked it as the sixth best episode of all Star Trek episodes, including later series, up to 2011. In 2012, The A.V. Club ranked this episode as one of the top ten "must see" episodes of The Original Series. In 2013, The Hollywood Reporter ranked Kirk being buried in tribbles as one of the top 15 key moments of The Original Series. They remark "the image of Kirk mired in a pile of adorable fur balls has solidified "The Trouble of Tribbles" in the pop culture lexicon." In 2012, The Christian Science Monitor ranked this the fourth best episode of the original Star Trek. In 2013, Wired magazine ranked this episode one of the top ten episodes of The Original Series. In 2015, Wired recommended not skipping this episode in their binge-watching guide for The Original Series. In 2015, the New York Public Library described this episode as having Spock's sixth best scene in the show. In 2015, this episode was included in Geek.com's 35 greatest moments in Star Trek they ranked Kirk's getting buried in tribbles the 29th greatest moment of all Star Trek. 2016 was the 50th anniversary of the first broadcast of Star Trek, which triggered a large amount of press including TV Guides review of top Original Series episodes. They ranked this episode the 5th best of the series. In 2016, Business Insider ranked "The Trouble with Tribbles" the third best episode of The Original Series. In the same year, Newsweek ranked "The Trouble With Tribbles" as one of the best episodes of The Original Series. In 2016, IGN ranked this episode the fifth best in a top ten list of The Original Series episodes. They ranked it the ninth best out of all Star Trek series prior to Star Trek: Discovery. Empire ranked "The Trouble With Tribbles" 8th out of the top 50 episodes of all Star Trek in 2016. At that time, there were roughly 726 episodes and a dozen films released. In 2016, Vox rated this one of the top 25 essential episodes of all Star Trek. In 2017, Radio Times ranked this episode the fourth best episode of Star Trek, especially for those unfamiliar with the franchise. In 2016, Radio Times also ranked this episode as having the 13th best moment in all Star Trek, pointing out several scenes, but especially the one where Kirk is buried under a mound of tribbles. In 2017, Space.com ranked this episode the second best episode of all Star Trek franchise television, and praised the hilarity of the scene where Kirk gets a tribble shower. In 2017, Business Insider ranked "The Trouble with Tribbles" the third best episode of The Original Series. In 2017, Vulture listed it as one of the best episodes of the original show, noting the episode's comedic elements. In 2018, Collider ranked this episode the 5th best Original Series episode. In 2018, PopMatters ranked this the 12th best episode of The Original Series. A 2018 Star Trek binge-watching guide by Den of Geek, recommended this episode as one of the best of The Original Series. In 2019, CBR ranked this episode as one of the top eight most memorable episodes of the original Star Trek. In 2019, Screen Rant ranked this the ninth best episode of all Star Trek series produced up to that time. Awards The episode was nominated for Best Dramatic Presentation at the 1968 Hugo Awards. All of the nominees that year were episodes of Star Trek, with the award instead going to "The City on the Edge of Forever". From the number of votes, "The Trouble with Tribbles" was placed second. Home media release "The Trouble with Tribbles" was one of the first episodes to receive an official release by Paramount Home Entertainment. In 1980, it was released on VHS on a two-episode tape alongside "Let That Be Your Last Battlefield". It was re-released in 1991 as part of the first full-season release on VHS. This was re-released in 1993, and was released on laserdisc. In 1998, a "Talking Tribble Gift Set" was released which contained both "The Trouble with Tribbles" and "Trials and Tribble-ations" on VHS. The first DVD release was in 2000, when all of The Original Series episodes were released in individual releases of two episodes per disc. The first season set that the episode was included in was a part of the season two DVD set released in the United States on November 2, 2004. In 2009, it was included in a best of collection with three other episodes of The Original Series alongside "Amok Time", "The City on the Edge of Forever" and "Balance of Terror". The re-mastered DVD sets were also re-launched to coincide with the release of the film, Star Trek. The Blu-ray release included the un-changed scenes as alternative angles. Disc four of each set contained only "The Trouble with Tribbles" from The Original Series but otherwise contained tribble related extras. These included both "More Tribbles, More Troubles" and "Trials and Tribble-ations". Legacy "More Tribbles, More Troubles" "The Trouble with Tribbles" was originally intended to have a follow-up episode during season three, but after Gene Roddenberry stepped back from the production of the show after a time-slot change and further cuts in the budget, the idea was scrapped. In 1973, Gerrold had become friends with D. C. Fontana from their time spent on the Star Trek convention circuit together. He had heard about Star Trek: The Animated Series, and offered to do an episode. Fontana responded that she wanted the tribble episode that was cut from season three. This episode was entitled "More Tribbles, More Troubles". The episode introduces the natural predator of the tribbles and genetically engineered tribbles which no longer reproduce but instead grow much larger. As with his other Animated Series episode "Bem", he later explained that almost nothing was cut from the original pitches for the third season of The Original Series as animation played out quicker and so everything still fit into the episode despite the reduced running time. Both of Gerrold's Animated Series episodes were novelized by Alan Dean Foster, and Gerrold later said that he thought that he did "a fine job". "Trials and Tribble-ations" To celebrate the 30th anniversary of Star Trek in 1996, producers of Star Trek: Voyager and Star Trek: Deep Space Nine decided to incorporate elements of The Original Series into episodes. The Deep Space Nine homage, entitled "Trials and Tribble-ations", sent its characters back in time to the events of "The Trouble with Tribbles", digitally inserting the Deep Space Nine actors into footage from nineteen scenes in "The Trouble with Tribbles" and other episodes. Charlie Brill also returned to the role of Arne Darvin to film new scenes set in the DS9 timeframe. The episode was nominated for three Emmy Awards and, like the original episode, the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation. As the 30th anniversary approached, Gerrold had heard rumors of a tribble sequel in the works but had only heard denials from executive producer Rick Berman. Following an interview request from The New York Times, he telephoned Berman once more to ask what was happening as he did not want to say he did not know about the sequel episode and embarrass anyone if it actually was going to happen. Gerrold suggested that an acknowledgement of the creator of the tribbles might be in order and asked if he could be an extra. He appears in the episode as an Enterprise officer. While Gerrold was on set, he also advised director Jonathan West on the integration of new scenes into "The Trouble with Tribbles". Gerrold later said that "Trials and Tribble-ations" "turned out beautiful. I think it was the best episode of Deep Space Nine ever and possibly the best episode of Star Trek after the Original Series." Further appearances and parodies Tribbles have been further seen in other Star Trek episodes and films, including Star Trek III: The Search for Spock and the J. J. Abrams-helmed films Star Trek (2009) and Star Trek Into Darkness (2013). While on a visit to the set of Star Trek, Gerrold was told by Abrams that the tribble had been deliberately "snuck in" to the scene. It appears in the scene where Kirk (Chris Pine) and Spock Prime (Leonard Nimoy) meet Scott (Simon Pegg) on the Vulcan moon. "The Trouble with Tribbles" was also re-imagined in that timeline's comic book series by IDW Publishing and entitled "The Truth About Tribbles". In 2003, tribbles appeared in the Star Trek: Enterprise episode "The Breach". In that episode, Doctor Phlox (John Billingsley) uses them as food for his medicinal pets in sickbay. Gerrold has been in discussions with the fan-created series Star Trek: New Voyages to bring back the tribbles for a further Original Series era episode. Both his Original Series pitch "The Protracted Man" and his Star Trek: The Next Generation script Blood and Fire have been turned into episodes of New Voyages. Tribbles have been parodied in a variety of other television shows and types of media. An episode of Partridge Family 2200 A.D., "The Roobits" features fuzzy alien creatures that multiply quickly. This was also done in The Smurfs Season 1 episode "Fuzzle Trouble." Futurama featured a parody in the second season entitled "The Problem with Popplers", which included several Star Trek jokes. These include a reference to "Roddenberries" and features Zapp Brannigan, whom the Futurama staff have said is intended to be a parody of Captain Kirk. In 2000, a Drosophila (fruit fly) gene that blocks cell division was named tribbles () after the small, woolly, tribble-like cells with mutations in this gene. A review describing the discovery was named after this episode. Humans carry three homologs of tribbles, TRIB1, TRIB2, and TRIB3. The parasprites in the My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic episode "Swarm of the Century" were also partially inspired by the tribbles. In the 2003 video game Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic, the player's ship becomes infested with a froglike species called Gizka, prompting the player to receive the quest "The Trouble with Gizka" in order to remove the pests. Circa early 2013, an internet meme parody started circulating, featuring a still from "The Trouble with Tribbles", with the face of Paul McCartney superimposed onto the body of Captain who is surrounded by tribbles, accompanied by the quip "Yesterday: All my tribbles seemed so far away", parodying the first line of McCartney's signature Beatles' song "Yesterday". In 2013, singer Bob Robertson expanded the meme into a full parody of the song's lyrics, stating that he first saw the original meme in a posting by George Takei. Merchandising and adaptations Gerrold published a book describing his experiences in the creation of "The Trouble with Tribbles". Entitled The Trouble with Tribbles: The Birth, Sale and Final Production of One Episode, it was published in 1973. The book was well-received by the former cast and crew of Star Trek and was used as a textbook for teaching screenwriting. The episode itself was adapted for a children's book, Too Many Tribbles!, in the Little Golden Books line with its content somewhat softened for its intended reading demographic. A variety of tribble replicas have been made over the years, with the most recent licensed product coming from QMx, released in 2013. A plate to commemorate the episode was the first to be launched as part of an eight-plate Star Trek: The Commemorative Collection in 1986. It featured an image of Kirk with the tribbles in the grain compartment created by artist Susie Morton. The first Original Series expansion for the Star Trek Customizable Card Game was launched in 2000. It was entitled "The Trouble with Tribbles" and was based on this episode and the associated episode of Deep Space Nine. It also introduced the Tribbles game which used only tribble-related cards. In 2010, two movie posters for "The Trouble with Tribbles" featuring Uhura and Spock being slowly covered in tribbles were created by Justin Ishmael for the art boutique attached to the Alamo Drafthouse Cinema in Austin, Texas. It was a follow-up to earlier posters created for the episode "Space Seed". Juan Ortiz later created a 1960s-retro style poster for each of the eighty episodes of Star Trek. The "Trouble with Tribbles" poster made it appear that the warp nacelles of the Enterprise were sprouting tribbles which then bred rapidly as the ship flew on, creating a cloud of them behind the ship. References Bibliography External links "The Trouble with Tribbles" 2006 remastered side-by-side comparisons at TrekMovie.com 1967 American television episodes Star Trek: The Original Series (season 2) episodes Television episodes directed by Joseph Pevney Television episodes written by David Gerrold
401280	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aarhus%20University	Aarhus University	Aarhus University (, abbreviated AU) is a public research university with its main campus located in Aarhus, Denmark. It is the second largest and second oldest university in Denmark. The university is part of the Coimbra Group, the Guild, and Utrecht Network of European universities and is a member of the European University Association. The university was founded in Aarhus, Denmark, in 1928 and comprises five faculties in Arts, Natural Sciences, Technical Sciences, Health, and Business and Social Sciences and has a total of twenty-seven departments. It is home to over thirty internationally recognised research centres, including fifteen centres of excellence funded by the Danish National Research Foundation. The university has been ranked among the top 100 world's best universities. Times Higher Education ranks Aarhus University in the top 10 of the most beautiful universities in Europe (2018). The university's alumni include Bjarne Stroustrup, the inventor of programming language C++; Queen Margrethe II of Denmark; Crown Prince Frederik of Denmark; and Anders Fogh Rasmussen, former prime minister of Denmark and a secretary general of NATO. Nobel Laureate Jens Christian Skou (Chemistry, 1997) conducted his groundbreaking work on the Na/K-ATPase in Aarhus and remained employed at the university until his retirement. Two other nobel laureates, namely Trygve Haavelmo (Economics, 1989) and Dale T. Mortensen (Economics, 2010), were affiliated with the university. History Early developments Aarhus University was founded on 11 September 1928 as Universitetsundervisningen i Jylland ("University Studies in Jutland") with a budget of 33,000 DKK and an enrollment of 64 students, which rose to 78 during the first semester. The university was founded as a response to the increasing number of students at the University of Copenhagen after World War I. Classrooms were rented from the Technical College and the teaching corps consisted of one professor of philosophy and four associate professors of Danish, English, German and French. Along with the Universitets-Samvirket ("University Association") which consisted of representatives of Aarhus' businesses, organisations and institutions, the municipality of Aarhus had fought since 1921 to have Denmark's next university located in the city. In 1929, the municipality of Aarhus gave the university land with a landscape of rolling hills. The design of the university buildings and 12 ha campus area was assigned to architects C. F. Møller, Kay Fisker and Povl Stegmann, who won the architectural competition in 1931. Construction of the first buildings began a year later, but the campus was developed in stages and is still under development . Since 1939, C. F. Møller Architects has been responsible for the architectural design of Aarhus University in accordance with the original functionalist design key, perhaps best exemplified by the characteristic yellow brick and tile. The first buildings were finished in 1933 and housed the Departments of Chemistry, Physics and Anatomy. These departments later moved to newer buildings at the campus and the original building complex now house Department of Psychology and Department of Political Science. The construction of the first stage was funded solely by donations which totaled 935,000 Dkr and the buildings covered an area of 4,190m2. One of the most generous contributors to the first stage was De Forenede Teglværker i Aarhus ("The United Tileworks of Aarhus") led by director K. Nymark. Forenede Teglværker decided to donate 1 million yellow bricks and tiles worth c. 50,000 Dkr and later decided to extend the donation to all bricks needed. The inauguration on 11 September 1933, marked the first official use of the name Aarhus University and was celebrated in a tent on campus, attended by King Christian X, Queen Alexandrine, their son Crown Prince Frederick and Prime Minister Stauning together with 1000 invited guests. On 23 April 1934, Aarhus University was given permission to hold examinations by the king and on 10 October 1935, Professor Dr. phil. Ernst Frandsen was appointed the first rector of the university. Shortages of materials and a stressed economy postponed and delayed further development of Aarhus University. In 1941, construction of the Main Building (Hovedbygningen) commenced, a complex to house the university aula (assembly hall) and canteen among academic and administrative purposes. The stringent minimalist and uncompromising functionalistic design of the first university buildings from 1933 had stirred some local dissatisfaction and it was decided that the Main Building should possess more traditional romantic and classical architectural inspirations - although in agreement with the original architectural plan - and also make use of more lavish and expensive materials. The Main Building was finished in 1946 and still stands out from the rest of the university campus as somewhat different in its architectural design. In comparison with the original 4,190m2 floor space of the first buildings, Aarhus University now holds a floor space of 246,000m2 in the University Park alone. A series of buildings outside the main campus adds an additional floor space of 59,000m2. Faculties From 1928, Aarhus University offered courses in languages and philosophy, but the students were unable to finish their studies without going to the University of Copenhagen for their final examinations. By request of the Ministry of Education, the Teachers' Association made a draft of how to conduct the final examinations in the humanistic subjects in Aarhus and in the draft, the association proposed that the faculty was named the Faculty of Humanities by analogy with the corresponding faculties in Uppsala, Lund and Turku. After negotiations between the faculties in Aarhus and Copenhagen, the king declared on 8 May 1935 that the final university examinations could be held at the Faculty of Philosophy in Copenhagen as well as at the Faculty of Humanities in Aarhus. This was the first final examinations Aarhus University was allowed to hold, but on 24 July 1936 the king granted the Faculty of Humanities the right to hold examinations for the magister degree and in 1940 for the PhD. Aarhus University had offered courses in basic medical subjects from 1933 and on 10 October 1935 the Faculty of Medicine was formally established. The establishment of a Faculty of Medicine in Aarhus was met with some opposition from the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Copenhagen. The professors thought that the state should not establish a new faculty until the shortcomings of the old one had been solved. In the end, the professors agreed to sign a recommendation for the new faculty as long as improvements to the old one were not delayed. By 1953, the Faculty of Medicine had been fully built, complete with lectures, professorship chairs, final exams, research facilities and the hospitals of Aarhus had been expanded to meet the demands of clinical training. In 1992, the Faculty of Medicine merged with the dental school and changed its name to Faculty of Health Sciences. In 1998, the new faculty emphasized clinical training for students of the third semester who have frequented one year of anatomy and cell biology, and introduced a new not assessed curriculum of pre-clinical skills laboratory (two hours per week for nine weeks) followed by two weeks of social medicine and an eight-week clinical clerkship at county hospitals. The university established its Faculty of Economics and Law in 1936, but when it offered courses in political science and in psychology (1959 and 1968, respectively), the faculty changed its name to the Faculty of Social Sciences. The faculty had to be funded solely on private donations and once the university demonstrated it had the needed financial means, the Minister of Education recommended the Finance Committee to approve the establishment of the faculty on 27 January 1936 since the state did not have to grant financial support. The Committee approved and by declaration of the king on 5 November 1937, the faculty could hold examinations in economics and law. Courses had been offered in theology since 1932 at the Faculty of Humanities, but in 1942 the Faculty of Theology was formally established. Already on 22 June 1928, Reverend Balslev of Aarhus had proposed that Universitetsundervisningen i Aarhus (not yet university) taught basic courses in theology. Though the proposal was greeted by the management, the Faculty of Theology in Copenhagen pointed out that it would take three full-time teachers of the New Testament, Old Testament and ecclesiastical history, respectively as well as education in Latin, Greek and Hebrew by the Faculty of Humanities. At this time, Universitetsundervisningen i Aarhus did not have the financial means to meet these criteria so the case was shelved for the time being. In April 1931, the case reopened, this time by Bishop Skat Hoffmeyer who proposed free teaching in the required subjects. The management asked the faculty in Copenhagen if this was acceptable, but because the teaching was free, the faculty saw it as tutoring rather than actual teaching and they neither approved or disproved of such an approach though they did not see it as actual university teaching. The municipality of Aarhus did not aid with funds and the management deemed a request of the state to be futile so they decided to disregard getting the teaching approved and start it anyway under the supervision of Skat Hoffmeyer. On 5 September 1932 the Reverend Asmund held the first lecture in theology. This private education in theology continued until the university could hire its own professors in 1938, and in 1942 Aarhus University could at long last establish the Faculty of Theology. The Aarhus New University Hospital shares Masonic architectural elements related to its history of seat of the Danish Order of Freemasons. Main Building and World War II In 1938, the university management acknowledged it was time to consider an expansion due to lack of space and overcrowding of the auditoriums. The solution was the Main Building (Hovedbygningen), containing both rooms and facilities for new academic areas, as well as housing for the general administration, an assembly hall and a canteen. The building was to be organized according to a principle of institutes so that teaching and research took place in certain rooms with their own library and study for the professor. The construction of the building took place during the German occupation of Denmark (1940–45) in World War II, which affected the process in more than one way. No state funds had been involved in the construction of the first university building and a second building for physiology, biochemistry, and a high voltage laboratory, but because the Nazis were against civil use of materials and work forces, the state contributed to the main building. In 1943, the Gestapo, Sicherheitsdienst, Geheime Feldpolizei and Abwehr set up their regional headquarters in the five student halls of residence on campus. Fearing that the same would happen to the new main building, its completion was delayed. C. F. Møller later wrote that for once there was plenty of time to work on the details of the building, like patterned brickwork, acoustic screens and furniture. Furniture designer Aage Windeleff, designed the furniture specially for the main building, while Børge Mogensen's industrially produced furniture designs are the most commonly used elsewhere on campus. The presence of the Gestapo in Aarhus led to multiple arrests of Danish resistance fighters and the resistance movement soon realized they needed outside assistance. On 15 October, the leader of the illegal Danish underground army in Jutland, Niels Bennike, sent the following telegram to London: On 31 October 1944, the Royal Air Force bombed the Gestapo's headquarters in residence halls 4 and 5, also killing ten civilian workers. 2 Group Bomber Command carried out the bombing by using 25 Mosquito planes. The air strike on the University of Aarhus took place in a heavily populated area and the campus was surrounded by three hospitals. To avoid civilian casualties, the RAF prepared with a model of the campus, shooting at residence halls 4 and 5 with chalk bags. The architect C. F. Møller was in the main building during the air strike but survived and was later dug free from the rubble. The reconstructed main building opened on 11 September 1946. Since 1970 Aarhus University was an independent institution until 1970, but with management representatives from the city council and the organization of Universitets-Samvirket. Hereafter, the university became a state-run institution under the first University Act. With the next University Act in 1992, external organizations were once again represented in the administration and under the 2003 Act, all Danish universities are governed by a nationwide university board. This board appoints the rector, deans and heads of departments instead of the students. It commenced in January 2004 for the first time and in August 2005, a new rector was appointed. In 1994, the university was a scene of a shooting; three people (including the perpetrator) were killed and two more were injured. Aarhus University has hosted significant musical events. The Grateful Dead played there on April 16, 1972; the recorded performance was part of the group's Europe '72 tour. In the current century, several higher education institutions have been merged with Aarhus University. Following the Danish University reform of 2006, AU merged with the Business and Engineering School in Herning (now part of faculty of Business and Social Science) and the Danish School of Education in Copenhagen (now part of Faculty of Arts), making the university nationwide and adding 6,000 students. In 2011 the National Environmental Research Institute (NERI), until then part of the Ministry of Environment and Energy, and the Danish Research Centre for Agricultural Sciences (DJF), until then part of the Ministry of Agriculture, were merged into AU. The two institutions were initially integrated as separate entities, later fully integrated into the Faculty of Science and Technology. In 2012, Aarhus University's School of Engineering was merged with the university proper, making it Denmark's largest. A major reorganisation of the university effective 1 Jan 2011 reorganised departments into four faculties: Arts, Science and Technology, Health, and Business and Social Sciences. A further reorganisation occurred effective 1 Jan 2020, where Science and Technology was split into two new entities: Faculty of Technical Sciences and Faculty of Natural Sciences. Campus Aarhus University's main campus is located in central Aarhus, encircling the University Park (Universitetsparken). The campus master plan competition was won in 1931 by the collaborative scheme of Danish architects Kay Fisker, C. F. Møller and Povl Stegmann in collaboration with landscape architect Carl Theodor Sørensen. The design includes a wide variety of buildings in a large area, but each building is constructed of the same yellow brick and roofing tile and with a common design key, providing the whole campus with a unified appearance. Construction commenced in 1932 and has continued into present times, lately in 1999-2001 (Søauditorierne) and 2014-17 (AU Health). The original main building was one of the first Danish functionalist public buildings and has been included in the Ministry of Culture's canon of Danish architecture; it is acknowledged as one of the twelve most significant architectural works in the cultural history of Denmark. In a harmonic interplay with the park, the yellow buildings form a campus that has received international recognition for its aesthetic values and it has been protected by law since 1993, in order to conserve its unique design. C. F. Møller and his company, C. F. Møller Architects have continued as architects of the campus ever since, except the new department of AU Health currently under construction, designed by Cubo. The park and campus has been expanded throughout the years, in 1957 the old park of Vennelystparken, just south of the university park was included. Apart from the main campus, Aarhus University has several smaller campuses and departments throughout Aarhus. This includes the campus on Fuglsangs Alle in Aarhus V, hosting a large part of Aarhus BSS, and campus Nobelparken, adjacent to the university park and built in 1997–2004 in red brick, also by C. F. Møller Architects, but in a different design, parts of the research park IT-byen at Katrinebjerg, where the Department of Computer Science also teach and do research, and more recently (still under construction), the buildings of the former municipal hospital across the street from the university park. Archaeology and anthropology takes residence in Moesgård Manor, an old manor house at the new Moesgård Museum. Aarhus University also has locations outside of Aarhus. In the city of Herning, there is a small campus where a few of the university's business, engineering and technology programmes are taught, called the Department of Business Development and Technology. In Copenhagen, part of the Danish School of Education is located at Campus Emdrup. Dormitories A large part of the dormitories, e.g. Børglum Kollegiet, and youth accommodation in Aarhus is administered by the non-profit housing cooperative of Kollegiekontoret or though the public web-platform Ungdomsboliger.dk providing access to student and youth accommodation all across Denmark. Only the (full name: ) dormitories are located on campus and run by Aarhus University; other dormitories are located elsewhere, all across the city. It is also the only dormitory exclusively for students at Aarhus University. Organisation and administration The university is governed by the university board which has 11 members: six members recruited outside the university form the majority of the board, two members are appointed by the academic staff, one member is appointed by the technical/administrative staff, and two members are appointed by the university students. As required by Danish law, the rector is appointed by the university board. The rector in turn appoints deans and deans appoint heads of departments. There is no faculty senate and faculty is not involved in the appointment of rector, deans, or department heads. Hence Danish universities has no faculty governance. Main academic areas Since 1 January 2020, the university has been organised into five main academic areas: Technical Sciences – consists of the subjects of environmental sciences, agricultural science, and engineering from the former Faculty of Science and Technology. Natural Sciences – consists of the remaining departments which were part of the former Faculty of Science and Technology. Arts – consists of the former Faculty of Humanities and the former Faculty of Theology. Aarhus BSS – consists of the former Faculty of Social Sciences and the Aarhus School of Business. Health – consists of the former Faculty of Health Sciences. Academics , more than 32,000 students were enrolled in Aarhus University. Each year more than 1000 international exchange students come to Aarhus University to study for one or two terms. In 2009 close to 3000 international students were enrolled in full degree programmes. Aarhus University is an international university with a large proportion of students at the post-baccalaureate level: over half of its students are enrolled in master's degree and PhD programmes. In 2011, 59 of the university's 113 Master's degree programmes were taught in English. Talent development of young researchers has been identified as one of the university's core activities. This means that highly qualified students have the option of starting their PhD studies before completing their master's degree. The university's doctoral programmes allow talented students to enroll in a combined Master's/PhD programme either right after completing the master's degree (the 5+3 track) or one year into their master's degree programme (the 4+4 track). Since 2006 the number of PhD students has risen from approximately 1000 to approximately 1700 in 2010. International Centre The International Centre maintains international partnerships and combines a wide range of services for exchange students, international full-degree students, PhDs and visiting scholars. The International Centre is often the first stop for foreign students at Aarhus University, since the centre offers advice on finding housing and living in Denmark. AU Summer University Starting in 2011 all summer courses and summer schools offered by Aarhus University for bachelor's, master's and PhD students will be gathered together and expanded to provide more diversity in a new framework: AU Summer University. In the summer of 2011 more than 80 courses were offered within the fields of humanities, theology, social sciences, health sciences, natural sciences, agricultural sciences, business and educational sciences. Summer courses are open to both Danish and international students. Degree programmes Aarhus University has seen some deep administrational changes since the turn of the century and now also includes several large sub-departments such as Aarhus BSS, AU Engineering and others. Each of these sub-departments offers undergraduate and/or graduate programmes specific to their own field of study. The core academic degree programmes of Aarhus University includes the following fields: Agricultural Sciences Anthropology Biology Chemistry Chinese Classical Archaeology Classical Philology Cognitive Science Cognitive Semiotics Comparative Religion Computer Science Dentistry Digital Design Economics Engineering European Studies Food Science Geology Geophysics History History of Ideas Information Studies IT/IT Product Development Japanese Latin Law Linguistics Management Mathematical Economics Mathematics Media Studies Medicine Prehistoric, Medieval and Renaissance Archaeology Modern Languages Molecular Biology Musicology Nanotechnology Nordic Language and Literature Philosophy Physics and Astronomy Political Science Psychology Religious Studies Russian Scandinavian Studies Sports Science Theology The Religious Roots of Europe The university offers eight undergraduate and about 60 graduate programmes in English. Cheminova controversy and academic freedom at AU Since 1944, Aarhus University owned Cheminova, a chemical manufacturer which, among other controversies, has been selling methyl parathion pesticide to Brazil farmers. In 2009, senior researcher Mette Jensen emailed her colleagues at AU, asking whether they thought Cheminova should stop selling the controversial pesticides. For this, the university threatened her with dismissal. The university's Pro-Vice-Chancellor Søren E. Frandsen denied that the university had made any mistakes or threatened the freedom of speech and academic freedom of its staff. On 30 April 2015, Cheminova was sold to the FMC Corporation for DKK 8.5 billion, a controversial issue in itself. Major research centres Aarhus University is home to 15 Centres of Excellence supported by the Danish National Research Foundation and a considerable number of major research centres. The 15 Centres of Excellence are: Centre for Membrane Pumps in Cells and Disease (PUMPKIN) Centre for Insoluble Protein Structures (INSPIN) Centre for Geomicrobiology Centre for Materials Crystallography (CMC) Centre for DNA Nanotechnology Centre for Functionally Integrative Neuroscience (CFIN)d Centre on Autobiographical Memory Research (CON AMORE) Centre for Massive Data Algorithmics (MADALGO) The Water and Salt Research Centre Centre for Carbonate Recognition and Signaling (CARB) Centre for Research in Econometric Analysis of Time Series (CREATES) which is one of the best econometrics center according to Economics Field Rankings: Econometrics \| IDEAS/RePEc. Currently this center is positioned as second best center of research in econometric time series analysis. Centre for Oxygen Microscopy and Imaging (COMI) Centre for mRNP Biogenesis and Metabolism Centre for Quantum Geometry of Moduli Spaces (QGM) Centre for the Theory of Interactive Computation Center for Theoretical Chemistry (qLEAP) Some of the university's other major research centres include MindLab and iNANO. MINDlab MINDLAB was established with a DKK 120 million grant awarded by the Danish Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation. At MINDLab neuroscientists, psychologists, biologists, statisticians and researchers from other fields work together to understand the brain, its disorders, and its development through physical and social interactions – and vice versa. iNANO The Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (founded in 2002 by Professor Flemming Besenbacher) offers a degree programme in nanoscience with an interdisciplinary curriculum covering a broad spectrum of introductory, advanced and specialised courses, aimed at providing the student with a sufficiently broad basis to conduct interdisciplinary research within nanoscience and at the same time achieve disciplinary depth and specialised skills in selected areas. Hence, the programme encompasses physics, chemistry, biology, molecular biology, mathematics and computer science. Danish Centre for Environment and Energy (DCE) In 2011 the National Environmental Research Institute of Denmark (NERI) was organisatorically moved from the Danish Ministry of Environment and Energy and merged into AU, under the new name Danish Centre for Environment and Energy (DCE). DCE consists of two departments: department of Bioscience and Department of Environmental Sciences, as well as a common secretariat, all under the Faculty of Technical Sciences. The core obligations of DCE continues to be to provide research based monitoring and advice to the Danish Government on environmental issues and conduct independent research and education within the same fields. Danish Centre for Food and Agriculture (DCA) Also in 2011 the Agricultural Research Institute of the Ministry of Agriculture was merged into AU. First as a separate faculty for Agricultural Research, later as part of the Faculty of Technical Sciences. The former departments are now organised as Departments of Agroecology, Animal Sciences, and Food Science, together with a common secretariat: Danish Centre for Food and Agriculture (DCA). The core obligations of DCA is to provide advice and supporting research to the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, while the departments also engage in independent research and teaching. The Global Rust Reference Center provides testing and investigation services of new and difficult cases of wheat stem rust/black stem rust. Student life Students from different fields meet in the numerous Friday bars and at various events organized by student organizations. The Friday bars are often organised by students from the different departments who set up a small, local bar in a canteen or classroom where beers and non-alcoholic drinks are served. The university also offers the Student bar (Studenterbaren) though Studenterhus Aarhus. The university also has a number of libraries, some of which are open around the clock with student or employee cards. Almost every department has its own library, but the main library is the State and University Library. It has an extensive electronic journal database which students and staff can access either at the library or from home. Aarhus University Sports (AUS) is open to all university students and organises a wide range of activities from badminton, to fencing and chess. Student organisations The largest student organisations at Aarhus University are the Student Union (Studenterrådet ved Aarhus Universitet) and Studenterlauget. The Student Union represents the main student body at Aarhus University in many boards and forums, while Studenterlauget is a mainly social organisation at School of Business and Social Sciences. The Student Union has both student seats on the university board. The Student Union also arranges annual concerts and seminars, and publishes the student magazine Delfinen (The Dolphin). Besides the Student Union, there are political student organisations at the university often connected to the Danish political parties, the largest of which include the Social-Democratic Students (Frit Forum), Conservative Students (Konservative Studenter), and Liberal Students (Liberale Studerende). The Conservative Students union publishes the student magazine Critique. The Liberal Students union publishes the leaflet Minerva. Clubs and societies Aarhus University offers many activities and services for foreign and Danish students. Several "Friday Bars", clubs organized and crewed by students at the university offer cheap beer and drinks, which has a wide appeal to the student body. Students House Studenternes Hus (The Students House) was built in 1964 at the central campus to accommodate students organisations, activities, festivities and gatherings. Among many other things, the buildings are headquarters to the students organisation Studenterhus Aarhus, and Aarhus University offers a free membership to all exchange students. The Students House is a meeting place for international and Danish students in Aarhus and Studenterhus Aarhus organize social and cultural activities throughout the year, ranging from parties and road trips, to language classes and weekly international nights (a popular dinner club). The Students' House including the Student bar used to be run by the independent Studenterhusfonden, but was taken over by the university itself in 2020. Aarhus University Sports (AUS) AUS is the official sports club of Aarhus University, and is open to all university students. It is an umbrella organisation consisting of 18 independent member clubs, which host a wide range of activities, from badminton to fencing to chess. In addition, AUS also offers independent activities such as indoor soccer tournaments, badminton facilities, and surfing trips. Dale's Café Dale's Café is a meeting place for international students and the university's PhD students that opened in 2011. The café offers coffee, sandwiches and a wide selection of beers. It has an informal lounge area where students and young researchers can relax while enjoying snacks and beverages. Like the main building, Dale's Café is named after Aarhus University's 2010 Nobel Laureate in Economic Sciences, Dale T. Mortensen. The Dale T. Mortensen Building houses the International Centre, the PhD House and the IC Dormitory, which contains 28 dorm rooms and two apartments dedicated to recently arrived international PhD students. Klubben Klubben (in English 'the club') is a bar located at the former ASB (Aarhus School of Business), now under the faculty of School of Business and Social Sciences. The bar is open during regular school hours and weekdays, but hosts larger parties during Fridays and in relation to major sports events. Admittance is usually restricted to students of the School of Business and Social Sciences. Studenterlauget Studenterlauget, School of Business and Social Sciences (at the former ASB) is currently the largest student organisation in Denmark. The organisation has approximately 4,000 members whom they service through nine smaller "business units". Studenterlauget has around 300 student employees. University museums Aarhus University operates a number of museums, both in and outside the university campus: Moesgaard Museum (MOMU) Steno Museum Ole Rømer Observatory Aarhus Botanical Gardens and greenhouses Natural History Museum Museum of Ancient Art Notable faculty and alumni, and students Former and current faculty Torben M. Andersen, professor, former Chairman of the Welfare Commission Lars Arge, Danish computer scientist Ole Barndorff-Nielsen, Danish statistician Susanne Bødker, Danish computer scientist Jørgen Christensen-Dalsgaard, Danish astronomer Ivan Damgård, Danish cryptographer Tom Fenchel, Danish marine ecologist David Field, physicist Albert Gjedde, Danish-Canadian Neuroscientist David Gress, Danish-American historian Poul Jørgensen (chemist), Director of the qLEAP center for theoretical chemistry Selin Kara, full professor and head of Industrial Biotechnology section Kai Larsen, Danish botanist Knud Ejler Løgstrup, Danish philosopher and theologian, Pastor at Sandager-Holevad from 1936 to 1943, professor at University of Aarhus from 1943 to 1975 Ib Madsen, Danish mathematician Birte Melsen, Danish Orthodontist Bertel Møhl, Danish marine zoologist and physiologist Helmuth Nyborg, Danish professor of developmental psychology Kristen Nygaard, Norwegian computer scientist (1975-1976), Turing Award Kjeld Philip, Danish economist and politician Rubina Raja, Professor of Classical Archaeology and leader of The Danish National Research Foundation's Center of Excellence for Urban Network Evolutions Katherine Richardson, Biological oceanographer Jens Christian Skou, Danish chemist and Nobel Prize laureate in Chemistry 1997 Johannes Sløk, Danish philosopher and theologian Benjamin K. Sovacool, director of the Center for Energy Technology at AU-Herning and a professor of social sciences Harald Thamdrup, Danish zoologist Alumni Yildiz Akdogan, (MSc in political science 2006) Danish politician, Member of the Danish Parliament since 2007. Morten Albæk, (MA in history (minor in philosophy) former group senior vice president i Vestas Wind Systems, named one of the 100 most innovative marketing leaders in 2011, 2012 and 2013 by the magazine, The Internationalist. Svend Auken, (MSc in political science 1969) Danish politician. Chairman of the Danish Social Democrats 1987–1992. Dorete Bloch, (MSc in zoology 1970) Danish zoologist. Tim Bollerslev, (MSc in economics and mathematics 1983) Danish Econometrician. Inventor of the GARCH model. Jens-Peter Bonde, Danish journalist, author, politician, and Member of the European Parliament 1979–2008. Michael E. Caspersen, (MS 1987, PhD 2007), Danish computer scientist and educator John Degnbol-Martinussen (PhD) political scientist. John Frandsen, (MA in music 1982) Danish composer, organist and conductor. Aage Frandsen, Danish politician, Member of the Danish Parliament 1971–1975, 1987–1990, and 1994–2005. Crown Prince Frederik, (MSc in political science 1995) Crown Prince of Denmark. Søren Gade, (MSc in economics 1990) Danish politician, Minister of Defence and Member of the Danish Parliament. Lene Hau, (MSc 1986, PhD 1991 in physics) Danish physicist. Bertel Haarder, (MSc in political science 1971) Danish politician, Member of the Danish Parliament. Niels Jacobsen, (Msc in economics 1983) CEO of William Demant Dan Jørgensen, (MSc in political science) Danish politician. Member of the European Parliament since 2004. Naser Khader, Danish-Syrian politician and Member of the Danish Parliament. Chairman of the Liberal Alliance 2007–2009. Lars Knudsen, (MSc 1992, PhD 1994) Danish cryptographer. Jørgen Vig Knudstorp, (MSc 1995, PhD in 1998 in Economics) CEO of the Lego Group Johannes Lebech (MA), Danish politician. Bjørn Lomborg, (MSc in political science 1991) Danish author, academic and environmentalist. Nils Malmros, (MD 1988) Danish film director and screenwriter. Madhavan Mukund, Director of Chennai Mathematical Institute, India. Ebbe Nielsen, (MSc in Zoology 1976) Danish entomologist. Kjeld Philip, (MSc in economics) Danish economist and politician. Anders Fogh Rasmussen, (MSc in Economics 1978) Prime Minister of Denmark from 2001 until 2009. Secretary General of NATO from August 2009 until October 2014. Lars Rasmussen (software developer), (MSc in Mathematics and Computer Science 1990) Danish computer scientist, software developer, and co-founder of Google Maps. Høgni Reistrup, (BA in Media studies and Organisational Development 2008 from Aarhus University and MA in Media Studies 2010 from the University of Copenhagen), co-writer of the book Exit Føroyar which created debate about the declining population in the Faroe Islands. Jan Beyer Schmidt-Sørensen (Msc in Economics 1983 from Aarhus University and PhD in 1990 in Economics from Aarhus School of Business) former Rector of Aarhus School of Business (now Aarhus University, School of Business and Social Sciences) and Director of Business Development at Aarhus Municipality. Tøger Seidenfaden, (MSc in political science 1983) Danish journalist. Editor-in-chief at Politiken 1993–2011. Bjarne Stroustrup, (MSc in Mathematics and Computer Science 1975) Danish inventor, designer and original implementer of the C++ programming language. Folmer Wisti, founder of the Danish Cultural Institute Queen Margrethe II, the Queen regnant of Denmark since 1972, studied archaeology and political science during 1961–1962. International recognition Aarhus University is highly ranked by international organizations and maintains its own page listing its current rankings. It is ranked 71st by the Shanghai Ranking (2021), 89th by National Taiwan University Ranking (2018), 95th by the U.S. News & World Report (2018), 106th by Times Higher Education World University Rankings (2021), and 155th by QS World University Rankings (2021). Partner universities and membership Member of the Coimbra Group Member of the Utrecht Network See also Annual Regatta at Aarhus University List of modern universities in Europe (1801–1945) References Notes Citations Bibliography External links Aarhus School of Business, Aarhus University National Environmental Research Institute, Aarhus University Danish School of Education, Aarhus University Aarhus University, Institute of Business and Technology Aarhus Public universities Universities and colleges established in 1928 Functionalist architecture Modernist architecture in Aarhus Kay Fisker buildings Danish Culture Canon 1928 establishments in Denmark Functionalist architecture in Aarhus
401291	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encounter%20at%20Farpoint	Encounter at Farpoint	"Encounter at Farpoint" is the pilot episode and series premiere of the American science fiction television series Star Trek: The Next Generation, which premiered in syndication on September 28, 1987. It was written by D. C. Fontana and Gene Roddenberry and directed by Corey Allen. Roddenberry was the creator of Star Trek, and Fontana was a writer on the original series. It was originally aired as a two-hour (with commercials) TV movie, and subsequent reruns typically split the episode into two parts. Set in the 24th century (2360s to 2370s), the series follows the adventures of the Starfleet crew of the Federation starship Enterprise-D. In this episode, the crew of the newly built Enterprise examine the mysterious Farpoint Station which the Bandi people are offering to the Federation, while under the scrutiny of a powerful godlike entity that calls itself "Q" (John de Lancie). The episode was made as a pilot for the new Star Trek series, and was a double length episode at Paramount Television Group's insistence. After the show was initially announced on October 10, 1986, Roddenberry put together a production team which included staff members from the original series such as Robert H. Justman. The show used some existing sets and props from the Star Trek films and both Star Trek: The Original Series and Star Trek: Phase II. New actors were hired for the pilot, which in some cases required the character concepts to be redeveloped to better fit the actor. Marina Sirtis and Denise Crosby were hired for the roles of Macha Hernandez and Deanna Troi respectively, but were later switched by Roddenberry and Crosby's new role renamed to Tasha Yar. DeForest Kelley agreed to appear in a cameo role in the pilot, but—as a gesture to Roddenberry—refused to be paid more than the minimum possible salary. The show made its debut in syndication to a mixed critical response, an assessment which was upheld by critics reassessing the episode following the end of the entire series. It also marked the first appearance of the emergency saucer separation maneuver and the only time where saucer reconnection sequence appears on-screen. Plot In 2364, the new flagship of the United Federation of Planets, Starfleet's , travels to the planet Deneb IV for its maiden voyage. Enterprise is to open relations with the simple Bandi people who have somehow been able to tap immense energy reserves and construct Farpoint Station, much to the surprise of the Federation. En route, the Enterprise is met by an omnipotent being who identifies himself as Q, a member of the Q Continuum—posing in appearance as a Grand Inquisitor—who declares that humanity is being put on trial then decides that their actions in their upcoming mission will be used to judge their worthiness and determine their fate as a race. Before letting the ship resume its course, Q warns Captain Picard (Patrick Stewart) that he is destined to fail. As the Enterprise arrives, the crew members explore the offerings of Farpoint Station and establish relations with their Bandi host, Groppler Zorn (Michael Bell). The crew becomes suspicious when items they desire seem to appear out of nowhere moments later, and are unable to identify the power source that feeds the station. Deanna Troi (Marina Sirtis), an empath, senses a being with powerful yet despairing emotions nearby, and the crew discover a strange labyrinth beneath the station, but Zorn does not offer an explanation. As the Enterprise crew continues its explorations, a large unknown alien craft enters orbit and begins to fire upon an older Bandi settlement near Farpoint Station, and abducts Zorn. Before Picard orders the ship's phasers to be fired at the craft, Q appears to remind him of humanity's trial and prompts Picard to send an away team to the alien craft. The away team discovers the craft has passages similar to those under Farpoint and they are able to free Zorn. Their actions cause the alien craft to transform into a jellyfish-like space creature, and Picard is able to deduce the mystery of Farpoint Station. He confirms with the apologetic Zorn that the Bandi found a similar lifeform injured on their planet and, while attempting to care for it, they also exploited its ability to synthesize matter to create Farpoint Station. The creature now in orbit is trying to help free its mate by attacking those who hold it captive. Though Q goads Picard into punishing the Bandi, Picard refuses, instead ordering the Enterprise to fire a vivifying energy beam onto Farpoint after the station is evacuated. The beam allows the land-bound creature to transform back into its jellyfish-like form, and it flies into orbit to join its fellow being. As the crew watches the reunion of the alien creatures, Q reluctantly tells Picard that the humans have succeeded in their test, but hints that they will meet again. Production Conception and development history The new Star Trek series was announced on October 10, 1986, by the head of Paramount Television Group, Mel Harris. He announced that the creator of Star Trek, Gene Roddenberry, was to be executive producer and lead the creation of the new series. It was the second attempt at creating a new live-action television series based on Star Trek for Paramount; production on the previous attempt in 1977, called Star Trek: Phase II, became Star Trek: The Motion Picture. When the decision was made not to proceed with the Paramount network it had been slated to be the flagship for, and interest in a new movie was piqued after the release of Star Wars. Paramount had pitched ideas to Roddenberry earlier in 1986 as it was the twentieth anniversary of the original series, but Roddenberry turned them down and initially didn't want to do a new series. He later said, "It was only when the Paramount people agreed with me and said a sequel was probably impossible anyway that my interest was piqued." All four major networks turned down the new Star Trek series, as they were not willing to commit to a twenty-six-hour first season with a guaranteed unchanging time slot as well as a promotional campaign for the show. The team proceeded with the project with the backing of Paramount. Roddenberry began putting together a production crew which included colleagues who had worked with him on the original series, including Robert H. Justman, David Gerrold, and Eddie Milkis. Justman proposed three ideas to the others on October 17, including families on board the ship, a concept which later became the holodeck and both an android and a Klingon character. One idea discussed by the production team was for Deanna Troi to have three breasts to which writer D. C. Fontana objected. Fontana, who had previously worked on a number of episodes of the original series, was tasked with writing the script for the pilot. The production team met in full for the first time on February 18, 1987, having received the first draft of Fontana's script a few days earlier. The original premise involved the Enterprise and the USS Starseeker approaching an alien lifeform captured by a race called the Annoi and turned into a weapon. After the Annoi told the Starfleet ships to surrender, the Starseeker opened fire and was destroyed, while Troi contacted the alien and convinced it to crash on a nearby planet so that the Enterprise can help it to free itself along with rescuing other prisoners the Annoi were using as slaves on the surface. Despite numerous changes taking place to the plot before the final version, some of the introductions for various characters made it through to the final version. The plot involving Q was added subsequently to the episode in order to make it longer. Roddenberry was aiming for an hour-long pilot, but Paramount wanted a two-hour show and eventually won out. Other items were also added in order to lengthen the episode, including the saucer separation sequence and the appearance of Admiral Leonard McCoy. Casting Roddenberry realized early on that a series with the original crew from Star Trek was unlikely to be practical, nor did he want to recast the roles or have a "retread" crew – a series of different characters in very similar roles to the original series. He explained, "I would hate to think our imagination is so slender that there aren't other possibilities to think about." The first casting call was sent out on December 10, 1986. While some characters such as Geordi La Forge and Beverly Crusher remain recognizable from their descriptions in the initial casting call, others have clear differences; "Julien Picard" would lapse into a French accent when he became emotional, and Data was non-Caucasian. Macha Hernandez was a Latino security chief based on Jenette Goldstein's role in Aliens, while Deanna Troi was to appear "foreign" or more specifically of an Icelandic or Scandinavian nature. Leslie Crusher was listed as a fifteen-year-old girl with a photographic memory, although was quickly changed to a male teenager called Wesley. Justman argued for a female teenager but Roddenberry thought that there would be a greater number of storylines available if the character was male. Patrick Stewart was cast in the role of Jean-Luc Picard after Justman saw him perform at the University of California, Los Angeles. Roddenberry insisted that he wanted a French actor in the role, but Justman arranged a meeting between Stewart and the production team to introduce the actor, and later Rick Berman supported the casting. Fontana thought that American actor Stephen Macht would be better in the role. Justman wanted Stewart in the show in some capacity, and with Roddenberry still opposing him as Picard, Justman suggested that he might be a good fit instead for Data. Because Roddenberry couldn't find an actor he preferred more for Picard, he relented and changed his concept of Picard to better fit Stewart. Although Stewart was willing to put on an American accent to portray the role of Picard, the producers asked him to use his natural accent instead. They also tested him with a hairpiece but thought that it looked "awful". Stewart was pleased to have received the role, saying that his children were impressed with the new part and praised the mythos of the show saying, "The great strength of Star Trek is its epic, classic feel. For an actor of my background, it has more richness and depth than you might expect on television." Roddenberry's favorite for Riker was Jonathan Frakes, who went through seven auditions before claiming the role. Despite being the second choice of the casting team, he was hired after their first choice was unimpressive in his auditions. LeVar Burton had worked with Justman on another pilot for a series called Emergency Room and was suggested to apply for the role of La Forge. For US audiences he was the most well-known actor in the cast, due to his role in Roots. Gates McFadden and Brent Spiner gained the parts of Beverly Crusher and Data respectively through the normal audition processes. Eric Menyuk had also been considered for the part of Data, and would later be cast as the recurring character of the Traveller in three subsequent episodes. Justman later said that he was the only one out of the production team who preferred Menyuk in the role. Marina Sirtis auditioned for the role of Macha Hernandez, while Denise Crosby auditioned for the part of Deanna Troi. They both gained the parts with the approval of Berman and Justman, but Roddenberry switched the roles of the actresses as he thought Sirtis would be better suited for the role of the ship's counselor. Macha Hernandez was re-written to become Tasha Yar to better suit Crosby. The role of Worf required a black actor in order to make the Klingon make up easier to apply, and was expected to be only a recurring character, but following the casting of Michael Dorn and his work in "Encounter at Farpoint", the role was expanded. Wil Wheaton was cast as Wesley Crusher despite what he perceived as an "awful" first callback. The appearance of DeForest Kelley as Leonard McCoy was kept a secret, with the character only being referred to in scripts as "Admiral". While Roddenberry had wanted Kelley to appear, he thought that the actor would turn him down. The two had lunch together and Roddenberry suggested the appearance, with Kelley agreeing not only to appear, but also that he would not take anything more than the Screen Actor's Guild base salary for the part. He later said, "I just wanted scale, to let it be my way of saying thank you to Gene for the many good things he has done for me". John de Lancie deliberately missed his first audition for Q as he was appearing as a lead in a play at the time. A second audition was arranged during lunchtime so that he could attend. He later said that after he auditioned, "a big guy walked out, put his hands on my shoulder, and said, 'You make my words sound better than they are.' I said, 'Well, you must be the writer.' And he said, 'I'm Gene Roddenberry.' I had absolutely no idea who that was." Colm Meaney was cast in the part of the conn ensign on the ship's battle bridge, and after a further appearance in the episode "Lonely Among Us", his character was given the name Miles O'Brien in season two. The cast was announced on May 15, 1987. There was a certain degree of uncertainty regarding job security during the pilot for the main cast, as they did not hear until after production had wrapped that the show had been picked up for a further thirteen episodes. Filming Due to what was seen as a low budget for the pilot and series in general, the existing sets and equipment from the Star Trek movies were re-used in the new show. Milkis and Justman were given the task of reviewing the standing sets from the movies on the Paramount lot in order to see what they could use. The duo would later recall that one stage was so completely covered with cat feces due to the number of cats living on the lot that the pair couldn't walk on the set. Certain sets were re-used, including a re-dress of the Enterprise bridge from Star Trek III: The Search for Spock to act as the Enterprise battle bridge in the new series. The main engineering set from Star Trek III became the new main engineering set, albeit with a command console from Star Trek IV added as well as two walls from sickbay from Star Trek III. The rest of the sickbay set became the observation lounge during the first season. Some of the sets contained components from both Star Trek: The Motion Picture and the unfilmed Star Trek: Phase II. After running tests with a company for computer-generated special effects, it was decided that, for the sake of reliability, Industrial Light & Magic would produce the new models of the Enterprise, at a cost of $75,000 for a and a version. ILM was also integral to the development of the "jump to warp" special effect, which resulted in the company remaining on the show's end credits through its entire run. Filming of "Encounter at Farpoint" began on the Paramount lot May 29, 1987, and wrapped on June 25. Wil Wheaton noted that during the filming of "Encounter at Farpoint", most of the cast believed that the series would not last more than a year. Reception The show was broadcast on both 98 independent stations and 112 network affiliates. In several locations, including Dallas, Los Angeles, Seattle and Miami, the stations which were broadcasting "Encounter at Farpoint" gained higher ratings than the four major networks during prime time. Overall, it aired to an audience of 27 million. The show was immediately called the "highest-rated syndicated one-hour drama series on television". Jill L. Lanford watched the episode for The Herald Journal, prior to the series premiere. She thought it was a resurrection of a "legend". She believed the episode itself was reminiscent of classic Star Trek episodes "Arena" and "The Squire of Gothos", was the "perfect vehicle to introduce the crew", and a "perfect start". Don Merrill, writing for TV Guide said that the show was a "worthy successor to the original". Bob Niedt reviewed "Encounter at Farpoint" for Newhouse News and thought that the show had potential on the back of the episode, but there were problems such as "spots where the dialogue is pedestrian and interactions sputter". Tom Shales of The Washington Post viewed DeForest Kelley's cameo as "touching", but thought that Patrick Stewart was a "grim bald crank who would make a better villain". He felt Jonathan Frakes "verges on namby-pamby". Actress Marina Sirtis later recalled the reviews of the show's debut in 1987 while being interviewed to promote The Next Generation'''s fourth film, Star Trek: Nemesis, saying "they bloody hated us". Several reviewers reassessed the episode some time after the series aired. Michelle Erica Green reviewed the episode for TrekNation, and found the episode disappointing with reference to the character of Captain Picard and the female crew members and a lack of sense of fun. Actor Wil Wheaton, also reviewing the episode years later for TV Squad, gave the episode a 'C−' grade, suggesting that "at the time, Trekkies who were hoping to see the Star Trek that they were used to from the sixties must have been disappointed". Zack Handlen at The A.V. Club, criticized some of the elements of the episode, such as the "long, rather pointless sequence" where the Enterprise undergoes a saucer separation and overall described the episode "more functional than inspiring". He praised the performance of Patrick Stewart as Captain Picard, describing him as a "damn fine actor" and enjoyed John de Lancie as Q. He gave the episode an overall score of B−. James Hunt, from Den of Geek, re-reviewed the show following the re-release of season one on Blu-ray Disc. He stated, "even if it wasn't the first episode, it'd be worth watching" despite it coming from "what could arguably be called the worst season of Star Trek". Keith DeCandido for Tor.com thought that the pace of the episode was slow, but that both Patrick Stewart and Brent Spiner stood out from the rest of the cast for good reasons. He enjoyed the references to the original series, especially DeForest Kelley's appearance. He gave it overall a score of four out of ten. The episode was one of a handful of Star Trek programs recommended for viewing to introduce new viewers to the mythos in Jon Wagnar and Jan Lundeen's 1998 book Deep Space and Sacred Time: Star Trek in the American Mythos. The episode has been rated one of the series' best by The Hollywood Reporter and Den of Geek, and one of the most important Picard-focused episodes by SciFiPulse.net and Tom's Guide. The episode was nominated for a Hugo award. In 2021, Tom's Guide said that the character Q's appearance in this episode helped TNG "work", with his debut bringing an energy to the episode, a character that was enigmatic, playful, and possessing a "rapier wit." Home media releaseStar Trek: The Next Generation made its debut on VHS in September 1991 with "Encounter at Farpoint" as a feature-length episode on a single tape. It was subsequently released on DVD on region one on March 26, 2002. The sound was remastered to Dolby Digital 5.1 Surround standards, and a series of interviews with the cast and crew were included on the sixth disc. It was released in VHS in the United Kingdom. LaserDisc This episode was released in the "Q Continuum" collection of LaserDisc. The collection was released on July 30, 1997 and was published by Paramount Home Video; it retailed for 100 USD. The set included the 2-part "Encounter at Farpoint", "Hide & Q", "Q Who?", and "Deja Q" on 12 inch optical discs in NTSC format with a total runtime of 230 minutes. The collection came in a Tri-Fold jacket that also included a letter from actor Jon De Lancie. "Encounter at Farpoint" was released in Japan on LaserDisc on June 10, 1995, as part of First Season Part.1. This included first season episodes up to "Datalore" with a total runtime of 638 minutes on 12-inch optical video discs. "Encounter at Farpoint" was released on PAL-format LaserDisc in the United Kingdom as part of The Pilots collection, in April 1996. This included the color version of "The Cage", "Where No Man Has Gone Before", "Encounter at Farpoint", "Emissary", and "Caretaker" with a total runtime of 379 minutes. Blu-ray "Encounter at Farpoint" was one of the first episodes of the series to be released on Blu-ray Disc. The episode was remastered into high-definition video and involved the original production team in updating some of the special effects in the episode. It was featured on the single disc sampler of the series which was launched prior to any full season box sets in early 2012, entitled Star Trek: The Next Generation – The Next Level along with two other episodes. "Encounter at Farpoint" was subsequently included in the Blu-ray Disc release of the season one box set. Broadcast and streaming "Encounter at Farpoint" first aired as single 2 hour long movie (including commercials) in broadcast syndication starting the week of September 28, 1987. The production code for the 2 hour movie is 721, whereas it was also presented as two television episodes with production numbers 101 and 102. On the launch of Paramount+ streaming service, on March 4, 2021, a free Star Trek marathon was presented, featuring the pilots of the various Star Trek television series, including "Encounter at Farpoint". The marathon started at 7 am PT/10 am ET and was Live streamed on the YouTube internet video platform on that day. Novel A novelization of this episode was published by Pocket Books, it was one of five novelizations to be made of The Next Generation episodes, alongside "Unification", "Descent", "Relics", and "All Good Things...". The novelization was credited to original Star Trek series writer David Gerrold, but according to Gerrold the manuscript was actually written by D.C. Fontana, who had the assignment taken away by Roddenberry following a dispute over writing credits for the original teleplay. Gerrold submitted Fontana's manuscript under his own name with Fontana's blessing (without informing Roddenberry or Paramount) and voluntarily gave all proceeds from its sales to Fontana. Gerrold himself was denied co-creator credit for the series despite having written the original writers' "Bible," and was given the novelization as a financial apology.The Q Continuum'' trilogy of novels, featuring the character Q, was conceived by John J. Ordover at Pocket Books and written by Greg Cox. The author only accepted the project after rewatching all the television episodes featuring Q. Notes References External links Novelization Fiction set around Deneb Star Trek: The Next Generation (season 1) episodes American television series premieres 1987 American television episodes Star Trek: The Next Generation episodes in multiple parts Television episodes written by Gene Roddenberry Television episodes written by D. C. Fontana
401302	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honours%20of%20Scotland	Honours of Scotland	The Honours of Scotland (, ), informally known as the Scottish Crown Jewels, are the regalia that were worn by Scottish monarchs at their coronation. Kept in the Crown Room in Edinburgh Castle, they date from the 15th and 16th centuries, and are the oldest surviving set of crown jewels in the British Isles. The Honours were used together for the coronation of Scottish monarchs from Mary, Queen of Scots in 1543 until Charles II in 1651. From the Union of the Crowns in 1603 until the Union of 1707, the Honours were present at sittings of the Parliament of Scotland to signify the presence of the monarch and their acceptance of the power of Parliament. From at least the 16th century the monarch (or the Lord High Commissioner) signified the granting of Royal Assent by their touching the final printed copy of an Act of Parliament with the Sceptre during a meeting of the Parliament. Following the Union of 1707, the Honours were locked away in a chest in Edinburgh Castle and the Crown Jewels of England continued to be used by British monarchs as the Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom. The Honours were rediscovered in 1818 and have been on public display at Edinburgh Castle ever since. The Honours have been used at state occasions including the visit of George IV in 1822, Elizabeth II's first visit to Scotland as monarch in 1953, and a national service of thanksgiving for Charles III following his coronation in 2023. The Crown of Scotland is present at each Opening Ceremony of the Scottish Parliament. The Honours of Scotland consist of the Crown of Scotland, the Sceptre, and the Sword of State. The gold crown was made in Scotland and, in its present form, dates from 1540. The sword and sceptre were made in Italy as gifts to James IV from the pope. The Honours also appear on the crest of the Royal Coat of Arms of Scotland and on the Scottish version of the Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom, where the red lion of the King of Scots is depicted wearing the crown and holding the sword and sceptre. Coronation robes, a pair of spurs, a ring and consort crowns were also part of the Scottish regalia, none of which survives today. The gold ampulla of Charles I that held anointing oil at his 1633 coronation now belongs to the National Museum of Scotland. The Crown Room in Edinburgh Castle also contains the Stone of Scone, the Elizabeth Sword, a silver-gilt wand, the 17th-century Stewart Jewels (which were added in 1830), and the Lorne Jewels, which were bequeathed to Scotland by Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll, in 1939. History Early history In the earliest known depiction of a Scottish king wearing his symbols of sovereignty, King Edgar (reigned 1097–1107) wears a crown and bears a sword and a sceptre on his Great Seal. His brother, Alexander I, is shown holding an orb – a pictorial emblem of divine kingship that was not actually part of the Scottish regalia. By the reign of John Balliol, the regalia consisted of a crown, sceptre, sword and ring. After the English invasion in 1296, these regalia and Stone of Scone, upon which monarchs of Scotland were invested and crowned, were captured by the English army and taken south to London. New regalia were made in the 14th century for subsequent coronations, and though the Crown of Scotland may in its previous form date from this period, the other regalia were gradually replaced by the 16th century with the current set of Honours – consisting of the Crown of Scotland remodelled in 1540, and the Sceptre and Sword of State which were both made in Italy and given to James IV as papal gifts. A consort crown was made in 1539 for Mary of Guise, wife of James V, but it does not survive among the Honours. The Honours in their present form were first used together at the coronation of Mary, Queen of Scots in 1543. By the second half of the 16th century, they represented royal authority in the Scottish Parliament, and Acts of Parliament were given royal assent when the monarch (or their representatives) touched them with the Sceptre. 17th and 18th centuries From the Union of the Crowns in 1603 until the Union of 1707, the Honours were taken to sittings of the Parliament of Scotland to signify the monarch's presence and their acceptance of the power of the Parliament. Spurs – emblems of knighthood and chivalry – were presented to Charles I at his Scottish coronation in 1633; the spurs and coronation robes also have been lost. The Honours were last used at a coronation in 1651, when Charles II was crowned at Scone. As Oliver Cromwell had invaded Scotland the previous year, and Edinburgh Castle had surrendered to his army that December, the Honours could not be returned there. The English Crown Jewels had already been melted down and struck into coins by the Commonwealth. With Cromwell's army fast advancing on Scone, in June 1651 the Privy Council decided to place them at Dunnottar Castle in Kincardineshire, the family seat of the Earl Marischal, the custodian of the Honours. They were brought to Dunnottar, hidden in sacks of wool, and Sir George Ogilvie of Barras, lieutenant-governor of the castle, was given responsibility for its defence. In November 1651, Cromwell's troops called on Ogilvie to surrender, but he refused. During the subsequent blockade of the castle, the removal of the Honours of Scotland was planned by Elizabeth Douglas, wife of Sir George Ogilvie, and Christian Fletcher, wife of James Granger, minister of Kinneff Parish Church. Two stories exist regarding the removal of the Honours. Fletcher stated in 1664 that over the course of three visits to the castle in February and March 1652, she carried away the crown, sceptre, sword and scabbard hidden amongst sacks of goods. Another account, given in the 18th century by a tutor to the Earl Marischal, records that the honours were lowered from the castle onto the beach, where they were collected by Fletcher's servant and carried off in a creel of seaweed. Having smuggled the honours from the castle, Fletcher and her husband buried them under the floor of the Old Kirk at Kinneff. At the Restoration of Charles II in 1660, the Honours were removed from Kinneff Old Kirk and returned to Edinburgh Castle. During the debates in the Scottish Parliament from October 1706 to January 1707 on the Treaty of Union, rumour spread that the Honours were to be taken to England and melted down (an obscene song from the post-union period suggested that they were to be melted down to be turned into a set of dildos for Queen Anne). To allay fears over the fate of the Honours, on 14 January 1707 the Parliament amended Article 24 of the Treaty with a clause stating that "... the crown, scepter and sword of state... continue to be keeped as they are in that part of the united kingdome now called Scotland, and that they shall so remain in all tyme coming, notwithstanding of the union." With the adjournment of Parliament on 25 March 1707, the Honours no longer had any practical use. They were taken to the Crown Room in Edinburgh Castle, where they were safely locked away in a great oak chest, and the doorway of the Crown Room was walled up. 19th century On 28 October 1817, the Prince Regent issued a royal warrant authorising specified commissioners to break open the walled-up doorway of the Crown Room. The commissioners were: Lord Granton (the Lord President of the Court of Session), Lord Boyle (the Lord Justice Clerk), William Adam (the Lord Chief Commissioner of the Jury Court), Major-General Sir John Hope (the Commander-in-Chief, Scotland), Kincaid Mackenzie (the Lord Provost of Edinburgh), James Wedderburn (Solicitor General), the novelist and historian Walter Scott (in his capacity as Clerk of Session), William Clerk (clerk of the Jury Court), Henry Jardine (Deputy Remembrancer in Exchequer), and Thomas Thomson (Deputy Lord Clerk Register). The commissioners broke into the Crown Room on 4 February 1818. Half expecting to find the oak chest empty, they were relieved to open it and discover the crown, sceptre and sword, wrapped in linen, exactly as they had been left 111 years earlier. The Royal Standard was hoisted above Edinburgh Castle in celebration of the historic moment. Cheers of excitement rippled through the castle, and members of the public gathered outside to hear the news. On 26 May 1819, the Honours went on public display in the Crown Room. They were guarded by two veterans of the Battle of Waterloo dressed in a Jacobean-style Yeoman's outfit. George IV was crowned king in 1821 and his visit to Scotland the following year was the first by a monarch since 1651. On 12 August 1822, the Honours were escorted in procession to the Palace of Holyroodhouse. There was a carnival atmosphere, with people lining the streets and observing from windows. Three days later, the king arrived at the palace and symbolically touched the regalia. Before leaving the country a week later, he took part in a return procession to the Castle, where the Honours would remain until the 20th century. 20th century and later In 1911 the sword was carried before George V at the official opening of the Thistle Chapel in St Giles' Cathedral, Edinburgh – the first time any of the regalia had left Edinburgh Castle since 1822. During the Second World War, the Honours were hidden at the Castle owing to fears they might be lost if the UK fell to Germany. The crown and Stewart Jewels were buried under the floor of a water closet, while the sceptre, sword and wand were hidden inside a wall. The only officials who knew of the hiding places were George VI, the Scottish Secretary of State, the King's Remembrancer, and the Governor General of Canada. On 24 June 1953 they were presented to the newly crowned Elizabeth II at a national service of thanksgiving in St Giles' Cathedral. Keen to avoid the service being interpreted as a Scottish coronation, Sir Winston Churchill, then Prime Minister, advised the Queen to dress with relative informality. From 1971 until 1987 the sword was used at the installation of Knights of the Order of the Thistle, Scotland's highest Order of Chivalry. When the Stone of Scone was returned to Scotland in 1996 it was placed in the Crown Room alongside the Honours. During renovations in the 1990s, the Honours were temporarily stored at an anonymous bank in Edinburgh. The Crown of Scotland was present in May 1999 at the first sitting of the devolved Scottish Parliament. It was carried on a cushion, the official reason being that it was too fragile for the Queen to wear. In 2018 plans were announced to renovate the "past its sell-by date" Honours exhibition and improve accessibility. The Crown of Scotland was placed on Elizabeth II's coffin at a service in St Giles' Cathedral on 12 September 2022 and remained there whilst she lay in rest. Her successor Charles III was presented with the Honours on 5 July 2023 at a national service of thanksgiving in the same cathedral. Honours Crown A crown must have been made during the reign of Robert the Bruce or his son, David II, as David was anointed and crowned, as were all the subsequent Stewart kings, and it was probably this new crown that was remodelled into the current crown. It can be seen in its pre-1540 form in a portrait of James IV in the Book of Hours that was created for his marriage to Margaret Tudor in 1503. Arches were added to the crown by James V in 1532, making it an imperial crown, symbolising the king's status as an emperor of his own domain, subservient to no one but God. Arches first appeared as pictorial emblems on coins under James III, who in 1469 claimed "ful jurisdictione and free impire within his realm". In 1540, the circlet was melted down and recast by the Edinburgh goldsmith John Mosman, with the addition of 22 gemstones to the original 20 and an extra of Scottish gold. James V first wore it to his wife's coronation in the same year at Holyrood Abbey. It weighs , and the circlet is decorated with alternating fleurs-de-lis and crosses fleury. Four gold half-arches, preserved from the original crown, are surmounted by a gold monde – enamelled blue with stars representing the night sky. On top of the monde is a cross decorated with black enamel, pearls and a large amethyst. Originally, a purple velvet bonnet was manufactured by Thomas Arthur of Edinburgh. This was changed to a red bonnet by James VII, and the present bonnet dates from 1993. Four gold ornaments with a large pearl in the centre are attached to the bonnet between the crown's arches. Sceptre The Sceptre, a symbolic ornamental rod held by the Scottish monarchs at their coronation, was a gift from Pope Alexander VI to James IV in 1494. This papal gift replaced a native-made sceptre which dated from the 14th century at the earliest, and which has been lost. The Sceptre was made in Italy of silver gilt, was remodelled and lengthened for James V in 1536 by the Edinburgh goldsmith Adam Leys, and is long. The Sceptre consists of a handle attached to the bottom of a hexagonal rod, which is topped by a finial. The rod is engraved with grotesques, urns, leaves, thistles and fleurs-de-lis. The finial features stylised dolphins (symbols of the Church), and three figures under canopies. The three figures are the Virgin Mary, wearing a crown and holding the infant Jesus in her right arm and an orb in her left hand; Saint James the Great holding a book and a staff; and Saint Andrew holding a book and a saltire. The finial is topped by a globe of polished crystal, surmounted with a golden globe topped by a large pearl. Sword of State The Sword of State was a gift from Pope Julius II presented to James IV along with a blessed hat in 1507 as papal recognition of James's defence of Christendom (see blessed sword and hat). The sword, which measures in length, was made by Domenico da Sutri and replaced a native-made Sword of Honour that had been made in 1502 to complement the Sceptre, and which has been lost. The steel blade, measuring in length, is etched on either side with the figures of Saint Peter and Saint Paul, and the words: JULIUS II PONT MAX (Julius II Supreme Pontiff) in inlaid gold lettering. The silver-gilt handle is decorated with oak leaves and acorns, with two stylised oak leaves which overlap the scabbard, and a crossguard in the form of dolphins. The Sword of State's wooden scabbard is bound in crimson velvet with silver-gilt repoussé work and hung from a long sword belt that is made from woven silk and thread-of-gold and has a silver-gilt buckle. Other jewels in the Crown Room Elizabeth Sword In 2023 the Sword of State was considered too fragile to be presented along with the other Honours of Scotland to King Charles III at the national service of thanksgiving and dedication at St Giles Cathedral on 5 July. A new ceremonial sword, named the Elizabeth Sword after the late monarch, was made by Scottish artisans for the purpose, at a cost of £22,000. Wand Alongside the crown, sceptre and sword, Walter Scott found a silver-gilt wand. It measures in length and is topped with a faceted crystal monde surmounted by a cross. The wand has a wooden core and the unknown maker's initials F.G. The object's intended role – if it had one at all – has been forgotten, and its presence among the regalia is still a mystery. Walter Scott thought it may have been carried before the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland. Although the Treasurer did have a mace it was a different shape. Stewart Jewels Four objects taken into exile by James VII after the Glorious Revolution in 1688 are also displayed: a locket, a Great George and collar, and a ruby ring. The Stewart Jewels were passed down in the Stuart family. They all returned to Britain 119 years later and were given to Edinburgh Castle on permanent loan by William IV in 1830. The St Andrew Jewel of the Order of the Thistle is a gold and silver locket suspended from a ribbon that contains an oval piece of chalcedony into which is carved a cameo figure of Saint Andrew. The cameo is bordered with 12 diamonds. Inscribed on the back is the Order's Latin motto: NEMO ME IMPUNE LACESSIT (no one attacks me with impunity). Inside is a miniature portrait of Princess Louise of Stolberg-Gedern, wife of Charles Edward Stuart, the grandson of James VII. The object is variously of English, French, Italian and Dutch origin, was altered several times, and measures by . The Collar and the Great George of the Order of the Garter consist of an enamelled gold figure of Saint George, the patron saint of England, slaying a dragon made for Charles II in 1661 suspended from a gold collar made in 1685. The George is set with 122 diamonds and measures by . The saint's cloak and a large suspension loop are both missing. The collar is long and has 26 alternating knots and enamelled badges, each with a tudor rose in the centre. The Ruby Ring was probably used at the English coronations of Charles I and Charles II, and certainly that of James. It has a large ruby etched with a St George's Cross and bordered by 26 diamonds applied in the 19th century. Lorne Jewels Queen Victoria's fourth daughter, Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll, died in 1939 and bequeathed a necklace, locket, and pendant to the nation of Scotland. The London-made jewellery was a wedding gift to Louise from her husband the Marquess of Lorne (later the Duke of Argyll) in 1871. The necklace contains 190 diamonds connected by 13 pearls enclosed with diamonds; it suspends the locket, consisting of a large pearl surrounded by 30 diamonds; from which hangs the pear-shaped pendant, set with diamonds, emeralds and sapphires, having a relief depiction of the Galley of Lorne and the motto of Dukes of Argyll: NE OBLIVISCARIS, meaning "do not forget". Ampulla of Charles I A gold ampulla was crafted to hold the oil with which Charles I was anointed king at his Scottish coronation in 1633. The pear-shaped vessel is tall and weighs . Never used again, it was discovered in the possession of Sir George Grant-Suttie, 7th Baronet, in 1907 by the Scottish Church Society. In 1948 it was acquired by the National Museum of Scotland. The ampulla bears the following Latin inscription to commemorate its use at Charles I's coronation: Avrea Sacri olei Receptaculum quo Carolvs eius nominus primus Scotiae Anglie Fran; et hib; Rex. Edinburg; in Ecclesia S: Crucis unctus fuit lunii xviii 1633. Commissioners for the Keeping of the Regalia Under the terms of a Royal Warrant of 1818, the Keeper of the Great Seal of Scotland (the First Minister of Scotland), the Lord Clerk Register, the Lord Advocate, and the Lord Justice Clerk are ex-officio Commissioners for the Keeping of the Regalia. Since 1996, the commissioners have also been empowered by another Royal Warrant for the safekeeping of the Stone of Scone and for the arrangement of its return to Westminster Abbey for the next British coronation. See also Coat of arms of Kincardineshire Great H of Scotland Jewels of Mary, Queen of Scots Scottish State Coach References Bibliography Crown Jewels at the Edinburgh Castle website The Honours of Scotland at the Royal Family website Further reading External links Honours of Scotland – Edinburgh Castle website The Honours of Scotland – Royal Household website The Crown of Scotland – Historic Environment Scotland Sceptre – Historic Environment Scotland Scottish monarchy Crown jewels Scottish culture Edinburgh Castle National symbols of Scotland Material culture of royal courts Stone of Scone
401320	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caretaker%20%28Star%20Trek%3A%20Voyager%29	Caretaker (Star Trek: Voyager)	"Caretaker" is the series premiere of the American science fiction television series Star Trek: Voyager. It was first broadcast as a double-length episode on January 16, 1995, as the first telecast of the fledgling UPN network. It was later split into two parts for syndication, but released in its original one-episode format on DVD and streaming services. Set in the 24th century, the series follows the adventures of the Starfleet and Maquis crew of the starship USS Voyager after they are stranded in the Delta Quadrant far from the rest of the Federation. The premiere was watched by 21.3 million people in 1995. The episode won two Emmy awards, and launched the show into a seven season run that concluded in 2001. Original broadcast and UPN "Caretaker" aired on the United Paramount Network on January 16, 1995. It aired as a single 90-minute show, although later it was also played as two separate roughly-45-minute episodes. "Caretaker" marked the launch of Paramount's new television network, United Paramount Network, or UPN. The premiere aired between 8-10 p.m. Eastern on that Monday; however, not every television household saw it on that night and time, as the network's coverage in smaller markets (where it was even available at all) consisted largely of secondary affiliations, with UPN programming scheduled on a delay around that of the affiliate's primary network. For example, St. Louis affiliate KDNL aired it on a 2.5 hour delay (at 9:30 p.m. Central) after the evening's Fox programming. In some markets, such as New York, "Caretaker" aired against different Star Trek reruns on other channels. Plot A scrolling text introduces the Cardassian and Federation relationship with the Maquis rebels. The opening scene shows the Cardassians pursuing a smaller Maquis spacecraft that escapes into the Badlands, a volatile nebula. The Cardassian vessel is damaged by a plasma storm and the Maquis ship is caught in a displacement wave. On Earth, Captain Kathryn Janeway of the Federation starship USS Voyager recruits Tom Paris, disgraced former Starfleet officer and now a captured Maquis member, to help find the missing Maquis spacecraft. Janeway is searching for Tuvok, her security officer who was a spy aboard the Maquis ship. Departing Deep Space Nine, Voyager journeys to the Badlands, where it is scanned by a "coherent tetryon beam" before a displacement wave hits and wreaks havoc on the ship. The crew recovers and find themselves in the Delta Quadrant, over 70,000 light years from Federation space. Fatalities include Voyager'''s second-in-command, helm officer, chief engineer, and medical staff. The Emergency Medical Hologram is activated to treat the injured. Before determining their bearings, the crew is transported to a holographic simulation aboard a nearby array controlled by a being known as the Caretaker. Seeing through the simulation, the Voyager crew discover the unconscious Maquis crew undergoing strange medical experiments. The Voyager crew are subjected to the same experiments. Later, both crews awaken on their own vessels and find each are missing one crew member: Harry Kim from Voyager, and the Maquis' B'Elanna Torres. Attempts to negotiate with the Caretaker are fruitless as he insists there is "no time". Janeway offers to work with Maquis leader Chakotay, a former Starfleet officer, to find missing crew and return to the Alpha Quadrant. The two ships follow energy pulses sent from the array to a nearby planet. En route, they encounter Neelix, a space trader eager to assist them in exchange for water and rescuing his companion, the Ocampa Kes, from the violent Kazon that inhabit the planet's surface. Kes' people live in a subterranean complex, cared for by the Caretaker who supplies them with energy and other essentials. The only expectation is that they tend to any beings sent to them, each suffering an incurable disease. As the crews determine how to rescue Kim and Torres, the Caretaker realigns the array and fires more frequent energy bursts. Vulcan security chief Tuvok deduces that the Caretaker is dying and is ensuring the Ocampa are kept safe by sealing the underground complex, though eventually their resources will be depleted. With time running short, a combined away team penetrates the shields protecting the complex and rescues Kim and Torres. The crews again ask the Caretaker to return them to the Alpha Quadrant. He reveals that he was part of an ancient alien race whose technology accidentally destroyed the Ocampan planet's atmosphere, leaving it lifeless. In recompense, he and another of his race have cared for the Ocampa ever since. His companion having long moved on, he experiments on species from distant galactic sectors hoping to find a compatible match so that he could reproduce and pass the responsibility to his offspring. Nearing death, the Caretaker initiates the array's self-destruct sequence to prevent the technology from falling to the Kazon. As the Caretaker dies, the ships are attacked by a Kazon fleet. Janeway and Chakotay coordinate a counterattack to protect the array; Chakotay sacrifices his vessel to destroy a Kazon ship, but the damaged array disables the self-destruct sequence. Janeway opts to respect the Caretaker's wishes and orders the array destroyed, despite it being their only chance at returning home. With the array destroyed, the Kazon disengage. Their leader informs Janeway she has made an enemy. As Voyager begins a 75-year journey back to the Alpha Quadrant, Janeway integrates the Maquis into the Starfleet crew, with Chakotay as her second-in-command. Janeway re-instates Paris as a Starfleet officer holding the rank of Lieutenant and assigns him as helmsman. Neelix and Kes join the crew as guides. Casting Due to the nature of the plot, the rest of series has a different set of crew starting with the next (third) episode: Main bridge characters in "Caretaker" of Voyager Captain Kathryn Janeway (Kate Mulgrew), who commands the starship USS Voyager Lt. Commander Cavit (Scott Jaeck), Voyager's first officer when they set out from Deep Space Nine Lieutenant Stadi (Alicia Coppola), the Betazoid Helm Officer Ensign Harry Kim (Garrett Wang), the Operations Officer Tom Paris (Robert Duncan McNeill), Observer/Maquis consultant Lt. Tuvok (Tim Russ), he is the Security/Tactical officer of Voyager but is working as a spy on Maquis ship Val JeanAs the episode progresses, more characters are introduced; see Cast of Star Trek: Voyager. Quark has a scene in this episode, who was a main cast character on the show Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, which was in production concurrently with Star Trek: Voyager at this time. By the end of the episode, several major characters for Voyager are introduced, including Neelix and Kes. Torres, Chakotay, and Tuvok are also introduced as being on the Voyager spacecraft, and several other characters that were introduced, such as Stadi and Cavit, are lost. Since the spacecraft is moved to the Delta Quadrant, they are also cut off from communication with Deep Space Nine and Starfleet at that time. Production Filming began on September 6, 1994, with the scenes set on Deep Space Nine. Scenes with Geneviève Bujold, the first actress chosen to play Captain Nicole Janeway, were filmed with her over September 7 and 8. Bujold and the director Winrich Kolbe reportedly disagreed over Bujold's performance: Bujold insisted on playing the role in a more restrained way than Kolbe wanted. She departed on her second day of filming and production was suspended until September 12, when filming of scenes without Janeway recommenced. Actresses reported as possible replacements for Bujold included Joanna Cassidy, Susan Gibney, Elizabeth Dennehy, Tracy Scoggins, and Lindsay Crouse. Kate Mulgrew was cast as Captain Kathryn Janeway, from among four actresses recalled from the original round of auditions, and shooting of her scenes began on September 19. Several of Bujold's scenes can be seen on the Season One DVD extras. "Caretaker" took 31 days to shoot, and was filmed at multiple locations. The production of the episode remains one of the most expensive in television history, reportedly costing $23 million. The series has similarities to Gene Roddenberry's Andromeda, which also features a hologram, a starship transported by an anomaly into a new alien landscape and the deaths of bridge officers and their replacement with a misfit crew. The scenes of medical experiments on the array appear to pay homage to Bujold's 1978 film Coma, and the opening sequence of the episode—a text crawl followed by a small spaceship being chased by a larger one—mirrors the opening of Star Wars. The art department for Voyager was based out of the Dreier building at Paramount Studios. Special effect model In late October 1994, the USS Voyager model was delivered to Image G, who did the motion-control photography video work with the model for the special effects shots. The model was delivered by Tony Meineger to Image G, which was also motion control photography for the Caretaker Array, Maquis ship, and Kazon space ship. The production schedule was packed with other work, but special effect shots for Voyager were needed for the "Caretaker" and also "Parallax" episodes at that time. Sets Many of the main sets for the series were located at Stage 8 and Stage 9 at Paramount Studios. An example of the complexity of some of the sets is the bridge of the Voyager spacecraft. The bridge had 11 different monitors of three different sizes, that had custom graphics displayed depending on what was being shot for each scene. For example, for a scene with the "red alert" setting, the appropriate video graphics would have to be displayed on cue. These graphics were created by a team of people, with a need for both static and video graphics. The videos were recorded to videocassette to be played at the right time, such as when an actor is looking at a monitor. For "Caretaker" due to changes, and re-shoots there was some very difficult deadlines on having graphics ready for shots, and often involved discussions between staff. Awards "Caretaker" won two Emmy awards, for "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Main Title Theme Music" and "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Special Visual Effects". Reception In 2012, Den of Geek ranked "Caretaker" the seventh best episode of the series retrospectively.The Hollywood Reporter ranked "Caretaker" among the 100 best episodes in the Star Trek franchise, and noted its similarity to the Next Generation universe, where the Enterprise was often transported to a distant location from which the crew were expected to escape. Two examples of this are "Where No One Has Gone Before" and "The Price", in the latter of which a spacecraft is stranded in the Delta Quadrant, just like Voyager. Voyager encounters the characters from "The Price" in the third-season episode "False Profits".Variety found "Caretaker" to be a worthy launch of a Star Trek series, calling it "impressive" and praising the design of the Intrepid-class Voyager spaceship. On the other hand, "Caretaker" marked a reduction in viewers from the last episode of The Next Generation, which had over 30 million viewers when it concluded the previous year in early 1994. Voyager was not able to maintain the viewership achieved with "Caretaker" (21.3 million), but did achieve average ratings and seven seasons of production. As with Deep Space Nine, it had consistently lower ratings than The Next Generation but managed to be successful in expanding the Star Trek franchise and fill the popular appetite for Star Trek shows that had grown to a frenzy in the 1990s. Although "Caretaker" successfully established the characters and their predicament, reviewers complain that the integration of the two disparate crews so quickly is unconvincing, and too many plot points are left unexplained, such as how Neelix and Kes met and how Kim and Torres were cured. In 2015, a Star Trek: Voyager binge-watching guide by Wired suggested this episode could not be skipped. In 2016, The Hollywood Reporter said this was the 84th best episode of all Star Trek television. The same year, they ranked "Caretaker" the 14th best episode of the Star Trek: Voyager, remarking: "The series premiere for Voyager promised a Star Trek like none before it" but noting its ties to Star Trek The Next Generation that ended its runs several months prior. In 2017, Den of Geek rated "Caretaker" among top fifty episodes of all Star Trek, noting that it launched a new television series and was a "landmark". In 2019, Den of Geek had called the premiere "captivating and sets the stage for another great mission to the final frontier". The series is notable for its diverse set of characters and, in a first for Star Trek, a female captain as a main character.This paid homage to Gene Roddenberry's egalitarian vision of the future, such as when he included the female Number One character as second-in command of the Enterprise in the original 1965 pilot of Star Trek, "The Cage". The actress that played that character, Majel Barrett (who soon married Roddenberry), also provided the voice for the onboard computer in several Star Trek series, including Voyager. In 2017, GameSpot ranked this as the third best pilot episode of a Star Trek series. Alicia Coppola, the actress who played Lieutenant Stadi in the episode, remarked that the role was "a great part". In 2016, SyFy ranked "Caretaker" as the fourth best out of six main Star Trek TV show pilots made up to that time. They felt that the "first act does a fine job of building both characters and tension", and was overall very ambitious. Despite these strengths, they did note a number of issues ranging from questions about the plot, science fiction technology and characters. In July 2019, Screen Rant ranked "Caretaker" as one of the top five episodes of Star Trek: Voyager, noting how it introduced characters with an exciting plot and made use of Deep Space Nine by having a stopover there. In 2020, Tor.com rated "Caretaker" five out of ten, noting that while it was good introduction to the series they felt they had "fudged details". In 2020, SyFy ranked this the 15th best episode of Star Trek: Voyager.Releases "Caretaker" was released multiple times on VHS in various markets after its showing in 1995. The first VHS release in the United Kingdom was in June 1995 by the company CIC. By the 2010s, it was noted as a struggle to record VHS history, with some universities trying to save libraries of the cassettes. "Caretaker" was released as various sets, for example in the VHS set The Four Beginnings, which included the first episodes of TOS, TNG, DS9 and Voyager. "Caretaker" was released on PAL-format LaserDisc in the United Kingdom as part of The Pilots collection, in April 1996. This collection included the color version of "The Cage", "Where No Man Has Gone Before", "Encounter at Farpoint", "Emissary" and "Caretaker", with a total runtime of 379 minutes. "Caretaker" was released on VHS tapes on April 4, 2000, and in both 2004 and 2017 as part of the Season 1 Voyager DVD set when the whole Voyager series was released. The soundtrack, with works by Jay Chattaway and Jerry Goldsmith was released on compact disc on October 17, 1995. The release also includes a text pamphlet with various facts about the composers in regards to the "Caretaker" soundtrack. On the launch of the Paramount+ streaming service, on March 4, 2021, a one day only free Star Trek marathon was presented, featuring the first episodes of the various Star Trek'' television series, including "Caretaker". The marathon started at 7 am PT/10 am ET and was Live streamed on the YouTube internet video platform, going through each episode chronologically in order of release with "Caretaker" airing between "Emissary" and "Broken Bow". Novel A novelization of "Caretaker" was released as a 278-page novel, and also as an audiobook in 1995 by Simon & Schuster. The novelized version of the story was written by L.A. Graf. References External links Star Trek: Voyager (season 1) episodes American television series premieres 1995 American television episodes Television episodes written by Rick Berman Star Trek: Voyager episodes in multiple parts Emmy Award-winning episodes sv:Lista över avsnitt av Star Trek: Voyager#Säsong 1
401342	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20South	Deep South	The Deep South or the Lower South is a cultural and geographic subregion of the Southern United States. The term was first used to describe the states which were most economically dependent on plantations and slavery. After the American Civil War ended in 1865, the region suffered economic hardship and was a major site of racial tension during and after the Reconstruction era. Before 1945, the Deep South was often referred to as the "Cotton States" since cotton was the primary cash crop for economic production. The civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s helped usher in a new era, sometimes referred to as the New South. Usage The term "Deep South" is defined in a variety of ways: Most definitions include the following states: Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and South Carolina. Texas and Florida are sometimes included, due to being peripheral states, having coastlines with the Gulf of Mexico, their history of slavery, large African American populations, and being part of the historical Confederate States of America. The eastern part of Texas is the westernmost extension of the Deep South, while North Florida is also part of the Deep South region, typically the area north of Ocala. Tennessee, particularly West Tennessee, is sometimes included due to its history of slavery, its prominence in cotton production during the antebellum period, and cultural similarity to the Mississippi Delta region. Arkansas is sometimes included or considered to be "in the peripheral" or Rim South rather than the Deep South. The seven states that seceded from the United States before the firing on Fort Sumter and the start of the American Civil War, which originally formed the Confederate States of America. In order of secession, they are South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. The first six states to secede were those that, percentage-wise, held the largest number of slaves. Ultimately, the Confederacy included eleven states. A large part of the original "Cotton Belt" is sometimes included in Deep South terminology. This was considered to extend from eastern North Carolina to Georgia, through the Gulf States as far west as East Texas, including West Tennessee, eastern Arkansas, and up the Mississippi embayment. The inner core of the Deep South, characterized by very rich black soil that supported cotton plantations, is a geological formation known as the Black Belt. The Black Belt has since become better known as a sociocultural region; in this context it is a term used for much of the Cotton Belt, which had a high percentage of African-American slave labor. Origins Although often used in history books to refer to the seven states that originally formed the Confederacy, the term "Deep South" did not come into general usage until long after the Civil War ended. For at least the remainder of the 19th century, "Lower South" was the primary designation for those states. When "Deep South" first began to gain mainstream currency in print in the middle of the 20th century, it applied to the states and areas of South Carolina, Georgia, southern Alabama, northern Florida, Mississippi, northern Louisiana, West Tennessee, southern Arkansas, and eastern Texas, all historical areas of cotton plantations and slavery. This was the part of the South many considered the "most Southern." Later, the general definition expanded to include all of South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, as well as often taking in bordering areas of West Tennessee, East Texas and North Florida. In its broadest application, the Deep South is considered to be "an area roughly coextensive with the old cotton belt, from eastern North Carolina through South Carolina, west into East Texas, with extensions north and south along the Mississippi." Early economics After the Civil War, the region was economically poor. After Reconstruction ended in 1877, a small fraction of the white population composed of wealthy landowners, merchants and bankers controlled the economy and, largely, the politics. Most white farmers were poor and had to do manual work on their farms to survive. As prices fell, farmers' work became harder and longer because of a change from largely self-sufficient farms, based on corn and pigs, to the growing of a cash crop of cotton or tobacco. Cotton cultivation took twice as many hours of work as raising corn. The farmers lost their freedom to determine what crops they would grow, ran into increasing indebtedness, and many were forced into tenancy or into working for someone else. Some out-migration occurred, especially to Texas, but over time, the population continued to grow and the farms were subdivided smaller and smaller. Growing discontent helped give rise to the Populist movement in the early 1890s. It represented a sort of class warfare, in which the poor farmers sought to gain more of an economic and political voice. From Reconstruction through the Civil Rights Movement After 1950, the region became a major epicenter of the Civil Rights Movement, including: the emergence of a young (25 year old) new pastor of a local church, Martin Luther King Jr., the 1955 Montgomery bus boycott, the 1956 Sugar Bowl Riots, the 1960 founding of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), and the 1964 Freedom Summer. Major cities and urban areas The Deep South has three major Metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs) located solely within its boundaries, with populations exceeding 1,000,000 residents (Four including Memphis). Atlanta, the 8th largest metro area in the United States, is the Deep South's largest population center, followed by Memphis, New Orleans, and Birmingham. Metropolitan areas The 18 Deep South metropolitan areas (MSAs) within the 150 largest population centers in the United States are ranked below: * Indicates state capital Other substantial cities include: People In the 1980 census, of people who identified solely by one European national ancestry, most European Americans identified as being of English ancestry in every Southern state except Louisiana, where more people identified as having French ancestry. A significant number also have Irish and Scotch-Irish ancestry. With regards to people in the Deep South who reported only a single European-American ancestry group, the 1980 census showed the following self-identification in each state in this region: Alabama – 857,864 persons out of a total of 2,165,653 people in the state identified as "English," making them 41% of the state and the largest national ancestry group at the time by a wide margin. Georgia – 1,132,184 out of 3,009,486 people identified as "English," making them 37.62% of the state's total. Mississippi – 496,481 people out of 1,551,364 people identified as "English," making them 32.00% of the total, the largest national group by a wide margin. Florida – 1,132,033 people out of 5,159,967 identified "English" as their only ancestry group, making them 21.94% of the total. Louisiana – 440,558 people out of 2,319,259 people identified only as "English," making them 19.00% of the total people and the second-largest ancestry group in the state at the time. Those who wrote only "French" were 480,711 people out of 2,319,259 people, or 20.73% of the total state population. South Carolina – 578,338 people out of 1,706,966 identified as "English," making them 33.88% of the total at the time. Texas – 1,639,322 people identified as "English" only out of a total of 7,859,393 people, making them 20.86% of the total people in the state and the largest ancestry group by a large margin. These figures do not take into account people who identified as "English" and another ancestry group. When the two were added together, people who self-identified as being English with other ancestry, made up an even larger portion of southerners. South Carolina was settled earlier than other states commonly classified as the Deep South. Its population in 1980 included 578,338 people out of 1,706,966 people, who identified as "English" only, making them 33.88% of the total population, the largest national ancestry group by a wide margin. The map to the right was prepared by the Census Bureau from the 2000 census; it shows the predominant ancestry in each county as self-identified by residents themselves. Note: The Census said that areas with the largest "American"-identified ancestry populations, were mostly settled by descendants of English and others from the British Isles, French, Germans and later Italians. Those with African ancestry tended to identify as African American, although some African Americans also have some British or Northern European ancestors as well. , the majority of African-descended Americans in the South live in the Black Belt geographic area. Hispanic and Latino Americans largely started arriving in the Deep South during the 1990s, and their numbers have grown rapidly. Politically they have not been very active. Politics Political expert Kevin Phillips states that, "From the end of Reconstruction until 1948, the Deep South Black Belts, where only whites could vote, were the nation's leading Democratic Party bastions." From the late 1870s to the mid-1960s, conservative whites of the Deep South held control of state governments and overwhelmingly identified with and supported the Democratic Party. The most powerful leaders belonged to the party's moderate-to-conservative wing. The Republican Party would only control mainly mountain districts in Southern Appalachia, on the fringe of the Deep South, during the "Solid South" period. At the turn of the 20th century, all Southern states, starting with Mississippi in 1890, passed new constitutions and other laws that effectively disenfranchised the great majority of blacks and sometimes many poor whites as well. Blacks were excluded subsequently from the political system entirely. The white Democratic-dominated state legislatures passed Jim Crow laws to impose white supremacy, including caste segregation of public facilities. In politics, the region became known for decades as the "Solid South." While this disenfranchisement was enforced, all of the states in this region were mainly one-party states dominated by white Southern Democrats. Southern representatives accrued outsized power in the Congress and the national Democratic Party, as they controlled all the seats apportioned to southern states based on total population, but only represented the richer subset of their white populations. Major demographic changes would ensue in the 20th century. During the two waves of the Great Migration (1916–1970), a total of six million African Americans left the South for the Northeast, Midwest, and West, to escape the oppression and violence in the South. Beginning with the Goldwater–Johnson election of 1964, a significant contingent of white conservative voters in the Deep South stopped supporting national Democratic Party candidates and switched to the Republican Party. They still would vote for many Democrats at the state and local level into the 1990s. Studies of the Civil Rights Movement often highlight the region. Political scientist Seth McKee concluded that in the 1964 presidential election, "Once again, the high level of support for Goldwater in the Deep South, and especially their Black Belt counties, spoke to the enduring significance of white resistance to black progress." White southern voters consistently voted for the Democratic Party for many years to hold onto Jim Crow Laws. Once Franklin D. Roosevelt came to power in 1932, the limited southern electorate found itself supporting Democratic candidates who frequently did not share its views. Journalist Matthew Yglesias argues: Kevin Phillips states that, "Beginning in 1948, however, the white voters of the Black Belts shifted partisan gears and sought to lead the Deep South out of the Democratic Party. Upcountry, pineywoods and bayou voters felt less hostility towards the New Deal and Fair Deal economic and caste policies which agitated the Black Belts, and for another decade, they kept The Deep South in the Democratic presidential column. Phillips emphasizes the three-way 1968 presidential election: Wallace won very high support from Black Belt whites and no support at all from Black Belt Negroes. In the Black Belt counties of the Deep South, racial polarization was practically complete. Negroes voted for Hubert Humphrey, whites for George Wallace. GOP nominee Nixon garnered very little backing and counties where Barry Goldwater had captured 90 percent to 100 percent of the vote in 1964. The Republican Party in the South had been crippled by the disenfranchisement of blacks, and the national party was unable to relieve their past with the South where Reconstruction was negatively viewed. During the Great Depression and the administration of Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt, some New Deal measures were promoted as intending to aid African Americans across the country and in the poor rural South, as well as poor whites. In the post-World War II era, Democratic Party presidents and national politicians began to support desegregation and other elements of the Civil Rights Movement, from President Harry S. Truman's desegregating the military, to John F. Kennedy's support for non-violent protests. These efforts culminated in Lyndon B. Johnson's important work in gaining Congressional approval for the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965. Since then, upwards of 90 percent of African Americans in the South have voted for the Democratic Party, including 93 percent for Obama in 2012, though this dropped to 88 percent for Hillary Clinton in 2016. Late 20th century to present Historian Thomas Sugrue attributes the political and cultural changes, along with the easing of racial tensions, as the reason why Southern voters began to vote for Republican national candidates, in line with their political ideology. Since then, white Deep South voters have tended to vote for Republican candidates in most presidential elections. Times the Democratic Party has won in the Deep South since the late 20th century include: the 1976 election when Georgia native Jimmy Carter received the Democratic nomination, the 1980 election when Carter won Georgia, the 1992 election when Arkansas native and former governor Bill Clinton won Georgia, Tennessee, Louisiana, and Arkansas, the 1996 election when the incumbent president Clinton again won Louisiana, Tennessee and Arkansas, and when Georgia was won by Joe Biden in the 2020 United States presidential election. In 1995, Georgia Republican Newt Gingrich was elected by representatives of a Republican-dominated House as Speaker of the House. Since the 1990s the white majority has continued to shift toward Republican candidates at the state and local levels. This trend culminated in 2014 when the Republicans swept every statewide office in the Deep South region midterm elections. As a result, the Republican party came to control all the state legislatures in the region, as well as all House seats that were not representing majority-minority districts. Presidential elections in which the Deep South diverged noticeably from the Upper South occurred in 1928, 1948, 1964, 1968, and, to a lesser extent, in 1952, 1956, 1992, and 2008. Former Arkansas Governor Mike Huckabee fared well in the Deep South in the 2008 Republican primaries, losing only one state (South Carolina) while running (he had dropped out of the race before the Mississippi primary). In the 2020 presidential election, the state of Georgia was considered a toss-up state hinting at a possible Democratic shift in the area. It ultimately voted Democratic, in favor of Joe Biden. During the 2021 January Senate runoff elections, Georgia also voted for two Democrats, Jon Ossoff and Raphael Warnock. However, Georgia still maintains a Republican lean with a PVI rating of R+3 in line with its Deep South neighbors, with Republicans currently controlling every statewide office, its Supreme Court, and its legislature. States From colonial times to the early-twentieth century, much of the Lower South had a black majority. Three Southern states had populations that were majority-black: Louisiana (from 1810 until about 1890), South Carolina (until the 1920s), and Mississippi (from the 1830s to the 1930s). In the same period, Georgia, Alabama, and Florida had populations that were nearly 50% black, while Maryland, North Carolina, and Virginia had black populations approaching or exceeding 40%. Texas' black population reached 30%. The demographics of these states changed markedly from the 1890s through the 1950s, as two waves of the Great Migration led more than 6,500,000 African-Americans to abandon the economically depressed, segregated Deep South in search of better employment opportunities and living conditions, first in Northern and Midwestern industrial cities, and later west to California. One-fifth of Florida's black population had left the state by 1940, for instance. During the last thirty years of the twentieth century into the twenty-first century, scholars have documented a reverse New Great Migration of black people back to southern states, but typically to destinations in the New South, which have the best jobs and developing economies. The District of Columbia, one of the magnets for black people during the Great Migration, was long the sole majority-minority federal jurisdiction in the continental U.S. The black proportion has declined since the 1990s due to gentrification and expanding opportunities, with many black people moving to southern states such as Texas, Georgia, Florida, and Maryland and others migrating to jobs in states of the New South in a reverse of the Great Migration. Transportation U.S. Route 90 runs from Van Horn, Texas to Jacksonville, Florida. U.S. Route 11 runs through the Deep South to the Canadian border in New York. Interstate 10 is a major transcontinental east–west highway that travels through the far southern portion of the Deep South, with its eastern terminus at I-95 in Jacksonville, Florida. Interstate 55 is a major north–south route traveling from Chicago, Illinois to New Orleans, Louisiana. The interstate travels through the Deep South cities of Memphis, Jackson, and New Orleans. Interstate 40 is a major transcontinental east–west route that travels from Barstow, California to Wilmington, North Carolina. It meets Interstate 55 in Memphis. Interstate 49 is an partially complete interstate running north–south centrally in the United States. It runs currently in the Deep South from Texarkana, Arkansas through Shreveport, and Alexandria to Lafayette, Louisiana. Interstate 20 runs from West Texas to Florence, South Carolina. It travels through the Deep South cities of Shreveport, Jackson, Birmingham, Atlanta, Augusta, and Columbia. References Further reading Black, Merle, and Earl Black. "Deep South politics: the enduring racial division in national elections". . Brown, D. Clayton. King Cotton: A Cultural, Political, and Economic History since 1945 (University Press of Mississippi, 2011) 440 pp. Davis, Allison. Deep South: A Social Anthropological Study of Caste and Class (1941) classic case study from the late 1930s Dollard, John. Caste and Class in a Southern Town (1941), a classic case study Fite, Gilbert C. Cotton fields no more: Southern agriculture, 1865–1980 (University Press of Kentucky, 2015). Gulley, Harold E. "Women and the lost cause: Preserving a Confederate identity in the American Deep South". Journal of historical geography 19.2 (1993): 125–141. Harris, J. William. Deep Souths: Delta, Piedmont, and Sea Island Society in the Age of Segregation (2003) Hughes, Dudley J. Oil in the Deep South: A History of the Oil Business in Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida, 1859–1945 (University Press of Mississippi, 1993). Key, V.O. Southern Politics in State and Nation (1951) classic political analysis, state by state. online free to borrow Kirby, Jack Temple. Rural Worlds Lost: The American South, 1920–1960 (Louisiana State University Press, 1986) major scholarly survey with detailed bibliography; online free to borrow. Lang, Clarence. "Locating the civil rights movement: An essay on the Deep South, Midwest, and border South in Black Freedom Studies". Journal of Social History 47.2 (2013): 371–400. Online Pierce, Neal R. The Deep South States of America: People, Politics, and Power in the Seven States of the Deep South (1974) in-depth study of politics and issues, state by state Rogers, William Warren, et al. Alabama: The history of a deep south state (University of Alabama Press, 2018). Roller, David C. and Robert W. Twyman, eds. The Encyclopedia of Southern History (Louisiana State University Press, 1979) Rothman, Adam. Slave Country: American Expansion and the Origins of the Deep South (2007) Thornton, J. Mills. Politics and power in a slave society: Alabama, 1800–1860 (1978) online free to borrow Vance, Rupert B. Regionalism and the South (UNC Press Books, 1982). Primary sources Carson, Clayborne et al. eds. The Eyes on the Prize Civil Rights Reader: Documents, Speeches, and Firsthand Accounts from the Black Freedom Struggle (Penguin, 1991), 784pp. Johnson, Charles S. Statistical atlas of southern counties: listing and analysis of socio-economic indices of 1104 southern counties (1941). excerpt Raines, Howell, ed. My soul is rested: Movement days in the deep south remembered (Penguin, 1983). Politics of the Southern United States Regions of the Southern United States
401407	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz%20Conrad%20von%20H%C3%B6tzendorf	Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf	Franz Xaver Josef Conrad von Hötzendorf (after 1919 Franz Conrad; 11 November 1852 – 25 August 1925), sometimes anglicised as Hoetzendorf, was an Austrian general who played a central role in World War I. He served as K.u.k. Feldmarschall (field marshal) and Chief of the General Staff of the military of the Austro-Hungarian Army and Navy from 1906 to 1917. He was in charge during the July Crisis of 1914 that caused World War I. For years he had repeatedly called for preemptive war against Serbia to rescue the multiethnic Austro-Hungarian Empire, which was, he believed, nearing disintegration. Later on, he came to believe that the Dual Monarchy had taken action at the eleventh hour. The army was also unprepared and he had resorted to politics to further his goals. He was unaware that Germany would relocate the majority of its forces to the Eastern Front, rather than in the Balkans. Conrad was anxious about invading Russia and when the tsar's armies had captured the Carpathian mountain passes and were on the verge of invading Hungary, Italy entered the war on the side of the Allies. The Austro-Germans cleared Galicia and Poland during the Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive in the summer of 1915 and later conquered Serbia in October with the help of Bulgaria. From 1915 his troops were increasingly reliant on German support and command. Without support from its German allies the Austro-Hungarian Army was an exhausted force. In March 1917, Charles I dismissed him as Chief of Staff after Emperor Franz Joseph died and Conrad's Trentino Offensive had failed to achieve its objective; he then commanded an army group on the Italian Front until he retired in the summer of 1918. He died in 1925. Life Conrad was born in Penzing, a suburb of Vienna, to an Austrian officers' family. His great-grandfather Franz Anton Conrad (1738–1827) had been ennobled and added to his name the nobiliary particle von Hötzendorf as a predicate in 1815, referring to the surname of his first wife who descended from the Bavarian Upper Palatinate region. His father Franz Xaver Conrad (1793–1878) was a retired colonel of Hussars, originally from southern Moravia, who had fought in the Battle of Leipzig and took part in the suppression of the Vienna Uprising of 1848, wherein he was severely wounded. Conrad married Wilhelmine le Beau (1860–1905) in 1886, with whom he had four sons. In the latter part of his life, he was known to hold doubts about his fitness for office and occasionally suffered severe bouts of depression. These worsened after the death of his wife in 1905. In 1907, while attending a dinner party in Vienna, Conrad met Virginia von Reininghaus, an Italian aristocrat, and became quickly enamoured. In the weeks following this, he made many attempts to court Reininghaus, despite the fact that she was already married and with six children, which eventually resulted in the two conducting an affair. This illegitimate pairing continued until their marriage in 1915. Upon his death in 1925, a journal titled "Diary of my Sufferings" was found. The journal compiled over 3,000 letters written to Reininghaus, some over 60 pages in length, detailing the extent of Conrad's love for her. In order to prevent a scandal breaking out from a potential leak, Conrad kept the letters private and they were never sent to their intended recipient. Military career Conrad joined the cadet corps of the Hainburg garrison and was educated at the Theresian Military Academy in Wiener Neustadt. He developed a strong interest in natural science, especially in Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. In 1871, at age 19, he was commissioned as a lieutenant in a Jäger battalion. After graduating from the Kriegsschule military academy in 1876, he was transferred to the General Staff Corps of the Austro-Hungarian Army. In 1878–1879, upon the Treaty of Berlin, these duties brought him to the Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Sanjak of Novi Pazar, when those Ottoman provinces were assigned to the military administration of Austria-Hungary. He was a Captain (Hauptmann) and served as a staff officer during the 1882 insurrection in the Austrian Kingdom of Dalmatia. In 1886, he was appointed Chief of Staff of the 11th Infantry Division at Lemberg, where he showed great ability in reforming field exercise. In the fall of 1888, Conrad was promoted to major and appointed professor of military tactics in the Kriegsschule in Vienna, a position he prepared for by touring the battlefields of the Franco-Prussian War. Conrad proved to be a good teacher who was quite popular among his students. Return to command and Chief of Staff In 1892 he requested transfer back to command and took charge of the 93rd Infantry Regiment at Olomouc. From 1895 he commanded the 1st Infantry Regiment Kaiser at Kraków and from 1899 the 55th Infantry Brigade in Trieste, promoted to a Generalmajor. After acting against a major Italian uprising in the city in 1902, he was made Feldmarschalleutnant and took command of the 8th Infantry Division at Innsbruck in 1903. By the time of his appointment as Chief of Staff for the Austro-Hungarian military forces at the suggestion of the heir to the throne (Thronfolger), Archduke Franz Ferdinand, in November 1906, Conrad had established a reputation as a teacher and writer. Like other Austro-Hungarian officers of his generation, he had little or no direct combat experience, but had studied and written extensively about theory and tactics. His published works on infantry tactics sold well and were printed in multiple editions. He was a tireless campaigner for modernization of the armed forces. He was made General der Infanterie in November 1908. Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria conferred the noble rank of a Freiherr on Conrad in 1910. Conrad's differences with Foreign Minister Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal, who objected several times to Conrad's suggestion of a preventive war with Italy, ultimately led to Conrad's dismissal as Chief of Staff in 1911, partly under the pretext of objection to Conrad's affair with Virginia von Reininghaus, who later became his wife. After Aehrenthal resigned and died the next year, Archduke Franz Ferdinand urged Conrad's re-appointment, which took place during the Balkan Wars in December 1912. Although Conrad's ideas had considerable impact in the decision making process of the government, especially in the lead-up to the First World War, historian John Leslie describes him as a "loner" who did not easily win friends or influence people and was politically inept. First World War Planning Conrad and his admirers took special pride in his elaborate war plans that were designed individually against various possible opponents, but did not take into account having to fight a two front war against Russia and Serbia simultaneously. His plans were kept secret from his own diplomatic and political leadership—he promised his secret operations would bring quick victory. Conrad assumed far more soldiers than were available, with much better training than they actually had. In practice, his soldiers were inferior to the enemy. His plans were based on railroad timetables from the 1870s, and ignored German warnings that Russia had much improved its own railroad capabilities. Conrad assumed the war would result in victory in six weeks. He assumed it would take Russia 30 days to mobilize its troops, and he assumed his own armies could be operational against Serbia in two weeks. When the war started, there were repeated delays, which were made worse when Conrad radically changed plans in the middle of mobilization. Russia did much better than expected, mobilizing two thirds of its army within 18 days, and operating 362 trains a day – compared to 153 trains a day by Austria-Hungary. During the July Crisis upon the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, Conrad was the first proponent of war against the Kingdom of Serbia in response. Germany is thought to have requested an immediate invasion of Serbia, but Conrad delayed for over a month. Many Army units were on leave to harvest crops and not scheduled to return until 25 July. To cancel those leaves would disrupt the harvest and the nation's food supply, scramble complex railroad schedules, alert Europe to Vienna's plans, and give the opposition time to mobilize. Meanwhile, Emperor Franz Joseph went on his long-scheduled three week summer vacation. Victories and defeats On 12 August 1914, Conrad sent an army of 400,000 men into Serbia where it suffered a humiliating defeat at the hand of the Serbs in the first months of the war. On 22 August he launched an even larger campaign against Russia through Galicia, after early victories at Kraśnik and Komarów which were followed by defeat and the loss of Lemberg. Conrad unexpectedly had to deal with a massive incursion of Imperial Russian troops into Austrian Galicia. His plans had underestimated Russian strength and speed, while ignoring the glaring weaknesses in his own army. His forces did win a great victory at Limanowa in December 1914 saving Cracow. After the Germans scored major victories especially at Tannenberg, and after the Western front was bogged down in stalemate, Germany had resources to help Austria. Although Conrad was officially in command, the German forces alongside him increasingly took control of the situation. Berlin sent in large armies and together they conquered large parts of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania and stabilised the Italian front. He urged the new Foreign Minister Stephan Burián von Rajecz to annex the occupied lands, and he continuously intrigued against the Hungarian prime minister István Tisza as well as against the Austrian minister president Count Karl von Stürgkh, whom he considered a fool, though to no avail. In addition, relations with the German Supreme Army Command (OHL) worsened due to the uneasy relationship between Conrad and General Erich von Falkenhayn. Eased out of power Following the accession of Emperor Charles I of Austria to the throne in November 1916, Conrad was elevated to the rank of field marshal, one of only three men in Austria-Hungary to hold that rank at the time. While still the heir-apparent, Charles had reported to Emperor Franz Josef that the "mismanagement" in the army's high command could not be cleared out until Conrad was replaced, but admitted that finding someone to take his role would not be easy. Yet under the new emperor, Conrad's powers were gradually eroded. In December, the commander-in-chief Archduke Friedrich of Austria-Teschen was removed from office, which the new emperor assumed himself. Charles took operational control of all combat units in the army and navy and on 1 March 1917 officially dismissed Conrad, who then requested retirement. The emperor personally asked him to remain on active duty, and when Conrad accepted, he was placed in command of the South Tyrolean Army Group. In the late spring of 1918, the failure of the Austro-Hungarian offensives against the Italians, with costly and bloody assaults led by both Conrad and Boroević, brought condemnation upon the imperial leadership. Further complicating Conrad's image was his identification with those in the government intent on continuing the war. In this atmosphere, Conrad, described as a "broken man", was dismissed on 15 July, perhaps in an effort to deflect further criticism. At the same time he was promoted from Freiherr to the noble rank of a Graf (count) and received the honorific post of a Guard colonel. Death After the war, Conrad denied any personal guilt for the outbreak and the results of the war and blamed the Imperial court and politicians for it. Embittered and sickened, he died on 25 August 1925, while taking a cure in Mergentheim, Germany. When he was buried at Hietzing Cemetery in Vienna on 2 September 1925, more than 100,000 mourners participated in observances. After long discussion, his grave of honor () was redesignated a historical grave in 2012. Ennobled as Freiherr, usually translated as Baron, in 1910 and made a Graf, usually translated as count, in 1918, Conrad became simply Franz Conrad-Hötzendorf in April 1919, when the First Austrian Republic abolished nobility for its citizens. Strategies and performance Conrad's legacy as a commander remains controversial, with earlier historians regarding him as a military genius, while more recent works characterize him as an utter failure; at least one military historian considered him to be "probably the best strategist of the war." In military matters, Conrad emphasized the importance of aggressive, well-trained infantry and the strategic and tactical offensive. Historian Gunther E. Rothenberg argued that his unrealistically grandiose plans disregarded the realities of terrain and climate, and that the plans which he drew up frequently underestimated the power of the enemy and the potential of quick-firing artillery forces. Conrad refused to take responsibility for the start of the war, or for Austria-Hungary's defeat, arguing that he had "been 'just a military expert' with no voice in the key decisions". To his admirers he was a military genius. Soviet general and theorist Boris Shaposhnikov presented Conrad as a model for a good Chief of the General Staff in his 1927 book Mozg Armii. The historian Cyril Falls, in his 1959 book The Great War, argues that Conrad was probably the best strategist of the war and that his plans were brilliant in conception. He argues that German generals in the east based most of their successful offensive operations on Conrad's plans. German general Paul von Hindenburg praised Conrad as a man of superior ability and a bold general, only hindered by the weaknesses of his army. Conrad's critics contend that his mistakes led to the disastrous first year of war that crippled Austro-Hungarian military capabilities. For example, in the 1914 Serbian Campaign, led by General Oskar Potiorek, the Serbian Army proved far more effective than Conrad had expected despite the Austro-Hungarian manpower advantage. Undefeated in all major battles, it enforced a full-scale retreat of Conrad's troops by the end of the year. The first Austro-Hungarian offensives against Russia were remarkable for their lack of effect, culminating in the lost Battle of Galicia and the disastrous Siege of Przemyśl combined with massive human cost. Conrad was fully responsible for this disaster, for he had committed too many troops in Serbia, leaving severely outnumbered units to resist the Russian advance. Conrad blamed the German allies, who had driven out the Russian Army from East Prussia in the Battle of Tannenberg, for the lack of military support. The most disastrous defeat came in 1916, in the Russian Brusilov Offensive, one of the most lethal battles in world history, whereby the Austro-Hungarian forces under Conrad's command lost more than 600,000 men, and were never again capable of mounting an offensive without German help. The disaster was mostly due to Austrian overconfidence as well as Conrad having sent reinforcements to Italy, ignoring the Russian threat. Most of Austria's victories on the eastern front were possible only in cooperation with the German High Command (OHL), on which the Austro-Hungarian army became increasingly dependent. After his defeats of the first year, Conrad was increasingly sidelined by the Germans on the eastern front. Conrad was a Social Darwinist, and believed life consisted of "an unremitting struggle for existence" in which the offensive was the only effective form of defence. The power of the Magyar elite within Austria-Hungary troubled him, as he believed it weakened and diluted what he saw as an essentially German-Austrian empire. He worried about Italian ambitions in the Balkans. His greatest ambition was for a pre-emptive war against Serbia in order to neutralize the threat that he believed they posed, and at the same time change the political balance within the Dual Monarchy against the Magyars by incorporating more Slavs in a third Yugoslavian component under Austrian control, denying the principle of self-determination. According to Hew Strachan, "Conrad von Hötzendorf first proposed preventive war against Serbia in 1906, and he did so again in 1908–09, in 1912–13, in October 1913, and May 1914: between 1 January 1913 and 1 January 1914 he proposed a Serbian war twenty-five times". Legacy For decades, the reputation of the Austro-Hungarian Army and Conrad as one of the greatest military commanders in modern history was a matter of national pride among patriotic circles in post-war Austria—though his policies and tactics had already been criticized by contemporaries like Karl Kraus, who in his satirical drama The Last Days of Mankind portrayed him as a vain poser (I 2). Not until the 1960s, in the course of the renewed controversy over the causes of World War I, did the evaluation of his role shift from hagiography towards a widespread perception as a warmonger and imperialist. The massive casualties his forces took through wave attacks rather than any tactical or strategic acumen has given him a reputation of being a callous and incompetent commander. Conrad's guard uniform and some of his personal belongings are on display at the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum, Vienna. In 1938 the Wehrmacht barracks of the 1st Mountain Division in Oberammergau, Bavaria were named Conrad-von-Hötzendorf-Kaserne; it is today operated by the Bundeswehr and site of the NATO School. The medical service centre of the Austrian Armed Forces in Innsbruck is named after Field Marshal Conrad. In the Austrian cities of Graz and Berndorf streets were named Conrad-von-Hötzendorf-Straße. Decorations and awards National Knight of the Imperial Order of the Iron Crown, 1st Class with War Decoration, 1908 Grand Cross of the Austrian Imperial Order of Leopold, with War Decoration, 1911 Military Merit Cross, 1st Class with War Decoration, 8 December 1914 Grand Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa, 1917 Gold Military Merit Medal ("Signum Laudis") War Medal Medal for 35 years of military service for officers Bronze Medal for the 50th year of the reign of Franz Joseph Foreign : Grand Cross of the Order of the Red Eagle Knight of the Royal Order of the Crown, 2nd Class with Star Knight of the Order of Merit of the Prussian Crown, 9 September 1909 Pour le Mérite (military), 12 May 1915; with Oak Leaves, 26 January 1917 : Grand Cross of the Military Merit Order Grand Cross of the Military Order of Max Joseph, 21 July 1915 : Commander of the Military Order of St. Henry, 2nd Class : Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Romania References Informational notes From April 1919 Conrad's official name was Franz Conrad-Hötzendorf, since the Republic of Austria abolished nobility for its citizens by law. Citations Further reading Beaver, Jan G. Collision Course: Franz Conrad Von Hötzendorf, Serbia, and the Politics of Preventive War (2009). Fellner, Fritz. "Some reflections on Conrad von Hötzendorf and his Memoirs based on Old and New Sources." Austrian History Yearbook 1 (1965): 74-89. His memoirs contain many documents Fried, Marvin. Austro-Hungarian War Aims in the Balkans During World War I (Palgrave Macmillan, 2014). Hadley, Tim. "Military Diplomacy in the Dual Alliance: German Military Attaché Reporting from Vienna, 1906—1914." War in History 17#3 (2010): 294-312. Zametica, John. Folly and Malice: The Habsburg Empire, the Balkans and the Start of World War One (2017) External links Claudia Reichl-Ham: Conrad von Hötzendorf, Franz Xaver Josef Graf, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War. 1852 births 1925 deaths People from Penzing (Vienna) Field marshals of Austria Austro-Hungarian Army officers Austro-Hungarian military personnel of World War I Counts of Austria Austrian people of Moravian-German descent Austrian people of German descent Grand Crosses of the Military Order of Maria Theresa Grand Crosses of the Military Merit Order (Bavaria) Grand Crosses of the Military Order of Max Joseph Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (military class) Grand Crosses of the Order of the Star of Romania Theresian Military Academy alumni Military personnel from Vienna
401425	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitsui%20O.S.K.%20Lines	Mitsui O.S.K. Lines	Mitsui O.S.K. Lines (; abbreviated MOL) is a Japanese transport company headquartered in Toranomon, Minato, Tokyo, Japan. It is one of the largest shipping companies in the world. MOL fleet includes dry cargo ships (bulk carriers), liquefied natural gas carriers, Ro-Ro Car Carrier ships, oil tankers, container ships (among which mv MOL Triumph is the 4th largest containership in the world), and container terminals. Its alligator logo can still be seen on containers in ports, roads, rails and barges around the world, despite the company's focus on containers shipping having been reduced since April 2018. Founded as a key part of the Mitsui zaibatsu (family-owned conglomerate) during the early industrialization of Japan, the company is now independent of the zaibatsu, but remains part of the Mitsui keiretsu (group of aligned companies). History MOL (Mitsui O.S.K. Lines) was launched in 1964, following the merger of created in 1878, and Mitsui Steamship Co., Ltd. founded in 1942, formerly known as Mitsui Line, under the Law Concerning the Reconstruction and Reorganization of the Shipping Industry. At that time the company was the largest shipping company in Japan, capitalized at ¥13.1 billion, with 83 vessels aggregating . 1884-1950 OSK OSK was founded in 1884, when 55 ship owners, each of whom had only a small number of vessels, combined their operations. The chief representative of these ship owners was Hirose Saihei, senior manager of the Sumitomo zaibatsu, or conglomerate, and a prominent figure in Osaka financial circles. OSK was capitalized at ¥1.2 million, with 93 vessels totalling . In the first few years its routes were limited to coastal services in the western area of Japan. In 1890, OSK inaugurated an Osaka-Pusan run followed in 1893 by the operation of an Osaka-Incheon route and Korean coastal services. The company was recapitalized at ¥1.8 million in 1893, rising to ¥2.5 million in 1894, to ¥5 million in 1896, when the government of Taiwan granted OSK subsidies for Osaka-Taiwan liner services, and to ¥10 million in 1898 when the company started to operate on the Yangtze River. In 1898, Tokugoro Nakahashi became the company's third president. He made a great effort to rationalize the internal organization of OSK, to penetrate the Chinese market, and also to inaugurate the first OSK ocean route, a Hong Kong to Tacoma, Washington service, in 1908. In 1911 OSK started a Kobe to Bombay service. The route was under the monopoly of the Far Eastern Freight Conference (FEFC) of which Nippon Yusen K.K. (NYK) was the only Japanese member. OSK fought against the FEFC and was admitted to the conference in 1913. In 1918, the company opened a Bombay to Marseilles route and was admitted to full membership of the FEFC. Meanwhile, it opened a San Francisco route, an Australia route, and a South America route, offering a worldwide liner service. It began a New York City service in 1920 but operated at a deficit. In 1930 OSK made a huge investment in five new high-speed motor ships in order to start a New York express service. This service entirely transformed raw-silk transportation from Asia to America; raw silk began to be carried by water all the way to New York instead of going by land. OSK's share of cargo shipped on this route grew, and its business performance improved in spite of unfavourable business conditions. During the Great Depression, OSK and NYK made a cooperative agreement in 1931 whereby OSK abolished its Puget Sound route, which had called at Tacoma and Seattle, and in turn acquired a monopoly on the South American east coast route. OSK quickly recovered from the deficits of 1930 and 1931, and resumed paying dividends in 1932. The company's profits peaked in 1941, when OSK was capitalized at ¥87 million and had 112 vessels aggregating . Mitsui Bussan Kaisha The Mitsui Line was originally the shipping department of the trading company Mitsui Bussan Kaisha. Mitsui Bussan was established in 1876 and obtained exclusive rights to export and market the coal mined at the state-run Miike mines. It chartered boats and transported coal on its own account. In 1878 it bought a steamship, and in 1888 it bought the mines. Mitsui Bussan became an industrial carrier and the shipping section was established in 1898. The section expanded to become the Shipping Department and moved to Kobe in 1904. The company then owned 9 ships aggregating , and on the eve of World War I the fleet totalled 15 ships with , increasing to 30 ships totalling in 1919. The third general manager, Teijiro Kawamura, expanded the business of the department during World War I; in 1914 it began a tramp service carrying the company's own cargo and that of other companies. In 1917 it constructed a shipyard and set up the shipbuilding department and in 1920 it opened a semi-liner service from Dalian via Kobe to Seattle, whereby a liner service operated on outbound voyages but on the return voyage, owing to insufficient cargo at Seattle, ships had to stop and collect cargo at other ports. Mitsui Bussan's Shipping Department built two sister ships in 1924. One was equipped with reciprocal oil-burners, the other had diesel engines and was the first ocean-going diesel ship in Japan. The department put these ships on the North American route and compared their performance. Akagisan Maru, the diesel ship, proved superior, and Mitsui concluded a manufacturing and marketing license agreement with Burmeister and Wain Co. (B & W), who had manufactured the engine, in 1926. In 1928 Mitsui opened a Bangkok route, in 1931 a Philippines route, in 1932 a Dalien to New York route, and in 1935 a Persian Gulf route. From 1933 the Shipping Department became known as Mitsui Line. In 1937 it owned 35 ships aggregating . The shipbuilding department was separated off as the Mitsui Tama Shipyard in 1937, and in 1942 the former Shipping Department too became a separate company, Mitsui Steamship Co., Ltd. (MS). It was capitalized at ¥50 million, and Takaharu Mitsui was elected chairman. World War II During World War II OSK, like other Japanese shipping companies, was forced to be a mere ship owner. When the war ended it had only 55 vessels left, totalling , most of which were so-called wartime standard ships, of poor quality. All ships were under control of the Allied powers through the Civilian Merchant Marine Committee. In 1950, however, OSK returned to global service. By the end of 1957 the company had almost recovered the sailing rights it had been given by the FEFC before the war, and was making 18 voyages per month on 13 overseas liner routes. Competition was far more intense than before the war, as anyone who had money could construct ships under the government-sponsored shipbuilding program, started in 1947. Before the war, conference members had sought to exclude newcomers. OSK constructed 38 ships under the program. In 1953 OSK established an eastbound route to South America to transport emigrants from Japan. At first the service was profitable, but the number of emigrants fell to below 2,000 per year in 1962. In 1963 OSK established the Japan Emigration Ship Co., Ltd. (JES) to hive off this loss making business. Later, JES was reorganized into Mitsui OSK Passenger Co., Ltd. In this period most of OSK's businesses were loss making. In 1964 it owned 41 vessels totalling . The company was capitalized at ¥7.6 billion and its debts totalled approximately ¥34.9 billion. 1950-1964 During World War II, and after the war, all MS ships were under the control of the government. When Japan lost the war in 1945, only 17 of MS's vessels were left, increasing to 22 vessels totalling when MS re-acquired operations that had previously been chartered out to the Civilian Merchant Marine Committee (CMMC). Post-War MS then began a vigorous expansion of its fleet and routes to re-establish its pre-war network, and went so far as to apply to the FEFC. When its application was rejected, MS placed outsider—non-conference-member—ships on this route in 1953. After a long struggle, the conference attempted to resolve the issue politically and the British ambassador openly criticized Japan's shipping policies in 1955. Japan joined the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) the same year, and Japan's minister of transport was anxious to settle the issue without dispute. The final proposal of the conference, through the mediation of the minister of transport, contained extremely harsh conditions which MS had to accept, one of which was that MS could only join the FEFC if it operated under the management of NYK for several years. The 39-month battle was over, and MS began placing ships under the auspice of NYK in 1956. Five years later, MS at last joined the conference. Shipbuilding MS constructed 38 vessels between 1950 and its merger with OSK in 1964, and its operating tonnage was the largest in Japan. One of its ships, Kinkasan Maru, was the first bridge-controlled ship in the world. MS planned to rationalize its crews and at the same time improve the working conditions of engineers. It cooperated with Mitsui Shipbuilding & Engineering Co., a direct successor of Mitsui Tama Shipyard, and designed innovatory bridge-controlled ships. The Kinkasan Maru was delivered in 1961 and MS placed it, along with another bridge-controlled ship, on the New York route, which was re-opened in 1951. Besides the New York route, MS operated westbound and eastbound routes around the world, a Central and South America route, a West Africa route, and a Great Lakes route. In 1964 MS owned 45 vessels aggregating . However, MS's performance was disappointing from 1950 until the OSK merger in 1964, when it was capitalized at ¥5.5 billion and had debts of ¥26.7 billion. Mitsui-OSK merger Soon after the shipping industry reorganization of 1964, in which Japanese shipping companies were restructured into six groups, world shipping moved toward containerization. Mitsui O.S.K. Lines, Ltd. (MOL), formed by the merger of OSK and MS, began container services on the California route, joining a space-charter consortium of four Japanese operators. Business results improved after the merger, and the loss brought forward was written off in 1966. The company was recapitalized at ¥20 billion in 1968, and at ¥30 billion in 1972. The owned fleet increased to 152 vessels, totalling in 1974, and the operating fleet—owned vessels and time-chartered vessels—numbered 291 vessels, totalling . Containerization The first container ship, MOL's America Maru, sailed from Kobe to San Francisco in October 1969. Containerization spread to other routes, including the Australia route, with NYK and Yamashita-Shinnihon Steamship Co., in 1970; the North Pacific route, with five other Japanese companies, in 1971; and the Europe route, as part of the TRIO Group consisting of MOL, Nippon Yusen Kaisha, Overseas Container Line, Ben Line, and Hapag-Lloyd, in 1971. On the New York route and Mediterranean routes a container service began in 1972. In June 2013, one of its container ship, MOL Comfort, broke in two and sank off Yemen. The bow section caught fire before sinking. All 26 crew reported rescued by three other container ships that diverted to her, Hapag-Lloyd's Yantian Express, Hanjin Beijing of now defunct Hanjin Shipping and ZIM's ZIM India. The crews of three ships found them in two raft and one lifeboat. Carrying ore The other trend was toward specialization. Both OSK and MS had ore carriers, and after the merger MOL held the largest share of the Japanese ore market. The Yachiyosan Maru, at , built in 1970 under a cargo guarantee from Nippon Steel Corporation, was the largest ore carrier in Japan at that time. Cars MOL built Oppama Maru, the first Car Carrier ship in Japan in 1965, under cargo guarantee from Nissan Motor Company. MOL could not carry cars at a low freight rate because it had to stick to the conference rate. Nissan therefore established the Nissan Motor Car Carrier Co. in 1970 to operate Oppama Maru and transport its cars. Based on this model, MOL and Honda Motor Co. established the Act Maritime Co. in 1973 to carry Honda cars to the United States. MOL Ro-Ro Car Carrier division is named ACE (Auto Car Carrier Express), and majority of the Roll-on/roll-off vessels in the company fleet have the suffix "Ace" in their names. The division specializes in maritime transport and distribution of brand new and used automobiles, trucks, trailers, Mafi roll trailers, heavy construction machineries and further types of rolling freight. Since 1990, MOL has invested in the regional feeder line Euro Marine Logistics. In July 2006, MOL-operated suffered one of the worst stability accident in the industry. In that occasion, despite all her cargo was a total loss, the ship was salvaged and still sails. On 1 January 2019, MV Sincerity Ace caught fire when sailing northwest of Oahu, en route from Japan to Honolulu port. Several vessels sailing close by were diverted by the US Coast Guard to rescue her crew, however 4 fatalities and 1 missing person were reported. On 17 February 2022, Felicity Ace caught fire close to Azores islands, en route from Emden to Davisville in US. The ship was fully loaded with Porsche and Volkswagen cars. After sending a distress signal, the 22 crew members were airlifted, while a Portuguese navy ship and four cargo vessels went to rescue, waiting for salvage tugs to arrive. The ship sank on 2 March while under tow. Oil Crisis The U.S. gold embargo in 1971 and the advent of a floating world monetary system was a severe blow for MOL. It changed its financial strategy, keeping more funds in U.S. dollars and in other currencies. More serious was the 1973 oil crisis. MOL immediately cancelled tankers under construction and recorded its best business performance since the merger; freight revenue topped ¥327.5 billion. Soon afterward, however, results deteriorated rapidly and the downslide continued until 1978. MOL made great efforts to curtail costs, and simultaneously increased the size and number of container ships. Containerization increased on routes between industrially advanced and developing countries, and huge investment was needed to finance this expansion. The development of intermodal transportation on the North America route also began, and MOL introduced a Mini Land Bridge (MLB) service in 1972, using rail transport as well as shipping to reduce transit time, to compete with the U.S. shipping company Sea-Land, extending the service to IPI (Interior Point Intermodal) service in 1980. Around the time that the MLB service started, the world trade structure began to change and in 1979 about 60% of general cargo from Asia to the United States came to be loaded at newly industrialized countries (NICs). MOL reorganized its routes, changing its starting ports for U.S. voyages from Japan to Hong Kong, Taiwan, and other NICs, while shipping companies in the newly industrialized countries captured this new demand and branched out into the Pacific routes. The competition in sea transportation increased and MOL began a direct container service between the Far East and the west coast of North America in 1982. MOL invested huge capital to consolidate these services and to establish a service network in the United States. As a countermeasure against rising oil costs MOL built energy-efficient ships, cooperating with Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding. Awobasan Maru, delivered in 1981, was the first ship incorporating innovations that reduced fuel consumption by 30%. In 1974 MOL established the Saudi Arabian Shipping Co., Ltd. (SASCO) and Arabian Marine Operation Co. Ltd. (AMOCO) as joint ventures with the prince of Saudi Arabia in Jeddah. SASCO is the shipowner, while AMOCO manages tanker operations. MOL hoped that this joint venture would give it an advantageous status in any future nationalization of oil, but at first the performance of these companies was not good, and AMOCO acquired the rights to bunker supply in 1977. Two years later the second oil crisis occurred and MOL was able to get a stable bunker supply. Scaling back Personnel expenses increased after the first oil crisis, and the yen was revalued. These changes hit MOL heavily as a large part of its income was in U.S. dollars. To make itself more competitive, MOL reduced the number of its own vessels and increased the number of flag of convenience (FOC) ships; its own ships fell in number from 127 in 1975 to 82 in 1982, and the number of employees at sea from 3,127 to 2,233, while freight revenue increased from ¥282 billion to ¥476 billion over the same period. MOL also built highly rationalized ships in cooperation with MES, which would require a crew of only 18, the minimum number accepted by the Seamen's Act, while other ships required 22 or 24. The first super-advanced ship was the Canberra Maru, delivered in 1979, which was put on the Australia route. Passenger service In 1970 MOL established Mitsui OSK Passenger Co., Ltd. (MOP), with the reorganization of JES. MOP has three passenger ships. The company was the only one in Japan to operate an ocean-going passenger service at that time, but later in the 1990s a few Japanese shipping companies entered this market to cope with the boom in travelling by sea. LNG In 1983 the import of liquefied natural gas (LNG) on Free on Board (FOB) conditions began as part of the diversification of Japan's energy resources, and MOL, NYK, Kawasaki Steamship, Chubu Electric Power Company, Incorporated and other Japanese electricity and gas companies jointly established two specialized companies, Badak LNG Transport Inc. and Arun, to transport LNG from Indonesia. These two companies operated seven LNG ships, constructed by MOL and other shipping companies. MOL also took delivery in 1983 of the Kohzan Maru, Japan's first large-sized methanol carrier, and transported methanol from Saudi Arabia to Japan. Japan's exports of industrial plant grew at that time and modularization began. MOL was interested in the transportation of massive plants and took delivery of five specialized ships, including the Atlas Maru, equipped with a 600-ton capacity derrick, one of the largest in the world. Plant exports began to decline in the late 1980s and these special ships were mostly sold or changed their flags. Restructuring In 1984 the Maritime Act of the United States was revised and the mandatory independent action clause was introduced. This gave shipping companies the right to introduce a discount tariff if registered at the Federal Maritime Commission. The conferences on North American routes became extremely weak and freight rates on the routes dropped sharply. Every route between the Far East and the United States made losses and MOL's business performance deteriorated again. Once more, MOL worked hard to curtail expenses and establish greater competitiveness on these routes. In the same year it decided to enlarge its container terminal facilities at Los Angeles, and also installed its own container terminals at Asian ports, including Kaohsiung. MOL also made great efforts to reorganize operations on the Pacific routes, dissolving the consortium of six Japanese companies. In 1985 it began a two-company consortium with Kawasaki Steamship's K Line service (KL) on the Japan/Pacific southwest route, and with East Asiatic Co. (EAC) on the Far East/Pacific southwest route. It also decided to start a three-company consortium with KL and EAC on the Pacific northwest route. On each route it began a weekly service with newly built large container ships. The first such ship, Asian Venture, was an FOC ship at 1,960 20 feet equivalent unit (TEU), indicating the number of containers loaded, and the main ships placed on this route became FOC ships after they were launched in 1984. Moreover, MOL began operating a double stack train service between Los Angeles, Chicago, and Columbus, Ohio in 1985 and extended it to New York in the following year. The New York route became the most competitive because of this trend toward intermodal forms of transport. NYK, Yamashita-Shinnihon Steamship Co.--later merged with Japan Line to establish Nippon Liner Systems for liner business and Navix Lines for tramp business—and MOL began a joint operation service in 1986 and put on it six high-speed large vessels including MOL's Alligator series ships. To improve services, MOL introduced a computer booking system in 1984 and enlarged its online system to cover the United States and the Far East in 1986. This route, however, became lossmaking after 1986, seriously affecting the company's performance; MOL did not pay dividends between 1987 and 1989. Fleet after restructuring America Maru Bulk carriers Aurora Light Brasil Maru Crystal Pioneer (woodchip carrier) Eigen Enchanter Energia Centaurus Grandis Envoyager Hokuetsu Delight (woodchip carrier) KN Arcadia Kurenai Lambert Maru Midnight Dream Mona Linden Pleiades Dream RMC Rigel Sea Navigator Shiyo Vega Dream Zebra Wind Car carriers Adria Ace Amethyst Ace Aquamarine Ace Aquarius Ace Azalea Ace Bergamot Ace Bravery Ace Camelia Ace Carnation Ace Comet Ace Cougar Ace Courageous Ace Crystal Ace Divine Ace Elegant Ace Emerald Ace Eminent Ace Eternal Ace Euphony Ace Felicity Ace Freedom Ace Frontier Ace Genuine Ace Galaxy Ace Gardenia Ace Gracious Ace Heroic Ace Iris Ace Istra Ace Liberty Ace Mercury Ace Meridian Ace Miraculous Ace Neptune Ace Onyx Ace Opal Ace Orca Ace Paradise Ace Pearl Ace Pegasus Ace Planet Ace Precious Ace Prime Ace Primrose Ace Prominent Ace Sanderling Ace Salvia Ace Sapphire Ace Serenity Ace Singa Ace Sunlight Ace Sunrise Ace Sunshine Ace Swallow Ace Swan Ace Swift Ace Tranquil Ace Triumph Ace Violet Ace Wisteria Ace Cruise carriers Fuji Maru Nippon Maru Ferries and domestic transportation Blue Diamond Sunflower Tomakomai LNG carriers Abdelkader Al Aamriya Al Deebel Ben Badis Dukhan Fraiha Fukurokuju Fuwairit GDF Suez Point Fortin Grand Mereya LNG Aquarius LNG Aries LNG Capricorn LNG Ebisu LNG Jurojin LNG Pioneer LNG Taurus LNG Maleo Murwab Sun Arrows Surya Satsuma Tankers Advance Victoria Ambassador Norris Asian Progress 3 Asian Progress 4 Atlantic Explorer Atlantic Pioneer Azumasan Breezy Victoria Chokaisan Eagle Trader Gassan Great Tribute - LPG Carrier Guanabara Hakaisan Hakkusan Isla de Bioko Ivy Express Kaimon 2 Kasagisan Kashimasan Katsuragisan Kirishima Las Cuevas Libra Trader LPG/C Ayame - LPG Carrier Maracas Bay Mayaro Millennium Explorer - Methanol Carrier Mitake Nariva Noble Express Noble Spirit - Methanol Carrier Opal Express Pacific Alliance Pacific Partner Pacific Voyager Pigeon Point Omega Trader Oriental Jade Perseus Trader Phoenix Admiral Phoenix Advance Phoenix Vanguard Phoenix Vigor Pico Basile Saamis Adventurer San Fernando Vemillion Express - Product Tanker Yufusan Yakumasan Container ships MOL Anchorage MOL Advantage MOL Bravery MOL Celebration MOL Comfort (written off - June 2013) MOL Competence MOL Contribution MOL Courage MOL Cosmos MOL Creation MOL Dedication MOL Delight MOL Dignity MOL Diamond MOL Earnest MOL Efficiency MOL Eminence MOL Emissary MOL Empire MOL Endeavor MOL Endurance MOL Enterprise MOL Gateway MOL Grace MOL Grandeur MOL Maestro MOL Magnificence MOL Maneuver MOL Marvel MOL Matrix MOL Mission MOL Modern MOL Prestige (intermittently called MSC Prestige when she was under charter to MSC) MOL Proficiency MOL Triumph MOL Trust Internationalization MOL's financial activities became more international after the first oil crisis. The company issued corporate debentures and warrant bonds on the Swiss capital market. Shareholders' equity was ¥57.36 billion, and net income ¥5.94 billion in 1991. In the same year, the number of directly owned vessels was 54, aggregating , and there were 296 operating vessels, aggregating . New ship orders In 2015 MOL announced its intention to order six new container ships that will be capable of carrying 20,150 20-foot containers. Other shipping groups have announced similar orders for ships of similar size, but when completed these ships will be among the largest container ships in the world. Four ships are to be constructed at Samsung Heavy Industries shipyards in Korea and a further two will be constructed by Imabari Shipbuilding in Japan. The six vessels are set to be launched starting in 2017 and will serve routes between Asia and Europe. 2018 Container activities merge On Monday 31 October 2016, Mitsui OSK Lines, Kawasaki Kisen Kaisha, and Nippon Yusen Kabushiki Kaisha agreed to merge their container shipping business via establishing a completely new joint venture company. The integration included their overseas terminal activities. The new joint venture company operating under the name "Ocean Network Express" from 1 April 2018, with the company headquarters in Japan (Tokyo), an business operation headquarters in Singapore and regional headquarters in United Kingdom (London), United States (Richmond, VA), Hong Kong, and Brazil (Sao Paulo). 2020 oil spill On 25 July 2020, MOL-operated MV Wakashio ran aground and spilled oil at the South of Mauritius. 2022 Mikage autonomous voyage and docking In August 2022, the MV Mikage successfully completed the first crewless sea voyage and docking of an autonomous coastal container ship, sailing 161-nautical miles, from Tsuruga to Sakai, in a two-day trial. Subsidiaries International Energy Transport Co., Ltd. (45%) International Marine Transport Co., Ltd. (58%) Mitsui OSK Passenger Line Co., Ltd. (51%) M.O. Seaways, Ltd. (99%) International Container Terminal (92%) The Shosen Koun (62%) Trans Pacific Container Service (90%) Japan Express Co., Ltd. (Kobe) (86%) Japan Express Co., Ltd. (Yokohama) (81%) Blue Highway Line (25.4%) Kusakabe Steamship Co., Ltd. (80%) Mitsui OSK Kogyo Kaisha, Ltd. (79%) Euromol B.V. (100%) MOL International S.A. (100%) MOL Maritime (India) Pvt. Ltd Orange Finance Ltd. (100%) Arabian Marine Bunker Sales Co., Ltd. (90%) Tokyo Marine Asia Pte Ltd TraPac, LLC MOL Chemical Tankers Pte. Ltd. (100%) Fleet References Notes Bibliography Chida, Momohei and Peter N. Davies. (1990). The Japanese Shipping and Shipbuilding Industries: A History of their Modern Growth. London: Athlone Press. ; OCLC 20799046 Tatsuki, Mariko, Tsuyoshi Yamamoto, John Haskell Kemble and Thomas Elliott. (1985). The First Century of Mitsui O.S.K. Lines, Ltd. [Japan]: Mitsui O.S.K. Lines. OCLC 20624516 External links Mitsui O.S.K. Lines web site MOL Global Liner Services web site Largest Container Ship Operators by Capacity List of seafarers currently working for MOL MOL Information Technology Shipping companies of Japan Mitsui Container shipping companies Transport companies based in Tokyo Japanese brands Companies listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange Japanese companies established in 1884 Transport companies established in 1884 Multinational companies headquartered in Japan Car carrier shipping companies Ro-ro shipping companies
401473	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Pownall	Thomas Pownall	Thomas Pownall (bapt. 4 September 1722 N.S. – 25 February 1805) was a British colonial official and politician. He was governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay from 1757 to 1760, and afterwards sat in the House of Commons from 1767 to 1780. He travelled widely in the North American colonies prior to the American Revolutionary War, opposed Parliamentary attempts to tax the colonies, and was a minority advocate of colonial positions until the Revolution. Classically educated and well-connected to the colonial administration in London, Pownall first travelled to North America in 1753. He spent two years exploring the colonies before being appointed Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey in 1755. He became governor of Massachusetts in 1757 after helping engineer the recall of longtime Governor William Shirley. His administration was dominated by the French and Indian War (the Seven Years' War) in which Pownall was instrumental in raising Massachusetts provincial militia for the war effort. He opposed military interference in colonial administration, including attempts to quarter British troops in private homes, and had a generally positive relationship with the colonial assembly. Returning to England in 1760, Pownall continued to be interested in colonial affairs, publishing widely read materials on conditions in the colonies, including several editions of The Administration of the Colonies. As a Member of Parliament he regularly advocated for colonial positions, without much success, but supported the war effort once the Revolutionary War began. In the early 19th century he became an early advocate of the reduction or removal of trade barriers, and the establishment of a solid relationship between Britain and the United States. Several writers have proposed that Pownall was Junius, a pseudonymous writer of letters critical of British governmental practices. John Adams wrote, "Pownall was the most constitutional and national Governor, in my opinion, who ever represented the crown in this province." Early life Thomas Pownall was the eldest son of William and Sarah (Burniston) Pownall, daughter of John Burniston and his wife. His father was a country gentleman and soldier whose poor health and early death in 1735 caused the family to fall upon hard times. Baptised 4 September 1722 (New Style) in Lincoln, England, Thomas was educated at Lincoln Grammar School and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1743. His education exposed him to classic and current philosophers, and the sciences. His first publication, a treatise on the origins of government published in 1752, began as notes developed at Cambridge. During Thomas's years at Cambridge, his younger brother John acquired a job at the Board of Trade, which oversaw British colonial affairs, and rapidly rose in the bureaucracy. The brothers were influential supporters of each other in their efforts to advance. John secured a job for Thomas in the colonial office, where he became aware of the possibilities for advancement and influence in colonial postings. In 1753 he went to America as private secretary to Sir Danvers Osborn, just appointed governor of New York. Osborn committed suicide several days after reaching New York, leaving Pownall without a job and a sponsor. Pownall chose to remain in America, devoting himself to studying the condition of the American colonies. In the following months he travelled widely, from Maryland to Massachusetts. He was introduced into the highest circles of leadership and society in the colonies, and established relationships with a number of influential people, including Benjamin Franklin and Massachusetts Governor William Shirley. Governor Osborn had been instructed particularly to deal with the rising discontent among the six Iroquois nations whose territory abutted New York (and is encompassed by central and western Upstate New York and part of Pennsylvania). Pownall had studied the matter, and he was consequently invited by his Pennsylvania connections to attend the 1754 Albany Congress as an observer. His observations on the nature of colonial dealings with the Indians (including political infighting for control of the Indian trade, and the corrupt and fraudulent acquisition of Indian lands) led him to draft a number of proposals related to colonial administration. He proposed the establishment of a crown-appointed superintendent of Indian affairs, specifically William Johnson, New York's commissioner for Indian affairs who was highly influential with the Iroquois nations. He also articulated visions for managing the expansion of the colonies to the west. After the conference Pownall returned to Philadelphia. In this time he apparently deepened a close friendship with Franklin, with whom he began to invest in business ventures. Franklin, who had unsuccessfully proposed colonial union at the Albany conference, may have contributed to Pownall's writings, although the exact nature of his influence is unclear. While in Philadelphia Pownall also established a close collaboration with cartographer Lewis Evans, both of whom recognized the need for accurate maps of the inland regions of North America then being disputed with New France in the French and Indian War. The map Evans published in 1755 was dedicated to Pownall, and brought the latter wide publicity. Pownall's recommendation of William Johnson as superintendent of Indian affairs was implemented by the crown in 1755. Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey Pownall had been living at his own expense, in the hopes that a posting would eventually come his way. In May 1755 he was appointed Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey, with little responsibility beyond anticipating the death of the aging governor, Jonathan Belcher, and attending military conferences concerning the ongoing war. Belcher, however, proved to be longer lived than expected (he died in 1757), and Pownall was restless. The military conferences drew him into an ongoing power struggle between Johnson and Shirley (who rose to become military commander-in-chief upon the death of General Edward Braddock in July 1755) over the management of Indian affairs. Johnson capitalized on Pownall's concern over frontier security to draw him into his camp. Pownall already harboured some dislike of Shirley over an earlier snub, and his reports to New York Governor Sir Charles Hardy, combined with damaging allegations provided by other Johnson supporters, led to Shirley's dismissal as commander-in-chief. Pownall returned to England in early 1756, where he confirmed the Johnson allegations, and was rewarded with a post as "Secretary Extraordinary" (a title of Pownall's creation) to the new commander-in-chief, Lord Loudoun. While Pownall was in England, Shirley's reputation was further damaged by allegations (not apparently furthered by Pownall's action) that he had let military information fall into enemy hands, and the Board of Trade decided to recall him. Pownall was also offered the governorship of Pennsylvania by its proprietors; however, his demands for wide-ranging powers in the post led them to retract the offer. Pownall turned this to his own advantage, widely publicizing the fact that he had turned down the offer because of the "unreasonable, unenlightened attitude of the proprietors." He accompanied Loudoun back to America in July 1756, but again returned to England to represent Loudoun in hearings on Shirley's military leadership. Loudoun also instructed him on his military plans and objectives. In London he became closely involved in informing members of the new Pitt-Newcastle Ministry of the state of affairs in North America. His performance in these matters resulted in his appointment as governor of Massachusetts in March 1757. Although he was admired for his competence in colonial affairs, he was also criticised for his vanity and temper, as well as his role in bringing about Shirley's fall. Governor of Massachusetts Bay Pownall arrived in Boston in early August. He was well received and assumed his duties on 3 August. He was immediately thrust into a war-related crisis. A French force was reported to be moving toward Fort William Henry, in northern New York, and the military commander there had made an urgent call for militia. Pownall was energetic in organizing the militia, but the call to arms came too late since Fort William Henry fell after a brief siege that was followed by some of the worst atrocities by Indians of the war. In September 1757 Pownall travelled to New Jersey to attend the funeral of Governor Jonathan Belcher and stopped in New York to meet with Loudoun. The commander-in-chief was upset that the Massachusetts General Court had not fully implemented a variety of demands that he had made, and he held Pownall responsible. Pownall objected to the interference of the military in civilian affairs, the threat of which Loudoun used to implement his agenda, by maintaining that it was necessary for the governor to lead, not drive, the provincial assembly. The meeting was acrimonious, and Loudoun afterward wrote a letter to London that harshly criticised Pownall's position and called his ideas on governance "high-handed". Loudoun encountered opposition in the General Court, the provincial assembly, to a demand for British troops to be billeted with civilians in Boston, and he threatened to march additional troops into the province and take housing by force. Pownall requested for the General Court to accede in some way to Loudoun's demands and eventually signed a bill authorizing the quartering of troops in inns and other public spaces. The bill was unpopular, and Pownall was negatively cast in the local press as supportive of Loudoun and his policies. Pownall's exchanges with Loudoun, however, show that he was keenly aware of the colonists' position: "the inhabitants of this province are intitled to the natural rights of English born subjects... the enjoyment of these rights... will animate and encourage them to resist... a cruel, invading enemy." He was equally clear on the relationship between the royal governor and his assembly: "a governor must endeavour to lead those people for he cannot drive them and must lead them step by step as he can gett [sic] footing". He was so committed to his ideas that he offered to resign, but Loudoun encouraged him to remain in the post. Pownall would later author portions of the 1765 Quartering Act, a parliamentary bill whose implementation was widely resisted in the colonies. In January 1758, Pownall wrote several letters to William Pitt the Elder to outline the difficult issues surrounding relations between the colonial government and the military and civil administrations of the British establishment. He specifically recommended for London to offer to pay more of the colonial expenses of the war; the implementation of that idea led to a significant increase in militia recruitment for the remaining years of the war, including 7,000 men from Massachusetts for the 1758 campaign. Pownall was able to move a bill through the General Court to implement reforms of the militia system. The bill did not include all of the changes that Pownall had sought to achieve a more flexible and less costly organization, and its terms also handed more power over the militia in the hands of local officials and reduced the governor's control. Despite the reforms, recruiting for the militia proved difficult, and recruiting parties were often harassed and stoned, which led to rioting on several occasions. Pownall was, however, successful in recruiting the province's full quota of militia, and his energetic assistance in the war effort earned him approbation from Pitt; the Board of Trade; and the new commander-in-chief, James Abercrombie. Flush with success, Pownall proposed to General Jeffery Amherst the idea of establishing a fort on Penobscot Bay to contest potential French movements in the area. The area had been the site of periodic frontier raids since 1755, including a major attack on St. George in spring 1758. The idea developed into a major expedition to the area, which received not only Amherst's approval but also the assembly's. Pownall led the expedition, oversaw the construction of Fort Pownall and counted it as a major success of the year. Its success kicked off a minor land rush in the area. Although Pownall's start in power was somewhat rocky, his popularity in the province grew as his term progressed. He assiduously saw to the needs of its many fishermen, successfully convinced the military authorities to eliminate burdensome red tape and courted local merchants. He invested in ventures managed by Thomas and John Hancock and was lauded by a group of Massachusetts merchants upon his departure. A bachelor, he was reported to be a ladies' man whowl was highly engaged in the social scene. Although he was not strongly religious, he regularly attended Anglican services but was also a frequent visitor to local Congregational services. He successfully finessed contentious issues surrounding the recruitment, deployment, and provisioning of militia by negotiating compromises between military and provincial demands. He, however, had a strained relationship with his lieutenant governor, Thomas Hutchinson. The two men never trusted each other, and Pownall regularly excluded Hutchinson from his inner council meetings but instead sent him on missions such as to deal with militia recruitment issues. One of Pownall's last acts before leaving the colony was to approve the appointment of James Otis Sr., a longtime Hutchinson adversary, as speaker of the assembly. In the later months of 1759, Pownall wrote a letter to Pitt to request leave to return to England because "I might be of some service" there. The biographer John Schutz speculates that the underlying reason for Pownall's request was related to frustration with his exclusion from the major military actions of the later war years, which was possibly compounded br his desire to acquire a more significant post, such as a governor-generalship of the conquered New France. The historian Bernard Bailyn is of the opinion that Pownall's divisive dislike and distrust of Shirley supporters like Thomas Hutchinson and ensuing local political infighting contributed to the request, as did his difficult relationships with the military commanders. Whatever the reason, the Board of Trade engaged in a reshuffling of colonial positions after King George II died, and Pownall was given the governorship of South Carolina and permission first to take leave in England. His departure from Boston was delayed by militia-recruiting issues and the need to deal with the aftermath of a major fire in the city, and he did not leave until June 1760. The Administration of the Colonies Although he held the governorship of South Carolina, he never actually went there. He characterised his term in Massachusetts as "arduous" and informed the colonial office in November 1760 that he would accept another governorship only if the recently-acceded King George III directly ordered it. Pitt appointed him to the military commissary's office in the Electorate of Hanover, where he served until the Seven Years' War ended in 1763. The position did not further his career ambitions in colonial administration, however, and led to allegations of financial irregularities of which he was cleared. Upon his return to England he prepared for publication a treatise entitled The Administration of the Colonies. First published anonymously in 1764, Pownall revised the work and republished the work several times between 1765 and 1777. The work, a dry and complex treatise on the situation in North America that included commentary on the burgeoning tensions in the Thirteen Colonies, was intended by Pownall to explore how the colonies could properly be incorporated into a larger empire. Pownall's work identified him as supportive of American liberty. Although he feared that Britain was losing control of its colonies, he wrote that the Americans were entitled to the same rights of representative government as their fellow subjects in England, Scotland and Wales. At the same time, he insisted that the military protection that the colonists received from Britain created equally extensive obligations to help pay for some of the cost. He was also convinced of the need for a strong central legislature capable of making common policies that would be binding for every member of the British Empire, including the fractious provinces in North America. Pownall eventually decided that the only solution lay in creating an imperial parliament with representatives from both Britain and the colonies. Although he was not the only British commentator to embrace the idea of an imperial parliament, most Americans found it anathema, so much so that the pamphleteers James Otis Jr. and John Dickinson singled out his centralized plan of legislative reform for particular criticism in Dickinson's influential Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania (1768). and Otis's Rights of the British Colonies. Colonial supporter Pownall continued to communicate with political allies in Massachusetts and was on several occasions called to appear before parliamentary committees to comment on colonial affairs. He considered returning to Massachusetts if a post could be found, and he began investing in property in Nova Scotia by extending his colonial property interests beyond those he had been granted in Maine during his governorship. In 1765, he married Harriet Fawkener, widow of Everard Fawkener and daughter to Lieutenant General Charles Churchill. That gave him a connection to the aristocratic Dukes of Marlborough. Pownall raised her four children as his own. A gracious and intelligent woman, she became a partner in advancing his political career, hosting social events and encouraging his intellectual pursuits. She may have encouraged him to stand for Parliament in 1767, when he won a seat representing Tregony. He renewed correspondence with officials in Massachusetts in the hopes of winning appointment as an agent representing the province's interests but was unsuccessful. He regularly received visitors from the colonies, and Benjamin Franklin, his old friend from Pennsylvania, was a frequent guest. He observed with alarm the rise in tension in the colonies and the missteps of parliamentary leadership and colonial administration that exacerbated, rather than reduced, them. He used his position in Parliament to highlight the colonial objections to the Quartering Act of 1765 and other unpopular legislation. When troops were sent to Boston in 1768 after protests against the Townshend Acts had turned violent, he took to the floor of Parliament to warn that the connections between Britain and the colonies were unraveling and that the end result could be a permanent breach. Pownall was opposed to Lord North's partial repeal in 1770 of the hated Townshend Acts in which the tax on tea was retained as a symbol of parliamentary power. In debate on the act, Pownall pointed out that retention of the tax would be a "millstone" around English necks, rather than a yoke on American ones, and that it would lead to civil war. His speech was delivered on 5 March 1770, the day of the Boston Massacre. Dispirited by his view that Parliament failed to understand the American colonial issues, he urged his colonial correspondents to continue to press constitutional issues and to avoid violence. Colonial American issues then briefly subsided from the stage. In 1772, Pownall introduced legislation reforming food production and distribution in Great Britain. It passed the House of Commons but was amended by the Lords, which led the Commons to reject the amended bill as a violation of its prerogatives. The bill passed the next year and was called "Governor Pownall's Bill". It received much praise, including some from influential figures such as Adam Smith. Pownall was also honoured with membership in the Society of Antiquaries and the Royal Society. Revolution Following the Boston Tea Party in December 1773, Parliament passed a series of bills designed to punish Massachusetts. Pownall was unable to sway opinion toward more conciliatory measures. He was also implicated in the Hutchinson Letters Affair as someone who may have delivered private letters of Thomas Hutchinson to Benjamin Franklin, but Franklin never identified his source for the letters. Pownall was unable to retain his seat since in 1774, he was voted out of office. Seeking to remain active, Pownall ended up appealing to Lord North, who secured a seat for him in a by-election, representing Minehead. The apparent turn towards Toryism alarmed a number of Pownall's colonial supporters; there is also some evidence that North may have engineered Pownall's defeat to gain his support. Pownall supported North's attempts at reconciliation in debates leading to the start the American Revolutionary War. However, once hostilities had begun in April 1775, his conciliatory views were dismissed by war-supporting Tories, who opposed them, as well as by Whigs, who saw his proposals as attempts to undercut their positions. Pownall remained nominally in support of North until 1777, when he openly made declarations in support of the peace party. The entry of France to the war on the American side returned him firmly to the pro-war Tory position. His support was, however, nuanced since he continued to argue for some sort of conciliation with the Americans and remaining resolutely patriotic with respect to the French. He was not alone among British politicians in being unable reconcile those positions and refused to stand for re-election in 1780. During the war years, he published several revisions to The Administration of the Colonies, updating and expanding the work to reflect changing conditions. He also worked to update and revise the Evans map by soliciting data and updated maps from colonial correspondents. He withdrew to some extent in the later years after the death of his wife in 1777 but continued to appear in Parliament. Later life In July 1780, Pownall anonymously published an essay titled A Memorial Most Humbly Addressed to the Sovereigns of Europe. The widely published document gained Pownall attention throughout Europe; the anonymity of its author was compromised by the use of extended passages from Administration of the Colonies. The essay propounded instructions to Europe's leaders on how to deal with a newly independent United States by pointing out that America's independence and rapid population growth would have a transformative effect on world trade. He proposed that European leaders meet to establish worldwide regulations for what was essentially free trade. Pownall continued to maintain an interest in the United States after the war ended although he never returned. He sought without success a commission in the Massachusetts militia, mostly as a formality so that he could present it during his European travels. He continued to write essays (new ones and revisions to older ones) and published an updated version of his 1755 map. In his later years, Pownall was introduced to Francisco de Miranda, a Venezuelan colonial general who favoured Latin American independence from Spain. According to the historian William Spence Robertson, significant arguments advanced by Miranda in his later efforts are traceable to Pownall's influence. Pownall also assisted Miranda explicitly by cultivating connections in the British government as he attempted to advance the independence agenda. Pownall's last major work was a treatise again arguing for free trade and explicitly called for British support of Latin American independence as a way to open those markets to British and American trade. Pownall died at Bath on 25 February 1805 and was interred in the church at Walcot. Antiquary While Thomas Pownall is well known as an American colonial governor and an English politician, he was also an important figure in the late-18th-century antiquarian and archaeological studies. In her study of Pownall, Bryony Orme remarks that he "is perhaps one of the most neglected of our early antiquaries, and undeservedly so." He inherited these interests from his father Captain William Pownall, who lived at No. 5 Pottergate in the Minster Yard, which surrounds Lincoln Cathedral. His father had corresponded with William Stukeley about ancient finds in and around Lincoln, and Thomas Pownall's brother John was also a writer on archaeological subjects. After his return from America, he became a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries in 1770, and he contributed extensively to early issues of the journal Archaeologia. Some of his writings describe discoveries around Lincoln. But more importantly he wrote more widely on New Grange in Ireland in 1773 and Braich-y-Dinas at Penmaenmawr, on the North Wales coast. He was to follow this with descriptions of Roman remains in France when he was living there, and, on moving to Bath he again provided descriptions of Roman discoveries. Family and legacy Pownall married twice. His first wife was Harriet Churchill, widow of Sir Everard Fawkener and illegitimate daughter of Lieutenant General Charles Churchill. In 1784 Pownall married Hannah (Kennet) Astell, acquiring in the process significant estates and the trappings of landed gentry. The towns of Pownal, Maine and Pownal, Vermont are named after Thomas Pownall. Dresden, Maine was once named Pownalborough in his honour; this recognition survives in the Pownalborough Courthouse, an historic property built there in 1761. The remains of Fort Pownall, named for him, survive in Maine's Fort Point State Park. Junius Between 1769 and 1772, a series of letters was published in London's Public Advertiser, written by someone using the pseudonym Junius. Many of the letters contained accusations of corruption and abuse of power on the part of British government officials, subjects Pownall also spoke and wrote about. The identity of Junius has since been the subject of contemporary and historical debate. In 1854 Frederick Griffin wrote Junius Uncovered, in which he advanced the argument that Pownall was Junius; this argument was again raised by Pownall descendant Charles A. W. Pownall in his 1908 biography of Pownall. Modern scholars dispute the notion, currently favouring Philip Francis as the writer of the letters based on several lines of evidence. Notes References Publications by Thomas Pownall A Description of the Sepulchral Monument of New Grange, near Drogheda, in the County of Meath, in Ireland. By Thomas Pownall, Esq. in a letter to the Rev. Gregory Sharpe, D.D. Master of the Middle Temple. Read at the Society of Antiquaries, 21/28 June 1770. Archaeologia Vol 2, (1773), pp. 236–276 Colonial governors of Massachusetts Lieutenant Governors of New Jersey Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge People from Lincolnshire 1722 births 1805 deaths Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for constituencies in Cornwall Fellows of the Royal Society Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London British MPs 1768–1774 British MPs 1774–1780 People educated at Lincoln Grammar School
401486	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War%20bond	War bond	War bonds (sometimes referred to as Victory bonds, particularly in propaganda) are debt securities issued by a government to finance military operations and other expenditure in times of war without raising taxes to an unpopular level. They are also a means to control inflation by removing money from circulation in a stimulated wartime economy. War bonds are either retail bonds marketed directly to the public or wholesale bonds traded on a stock market. Exhortations to buy war bonds have often been accompanied by appeals to patriotism and conscience. Retail war bonds, like other retail bonds, tend to have a yield which is below that offered by the market and are often made available in a wide range of denominations to make them affordable for all citizens. Before World War I Governments throughout history have needed to borrow money to fight wars. Traditionally they dealt with a small group of rich financiers such as Jakob Fugger and Nathan Rothschild, but no particular distinction was made between debt incurred in war or peace. An early use of the term "war bond" was for the $ raised by the US Congress in an Act of 14 March 1812, to fund the War of 1812, but this was not aimed at the general public. Until July 2015, perhaps the oldest bonds still outstanding as a result of war were the British Consols, some of which were the result of the refinancing of incurring debts during the Napoleonic Wars, but these were redeemed following the passing of the Finance Act 2015. World War I Austria and Hungary The government of Austria-Hungary knew from the early days of the First World War that it could not count on advances from its principal banking institutions to meet the growing costs of the war. Instead, it implemented a war finance policy modeled upon that of Germany: in November 1914, the first funded loan was issued. As in Germany, the Austro-Hungarian loans followed a prearranged plan and were issued at half yearly intervals every November and May. The first Austrian bonds paid 5% interest and had a five-year term. The smallest bond denomination available was 100 kronen. Hungary issued loans separately from Austria in 1919, after the war and after it had separated from Austria, in the form of stocks that permitted the subscriber to demand repayment after a year's notice. Interest was fixed at 6%, and the smallest denomination was 50 korona. Subscriptions to the first Austrian bond issue amounted to $; those of the first Hungarian issue amounted to $. The limited financial resources of children were tapped through campaigns in schools. The initial minimum Austrian bond denomination of 100 kronen still exceeded the means of most children, so the third bond issue, in 1915, introduced a scheme whereby children could donate a small amount and take out a bank loan to cover the rest of the 100 kronen. The initiative was immensely successful, eliciting funds and encouraging loyalty to the state and its future among Austro-Hungarian youth. Over kronen was collected in the first three "child bond" issues. Canada Canada's involvement in the First World War began in 1914, with Canadian war bonds called "Victory Bonds" after 1917. The first domestic war loan was raised in November 1915, but not until the fourth campaign of November 1917 was the term Victory Loan applied. The First Victory Loan was a 5.5% issue of 5, 10 and 20 year gold bonds in denominations as small as $50. It was quickly oversubscribed, collecting $ or about $50 per capita. The Second and Third Victory Loans were floated in 1918 and 1919, bringing another $. For those who could not afford to buy Victory Bonds, the government also issued War Savings Certificates. The government awarded communities who bought large amounts of bonds Victory Loan Honour Flags. Germany Unlike France and Britain, at the outbreak of the First World War Germany found itself largely excluded from international financial markets. This became most apparent after an attempt to float a major loan on Wall Street failed in 1914. As such, Germany was largely limited to domestic borrowing, which was induced by a series of war credit bills passing the Reichstag. This took place in many forms; however, the most publicised were the public war bond () drives. Nine bond drives were conducted over the length of the war and, as in Austria-Hungary, the loans were issued at six-month intervals. The drives themselves would often last several weeks, during which there was extensive use of propaganda via all possible media. Most bonds had a rate of return of 5% and were redeemable over a ten-year period, in semi-annual payments. Like war bonds in other countries, the German war bonds drives were designed to be extravagant displays of patriotism and the bonds were sold through banks, post offices and other financial institutions. As in other countries, the majority investors were not individuals but institutions and large corporations. Industries, university endowments, local banks and even city governments were the prime investors in the war bonds. In part because of intense public pressure and in part due to patriotic commitment the bond drives proved extremely successful, raising approximately marks in funds. Although extremely successful the war bond drives only covered two-thirds of war-related expenditures. Meanwhile, the interest payable on the bonds represented a growing expense which required further resources to pay it. United Kingdom In August 1914, the gold reserves of the Bank of England, and effectively of all banking institutions in Great Britain, amounted to £. The banks feared the declaration of war would trigger a run on the banks, so the Chancellor David Lloyd George extended the August bank holiday for three days to allow time for the passing of the Currency and Bank Notes Act 1914, by which Britain left the gold standard. Under this Act the Treasury issued £ (equivalent to £ in 2013) of paper banknotes, without the backing of gold, with which the banks could repay their obligations. Leading banker Walter Leaf described these Treasury notes as "essentially a War Loan free of interest, for an unlimited period, and as such was a highly profitable expedient from the point of view of the Government". The first interest-bearing War Loan was issued in November 1914 at an interest rate of 3.5%, to be redeemed at par value in 1925–28. It raised £; £ at face value as it was issued at a 5% discount. It was revealed in 2017 that public subscriptions amounted to £91m, and the balance had been subscribed by the Bank of England, under the names of then governor, John Gordon Nairne, and his deputy Ernest Harvey. It was followed by £ of a second War Loan in June 1915, at 4.5%. £ of this was accounted for by conversion of the 3.5% issue, and a further £ by holders of 2.5% and 2.75% Consols, who were also allowed to transfer to the higher interest rate. The government also pledged that if they issued War Loans at even higher interest, holders of the 4.5% bonds might also convert to the new rate. In his memoirs Lloyd George stated his regret that his successor Reginald McKenna increased the interest rate at a time when investors had few alternatives. Not only did it directly increase the nation's annual interest payments by £ but it meant interest rates were higher throughout the economy during the post-war depression. Compared to France, the British government relied more on short-term financing in the form of treasury bills and exchequer bonds during World War I. Treasury bills provided the bulk of British government funds in 1916, and were available for terms of 3, 6, 9 and 12 months at an interest rate of 5%. Although these were not formally designated as war bonds, advertising was explicit about their purpose. This April 1916 advertisement for 5% Exchequer bonds was typical of the time: "Lend Your Money to Your Country. The soldier does not grudge offering his life to his country. He offers it freely, for his life may be the price of Victory. But Victory cannot be won without money as well as men, and your money is needed. Unlike the soldier, the investor runs no risk. If you invest in Exchequer Bonds your money, capital and interest alike, is secured on the Consolidated Fund of the United Kingdom, the premier security of the world." Policy changed when Asquith's government fell in December 1916 and Bonar Law became Chancellor in the new coalition government. The third War Loan was launched in January 1917 at a 5% discount to face value and paying 5% interest (or 4% tax-free for 25 years), a rate Lloyd George described as "penal". Holders of existing War Loans, Treasury Bills and War Expenditure Certificates could convert to the 5% issue. Of the £ raised by the 5% War Loan, only £ was new money; the rest was conversions of £ of 4.5% Loan, £ of Exchequer Bonds and £ of Treasury Bills. Labour politician Tom Johnston would later write of the 1917 War Loan "No foreign conqueror could have devised a more complete robbery and enslavement of the British Nation". On 30 June 1932 Neville Chamberlain announced that the Government would exercise its right to call in the 5% War Loan, offering a choice of taking cash or continuing the loan at 3.5%. Although they were obliged to give 90 days' notice of such a change, a 1% tax-free cash bonus was offered to holders who acted by 31 July. This conversion saved the government about £ net per year. On 3 December 2014 the UK Government announced it would redeem the outstanding war loans on 9 March 2015. United States In 1917 and 1918, the United States government issued Liberty Bonds to raise money for its involvement in World War 1. An aggressive campaign was created by Secretary of the Treasury William Gibbs McAdoo to popularize the bonds, grounded largely as patriotic appeals. The Treasury Department worked closely with the Committee on Public Information in developing Liberty Bond campaigns. The resulting propaganda messages often borrowed heavily from military colloquial speech. The government used famous artists to make posters and used movie and stage stars to host bond rallies. Al Jolson, Ethel Barrymore, Marie Dressler, Elsie Janis, Theda Bara, Fatty Arbuckle, Mabel Normand, Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks and Charlie Chaplin were among the celebrities who made public appearances promoting the patriotic element of purchasing Liberty Bonds. Chaplin also made a short film, The Bond, at his own expense for the drive. Even the Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts sold bonds under the slogan "Every Scout to Save a Soldier". The campaign spurred community efforts across the country to sell the bonds and was a great success resulting in over-subscriptions to the second, third, and fourth bond issues. According to the Massachusetts Historical Society, "Because the first World War cost the federal government more than $ (by way of comparison, total federal expenditures in 1913 were only $), these programs became vital as a way to raise funds." World War II Canada Canada's involvement in the Second World War began when Canada declared war on Nazi Germany on September 10, 1939, one week after the United Kingdom. Approximately half of the Canadian war cost was covered by War Savings Certificates and war bonds known as "Victory Bonds" as in World War I. War Savings Certificates began selling in May 1940 and were sold door-to-door by volunteers as well as at banks, post offices, trust companies and other authorised dealers. They matured after seven years and paid $5 for every $4 invested but individuals could not own more than $600 each in certificates. Although the effort raised $ in funds and was successful in financially involving millions of Canadians in the war effort, it only provided the Government of Canada with a fraction of what was needed. The sale of Victory Bonds proved far more successful financially. There were ten wartime and one postwar Victory Bond drives. Unlike the War Savings Certificates, there was no purchase limit to Victory Bonds. The bonds were issued with maturities of between six and fourteen years with interest rates ranging from 1.5% for short-term bonds and 3% for long-term bonds and were issued in denominations of between $50 and $100,000. Canadians bought $ worth of Victory Bonds or some $550 per capita with businesses accounting for half of all Victory Bond sales. The first Victory Bond issue in February 1940 met its goal of $ in less than 48 hours, the second issue in September 1940 reaching its goal of $ almost as quickly. When it became apparent that the war would last a number of years the war bond and certificate programs were organised more formally under the National War Finance Committee in December 1941, directed initially by the president of the Bank of Montreal and subsequently by the Governor of the Bank of Canada. Under the more honed direction the committee developed strategies, propaganda and the wide recruitment of volunteers for bonds drives. Bond drives took place every six months during which no other organization was permitted to solicit the public for money. The government spent over $ on marketing which employed posters, direct mailing, movie trailers (including some by Walt Disney in cooperation with the newly established National Film Board of Canada's animation department that the former partner helped establish), radio commercials and full page advertisement in most major daily newspaper and weekly magazine. Realistic staged military invasions, such as the If Day scenario in Winnipeg, Manitoba, were even employed to raise awareness and shock citizens into purchasing bonds. Germany The Nazi regime never attempted to convince the general populace to buy long-term war bonds as had been done during the First World War. The Reich government did not want to present any perceived form of public referendum on the war, which would be the indirect result if a bond drive did poorly. Rather, the regime financed its war efforts by borrowing directly from financial institutions, using short-term war bonds as collateral. German bankers, with no demonstration of resistance, agreed to taking state bonds into their portfolios. Financial institutions transferred their money to the Finance Department in exchange for promissory notes. Through this strategy, 40 million bank and investment accounts were quietly converted into war bonds, providing the Reich government with a continuous supply of money. Likewise, German bank commissioners compelled occupied Czechoslovakia to buy up German war bonds. By the end of the war, German war bonds accounted for 70% of investments held by Czechoslovakian banks. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, the National Savings Movement was instrumental in raising funds for the war effort during both world wars. During World War II a War Savings Campaign was set up by the War Office to support the war effort. Local savings weeks were held which were promoted with posters with titles such as "Lend to Defend the Right to Be Free", "Save Your Way to Victory" and "War Savings Are Warships". United States By the summer of 1940, the victories of Nazi Germany against Poland, Denmark, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands, France, and Luxembourg brought urgency to the government, which was discreetly preparing for possible United States involvement in World War II. Of principal concern were issues surrounding war financing. Many of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's advisers favored a system of tax increases and enforced savings program as advocated by British economist John Maynard Keynes. In theory, this would permit increased spending while decreasing the risk of inflation. Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau, Jr. however preferred a voluntary loan system and began planning a national defense bond program in the fall of 1940. The intent was to unite the attractiveness of the baby bonds that had been implemented in the interwar period with the patriotic element of the Liberty Bonds from the First World War. Henry Morgenthau Jr. sought the aid of Peter Odegard, a political scientist specialised in propaganda, in drawing up the goals for the bond program. On the advice of Odegard the Treasury began marketing the previously successful baby bonds as "defense bonds". Three new series of bond notes, Series E, F and G, would be introduced, of which Series E would be targeted at individuals as "defense bonds". Like the baby bonds, they were sold for as little as $18.75 and matured in ten years, at which time the United States government paid the bondholder $25. Large denominations of between $50 and $1000 were also made available, all of which, unlike the Liberty Bonds of the First World War, were non-negotiable bonds. For those who found it difficult to purchase an entire bond at once, 10-cent savings stamps could be purchased and collected in Treasury-approved stamp albums until the recipient had accumulated enough stamps for a bond purchase. The name of the bonds was eventually changed to War Bonds after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, which resulted in the United States entering the war. The War Finance Committee was placed in charge of supervising the sale of all bonds, and the War Advertising Council promoted voluntary compliance with bond buying. Popular contemporary art was used to help promote the bonds such as Any Bonds Today?, a 1942 Warner Bros. theatrical cartoon. More than a quarter of a billion dollars' worth of advertising was donated during the first three years of the National Defense Savings Program. The government appealed to the public through popular culture. Norman Rockwell's painting series, the Four Freedoms, toured in a war bond effort that raised $. Bond rallies were held throughout the country with famous celebrities, usually Hollywood film stars, to enhance the bond advertising effectiveness. Many motion pictures during the time, especially war dramas (a form of propaganda itself), included a graphic shown during the closing credits advising patrons to "Buy War Bonds and Stamps", which were sometimes sold in the lobby of the theater. The Music Publishers Protective Association encouraged its members to include patriotic messages on the front of their sheet music like "Buy U.S. Bonds and Stamps". Over the course of the war 85 million Americans purchased bonds totalling approximately $. Named after the 1942 Hollywood Victory Caravan, a 1945 Paramount-produced film promoted bond sales after the end of World War II. The short subject included Bing Crosby, Bob Hope, Alan Ladd, William Demarest, Franlin Pangborn, Barbara Stanwyck, Humphrey Bogart, and others. Aside from movies and music, there were countless other programs held throughout the states to encourage the purchasing of war bonds. One such promotion that was held, at the least, in Nebraska and Montana, allowed for citizens to "get Hitler's goat," a play on the phrase "to get someone's goat" meaning to make someone angry or annoyed. The goat would be held up for "auction" with the money going directly towards war bonds. According to one source, the auctioning of "Hitler's goat" in Nebraska in 1942 raised $90,000 in War Bond sales. The National Service Board for Religious Objectors offered civilian bonds in the United States during World War II, primarily to members of the historic peace churches as an alternative for those who could not conscientiously buy something meant to support the war. These were U.S. Government Bonds not labelled as defense bonds. In all, 33,006 subscriptions were sold for a total value of $, mostly to Mennonites, Brethren, and Quakers. After World War II Ukraine On 1 March 2022, following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the Ukrainian government announced it would issue war bonds to pay its armed forces. Between March and May 2022, around $270 million equivalent of bonds were sold, maturing in one year and yielding 11 percent. The bonds were sold in small units of 1,000 hryvnias, with over 70,000 buyers. Canada On 28 October 2022, during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Canada announced that they will sell government-backed, 5-year bonds to raise money for Ukraine. Notes References External links Bugs Bunny, Porky Pig and Elmer Fudd pitch War Bonds The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill: World War I 1914–1918 bond posters and writings Military economics Military terminology Government bonds Articles containing video clips
401544	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9%20Antonio%20Primo%20de%20Rivera	José Antonio Primo de Rivera	José Antonio Primo de Rivera y Sáenz de Heredia, 1st Duke of Primo de Rivera, 3rd Marquess of Estella GE (24 April 1903 – 20 November 1936), often referred to simply as José Antonio, was a Spanish fascist politician who founded the Falange Española ("Spanish Phalanx"), later Falange Española de las JONS. The eldest son of General Miguel Primo de Rivera, who governed Spain as dictator from 1923 to 1930, Primo de Rivera worked as a lawyer before entering politics, an enterprise he initially engaged in vowing to defend his deceased father's memory. He founded Falange Española in October 1933, shortly before running as a candidate in the 1933 general election, in which he won a seat in the Congress of Deputies of the Second Spanish Republic. He assumed the role of messianic leader and charged himself with the task of saving Spain in founding a fascist party, but he encountered difficulties widening his support base during his whole political life. In 1936, he endorsed the Spanish nationalist military coup against the republic that led to a civil war that he later tried to stop. Imprisoned before the start of the war, he was accused of conspiracy and military rebellion against the government of the republic and was sentenced to death and executed during the first months of the war. In life, he held the nobiliary title of 3rd Marquess of Estella, Grandee of Spain. In 1948, he was posthumously given the title of Duke of Primo de Rivera, which was subsequently passed to his brother Miguel. The image of José Antonio was revered during the war by the Nationalist faction, and after the establishment of Francoist Spain he was regarded as a martyr, and used as a tool of the Francoist propaganda apparatus. The inscription of "José Antonio ¡Presente!" could be found in many churches all across Spain. Biography Early life José Antonio Primo de Rivera was born on Calle de Génova (Madrid) on April 24, 1903, the eldest son of the military officer Miguel Primo de Rivera y Orbaneja (who would later govern Spain as dictator from 1923 to 1930) and Casilda Sáenz de Heredia y Suárez de Argudín. From his father he inherited the title of Marquess of Estella. He never married. His mother died when he was five years old, and he was subsequently raised by his father's sister. He was privately taught at home, and learned English and French. When at university, he did not attend lectures until the second year of his undergraduate studies. He spent his summer holidays at the country estate of an uncle, where he practiced horseriding and hunting. Primo de Rivera went on to study law at the University of Madrid between 1917 and 1923. He helped to organize the student union there, Federación Universitaria Escolar, which opposed the higher-education policies of his father. He took undergraduate and graduate courses simultaneously and he obtained both his Bachelor and Doctor degrees in the same year, 1923. After graduating, he chose the "One-Year Volunteer" option to do his military service while his father was dictator. He served with the Ninth Dragoons of St. James cavalry regiment, stationed at Barcelona. He was court-martialed for punching a superior officer, the future Nationalist army leader, Brigadier General Gonzalo Queipo de Llano. Queipo de Llano had written a defamatory letter against an uncle of José Antonio and against the Dictator himself. José Antonio, ready to defend the honour of his family abused by the Republican general, went to the café where the latter used to socialize, and after asking whether he was the author of the writing, and after receiving the general's affirmative reply, delivered a spectacular punch that made the general roll on the floor, sparking a free-for-all between the companions of José Antonio and the companions of the general. Queipo de Llano had been a Republican in the time of the Rivera dictatorship, but is today remembered mostly as a notorious Francoist war criminal in the Civil War. Primo de Rivera became a registered lawyer in 1925, and opened an office on a side street of Madrid very near the confluence of three principal avenues. A relatively successful lawyer not involved nor expected to be involved in politics before 1930, the impetuous José Antonio Primo de Rivera decided to do so after the death of his father in his Parisian self-exile in 1930; this was for him the best way to defend the memory of his father, whose work at government had often been derided. In 1931, he was invested "Perpetual Dean of the Illustrious College of Lawyers of Madrid". He ran for office under the banner of the National Monarchist Union but failed to get elected. He was detained briefly in 1932 for collaboration in General José Sanjurjo's attempted coup. Falangist leader On October 29, 1933, Primo de Rivera launched the Falange Española ("Spanish Phalanx"), a nationalist party, inspired in part with some ideas, such as the necessity of authority, hierarchical order of society, and grassroots populism, that were being expounded in Italy in the Fascist movement. The foundational convention was held in the Teatro de la Comedia of Madrid. He was the keynote speaker and his first address was a criticism of liberal democracy. Since the liberal state was a servant of [Rousseau] it became not just the trustee of a nation's destiny but also the spectator of electoral contests. What alone mattered to the liberal state was that a certain number of gentlemen be sitting at the polling station, that the voting start at eight o'clock and end at four, that the ballot boxes not get smashed—when being smashed is the noblest aspiration of all ballot boxes—and then to respect the outcome of the voting, as if the outcome was a matter of complete indifference to it. In other words liberal governments did not even believe in their mission, that theirs was a respectable duty, but rather they believed that anyone who disagreed with them and decided to attack the state, whether with good or ill intentions, had the same right as they did to defend it. During the speech he made his noted remark on the recourse to fists and guns when needed, And in closing, that if what we want must in some circumstance be attained through the use of violence, that we demur not before the prospect of violence. For who has said, when they say, "Every available means except violence," that the supreme hierarchy of moral values resides in kindness? Who has said that when our feelings are insulted, rather than react like men, we are called upon to reply amiably? Dialogue as a first step of communication is well and good. But there is no option left except fists and guns when someone offends the precepts of justice or the fatherland.. Informe Semanal. November 20, 1986. Part II, minutes 0:31 to 1:08. Stanley Payne argues that Rivera's view that violence was acceptable if done for a just cause was paralleled by that of the Spanish Left, who held similar views on the use of violence; unlike the Italian fascists, the Falange never developed a sophisticated theory for their doctrine of violence. Payne argues that because his father had ruled as a dictator with relatively minimal violence during the quieter 1920s, Rivera naively assumed he could impose a new authoritarian system with relatively limited violence, but he would eventually find himself caught in a spiral of killing that he could not control. When he founded the Falange, Antonio was more reluctant to use violence than other leading members of the party; he did not seem to expect violence from the political Left to be directed against the party. However, after Juan Cuéllar's death, he seemed to overcome his reluctance and thus intermittent killings on both sides would continue. Rivera's closing words made explicit his Romantic nationalism: In a poetic sweep we will raise this fervent devotion to Spain; we will make sacrifices, we will renounce the easy life and we will triumph, triumph that—you know this well—we shall not obtain in the upcoming elections. In these elections vote the lesser evil. But your Spain will not be born out of them, nor does our frame for action reside there. That is a murky atmosphere, spent, like a tavern's after a night of dissipation. Our station is not there. I am a candidate, yes, but I take part in these elections without faith or respect. And I say this now, when so doing may rest me every vote. I couldn't care less. We are not going to squabble with the establishment over the unsavory left-overs of a soiled banquet. Our station is outside though we may provisionally pass by the other one. Our place is out in the clear air, beneath a moonlit sky, cradling a rifle, and the stars overhead. Let the others party on. We outside in tense vigil; earnest and self-confident we divine the sunrise in the joy of our hearts. He was a candidate in the general election of November 19 for the umbrella organization "Unión Agraria y Ciudadana," part of the broad conservative coalition Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas (CEDA). He was elected to the Parliament as a representative of Cádiz. In his first parliamentary intervention he answered Gil-Robles—the founder of CEDA—who had just spoken out against all totalitarian forms of government for arrogating to themselves the attributes of God and crushing the personality of the individual: We believe that the state does not have to justify its behaviour at every turn, just as no individual or social class does, in so far as it holds to a guiding principle all the time. All the while the state is made out to be God by Rousseau's idea that the state, or the will of those it represents, is always right. What makes the state like God is the belief that the will of the state, embodied by absolute monarchs in the past and now by the popular vote, is always right. The monarch may have erred; the popular vote may err because neither truth nor goodness derives from an act or assertion of the will. Goodness and truth are perennial tributaries of reason, and to ascertain whether one is in the right it is not enough to ask the king—whose dictate seemed always just to his supporters—nor enough to canvass the people—whose decision is always right according to the disciples of Rousseau. What must be done rather is to verify whether our actions and our thoughts are in agreement at every step with a permanent aspiration. On February 11, 1934, Falange merged with Ramiro Ledesma's Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista to create the Falange Española de las JONS under José Antonio's leadership. The antisemitic positions within FE de las JONS were mainly led by Onésimo Redondo, with Ledesma and Primo de Rivera largely indifferent to the issue; however, Falangists attacked the Jewish-owned SEPU department stores in the spring of 1935; In the view of Gonzalo Álvarez Chillida, both José Antonio and Ledesma probably thought that such antisemitic raids could enhance mobilization within the purportedly threatened small-business sector. He shared with other rightists the belief that violence was legitimate against a Republic that he perceived as influenced by communists, Jews and Freemasons. The upper-class José Antonio abandoned the tie and suit and took on the new blue-shirt Falange uniform (despite later mocking JAP militants because of this, the Falangists were originally dressed in suit and tie); the uniform, adopted in October 1935, was deliberately chosen as a reference to Italian Fascism. In 1935 Primo de Rivera collaborated in editing the lyrics of the Falangist anthem, "Cara al Sol" (Face to the Sun). Every member of the Falange had to obey unquestioningly. They were told: The honour and task of Falange must be gauged by those who carry the burden of leadership on their shoulders. Do not forget that one of the rules of our code of ethics is to have faith in the leaders. Your leaders are always right. In the general election of February 16, 1936, Falange won only 0.7% of the vote; but the wave of instability which greeted the victory of the Popular Front—a left-wing coalition of anarchists, communists, socialists, liberal republicans like the radicals, and others—caused an influx of new members, and the minuscule party grew to more than 40,000 members by July. Imprisonment and death On March 14, 1936, he was arrested in Madrid and charged with illegal possession of firearms (at that time, Spain was awash in privately held weapons on the part of all political factions). Nine weeks later he was transferred to the prison in Alicante. In both Madrid and in Alicante, he was able to maintain intermittent secret contact with the Falange leadership and, several times, with General Emilio Mola. On October 3 he was charged with conspiracy against the Republic and military insurrection, both capital offences, even though he had been imprisoned long before the insurrection of July 18. Primo de Rivera conducted his own defence. On November 18 he was found guilty by a people's tribunal and sentenced to death by firing squad. The three career judges who participated in the trial, along with the popular tribunal, asked for the death sentence be commuted to life imprisonment but this was rejected by the majority of government ministers (the two ministers from Izquierda Republicana voted against the death sentence). The sentence was carried out on November 20 by local authorities in Alicante. It is said by some that the Republic offered the Nationalists a prisoner exchange involving Primo de Rivera and a son of the Republic's head of government Francisco Largo Caballero and that Franco turned down the offer. Others contend that it was the Republican government who rejected the deal of the Nationalists and that General Franco approved several failed commando raids on the Alicante prison to try to rescue José Antonio. Either way the death of the founder of Falange rid the general of a formidable rival. Perhaps tellingly, it was well known that the two men disliked each other. After one of the two meetings they had, Franco dismissed José Antonio as "a playboy pinturero" (a foppish playboy). Elizabeth Bibesco's last novel, The Romantic, published in 1940, starts with a dedication to José Antonio Primo de Rivera, whom she had known during her stay in Madrid where her husband, Prince Antoine Bibesco, was a diplomat from Romania in Spain between 1927 and 1931: "To José Antonio Primo de Rivera. I promised you a book before it was begun. It is yours now that it is finished – Those we love die for us only when we die–". Post-mortem relevance Falange joined the military uprising against the Republic. The initially marginal party gained ascendancy over the course of the war, partly as a result of its prominent role in the brutal repression that took place behind Nationalist lines. Nevertheless, the party lost autonomy, and in 1937 was made wholly subservient to the will of General Franco when he had Primo de Rivera's temporary replacement, Manuel Hedilla Larrey, thrown in jail, tried and sentenced to death (although his sentence was commuted). Franco decreed the merging of the Falange Española de las JONS with the Carlist traditionalists through the Unification Decree, and became the national chief of the new party, FET y de las JONS. The reign of Francisco Franco nurtured a convenient cult of personality around the dead figure of Primo de Rivera whom Falangists dubbed "El Ausente" (The Missing One). This name was created during the period after de Rivera's execution but before this was officially confirmed to the Nationalist public at large by its leadership on 18 July 1938. While the Falangist leadership knew the truth, they chose to keep it a secret for fear of the impact it would have on morale, though rumours of his death would continue to circulate for the period. Thus until this date many Falangists had lived in hope that de Rivera would still return (commonly saying "when José Antonio comes back") and began referring to him as "The Absent One", a reference to the Falange's tradition of calling "present!" when the names of the fallen were read out. The founder of Falange was anointed a martyr of the "crusade against Marxism." Notwithstanding the apparent veneration by the Francoist State, it remains true that the Missing One's demise had removed a dangerous opponent: Primo de Rivera had been Marquess, a doctor of civil law, a political thinker; Franco owned no comparable pedigree, no comparable education and no personal ideology. The postwar cult of personality had two ubiquitous icons. The first, a funereal slab placed on the external wall of many churches and cathedrals which bore the crowning inscription, Caídos por Dios y por España ("Fallen for God and for Spain"), followed by a list of local Nationalists killed during the war; Primo de Rivera's name headed every list. The second was the rallying cry, "José Antonio—¡Presente!," a figurative reply to an imaginary roll call invoking his ghostly attendance or immanence. With the arrival of democratic rule, the legacy of Primo de Rivera and the cult of personality created by the Spanish state started to wane circumspectly. In 1981, the Madrid City Council moved to reinstate the original name of its grand avenue, the Gran Vía, which Franco had renamed "Avenida José Antonio Primo de Rivera" in 1939. However, as late as March 2005, the Guadalajara City Council removed a memorial to the founder of Falange under cover of darkness. Burial At the end of the war in 1939, the mortal remains of Primo de Rivera were carried on the shoulders of Falangist relay teams from Alicante to Madrid (a 300-kilometre journey) and provisionally interred at El Escorial. The church had contained the pantheon of Spanish monarchs but Primo de Rivera was buried directly in front of the altar. Reburial at the Valley of the Fallen In 1959, Primo de Rivera was exhumed and re-interred 13 km away in the basilica of the Valley of the Fallen, located in the Guadarrama mountain range. Between 1975 and 2019 Francisco Franco was buried nearby. In the context of making the site less partisan, Franco's remains were removed from the Valley. This did not establish a clear precedent for moving Primo de Rivera, given that he died a victim of the Civil War like most of the other burials at the site. However, in late 2022 it was reported that Primo de Rivera's family had requested the exhumation of his remains on the grounds that the deceased wanted a Roman Catholic burial. The Democratic Memory Law of 2022 envisaged the future of the Valley of the Fallen as a civil cemetery, and accordingly the government proposed to deconsecrate the crypt of the church in order to promote national reconciliation. Reburial at San Isidro cemetery, Madrid Primo de Rivera's family arranged for his remains to be exhumed from the Valley in April 2023 and reburied in Saint Isidore Cemetery in Madrid. Ideology He espoused an elitist understanding of politics, influenced by the ideas of Ortega y Gasset. His political thought fascistised as he progressively radicalised in an anti-conservative direction. Primo de Rivera put much faith on corporatism, one of the few early Falangist tenets framed in positive terms, adopted from Italian Fascism. Regarding political violence, he early alluded to what he famously termed as the "dialectics of fists and guns", already stating during the Falange foundation event at the Teatro de la Comedia, that in order to fulfill the desired cultural and historical regeneration of Spain, "if this has to be achieved through violence, we shall not be stopped by violence". Willing to offer an alternative to the most basic fundamentals behind liberal democracy, he also non-accidentally addressed some words of scorn to "that terrible man who was called Juan Jacobo Rousseau" during the foundational meeting of the Falange. Like other Falangists, Primo de Rivera partially embraced the sense of Castilianist essentialism from the Generation of '98, but, conversely, he was also distinctly aware of the cultural plurality of the peoples in Spain, and thus the Falangist national project for Spain was framed following the orteguian legacy as one of "unity of destiny in the universal". It has been noted that at some point he benignly put his hopes on politicians far from his own Fascist stances such as republican Manuel Azaña (in this case for a very brief time) or socialist Indalecio Prieto as potential candidates to alleviate his self-imposed burden for "saving" the country. According to Álvarez Chillida, Primo de Rivera's written works did not feature a marked antisemitism when compared to other Falangist leaders. Genealogy Notes References Bibliography Payne, Stanley G. (1961) Falange. A History of Spanish Fascism. Stanford University Press Thomas, Hugh. "The Hero in the Empty Room: Jose Antonio and Spanish Fascism," Journal of Contemporary History (1966) 1#1 pp. 174–182 in JSTOR Velarde Fuertes, Juan. "José Antonio y la economía" Grafite ediciones. External links 1903 births 1936 deaths Spanish syndicalists Acción Española Anti-Masonry Antisemitism in Spain Burials in the Community of Madrid Dukes of Spain Executed politicians Fascist writers Grandees of Spain Leaders of political parties in Spain Marquesses of Spain Members of the Congress of Deputies (Spain) National syndicalists People killed by the Second Spanish Republic People executed by Spain by firing squad People from Madrid Spanish fascists Executed writers Executed Spanish people Spanish people of the Spanish Civil War (National faction) Spanish Roman Catholics 20th-century Spanish poets 20th-century male writers Spanish Falangists Jose Antonio Falangist politicians Members of the Congress of Deputies of the Second Spanish Republic Spanish newspaper founders People convicted of sedition People convicted of seditious conspiracy
401548	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Lawrence%20%28Indian%20Army%20officer%29	Henry Lawrence (Indian Army officer)	Brigadier-General Sir Henry Montgomery Lawrence KCB (28 June 18064 July 1857) was a British military officer, surveyor, administrator and statesman in British India. He is best known for leading a group of administrators in the Punjab affectionately known as Henry Lawrence's "Young Men", as the founder of the Lawrence Military Asylums and for his death at the Siege of Lucknow during the Indian Rebellion. Background Lawrence was born in June 1806 into an Ulster-Scots family at Matara in Ceylon. Both his parents were from Ulster, the northern province of Ireland. His mother Letitia was the daughter of the Rev. George Knox from County Donegal, while his father, Lieutenant-Colonel Alexander William Lawrence, was born the son of a mill owner from Coleraine, County Londonderry, entered the service of the British Army and achieved distinction at the 1799 Siege of Seringapatnam. The Lawrences had seven sons, the first died in infancy and the fifth at the age of eighteen. The remaining five all achieved distinction in India; of them Sir George Lawrence and Lord Lawrence would achieve particular fame. In 1812, Lawrence, along with his elder brothers Alexander and George, was sent to Foyle College in Derry, a city in Ulster, where their uncle Rev. James Knox was headmaster. In 1818 he rejoined his parents in Bristol where they had since settled, and completed his schooling there. In August 1820 he again followed his elder brothers by entering the East India Company Military Seminary in Addiscombe, Surrey. (His father, having felt slighted by the lack of recognition afforded to him for his service in the British Army, encouraged his sons to instead enter the service of the East India Company in India.) Whilst at the seminary, he was saved from drowning by a fellow cadet Robert Guthrie MacGregor. On another occasion, he developed sympathy for a lady in poverty, and begged old clothes from his family which he then carried to her through the streets of London. That same lady would be remembered in his will some thirty-five years later. Contemporaries in his class at Addiscombe included Sir Frederick Abbott. Early career On passing out from Addiscombe in 1822 he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Bengal Artillery, arriving in India the following year. He was based at the Calcutta suburb of Dum Dum, where Henry Havelock was also stationed about the same time. He soon saw action in the First Anglo-Burmese War, and at the age of 18 Lawrence commanded a battery forming part of the Chittagong column which General Joseph Morrison led over the jungle-covered hills of Arakan. He served for two years in Burma, until the expedition was decimated by fever, and Lawrence nearly perished of the illness. He returned to Dum Dum, before being sent first to Penang and then Canton to convalesce. As these changes in climate failed to affect his health for the better, he was invalided back to England. During his furlough in England, he resided with his family in Bristol, where he would first meet his future wife Honoria Marshall, until the opportunity arose in the autumn of 1828 to assist in the trigonometrical survey in Ireland. Lawrence set sail for India on 2 September 1829 with his brother John, who had recently completed his studies at the East India Company College. The brothers parted company in Calcutta, and Lawrence rejoined his regiment in Karnal on the Sikh frontier, where his elder brother George was now stationed. In 1831 he was transferred to the horse artillery in Cawnpore and the following year he passed examinations in Hindustani and Persian with the aim of earning a civil service posting. Revenue Survey of India In 1833 he was appointed an assistant to the Revenue Survey of India by Lord William Bentinck based at Gorakhpur. He was tasked with mapping out and marking the boundaries of villages and fields in certain large districts, classifying them in accordance with the quality of soil and extent of holdings and to investigate and record the rights of claimants. He soon perceived the urgent need for more canals, and more and better roads, urging that "the farmer, the soldier, the policeman, the traveller, the merchant, all want more roads. Cut roads in every direction." During his time with the Survey, Lawrence was known for his zeal, discouragement of cheating and at times harsh treatment of bribe taking. In 1837, the secretary to the Board of Revenue remarked to the Lieutenant Governor of the North-West Provinces: Lawrence went on to successfully accomplish this guarantee, and earned the nickname "Gunpowder" from James Thomason for his "explosive force which shattered all obstacles". In 1835 his father died, and as such his military pension also ceased, leaving his mother Letitia penniless. Lawrence, along with his brothers, took on the responsibility of remitting allowances for their mother. In July 1837, his sweetheart Honoria Marshall arrived in Hooghly and they married at the Mission Church in Calcutta on 21 August. Honoria accompanied Lawrence to Gorakpur where she became an enthusiastic assistant in his work. By the close of 1837, Lawrence had completed his work in Gorakpur and set out for Allahabad the next district on his list. He continued with the survey until August 1838 when he was ordered to stand ready to rejoin his troop amid talk of war with Afghanistan. Ferozepore In October 1838, in the run up to the First Anglo-Afghan War, Lawrence departed Allahabad to join Alexander Burnes's Horse Artillery, part of an 'Army of the Indus.' At the time he received an offer of a hundred rupees a month from a Calcutta paper to act as a correspondent during the war, agreeing on the condition of anonymity, that he would not supply any information that was not above board, and that the money would be divided between the Calcutta Orphan Asylum and the Benevolent Institution. When the army was ordered to stand fast, he instead became assistant to Sir George Russell Clerk, adding to his political experience in the management of the district of Ferozepore. At Ferozepore, Lawrence was collector, magistrate, civil and military engineer, universal provider and paymaster to troops that passed through the district. He was called upon to settle a boundary dispute on the British side of the Sutlej, and so impressed where neighbouring chiefs of his sagacity and fairness a number of barons across the border and in the Cis-Sutlej states sought his assistance to settle their own boundary disputes. In June 1839 Maharaja Ranjit Singh died and talk of war with the Sikh Empire began. Lawrence, spent much of the period acquainting himself with knowledge of the history and culture of the Sikh Empire, and penned a romance of the Punjab to aid those who cared to learn more about the region. Peshawar When news of disaster came from Kabul in November 1841 he was at first tasked with pushing up supports for the relief of Sir Robert Sale and the garrison of Jalalabad. He was to prepare the way for a relief force through the four hundred miles between Ferozepur and the Khyber. He requested the assistance of guns from the Sikh authorities, who agreed on the condition of the willingness of the gunners themselves, who at first proved unwilling. He relocated to Peshawar where he was responsible for getting the Sikh allies in hand, and helping to prepare the army of Sir George Pollock. He had hoped to accompany Pollock in the Kabul Expedition in 1842, however his fellow agent Frederick Mackeson was preferred. Instead he was allowed to remain with his old corps until the Khyber Pass was won. At the conclusion of the war, he returned to Ferozepur where the Governor General of India met the armies of Pollock, Sale and Nott. In January 1843, Lawrence left Ferozepur when he was appointed superintendent of Dehradun. It soon emerged that military officers were barred from this post, and so he was instead transferred to Ambala as the assistant to the envoy at Lahore. Soon after taking charge, he was instructed to lead a military expedition in Khytul and was thereafter ordered to administer the region. Despite his short time in Khytul, Lawrence introduced a number of reforms including reduced taxes, the abolition of forced labour, a prompt system of justice and punishing bribery and corruption. In addition where required he remitted the land tax owed by a cultivator until he could improve his condition, and made the cultivator undertake public works such as digging wells in lieu of payment. Lawrence soon became somewhat disappointed by his lack of recognition for his contribution in the war and constant moving between jobs. Later that year however he was elevated to the rank of Major and appointed to the well-salaried and prestigious post of the Resident of Nepal. Resident at Nepal Lawrence arrived in Kathmandu in November 1843, leaving his wife behind as European women were not allowed to enter the Kingdom at that present time. Shortly after arriving, as a gesture of goodwill, Honoria was granted a rare exception to join her husband. During his time in Nepal, under instruction not to interfere in the internal administration of the Kingdom, Lawrence devoted much of his time to literary pursuits, ably assisted by his wife. He wrote a defence of Sir William Macnaghten which included passages foreshadowing the later mutiny of 1857, in which he lamented the blind self-confidence of British policy in India, the unpreparedness for disaffection, a lack of supplies, and the weakness of British garrisons. He also became a contributor to the Calcutta Review edited by Sir John Kaye. In an article titled the Military Defence of our Indian Empire, he insisted on the need for the Government to be ready for war at all times, a view which was challenged by his editor. It was whilst in Kathmandu that Lawrence and his wife first proposed the idea of homes in the cooler hills for the children of serving British officers. Punjab In 1845, instability in the Sikh Empire led to growing tensions with neighbouring provinces. Lawrence's articles in the Calcutta Review had caught the attention of Henry Hardinge, the new Governor-General of India, who was impressed by his knowledge of the region. Hardinge appointed Lawrence as his political assistant following the death of Major George Broadfoot at the start of the First Anglo-Sikh War. He was present at the decisive Battle of Sobraon which brought the war to a conclusion. As political agent, he responded to allegations that leading Sikh chiefs had betrayed their countrymen at Sobraon and sold the battle to the British, denying any knowledge of treachery on the part of the Sikh chiefs and interference by British officials. Lahore Durbar Following Sobraon, Lawrence counselled the Governor-General not to annex the Punjab but instead reconstruct the Sikh Empire, fenced in and fortified by British bayonets. This was provided for in the Treaty of Lahore, whereby a British garrison was to be based in Lahore to further this purpose. Lawrence spent the next three months as the agent in Lahore. In his diaries, Lawrence would later write of his intentions in his role: During this time, he assisted in the sale of Kashmir to Gulab Singh, the Raja of Jammu as war indemnity, a move which caused considerable unrest in Lahore. When a rebellion broke out, presumed to have been instigated by Lal Singh in support of the existing Sikh governor, Lawrence personally accompanied a body of Sikh troops to Kashmir in support of Gulab Singh. Through his support of Gulab Singh, Lawrence was able to wield significant power over the new Maharajah of Jammu and Kashmir, inducing the leader to abolish sati, female infanticide and child slavery throughout his dominions, and attracting considerable financial support for his later philanthropic endeavours. The terms of the initial treaty had permitted British troops to remain until the end of 1846. However at the request of the Lahore Durbar that troops remain until the new Maharajah reached 16, the Treaty of Bhairowal was signed. A key condition of the Treaty was that a Resident British officer, with an efficient establishment of assistants, was to be appointed by the Governor-General to remain at Lahore, with "full authority to direct and control all matters in every Department of the State. Maulvi Sayed Rajab Ali of Jagraon (Ludhiana Dist) a close confidant of Sir Henry Lawrence played an important role in these negotiations". Lawrence was appointed to the role of Resident, and began assembling a team of officer assistants, who would become known as Henry Lawrence's "Young Men". Interlude In 1848, following a year of relative peace in the Punjab, Lawrence was granted sick leave and accompanied Henry Hardinge to England where he was made a Knight Commander of the Bath on Hardinge's recommendation. In March, Lawrence was officially replaced as the British Resident at Lahore by Sir Frederick Currie. The murder of two of his assistants, Patrick Vans Agnew and W.A. Anderson in Multan, and the outbreak of the Second Anglo-Sikh War hastened his return to India. He was present at the Battle of Chillianwala, and although lacking an official capacity, he played a key role in persuading Lord Gough not to withdraw his troops after the battle. The war was won by the East India Company and the Punjab became a province of the Bengal Presidency. Board of Administration The new Punjab province was to be administered under the superintendence of a Board of Administration and Lawrence was made its president. He was assisted on the Board by his brother John and Charles Grenville Mansel, under whom he retained his troop of hand picked assistants. As President, Lawrence travelled extensively in the province, each year travelling three or four months, each day riding usually thirty to forty miles. At each station he would visit public offices, gaols, bazaars, receive visitors of all ranks, inspect the Punjab regiments and police, and receive daily petitions sometimes numbering in the hundreds. In his diary he noted that under his administration they had raised five regiments of fine cavalry and infantry, six regiments of very good military police and 2,700 cavalry police, planted thousands of trees, ensured serais were ever-present on main roads, police posts every two or three miles, and steps were taken in education. Despite the success of the Board of Administration, internal tensions had arisen and the new Governor General, Lord Dalhousie, preferred to invest power in the hands of single administrator. Part of the reason for this was Lawrence's insistence on compensating the Sikh nobility and aristocracy who had suffered ruin following defeat in the Second Anglo-Sikh War. Lawrence, mindful of the potential for discontent to be sewn by disgruntled aristocrats, liberally offered financial assistance, a policy opposed by both his brother John and Dalhousie Both Lawrence and his brother John tendered their resignation, however Dalhousie chose John as his new Lieutenant-Governor. Dalhousie explained his decision by stating that after some years of military administration in the Punjab, there was now a need for a civil administration to which John Lawrence would be more suited. The decision deeply hurt Henry who felt he had proved his self-taught civil administrative abilities over the course of the previous twenty years. Oude and Rajputana Lawrence began his new role as the Governor-General's Agent in Rajputana in 1853. Much of his energy was devoted to two principal causes, the abolition of widow-burning in Rajputana and reforming the prison system. Whilst in Rajputana his wife Honoria died and his health began to fail, prompting first a desire to succeed Sir James Outram as Resident at Lucknow, for which he was overlooked for a civilian, and thereafter a desire to undertake leave to England. In 1856, Oudh had been annexed by the East India Company on the grounds of internal maladministration. The following March, Lawrence was appointed to the prestigious post of Chief Commissioner of Oudh. Under his predecessor Colville Coverley Jackson, much of the local aristocracy had fallen from grace and widespread unrest had come to the fore. An added concern was growing discontent amongst the Sepoys of the Bengal Army, a large proportion of whom were drawn from Oudh, and thus able to command support in the province. Lawrence had long taken an interest in the sepoy army, noting its defects, and advising successive Governor-Generals of the need to listen to concerns of the soldiery and implement reform, and as such was wary that any insurrection amongst the sepoys could instigate a wider civil unrest. Siege of Lucknow In May 1857, two months after assuming his post in Oudh, the Indian Rebellion of 1857 commenced. Lawrence earned praise for the prompt and decisive handling of an insurrection of an irregular native regiment near Lucknow, and was in turn awarded full military and civil authority by the Governor-General, Lord Canning. He arranged for a garrison in Lucknow of some 1700 men, and took refuge in the British residency. Such was his assured handling of the crisis, that the British government and Board of Directors of the East India Company found it necessary to nominate him as provisional Governor-General of India in the event of the death or resignation of Lord Canning. On the morning of 30 June, despite being weak and exhausted with illness, he led a march towards Nawabgunj to confront some mutinous regiments approaching Lucknow. Around six or seven miles from Lucknow he encountered 15,000 soldiers with thirty guns and soon after the artillery of the Oude irregular force deserted his command and joined the mutineers. Significantly outnumbered Lawrence was forced into a retreat, suffering heavy losses. On their return, the Residency was soon besieged by mutineers and the Siege of Lucknow commenced. On 1 July, a shell burst into his quarters in the upper part of the Residency, and despite pleas from his officers he refused to move his quarters to a safer area. The following day, whilst lying on a couch, a shell burst beside him and shattered his thigh. Dr Joseph Fayrer was summoned to provide consultation, and decided that amputation would only increase his suffering, and was likely to shorten his life. Fayrer gave him three days to live. Lawrence lingered until the second day, and died at approximately eight in the morning on 4 July 1857. He was buried that same evening in a soldier's grave, and it is said that not a single officer saw the lowering of his body into the ground so furious was the fighting raging at the time. When Lawrence was critically injured and aware he was dying, he gave final orders to his nominated successor at Lucknow, Major John Banks, who immediately recorded them in writing. The twelfth among his fourteen directions was "Put on my tomb only this; Here lies Henry Lawrence who tried to do his duty." This epitaph appears on his tombstone at the Residency graveyard. Educational institutions Lawrence established institutions for the education of the children of British soldiers, known as the Lawrence Military Asylums, at four places in British India. Three of these institutions survive today as the prestigious Lawrence School, Sanawar (HP, India), Lawrence School, Lovedale (TN, India) and Lawrence College, Ghora Gali (Murree, Pakistan): the fourth, which does not survive, was at Mount Abu, in present-day Rajasthan. Following the Disruption of 1843, along with Sir James Outram, Lawrence supported Reverend Alexander Duff in establishing the Free Church Institution in Calcutta, as a rival institution to the General Assembly's Institution, which had been founded by Duff in 1830. These two institutions would later be merged to form the Scottish Churches College, known since 1929 (when the Church of Scotland was unified) as Scottish Church College. Family life Lawrence married Honoria Marshall at St. John's Church, Calcutta, on 21 August 1837. They had four children. In 1858, his eldest son Alexander was created 1st Baronet Lawrence, of Lucknow, in consideration of his father's services. Works Lawrence also contributed to the Calcutta Review. Commemoration Lawrence is commemorated by a high cross in the cemetery adjacent to the Residency in Lucknow. There is a monument to him by J.G. Lough in the south transept of St Paul's Cathedral in London and a memorial by J.H. Foley at St. Paul's Cathedral in Calcutta. He is also remembered in the names of: Henry Lawrence Island in the Indian Ocean, at 12N 93E. The town of Lawrence in New Zealand. The Lawrence Arms public house in Southsea, Hampshire. References Further reading Edwardes, Michael. The Necessary Hell: John and Henry Lawrence and the Indian Empire (Cassell, 1958) External links Illustrated London News 24 Oct 1863 - p.415 The Lawrence Asylum at Murree The Second Anglo Sikh War The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition Lawrence School, Lovedale Lawrence College, Ghora Gali, Murree, Pakistan Lawrence School, Sanawar 1806 births 1857 deaths British Indian Army officers British Indian Army personnel killed in action British military personnel of the First Anglo-Burmese War British military personnel of the First Anglo-Afghan War People educated at Haileybury and Imperial Service College British military personnel killed in the Indian Rebellion of 1857 Bengal Artillery officers Graduates of Addiscombe Military Seminary People educated at Foyle College Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath People from Matara, Sri Lanka Founders of Indian schools and colleges Henry
401551	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Space%20Centre	National Space Centre	The National Space Centre is a museum and educational resource covering the fields of space science and astronomy, along with a space research programme in partnership with the University of Leicester. It is located on the north side of the city in Belgrave, Leicester, England, next to the River Soar. Many of the exhibits, including upright rockets, are housed in a tower with minimal steel supports and a semi-transparent cladding of ETFE 'pillows' which has become one of Leicester's most recognisable landmarks. The National Space Centre is a registered charity with a board of trustees. History The initial idea of a space centre as a research facility but with public access, attached to the University of Leicester, was first conceived in the 1980s – the idea of Professor Alan Wells, the Director of the University of Leicester's Space Research Centre, and Professor Ken Pounds of the university. The plan was not taken further due to lack of funds. The Space Centre as a museum was then put forward in 1995 – by Professor Alan Wells; Professor Alan Ponter, the University of Leicester's pro vice-chancellor; and Nigel Siesage, the university's principal assistant registrar. Funding for the project came from the Millennium Commission, who provided 50% of the £52miliion capital cost, four major partners; Leicester City Council, the University of Leicester, East Midlands Development Agency and BT; along with contributions from exhibition sponsors, Walkers, the Met Office, Omega, BNSC and Astrium. The first element of the project was the Challenger Learning Centre which opened at Leicester University in December 1999 and moved to the National Space Centre site a year later. It was the first such centre outside North America, where 42 similar centres existed. The centre was split in two, with one half replicating the inside of a spacecraft and the other, mission control. Originally it was to be called the National Space Science Centre, but in December 2000 the word science was dropped from the name for marketing reasons. (The National Space Centre was often confused with the British National Space Centre, until they changed their name to the UK Space Agency) Opening On 30 June 2001, former NASA astronaut Jeffrey A. Hoffman opened the National Space Centre officially to the general public. In its first five months, the National Space Centre received 165,000 visitors, 25% ahead of its targets and was named museum of the year by the Good Britain Guide, 2002. At opening, the centre was the base for more than 60 scientists and astronomers working on projects in a Space Science Research Unit (SSRU). Tranquillity Base In July 2005 it opened the Human Spaceflight Gallery, a lunar base set in the year 2025, dubbed Tranquillity Base. Visitors received a barcode and undertook a number of interactive tasks. It also included a space ride. Sir Patrick Moore Planetarium On 26 January 2012, Sir Patrick Moore visited the National Space Centre to launch the planetarium, newly renamed in his honour. He also launched a new planetarium show, Tour of the Night Sky, that included a series of 'best-of' clips hosted by Sir Patrick himself. Astronaut visits Michael Foale On 19 October 2004, NASA Astronaut, Michael Foale, visited the National Space Centre to launch the brand-new Rocket Tower glass lifts. Bernard Harris Bernard Harris, the first African American to walk in space, visited the National Space Centre as part of the centre's Festival of Science and Culture over the weekend of the 12 and 13 March 2005. Buzz Aldrin In June 2005 Apollo 11 astronaut and second man on the Moon Buzz Aldrin visited the National Space Centre. He spoke to children and toured the Lunar Base 2025 Experience. Chris Hadfield On 13 December 2013, Commander Chris Hadfield visited the National Space Centre to meet the visitors and to promote his book An Astronaut's Guide to Life on Earth. Walter Cunningham Apollo 7 astronaut Walt Cunningham visited the National Space Centre on 24 September 2015. Tim Peake Following his six-month mission on the International Space Station, Tim Peake visited the National Space Centre on Friday 14 October 2016 where he talked to local school children and visitors and received an Honorary Degree of Doctor of Science from the University of Leicester. Although this was his first physical visit, during his mission he linked live from space to the National Space Centre on two occasions, answering questions from school children and the media. Queen's Visit Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth and the Duke of Edinburgh visited the National Space Centre on 1 August 2002, as part of her Diamond Jubilee national tour. The Queen gave a speech. Olympic Torch On 3 July 2012, the Olympic Torch Relay visited Leicester. At the National Space Centre the torch was carried over the Rocket Tower by stuntman Nick Macomber AKA “Jet Pack Man” before being handed off to Kevin Davies who left the National Space Centre with an honour guard of Stormtroopers. Beagle 2 Operations Centre Mission control for the Beagle 2 mission to Mars was based at the National Space Centre and was the first NASA or ESA mission to be run in the full view of the public. Beagle 2's robotic arm, known as the PAW, was developed by a team led by the University of Leicester Space Research Group who also led on the technical design and the flight operations development. Architecture Nicholas Grimshaw, the architects of the Eden Project, won an architectural competition to design the National Space Centre in September 1996 beating four other architects. The fit out of the building was undertaken by C-Beck Group. Structural and services engineer was Arup, Quantity surveyor was Capita Property Services, project manager was Gardiner and Theobold +Management services and main contractor was Sir Robert McAlpine. Landscape architect was Land Use Consultants, Cladding consultant was Montressor Partnership and acoustics engineer was Sandy Brown Associates. The tower is tall and claims to be the only place to house upright space rockets indoors. Building The 7,360m2 scheme occupies a former storm water tank, which now forms the foundations of the building, reducing costs and maximising the reuse of the existing structure. The main rocket tower is clad in inflated pillows made of ETFE – the same material used on the Eden Project domes. This material is 1% of the weight of the equivalent amount of glass. The building was described by the Guardian as "One of the most distinctive and intriguing new buildings in Britain" The main building is a 7200m2 box built on a 14m grid steel frame, clad in a perforated metal skin that conceals the windows and louvres in the profiled steel cladding behind. The roof of the main building is overlaid with gravel in three colours to form a crab nebulae design. Construction began on the site in March 1999. Galleries The National Space Centre has six main galleries, a welcome hall, an area for space talks, a planetarium and a spaceflight simulator. It also has a café and various conference and teaching rooms. Welcome Hall This entrance area contains a Soyuz spacecraft, and a set of spacesuits including Tim Peake's spacesuit, Buzz Aldrin's underwear and a spacesuit from The Martian film. Into Space A gallery dedicated to space flight which includes a mock-up of the Columbus module from the International Space Station and a space toilet. The Universe This gallery covers the formation of the universe, how humans observe it and the search for alien life. Our Solar System The planets of the Solar System are the subject of this gallery which includes the TinyTarium, a planetarium especially for the very young visitor. Home Planet A gallery with the planet Earth as its subject - how it is observed how it is changing, and the consequences of human actions. Space Oddities This is an area where selected artefacts from the National Space Centre's collection are exhibited. The gallery is updated regularly by the curator in order to display lesser known objects with unique histories. Rocket Tower The rocket tower features stories from the space race, and the two upright rockets it was specially designed to house, a PGM-17 Thor Able and a Blue Streak. The Rocket Tower also displays a piece of Moon rock. LIVE Space LIVE Space is an area where talks, live link-ups, news from space and science demonstrations are presented. Sir Patrick Moore Planetarium A full dome planetarium which is used to project a variety of immersive shows many of which are created by NSC Creative who are based at the National Space Centre. The planetarium has 192 seats and six accessible spaces. Tetrastar Spaceport Launched in 2022, this is a simulated low Earth orbit cruise on board a spacecraft. Notable exhibits A selection of objects held in the National Space Centre's collections can be viewed online at the National Space Centre Collections Online. Moon rock A piece of real Moon rock prised from a fractured boulder near the rim of Shorty Crater. This was collected by Gene Cernan in December 1972 during Apollo 17, the last crewed mission to the Moon. The fragment weighs 120g and is encased in a protective atmosphere. Sputnik A mock Sputnik, whose manufacture was overseen by creator Sergei Korolev, who demanded perfectionism; he once berated a junior technician with the words “This will be exhibited in museums” Space toilet A demonstration example of a Russian space toilet, constructed by NPP Zvezda. The appearance and size are the same as the type of toilet used on the Russian Mir space station. As a demonstration model it lacks the technological units needed for processing liquid and solid waste. Martian spacesuit An EVA Spacesuit used during the filming of Ridley Scott's 2015 film, The Martian. Worn by Matt Damon and various stunt performers, it was used with a rigging system to simulate floating in space. The costumes used in the film were designed to be accurate reflections of the sort of spacesuits that might be used in a near-future Mars mission. Academy Award-winning costume designer Janty Yates worked with NASA and Scott to ensure that this Extra-Vehicular Activity (EVA) spacesuit worked for the film, but also imagined the future of NASA spacesuit design. Education The National Space Centre provides education programmes that support parents and teachers to inspire children to learn about science. e-missions In 2004, working with the Challenger Center for Space Science Education, the National Space Centre launched e-Missions™ which included a mission to Europa where pupils have to save a crewed mission to Jupiter’s moon that is in trouble and Operation Montserrat, where pupils take the role of a military response team tasked to evacuate a population in the face of a hurricane and a potential volcanic eruption. National Space Academy In 2008 a collaboration between the National Space Centre, University of Leicester, Nottingham University and East Midlands Development Agency resulted in the creation of the Space Academy. The Space Academy collaborated with NASA’s Aerospace Educator Service Project and in 2010 led a session at the annual Space Exploration Educators Conference (SEEC) which draws in more than 600 teachers, space scientists and engineers from all over the United States, Canada, Europe and Japan. The Space Academy’s presentation on the ESA’s Rosetta mission was chosen to be streamed on the Internet by Space Center Houston. Subsequently, the National Space Centre on behalf of the UK Space Agency, the Science & Technology Facilities Council (STFC), the UK Space Education Office (ESERO-UK), and the European Space Agency, launched the National Space Academy in February 2011. It was set up to promote excellence in science and technology by training teachers, offering teaching resources, hosting career events and developing apprenticeship courses. As of 2022 a Space Engineering course provides A-levels in physics and mathematics, plus a BTEC Extended Diploma in engineering. The course is delivered by Loughborough College and the National Space Centre, including physics and mathematics delivery in the National Space Academy Science Lab in Leicester. The National Space Academy’s resources page includes lesson starter clips on astrobiology, space-themed videos in support of STEM lessons and videos and interactive experiences for home learning. Facilities Digital visualisation The centre's own digital visualisation team, NSC Creative, make all the "fulldome" planetarium shows shown at the centre. By 2011, NSC Creative fulldome shows are playing in over 220 planetaria in 27 countries worldwide. These productions include the official International Year of Astronomy (IYA2009) planetarium show "We are Astronomers" which was funded by the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC). Near Earth Objects Information Centre The NEO Information Centre's launch was announced in January 2002 by the science minister, Lord Sainsbury. Based at the National Space Centre in Leicester, it was set up as part of the UK Government's response to the report of the task force on Potentially Hazardous Near Earth Objects. It provided information to the public, media, educators and scientists on Near Earth Objects, the science behind them and the potential hazard they pose to life on Earth. Government funding for the NEO Information Centre was not renewed in 2010 and the Leicester-based Centre was closed. Monitoring of near-Earth objects is currently undertaken by the Spaceguard Centre. Events Apollo program astronaut and moonwalker Buzz Aldrin visited the Space Centre in June 2005. The first Star Wars Day was held on 30 July 2005. Due to the popularity of this event, Star Wars weekend has been held annually, as of 2015. The centre hosted a celebration of 50 years of Doctor Who in November 2013. A Sci-Fi Weekend on the weekend beginning 17 June 2006 included a live-action experience similar to Alien War. On 19 July 2006 NASA astronaut Brian Duffy visited and told people about his trip to space. National Space Centre hosted a UK tour by the NASA STS-121 crew, including UK born astronaut Piers Sellers. The crew spoke to MPs, industry leaders and school children about the UK Space Industry. Many of the children who met the crew said they were inspired to consider science and technology as a further education topic. In 2007, the National Space Centre celebrated "50 Years in Space": the anniversary of the first satellite, Sputnik. In 2013, scenes from the Indian film Yamla Pagla Deewana 2 were filmed at the Space Centre. In popular culture Back in Business Back in Business, a comedy starring Martin Kemp, Denis Waterman and Chris Barrie about a heist involving a Moon buggy was partly filmed at the National Space Centre in 2005, with the movie released in 2007. Don't Tell the Bride On 2 October 2012, the National Space Centre became the venue for the BBC TV show Don’t Tell the Bride which was aired as Episode 8 of Season 6. Public Service Broadcasting On 26 February 2015, the galleries of the National Space Centre were taken over by Public Service Broadcasting, as the musical duo launched their new album; The Race for Space. Governance The charity was registered on 10 January 2000 and (as of 2020) has 17 Trustees. The National Space Centre receives no day-to-day funding from the government and generates revenue primarily from commercial activity such as ticket sales, café and gift shop revenue, venue hire and sponsorship. Accounts for 2020 show that income was £5.4 million and expenditure was £5.9 million, of which £5 million was spent on charitable activities and the rest on activities to raise funds. As a charity the National Space Centre makes grants to organisations, provides human resources, provides buildings, facilities and open space, provides advocacy, advice and information and acts as an umbrella or resource body. See also British National Space Centre Abbey Pumping Station, nearby museum NSC Creative company associated with, and based at, the National Space Centre that produces full-dome shows. References External links National Space Centre Collections Online Video clips National Space Centre YouTube channel Buildings and structures completed in 2001 Museums in Leicester Science and technology in the United Kingdom Space-related tourist attractions Technology museums in the United Kingdom Science museums in England University of Leicester Buildings and structures celebrating the third millennium Planetaria in the United Kingdom Tourist attractions in Leicestershire Space programme of the United Kingdom Astronomy museums Aerospace museums in England Nicholas Grimshaw buildings 2001 establishments in England University museums in England
401592	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lou%20Saban	Lou Saban	Louis Henry Saban (October 13, 1921 – March 29, 2009) was an American football player and coach. He played for Indiana University in college and as a professional for the Cleveland Browns of the All-America Football Conference (AAFC) between 1946 and 1949. Saban then began a long coaching career. After numerous jobs at the college level, he became the first coach of the Boston Patriots in the American Football League (AFL) in 1960. He joined the Buffalo Bills two years later, and led the team to consecutive AFL championships in 1964 and 1965. Saban was the first head coach to win multiple AFL championships, with only Hank Stram passing him. After serving briefly as head coach at the University of Maryland, he was hired as head coach of the Denver Broncos in 1967, where he remained for five years. Saban returned to the Bills—by then in the National Football League (NFL) following the AFL–NFL merger—from 1972 to 1976, reaching the playoffs once but failing to bring Buffalo another championship. Following his departure from Buffalo, Saban returned to college coaching. He coached teams including the University of Miami, Army, University of Central Florida and Peru State College. He also coached at the high school level and for two Arena Football League teams. Saban switched jobs frequently and developed a reputation as an itinerant. At Central Florida, he was nicknamed Lou "two point two" Saban because he typically stayed in a coaching job for about 2.2 years. Saban initially dismissed this characterization, but came to accept it later in life. He held 21 coaching jobs during his 50-year career (lasting an average of 2.38 years for each job), which ended with a job at Chowan University in North Carolina between 2001 and 2002. Saban's combined record as a coach in the AFL and NFL was 95–99–7. His college football record was 94–99–4. Saban suffered from heart problems and had a fall in his home that required hospitalization in 2009. He died in March of that year. Playing career High school and college Saban was the son of immigrants from Croatia and grew up near La Grange, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago. His first job, at age nine, was as a caddy for Al Capone's brother Ralph at a Chicago golf course. He attended Lyons Township High School and joined the school's football team. A runner and passer, he led his high school's athletic conference in scoring as a senior and was named an all-state and all-conference halfback. Saban's high school coach was an Indiana University alumnus and convinced him to enroll there. Saban played for the Indiana Hoosiers football team starting in 1940. He was used as a quarterback in 1941, his sophomore year. He also played as a linebacker and a placekicker. Saban was named to the Associated Press All-Big Ten second team as a quarterback in 1942. He was the captain of Indiana's 1942 team and was selected as its most valuable player. Saban was also a standout shot putter, winning a Big Ten Conference competition at Illinois Institute of Technology in 1943 with a throw of 48 feet and 11 1/2 inches. Later in 1943, Saban joined the U.S. Army as World War II intensified following the attack on Pearl Harbor. In 1944, he was selected to compete in the College All-Star Game, a now-defunct annual contest between the National Football League champion and a selection of the best college players from around the country. Saban, then stationed at Fort Benning in Georgia, was named the college team's second Most Valuable Player after quarterback Glenn Dobbs of the University of Tulsa. He kicked three extra points and played on the defensive line in the all-stars' 24–21 loss to the Chicago Bears. Saban played for Fort Benning's 1944 Third Infantry Cockades football team, while stationed there. He also studied Chinese for five months at the University of California and served in China and India as an Army interpreter. Cleveland Browns Saban was selected in the 10th round of the 1944 NFL Draft by Card-Pitt, a temporary merger between the Chicago Cardinals and Pittsburgh Steelers made necessary after the teams were gutted by players' military service. Saban, however, did not sign with Card-Pitt, and instead joined the Cleveland Browns, a team under formation in the new All-America Football Conference (AAFC) and coached by Paul Brown. Brown said Saban would be used exclusively on defense as a linebacker and as a kicker of extra points. Saban was one of the first arrivals at the Browns' training camp in Bowling Green, Ohio, having left China just three weeks before. Despite Brown's intentions, Saban was used occasionally on the Browns' offense in 1946. He caught a 44-yard pass from quarterback Otto Graham in a September game against the Buffalo Bisons. He was mainly used as a linebacker, however, and had four interceptions as the Browns won the first AAFC championship. In the offseason, he worked for Browns owner Mickey McBride's Yellow Cab Company; many of his teammates spent the offseason either at college making up for time lost to the war or taking jobs to supplement their football incomes. Saban was named the Browns' captain in 1946 after Jim Daniell, the first team captain, was arrested in a scuffle with Cleveland police and was kicked off the team at the end of the season. The following year, he filled in to kick extra points when the team's regular placekicker, Lou Groza, was injured. The Browns amassed a 12–1–1 regular-season record in 1947 and won the AAFC championship for the second time in a row. Never having finished his degree at Indiana, Saban enrolled that summer at Baldwin Wallace University in Berea, Ohio. After the 1948 season, in which Cleveland won all of its games and a third championship, Saban was named to two news outlets' all-AAFC teams. Saban came into his own as a linebacker in 1948. "Saban has been regarded as the best in football at his position for two years", Brown said in November. "If anything, he's even better this year. He has improved on covering pass receivers." He was a unanimous all-AAFC selection in 1949, when the Browns won their fourth AAFC championship in a row. Saban announced his retirement before the championship game and said in December that he was seeking the head coaching job at the Case Institute of Technology in Cleveland before its merger with the Western Reserve University forming the Case Western Reserve University. Coaching career College Saban beat more than 50 applicants to win the head coaching job at Case in February 1950, thanks to what the university's president called his "unusually sound knowledge of football" and his "leadership qualities". Saban "possesses the sort of personality and character that is of great value in work with young men", the president said. Saban was 28 years old at the time, and the appointment made him one of the youngest college head coaches in the country. Saban borrowed coaching techniques from Brown, alongside his version of the T formation offense. Saban's team finished the 1950 season with four wins and four losses. By 1951, he was already under consideration for coaching jobs at bigger schools, including Indiana University and Toledo University, where he was mentioned as a "dark horse" candidate to replace former Browns teammate Don Greenwood. His Case teams compiled a 10–14–1 record during his tenure as head coach from 1950 to 1952. Saban resigned in March 1953 to become an assistant at the University of Washington under head coach John Cherberg. He spent just one year at Washington before getting a job as an assistant coach at Northwestern University, saying he wanted to return to the Midwest. In February 1955, Saban was promoted to head coach at Northwestern, succeeding Bob Voigts and becoming the youngest coach in the Big Ten Conference at 33 years old. Saban hired George Steinbrenner as one of his assistant coaches. Saban's tenure as coach of the Northwestern Wildcats football team, however, was brief and unsuccessful. Hampered by injuries, the team lost all of its games in 1955, and calls intensified for Saban's firing as the season wore on. In December, Saban and his entire staff were fired by new athletic director Stu Holcomb. Ara Parseghian was named as his replacement. Saban moved on to a job as head coach at Western Illinois University in 1957, where he quickly built up a successful team. The Western Illinois Leathernecks finished with a record of 6–1–1 in 1958, followed by an undefeated 9–0 season in 1959, when Saban also served as an assistant under Otto Graham in the College All-Star Game. Having built up a 20–5–1 record over three seasons as coach, Saban drew interest from the professional ranks, and the Boston Patriots of the newly formed American Football League (AFL) hired him as head coach before the circuit's inaugural season in 1960. Professional Led by quarterback Butch Songin, Saban's Patriots posted a 5–9 record in their first season. The following April, Saban brought in quarterback Babe Parilli, who formerly played for the Browns and Green Bay Packers, as a backup in the AFL's biggest-ever trade at the time. Five games into the 1961 season, however, with the Patriots at 2–3, Saban was fired and replaced by assistant Mike Holovak. Patriots owner Billy Sullivan said the decision was made by a majority vote of the team's board of directors, who "just simply felt all the talent on our team had not been used and felt Mike was the man who would be able to use the talent we had to the extent that it is capable of performing." In January 1962, Saban was named the coach of the Buffalo Bills, another AFL team, signing a one-year contract worth $20,000 ($ in dollars). The Bills had a 7–6–1 record in Saban's first season and came in third in the AFL's eastern division behind the Houston Oilers and the Patriots. Cookie Gilchrist, a running back who signed with the Bills after nine years in the Canadian Football League, won most valuable player honors that year and recorded the AFL's first 1,000-yard rushing season. Saban also acquired Jack Kemp, a quarterback, from the San Diego Chargers, who had put him out on waivers while he recovered from a finger injury. Sportswriter Randy Schultz called it one of the biggest bargains in professional football history. The Bills posted a 7–6–1 record again in 1963, but this time it was enough to tie with the Patriots for the best record in the eastern division. This set up the AFL's first-ever playoff game to decide which of the teams would win the division and compete in the championship. The Bills lost the game, 26–8. Helped by Gilchrist's running and quarterback Kemp's passing, the Bills finished the 1964 season with a 12–2 record and won the AFL championship. The team won despite drama involving Gilchrist, who came into conflict with Saban frequently and asked to be traded on numerous occasions. The Bills released him on waivers in November 1964, but canceled the move when Gilchrist apologized. After the 1964 AFL championship win over the Chargers, Saban was named the league's coach of the year. Gilchrist was traded to the Denver Broncos in February 1965, but the Bills continued to win, ending with a 10–3–1 record and winning the AFL championship for the second year in a row. In the 1965 AFL championship game against the Chargers, when offensive linemen Billy Shaw and Dave Behrman were injured, Saban inserted veteran Ernie Warlick opposite rookie Paul Costa in a double tight end formation, which helped the Bills win the game, 23–0. Saban was named coach of the year for the second time in a row, silencing critics who had said he was indecisive, did not use his players properly and was not a good play-caller. Saban unexpectedly departed in early 1966 for the University of Maryland. He said he was leaving because "there can be little left to conquer in professional football". His record at Buffalo was 36–17–3. Saban, however, only stayed at Maryland for one season in which the team posted a 4–6 record. He returned to professional football as coach of the AFL's Denver Broncos in December 1966, signing a 10-year contract with an annual salary of $50,000 ($ in dollars). When he joined, the Broncos had yet to have a winning season in seven years of existence. He replaced Ray Malavasi, an assistant who took over after Saban's former Browns teammate, Mac Speedie, resigned from the post after the first two games of the season. Saban engineered a number of trades before the 1967 season. He brought Gilchrist to the team from Miami in a seven-player deal; Denver had sent Gilchrist to Miami the previous season. He also acquired quarterback Steve Tensi from the Chargers in August for first-round draft picks in 1968 and 1969. Denver won its first game, but proceeded to lose nine in a row and finish with a 3–11 record. The team improved only marginally in the ensuing years, posting losing records in 1968 and 1969. The AFL and National Football League completed their merger in 1970, but the Broncos continued to lose, posting a 5–8–1 record. Saban resigned after the Broncos got off to a 2–6–1 start in 1971. He said resigning was "my responsibility to the team" and what while the club made progress, "my only regret is that we have not been able to give Denver a championship". Saban's record as Denver's coach was 20–42–3. Although he was not successful in Denver, he was cited by team owner Gerald Phipps as bringing in the "basic organization that we have now--administrative, scouting, coaching, the whole thing." Saban became well known for his intensity and occasional temper tantrums. A much-watched clip of him bemoaning to Denver line coach Whitey Dovell that "They're killin' me out there, Whitey, they're killin' me!" introduced Saban to a wider audience when it was aired by NFL Films. Saban was named head coach of the Bills for a second time in late 1971. When he arrived, Buffalo was coming off a 1–13 season, although the team had players including running back O. J. Simpson, who had run for 742 yards and five touchdowns that year. While the Bills had a 4–9–1 record, Simpson led the NFL in rushing yards in 1972. Under Saban, Simpson continued to improve in 1973, setting a single-game rushing record with 250 yards in the season opener against the New England Patriots. He surpassed the single-season rushing record later in the year with more than 2,000 yards. Before Saban's arrival, Simpson had never rushed for more than 742 yards in a season. Simpson credited Saban with helping him reach his potential. "He saved my career", Simpson said in 1973, when he was named the NFL's most valuable player. "He promised me he'd give me the football and give me an offensive line, and he sure kept his word." The Bills had a 9–5 record that year but came in second in the AFC East and missed the playoffs. Buffalo finished the 1974 season with another 9–5 record and made the playoffs as the AFC's wildcard team. The Bills, however, lost their first playoff game against the Pittsburgh Steelers and were eliminated. Saban said after the game that the Steelers' offensive domination was the deciding factor. "I'm not sure how they did what they did against us, but they blew us out", he said. Buffalo went on to an 8–6 season in 1975, failing to make the playoffs. After the Bills got out to a 2–3 start in 1976, Saban resigned. He was reportedly angry about how Bills owner Ralph Wilson handled the re-signing of Simpson, who had demanded a trade at the beginning of the season. Saban was replaced by Jim Ringo, who he had hired as an assistant in 1972. Wilson held a grudge against Saban for the rest of his life after his second resignation, refusing to put Saban on the Bills' Wall of Fame because, in Wilson's words, "he quit on me twice!" Walt Patulski, the Bills' first overall draft pick in 1972, also held ill will toward Saban after Buffalo, believing that Saban tried to force his personality onto Patulski and that the effort effectively ruined his career; Patulski would never speak to Saban again after their respective times in Buffalo, despite multiple opportunities to do so. Return to college ranks Following his resignation from the Bills, Saban took a post as athletic director at the University of Cincinnati in November 1976. He resigned 19 days later, however, and took a job as the head coach at the University of Miami, reportedly for a $375,000 salary ($ today). He had double-bypass heart surgery at the Cleveland Clinic in the summer of 1977, but recovered by the time Miami's season began later that year. When Saban came to Miami, the football team had won just five games in the previous two seasons. Miami posted a 3–8 record in Saban's first year, but improved to 6–5 in 1978. Saban instituted an extensive recruiting network to rebuild Miami's program, and was named the school's athletic director in early 1978. One of his recruits was quarterback Jim Kelly, who starred at Miami and went on to a Pro Football Hall of Fame career with the Bills. Despite Miami's improvement in 1978, Saban departed the school amid controversy. That April, three freshman Miami players attacked a 22-year-old Jewish man wearing a yarmulke who was walking to religious services on campus. They threw the man, who worked at a campus gathering place for UM's Jewish community, into Lake Osceola at the center of campus. When Saban returned to campus a few days later, he was unaware the man was Jewish and reportedly said "Getting thrown in the lake? Sounds like fun to me." Miami's Jewish community complained, and despite numerous apologies, Saban offered to resign mid-season. Saban was convinced to remain through the end of the season, however, before leaving to coach at Army. By the time Saban joined Army, he had developed a reputation as an itinerant coach, a "notorious job-hopper" who was nevertheless respected for rebuilding teams in poor condition. Saban said he wanted to stay at Army "until they put me out to pasture". Saban stayed at Army for only one season. He said he was unhappy with the academy's unwillingness to invest more in its football program. "This is a desperate situation", he said near the end of the 1979 season. "To fight alone as a football staff is impossible." He resigned in July 1980 after leading Army to a 2–8–1 record the previous season. Saban next worked for George Steinbrenner, first in 1980 as an executive at Steinbrenner's Tampa Bay Downs racetrack and the following year as president of the New York Yankees of Major League Baseball. He took the post as a favor to Steinbrenner, a close friend who had served on his coaching staff at Northwestern in 1955. At the end of 1982, Saban left the Yankees to take a job as head football coach at the University of Central Florida (UCF), a Division II school that aspired to move its program to the top of the college ranks. He took over a team that had gone 0–10 in 1982 and led the Knights to a 5–6 record in 1983. He resigned midway through the 1984 season with UCF's record at 1–6. Saban, by then 63 years old, said he had a meeting with school officials and felt he "had no part in their plans for the future". At UCF, Saban was playfully referred to as Lou "two point two" Saban because his average tenure as a coach was 2.2 years. He was replaced by his assistant, Jerry Anderson. Saban retired in 1985 to Hendersonville, North Carolina. He came out of retirement in 1986, however, to coach high school football in Stuart, Florida, serving as the defensive coordinator for the Martin County High School Fighting Tigers. He left after two seasons and was appointed head football coach at South Fork High School, a rival of Martin County that had a record of 1–9 the previous year. After just one season at South Fork, Saban resigned in March 1989 to take a job as head coach at Georgetown High School in Georgetown, South Carolina. Saban said he was there to have fun and enjoy life, and that his reputation as a coaching "nomad" bothered him. "I've had no chance but to continue on", he said. Saban was hired in 1990 to coach the Middle Georgia Heat Wave, a semipro team in Macon, Georgia, but he left after just four games. Team officials said it was "not a firing", while Saban said there were differences in philosophy and it was "not a resignation." Saban next took a job in 1991 as head coach at Peru State College in Nebraska, compiling a 7–4 record. He resigned in January 1992 because of a new rule that required him to teach at the school, a responsibility he did not want to take on. Saban next signed on as an assistant with the Tampa Bay Storm of the Arena Football League. Two years later, he was named as the coach of the arena league's expansion Milwaukee Mustangs but was fired after the team started 0–4. The team's general manager said he wanted to be competitive and thought the club "needed a change". Shortly after his firing, Saban signed on to help start a football program at Alfred State College, a two-year technology school southeast of Buffalo. In 1995, Saban was named the first head football coach at SUNY Canton, a two-year college where he stayed for six seasons. His Canton team was an immediate success, posting a 7–0 record in 1995 and a 34–16 overall record during Saban's time as coach. The school named its football field after Saban in the late 1990s. Saban's final job, which he took at 80 years old, was as head coach at Chowan University in Murfreesboro, North Carolina. He compiled a 2–13 record at Chowan between 2001 and 2002. Personal life In his later years, Saban had heart problems and a fall in his home that required hospitalization. He died at his home in North Myrtle Beach, South Carolina on March 29, 2009. He was married to his first wife, Lorraine, and had a son, Thomas, and 3 daughters, Patricia, Barbara, and Christine. Lorraine committed suicide at their home in Orchard Park, New York in the summer of 1977 while readying to join Lou at his new job in Miami. He shared seven children with his second wife, Joyce but did not have any children together. Lou Saban shares his last name with another famous football coach, Nick Saban. They were called "distant cousins" in a 2005 article where Lou comments on the younger Saban's success. Upon the death of Lou Saban, his widow, Joyce Saban, said the two men might have been second cousins. However, the two Sabans have stated that they are not related. Like Lou Saban, Nick Saban is of Croatian descent. Legacy Including his stops at both two- and four-year schools, Saban's overall collegiate coaching record was 94–99–4. Including playoffs, his professional football record stands at 97–101–7. Saban had periods of success as a player and as a coach at the college and professional levels, but his constant moves from job to job eventually came to define him. "I have been known as a peripatetic coach", he said in 1994. "The first time I was called that, I thought it was a dirty word. I looked it up in the dictionary and found it meant I moved around a lot." Saban was inducted into the Greater Buffalo Sports Hall of Fame in 1994 and, in a surprise move, was added to the Buffalo Bills Wall of Fame in 2015. In 2011, the Professional Football Researchers Association named Saban to the PRFA Hall of Very Good Class of 2011. Coaching tree Assistants under Saban who became college or professional head coaches: Mike Holovak: New England Patriots (1961-1968), New York Jets (1976) Joe Collier: Buffalo Bills (1966-1968) Harvey Johnson: Buffalo Bills (1968, 1971) John Mazur: New England Patriots (1970-1972) Jerry Smith: Denver Broncos (1971) Dick MacPherson: Massachusetts Minutemen (1971-1977), Syracuse Orangemen (1981-1990), New England Patriots (1991-1992) Jim Ringo: Buffalo Bills (1976-1977) Sam Rutigliano: Cleveland Browns (1977-1984), Liberty Flames (1989-1999) Red Miller: Denver Broncos (1977-1980), Denver Gold (1983) Additionally, Marty Schottenheimer, who played for Saban from 1965 to 1968 with the AFL's Bills, was influenced by Saban's coaching philosophy. Schottenheimer and the coaches he influenced are considered to be in Saban's coaching tree. Head coaching record College *Fired after 7 games AFL/NFL Junior college See also List of American Football League players References Bibliography External links 1921 births 2009 deaths American football linebackers American football quarterbacks Boston Patriots (AFL) coaches Boston Patriots (AFL) head coaches Buffalo Bills head coaches Case Western Spartans football coaches Cincinnati Bearcats athletic directors Cleveland Browns (AAFC) players Chowan Hawks football coaches Denver Broncos head coaches Indiana Hoosiers football players Maryland Terrapins football coaches Miami Hurricanes athletic directors Miami Hurricanes football coaches New York Yankees executives Northwestern Wildcats football coaches Peru State Bobcats football coaches SUNY Canton Roos football coaches Third Infantry Cockades football players Washington Huskies football coaches Western Illinois Leathernecks football coaches Tampa Bay Storm coaches Milwaukee Mustangs (1994–2001) coaches National Football League general managers High school football coaches in Florida High school football coaches in South Carolina United States Army personnel of World War II Sportspeople from La Grange, Illinois Players of American football from Cook County, Illinois People from Brookfield, Illinois People from North Myrtle Beach, South Carolina Coaches of American football from Illinois Accidental deaths from falls Accidental deaths in South Carolina American people of Croatian descent
401600	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index%20of%20Armenia-related%20articles	Index of Armenia-related articles	Articles (arranged alphabetically) related to Armenia include: # 1in.am · 1268 Cilicia earthquake · 1896 Ottoman Bank Takeover · 1965 Yerevan demonstrations · 1995 Armenian constitutional referendum · 2005 Armenian constitutional referendum · 1988 Armenian earthquake · 1991 Armenian independence referendum · 1992 in Armenian football · 1993 in Armenian football · 1993 Summer Offensives · 1994 in Armenian football · 1995 in Armenian football · 1995-96 in Armenian football · 1996-97 in Armenian football · 1997 in Armenian football · 1998 in Armenian football · 1999 Armenian parliament shooting · 1999 in Armenian football · 2000 in Armenian football · 2003 Armenian parliamentary election · 2007 Armenian parliamentary election · 2012 Armenian parliamentary election · 2017 Armenian parliamentary election · 2018 Armenian parliamentary election · 2021 Armenian parliamentary election · 2021 Armenian political crisis · 1991 Armenian presidential election · 1996 Armenian presidential election · 1998 Armenian presidential election · 2003 Armenian presidential election · 2008 Armenian presidential election · 2013 Armenian presidential election · 2018 Armenian presidential election · 2022 Armenian presidential election · 2020–2021 Armenian protests · 2021–2022 Armenia–Azerbaijan border crisis · 2022 Armenian protests · 2022 Yerevan explosion · 32nd Chess Olympiad · 5165 National Conservative Movement Party A A1plus · A21TV (Armenia) · .am · Aaron the Illustrious · Abas I of Armenia · Abovyan · Abraham of Armenia · Acacius of Sebaste · Acba Bank · Achin Nor-Achin · Achots · Adana massacre · Adequate Party · Adjika · Administration for Western Armenia · Administrative divisions of Armenia · AEGEE Yerevan · Agdam (rayon) · Aghdznik · Aghstev · Agriculture in Armenia · Air Armenia · Aircompany Armenia · Air Highnesses · Air-Van Airlines · Akdamar Island · Akhtala · Akhtamar Sevan · Akhurian River · Alashkert Martuni · Alaverdi · Alik · Aliovit · All Armenian Labour Party · All-Armenian National Statehood Party · Alliance of Ideological Liberals · Alliance Party (Armenia) · Alma Johansson · Almaz Yerevan · Alternative Party (Armenia) · Amaras Monastery · Amatuni · Amberd · Ameriabank · American Committee for Relief in the Near East · American University of Armenia · Anahit · Angl · Ani · Anthem of the Armenian SSR · Anti-Armenianism · Antzevasiq · Antzitene · Aparan · The Apex Theory · Apostolic Nunciature to Armenia · Apricot · Apricot Country Party · Ara the Beautiful · Arab conquest of Armenia · Arabkir District · Arabkir Yerevan · Aragats Gyumri · Aragatsotn · FC Armavir · Aramu · Aranean · Ararat (brandy) · Ararat (film) · Ararat (province) · Ararat plain · Aras River · Aravan · Aravelian · Arba Lijoch · Archaruni · Archaruniq · Architecture of Armenia · Ardshinbank · Argentina–Armenia relations · Argishti II of Urartu · Argishtis I of Urartu · Ark Airways · Arkhalig · Armavia · Armavir (province) · Armavir, Armenia · ArmCosmos · Armed Forces of Armenia · Armenia · Armenia (name) · Armenia Airways · Armenia Alliance · Armenia and the European Union · Armenia and the United Nations · Armenia at the 1994 Winter Olympics · Armenia at the 1996 Summer Olympics · Armenia at the 1998 Winter Olympics · Armenia at the 2000 Summer Olympics · Armenia at the 2002 Winter Olympics · Armenia at the 2004 Summer Olympics · Armenia at the 2006 Winter Olympics · Armenia at the 2006 Winter Paralympics · Armenia–Australia relations · Armenia-Azerbaijan relations · Armenia–Brazil relations · Armenia–BSEC relations · Armenia–Bulgaria relations · Armenia–Canada relations · Armenia–Chile relations · Armenia–China relations · Armenia–Croatia relations · Armenia–Cyprus relations · Armenia Davis Cup team · Armenia–Denmark relations · Armenia–Egypt relations · Armenia-EU Comprehensive and Enhanced Partnership Agreement · Armenia-EU Partnership and Cooperation Agreement · Armenia Fed Cup team · Armenia–France relations · Armenia–Georgia relations · Armenia–Germany relations · Armenia–Greece relations · Armenia–Hungary relations · Armenia–India relations · Armenia in the Council of Europe · Armenia in the Eurovision Song Contest · Armenia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2006 · Armenia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2007 · Armenia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2008 · Armenia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2009 · Armenia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2010 · Armenia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2012 · Armenia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2013 · Armenia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2014 · Armenia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2015 · Armenia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2016 · Armenia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2017 · Armenia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2018 · Armenia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2019 · Armenia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2020 · Armenia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2022 · Armenia–Iran relations · Armenia–Iraq relations · Armenia is Our Home · Armenia–Israel relations · Armenia–Italy relations · Armenia–Japan relations · Armenia–Kazakhstan relations · Armenia–Lebanon relations · Armenia–Mexico relations · Armenia national baseball team · Armenia national football team · Armenia national rugby union team · Armenia–NATO relations · Armenia–OSCE relations · Armenia–Pakistan relations · Armenia–Palestine relations · Armenia–Philippines relations · Armenia–Poland relations · Armenia–Portugal relations · Armenia–Romania relations · Armenia–Russia relations · Armenia–Saudi Arabia relations · Armenia–Serbia relations · Armenia–Singapore relations · Armenia–Spain relations · Armenia, Subartu And Sumer · Armenia–Switzerland relations · Armenia–Syria relations · Armenia–Tajikistan relations · Armenia–Turkey relations · Armenia–Turkmenistan relations · Armenia Tree Project · Armenia–Ukraine relations · Armenia–United Arab Emirates relations · Armenia–United Kingdom relations · Armenia–United States relations · Armenia–Uruguay relations · Armenia–Uzbekistan relations · Armenian Academy of Sciences · Armenian Air Defense · Armenian Air Force · Armenian Airlines · Armenian alphabet · Armenian American Political Action Committee · Armenian American Wellness Center · Armenian Apostolic Church · Armenian Army · Armenian Assembly of America · Armenian Atlantic Association · Armenian Automobile Federation · Armenian Baseball Federation · Armenian Basketball Federation · Armenian battalions · Armenian Biathlon Federation · Armenian Border Guard · Armenian Boxing Federation · Armenian Brotherhood Church · Armenian calendar · Armenian casualties during World War I · Armenian casualties of deportations · Armenian Catholic Church · Armenian Center for National and International Studies · Armenian chant · Armenian Chess Championship · Armenian College (Kolkata) · Armenian Communist Party · Armenian community of Dhaka · Armenian Congress of Eastern Armenians · Armenian Constructive Party · Armenian cucumber · Armenian Cup · Armenian Customs Service · Armenian dance · Armenian Dances · Armenian Darts Federation · Armenian Democratic Liberal Party . Armenian diaspora · Armenian diaspora in Europe · Armenian diaspora in the Middle East · Armenian diplomatic missions · Armenian Distance Learning Network · Armenian Diving Federation · Armenian dram · Armenian dram sign · Armenian Dream · Armenian dress · Armenian Eagles Unified Armenia Party · Armenian Economic Association · Armenian Environmental Network · Armenian Esports Federation · Armenian Evangelical Church · Armenian fedayi · Armenian Fencing Federation · Armenian First League · Armenian First League 2006 · Armenian First League 2007 · Armenian Floorball Federation · Armenian General Benevolent Union · Armenian genocide · The Armenian Genocide (documentary) · Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day · Armenian gull · Armenian Gymnastics Federation · Armenian Handball Federation · Armenian Highland · Armenian Hockey League · Armenian hypothesis · Armenian illuminated manuscript · Armenian Institute of International and Security Affairs · Armenian International Airways · Armenian irregular units · Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia · Armenian Kyokushin Karate Federation · Armenian language · Armenian Legion · Armenian literature · Armenian Mesopotamia · Armenian Mountaineering and Hiking Federation · Armenian mythology · Armenian National Academy of Sciences · Armenian National Assembly (Ottoman Empire) · Armenian national awakening in the Ottoman Empire · Armenian National Cinematheque · Armenian National Committee of America · Armenian National Constitution · Armenian National Council of Karabagh · Armenian National Disabled Sports Federation · Armenian National Federation of Bodybuilding · Armenian national ice hockey team · Armenian national movement · Armenian National Movement Party · Armenian National Rowing and Canoe Federation · Armenian National Squash Federation · Armenian National Students Association · Armenian needlelace · Armenian newspapers · Armenian nobility · Armenian notables deported from the Ottoman capital in 1915 · Armenian Numismatic Society · Armenian oak · Armenian Oblast · Armenian Paralympic Committee · Armenian parliamentary election, 2003 · Armenian parliamentary election, 2007 · Armenian presidential election, 2008 · Armenian passport · Armenian Patriotic Society of Europe · Armenian Philharmonic Orchestra · Armenian population by country · Armenian population by urban area · Armenian postal codes · Armenian Powerlifting Federation · Armenian Premier League · Armenian Premier League 2005 · Armenian Premier League 2006 · Armenian Premier League 2007 · Armenian Professional Society · Armenian Public Television · Armenian Quarter · Armenian Question · Armenian quote · Armenian Relief Society · Armenian Research Center · Armenian resistance (1914-1918) · Armenian Revolutionary Federation · Armenian Revolutionary Songs · Armenian rock · Armenian rock lizard · Armenian rouble · Armenian School (Madras) · Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia · Armenian Shooting Federation · Armenian Shotokan Karate Federation · Armenian Ski Federation · Armenian Snooker And Pocket Billiards Federation · Armenian Social-Democratic Labour Organization · Armenian SSR · Armenian State Institute of Physical Culture · Armenian Stock Exchange · Armenian Street, Chennai · Armenian Student Sports Federation · Armenian Supercup · Armenian surnames · Armenian Swimming Federation · Armenian Synchronized Swimming Federation · Armenian Table Soccer Federation · Armenian Table Tennis Federation · Armenian Taekwondo Federation · Armenian Triathlon Federation · Armenian Tax Service · Armenian verbs · Armenian volunteer units · Armenian Weekly · Armenian Weightlifting Federation · Armenian Workers Communist Party · Armenian Workers Union · Armenian-American · Armenian-Assyrian relations · Armenian-Azerbaijani War · Armenian-Byzantine Battle · Armenian-Greek relations · Armenian-Parthian War · Armenians · Armenians in Australia . Armenians in Bulgaria · Armenians in Burma · Armenians in Cyprus · Armenians in Egypt · Armenians in Georgia · Armenians in Germany · Armenians in Greece · Armenians in Hungary · Armenians in India · Armenians in Indonesia · Armenians in Iraq · Armenians in Kuwait · Armenians in Lebanon · Armenians in Poland · Armenians in Romania · Armenians in Russia · Armenians in Samtskhe–Javakheti · Armenians in Singapore · Armenians in Syria · Armenians in the Czech Republic · Armenians in the Netherlands · Armenians in the Ottoman Empire · Armenians in the San Francisco Bay Area . Armenians in Turkey · Armenians in Turkmenistan · Armenians in Ukraine · Armenian-Tatar massacres · Armenian-Turkish relations · Armeno-Kipchak · Armenpress . Arme-Shupria people · Arminco . Armrosgazprom · ArmSwissBank · Armwrestling Federation of Armenia · Arpa River · Arpa Yeghegnadzor · Arsacid dynasty of Armenia · Arsames I · Arsames II · Arsamosata · Artashat (ancient city) · Artashat, Armenia · Artavasdes I of Armenia · Artavasdes II of Armenia · Artavasdes III of Armenia · Artaxiad dynasty · Artaxias I · Artaxias II · Artaxias III · Artik · Artinis · Artokh · Artsakh · Artsakhbank · Artsakh Freedom Party · Artsakh State Museum · Artsruni · Artsvashen · Aruchavank church · Arzashkun · Ashot I · Ashot II · Ashot III · Ashtarak · Askeran · Askeran clash · Assembly of Armenians of Europe · Assyrians in Armenia · Atlantis European Airways · Austrian Armenian Cultural Society · Ayas (city) · Ayran · Ayrarat · Azat River · Azgayin Zhoghov · Aznavour Noyemberyan B Badminton Federation of Armenia · Bagaran · Bagmasti · Bagras · Bagratuni dynasty · Bagrevand · Bagvarti · Baklava · Balasanyan Alliance Social Party · Baluni · Bambir · Banants Stadium · Basean · The Battle of 40 · Battle of Alexandropol · Battle of Arara · Battle of Artaxata · Battle of Avarayr · Battle of Bagrevand · Battle of Bash Abaran · Battle of Dilman · Battle of Kara Killisse (1918) · Battle of Kars (1920) · Battle of Kelbajar · Battle of Khasdour · Battle of Nairi · Battle of Oltu · Battle of Rhandeia · Battle of Sardarapat · Battle of Sarıkamış (1920) · Battle of Tigranocerta · Battle of Varnakert · Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar · Belahuit · Bgheno-Noravank · Birds of Armenia · Birthright Armenia · Bjni · BKMA Yerevan · Blue Mosque, Yerevan · Blue Sky Airlines · Borscht · Bright Alliance · Bright Armenia · Burek · Buzlukh · Byurakan Observatory · Byureghavan · Byzantine Armenia · Byzantine-Sassanid Wars · Bznuni · Bznuniq C Calendar of Saints (Armenian Apostolic Church) · Canadians of Armenian descent · Cannabis in Armenia · Capital punishment in Armenia · Capture of Shusha · Cataphract · Cathedral of Ani · Armenian Cathedral of the Holy Cross · Cathedral of the Holy Martyrs, Gyumri · Catholic Church in Armenia · Caucasian Albania · Caucasus Campaign · Censuses of Armenia · Central Bank of Armenia · Central Bank Visitor Centre (Armenia) . Central Depository of Armenia . Central Electoral Commission of Armenia · Chambarak · Chamchwilde · Charentsavan · Charlotte of Cyprus · Chazinzarians · Checkers Federation of Armenia · Cheoreg · Chess Federation of Armenia · Children of Armenia Fund · Chorpan Tarkhan · Christian-Democratic Rebirth Party · Christian Democratic Union of Armenia · Christianity in Armenia · Church of St. John, Mastara · Church of St. Nerses the Great · Cilicia · Cinema of Armenia · Citizen's Decision · Civil Aviation Committee (Armenia) · Civil Contract (Armenia) · Civilitas Foundation · Classical Armenian · Coat of arms of Armenia · Coat of arms of Nagorno-Karabakh · Coat of arms of the Armenian SSR · Communications in Armenia · Confederation of Trade Unions of Armenia · Congressional Armenian Caucus · Conservative Party (Armenia) · Constantine I, Prince of Armenia · Constantine I, King of Armenia · Constantine I of Cilicia · Constantine II, Prince of Armenia · Constantine II, King of Armenia · Constantine II the Woolmaker · Constantine III of Armenia · Constantine IV of Armenia · Constantine V of Armenia · Constantine VI of Armenia · Constitution of Armenia · Constitutional Court of Armenia · Constitutional Rights Union · Corduene · Corruption in Armenia · Council of Europe Office (Armenia) · Country of Living · COVID-19 pandemic in Armenia · Creative Europe–Armenia · Crime in Armenia · CSKA Yerevan · Cuisine of Armenia · Culture of Armenia · Cyrion and Candidus D Dadi Vank · Dalma Garden Mall · Dar-Alages · Daranali · Dariunq · Dastakert · David I Anhoghin · David II of Lori · David of Sasun · David Bek · Debed · Debed Alaverdi · Declaration of Independence of Armenia (1918) · Declaration of State Sovereignty of Armenia · Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area · Defence Minister of Armenia · Defense of Van · Degiq · Delegation of the European Union to Armenia · Democratic Alternative Party · Democratic Consolidation Party · Democratic Homeland Party · Democratic Liberal Party (Armenia) · Democratic Liberal Party of Armenia · Democratic Party of Armenia · Democratic Republic of Armenia · Democratic Way Party · Demographics of Armenia · Denial of the Armenian Genocide · Dhol · Dignified Future Party · Dignified Way Party · Dignified Yerevan · Dignity, Democracy, Motherland · Dilijan · Dimaksean · Diplomatic missions in Armenia · Diplomatic missions of Armenia · Djahan · Djidjrakatsi · Dolma · Doogh · Duduk · Dvin · Dvin Artashat · Dzayrakuyn Vartabed · Dzophq · Dzoraget (river) · Dzorapor E Eastern Armenia · Eastern Armenian language · Eastern Armenian verb table · Eastern Christian Monasticism · Eastern Partnership · Echmiadzin · Echmiadzin Gospels · Economy of Armenia · Education in Armenia · Eetch · Ekeleatzi · Elections in Armenia · Elisabethpol Governorate · Elishe · Embassy of Armenia, Cairo · Embassy of Armenia in Ottawa · Embassy of Armenia in Washington · Embassy of Armenia, London · Energy in Armenia · Equality Armenia · Equestrian Federation of Armenia · Erasmus Student Network Armenia · Erasmus Student Network Yerevan · Erato of Armenia · ErAZ · Erebuni Airport · Erebuni Fortress · Erebuni Yerevan · Erivan Governorate · Erivan khanate · Eruandhuni · Erukhan · Ethnic minorities in Armenia · EU Advisory Group to the Republic of Armenia · EUNIC Armenia · Eurasia International University · Eurasian Union · Euronest Parliamentary Assembly · European Armenian Federation for Justice and Democracy · European Business Association (Armenia) · European Friends of Armenia · European Integration NGO · European Neighbourhood Policy · European Party of Armenia · European Union Mission in Armenia · European Union Monitoring Capacity to Armenia · European University of Armenia · European Youth Parliament – Armenia · Europe in Law Association · EU Planning Assistance Team in Armenia · EU Strategy for the South Caucasus · Evocabank · Expeditus · Extreme points of Armenia F Fair Armenia Party · Fauna of Armenia · FC Araks Ararat · FC Ararat Yerevan · FC Artashat · FC Banants · FC Bentonit Ijevan · FC Dinamo Yerevan · FC Gandzasar Kapan · FC Kilikia Yerevan · FC Kotayk Abovian · FC Masis · FC MIKA · FC Pyunik · FC Shirak · FC Vanadzor · FC Yeghvard · FC Yerevan · FC Zvartnots · Fedayeen · Federation of Euro-Asian Stock Exchanges · Fereydan · Figure Skating Federation of Armenia · First Council of Constantinople · First Nagorno-Karabakh War · FK Gyumri · FK Karabakh · Flag of Armenia · Flag of Nagorno-Karabakh · Flag of the Armenian SSR · FlyArna · FlyOne Armenia · Fondation Université Française en Arménie · Football Federation of Armenia · Football in Armenia · Foreign relations of Armenia · Foreign relations of Nagorno-Karabakh · For The Republic Party· The Forty Days of Musa Dagh · Forty Martyrs of Sebaste · For Social Justice (Armenia) · Franco-Armenian relations · Free Democrats (Armenia) · Free Homeland Alliance · Freedom Party (Armenia) · French Armenian Legion · Fund for Armenian Relief · Fuzuli (city) G Gabelian · Gagik I of Armenia · Gagik II · GALAS LGBTQ+ Armenian Society · Gandzasar monastery · Gardman · Garegin Khachatryan · Garithaianik · Garni · Garni Gorge · Gata · Gavar · Geghama mountains · Geghard · Gegharkunik · Generation of Independence Party (Armenia) · Gentuni · Geography of Armenia · Geographical Issues in Armenia · Geology of Armenia · Georgian-Armenian War 1918 · Getashen · Ghapama · Ghazanchetsots Cathedral · The Golden-Headed Fish · Golf Federation of Armenia · Goltn · Goranboy · Goris · Goshavank · Government House, Yerevan · Grand Lodge of Armenia · Grappling Federation of Armenia · Greater Armenia (political concept) · Greeks in Armenia · Green Party of Armenia · Gregory of Narek · Gregory the Illuminator · G'Tichavank · Gugark · Calouste Gulbenkian · Gyumri · Gyumri City Stadium H Hachdeanq · Hadrut · Haghartsin Monastery · Haghpat · Haghpat Monastery · Haigazian Armenological Review · Halay · Halva · Hamazkayin · Hamidian massacres · Hamshenis · Hanrapetutyun Party · Hanrapetakan Stadium · Hanzith · Harissa (dish) · Haritchavank Monastery · Hayasa-Azzi · Hayastani Azgayin Scautakan Sharjum Kazmakerputiun · Hayazn · Haybusak University of Yerevan · Hayhurum · Hayk · Hayk Party · HayPost · Hello Yerevan · Helsinki Citizens’ Assembly–Vanadzor · Helsinki Committee of Armenia · Heritage (political party) · Hethum I of Armenia · Hethum II of Armenia · Hethumids · Hetq . Hidden Armenians · HIMA Youth Initiative · Hinduism in Armenia · Historical Armenian population · History of Armenia · History of Armenia (Moses of Chorene) · History of Nagorno-Karabakh · History of Nagorno-Karabakh (1918-1923) · History of the Jews in Armenia · Hittite-Hayasa War · Holy See of Cilicia · Homeland Salvation Movement · Homshetsi · Honored Artist of Armenia · Horizon Weekly · Horom Citadel · House of Hasan-Jalalyan · Hrazdan · Hrazdan River · Hrazdan Stadium · Human Rights Defender of Armenia · Human rights in Armenia · Hummus I Ice Hockey Federation of Armenia · Ice hockey in Armenia · Identity and Unity Party · I Have Honor Alliance · Ijevan · Impeachment Union · Impuls Dilijan · InecoBank · Information Centre on NATO in Armenia · INOGATE · Institute of Liberal Politics · Institute of Mathematics of National Academy of Sciences of Armenia · Intellectual Armenia Party · Intellectual Property Agency of Armenia · International Armenian Ball Hockey Association · International Center for Human Development · Interparliamentary Assembly on Orthodoxy · Iran–Armenia relations · Isaac of Armenia · Ishpuinis of Urartu · Islam in Armenia J Jabrayil · James I of Cyprus · Janus of Cyprus · Jermuk · Jermuk (drink) · Jews in Armenia · John II of Cyprus · John Mamikonean · Judaism in Armenia · Judiciary of Armenia · Judo Federation of Armenia · Jupiter-Avia · Justice (Armenia) · Justice Commandos Against Armenian Genocide K Kajaran · Kalbajar · Kamancha · Kamsarakan · Kanach Zham · Kanaz Yerevan · Kanun (instrument) · Kapan · Karabakh · Karabakh carpet · Karabakh horse · Karabakh khanate · Karate Federation of Armenia · Karbelian · Karin · Karin Yerevan · Karqayin · Kars · Kars Oblast · Kasagh River · Kasakh Ashtarak · Kashkak · Kavare Mer · Kaymaklı Monastery · Kazak Stadium · Kebab · Kecharis Monastery · Kelashin · Kenuni · Khachkar · Khachkar destruction in Nakhchivan · Khaz (notation) · Khaldi (god) · Khanates of the Caucasus · Khanasor Expedition · Khash (dish) · Khojali · Khojavend · Khor Virap · Khorenatsi medal · Khorkhoruni · Khosrov III the Small · Kibbeh · Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity) · Kingdom of Armenia (Middle Ages) · Kingdom of Lori · Kingdom of Vaspurakan · Kirovabad pogrom · Kiurike I · Kiurike II · Kofta · Korduq · Korfball Federation of Armenia · Koryun · Kotayk · Kotayk Brewery · Kotayk Stadium · Kozan, Adana · Kumairi Gyumri · Kura-Araxes culture · Kurdish-Armenian relations · Kurdistan Uyezd L Lachin · Lachin (rayon) · Lachin corridor · Lahmacun · Lake Akna · Lake Arpi · Lake Kari · Lake Lessing · Lake Sevan · Lake Urmia · Lake Van · Landmine situation in Nagorno Karabakh · Languages of Armenia · Lavash · Law and Unity · Law enforcement in Armenia · Law enforcement in Nagorno-Karabakh · Law of Armenia · Lazarev Institute of Oriental Languages · Lazarus Saturday · League for the Liberation of the Peoples of the USSR · League of Armenian Social Democrats · Leo I, Prince of Armenia · Leo I, King of Armenia · Leo II, Prince of Armenia · Leo II, King of Armenia · Leo III of Armenia · Leo IV of Armenia · Leo V of Armenia · Leo VI of Armenia · Leontine martyrs · Lernagorts Stadium · Lernamerdz · Lernayin Artsakh · Lesser Armenia · LGBT rights in Armenia (Gay rights)· Liberal Democratic Union of Armenia · Liberalism in Armenia · List of airports in Armenia · List of ambassadors of Armenia to the United States · List of ambassadors of the United States to Armenia · List of Armenian ethnic enclaves · List of Armenian flags · List of Armenian kings · List of Armenian Patriarchs of Jerusalem · List of castles in Armenia · List of cities in Armenia · List of diplomatic missions in Armenia · List of equipment of the Armenian Armed Forces · List of football clubs in Armenia · List of kings of Ani · List of kings of Urartu · List of lakes of Armenia · List of members of the eighth National Assembly of Armenia · List of members of the seventh National Assembly of Armenia · List of monarchs of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia · List of museums in Armenia . List of museums in Yerevan . List of newspapers in Armenia · List of parks in Yerevan . List of people on coins of Armenia · List of political parties in Armenia · List of renamed cities in Armenia · List of rivers of Armenia · List of sports venues in Yerevan · List of squares in Yerevan · List of the busiest airports in Armenia · List of universities in Armenia · List of universities in Yerevan · List of volcanoes in Armenia · Little Ararat · Lori Province · Lori Vanadzor · Luis Ararat · Lutipri M Madrid Principles · Makaravank Monastery · Malatia Yerevan · Malkaz · Mammals of Armenia · Mamikonian · Manavazian · Mandakuni · Manic Depressive Psychosis (band) · Mantı · Maraghar Massacre · Maralik · Mardakert · Mardakert and Martuni Offensives · Marie of Armenia · Martuni, Armenia · Marwanid · Marxist Party of Armenia · Marzpanate period · Marzpetuni · Masis (city) · Mass media in Armenia · Mas-Wrestling Federation of Armenia · Matagh · Matenadaran · Matnakash · Media freedom in Armenia · Media in Armenia · Mediamax news agency . Medieval Armenia · Megamall Armenia · Meghri · Meletius of Antioch · Melik · Menuas of Urartu · Mer Hayrenik · Metsamor Nuclear Power Plant · Metsamor site · Meze · Middle Armenian · Mighty Fatherland · Mika Stadium · Mikael Ter-Mikaelian Institute for Physical Research · Military history of Armenia · Military history of Nagorno-Karabakh · Military ranks of Armenia · Mining in Armenia · Ministry of Defence of Armenia · Ministry of Diaspora · Ministry of Economy (Armenia) · Ministry of Education and Science (Armenia) · Ministry of Emergency Situations (Armenia) · Ministry of Energy Infrastructures and Natural Resources (Armenia) · Ministry of Environment (Armenia) · Ministry of Finance (Armenia) · Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Armenia) · Ministry of Health (Armenia) · Ministry of High-Tech Industry (Armenia) · Ministry of Justice (Armenia) · Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs (Armenia) · Ministry of Territorial Administration and Infrastructure · Ministry of Transport and Communication (Armenia) · Mission of Armenia to the European Union · Mission Party · Mitanni · Mithridates of Armenia · Mjej Gnuni · Mleh of Armenia · Monastery of Yedi Kilisa · Mongol invasions of Georgia and Armenia · Moral Values Party · Moses of Chorene · Mother Armenia · Mother Armenia Alliance · Mount Aragats · Mount Ararat · Moxoene · Mugni Gospels · Municipalities of Armenia · Musa Dagh · Musasir · Musasir temple · Mush Charentsavan · Mushki · Music of Armenia · My Brother's Road · My Step Alliance N Nagorno-Karabakh · Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast · Nagorno-Karabakh constitutional referendum, 2006 · Nagorno-Karabakh Defense Army · Nagorno-Karabakh presidential election, 2007 · Nairi Cinema · Nairi (people) · Nairi Stadium · Nairit Yerevan · Nakharar · Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic · Nakhchivan khanate · Name of Armenia · Namrun Kalesi · National Academy of Sciences of Western Armenia · National Agenda Party · National Archery Federation of Armenia · National Assembly of Armenia · National Assembly of Nagorno Karabakh · National Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts of Armenia · National anthem of Armenia · National Christian Party (Armenia) · National Competitiveness Report of Armenia · National Democratic Pole · National Democratic Union of Armenia · National Democrats Union · National Federation of Modern Pentathlon of Armenia · National Foundation of Science and Advanced Technologies · National Hero of Armenia · National Kendo Federation of Armenia · National Polytechnic University of Armenia · National Progress Party of Armenia · National Security Party · National Security Service (Armenia) · National Unity (Armenia) · National University of Architecture and Construction of Armenia · National Youth Council of Armenia · Neopaganism in Armenia · Nerkin · Nerk'in Getashen · Nerses IV · New Country (Armenia) · New Political Culture Party · New Times (political party) · Night Ark · Niphates · Nor Hachn · Noravank · Norshirakan · Northern Avenue, Yerevan · Nourie Hadig · Novair (Armenia) · Noyemberyan · Nvarsak Treaty O Oaksenham · Octoechos (liturgy) · Odzun · Old Armenian · Olnut · One Armenia Party · Oodians · Open Society Foundations–Armenia · Operation Nemesis · Operation Ring · Ordinariate for Catholics of Armenian Rite in Eastern Europe · Orduniq · Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe · Organisation internationale de la Francophonie · Origin of the Armenians · Origin of the Bagratid dynasties · Orinats Yerkir · ORO Alliance · Orontid dynasty · OSCE assessment mission to Armenia · Oshakan · Oshin of Armenia · Oshin of Korikos · Ottoman Armenian casualties · Outi P Pahlavuni · Pan-Armenian Congress · Pan-Armenian Games · Pan-Armenian National Agreement · Pan-Armenian National Movement · PanARMENIAN.Net . Pap of Armenia · Pastırma · Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople · Patriot Party (Armenia) · Paulicianism · Pavstos Buzand · Paytakaran · Peace and Development Party (Artsakh) · Pensions in Armenia · People of Armenia · People's Party (Armenia) · People's Party of Armenia · Permanent Mission of Armenia to BSEC · Permanent Mission of Armenia to the CSTO · Permanent Mission of Armenia to NATO · Permanent Mission of Armenia to the OSCE · Permanent Mission of Armenia to the United Nations · Permanent Representation of Armenia to the Council of Europe · Persarmenia · Persian Armenia · Peter of Sebaste · Pilaf · Pink Armenia · Pita · Plov · Political parties in Armenia · Politics of Armenia · Politics of Nagorno-Karabakh · Polyeuctus · Population of Armenia · Porak · Postal codes in Armenia · Postal history of Armenia · Post-Armenian Genocide timeline · Powerful United Homeland Party · President of Armenia · President of Nagorno-Karabakh · President of the National Assembly of Armenia · Prime Minister of Armenia · Prime Minister of Nagorno-Karabakh · Princess Isabella of Armenia · Principality of Khachen · Programs of political parties in Armenia · Progressive United Communist Party of Armenia · Prosecutor General of Armenia · Proshyan Brandy Factory · Prosperous Armenia · Proto-Armenian language · Public holidays in Armenia · Public Radio of Armenia · Public Television Company of Armenia · Public Voice Party · Pyotr Kotlyarevsky Q Qadchberuni · Qanaqer-Zeytun · Qolian · Qubadli · Queen Isabella of Armenia · Queen Keran of Armenia R Railway stations in Armenia · Rail transport in Armenia · Ramgavar Party · Raphsonian · Ravished Armenia · Reborn Armenia · Recognition of same-sex unions in Armenia · Recognition of the Armenian Genocide · Reformist Party (Armenia) · Regions of Armenia · Religion in ancient Armenia · Religion in Armenia · Remposian · Renewed Communist Party of Armenia · Republic of Mountainous Armenia · Republic Square (Armenia) · Republican Party of Armenia · Rhadamistus · Right Side NGO · Rise Party · Rise the Euphrates · Roads in Armenia · Road signs in Armenia · Roman Armenia · Roman Catholicism in Armenia · Roman relations with the Armenians · Romanization of Armenian · Roslin Art Gallery · Rossia Mall · Rshtuni · Rshtuniq · Ruben I of Armenia · Ruben II of Armenia · Ruben III of Armenia · Rubenid dynasty · Rugby Federation of Armenia · Rule of Law (Armenia) · RUOR Yerevan · Rusas I of Urartu · Rusas II of Urartu · Russian 102nd Military Base · Russian Armenia · Russian-Armenian State University · Russians in Armenia · Russo-Persian War (1804-1813) · Russo-Persian War (1826-1828) · Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) S Saghmosavank Monastery · Sahak Bagratuni · Saharuni · Sahl ibn-Sunbat · Sambo Federation of Armenia · Sasna Tsrer Pan-Armenian Party · St. Astvatzatzin · Saint Blaise · Saint Gayane Church · St. Gevork church · St. Gregory the Illuminator's Church, Baku · St. Hripsime Church, Echmiadzin · Saint Mesrob · Saint Narses · Saint Nearchus · St. Stepanos Church, Smyrna · Sames of Sophene · Samtskhe-Javakheti · San Lazzaro degli Armeni · Sanahin · Sanatruces I of Armenia · Sardarapat · Sardarapat Memorial · Sarduri I · Sarma (food) · Sarsang reservoir · Sason · Sasun Resistance (1894) · Sasun Uprising (1904) · Sassuntsi-Davit Tank Regiment · Satala · Saz · Science and technology in Armenia · Scouting and Guiding in Armenia · Security Council of Armenia · Selardi · Selkuniq · Sempad of Armenia · September 2022 Armenia–Azerbaijan clashes · Serart · Seruantztian · Sevan (city) · Sevan National Park · Sevanavank · Shabin-Karahisar uprising · Shaddadid · Shahumian · Shamlugh · Shant Alliance Nationalist Party · Shant TV · Shikahogh State Preserve · Shirak · Shirak Airport · Shirak Avia · Shnokh Hydro Power Plant · Shulaveri-Shomu culture · Shusha · Shusha (rayon) · Shushi (province) · Shvi · Siege of Van · Sipan Vardenis · Sisian · Siunia dynasty · Sivas · Siwini · SKA Ijevan · SKA-Arai Echmiadzin · Skateboarding Federation of Armenia · SKIF Yerevan · Sky Net Airline · Smbat I · Smbat II · Smbat III · Social Democrat Hunchakian Party · Social issues in Armenia · Social Justice Party (Armenia) · Social protection in Armenia · Society for Free Armenia · Solar power in Armenia · Solidarity Party (Armenia) · Sophene · Sovereign Armenia Party · Soviet 76th "K. Y. Voroshilov" Division · Soviet 89th "Tamanyan" Rifle Division · Spanduni · Special Organization (Ottoman Empire) · Spelling reform of the Armenian language 1922-1924 · Sper (Armenia) · Sport in Armenia · Sring · Stability Party · Standing Committee on European Integration (Armenia) · State Engineering University of Armenia · State Revenue Committee (Armenia) · Stepanakert · Stepanavan · The Story of Zoulvisia · Sujuk · Sumgait pogrom · Surp Hovhannes Mkrtich · System of a Down · Syunik Kapan Syunik Province · T Tabbouleh · Tachir · Talin, Armenia · Tao-Klarjeti · Taron (historic Armenia) · Tartar (rayon) · Tashir · Tashir-Dzoraget · Tatev · Tavush · Taxation in Armenia · Tayk · Technical Assistance to the Commonwealth of Independent States · Tehcir Law · Teishebaini · Telecom Armenia · Telecommunications in Armenia · Television in Armenia · Tennis Federation of Armenia · Terpatuni · Tert.am . Teruni · Teqball Federation of Armenia · Thaddeus Monastery · Theater of Armenia · Theispas· The Naghash Ensemble· Theodore Edward Dowling · Third Mithridatic War · Third Republic Party · Thoros I of Armenia · Thoros II of Armenia · Thoros III of Armenia · Three Pashas · Tigranakert · Tigranes · Tigranes I · Tigranes III · Tigranes IV · Tigranes the Great · Tigranes V of Armenia · Tigranes VI of Armenia · Timeline of Armenian history · Timeline of Armenian national movement · Tiridates I of Armenia · Tiridates III of Armenia · Tmoriq · Tobacco Policy in Armenia · Togarmah · Tomorrow Artsakh · Tondrakians · Toprakkale · Tourism in Armenia · Towards Russia Party · TRACECA · Trade unions in Armenia · Traditional Armenian orthography · Traditional Wushu Federation of Armenia · Transcaucasus · Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic · Transcaucasian SFSR · Transport in Armenia · Treaty of Alexandropol · Treaty of Batum · Treaty of Gulistan · Treaty of Kars · Treaty of Moscow (1921) · Treaty of San Stefano · Treaty of Sèvres · Treaty of Turkmenchay · Trialeti culture · Tsaghkadzor · Tsaghkadzor ski resort · Tsarukyan Alliance · Tsitsernakaberd · Tskhouk-Karckar · Tulipa armena · Tufagorts Artik · Tumanyan · Tumo Center for Creative Technologies · Turkish coffee · Turkish-Armenian War · Turuberan · Tushpa U Udi people · Ulisses · Ukrainians in Armenia · Unibank (Armenia) · Union of Armenians of Europe · Union of Communists of Armenia · Union of Informed Citizens · Union of Producers and Women · United Armenia Party · United Armenia Party (Armenia) · United Communist Party of Armenia · United Homeland Party · United Javakhk Democratic Alliance · United Labour Party (Armenia) · United Liberal National Party (MIAK) · United National Initiative (Armenia) · United Nations Office in Armenia · United States recognition of the Armenian genocide · Unity Party (Armenia) · Upper Armenia · Urartian language · Urartu · Urdz · Urfa Resistance · Artur Ustian · Utik · Uzh Hayrenyats · Uzundara V Vahanavank · Vahe · Vahevuni · Vahram Pahlavouni · Vahramashen Church · Vakıflı · Van Yerevan · Van, Turkey · Vanadzor · Vanand · Vannic Armenian Kingdom · Varajnuni · Varasdates (Varazdat) · Vardenis · Vartabed · Vartavar · Vayk · Vayots Dzor · Vedi · Vehicle registration plates of Armenia · Vertir Airlines · Veteran Avia · Viceroyalty of the Caucasus · Victory Party (Armenia) · Visa policy of Argentina · Visa policy of Armenia · Visa requirements for Armenian citizens · Voghdji River · Voice Libertarian Conservative Party · Voice of the Nation (Armenia) · Volcanoes in Armenia · Volleyball Federation of Armenia · Vorotan River W War between Armenia and Iberia · War between Armenia/Rome and Iberia/Parthia · Water Day · Water Polo Federation of Armenia · Way Out Alliance · We Alliance · We Are Our Mountains · Western Armenia · Western Armenian language · Western Armenian verb table · White Genocide · Wildlife of Armenia · Wilsonian Armenia · World Armenian Congress · World Heritage Sites in Armenia · Wrestling Federation of Armenia · Writers Union of Armenia X Xerxes of Armenia Y Yazidis in Armenia · Yeghegnadzor · Yeghish Arakyal Monastery · Yeghvard · Yerablur · Yerazank Yerevan · Yerazi · Yerevan · Yerevan Brandy Company · Yerevan lake · Yerevan Mall · Yerevan Metro · Yerevan railway station · Yerevan State Linguistic University · Yerevan State Medical University · Yerevan State Musical Conservatory · Yerevan State Pedagogical University · Yerevan State University · Yerevan TV Tower · Yerevan United · Yerevan Zoo · Yerevan-Avia · YERID · Yeritsmankants Monastery · Yerkir · Yerkir Media · Yervandashat, Armenia · Yervandashat (ancient city) · Yervant I · Yıldız Attempt · Young European Ambassadors – Armenia Z Za'atar · Zakarid Armenia · Zakarid-Mxargrzeli · Zangezur Mountains · Zangilan · Zaravand · Zeitun Resistance (1915) · Zenob Glak · Zeytuntsyan · Zurna · Zvartnots · Zvartnots International Airport See also Index of Artsakh-related articles Lists of country-related topics Outline of Armenia Armenia
401606	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index%20of%20Azerbaijan-related%20articles	Index of Azerbaijan-related articles	Articles (arranged alphabetically) related to the Azerbaijan Republic include: 0–9 26 Baku Commissars - 26 Commissars Memorial - 1993-2016 military reforms in Azerbaijan - 1994 Baku Metro bombings - 1995 Baku Metro fire - 2000 Baku earthquake - 2007 Baku terrorist plot A .az - Abbasgulu Bakikhanov - Abdulla Shaig - Abdurahman Fatalibeyli - Abulfaz Elchibey - Absheron - Afag Masud - Afrasiyab Badalbeyli - Ag-Gol National Park - Agdam (rayon) - Agdash - Aghasi Mammadov - Aghstev - Agjabadi - Agstafa - Agsu - Ajami Nakhchivani - Ak Koyunlu - Alakbar Rezaguliyev - Alazani - Alexander Kazembek (Russian orientalist) - Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, Baku - Ali Bayramli - Ali Ismayilov - Ali Kerimli - Ali-Agha Shikhlinski - Aliguluushagi - Alihan Samedov - Alimardan Topchubashev - Alliance Party for the Sake of Azerbaijan - Almas Ildyrym - Altaic languages - Altyaghach National Park - Always (album) - Amaras Monastery - Amina Figarova - Amiraslan Isgandarov - Anar Rzayev - Anatoliy Banishevskiy - Andre Luiz Ladaga - Andrei Dobrokhodov - ANSAD-Petrol Neftçala - Anthem of Azerbaijan SSR - Aras River - Area codes in Azerbaijan - Arif Malikov - Armenian Apostolic Church - Armenian language - Armenian National Council of Karabagh - Armenian-Azerbaijani War - Armenian-Tatar massacres - Armenians - Army of Azerbaijan - Arran (Caucasus) - Arshin Mal Alan (operetta) - Artsakh - Artsakh State Museum - Artur Rasizade - Asaf Zeynally - Ashik - Ashik Kerib - Asia - Askeran - Askeran clash - Aslan Kerimov - Asma kasma - Association of Scouts of Azerbaijan - Astara, Azerbaijan - Astara (rayon) - Atabeg - Atabegs of Azerbaijan - Atropatene - Aturpatakan - Avar language - Avarı - Avrami Aslanbegov - Ayaz Mutallibov - Aygun Kazimova - Ayran - Ayrums - Azal Avia Cargo - Azat ou Ankakh Artsakh - Azerbaijan - Azerbaijan-the OIC relations - Azerbaijan Air Force - Azerbaijan Air Defense Force - Azerbaijan Airlines - Azerbaijan America Alliance - Azerbaijan and GUAM relations- Azerbaijan and the European Union - Azerbaijan at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Azerbaijan–Belgium relations - Azerbaijan Border Guard - Azerbaijan Coast Guard - Azerbaijan Communist Party Azerbaijan Communist Party (1993) - Azerbaijan Communist Party (on Platform of Marxism-Leninism) Azerbaijan Cup - Azerbaijan Democratic Republic - Azerbaijan Democratic Party - Azerbaijan Hope Party - Azerbaijan–Germany relations - Azerbaijan Gymnastics Federation - Azerbaijan Liberal Party - Azerbaijan in the Eurovision Song Contest - Azerbaijan Interior Guard - Azerbaijan International Operating Company - Azerbaijan International University - Azerbaijan Investment Holding - Azerbaijan National Guard - Azerbaijan National Independence Party - Azerbaijan–NATO relations - Azerbaijan–Netherlands relations - Azerbaijan and Organization for Economic Co-operation - Azerbaijan–OBSEC relations - Azerbaijan–OSCE relations - Azerbaijan Political Party of Democratic Reforms - Azerbaijan Popular Front Party - Azerbaijan Social Democratic Party - Azerbaijan Social Prosperity Party - Azerbaijan State Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre - Azerbaijan State Agricultural Academy - Azerbaijan State Carpet Museum Azerbaijan State Economic University - Azerbaijan State Museum of Art - Azerbaijan State Russian Drama Theatre - Azerbaijan Medical University - Azerbaijan Navy - Azerbaijan-Portugal relations - Azerbaijan SSR - Azerbaijan State Oil Academy - Azerbaijan State Philharmonic Hall - Azerbaijan Technical University - Azerbaijan Trade Unions Confederation - Azerbaijan–United States relations - Azerbaijan University of Languages - Azerbaijani hip hop - Azerbaijani language - Azerbaijani literature - Azerbaijani manat - Azerbaijani National Council - Azerbaijan national rugby union team - Azerbaijani diplomatic missions - Azerbaijani parliamentary election, 1990 - Azerbaijani parliamentary election, 1995–1996 - Azerbaijani parliamentary election, 2000–2001 - Azerbaijani parliamentary election, 2005 - Azerbaijani people - Azerbaijani presidential election, 2003 - Azerbaijani rug - Azercell - Azeri TV Tower - Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli - Azerbaijanis in Armenia - Azerbaijanis in Russia - Aziza Mustafa Zadeh - Aziza Mustafa Zadeh (album) - AzTV - Azərbaycan Respublikasının Dövlət Himni B Baba Samit - Bağlama - Baháʼí Faith - Baháʼí Naw-Rúz - Bakhtiyar Vahabzadeh - Baklava - Baku - Baku-Rostov highway bombing - Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline - Baku Academy of Music - BakuBus - Baku City Executive Committee - Baku Congress Center- Baku Governorate - Baku International Jazz Festival - Baku Khanate - Baku Metro - Baku Oil Fields - Baku Polytechnicum - Baku Private Turkish School - Baku Slavic University - Baku State University - Baku Stock Exchange - Baku Transport Agency - Balakan - Balakishi Arablinski - Banine - Barda, Azerbaijan - Barda (rayon) - Barkhudarli - Barzavu - Basut-Chay State Reserve - Battle of Baku - Battle of Chalagan - Battle of Chaldiran - Battle of Kelbajar - Battle of Shamkor - Bazardüzü Dağı - Bella Davidovich - Beylagan - Beylagan (town) - Bilasuvar - Black January - Black Sea Forum for Partnership and Dialogue - Book of Dede Korkut - Branobel - Brilliant Dadashova - Bulbul (singer) - Bulbuljan - Bulla Island - Buzlukh C Capture of Shusha - Caspian expeditions of the Rus - Caspian Sea - Caspian Guard Initiative - Caspians Caucasian Albania - Caucasian Albania alphabet - Caucasian Avars - Caucasus - Caucasus Germans - Caucasus Mountains - Caucasus Viceroyalty (1785–1796) - Caucasus Viceroyalty (1844–1881) - Centrocaspian Dictatorship - Children’s rights in Azerbaijan - Chilov - Chingiz Mustafayev (journalist) - Chingiz Sadykhov - Chirag Gala - Christianity in Azerbaijan - Chupanids - Church of Kish - Church of the Immaculate Conception, Baku (1912) - Church of the Immaculate Conception, Baku - Cinema of Azerbaijan - City of Winds - Civic Solidarity Party - Civil Union Party - Climate of Azerbaijan - Coat of arms of the Azerbaijan SSR - Coat of arms of Nagorno-Karabakh - Committee for Oil Industry Workers' Rights - Commonwealth of Independent States - Communications in Azerbaijan - Compatriot Party - Conscription in Azerbaijan - Contrasts - Copyright Agency of the Republic of Azerbaijan - Copyright law in Azerbaijan - Council of Europe - COVID-19 pandemic in Azerbaijan - Criminal Code of Azerbaijan - Culture of Azerbaijan - Custom and traditions in Azerbaijan D Daf - Daliboz - Dance of Fire - Daria Timoshenko - Dashkasan - Davachi - Demographics of Azerbaijan - Deodoraki - Dilara Aliyeva - Dolma - Doymenj - Duduk E East Slavic languages - Eastern Christianity - Eastern Europe - Eastern Orthodox Church - ECO Cup - Ecological Issues in Azerbaijan - Economic Cooperation Organization - Economic development in Azerbaijan - Economic history of Azerbaijan- Economic regions and districts of Azerbaijan - Economy of Azerbaijan - Economy of Baku - Eldar Mahmudov - Eldar pine-tree State Reserve - Elections in Azerbaijan - Eleventh Army (Soviet Union) - Elisabethpol Governorate - Eliza Mustafa Zadeh - Elmar Huseynov - Elnara Kerimova - Elshan Hajizadeh - Emil Sutovsky - Emma Hagieva - Empress Alexandra Russian Muslim Boarding School for Girls - Ernani Pereira - Erivan Governorate - Europe - European Neighbourhood Policy - Evan Siegel - Extreme points of Azerbaijan - Eynulla Fatullayev F Family structure of Azerbaijan - Farid Mansurov - Farman Salmanov - Farrukh Gayibov - Farrukh Yassar - Fatali Khan Khoyski - Fatma Gadri - Fauna of Azerbaijan - Fazli (poet) - Fikret Amirov - Finance in Azerbaijan - Firearms policy in Azerbaijan - Fire Temple of Baku - First Nagorno-Karabakh War - Firudin bey Kocharli - Fizuli - Fuzuli - Flag of Azerbaijan - Flag of Nagorno-Karabakh - Fuad Aslanov - FC AMMK Baku - FC Sahdag Qusar - FK Baku - FK Gäncä - FK Gänclärbirliyi Sumqayit - FC Inter Baku - FK Karabakh - FK Karvan - FK Khazar Lenkoran - FK MKT Araz Imisli - FK Olimpik Baku - FK Shamkir - Flora of Azerbaijan - Footballers of Azerbaijan Foreign relations of Azerbaijan - Forum of Azerbaijani Students in Europe (FASE) Franghiz Ali-Zadeh - Freedom (Azerbaijan) G Gadabay - Gamar Almaszadeh - Gandzasar monastery - Ganja (city) - Ganja Airport - Ganja State University - Gara Garayev - Gara-Gel State Reserve - Gara-Yaz State Reserve - Garachi - Garry Kasparov - Gavril Ilizarov - Genrich Altshuller - Geography of Azerbaijan - Georgian language - Georgians - German Caucasus Expedition - Germans in Azerbaijan - Getashen - Gey-Gel State Reserve - Ghazanchetsots Cathedral - Gilan Qäbälä - Gilavar - Gizil-Agach State Reserve - Gobustan State Reserve - Goranboy - Goychay - Goygol (city) - Goygol (lake) - Goygol (rayon) - Great Order Party - Greater Caucasus - Grigory Korganov - GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development - Gurban Gurbanov H Habibi (poet) - Hadrut - Hagigat Rzayeva - Haji Khanmammadov - Haji-Mirza Hassan Roshdieh - Hajigabul - Hamida Omarova - Hamlet Isakhanli - Hanafi - Hasan Hasanov - Hazi Aslanov - Healthcare in Azerbaijan- Heydar Aliyev - Heydar Aliyev Palace - Heydar Aliyev International Airport - Heydarabad - Hidayat (poet) - Hirkan National Park - Hinduism in Azerbaijan - History of Azerbaijan - History of Baku - History of Nagorno-Karabakh - History of Nagorno-Karabakh (1918-1923) - Holy Myrrhbearers Cathedral - House of Hasan-Jalalyan - Housing in Azerbaijan - Human rights in Azerbaijan - Huseyn Javid - Huseyn Khan Nakhichevanski - Huseyngulu Sarabski I Ibrahim I of Shirvan - Ibrahim Khalil Khan - Igor Lukanin - Igor Pashkevich - Ildeniz - Ilgar Gurbanov - Ilham Aliyev - Ilisu State Reserve - Ilkhanate - Imadaddin Nasimi - Imair Airlines - Imam Mustafayev - Imishli - In That Distant Neighboring Village - Individual Partnership Action Plan - Indo-European languages - Indo-Iranian languages - Inner City (Baku) - Inspiration (Aziza Mustafa Zadeh album) - Intellectual Property Law in Azerbaijan- Investment in Azerbaijan - Investments of Azerbaijan - Irada Ashumova - Iranian languages - Isa Gambar - Isgandar Hamidov - Islam in Azerbaijan - Ismail I - Ismailli - Ismailli State Reserve - ISO 3166-2:AZ - Israfil Mamedov - Ittihad - Ivan Blagov - Ivan Fioletov J Jabrayil - Ja'fari jurisprudence - Jafar Jabbarly - Jahan Talyshinskaya - Jalil Mammadguluzadeh - Jalilabad - Javanshir - Javad Khan - Javad Malik-Yeganov - Javid Taghiyev (boxer) - Jazziza - Jeyhun Hajibeyov - Jovdat Hajiyev - Józef Gosławski (Russian architect) - Judaism in Azerbaijan - Judiciary of Azerbaijan - Juhuri language - Julfa, Azerbaijan (city) - Julfa (rayon) - Justice Party (Azerbaijan) K Kalbajar - Kamancheh - Kanach Zham - Kangarli (rayon) - Kara Koyunlu - Karabakh - Karabakh carpet - Karabakh horse - Karabakh khanate - Karapapak - Karki (Azerbaijan) - Kebab - Kerim Kerimov - Khalaj language (Iranian) - Khalilullah I - Khanlar Safaraliyev - Khazar University - Khazars - Khazri - Khinalyg - Khizi - Khojali - Khojavend - Khojavend (town) - Khojaly Massacre - Khudat - Khurshidbanu Natavan - Khyrdalan - Kirovabad Pogrom - Kishvari - Kristin Fraser - Kura River - Kura-Araxes culture - Kurdamir - Kurdish language - Kurdish people - Kurdistan Uyezd - Kurmanji - Kypchak languages L Labour rights in Azerbaijan - Lachin (rayon) - Lachin corridor - Lahıc, Goygol - Lahıc, Ismailli - Lahıc, Zaqatala - Lala Shevket - Landmine situation in Nagorno Karabakh - Languages of Azerbaijan - Lankaran (rayon) - Latif Gandilov - Latif Safarov - Lavash - League for the Liberation of the Peoples of the USSR - Leandro Melino Gomes - Legal reform in Azerbaijan - Lesser Caucasus - Lev Landau - Lev Nussimbaum - Leyla Vakilova - Lezgian language - Lezgins - LGBT rights in Azerbaijan - List of airports in Azerbaijan - List of Azerbaijani Jews - List of Azerbaijanis - List of Azerbaijani boxers - List of Azerbaijani futsal players - List of Azerbaijani Paralympic competitors - List of Azerbaijani soups and stews - List of Azerbaijan legislation - List of Baku metro stations - List of birds of Azerbaijan - List of cities in Azerbaijan - List of football clubs in Azerbaijan - List of Israeli ambassadors to Azerbaijan - List of mammals of Azerbaijan - List of National Heroes of Azerbaijan - List of newspapers in Azerbaijan - List of Northwestern Iranian languages - List of people on stamps of Azerbaijan - List of political parties in Azerbaijan - List of presidential trips made by Ilham Aliyev- List of renamed cities in Azerbaijan - List of Southwestern Iranian languages - List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan - Lotfi Asker Zadeh - Lutfali Abdullayev M Madina Gulgun - Magsud Ibrahimbeyov - Mahmud Gurbanov - Mahsati - Maiden Tower (Baku) - Mammed Amin Rasulzade - Mammed Said Ordubadi - Manaf Suleymanov - Manat - Maraghar Massacre - March Days - Mardakert - Mardakert and Martuni Offensives - Martuni District (NKAO) - Martuni Province - Martyrs' Lane - Maryam Bayramalibeyova - Marziyya Davudova - Masally - Masud ibn Davud - Mazun - Mehdi Huseynzade - Mehman Azizov - Mehriban Aliyeva - Meshadi Azizbekov - Meskhetian Turks - Meykhana - Mikayil Mushfig - Military of Azerbaijan - Military history of Nagorno-Karabakh - Mingachevir - Mingachevir Polytechnic Institute - Mingachevir reservoir - Middle East - Ministry of National Security of Azerbaijan - Mir Hasan Vazirov - Mir Jafar Baghirov - Mir Mohsun Navvab - Mirza Alakbar Sabir - Mirza Davud Huseynov - Mirza Fatali Akhundov - Mirza Shafi Vazeh - Mizrahi Jews - Modern Equality Party - MOIK Baku - Molla Nasraddin (magazine) - Molla Panah Vagif - Molokan - Momine Khatun Mausoleum - Motherland Party (Azerbaijan) - Mountain Jews - Movlud Miraliyev - Mstislav Rostropovich - Mugham - Mugham Festival - Mughan Soviet Republic - Multiculturalism in Azerbaijan - Munavvar Kalantarli - Murtuza Mukhtarov - Musa Manarov - Musa Nagiyev - Musavat - Music of Azerbaijan - Muslim Magomayev (composer) - Muslim Magomayev (musician) - Muslim Social Democratic Party N Nabran - Naftalan, Azerbaijan - Nagorno-Karabakh - Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast - Nagorno-Karabakh constitutional referendum, 2006 - Nagorno-Karabakh Defense Army - Nagorno-Karabakh presidential election, 2007 - Najaf bey Vazirov - Nakhichevan Airport - Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic - Nakhichevan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic - Nakhichevan City - Nakhichevan khanate - Nakhichevan State University - Namig Abdullayev - Naqareh - Nardaran - Nariman Gasimoglu - Nariman Narimanov - Natig Rasulzade - National Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan - National Assembly of Azerbaijan - National Assembly of Nagorno Karabakh - National Library of Azerbaijan - National parks of Azerbaijan - National Unity (Azerbaijan) - Natural Resources of Azerbaijan - Nature of Azerbaijan - Neftchala - New Azerbaijan Party - Nezami Mausoleum - Nigar Shikhlinskaya - Nikolay Gikalo - Nikolai Morozov (figure skater) - Nina Fisheva - Nizami Bahmanov - Nizami Ganjavi - Nizami Museum of Azerbaijan Literature - Nizami Pashayev - Nizami Street - Northeast Caucasian languages - Nowruz O Odlar Yurdu University - Oghuz languages - Oguz - Oil industry in Azerbaijan - Oil Rocks - Old Udi script - Operation Ring - Ordubad (city) - Ordubad (rayon) - Ordubad National Park - Organisation of Islamic Cooperation - Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation - Orography of Azerbaijan - OSCE Minsk Group P Palace of the Shirvanshahs - Pamphylia Tanailidi - Panah Ali Khan - Parigala - Partnership for Peace - Pastırma - Paytakaran - Persian language - Persianate society - PFC Neftchi - PFC Turan Tovuz - Pir Huseyn Khanqah - Pirallahı Island - Pirgulu State Reserve - Piruz Dilenchi - Plov - Polad Sabir Sirajov - Polikarp Mdivani - Politics of Azerbaijan - Politics of Artsakh - Porak - Port Ilich - Pottery in Azerbaijan - President of Azerbaijan - President of Artsakh - Prime Minister of Azerbaijan - Prime Minister of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic - Principality of Khachen - Privatization in Azerbaijan - Prokopius Dzhaparidze - Provisional Military Dictatorship of Mughan - Public holidays in Azerbaijan - Pyotr Kotlyarevsky Q Qabala (rayon) - Qajar dynasty - Qafqaz University - Qax - Qazakh - Qırmızı Qəsəbə - Qizilbash - Qobustan - Quba - Quba Khanate - Qubadli - Qusar R Rafael Allahverdiyev - Rafiq Tağı - Ramana, Azerbaijan - Ramil Safarov - Rashad Sadygov - Rashid Behbudov - Rasim Başak - Rasul Guliyev - Reformist Communist Party of Azerbaijan - Reforms in Azerbaijan - Religion in Azerbaijan - Renewable energy sources in Azerbaijan - Republic of Aras - Republic of Mountainous Armenia - Richard Sorge - Rivers and lakes in Azerbaijan - Roman Catholicism in Azerbaijan - Roya (singer) - Rubaba Muradova - Russian Empire - Russian language - Russian Orthodox Church - Russians - Russo-Persian War (1722-1723) - Russo-Persian War (1804-1813) - Russo-Persian War (1826-1828) - Ruslan Khairov - Ruslan Majidov - Rustam Ibrahimbeyov - Rustam Mustafayev - Rutul language - Rutuls - Yalchin Rzazadeh S Saatly - Sabirabad - Sadarak - Sadigjan - Safavid dynasty - Saingilo - Sajids - Salatyn Asgarova - Samad bey Mehmandarov - Samad Vurgun - Samukh - Sarsang reservoir - Sattar Bahlulzadeh - Science Development Foundation (Azerbaijan) - September Days - Sergei Rylov - Sergei Yesenin - Sevda Alekperzadeh - Seventh Truth - Shaddadid - Shafi`i - Shah Deniz gas field - Shahbuz - Shahbuz State Reserve - Shahin Imranov - Shahumian - Shakhriyar Mamedyarov - Shaki - Shaki (rayon) - Shaki Khanate - Shakili Alasgar - Shamakhi - Shamans (album) - Shamkir - Shamsi Badalbeyli - Sharur - Shia Islam - Shikhov Beach - Shirali Mislimov - Shirvan - Shirvan Khanate - Shirvan National Park - Shirvan State Reserve - Shirvani Arabic - Shirvanshah - Shovkat Alakbarova - Shovkat Mammadova - Shusha - Shusha (rayon) - Siazan - Silk Way - Silk Way Airlines - Slavic languages - Small and medium-sized enterprises in Azerbaijan- Soltan Hajibeyov - South Caucasus - South Caucasus Pipeline - Southwest Asia - Soviet Union - Special State Protection Service of Azerbaijan- St. Gregory the Illuminator's Church, Baku - State Employment Service (Azerbaijan) - State Oil Company of Azerbaijan - State Reserves of Azerbaijan - State Security Service of the Republic of Azerbaijan - Stepan Shahumyan - Stepanakert - Subuk - Sufism - Suleyman Sani Akhundov - Sumgait Pogrom - Sumqayit - Sumqayit State University - Sunni Islam - Surakhany - Synagogues in Azerbaijan - Süreyya Ağaoğlu T Tahir Salahov - Talish-i Gushtasbi - Talysh Khanate - Talysh language - Talysh people - Talysh-Mughan Autonomous Republic - Tar (lute) - Tartar (rayon) - Tat language (Caucasus) - Tatar language - Tatars - Tatiana Zatulovskaya - Tat people (Caucasus) - Teimour Radjabov - Teymur Bayramalibeyov - The Congress of World Azerbaijanis - The European Azerbaijan Society (TEAS) - The Opera of Koroglu - Thomas Goltz - Tofig Guliyev - Tofik Bakhramov - Togrul Narimanbekov - Topchubashi family - Tovuz (rayon) - Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic - Transcaucasian SFSR - Transport in Azerbaijan - Treaty of Gulistan - Treaty of Kars - Treaty of Turkmenchay - Tsakhur language - Tsakhur people - Tskhouk-Karckar - Tulipa armena - Turan Air - Turian-Chay State Reserve - Turkey-Azerbaijan relations - Turkic languages - Twelvers - "Ty kto takoy? Davay, do svidaniya!" U Udi language - Udi people - Ukrainian language - Ukrainians - United Communist Party of Azerbaijan - United States Ambassador to Azerbaijan - Utik - Uzeyir Hajibeyov - Uzundara - United Nations General Assembly Resolution 60/285 - United Nations General Assembly Resolution 48/114 V Vagif Dzavadov - Vagif Mustafazadeh - Vagit Alekperov - Vali Gasimov - Vandam - Vasif Adigozal - Vasif Asadov - Vasif Talibov - Vilayat Guliyev - Virtue Party (Azerbaijan) - Visa policy of Azerbaijan - Vladimir Rokhlin - Vladimir Makogonov - Voghdji - Vugar Alakparov - Vulf W Water supply and sanitation in Azerbaijan - Western Iranian languages - Western University - Wildlife of Azerbaijan - Whole Azerbaijan Popular Front Party Y Yakov Zevin - Yanar Dag - Yardymli - Yaşar Aliyev - Yerazi - Yerevan state Azerbaijan dramatic theater - Yevlakh - Yevlakh (rayon) - Yosef Shagal - Yuksak Liqa Yusuf Meddah Z Zabit Samedov - Zagatala State Reserve - Zağulba - Zangilan - Zaqatala (rayon) - Zaqatala (city) - Zardab - Zdroj - Zemfira Meftahatdinova - Zeynalabdin Shirvani - Zeynalabdin Taghiyev - Ziya Bunyadov - Zoroastrianism in Azerbaijan - Zurna See also Lists of country-related topics Azerbaijan
401610	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static%20Shock	Static Shock	Static Shock is an American superhero animated television series based on the Milestone Media/DC Comics superhero Static. It premiered on September 23, 2000, on the WB Television Network's Kids' WB programming block. Static Shock ran for four seasons, with 52 half-hour episodes in total. The show revolves around Virgil Hawkins, a 14-year-old boy who uses the secret identity of "Static" after exposure to a mutagen gas during a gang fight which gave him electromagnetic powers. It was the first time that an African-American superhero was the titular character of their own broadcast animation series. Static Shock was produced by Warner Bros. Animation from a crew composed mostly of people from the company's past shows, but also with the involvement of two of the comic's creators, Dwayne McDuffie and Denys Cowan. Static Shock had some alterations from the original comic book because it was oriented to a pre-teen audience. Although originally not intended to be part of the DC Animated Universe, it was incorporated into it as the fifth series beginning in the second season. The show approached several social issues, which was positively received by most television critics. Static Shock was nominated for numerous awards, including the Daytime Emmy. Some criticism was directed towards its humor and animation, which was said to be unnatural and outdated. The series also produced some related merchandise, which sold poorly; McDuffie cited the low sales as one of the main factors behind the series' cancellation. In spite of this, its popularity revived interest in the original Milestone comic and introduced McDuffie to the animation industry. Plot Virgil Hawkins is a 14-year-old who lives with his older sister Sharon, and his widowed father Robert in Dakota City. He attends high school with his best friend Richie Foley, and has a crush on a girl named Frieda. He also has a dispute with a bully named Francis Stone, nicknamed "F-Stop." A gang leader named Wade recently helped Virgil, hoping to recruit him, but Virgil is hesitant, as he knows his mother died in an exchange of gunfire between gangs. Wade eventually leads Virgil to a restricted area for a fight against F-Stop's crew, but it was interrupted by police helicopters. During the dispute with the police, chemical containers explode, releasing a gas that causes mutations among the people in the vicinity (this event was later known as "The Big Bang"). As a result, Virgil obtains the ability to create, generate, absorb, and control electricity and magnetism—he takes up the alter-ego of "Static". The gas also gives others in the area their own powers, and several of them become supervillains known as "Bang Babies". Characters Virgil Ovid Hawkins / Static (voiced by Phil LaMarr) – A high school student in Dakota City. As a result of accidental exposure to an experimental mutagen in an event known as the Big Bang, he gained the ability to control and manipulate electromagnetism, and uses these powers to become the superhero "Static". Countless others who were also exposed also gained a wide variety of mutations and abilities, and Static spends much of his time dealing with these "Bang Babies", many of whom use their abilities in selfish, harmful, and even criminal ways. Richard "Richie" Osgood Foley / Gear (voiced by Jason Marsden) – Virgil's best friend and confidant. At first, he merely provides support for his friend, making gadgets for him and helping protect his secret identity. In the third season, it is revealed Richie's passive exposure to the Bang Gas gave him super-intelligence, which enabled him to easily invent rocket-powered boots and "Backpack", a highly intelligent multipurpose device worn on the back capable of surveillance and other semi-independent activities. With this equipment, he became a superhero named "Gear" and Static's full-time partner in crime-fighting. Robert Hawkins (voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson) – A social worker who runs the Freeman Community Center as head counselor. He is a widower and the single father of two teenagers—Virgil and Sharon. A strict but caring and genuinely understanding parent, he dislikes gangs and the destructive attitudes of most Bang Babies, and his work at the community center is motivated by a desire to counteract their bad influence. Sharon Hawkins (voiced by Michele Morgan) – Virgil's older sister, who attends college, but she still lives at home. She volunteers at a hospital, and counsels young people at the Freeman Community Center. While they do argue frequently, Sharon and Virgil really do care about each other and are quick to come to the other's defense if one of them is in danger. After their mother died, Sharon took it upon herself to act as the woman of the house, including when it comes to allocating chores between her and her brother, not least of all the cooking (which, at least according to Virgil, Sharon is not all that good at). Adam Evans / Rubberband Man (voiced by Kadeem Hardison) – A Bang Baby whose body structure consists of shapeable rubber. He is the younger brother of Static's archenemy, Ebon. Rubber-Band Man first appears as a tragic villain when he goes after an opportunistic record producer who stole one of his songs. He subsequently breaks out of prison but decides not to pursue a criminal career however. He and Sharon eventually start dating, with Sharon helping Adam turn over a new leaf. He and Virgil initially clash, but Virgil comes to accept Adam's relationship with his sister, and they become allies in crime-fighting, with Adam even becoming like an older-brother figure to Virgil. Francis Stone / Hotstreak (voiced by Danny Cooksey) - A Bang Baby who was an enemy of Virgil long before they gained their respective superpowers. Prior to the "Big Bang," Francis was a local bully and gang leader known as the "F-Stop". He and his gang would antagonize Virgil, being stopped only by his rival Wade. As a result of the Big Bang, he gained pyrokinesis that allow him to ignite fire at will, which lead to him and Static clashing on a daily basis. Ivan Evans / Ebon (voiced by Gary Anthony Sturgis) – The head of a large group of Bang Babies called "The Meta-Breed" and the series' main antagonist. Ebon is an unusually powerful metahuman able to create portals and manipulate pure darkness and shadows. Production The series was produced by Warner Bros. Animation based on the Milestone Media/DC Comics character Static. Its supervising producer was Alan Burnett, and Scott Jeralds was the main producer under the executive production of Jean MacCurdy and Sander Schwartz. The production team consisted mostly of people who were involved with Batman: The Animated Series and Superman: The Animated Series, but also included Static's co-creator Denys Cowan. Although the show hired the comic series' co-creator Dwayne McDuffie as story editor and writer, McDuffie had no direct involvement on the development of Static Shock. The idea of a Static cartoon first emerged with DC's editor-in-chief Jenette Kahn during the time McDuffie was working for Milestone under Kahn. In 1993, Kahn proposed to adapt some Milestone comics; Burnett was hired to write a pilot episode for an X-Men-esque series with Milestone superheroes called The New Guard. After attempts to produce several other Milestone projects, Static was eventually the series "they went for". By the time Milestone and DC drafted their contract over DC distributing Milestone comics, the characters were from separate fictional universes. However, when crossovers between Static Shock and other DC animated series were suggested, it was established that they were from the same DC Animated Universe—"rather than having to muck around with multiple dimensions, or whatever." Although McDuffie stressed that the show remains loyal to "the spirit and the tone" of the comic book, some changes were done because of its timeslot and target audience of pre-teens. For example, guns appeared less frequently, Richie is not explicitly portrayed as homosexual, and he is Virgil's confidant instead of Frieda. Virgil is also younger in the animated series, his costumes and use of his powers are different from the original, and his mother is dead in the show despite the fact that she is alive in the comics. The latter change was done because producers had the intention "to focus on a strong, complex relationship between an African-American father and son." Nevertheless, McDuffie was concerned by the change because he originally intended to oppose the stereotype of black people not having a complete nuclear family. However, McDuffie said "that [it] worked out okay" as the crew could use the absence of Virgil's mother to create a "couple of great stories". Virgil's father, Robert, "for all intents and purposes, is a new character", as he was reconceptualized as a social worker. The same goes for Richie, who is described as an amalgam of different characters from the original comic. For the villains, Hotstreak was reused from the Static comics, Edwin Alva was brought from another Milestone's series—Hardware—, and the group Meta-Breed was created for the TV series. The third season of the show saw some of the biggest changes; in addition to Richie's superhero powers and a new opening, Static changed his costume. Cowan stated that the change was done to give his clothes a "feel of the comic book", while McDuffie said it represented a growth that Virgil was passing through. This maturation made possible to "explore some of the darker places in his world," and to have more varied conflicts, as the villains have also become more mature. He described it is as "a natural outgrowth of all that, as is the new, more naturalistic look of the show." This change followed the second-season premiere—"The Big Leagues"—when Static meets Batman and Robin. Burnett said, "after that show, everybody went, 'Let's go in that direction.'" Writer John Semper, Jr. commented, "of course, I always lean toward the dramatic ... But the same old light-hearted Static spirit is still there." Richie gains superhero powers because it was becoming hard to fit him into the story and the producers wanted to keep the "chemistry" between voice actors LaMarr and Marsden. There was also a positive response from children in focus groups so "[t]he answer seemed pretty obvious." The series' music director was Richard Wolf, while he, Stanley Clarke and Max Gousse were the composers, and Kennard Ramsey was the orchestrator. For action sequences, Wolf wanted to use "real adrenaline-pumping beat" of 125 beats per minute; however, hip hop music usually only reached 110 beats. The predominant score was electronica with some hip hop-type and DMX-type vocals. R&B and old school hip hop melodies were also used depending on the scenes, and each character had a specific theme. Wolf composed the opening theme for the first two seasons. Starting from the third season, the show had a new opening theme, written by Master P and Lil' Romeo (and performed by the latter). Released episodes Static Shock aired on the Kids' WB programming block of The WB from September 23, 2000, until May 22, 2004. The first African American superhero–centered television series, it ran a total of 52 episodes. Reruns of the series were shown on Cartoon Network, starting in December 2001, and on Disney XD in February 2009. The first six episodes were released to DVD on September 28, 2004, in a single volume entitled "The New Kid". The complete first season was made available for download on iTunes on July 4, 2011. In 2017, Warner Bros. started to release Static Shock complete seasons on manufacture on demand DVDs as a part of the Warner Archive Collection. The first season was published on March 28; the second season on May 23; the third on January 30, 2018; and the fourth on April 13, 2018. Starting in September 2018, all episodes of the series have been made available on the DC Universe digital streaming service. The series is now streaming on HBO Max since 2021. In addition, the entire series is now also available for digital purchase, either individually or in a complete series pack such as on iTunes. Static Shocks episodes handle different issues, including gangs, gun violence, homelessness, bullying, racism, mental illness, bigotry, and drugs. Other episodes also featured the subject of Hanukkah and Christmas celebrations. The series was also marked by several crossover episodes with characters from the DC animated universe like Superman, Green Lantern, the Justice League, and the Batman Beyond cast. Several episodes also featured guest voice actors, including basketballers (like Shaquille O'Neal and Karl Malone) and musicians, such as the B2K group, Lil' Romeo and the Backstreet Boys' A. J. McLean. Guest crew was also featured, including cartoonist Rick Hoberg as storyboard artist, and Paul Dini and John Ridley as writers. Static Shock was an extremely popular show, granting its new renewal for a second season just a month after its debut. As of December 2000, it was the highest-rated preteen show (from 2 to 11 years old) among all networks on its timeslot, and the third best on the Kids' WB! lineup. From its debut to July 2003, the show secured the second post among boys aged 6 to 11 years. Ratings increased after Richie's character obtained superhero powers; McDuffie affirmed that this is what secured the renewal for a new season. Indeed, the show's third season was its most popular and was the second best-rated Saturday morning program among boys aged 6 to 11 years, and tweens and male tweens aged 9 to 14. From February to April 2003, ratings regularly performed over the 4.0 stake among the public aged 9 to 14 years; it even reached the 6.4 mark in May. Static Shocks last season was only surpassed by the children's anime Pokémon, and the show's reruns on Cartoon Network were only surpassed by the adult animated sitcom Family Guy. Static Shock was the only program on Cartoon Network to be among the top 30 most watched kids shows in a week of October 2004. It was also the best rated program of the channel among kids on a week of January 2005, and the best rated show on Cartoon Network's Miguzi block as of March 2005. For the 2004–05 season, it was the 18th most watched Saturday morning children's show of all networks. Static Shock was ultimately cancelled due to the low production of associated merchandising products. Reception Accolades Static Shocks episode "The Big Leagues" earned director Dave Chlystek a nomination for Outstanding Achievement for Directing in an Animated Television Production at the 2002 Annie Awards. This episode was also nominated for a Golden Reel Award for Best Sound Editing in Television Animation in 2003. That same year, for the episode "Jimmy", McDuffie and Burnett were awarded the Humanitas Prize in the Children's Animation Category in 2003. At the 30th Daytime Emmy Awards in 2003, the show was nominated for Special Class Animated Program and Richard Wolf was nominated for Achievement in Music Direction and Composition. At the 31st Daytime Emmy Awards in 2004, both the animated series and Wolf were again nominated for the same categories—this time, Wolf won the award. Reviews The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes only provides an average score for the series first season; it reports a 75% approval rating based on eight reviews. Leonard Pierce of The A.V. Club described it as "a surprising and sometimes rewarding success". October 2001 issue of Wizard listed the 100 best cartoon shows ever as selected by their readers, with Static Shock ranked at number 88. Jonathon Dornbush, in a 2014 Entertainment Weekly article, included it among the nine best comics-based animated TV series. He asserted, "Static Shock didn't have quite the name recognition of its DC brethren when it debuted, but the show proved it could stand alongside the greats." Charlie Jane Anders, for io9, ranked it 91st on a list of the best science fiction and fantasy shows; she commented, "amidst a glut of superhero cartoons, this is one of the most memorable." In The Superhero Book, Andy Mangels praised Static Shocks multicultural approach, while Emily Ashby from Common Sense Media lauded it for encouraging diversity. Mangels declared that "Static Shock provides solid superheroic entertainment and a role model and promotion of diversity for not only African-American viewers, but for audiences of all colors and ages." Writing for Entertainment Weekly, Monique Jones praised the series for a positive depiction not only of an African American superhero but of an African country—Ghana. Jones also commended how the series incorporated social issues in "an easily digestible" way without having to "sugarcoat" them. Lynne Heffley of Los Angeles Times commented it "isn't your typical Saturday-morning cartoon series", praising its themes and electing the episode "Jimmy"—about gun violence—as an example. Evan Levine, writing for Rome News-Tribune, asserted that "the series is at its best when it confronts issues actually facing kids." Jones commended Virgil's portrayal as an everyman teenager, while Ashby appreciated Virgil's "relatable" character. Colby Lanham of Comic Book Resources said Virgil "was perhaps the most human of many superheroes on television at the time" and considered the series was canceled too soon. Ashby was also positive to the fact that Virgil usually counted on dialogues before going into action; this action was also praised by John Sinnott of DVD Talk, who said it is "something that most animated heroes never think to do." Ashby also applauded Virgil's "surprising depth of character" to not follow a gang but to use his powers for good. While Levine praised "its bright, cartoony visuals [that] are a notch above those of many other animated series," Sinnott considered some of the animation to be "a little stilted." Sinnott called it "a fun series overall", but considered some jokes to be "a little stale". Neil Dorsett of DVD Verdict was generally disappointed; he called voice acting "very standard", and said that "artwork and animation are also both behind the times". Dorsett also criticized Virgil's one-lines, which "invites, like many other elements of the series, comparison to Spider-Man." He, however, pondered that his opinion may come from a bad first impression: "Although there are lots of things to nitpick about the show, there's not really anything wrong with it." Both Sinnott and Dorsett compared it unfavorably to the original comic book. Entertainment Weeklys Ken Tucker questioned why The WB made a TV show based on a cancelled, poorly-sold comic and criticized the "uttering tired, condescending lines" professed by Virgil. Nancy Imperiale Wellons from the Orlando Sentinel said "Virgil has a believable relationship with his family -- including a strong father figure -- but the show's pacing lags." Paul Schultz wrote for the New York Daily News that "Many of the characters -- the conservative, the annoying sister -- are cliches." Thelma Adams criticized the show in the New York Post; first she called it "formulaic but appealing" and ultimately dubbed it "lame". Legacy The show's popularity led to new demand for Milestone's Static comics: the first four issues of it were reissued as Static Shock: Trial by Fire in 2000 and a miniseries, Static Shock!: Rebirth of the Cool, was released between January and September 2001. It also led to the production of an unreleased video game, toys, and books. In May 2003, Midway Games announced the production of a platform game based on the show for the Game Boy Advance. Although it was displayed at the Electronic Entertainment Expo, the game was later cancelled. For a period starting on July 4, 2004, Subway Restaurants released a series of toys based on the TV series to be offered in the United States and Canada. On September 1, 2004, Scholastic Corporation published two tie-in children's books written by Tracey West. Ebon makes an appearance in the upcoming event on DC Universe Online. McDuffie's work on Static Shock placed him in the circles of animated series, and he became a writer and producer for shows like Justice League, Teen Titans, Justice League Unlimited, and Ben 10: Alien Force. McDuffie was responsible for diversifying the DC animated universe's Justice League by including black and female characters. Moreover, Arie Kaplan credits McDuffie and his co-writers for giving "a depth and complexity" the group was lacking since the 1970s. A future, older version of Virgil appeared in the Justice League Unlimited episode "The Once and Future Thing, Part 2: Time, Warped" in January 2005. Notes Home media A compilation DVD was released on DVD on September 28, 2004. References External links Official DCComics.com profile The World's Finest Presents Static Shock Static Shock on The WB (archived as of May 26, 2010) 2000s American animated television series 2000s American black cartoons 2000 American television series debuts 2004 American television series endings English-language television shows Kids' WB original shows American black superhero television shows American children's animated action television series American children's animated adventure television series American children's animated superhero television series American children's animated science fantasy television series Television series by Warner Bros. Animation The WB original programming Teen animated television series Teen superhero television series Animated television shows based on DC Comics
401625	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capture%20of%20Saddam%20Hussein	Capture of Saddam Hussein	Saddam Hussein, the deposed president of Iraq, was captured by the United States military forces in the town of Ad-Dawr, Iraq on 13 December 2003. Codenamed Operation Red Dawn, this military operation was named after the 1984 American film Red Dawn. The mission was executed by joint operations Task Force 121—an elite and covert joint special operations team, supported by the 1st Brigade Combat Team (led by Colonel James Hickey) of the 4th Infantry Division, commanded by Major General Raymond Odierno. They searched two sites, "Wolverine 1" and "Wolverine 2", outside the town of ad-Dawr, but did not find Hussein. A continued search between the two sites found Hussein hiding in a "spider hole" at 20:30 hrs local Iraqi time. Hussein did not resist capture. Background Hussein disappeared from public view soon after the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The American military labelled him "High Value Target Number One" (HVT1) and began one of the largest manhunts in history. Between July and December 2003, JSOC's Task Force 121 carried out twelve unsuccessful raids to find Saddam Hussein, together with 600 other operations against targets, including 300 interrogations. On 1 December 2003, a former driver divulged the name Muhammed Ibrahim Omar al-Musslit, Saddam's comrade, known to TF 121 as "the source" or "the fatman". Over the next two weeks, nearly 40 members of his family were interrogated to ascertain his location. On 12 December 2003, a raid on a house in Baghdad that was being used as an insurgent headquarters captured Omar. Early the next morning he revealed where Saddam may be found. This intelligence and other intelligence from detained former members of the Ba'ath Party, supported by signals intelligence from the ISA, finally pinpointed Hussein at a remote farm compound south of Tikrit. Operation Operation Red Dawn was launched after gaining actionable intelligence identifying two likely locations of Saddam's whereabouts code-named Wolverine 1 and Wolverine 2, near the town of ad-Dawr. C squadron Delta Force, ISA operators under Task Force 121, and the First Brigade Combat Team of the 4th ID conducted the operation. The operation was named after the 1984 film of the same name starring Patrick Swayze. The site names "Wolverine 1" and "Wolverine 2" are also a reference to the American insurgent group in the movie The Wolverines. The Forces involved in the operation consisted of approximately 600 soldiers including cavalry, artillery, aviation, engineer, and special operations forces. The forces cleared the two objectives but initially did not find the target. Then, as the operators were finishing and the helicopters called in to extract them, one soldier kicked a piece of flooring to one side, exposing a spider hole; he prepared to throw a fragmentation grenade into it – in case it led to an insurgent tunnel system when suddenly Hussein appeared. The Delta operator struck him with the stock of his M4 carbine and disarmed him of a Glock 18C. Hussein surrendered and offered no resistance; he was taken by a MH-6 Little Bird from the 160th SOAR to the Tikrit Mission Support Site where he was properly identified. He was then taken in an MH-60K Blackhawk helicopter by 160th SOAR from Tikrit to Baghdad and into custody at Baghdad International Airport. Along with the Glock, an AK-47 and $750,000 in US bank notes were recovered from the spider hole. Two other individuals were also detained. Aftermath Following the capture of Hussein, 4th infantry division's area of operations in the upper Tigris saw its "first period of real calm." CJTF-7 also saw IED attacks reduce by 39 percent. The perceived security improvements led to CJTF-7 and the CPA to adopt an optimistic outlook as 2003 ended. CJTF-7 believed that the capture of Saddam and his money heralded the defeat of the former regime insurgency. Using documents and materials captured as a result of the operation, CJTF-7 units pursued "what they believed were the last vestiges of the former Ba'athist resistance." Reactions International reactions Middle East : The official Bahrain News Agency quoted a foreign ministry spokesman who said [his capture] should restore unity and cohesion to the Iraqis, to build "a promising future in a prosperous Iraq enjoying security and co-operating with its neighbors to promote stability and development" in the region. : Foreign Minister Ahmed Maher said, "I don't think anyone will be sad over Saddam Hussein. His arrest does not change the fact that his regime was finished, and it is the natural consequence of the regime's fall. The Iraqi regime had harmed the Iraqi people, and had pulled the Arab region into several storms." : Vice President Mohammad-Ali Abtahi expressed satisfaction, stating, "I am happy they have arrested a criminal, whoever it may be, and I am even more happy, because it is a criminal who committed so many crimes against Iranians." Abtahi joined the call for justice, adding, "Iranians have suffered much, because of him, and [the] mass graves in Iraq prove the crimes he has committed against the Iraqi people". : The government spokeswoman said they hoped that a page has been turned and that the Iraqi people would be able to assume their responsibilities as soon as possible and build their future according to their will. The first and last word concerning the capture of Saddam Hussein or his fate must be given to the Iraqi people. : The country was tense at news of the U.S. capture of Saddam Hussein at the weekend; people were surprised by how easily he was captured, however, it did not equal a U.S. military victory. "The capture of Saddam will not save the U.S. from the world's condemnation for supporting the greater enemy, Israeli P.M. Ariel Sharon", said Selim Al-Hoss, ex-Lebanese Prime Minister. : Palestinian President Yasser Arafat's government had no comment; however Abdel-Aziz al-Rantissi, a senior Hamas leader, said the U.S. would "pay a very high price for the mistake" of capturing Saddam Hussein. Following Saddam's capture, the climate among Palestinians was disbelief and gloom. : Prince Bandar bin Sultan, Saudi ambassador to the United States, stated that "Saddam Hussein was a menace to the Arab world." : Syrian Information Minister Ahmad al-Hassan advised Syria's position on Iraq was not based on the fate of individuals. We want an Iraq that preserves its territorial integrity, its unity and its sovereignty. Asia : The Afghan government welcomed news of the capture of Saddam Hussein, deeming it a warning to opposition leaders such as Osama bin Laden and Mullah Omar. : Foreign Minister Morshed Khan was quoted as saying, "We hope this will pave the way for the Iraqi people to have a government of their own, a government by the people and for the people of Iraq." : Foreign Ministry spokesman Liu Jianchao hoped that the latest development of the situation in Iraq was conducive to the Iraqi people taking their destiny into their own hands, and to realising peace and stability in Iraq. : Sing Tao Daily editorialized: "The desperate capture of Iraqi former president Saddam symbolizes the bad fate of a corrupt dictator and also the best Christmas present this year for US President George Bush, but for the Iraqis who have undergone a baptism of fire in the war, the days of peace are still far away, and the road of reconstruction is as long and arduous as before." South China Morning Post editorialized: "With Hussein's capture, Iraqis can at last begin to close this brutal and tragic chapter in their history." : The Indian government's response to the capture of Saddam Hussein was measured and guarded. When Secretary of State Colin Powell called Foreign Minister Yashwant Sinha on Monday to discuss the capture of Saddam, whom Washington had named a tyrant, Sinha is said to have reacted in a manner that did not echo the effusion flowing from the rest of the world. In the words of an official with the foreign ministry, Sinha "maintained a stiff upper lip". Sinha, in his brief conversation with Powell, merely expressed hope that such developments would contribute to the stabilization of Iraq. Powell told Sinha that the capture would bring "a change in the existing situation and lead to greater respect for the Iraqi Governing Council." : In Indonesia, the reaction was muted. Foreign Ministry spokesman Marty Natalegawa says the arrest of the former Iraqi president had not changed how Indonesia felt about the situation in Iraq. Indonesia's leaders strongly opposed the US-led invasion of Iraq. Indonesian leaders also said they hoped the capture of Saddam Hussein would help bring peace to Iraq and return control of the country back to its citizens. : Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi on Monday said he hoped that Saddam Hussein's capture would lead to improvements in Iraq. He said the capture would be positive if it brings major steps toward the stability and reconstruction of Iraq. Prime Minister Koizumi's cabinet had approved a controversial plan to send troops to Iraq. He said he would continue to assess the security situation in Iraq before dispatching the soldiers. In Japan, Chief Cabinet Secretary Yasuo Fukuda agreed the arrest was "great news," but cautioned it would not necessarily lead to peace. "The problem, however, is terrorism. I don't think the arrest of Saddam Hussein can stop all terror attacks," Fukuda said. : The Malaysian government said the Iraqi people should decide how Saddam would be brought to justice on accusations of gross human rights violations. Iraqis should "be given the right to decide on the manner and procedure of bringing Saddam Hussein to face justice," said Prime Minister Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, head of the Non-Aligned Movement. Foreign Minister Syed Hamid Albar expressed hope that the capture of Saddam Hussein would contribute towards bringing peace and stability in Iraq and the surrounding region and stated that the United Nations should now play a bigger role in achieving this objective. "With peace and stability in Iraq, we hope that an Iraqi government representing the free and independent Iraqi people could be set up to start the reconstruction process of that nationfor the benefit of its people," he said. He said the views and inputs of the Iraqis should be taken into account in deciding whatever action would be initiated against Saddam. Former prime minister Mahathir Mohammed urged a fair trial for Saddam Hussein. : The response in Pakistan also was low-key. Foreign Office spokesman Masood Khan called the capture an important development. : South Korea welcomed the news, which came hours after its government made a final decision to send 3,000 troops to Iraq. : An hour after U.S. announced the captured, President Chen Shui Bian congratulated the U.S. for what he called "a big victory". Europe : The Flemish-language newspaper De Standaard editorialized that "Showing degrading pictures of a prisoner, even if he was a cruel tyrant, does not increase the moral authority of those who overpowered him." : A statement from President Jacques Chirac said, "The president is delighted with Saddam Hussein's arrest." : Chancellor Gerhard Schröder greeted the development "with much happiness." In a telegram to George W. Bush, he called for intensified efforts to rebuild Iraq. : Top Curia official Renato Martino, a cardinal deacon and President of the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, attacked the way Saddam Hussein was treated by his captors, saying he had been dealt with like an animal. Martino said he had felt pity watching video of "this man destroyed, [the military] looking at his teeth as if he were a beast." The cardinal, a leading critic of the US-led war in Iraq, said he hoped the capture would not make matters "worse." Pope John Paul II did not comment. : Poland at the time commanded thousands of international troops in Iraq. Defence Minister Jerzy Szmajdziński welcomed the news, but said the arrest could prompt retaliation from Saddam's supporters. "The coming days could be equally dangerous as these past days," he said. : Foreign Minister Igor Ivanov said, "We think the arrest of Saddam Hussein will contribute to the strengthening of security in Iraq and to the process of political regulation in the country with the active participation of the United Nations." : Prime Minister Tony Blair, President Bush's strongest Iraq War ally, called the capture good news for Iraqis, saying: "It removes the shadow that has been hanging over them for too long of the nightmare of a return to the Saddam regime." North America : Prime Minister Paul Martin congratulated U.S. troops Sunday and sent telegrams of congratulations to U.S. President George Bush and British Prime Minister Tony Blair. He would state that he was confident that the deposed Iraqi leader will be prosecuted fairly. "What's important is that he be tried before a tribunal that is just, that is credible and that has international recognition," said Martin. "I'm sure that will be the case." Martin spoke to reporters from his Montreal riding, said Saddam's capture will bolster reconstruction efforts in Iraq. "Now that he has been captured there's no doubt in my mind that we will now be able to move to a very very different level of reconstruction," he said. "This is a great victory to the coalition forces but the biggest winners of all of this will be the people of Iraq," he said. : President George W. Bush said that Saddam would "face the justice he denied to millions. For the Ba'athist holdouts responsible for the violence, there will be no return to the corrupt power and privilege they once held". Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld stated, "Here was a man who was photographed hundreds of times shooting off rifles and showing how tough he was, and in fact, he wasn't very tough, he was cowering in a hole in the ground, and had a pistol and didn't use it, and certainly did not put up any fight at all. I think that ... he resulted in the death of an awful lot of Iraqi people, In the last analysis, he seemed not terribly brave." Rumsfeld said the U.S. had not decided whether to classify Saddam Hussein as a prisoner of war, but that the U.S. would abide the Geneva Conventions. More than 24 hours after his capture, the uncooperative Saddam Hussein had said little in his interrogation. Oceania : Prime Minister John Howard reacted to the news happily. He said the Iraqi people could breathe a sigh of relief now that the former dictator was no longer at large. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation interviewed him. : Prime Minister Helen Clark reiterated the New Zealand legislature's opposition to capital punishment, with such opposition extending to the treatment of Saddam Hussein. Africa : People Daily newspaper The capture of deposed Iraq leader Saddam Hussein is, no doubt, a major victory for the United States and the coalition of the willing, chief among which is Britain. The curtain has now fallen on one of the world's most ruthless and intriguing leaders. International organizations Secretary General Amr Mussa said the Iraqi people should "decide the fate of the old regime and its old leaders," alluding to the discovery of mass graves after Saddam's fall during the US invasion in April. International Committee of the Red Cross The International Committee of the Red Cross says the US-led coalition in Iraq had given the agency the "green light" to visit Saddam Hussein, the former Iraqi leader. Red Cross spokesman Florian Westphal confirmed that ICRC visits to the captured Iraqi leader would go ahead according to international rules governing the detention of all prisoners of war. He said discussions are under way as to how and where those visits would take place. A spokesman for Kofi Annan, United Nations Secretary General, said the capture "offers an opportunity to give fresh impetus to the search for peace and stability in Iraq". Former U.N. chief weapons inspector Hans Blix said the Allied Coalition might ask Saddam Hussein meaningful questions about Iraq's nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons programmes, "He ought to know quite a lot, and be able to tell the story; we all want to get to the bottom of the barrel". POW status A Pentagon spokesman said he was given the status as he was the leader of the "old regime's military forces." The spokesman, Major Michael Shavers, said Saddam, captured by US troops in December, was entitled to all the rights under the Geneva Conventions. The International Committee of the Red Cross had asked to visit the former Iraqi leader as soon as possible. The US spokesman did not give further details about Saddam Hussein's conditions of detention. POW status for Saddam Hussein meant that the former Iraqi leader would be eligible to stand trial for war crimes. There was controversy over TV pictures which showed Saddam Hussein undergoing a medical examination after his capture — footage regarded by some as a failure to protect him from public curiosity. A leading Vatican clergyman described the scenes as Saddam being "treated like a cow," and some sections of the Arab world were deeply offended by them. The US maintains that the pictures were shown to demonstrate to the Iraqi people that they no longer had anything to fear. A senior British official said Saddam – who was being held at an undisclosed location and interrogated by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) – was still refusing to co-operate with his captors, but the former president's capture the previous month was yielding results "far greater than we expected," the official told reporters on condition of anonymity. The US-led coalition had used documents found with the ex-leader to mount operations against Saddam loyalists, the official said. See also Interrogation of Saddam Hussein Trial of Saddam Hussein Execution of Saddam Hussein High-value target Manhunt (military) References External links Military operations of the Iraq War involving the United States Military operations of the Iraq War in 2003 Operations involving American special forces Saddam Hussein Battles and conflicts without fatalities December 2003 events in Iraq
401660	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida%E2%80%93Georgia%20football%20rivalry	Florida–Georgia football rivalry	The Florida–Georgia football rivalry is an American college football rivalry game played annually by the University of Florida Gators and the University of Georgia Bulldogs, both members of the Eastern Division of the Southeastern Conference. The programs first met in 1904 or 1915 (the status of the first game is disputed) and have played every season since 1926 except for a war-time interruption in 1943. It is one of the most prominent rivalry games in college football, and it has been held in Jacksonville, Florida since 1933, with only two exceptions, making it one of the few remaining neutral-site rivalries in college football. The game attracts huge crowds to Jacksonville, and the associated tailgating and other events earned it the nickname of the "World's Largest Outdoor Cocktail Party", although that name is no longer officially used. Though highly contested on both sides, the rivalry has gone through several periods in which one team dominated for more than a decade. Georgia dominated the early series while Florida held the advantage in the 1950s and early 1960s. Georgia again dominated from the late 1960s through the 80s under coach Vince Dooley, while Florida again took the upper hand in the rivalry during the 1990s and early 2000s under coaches Steve Spurrier and Urban Meyer. The series was uncharacteristically even over twelve seasons beginning in 2008, with the rivals enjoying and then suffering through alternating sets of three-game win streaks. After winning in 2023, Georgia has won six out of the last seven meetings. Series history Disputed beginnings The two universities do not agree on the date of their first meeting on the gridiron. In 1904, the Georgia Bulldogs defeated a team known as the University of Florida Blue and White by the lopsided score of 52-0. However, this was not the modern University of Florida in Gainesville, but one of its four predecessor institutions: a school based in Lake City that was known as Florida Agricultural College before 1903. Florida's University Athletic Association does not include this game in the series record, as the modern University of Florida was established in 1905 and its first football squad took the field in 1906. Georgia, on the other hand, counts the 1904 game as a victory against its future rival. UGA sports historian Dan Magill sums up the school's attitude: "That's where Florida was back then. We can't help it if they got run out of Lake City." The first game in the rivalry acknowledged by both schools took place in Jacksonville in 1915. The series has been played annually since 1926 except in 1943, when Florida did not field a team due to World War II. Series trends Georgia dominated the early rivalry. Florida did not score a single point against the Bulldogs until their fifth (or sixth) meeting. The Gators won their first two games against Georgia in 1928 and 1929, when coach Charlie Bachman's squads briefly brought Florida's football program to national prominence. However, after a scoreless tie in 1930, Georgia resumed its dominance, winning fifteen out of the next seventeen games in the series as coach Wally Butts led the Bulldogs to several SEC championships while the Gators suffered through a period of mediocrity in the 1930s and 1940s. Florida finally enjoyed longer-term success in the rivalry in the 1950s under coach Bob Woodruff, a trend that continued into the 1960s under coach Ray Graves. The hiring of new Georgia coach Vince Dooley in 1964 evened the rivalry for the remainder of the decade, and in the 1970s and 1980s, his Bulldog squads usually won the game in Jacksonville while winning a national championship in 1980 along the way. Coach Steve Spurrier's arrival in Gainesville turned the rivalry back around beginning in 1990, and his Gator squads went 11–1 against the Bulldogs. Coach Urban Meyer continued Florida's winning trend through the mid-2000s, but the rivalry has been unusually even since 2008. Florida began a three game series win streak in that season, which was followed by a three game Georgia streak, then another three game streak for Florida, which was answered by three Georgia wins, marking the longest evenly-divided dozen years in series history. Since the 1960s, the Florida–Georgia rivalry often held conference or national championship implications for one or both teams, and both schools have had title hopes dashed in the game, sometimes in a surprising upset. In 1966, the Bulldogs intercepted 3 passes by eventual Heisman Trophy winner Steve Spurrier, derailing the Gators' title hopes in a 27–10 upset. On the other hand, Florida's upset win over Georgia in 2002 was the Bulldogs' only loss of the season and likely cost them a chance to play for a national championship. The rivalry has taken on even more importance since the SEC split into divisions in 1992. Both teams were placed in the SEC East, meaning that the contest has often decided who will play in the SEC Championship Game. To date, Florida has fifteen Eastern Division titles while Georgia has twelve. Rivalry traditions Site of the game The Florida-Georgia game has been played in Jacksonville almost every season since 1933. This neutral site trend began very early in the series; in over 100 meetings, the rivalry has been played at on-campus facilities on just seven occasions. Florida's original football facility of Fleming Field was quite small and primitive, so early Gator squads regularly scheduled "home" games against major college opposition in various cities across the state. Early Florida-Georgia contests were held in Jacksonville (three times), Savannah (twice), and Tampa (once), along with several Georgia home games in Athens. (The disputed 1904 game was played in Macon, Georgia, another neutral site.) Florida Field opened in 1930, the Bulldogs made their first trip to Gainesville in 1931, and the Gators made a return visit to Athens in 1932. The schools agreed to meet in Jacksonville in 1933, and the game has been played there every subsequent season except for 1994 and 1995, when the old Gator Bowl stadium was demolished and the current Everbank Field built on the same site for the expansion Jacksonville Jaguars of the NFL. There have been some calls to move the game from Jacksonville over the years, usually when one or the other school was dominating the rivalry. More recently, Georgia coach Kirby Smart has argued that playing at a neutral site cost both programs a valuable home recruiting weekend every other year. However, the schools have repeatedly extended their agreement to play in Jacksonville, both for tradition's sake and because the neutral-site contest has become quite lucrative for the universities. Florida and Georgia have long split ticket revenue for the game, and in 2019, the city of Jacksonville agreed to compensate the schools for the loss of a home game by paying all travel expenses plus a $1 million per year bonus, a figure which increases to $1.5 million in 2024. As of the latest renewal agreement, each university makes almost $4 million from the game every year, far more than the approximately $3 million every other year they would earn from a home-and-home series. The most recent contract extension keeps the game in Jacksonville until 2025, though it may have to temporarily shift to an alternative site if Everbank Field undergoes a proposed major renovation tentatively scheduled to begin in 2026. Though playing the games on-campus is a possibility, the schools are reportedly planning on playing at two different NFL stadiums in Georgia and Florida. "World's Largest Outdoor Cocktail Party" The city of Jacksonville is willing to provide financial guarantees to keep the rivalry in town because the game weekend is extremely lucrative for local businesses, drawing thousands of fans to a community that is more known for its naval base and heavy industry than for tourism. Local hotels fill to near capacity, downtown and the Jacksonville Landing along the St. Johns River hosts festivities on Friday and Saturday, and the area around the stadium is alive with tailgating and other happenings on game day. Besides Jacksonville, the Georgia Golden Isles also depend on the game to sustain businesses through the winter season. Georgia students and alumni spend the game weekend on the Georgia Coast, particularly on Saint Simons Island, where thousands of Georgia students gather each year at the aptly named "Frat Beach" on Friday before commuting to Jacksonville the next day. As a result of the festive atmosphere, the game and associated revelry was once known as "the World's Largest Outdoor Cocktail Party", a nickname coined in 1958 by then Florida Times-Union sports editor Bill Kastelz after he witnessed an inebriated fan cheerfully offer an alcoholic beverage to an on-duty police officer before the game. The "Cocktail Party" moniker proved so popular that the City of Jacksonville used it officially for many years, but the practice ended in the 1980s following a series of alcohol-fueled outbursts. In 1984, Florida fans stormed the field and tore down the goal posts after a 27–0 victory; the following year, a 24–3 Georgia win led Bulldogs fans to do the same, resulting in dozens of arrests and several injuries on both occasions. Thereafter, the city cracked down on excessive drinking and dropped the name, though the media continued to use it until 2006, when both schools and the Southeastern Conference asked CBS Sports (which broadcasts the game) to stop using the nickname due to concerns about alcohol abuse by students and other attendees. Since then, the rivalry has simply been called the "Florida–Georgia game" or "Georgia–Florida game", with some entities (including the Florida Times-Union, which initiated the Cocktail Party nickname) rotating the names each year to list the designated home team first. Since 2009, the respective student government associations of the institutions have referred to the game as the War for the Oar, as the winning team takes home the Okefenokee Oar. Home teams and seating The designated "home" team alternates from year to year, with ticket distribution split evenly between the fans of the two teams. Beginning in the late 1980s, fans from Florida and Georgia were assigned seats grouped in alternating sections of the stadium to minimize incidents, and the contrasting colors worn by the fans (red and black for Georgia, orange and blue for Florida) created a "beach ball" visual effect in the stands. More recently, the seating arrangement has split the stadium lengthwise and fans sit on the side corresponding to the sideline their team occupies. The teams take turns serving as the "home" team, with the "hosts" usually wearing their home uniforms and the visitors wearing white road jerseys. However, on several occasions, the Bulldogs and Gators have faced off with both squads wearing their home uniforms. Florida–Georgia Hall of Fame The Jacksonville Economic Development Commission created the Florida–Georgia Hall of Fame in 1995 to recognize the players, coaches, and other representatives from each school who have made their mark on the rivalry. Each year, four new members (two from each school) are announced in June, and are formally inducted at a luncheon in Jacksonville the Friday before the football game. Florida–Georgia Hall of Fame inductees through 2023 include: Florida: Carlos Alvarez, Reidel Anthony, Kerwin Bell, Howell Boney, Scot Brantley, Joe Brodsky, Alex Brown, Trey Burton, Andre Caldwell, Norm Carlson, Kevin Carter, Rick Casares, Jeff Chandler, Wes Chandler, Brad Culpepper, Doug Dickey, Chris Doering, Jimmy Dunn, Larry Dupree, Ciatrick Fason, Jeremy Foley, Don Gaffney, Jabar Gaffney, Ray Graves, Earnest Graham, Rex Grossman, Joe Haden, Galen Hall, Percy Harvin, Ike Hilliard, Chuck Hunsinger, Lindy Infante, Willie Jackson, Jr., Doug Johnson, Jevon Kearse, Charlie LaPradd, Chris Leak, Buford Long, Wilber Marshall, Shane Matthews, Lee McGriff, Nat Moore, Ricky Nattiel, Keiwan Ratliff, John Reaves, Errict Rhett, Lito Sheppard, Brandon Spikes, Steve Spurrier, Fred Taylor, Tim Tebow, Richard Trapp, Ben Troupe, John L. Williams, Lawrence Wright, Danny Wuerffel, Jack Youngblood. Georgia: Peter Anderson, Richard Appleby, Buck Belue, Boss Bailey, Champ Bailey, John Brantley, Zeke Bratkowski, Charley Britt, Kevin Butler, Wally Butts, Mike Cavan, Knox Culpepper, Rennie Curran, Thomas Davis Sr., Vince Dooley, Robert Edwards, Terrence Edwards, Bob Etter, Randall Godfrey, Ray Goff, Cy Grant, David Greene, Rodney Hampton, Garrison Hearst, Terry Hoage, Jarvis Jones, John Little, Dan Magill, Kevin McLee, Willie McClendon, Knowshon Moreno, Larry Munson, Aaron Murray, George Patton, David Pollack, John Rauch, Mark Richt, Rex Robinson, Matt Robinson, Erk Russell, Bill Saye, Jake Scott, Lindsay Scott, Richard Seymour, Frank Sinkwich, Bill Stanfill, Jon Stinchcomb, Matt Stinchcomb, Marcus Stroud, Tommy Thurson, Charley Trippi, Herschel Walker, Gene Washington, Charles Wittemore, Scott Woerner, Tim Worley, Eric Zeier. In 2017, two members were inducted who were not linked with one particular school: Greg McGarity, who was a long-serving athletic administrator at Florida before becoming Georgia's athletic director, and Verne Lundquist, a retired broadcaster who was the television play-by-play announcer for many Florida-Georgia games as part of SEC on CBS coverage. Okefenokee Oar Unlike many college sports rivalries, the Florida–Georgia game historically has not been played for a trophy. The city of Jacksonville announced that it would award the winning teams the goalposts from the game in 1986, in order to persuade fans not to storm the field and destroy them as they had the previous two years. However, no goalposts were ever given out because neither university wanted them. In 2009, the student governments of the two universities announced the creation of a new trophy, the "Okefenokee Oar". The 10-foot-long Oar was donated anonymously to the University of Florida in 2009, and has opposing sides carved with symbols and logos from each school. The Oar was carved from the remains of a 1,000-year-old cypress tree that once grew in the Okefenokee Swamp, which straddles the Florida–Georgia border and was the source of an interstate boundary dispute. Beginning with the 2009 contest, the Okefenokee Oar is presented to the winning university's student body president. No trophy is presented at the game, however. Notable games As with all intense rivalries, the Florida/Georgia series has seen many memorable games that simultaneously brought joy and anguish to partisans of the schools. 1928: Ending the drought When Charlie Bachman became the 1928 Gators' new head coach, he inherited a team loaded with talent recruited by his predecessor, Harold Sebring. However, he also inherited a program which had never come close to beating the Georgia Bulldogs, their Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association rival. Georgia was 6–0 against Florida with five shutouts and an overall scoring advantage of 190–9. The teams met again in Savannah, Georgia on November 10, and Bachman's Gators finally beat the Bulldogs through the efforts of Florida's "Phantom Four" backfield of Dale Van Sickle, Carl Brumbaugh, Rainey Cawthon, Clyde Crabtree and Royce Goodbread. With Florida holding a commanding lead in fourth quarter, jubilant Gator fans prematurely rushed the field to tear down the goal posts, resulting in fist fights breaking out between supporters of the two schools. Order was restored, the game was completed, and Florida earned its first victory in the series by the score of 26–6. 1941: Sinkwich beats Florida with a broken jaw Georgia's All-American back Frank Sinkwich had broken his jaw in a game earlier in the season, but that didn't keep him off the field. Wearing a custom-made chinstrap attached to his helmet, Sinkwich ran 31 times for 142 yards and two touchdowns and kicked Georgia's first field goal since 1924 in the Bulldogs' 19–3 victory over the Gators. When speaking about the loss after the game, Florida coach Tom Lieb simply said "Too much Sinkwich." 1942: 75 and oh! Having lost most upper-class players and several members of the coaching staff to service in World War II, the 1942 Florida Gators brought an inexperienced 3–4 squad into Jacksonville for the 1942 contest with Georgia. The Bulldogs, on the other hand, still had the services of many key contributors thanks to draft deferments issued to players enrolled in the University of Georgia's ROTC program, and brought a 7–0 record and No. 1 ranking to Jacksonville. Georgia halfback Charley Trippi and Heisman Trophy-winning back Frank Sinkwich combined to score seven touchdowns as Georgia defeated Florida 75–0, the largest margin in series history. The Bulldogs finished the regular season 10–1, won the Southeastern Conference championship, defeated the UCLA Bruins 9–0 in the Rose Bowl, and were named national champions by multiple polls and ratings services. Meanwhile, the depleted Gators would not win another game on the season, and when even more students and staff joined the war effort, the school did not field a football team at all in 1943. 1949: Hunsinger ends Georgia's streak The post–World War II 1940s were a tough slog for the Florida Gators. Coached by Raymond Wolf, the Gators' collection of recent high school graduates and returning war veterans suffered the indignity of four consecutive losing seasons—the lowest point in the history of the Gators football program, ironically remembered by the close-knit players as the "Golden Era." But there were still stars and bright moments; Wolf's 1949 Florida Gators were led by senior lineman Jimmy Kynes and running back Chuck Hunsinger. Given little chance by anyone to beat coach Wally Butts' Georgia Bulldogs in Jacksonville, Kynes inspired his two-way linemen to their outstanding effort of the season, stopping the Bulldogs' running game on defense, and blocking for Hunsinger on offense. Hunsinger rushed eighteen times for 174 yards and three touchdowns, and the Gators won 28–7, breaking a seven-game Georgia winning streak. Wolf would be dismissed as Florida's head coach at the end of the season, but on that day in Jacksonville, he was jubilantly carried off the field by his players. 1952: 30–0 Georgia clearly dominated the first several decades of their series against Florida. Coming into the 1952 contest, the Bulldogs were 23–5–1 all-time against the Gators and had won nine of the previous ten meetings, including two straight victories over Florida coach Bob Woodruff. The Gators arrived in Jacksonville with a 3–2 record and an offense that had struggled against good defenses. In an attempt to jump-start their run-oriented attack, Woodruff and Florida offensive coordinator Frank Broyles decided to swap the positions of quarterback Rick Casares and running back Doug Dickey. Casares had been heavily recruited by Georgia but thought that Bulldog Coach Wally Butts was "too rough" with his players during a recruiting visit, so he opted to attend Florida instead. Led by All-American lineman Charlie LaPradd on defense and Casares on offense and special teams (he was also the team's place-kicker), the Gators dominated the Bulldogs 30–0 in Jacksonville, which would remain the Gators' largest victory over the Bulldogs for almost forty years and was the first shutout over the Bulldogs since 1937. Casares ran for 108 yards and two touchdowns and kicked three extra points and a field goal, while halfback Buford Long ran for 116 yards on 10 carries. Florida finished the season 8–3 and were invited to their first major bowl game, the 1953 Gator Bowl. Georgia finished 7–4 and went on to suffer through several sub-par seasons in the 1950s, helping Florida earn a winning decade over their border rivals for first time in the series. 1964: Vince Dooley arrives While Georgia still held an overall advantage in the series, Florida enjoyed a 10–2 streak from 1952 to 1963 under head coaches Bob Woodruff and Ray Graves. That changed with the arrival of Vince Dooley as the new head coach of the underdog 1964 Georgia Bulldogs. In a game where the Bulldogs' quarterback failed to complete a single pass and was intercepted twice, Dooleys' 'Dogs relied on their running game, a staunch second-half defense, and a little bit of luck to beat Graves' tenth-ranked Florida Gators. With the game tied at 7–7 in the fourth quarter, Bulldogs placekicker Bob Etter lined up for a potential game-winning field goal. Instead, in a wild broken play, the Bulldogs' center and placeholder mishandled the snap, but Etter picked up the bobbled ball and ran it for a touchdown to score the winning points in the 14–7 contest. Dooley's teams would split their first seven games 3–3–1 against Graves' Gators. Thereafter, Dooley's 'Dogs would go on to dominate the rivalry, winning fourteen of the nineteen games from 1971 to 1989. 1966: Heisman curse? The seventh-ranked 1966 Florida Gators entered the game with a 7–0 record and the opportunity to clinch a share of their first-ever SEC title. The Gators' senior quarterback, Steve Spurrier, had just locked up the Heisman trophy the previous week with a stellar performance versus the Auburn Tigers. The Florida–Georgia game turned out very differently, however, as the Bulldogs defense dominated the game, and Spurrier threw three interceptions in the 27–10 Georgia victory. All-American defensive tackle Bill Stanfill would later reference Spurrier in recounting his experiences growing up on a farm in southwest Georgia before the advent of weightlifting: "Holding pigs for my dad to castrate was quite a challenge. I can't say that helped prepare me for football, but it sure did remind me an awful lot of sacking Steve Spurrier." Spurrier returned to Gainesville as the Gators' head coach in 1990 and, with the sting of the 1966 loss in mind, emphasized the annual Florida–Georgia contest as the "biggest of the year." Under his tenure, the Gators were 11–1 against their bitter rivals. 1970: Rip, strip, and grip The 1970 Florida Gators featured All-American defensive end Jack Youngblood, and he pulled off one of the most remarkable plays in Florida football history. With Bulldogs leading 17–10 and in possession of the ball at the Gators' two-yard line, Youngblood stood up Georgia back Ricky Lake short of the goal, forced a fumble and fell on the football. "They ran a lead play to my side, and I cut it off", Youngblood said. "I'm standing there holding the ballcarrier and I take the ball away from him, and gave it back to our offense." Gators quarterback John Reaves and wide receiver Carlos Alvarez then connected for two touchdown passes in the final 5:13 to rally the Florida Gators to a 24–17 victory. 1975: Appleby to Washington The 1975 Florida Gators came into the game with a 6–1 record and No. 7 ranking, while the Georgia Bulldogs were 5–2 and ranked No. 19. The Gators' offense was led by running back Tony Green, who ran an early one-yard touchdown to put the Gators ahead 7–0. The Gators led 7–3 as time was winding down in the fourth quarter. Georgia's "Junkyard Dawgs" defense allowed yards between the 20-yard-lines, but ceded little ground in the red zone. The Bulldogs set up at their own 20-yard-line with 3:10 remaining, and head coach Vince Dooley did something he rarely did: he called a trick play. Tight end Richard Appleby accepted the handoff on a reverse to the right, but instead of running downfield, he threw the ball to wide receiver Gene Washington for an improbable 80-yard touchdown play. Florida mounted a drive in the closing minutes but a bad snap foiled the Gators' game-tying field goal attempt, and Georgia held on for a 10–7 victory. 1976: "Fourth and dumb" The 1976 Florida Gators were 6–1 and ranked No. 10 coming into the game, and again seeking to secure their first SEC football championship. The Gators held a 27–13 halftime advantage and seemed to have the game in hand until the Bulldogs scored early in the third quarter to cut the lead to 27–20. Then, faced with a fourth-and-one situation at the Gators' own 29-yard-line, coach Doug Dickey decided to go for the first down rather than punt. Gators running back Earl Carr was stopped short by Bulldogs safety Johnny Henderson. Led by quarterback Ray Goff's game management and running back Kevin McLee's 198-yard rushing performance, the Bulldogs seized the momentum and scored three touchdowns on their way to a 41–27 win. After the game, Dickey admitted that "We were not outplayed; we were outcoached. I made some dumb calls." Sports writers seized on Dickey's mea culpa, and in subsequent months and years popularized the phrase "fourth and dumb" to refer to both Dickey's failed fourth down attempt and the game itself. 1980: Run, Lindsay! Trailing the underdog 1980 Florida Gators with their perfect season and their No. 2 ranking in jeopardy, the Bulldogs executed one of the most famous plays in college football history. Georgia trailed 21–20 with less than a minute to play and faced third and long from their own 7-yard-line. Bulldog quarterback Buck Belue dropped back to pass and was forced to scramble around in his own endzone to avoid the Gator pass rush before finding wide receiver Lindsay Scott open in the middle of the field near the Georgia 25-yard-line. Scott caught the pass facing his own endzone, turned and darted diagonally through Florida's secondary, and outran everyone down the sideline to score the game-winning touchdown with only seconds left on the game clock. Long-time Georgia radio announcer Larry Munson's legendary call of the play gave the game its nickname: Florida in a stand-up five, they may or may not blitz. Buck back, third down on the eight. In trouble, he got a block behind him. Gotta throw on the run. Complete to the 25. To the 30, Lindsay Scott 35, 40, Lindsay Scott 45, 50, 45, 40 . . . Run Lindsay, 25, 20, 15, 10, 5, Lindsay Scott! Lindsay Scott! Lindsay Scott! The improbable 93-yard pass play sealed the Bulldogs' 26–21 victory, and kept Georgia's national championship hopes alive. The Bulldogs moved to No. 1 in the next round of polls and would go on to win the 1980 consensus national championship. 1981: "Herschel over the top!" Much like the previous year, the favored Georgia Bulldogs trailed the Florida Gators in the fourth quarter 21-20. Backed up on their own five yard line with eight minutes remaining in the fourth quarter, the Bulldogs methodically marched 95 yards on 17 plays, mostly on the ground. The drive culminated in three straight hand-offs to running back Herschel Walker in which he attempted to jump over the line into the endzone, finally succeeding on third down. Florida still had two minutes to score but turned over the ball on downs near midfield, and Georgia won 26–21 for the second year in a row. 1984: Bell to Nattiel After suffering several defeats to the Bulldogs with a conference championship at stake, coach Galen Hall's 1984 Florida Gators entered the contest undefeated in the SEC. The Gators dominated early, building a 17–0 lead by early in the second half. But the Bulldogs seemed to come alive in the third quarter, mounting a long drive; however, Georgia's drive died in the shadow of the Gators' goal line when they were stuffed on fourth down, checking the Bulldogs momentarily but pinning the Gators deep in their own territory. On the third play following the change of possession, Gators quarterback Kerwin Bell dropped back into his own end zone and lofted a long pass to streaking receiver Ricky Nattiel, who went 96 yards for a touchdown. The Bulldog momentum was snuffed out and the Gators went on to a convincing 27–0 victory, inspiring jubilant Florida fans to storm the field and tear down the goalposts after the final whistle. 1985: 'Dogs upset No. 1 Gators The 1985 Florida Gators entered the contest on a roll: coming off an emotional win over the Auburn Tigers, undefeated, and ranked No. 1 in the nation for the first time in school history. This would not be a repeat of the 1984 game, however. As they had done so many times in the past, the Bulldogs spoiled Florida's season, defeating the Gators 24–3 with freshmen running backs Keith Henderson and Tim Worley both rushing for over 100 yards. After the game, jubilant Georgia fans stormed the field and tore down the goalposts. 1993: Timeout In constant rain, the usually prolific passing game of coach Steve Spurrier's 1993 Florida Gators was stymied. Instead, the Gators relied on tailback Errict Rhett to amass 183 yards and two touchdowns to build a 33–26 fourth-quarter lead. Led by quarterback Eric Zeier, the Georgia Bulldogs mounted a drive into Florida territory in the final minute and a half. Zeier completed what appeared to be the game-tying touchdown to Jerry Jerman with five seconds remaining in the game. However, Gators cornerback Anthone Lott had called a timeout just before the ball was snapped, forcing the Bulldogs to play the down again. Lott was called for pass interference on the ensuing play, giving Georgia one last untimed chance to score. Zeier's final pass fell incomplete, and the Gators won a hard-fought, but controversial 33–26 victory. 1995: "Half a hundred between the Hedges" in Athens In the mid-1990s, the old Gator Bowl Stadium was rebuilt as Jacksonville Municipal Stadium for the expansion Jacksonville Jaguars of the NFL, temporarily moving the Florida-Georgia game to on-campus sites for the first time in over six decades Florida had soundly defeated Georgia at "The Swamp" in 1994, and an undefeated 1995 Florida Gators hoped to repeat the feat at Sanford Stadium against a struggling Georgia Bulldogs team led by soon-to-be-fired coach Ray Goff. Gators starting quarterback Danny Wuerffel threw for 242 yards and five touchdowns before leaving the game in the third quarter. With the Gators leading 38–17 in the fourth quarter, Gators backup quarterback Eric Kresser threw for two more touchdowns, one with 1:21 remaining, to make the final score 52–17. After the game, Gators coach Steve Spurrier stated that he had wanted to be the first opponent to hang "half a hundred" on the Bulldogs in their own stadium because "we heard no one had ever done that before." The Gators' fifty-two points remains the record for most scored against Georgia "between the hedges" that surround the Bulldog's home field. 2002: Gators upset No. 4 Bulldogs The 2002 Bulldogs brought a perfect 8–0 record and No. 4 ranking to the annual grudge match in Jacksonville. Under new head coach Ron Zook, the Gators limped into the game with a 5–3 record and were unranked for the first time in over a decade. In a reversal of many Florida-Georgia games over the years, it was the underdog Gators who would ruin the Bulldogs' season. Trailing 7–6, the Gators took the lead with a key play on defense. Upon entering the contest in the second quarter, Bulldogs quarterback DJ Shockley was intercepted by Gators safety Guss Scott, who returned it for a touchdown, giving his team a 12–7 lead after a failed two-point conversion attempt. The Bulldogs moved the ball but could not punch it into the endzone, settling for two field goals to take a halftime 13–12 lead. The defenses continued to dominate in the second half, until an early fourth-quarter Gator drive ended with a touchdown pass from quarterback Rex Grossman and gave Florida a 20–13 advantage. The Georgia offense failed to score again and failed to convert a third-down in thirteen attempts as Florida held on for the upset. This turned out to be Georgia's only loss of the season. They went 13–1 and won the SEC Championship and Sugar Bowl. 2007 – 2008: The "Gator Stomp" and the "Gator Stop" 2007 The 2007 game is remembered for the "Gator Stomp", a first-quarter mass celebration of the entire Georgia team in the Gators' endzone after Georgia running back Knowshon Moreno scored the game's first touchdown early in the contest. Georgia coach Mark Richt later acknowledged that he had encouraged his players to draw an excessive celebration penalty after their first touchdown, but intended that only the eleven players on the field celebrate, not the entire team. Georgia received two unsportsmanlike conduct penalties for the celebration, moving the ensuing kickoff to their own 8-yard line, and Florida scored a touchdown on their next possession to tie the game at seven. Still, the early celebration seemed to fire up the underdog Bulldogs. Moreno ran for 188 yards and Georgia's defense sacked Gators quarterback Tim Tebow six times, holding him to the lowest rushing total (−15 net yards) of his Heisman Trophy-winning season in the Bulldogs' 42–30 victory. The high-scoring game was the first in series history in which both teams scored thirty or more points. 2008 As the 2008 game approached, both coaches repeatedly stated that the previous year's incident would have no bearing on the contest. Florida coach Urban Meyer went so far as to issue a gag order to his players, instructing them not to talk about the 2007 game with the media. However, in his authorized biography published soon after the 2007 season, Meyer wrote: "That wasn't right. It was a bad deal. . . . We'll handle it, and it's going to be a big deal." The Bulldogs and Gators were both ranked in the top 10, and the winner would have the inside track in the SEC Eastern Division race and a possible shot at a national title. Some commentators went so far as to call it the biggest match-up in the series history, or at least the previous 20 years. Both offenses moved the ball with some effectiveness in the first half, but while the Gators scored two touchdowns, the Bulldogs were held to three field goal attempts and missed two of them. Georgia coach Mark Richt also called an unsuccessful onside kick after his team's made field goal, further blunting their momentum, and Florida held a 14–3 halftime lead. The Bulldogs turned the ball over four times in the second half and the Gators took advantage, pulling away for a 49–10 win in what was the Bulldogs' second worst loss in series history. In an apparent response to the Bulldogs' endzone celebration of the previous year, Meyer used both of his remaining timeouts with less than a minute to play, giving his team and fans more time to celebrate the sure victory. After the game, he broke his pre-game silence on the 2007 celebration. "Was it motivation for our players? Yeah, it was." Florida went on to win the SEC Championship Game and the BCS National Championship that season. 2012: Bulldogs upset No. 2 Gators The rivals came into their 2012 matchup with only one loss between them - Florida had a 7–0 record and a No. 2 ranking in the AP poll while Georgia was 6–1 and ranked No. 12 - once again making the game in Jacksonville a pivotal one for the teams' conference and national championship prospects, as South Carolina, the only other SEC East contender, already had 2 conference losses to LSU and Florida and was thus eliminated from SEC East contention. Both teams featured strong defenses and ball control offenses, so it was not a surprise that the contest was a low scoring one. Georgia running back Todd Gurley scored to cap the Bulldog's first possession and give his team an early 7–0 lead, but that would be the only touchdown for much of the game. With the defenses dominating and the offenses committing nine total turnovers between them, the rivals could only muster field goals for the next 40 minutes of game time, and Florida kicker Caleb Sturgis booted his third of the contest to cut Georgia's lead to 10–9 early in the 4th quarter. Georgia's offense finally broke through with a 45-yard touchdown pass from Aaron Murray to Malcolm Mitchell, putting them up 17–9 midway through the final period. Florida's offense also found a rhythm with the game on the line, and quarterback Jeff Driskel led the Gators on a potential tying drive deep into Georgia territory. With just over two minutes remaining, he threw a strike over the middle to tight end Jordan Reed, who appeared to be headed for a touchdown before Bulldog outside line-backer Jarvis Jones punched the ball out of his hands. Georgia recovered in the back of the endzone for a touchback, and Florida's sixth turnover of the game allowed Georgia to hold on for the win. The teams finished the regular season tied for first in the SEC East with identical 7–1 records in conference play, but by virtue of their head-to-head victory over the Gators, the Bulldogs advanced to the SEC Championship game, where they lost to eventual BCS national champion Alabama. Game results A The University of Georgia athletic association includes the 1904 game in the series win–loss record; the University of Florida's athletic association does not. Please see the Series history section above for further explanation. See also List of NCAA college football rivalry games References Bibliography 2009 Southern Conference Football Media Guide, Year-by-Year Standings, Southern Conference, Spartanburg, South Carolina, pp. 74–77 (2009). 2010 Southeastern Conference Football Media Guide, Southeastern Conference, Birmingham, Alabama, p. 60 (2010). 2011 Florida Gators Football Media Guide, University Athletic Association, Gainesville, Florida, pp. 116–125 (2011). 2011 Georgia Football Media Guide, University of Georgia Athletic Department, Athens, Georgia, pp. 157–168 (2011). Burns, Robbie, Belue to Scott!: The greatest moment in Georgia football history, H&H Publishing Company, Macon, Georgia (2010). . Carlson, Norm, University of Florida Football Vault: The History of the Florida Gators, Whitman Publishing, LLC, Atlanta, Georgia (2007). . Golenbock, Peter, Go Gators! An Oral History of Florida's Pursuit of Gridiron Glory, Legends Publishing, LLC, St. Petersburg, Florida (2002). . Hairston, Jack, Tales from the Gator Swamp: A Collection of the Greatest Gator Stories Ever Told, Sports Publishing, LLC, Champaign, Illinois (2002). . McCarthy, Kevin M., Fightin' Gators: A History of University of Florida Football, Arcadia Publishing, Mount Pleasant, South Carolina (2000). . McEwen, Tom, The Gators: A Story of Florida Football, The Strode Publishers, Huntsville, Alabama (1974). . Nash, Noel, ed., The Gainesville Sun Presents The Greatest Moments in Florida Gators Football, Sports Publishing, Inc., Champaign, Illinois (1998). . Rappoport, Ken, & Barry Wilner, Football Feuds: The Greatest College Football Rivalries, The Globe Pequot Press, Guilford, Connecticut (2007). Saylor, Roger, "Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association", College Football Historical Society, The LA84 Foundation (1993). Smith, Loran, University of Georgia Football Vault: The Story of the Georgia Bulldogs, 1892–2007, Whitman Publishing, LLC, Atlanta, Georgia (2007). . College football rivalries in the United States Florida Gators football Georgia Bulldogs football Sports competitions in Jacksonville, Florida American football in Jacksonville, Florida
401663	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collier%27s	Collier's	Collier's was an American general interest magazine founded in 1888 by Peter Fenelon Collier. It was launched as Collier's Once a Week, then renamed in 1895 as Collier's Weekly: An Illustrated Journal, shortened in 1905 to Collier's: The National Weekly and eventually to simply Collier's. The magazine ceased publication with the issue dated the week ending January 4, 1957, although a brief, failed attempt was made to revive the Collier's name with a new magazine in 2012. As a result of Peter Collier's pioneering investigative journalism, Collier's established a reputation as a proponent of social reform. After lawsuits by several companies against Collier's ended in failure, other magazines joined in what Theodore Roosevelt described as "muckraking journalism." Sponsored by Nathan S. Collier, a descendant of Peter Collier, the Collier Prize for State Government Accountability was created in 2019. The annual US$25,000 prize is one of the largest American journalism prizes, and it was established to honor Peter Collier’s legacy and contributions in the field of investigative reporting. History 19th century Peter F. Collier (1849–1909) left Ireland for the U.S. at age 17. Although he went to a seminary to become a priest, he instead started work as a salesman for P. J. Kenedy, publisher of books for the Roman Catholic market. When Collier wanted to boost sales by offering books on a subscription plan, it led to a disagreement with Kenedy, so Collier left to start his own subscription service. P. F. Collier & Son began in 1875, expanding into the largest subscription house in America with sales of 30 million books during the 1900–1910 decade. With the issue dated April 28, 1888, Collier's Once a Week was launched as a magazine of "fiction, fact, sensation, wit, humor, news". It was sold with the biweekly Collier's Library of novels and popular books at bargain rates and as a stand-alone priced at seven cents. By 1892, with a circulation climbing past the 250,000 mark, Collier's Once a Week was one of the best selling magazines in the United States. The name was changed to Collier's Weekly: An Illustrated Journal in 1895 or the longer title Collier's Weekly: An Illustrated Journal of Art, Literature & Current Events. With an emphasis on news, the magazine became a leading exponent of the halftone news picture. To fully exploit the new technology, Collier recruited James H. Hare, one of the pioneers of photojournalism. Collier's only son, Robert J. Collier, became a full partner in 1898. 20th century By 1904, the magazine was known as Collier's: The National Weekly. Peter Collier died in 1909. When Robert Collier died in 1918, he left a will that turned the magazine over to three of his friends, Samuel Dunn, Harry Payne Whitney and Francis Patrick Garvan. Robert J. Collier won a lawsuit against Postum Cereal Company and was awarded $50,000 in damages, but in 1912 an appeals court then handed down a majority decision that Postum deserved a new trial. The Postum Company believed that Collier's weekly used magazine coverage to attack their company's products in retaliation for not advertising in Collier's after Collier's wrote against a Grape-Nuts's claim that it was an "A Food for Brain and Nerves." Postum then bought advertising pages in major newspapers in retaliation. The magazine was sold in 1919 to the Crowell Publishing Company, which in 1939 was renamed as Crowell-Collier Publishing Company. In 1924, Crowell moved the printing operations from New York City to Springfield, Ohio, but kept the editorial and business departments in New York City. Reasons given for moving print operations included conditions imposed by unions in the printing trade, expansion of the Gansevoort Market into the property occupied by the Collier plant, and "excessive postage involved in mailing from a seaboard city under wartime postal rates. After 1924, printing of the magazine was done at the Crowell-Collier printing plant on West High Street in Springfield, Ohio. The factory complex, much of which is no longer standing (finally razed in 2020), was built between 1899 and 1946, and incorporated seven buildings that together had more than ——of floor space. Fiction Collier's popularized the short-short story which was often planned to fit on a single page. Knox Burger was Collier's fiction editor from 1948 to 1951 when he left to edit books for Dell and Fawcett Publications; he was replaced by Eleanor Stierhem Rawson. The numerous authors who contributed fiction to Collier's included F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ray Bradbury, Eleanor Hoyt Brainerd, Willa Cather, Roald Dahl, Jack Finney, Erle Stanley Gardner, Zane Grey, Ring Lardner, Sinclair Lewis, E. Phillips Oppenheim, J. D. Salinger, Kurt Vonnegut, Louis L'Amour, Albert Payson Terhune and Walter Tevis. Humor writers included Parke Cummings and H. Allen Smith. Serializing novels during the late 1920s, Collier's sometimes simultaneously ran two ten-part novels, and non-fiction was also serialized. Between 1913 and 1949, Sax Rohmer's Fu Manchu serials, illustrated by Joseph Clement Coll and others, were hugely popular. The first three Fu Manchu novels by Rohmer were actually compilations of 29 short stories that Rohmer wrote for Collier’s. The Mask of Fu Manchu, which was adapted into a 1932 film and a 1951 Wally Wood comic book, was first published as a 12-part Collier's serial, running from May 7 to July 23, 1932. The May 7 issue displayed a memorable cover illustration by famed maskmaker Władysław T. Benda, and his mask design for that cover was repeated by many other illustrators in subsequent adaptations and reprints. A 1951 condensed version of the book Day of the Triffids by John Wyndham also appeared. Illustrators Leading illustrators contributed to the covers of Collier's. They included C. C. Beall, W.T. Benda, Chesley Bonestell, Charles R. Chickering, Howard Chandler Christy, Arthur Crouch, Harrison Fisher, James Montgomery Flagg, Alan Foster, Charles Dana Gibson, Vernon Grant, Emil Hering, Earl Oliver Hurst, Alonzo Myron Kimball, Percy Leason, Frank X. Leyendecker, J. C. Leyendecker, Paul Martin, John Alan Maxwell, Ronald McLeod, John Cullen Murphy, Maxfield Parrish, Edward Penfield, Robert O. Reed, Frederic Remington, Anthony Saris, John Sloan, Jessie Willcox Smith, Frederic Dorr Steele, Emmett Watson, Jon Whitcomb and Lawson Wood. Other top illustrators contributed prolifically to their short stories. They included Harold Mathews Brett, Richard V. Culter, Robert Fawcett, Denver Gillen and Quentin Reynolds. In 1903, Gibson signed a $100,000 contract, agreeing to deliver 100 pictures (at $1000 each) during the next four years. From 1904 to 1910, Parrish was under exclusive contract to Collier's, which published his famed Arabian Nights paintings in 1906-07. Investigative journalism When Norman Hapgood became editor of Collier's in 1903, he attracted many leading writers. In May 1906, he commissioned Jack London to cover the San Francisco earthquake, a report accompanied by 16 pages of pictures. Under Hapgood's guidance, Collier's began publishing the work of investigative journalists such as Samuel Hopkins Adams, Ray Stannard Baker, C.P. Connolly and Ida Tarbell. Hapgood's approach had great impact, resulting in such changes as the reform of the child labor laws, slum clearance and women's suffrage. In April 1905, an article by Upton Sinclair, "Is Chicago Meat Clean?", persuaded the Senate to pass the 1906 Meat Inspection Act. Starting October 7, 1905, Adams startled readers with "The Great American Fraud", an 11-part Collier's series. Analyzing the contents of popular patent medicines, Adams pointed out that the companies producing these medicines were making false claims about their products and some were health hazards. Hapgood launched the series with the following editorial: "The Great American Fraud" had a powerful impact and led to the first Pure Food and Drug Act (1906). The entire series was reprinted by the American Medical Association in a book, The Great American Fraud, which sold 500,000 copies at 50 cents each. Hapgood had a huge influence on public opinion, and between 1909 and 1912, he succeeded in doubling the circulation of Collier's from a half million to a million. When he moved on to Harper's Weekly in 1912, he was replaced as editor for the next couple years by Robert J. Collier, the son of the founder. Arthur H. Vandenberg, later to become a prominent Senator, had a brief stint as a Collier's editor during the 1900s. H. C. Witwer was a war correspondent in France during World War I. Rob Wagner covered the film industry for Collier's during the 1920s. They reversed their position on prohibition in 1925. This was due to the difficulty in enforcing the referendum, and people's unwillingness to stay away from alcohol. The new law brought about bribing, thieving, corruption and other ills, which far exceeded their expectations. This new alignment gained favor with the public and helped to rebuild circulation. Writers such as Martha Gellhorn and Ernest Hemingway, who reported on the Spanish Civil War, helped boost the circulation. Winston Churchill, who wrote an account of the First World War, was a regular contributor during the 1930s, but his series of articles ended in 1939 when he became a minister in the British government. Carl Fick was a Collier's staff writer prior to World War II. Cartoonists The magazine's roster of top cartoonists included Charles Addams, Carl Anderson, Stan and Jan Berenstain, Sam Berman, Sam Cobean, Jack Cole, A. B. Frost, Ralph Fuller, Dave Gerard, Vernon Grant, Jay Irving, Crockett Johnson, E. W. Kemble, Hank Ketcham, George Lichty, David Low, Bill Mauldin, Virgil Partch, Mischa Richter, William Steig, Charles Henry "Bill" Sykes, Richard Taylor, Gluyas Williams, Gahan Wilson and Rowland B. Wilson. Irving's association with Collier's began in 1932, and his "Collier's Cops" became a mainstay of the magazine during his 13-year association with it. Kate Osann's Tizzy cartoons first appeared in Collier's. The redheaded Tizzy was a teenage American girl who wore horn-rimmed glasses with triangular lenses. Tizzy was syndicated by NEA after Collier's folded. The cartoons were in color in Collier's but black-and-white in syndication and paperback reprints. After World War II, Harry Devlin became the top editorial cartoonist at Collier's, one of the few publications then displaying editorial cartoons in full color. During the 1940s, Gurney Williams was the cartoon editor for Collier's, American Magazine and Woman's Home Companion, paying $40 to $150 for each cartoon. From a staggering stack of some 2000 submissions each week, Williams made a weekly selection of 30 to 50 cartoons, lamenting: Joseph Barbera, before he found fame in animation, had several cartoons published in Collier's in the late 1920s and early 1930s. Radio The circulation battle with The Saturday Evening Post led to the creation of The Collier Hour, broadcast 1927–32 on the NBC Blue Network. It was radio's first major dramatic anthology series, adapting stories and serials from Collier's. The hour-long program initially aired on the Wednesday before weekly publication, but switched to Sundays to avoid spoilers with stories that appeared simultaneously in the magazine. In 1929 the program began to incorporate music, news, sports and comedy with the dramatic content of the show. Later years At the outbreak of World War II in 1941 with William L. Chenery as editor, Collier's readership reached 2.5 million. In the October 14, 1944, issue, the magazine published one of the first articles about concentration camps. It was Jan Karski's "Polish Death Camp," a harrowing account of his visit to Belzec. The now problematic title is explored in "Polish death camp controversy", under the heading "Use and Reactions". Karski's book Story of a Secret State, which included the Collier's excerpt, was published later that year by Houghton Mifflin. It became a Book of the Month Club selection, and bestseller with 400,000 copies sold in 1944-45. The Collier's selection was reprinted in Robert H. Abzug's America Views the Holocaust: 1933-1945 (Palgrave, 1999). Collier's had a circulation of 2,846,052 when Walter Davenport took over as editor in 1946, but the magazine began to lose readers during the post-World War II years. Collier's published a regular men's fashion feature contributed by Esquire co-founder Henry L. Jackson and also published long-awaited images from the 200-inch (5.08 m) Hale telescope's first light in 1949. In the early 1950s, Collier's ran a groundbreaking series of science-based articles speculating on space flight, Man Will Conquer Space Soon!, which prompted the general public to seriously consider the possibility of a trip to the moon, with the percentage of Americans who believed a crewed lunar trip could happen within 50 years changing from 15% to 38% by 1955. In 1951, an entire issue described the events and outcome of a hypothetical war between the United States and the Soviet Union, entitled Preview of the War We Do Not Want. Collier's changed from a weekly to a biweekly in August 1953, but it continued to lose money. In 1954, John O'Hara became a columnist with his "Appointment with O'Hara" column. The magazine ceased publication with the issue for the week ending January 4, 1957. Princess Grace of Monaco was featured on the cover, pregnant with her first child Caroline. Books The company also published the Collier's Encyclopedia, Collier Books and the Collier's Year Book. Patricia Fulford edited Over 100 Best Cartoons from Collier's, Ladies Home Journal, Redbook, The American Magazine, Saturday Evening Post, The New Yorker, Argosy, Sport (Checkerbooks, 1949), and Collier's cartoon editor Gurney Williams edited Collier's Kids: Cartoons from Collier's About Your Children, Holt, 1952. Collier's fiction editor Knox Burger chose 19 stories for Collier's Best (Harper & Bros., 1951), and he also selected Best Stories from Collier's (William Kimber, 1952). A huge history and collection appeared with the publication of the 558-page A Cavalcade of Collier's, edited by Kenneth McArdle (Barnes, 1959). Cornelius Ryan's 1957 book One Minute to Ditch!, about the successful ocean ditching of a Pan American Boeing 377 Stratocruiser, was an expansion of his Collier's article on December 21, 1956. Ryan was an associate editor of the magazine during the mid-1950s, and the novelist Lonnie Coleman was an editorial associate during that same period. Titles Collier's Once a Week (1888-1889) Once a Week, an Illustrated Weekly Newspaper (1889-1895) Collier's Weekly, an Illustrated Journal (1895-1904) Collier's, The National Weekly (1905-1957) First and last issues First Issue: April 28, 1888 Last Issue: January 4, 1957 Publishing frequency Weekly (1888-1953) Fortnightly (1953-1957) Publishers P.F. Collier, New York (1888-1900) P.F. Collier and Son, New York (1900-1919) P.F. Collier & Son Company, editorial offices, New York; publication offices, Springfield, Ohio (1919-1934) Crowell Publishing Company, editorial offices, New York; publication offices, Springfield, Ohio (1934-1939) Crowell-Collier Publishing Company, editorial offices, New York; publication offices, Springfield, Ohio (1939-1957) Editors Nugent Robinson (1888-1890) Mayo Williamson Hazeltine (1891) Julius Chambers (1892-1893) T.B. Connory (1893-1896) Daniel Lyons (1896-1898) Robert Joseph Collier (1898-1902) Norman Hapgood (1902-1913) Mark Sullivan (1913-1917) Finley Peter Dunne (1917-1919) Harford Powel Jr. (1919-1922) Richard J. Walsh (1922-1924) Loren Palmer (1924-1925) William L. Chenery (1925-1943) Charles Colebaugh (1943-1944) Henry La Cossitt (1944-1946) Walter Davenport (1946-1949) Louis Ruppel (1949-1952) Roger Dakin (1952-1955) Kenneth McArdle (1955-1957) Paul Clifford Smith, editor-in-chief, (1954-1957) See also "Mnemonics" by Kurt Vonnegut "The Mother Hive" by Rudyard Kipling "The Package" by Kurt Vonnegut "Poison" by Roald Dahl "Thanasphere" by Kurt Vonnegut "There Will Come Soft Rains" by Ray Bradbury References Sources , Book External links Collier's: The National Weekly collection at the Internet Archive Finding Aid, Crowell-Collier Publishing Company Records, 1931-1955 (PDF). The New York Public Library Humanities and Social Sciences Library Manuscripts and Archives Division. Collier's cartoons Collier's cover illustrators First Collier's cartoon sale by Jack Cole Online archive of Collier's covers Catalogue of the Collier collection, an important collection of original drawings and paintings by distinguished American painters and illustrators, works especially executed for and exclusively reproduced in Collier's weekly, P. F. Collier & Son, 1905 1888 establishments in Ohio 1957 disestablishments in New York (state) Defunct literary magazines published in the United States Defunct political magazines published in the United States Magazines established in 1888 Magazines disestablished in 1957 Magazines published in New York City Magazines published in Ohio News magazines published in the United States Progressive Era in the United States Weekly magazines published in the United States
401704	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defective%20verb	Defective verb	In linguistics, a defective verb is a verb that either lacks a conjugated form or entails incomplete conjugation, and thus cannot be conjugated for certain grammatical tenses, aspects, persons, genders, or moods that the majority of verbs or a "normal" or regular verb in a particular language can be conjugated for. That is to say, a defective verb lacks forms that most verbs in a particular language have. English Common defectives The most commonly recognized defective verbs in English are auxiliary verbs—the class of preterite-present verbs—can/could, may/might, shall/should, must, ought, and will/would (would being a later historical development). Though these verbs were not originally defective, in most varieties of English today, they occur only in a modal auxiliary sense. However, unlike normal auxiliary verbs, they are not regularly conjugated in the infinitive mood. Therefore, these defective auxiliaries do not accept each other as objects. Additionally, they do not regularly appear as participles. For example, can lacks an infinitive, future tense, participle, imperative, and gerund. The missing parts of speech are instead supplied by using the appropriate forms of to be plus able to. So, while I could write and I was able to write have the same meaning, I could has two meanings depending on use, which are I was able to or I would be able to. One cannot say I will can, which is instead expressed as I will be able to. Similarly, must has no true past tense form, this instead being supplied by had (the past tense of have), and "to have to" in the infinitive, an example of composite conjugation. The past tense expressing the obligatory aspect of must is expressed as "had to", as in He had to go. "Must have", on the other hand, expresses probability or likelihood in modern English, e.g., "If that's thunder, there must have been lightning." Some verbs are becoming more defective as time goes on; for example, although might is etymologically the past tense (preterite) of may, it is no longer generally used as such (e.g., he might not go to mean "he was forbidden to go"). Similarly, should is no longer used as the past of shall, but with a separate meaning indicating possibility or moral obligation. (However, the use of the preterite form should as a subjunctive form continues, as in If I should go there tomorrow, ..., which contrasts with the indicative form I shall go there tomorrow.) The defective verb ought was etymologically the past tense of owe (the affection he ought his children), but it has since split off, leaving owe as a non-defective verb with its original sense and a regular past tense (owed). Beyond the modal auxiliaries, beware is a fully defective verb in current Modern English: its only, unmarked form is regularly used (in simple aspect, active voice) in the infinitive (I must beware of the dog), imperative (Beware of the dog, [Let the] buyer beware) and subjunctive (She insists that he beware of the dog), but too much of the finite indicative mood is formally lacking (all simple past bewared, one simple present bewares, all aspects am bewaring, etc.). The word begone is similar: any usage other than as an imperative is highly marked. Another defective verb is the archaic quoth, a past tense which is the only surviving form of the verb quethe, "to say" (related to bequeath). Impersonal verbs Impersonal verbs such as to rain and to snow share some characteristics with the defective verbs in that forms such as I rain or they snow are not often found; however, the crucial distinction is that impersonal verbs are "missing" certain forms for semantic reasons—in other words, the forms themselves exist and the verb is capable of being fully conjugated with all its forms (and is therefore not defective) but some forms are unlikely to be found because they appear meaningless or nonsensical. Nevertheless, native speakers can typically use and understand metaphorical or even literal sentences where the "meaningless" forms exist, such as I rained on his parade. Contrast the impersonal verb rain (all the forms of which exist, even if they sometimes look semantically odd) with the defective verb can (only I can and I could are possible). In most cases, a synonym for the defective verb must be used instead (i.e. "to be able to"). (The forms with an asterisk () are impossible, at least with respect to the relevant sense of the verb; these phonemes may by coincidence be attested with respect to a homograph [as with "canning" = "the act of preserving and packaging in cans"].) Arabic In Arabic, defective verbs are called (lit., solid verbs). These verbs do not change tense, nor do they form related nouns. A famous example is the verb ليس laysa, which translates as it is not, though it is not the only auxiliary verb that exhibits this property. Some Arabic grammarians argue that دام "daama" (as an auxiliary verb) is also completely defective; those who dispute this claim still consider it partially defective. Some other partially defective verbs are "fati'a" and zaala, which have neither an imperative form nor an infinitive form when used as auxiliary verbs. Catalan In Catalan, defective verbs are usually defective for semantic reasons. Due to their impersonal nature, haver-hi and caldre are only used in the third person. The implicit repetition intrinsic to the meaning of soler results in it only having forms in the present and imperfect tenses. Verbs pertaining to meteorological phenomena, such as ploure, can only be conjugated in the third person singular, although a third person plural form is also possible when used with a metaphorical sense. Additionally, lleure is used only in the third person, while dar lacks present tense forms, with the exceptions of the first person plural and second person plural. Defective verbs in Catalan can generally also be used in the impersonal forms of the infinitive, gerund, and past participle. Finnish At least one Finnish verb lacks the first infinitive (dictionary/lemma) form. In Finnish, "kutian helposti" ("I'm sensitive to tickling") can be said, but for the verb "kutian" (here conjugated in singular first person, present tense) there is no non-conjugated form. Hypothetically, the first infinitive could be "kudita", but this form is not actually used. Additionally, the negative verb (ei, et, en, emme...) has neither an infinitive form nor a 1st person singular imperative form. French There are several defective verbs in French. ("to be necessary"; only the third-person forms with il exist; the present indicative conjugation, il faut, is very commonly used, impersonal verb) ("to bray"; only infinitive, present participle, and third-person forms exist) ("to fry"; lacks non-compound past forms; speakers paraphrase with equivalent forms of faire frire) ("to conclude"; lacks an imperfect conjugation, as well as first and second person plural present indicative conjugations) ("to lie horizontally", often used in inscriptions on gravestones; can only be conjugated in the present, imperfect, present imperative, present participle and extremely rarely, the simple future forms) Impersonal verbs, such as weather verbs, function as they do in English. German In contemporary German, the verb erkiesen, which means "to choose/elect" (usually referring to a person chosen for a special task or honour), is only used in the past participle (erkoren) and, more rarely, the past tense (ich erkor etc.). All other forms, including the infinitive, have long become obsolete and are now unknown and unintelligible to modern speakers. It remains commonplace in the closely related Dutch language as verkiezen, e.g. Verkiezingen in Nederland (Elections in the Netherlands). Classical Greek "No single Greek verb shows all the tenses", and "most verbs have only six of" the nine classes of tense-systems, and "[s]carcely any verb shows all nine systems". The verb χρή (khrē, 'it is necessary'), only exists in the third-person-singular present and imperfect ἐχρῆν / χρῆν (ekhrēn / khrēn, 'it was necessary'). There are also verbs like οἶδα (oida, 'I know'), which use the perfect form for the present and the pluperfect (here ᾔδη ēidē, 'I was knowing') for the imperfect. Additionally, the verb εἰμί (eimi, 'I am') only has a present, a future and an imperfect – it lacks an aorist, a perfect, a pluperfect and a future perfect. Hindustani In Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu) all the verbs except the verb hona (to be) lack the following conjugations. Indicative Mood Present Imperfect Presumptive Mood Subjunctive Mood Present The comparison between the conjugations of hona (to be) and the conjugations of all other verbs are shown in the table below: Some verbs in Hindustani which have monosyllabic verb roots ending in the vowels /i/, /ī/ or /e/ are defective because they have the second person intimate and formal future imperative conjugations which are uncommon to native speakers of Hindustani and are almost rarely used. The * mark before some intimate imperative forms below shows those rarely used forms. Hungarian Some Hungarian verbs have either no subjunctive forms or forms which sound uncommon to native speakers, e.g. csuklik ('hiccup'). See also a short summary about them in the English-language Wiktionary. Irish Arsa ("says") can be used only in the past or present tense. The copula is lacks a future tense, an imperative mood, and a verbal noun. It has no distinct conditional tense forms either, but conditional expressions are possible, expressed using past tense forms; for example Ba mhaith liom é, which can mean both "I liked it" and "I would like it". The imperative mood is sometimes suppletively created by using the imperative forms of the substantive verb bí. Future tense forms, however, are impossible and can only be expressed periphrastically. There is also dar ("[it] appears"), a temporally independent verb that always appears in combination with the preposition le. Korean Korean has several defective verbs. 말다 (malda, "to stop or desist") may only be used in the imperative form or in the hortative form, after an 'action verb + 지 (ji)' construction. Within this scope it can still conjugate for different levels of politeness, such as "하지 마!" (Haji ma!, "Stop that!") in contrast with "하지 마십시오" (Haji masipsiyo, "Please, don't do that"). Also, 데리다 (derida, "to bring/pick up someone") is only used as 데리고 (derigo, "bringing X and..."), 데리러 (derireo, "in order to pick up"), or 데려 (deryeo, infinitive) in some compound forms. Latin Latin has defective verbs that possess forms only in the perfect tense; such verbs have no present tense forms whatsoever. These verbs are still present in meaning. For example, the first-person form odi ("I hate") and infinitive odisse ("to hate") appear to be the perfect of a hypothetical verb odo/odio, but in fact have a present-tense meaning. Similarly, the verb memini, meminisse is conjugated in the perfect, yet has a present meaning: Instead of the past-tense "I remembered", "you remembered", etc., these forms signify the present-tense "I remember", "you remember", etc. Latin defective verbs also possess regularly formed pluperfect forms with simple past tense meanings and future perfect forms with simple future tense meanings. Compare deponent verbs, which are passive in form but active in meaning. The verb coepī, coepisse, which means "to have begun" or "began", is another verb that lacks a present tense system. However, it is not present in meaning. The verb incipiō, incipere ("I begin," "to begin") is used in the present tense instead. This is not a case of suppletion, however, because the verb incipere can also be used in the perfect. The verbs inquit and ait, both meaning "said", cannot be conjugated through all forms. Both verbs lack numerous inflected forms, with entire tenses and voices missing altogether. Malayic Many Malayic languages, including Malay and Indonesian, have many defective verbs. Defective verbs in the related Besemah language (South Barisan Malay), for example, has been explained by McDonnell (2016). He is not directly using the term "defective verb", but instead "verb root productivity". Polish widać ("it is evident") and słychać ("it is audible") are both highly defective in Polish. The only forms of these verbs that exist are the infinitives. They both work as impersonal verbs in a visible or audible situation that does not require another verb (although may have one), and they have no distinction between singular and plural. For example "Widać blask wśród drzew" (A glow is visible among the trees) or "Jego głos słychać w całym domu" (His voice can be heard in the whole house). Portuguese A large number of Portuguese verbs are defective in person, i.e., they lack the proper form for one of the pronouns in some tense. The verb colorir ("to color") has no first-person singular in the present, thus requiring a paraphrase, like estou colorindo ("I am coloring") or the use of another verb of a similar meaning, like pintar ("to paint"). Russian Some Russian verbs are defective, in that they lack a first person singular non-past form: for example, победить ("to win"), убедить ("to convince"), дудеть ("to play the pipe"). These are all verbs whose stem ends in a palatalized alveolar consonant; they are not a closed class, but include in their number neologisms and loanwords such as френдить ("to friend", as on a social network). Where such a verb form would be required, speakers typically substitute a synonymous verb ("Я выиграю"), or use a periphrastic construction involving nominalization and an additional verb ("Я одержу победу"). Also the word "смогу (I'll be able to, I'll manage to)" is used: "(Я) смогу победить", "(я) смогу убедить"). Many experiential verbs describe processes that humans cannot generally undergo, such as пригореть ("to be burnt", regarding food), куститься ("to grow in clusters"), and протекать ("to seep")—are ordinarily nonsensical in the first or second person. As these forms rarely appear, they are often described as "defective" in descriptions of Russian grammar. However, this is a semantic constraint rather than a syntactic one; compare the classic nonsensical-but-grammatical sentence Colorless green ideas sleep furiously, or more directly, the English phrase I am raining. First and second person forms of these verbs do see use in metaphor and poetry. Spanish Spanish defective verbs generally use forms with stem endings that begin with -i. The verbs are not commonly used. se se (found in forms ending in -i, but mostly replaced by ) despavorir (usually replaced by garantizar, which is regular) (always used as helping verb, so many forms, although possible, won't make sense) (to acquire property rights through customary use; only in the infinitive in legal texts) The following two verbs used to be defective verbs but are now normally conjugated. (the Nueva gramática de la lengua española from the Real Academia (section 4.14d) now conjugates it normally, using abolo / aboles, etc.) Swedish The auxiliary verb måste "must" lacks an infinitive, except in Swedish dialects spoken in Finland. Also, the verb is unique in that the form måste serves as both a present ("must") and past ("had to") form. The supine måst is rare. Turkish While the Turkish copula is not considered a verb in modern Turkish, it originated as the defective verb imek — which is now written and pronounced as a suffix of the predicate. İmek and the suffixes derived from it exist in only a few tenses; it is replaced by negative değil in the tenses originally supplied by imek, and remaining forms by olmak (to become) otherwise. The verb can be conjugated only in tenses past idi, inferential perfective imiş, conditional ise, and (non-finite) personal past participle idük (usable with possessive suffixes, notice the form was irregular). Ukrainian Ukrainian Verbs ending in -вісти (розповісти -to tell, perfective and відповісти -to answer, perfective) lack imperative mood forms; imperfective verbs are used instead (for example, відповідай). Welsh Welsh has several defective verbs, a number of which are archaic or literary. Some of the more common ones in everyday use include ("I should/ought"), found only in the imperfect and pluperfect tenses, ("I say"), found only in the present and imperfect, and geni ("to be born"), which only has a verb-noun and impersonal forms, e.g. Ganwyd hi (She was born, literally "one bore her"). Common defective verbs in the spoken language are (pronounced, and often spelt, as or ) and which mean 'to want' and 'to need' respectively; both are in fact nouns but are used in speech as if they were verb-nouns though they do not take the preceding , compare 'I sing' vs. 'I want'. The literary language would use these as nouns and not as defective verbs, i.e. 'I want', literally 'there is a want on me'. See also Unpaired word – another form of lexical gap References Further reading Verb types pt:Verbo#Quanto à morfologia
401729	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Tamil%20people	List of Tamil people	This is a list of notable Tamils. Ancient Kings and Rulers Tamil dynasties Chola dynasty Pandya dynasty Chera dynasty Pallava dynasty Ay dynasty Velir dynasty Aryacakravarti dynasty Vanni dynasty Rajahnate of Cebu Other royal families Rulers of Ramnad Ramanatha Sethupathi (?–1979), last Raja of Ramnad estate Rajeswari Nachiyar, only daughter of last Raja Ramanatha Sethupathi, present titular ruler of Ramnad estate Rajkumar Sethupathi, actor, brother of last Raja Ramanatha Sethupathi and Latha, married leading actress in the 1980s Sripriya Latha, actress, sister of last Raja Ramanatha Sethupathi and actor Rajkumar Sethupathi Rulers of Pudukkottai Rajagopala Thondaiman (1922–1997), last ruler of the princely state of Pudukkottai R. Rajagopala Thondaiman (1958–?), present head of the royal house of Pudukkottai, son of Radhakrishna Thondaiman, nephew of last ruler Rajagopala Thondaiman Charubala Thondaiman (1958–), wife of R. Rajagopala Thondaiman, member of the INC, former mayor of Tiruchirappalli (2001–2009) Governor-Generals, Presidents and Vice Presidents C. Rajagopalachari (1878–1972), Governor-General of the Union of India (1948–1950) R. Venkataraman (1910–2009), President of the Republic of India (1987–1992) and Vice President the Republic of India (1984–1987) Veerasamy Ringadoo (1920–2000), Governor-General of the Union of Mauritius (1986–1992) Veerasamy Ringadoo (1920–2000), President of the Republic of Mauritius (1992–1992) A. P. J. Abdul Kalam (1931–2015), President of the Republic of India (2002–2007) S. R. Nathan (1924–2016), President of the Republic of Singapore (1999–2011) Angidi Veeriah Chettiar (1928–2010), Acting President of the Republic of Mauritius (2002–2002) Ariranga Govindasamy Pillay (1945–), Acting President of the Republic of Mauritius (2002–2002) Kamala Harris (1964–), Vice President of the United States of America (2021–present) Tharman Shanmugaratnam (1957–), President of the Republic of Singapore (2023–present) Prime Ministers Moses Nagamootoo (1947–), Prime Minister of the Co-operative Republic of Guyana (2015–2020) Multinational positions Radhika Coomaraswamy (1953–), Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations, Special Representative for Children and Armed Conflict Roy Padayachie (1950–2012), Minister of Public Service and Administration of the Republic of South Africa; also served in the economics desk of the ANC in KwaZulu-Natal and as deputy head of local government portfolio; consultant to UNICEF, UNESCO and the World Bank Sundar Pichai, CEO of Google Indra Nooyi, Indian-American business executive and former chairman and chief executive officer (CEO) of PepsiCo Raghuram Rajan, former IMF Chief Economist Independence movement Indian independence movement Nagappan Padayatchi (1891 – 6 July 1909) Maveeran Alagumuthu Kone (1710–1757) Puli Thevar (1715–1767) Marudhanayagam pillai (1725–1764) Rani Velu Nachiar (1730–1796) Rettamalai Srinivasan (1860–1945) Dheeran Chinnamalai Subramanya Bharathi (1882–1921), poet and social reformer V. Kalyanasundaram (1883–1953), scholar Subramaniya Siva (1884–1925), writer Dawood Shah (1885–1969), scholar Muhammad Ismail Rowther (1896–1972) Jeevanandham (1907–1963) Champakaraman Pillai (1891–1934) Tiruppur Kumaran (1904–1932) K. Kamaraj (1903–1975) Veeran Sundaralingam (1770–1799) Pasumpon Muthuramalinga Thevar V. O. Chidambaram pillai (1872-1936) Independence movements in other countries Velupillai Prabhakaran (1954–2009), founder and leader of Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, fighting for independent Tamil state called Tamil Eelam in North-East Sri Lanka, Tamil Eelam Thillaiaadi Valliammai (1898–1914), South African militant Captain Miller (1966–1987), Tamil rebel and member of the Tamil Tigers, a separatist Tamil militant organisation in Sri Lanka; known as the LTTE's first Black Tiger (suicide bomber). V. T. Sambanthan (1919–1979), one of the three founding fathers of Malaysia Pon Sivakumaran (1950–1974), Eelam Tamil rebel and the first Tamil militant to commit suicide by swallowing cyanide Ponnambalam Ramanathan, leader in the Sri Lankan independence movement Ponnambalam Arunachalam, leader in the Sri Lankan independence movement Cankili I also known as Cekaracacekaran VII, most remembered Jaffna kingdom king in the Eelam Tamil history. He was very active in resisting Portuguese colonial inroads into Eelam. Cankili II, known as the last King of the Jaffna Kingdom Arumaipperumal, Batticaloa chieftain in the 18th century who led a rebellion against the British colonial occupiers in 1803 Pandara Vanniyan (1775–1810), Tamil Chieftain who ruled in Vanni Nadu in 18th century AD. He is referred to by some as the last Tamil king in Sri Lanka, who also rose to revolt against the British Ceylon empire and Dutch Ceylon empire, who died battling the British colonial rule on the island. Periyapillai, known to mount the major attack on the Portuguese fort in the Mannar Island to regain territory lost during Cankili's rule Migapulle Arachchi also known as Chinna Migapillai, feudal lord from the Jaffna Kingdom who became a rebel leader just after its annexation by the Portuguese Empire in 1619. His title Arachchi, is a title given to the commanders of Lascarins or native military forces. Varunakulattan, 17th-century feudal lord and military commander from the Jaffna Kingdom. He led a rebellion as the military commander of Thanjavur Nayak against the Portuguese in their conquest of the Jaffna kingdom in 1619. Although the nominal king was Cankili II, Varunakulattan was described as the king of Karaiyars, and wield the real power in the Jaffna Peninsula. Puviraja Pandaram Kasi Nayinar Pararacacekaran Ethirimana Cinkam Contributions to Tamil people Marshal Nesamony (1895–1968), responsible for Kanyakumari district merger with Tamil Nadu Varadarajan Mudaliar (1926–1988), known as Vardha Bhai; the Tamil movie Nayakan was based on his life story Thamizhavel G. Sarangapani, Singaporean Tamil pioneer Governors of states C. Rajagopalachari (1878–1972), Governor of West Bengal (1947–1948) P. S. Kumaraswamy Raja (1898–1957), Governor of Odisha (1954–1956) Jothi Venkatachalam (1917–unknown), Governor of Kerala (1977–1982) P. Ramachandran (1921–2001), Governor of Kerala (1982–1988) T. V. Rajeswar (1926–2018), Governor of Sikkim (1985–1989), West Bengal (1989–1990) and Uttar Pradesh (2004–2009) C. Rangarajan (1932–), Governor of Andhra Pradesh (1997–2003) Sasindran Muthuvel (1974–), Governor for West New Britain Province (2012–incumbent) E. S. L. Narasimhan (1945–), Governor of Chhattisgarh (2007–2010), Andhra Pradesh (2007–2019) and Telangana (2014–2019) P. Sathasivam (1949–), Governor of Kerala (2014–2019) V. Shanmuganathan (1949–), Governor of Manipur (2015–2016), Meghalaya (2015–2017) and Arunachal Pradesh (Additional charge) (2016–2017) Tamilisai Soundararajan (1961–), Governor of Telangana (2019–Incumbent) La. Ganesan (1945–), Governor of Manipur (2021–2023), West Bengal (Additional charge) (2022) and Nagaland (2023–Incumbent) C. P. Radhakrishnan (1957–), Governor of Jharkhand (2023–Incumbent) Lieutenant Governors of union territories Tamilisai Soundararajan (1961–), Lieutenant Governor of Puducherry (Additional charge) (2021–Incumbent) Chief Ministers C. V. Vigneswaran (1939–), Chief Minister of Northern province of Sri Lanka (2013–2018) S. Chandrakanthan (1975–), Chief Minister of Eastern province of Sri Lanka (2008–2012) P. Subbarayan (1889–1962), Chief Minister of Madras Presidency (1926–1930) P. T. Rajan (1892–1974), Chief Minister of Madras Presidency (1936–1936) C. Rajagopalachari (1878–1972), Chief Minister of Madras Presidency (1947–1949) and Tamil Nadu (1952–1954) P. S. Kumaraswamy Raja (1898–1957), Chief Minister of Madras Presidency (1949–1950) and Tamil Nadu (1950–1952) K. Kamaraj (1903–1975), Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (1954–1963) M. Bhakthavatsalam (1897–1987), Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (1963–1967) V. Venkatasubba Reddiar (1909–1982), Chief Minister of Puducherry (1964–1967; 1968–1968) C. N. Annadurai (1909–1969), Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (1967–1969) V. R. Nedunchezhiyan (1920–2000), Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (1969–1969; 1987–1988) M. G. Ramachandran (1919 - 1989 ), Chief minister of Tamil Nadu (1977 - 1987 ) M. Karunanidhi (1924–2018), Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (1969–1976; 1989–1991; 1996–2001; 2006–2011) S. Ramassamy (1939–2017), Chief Minister of Puducherry (1974–1974; 1977–1978) V. N. Janaki Ramachandran (1924–1996), Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (1988–1988) J. Jayalalithaa (1948–2016), Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (1991–1996; 2001–2001; 2002–2006; 2011–2014; 2015–2016) V. Vaithilingam (1950–), Chief Minister of Puducherry (1991–1996; 2008–2011) P. Shanmugam (1927–2013), Chief Minister of Puducherry (2000–2001) O. Panneerselvam (1951–), Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (2001–2002; 2014–2015; 2016–2017) N. Rangasamy (1950–), Chief Minister of Puducherry (2001–2008; 2011–2016; 2021–Incumbent) V. Narayanasamy (1947–), Chief Minister of Puducherry (2016–2021) Edappadi K. Palaniswami (1954–), Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (2017–2021) M. K. Stalin (1953–), Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (2021–Incumbent) Deputy Chief Ministers M. K. Stalin (1953–), Deputy Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (2009–2011) O. Panneerselvam (1951–), Deputy Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (2017–2021) Union Ministers R. K. Shanmukham Chetty (1892–1953), Minister of Finance (1947–1948) N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar (1882–1953), Minister of Defence (1952–1953) K. Santhanam (1895–1980), Minister of State for Transport and Railways (1948–1952) C. Rajagopalachari (1878–1972), Minister of Home Affairs (1950–1951) P. Subbarayan (1889–1962), Minister of Transport and Communications (1959–1962) C. Subramaniam (1910–2000), Minister of Defence (1979–1980) Mohan Kumaramangalam (1916–1973), Minister of Steel and Mines (1971–1973) Sathiavani Muthu (1923–1999), Minister of Social Welfare (1979–1979) A. Bala Pajanor (1935–2013), Minister of Petroleum, Chemicals and Fertilizers (1979–1979) P. Chidambaram (1945–), Minister of Finance (2012–2014) Murasoli Maran (1934–2003), Minister of Commerce and Industry (1999–2002) Subramanian Swamy (1939–), Minister of Commerce, Law and Justice (1990–1991) M. Arunachalam (1944–2004), Minister of Chemicals and Fertilizers (1997–1998) T. R. Baalu (1941–), Minister of Shipping, Road Transport and Highways (2004–2009) P. R. Kumaramangalam (1952–2000), Minister of Power (1998–2000) R. Muthiah (1945–), Minister of Surface Transport (1998–1998) M. Thambidurai (1947–), Minister of Law, Justice, Company Affairs and Surface Transport (1998–1999) R. K. Kumar (1942–1999), Minister of State for Parliamentary Affairs and Finance (1998–1998) Kadambur M. R. Janarthanan (1929–2020), Minister of State for Personnel, Public Grievances, Pensions and Finance (1998–1999) K. Ramamurthy (1940–2002), Minister of Petroleum and Natural Gas (1998–1999) Gingee N. Ramachandran (1944–), Minister of State for Textiles (2003–2003) A. Raja (1963–), Minister of Communications and Information Technology (2009–2010) Pon Radhakrishnan (1952–), Minister of State for Finance (2017–2019) K. Jana Krishnamurthy (1928–2007), Minister of Law and Justice (2002–2003) A. K. Moorthy (1964–), Minister of State for Railways (2002–2004) M. K. Alagiri (1951–), Minister of Chemicals and Fertilizers (2009–2013) G. K. Vasan (1964–), Minister of Shipping (2009–2014) Anbumani Ramadoss (1968–), Minister of Health and Family Welfare (2004–2009) Mani Shankar Aiyar (1941–), Minister of Panchayati Raj (2004–2009) S. S. Palanimanickam (1950–), Minister of State for Finance (2004–2013) K. Venkatapathy (1947–), Minister of State for Law and Justice (2004–2009) Subbulakshmi Jagadeesan (1947–), Minister of State for Social Justice and Empowerment (2004–2009) R. Velu (1940–), Minister of State for Railways (2004–2009) S. Regupathy (1950–), Minister of State for Environment and Forests (2007–2009) Dayanidhi Maran (1966–), Minister of Textiles (2009–2011) V. Radhika Selvi (1976–), Minister of State for Home Affairs (2007–2009) D. Nepoleon (1963–), Minister of State for Social Justice and Empowerment (2009–2013) S. Jagathrakshakan (1950–), Minister of State for Commerce and Industry (2012–2013) V. Narayanasamy (1947–), Minister of State for Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions (2010–2014) Nirmala Sitharaman (1959–), Minister of Finance and Corporate Affairs (2019–Incumbent) S. Jaishankar (1955–), Minister of External Affairs (2019–Incumbent) L. Murugan (1977–), Minister of State for Fisheries, Animal Husbandry, Dairying, Information and Broadcasting (2021–Incumbent) Political leaders outside of India Moses Veerasammy Nagamootoo (1947–), Prime Minister, Guyana Jeanne Dupleix, (1706-1756), French political advisor Karim Ghani, Southeast Asian politician Abdul Razak (1898-1947), Burmese politician S. Jayakumar (1939–), former Deputy Prime Minister, Singapore Shiva Ayyadurai, American conservative influencer, entrepreneur, and engineer Tharman Shanmugaratnam (1957–), Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Finance, Singapore Vivian Balakrishnan (1961–), Minister of Community Development, Youth and Sports, Singapore S. Rajaratnam (1915–2006), former Deputy Prime Minister, Singapore S. Dhanabalan (1937–), former Minister (various portfolios), Singapore J. B. Jeyaretnam (1926–2008), ex-opposition leader and MP, Singapore Ramasamy Palanisamy (1949–), Deputy Chief Minister of Penang state, Malaysia Tommy Thomas, barrister and former Attorney General of Malaysia K. S. Rajah, Senior Counsel and former Judicial Commissioner of the Supreme Court of Singapore Nagalingam Shanmugathasan (1920–1993), founding General Secretary of the Ceylon Communist Party, Sri Lanka Bala Tampoe (1922–2014), Tamil trade unionist, Sri Lanka Pillayan alias Sivanesathurai Chandrakanthan (1975–), former Chief Minister of Eastern Province, Sri Lanka P. P. Devaraj (1929–), former Cabinet Minister of Sri Lanka Radhakrishnan, Deputy Minister for Industry Affairs of Sri Lanka Visvanathan Rudrakumaran, Prime Minister of the Transnational Government of Tamil Eelam Samy Vellu (1937–2022), former Works Minister and Leader of Malaysian Indian Congress, Malaysia K. R. Somasundram (1930–), politician and member of Malaysian Indian Congress, Malaysia Joshua Benjamin Jeyaretnam (1926–2008), founder of Reform Party of Singapore Radhakrishna Padayachi (1950–2012), Deputy Minister for Communication, Republic of South Africa Rathika Sitsabaiesan (1981–), Member of Parliament, Canada Gunasagaran Gounder, prominent politician and a member of Fiji Labour Party, Fiji Perumal Mupnar, prominent politician and a member of Fiji Labour Party, Fiji S. J. V. Chelvanayakam (1898–1977), leader and father figure of Sri Lankan Tamils Savumiamoorthy Thondaman (1913–1999), leader of Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka and had served the Sri Lankan Cabinet N. Shanmugathasan (1920–1993), prominent Communist politician, Sri Lanka Joseph Pararajasingham (1934–2005), Member of Parliament, Sri Lanka Lakshman Kadirgamar (1932–2005), former Foreign Minister, Sri Lanka Veerasingham Anandasangaree (1933–), Member of Parliament, Sri Lanka Murugesu Sivasithamparam (1923–2002), Member of Parliament, Sri Lanka Rajavarothiam Sampanthan (1933–), Member of Parliament, Sri Lanka Dr. Neelan Tiruchelvam (1944–1999), Member of Parliament, Sri Lanka Appapillai Amirthalingam (1927–1989), leader of the opposition, Parliament of Sri Lanka Douglas Devananda (1957–), leader of EPDP and Minister of Rehabilitation, Sri Lanka Thamizhavel G. Sarangapani (1903–1974), Tamil journalist, writer, publisher, social activist Patrick Pillay, Minister of External Affairs of the Seychelles Jean-Paul Virapoullé (1944–), member of the Senate of France, representing the island of Réunion Raja Krishnamoorthi (1973–), American congressman E. E. C. Thuraisingham (1898–1979), first local Member in British-ruled Malaya Maya Harris, Vice President for Democracy, Rights and Justice at the Ford Foundation and executive director of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) of Northern California. Vanushi Walters, New Zealand lawyer, politician and Member of Parliament in the House of Representatives for the Labour Party representing the Upper Harbour electorate Vivek Ramaswamy, candidate in the USA 2024 Republican Party presidential primaries Governors of the Reserve Bank of India S. Venkitaramanan, 18th Governor of the Reserve Bank of India C. Rangarajan, 19th Governor of the Reserve Bank of India Raghuram Rajan, 23rd Governor of the Reserve Bank of India Political families Tamil Nadu C. Rajagopalachari family C. Rajagopalachari (1878–1972), Former Governor-General of India C. R. Narasimhan (1909–1989), Former Member of Parliament (Lok Sabha); son of Rajagopalachari C.P. Ramaswami Iyer family C. P. Ramaswami Iyer (1879–1966), Former Dewan of Travancore C. P. R. Pattabhiraman (1906–2001), Former Union Minister of Law and Company Affairs; son of Ramaswami Iyer D. Jayakumar family D. Jayakumar (1960–), Former Speaker of Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly J. Jayavardhan (1987–), Former Member of Parliament (Lok Sabha); son of Jayakumar E. V. K. Sampath family E. V. K. Sampath (1926–1977), Former Member of Parliament (Lok Sabha) E. V. K. S. Elangovan (1948–), Former Union Minister of State in the Ministry of Textiles; son of E. V. K. Sampath G. K. Moopanar family G. K. Moopanar (1931–2001), Former Member of Parliament (Rajya Sabha) G. K. Vasan (1964–), Former Union Minister of Shipping; son of Moopanar H. Kumari Ananthan family H. Kumari Ananthan (1933–), Former Member of Parliament (Lok Sabha) Tamilisai Soundararajan (1961–), Governor of Telangana; daughter of Kumari Ananthan H. Vasanthakumar (1950–2020), Former Member of Parliament (Lok Sabha); brother of Kumari Ananthan Vijay Vasanth (1983–), Member of Parliament (Lok Sabha); nephew of Kumari Ananthan M. Bhakthavatsalam family M. Bhakthavatsalam (1897–1987), Former Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu Jayanthi Natarajan (1954–), Former Union Minister of Environment and Forests; granddaughter of Bhakthavatsalam M. Karunanidhi family M. Karunanidhi (1924–2018), Former Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu M. K. Alagiri (1951–), Former Union Minister of Chemicals and Fertilizers; son of Karunanidhi M. K. Stalin (1953–), Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu; son of Karunanidhi Kanimozhi Karunanidhi (1968–), Member of Parliament (Lok Sabha); daughter of Karunanidhi Dayanidhi Alagiri (unknown–), Indian cinema producer; grandson of Karunanidhi Udhayanidhi Stalin (1977–), Member of Legislative Assembly (Tamil Nadu); grandson of Karunanidhi Arulnithi Tamilarasu (1987–), Indian actor; grandson of Karunanidhi Murasoli Maran (1934–2003), Former Union Minister of Commerce and Industry; nephew of Karunanidhi Kalanithi Maran (1964–), Founder of the Sun Group; grand-nephew of Karunanidhi Dayanidhi Maran (1966–), Former Union Minister of Communications and Information Technology; grand-nephew of Karunanidhi An O. Panneerselvam family O. Panneerselvam (1951–), Former Chief Minister and Deputy Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu P. Ravindhranath (1980–), Member of Parliament (Lok Sabha); son of Panneerselvam P. Subbarayan family P. Subbarayan (1889–1962), Former Chief Minister of Madras Presidency; Former Union Minister of Transport and Communications Mohan Kumaramangalam (1916–1973), Former Union Minister of Steel and Mines; son of Subbarayan Parvathi Krishnan (1919–2014), member of the Communist Party of India; daughter of Subbarayan Rangarajan Kumaramangalam (1952–2000), Former Member of Parliament (Lok Sabha); grandson of Subbarayan Rangarajan Mohan Kumaramangalam (1978–), member of the Indian National Congress; great-grandson of Subbarayan Lalitha Kumaramangalam (1957–), member of the National Executive of the BJP; granddaughter of P. Subbarayan P. T. Rajan family P. T. Rajan (1892–1974), Former Chief Minister of Madras Presidency P. T. R. Palanivel Rajan (1932–2006), Former Speaker of the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly; son of P.T. Rajan P. T. R. Palanivel Thiagarajan, Finance Minister of Tamil Nadu; grandson of P.T. Rajan Sri Lanka Arumugampillai Coomaraswamy family Arumugampillai Coomaraswamy (1783–1836), Gate Mudaliyar, Member of Legislative Council Muthu Coomaraswamy (1833–1879), Member of Legislative Council, son of Arumugampillai Coomaraswamy Ananda Coomaraswamy (1877–1947), grandson of Arumugampillai Coomaraswamy Arunachalam Ponnambalam family Arunachalam Ponnambalam (1814–1887), son in law of Arumugampillai Coomaraswamy P. Coomaraswamy (1849–1906), first son of Arunachalam Ponnambalam P. Ramanathan (1851–1930), second son of Arunachalam Ponnambalam Arunachalam Mahadeva (1885–1969), son of P. Ramanathan Baku Mahadeva (1921–2013), grandson of P. Ramanathan P. Arunachalam (1853–1924), third son of Arunachalam Ponnambalam S. Pararajasingam family S. Pararajasingam, senator, son in law of P. Arunachalam, married Pathmavathy (daughter of P. Arunachalam) V. P. Ganeshan family V. P. Ganeshan, founder of the Democratic Workers' Congress, film producer and actor Mano Ganesan (1959–), Member of Parliament, Provincial Councillor, son of V.P. Ganeshan Praba Ganesan (1964–), Member of Parliament, Provincial Councillor, son of V.P. Ganeshan Savumiamoorthy Thondaiman family Savumiamoorthy Thondaiman (1913–1999), founder and leader of the Ceylon Workers' Congress, government minister, Member of Parliament Arumugam Thondaiman (1964–), leader of the Ceylon Workers' Congress, Member of Parliament, grandson of Savumiamoorthy Thondaiman G. G. Ponnambalam family G. G. Ponnambalam (1901–1977), founder and leader of the All Ceylon Tamil Congress, government minister, Member of Parliament, Member of State Council Kumar Ponnambalam (1940–2000), former leader of the All Ceylon Tamil Congress, presidential candidate (1982), son of G.G. Ponnambalam Gajendrakumar Ponnambalam (1974–), present leader of the All Ceylon Tamil Congress, son of Kumar Ponnambalam, grandson of G.G. Ponnambalam Arumugam Canagaratnam family Arumugam Canagaratnam (1873–1929), Member of Legislative Council Cathiravelu Sittampalam (1898–1964), government minister, Member of Parliament, son of A. Cathiravelu, nephew of A.Canagaratnam Cathiravelu Ponnambalam, first mayor of Jaffna, son of A. Cathiravelu, nephew of A. Canagaratnam Military leaders Army General Paramasiva Prabhakar Kumaramangalam (1913–2000), 7th Chief of Army Staff (1966–1969) General Krishnaswamy Sundararajan (1930–1999), 14th Chief of Army Staff (1986–1988) General Sundararajan Padmanabhan (1940–), 19th Chief of Army Staff (2000–2002) Navy Admiral Oscar Stanley Dawson (1923–2011), 12th Chief of Naval Staff, India, 1982–1984 Admiral Sushil Kumar (1940–2019), 16th Chief of the Naval Staff (India) (1988–2001) Vice Admiral Nilkanta Krishnan (1919–1982), Commanding-in-Chief of the Eastern Naval Command, India, 1947–1976 Rear Admiral Rajan Kadiragamar, 2nd Ceylonese Captain of the Royal Ceylon Navy Admiral Travis Sinniah, 21st Commander of the Sri Lankan Navy Air Force Air Chief Marshal Srinivasapuram Krishna Swamy (1943–), 19th Chief of Air Staff (2001–2004) Independence Movement Velupillai Prabhakaran, founder of Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam Vaithilingam Sornalingam, also known as Colonel Shanker, was founder of the air wing and marine division of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam Ambalavanar Neminathan commonly known by the nom de guerre Raju) was a leading member of the Tamil Tigers, Raju served as the head of the LTTE's Engineering Corps. He was special commander of the Leopard Commandos, an infantry unit, and chief technical officer in the Kittu Regiment, the LTTE's artillery unit which Raju helped create. Pottu Amman, was the second-in-command of Tamil Tigers. was a Head of Tiger Organization Security Intelligence Service and the Black Tigers. Lt. Colonel Thileepan Award winners Nobel Prize winners C. V. Raman, Nobel Prize in Physics, 1930 Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Nobel Prize in Physics, 1983 Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 2009 Fields Medal Akshay Venkatesh, Fields Medal in mathematics, 2018 Bharat Ratna The Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honor C. Rajagopalachari, Former Governor-General of the Union of India; 1954 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Former President of the Republic of India; 1954 C. V. Raman, Indian Physicist; 1954 K. Kamaraj, Former Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu; 1976 M. G. Ramachandran, Former Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu; 1988 A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, Former President of the Republic of India; 1997 M. S. Subbulakshmi, Indian Singer; 1998 C. Subramaniam, Former Minister of Defence of the Republic of India; 1998 Padma Vibhushan The Padma Vibhushan is India's second highest civilian honour. Arcot Lakshmanaswami Mudaliar, for Medicine, 1963 Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, for Science & Engineering, 1968 K. V. Kalyana Sundaram, for Public Affairs, 1968 Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar, for Civil Service, 1970 T. Swaminathan, for Civil Service, 1973 T. Balasaraswati, for Arts, 1977 V. Arunachalam, for Literature & Education, 1990 Raja Jesudoss Chelliah, for Public Affairs, 2007 Balu Sankaran, for Medicine, 2007 V. Krishnamurthy, for Civil Service, 2007 Ilaiyaraaja, for Music, 2018 Padma Bhushan The Padma Bhushan is India's third highest civilian honour. Sivaji Ganesan, 1984 Kamal Haasan, Arts Ilaiyaraaja, veteran musician and Tamil music director A. R. Rahman, Oscar-winning musician from Chennai; referred to as the Mozart of Madras Arogyaswami Paulraj, wireless technology pioneer Shiv Nadar, Indian industrialist and philanthropist Jayakanthan, author Muthulakshmi Reddy, doctor, social reformer Krishnammal Jaganathan, Social Service Padma Shri The Padma Shri is India's fourth highest civilian honour. Sivaji Ganesan (1966), Arts K. Balachander (1987), Arts Vairamuthu (2003), Literature and Education B. Palaniappan (2006), Medicine Sivanthi Adithan (2008), Literature and Education Vivek (2009), Arts E. A. Siddiq (2011) Science Mecca Rafeeque Ahmed (2011), businessman and entrepreneur Ramon Magsaysay Award The Ramon Magsaysay Award was established in 1957 in memory of Ramon Magsaysay, the late president of the Philippines. It is often considered to be Asia's Nobel Prize. M. S. Swaminathan, for Community Leadership, 1971 M. S. Subbulakshmi, for classical carnatic genre, 1974 Jockin Arputham, for Peace and International Understanding, 2000 Kulandei Francis, 2012 T. M. Krishna, 2016 Dadasaheb Phalke Award The Dadasaheb Phalke Award is India's highest award in cinema, given annually by the Government of India for lifetime contribution to Indian cinema. It was instituted in 1969, the birth centenary year of Dadasaheb Phalke, considered as the father of Indian cinema. Sivaji Ganesan, 1996 K. Balachander, 2011 Param Vir Chakra The Param Vir Chakra is India's highest military honor. Major Ramaswamy Parmeshwaran (1946–1987), awarded in 1987 (posthumous) for IPKF operations in Sri Lanka Sahitya Akademi Award Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna Award The Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna Award is India's highest sporting honor. Viswanathan Anand, for Chess, 1991–92 Dhanraj Pillai, for Men's field hockey, 1999–2000 Mariyappan Thangavelu, for Paralympic high jump, 2020–2021 Jnanpith Award The Jnanpith Award is India's highest literary honor Akilan, 1975 Jayakanthan, 2002 Sangeet Natak Akademi Award Vyjayanthimala, Sangeet Natak Akademi, 1982 Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship Karaikudi Sambasiva Iyer Ariyakudi Ramanuja Iyengar Papanasam R. Sivan V. Raghavan Guinness World Records L. Athira Krishna, Guinness World Record holder Suresh Joachim, Canadian actor, producer, and multiple-Guinness World Record holder V. S. Kumar Anandan, his many records include swimming the Palk Strait, from Sri Lanka to India and back in 51 hours, in 1971 Kutraleeswaran, swam across English Channel in 1994 when he was just 13 years old; the same year, he swam across six channels to break Mihir Sen's record of swimming across five channels in a calendar year Rajasekharan Parameswaran, Guinness World Records holder. Aari Arujunan, actor and Guinness World Record holder Arjuna Award The Arjuna Award was instituted in 1961 by the Government of India to recognize outstanding achievement in national sports. Kutraleeswaran, youngest Arjuna Award winner Oscar awards A. R. Rahman, won the Academy Award for Best Original Score and Academy Award for Best Original Song in 2009 Cottalango Leon, won the Academy Award for scientific and technical achievement "the design, engineering and continuous development"[a] of Sony Pictures Imageworks itView technology in 2016 Social workers Pandit Iyothee Thass, Anti-caste activist, founding father of dravidian movement and first buddhist revivalist of India M. B. Nirmal, founder and chairman of Exnora International Suresh Joachim, founder and chairman of World Peace Marathon Krishnammal Jagannathan Naraina Pillai Anjali Gopalan, first Indian Tamil woman awarded with the Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur, "Knight in the order of the legions of Honor", the highest award from France, 2013 Harish Iyer, Mumbai based blogger and LGBT rights activist Chinna Pillai, started Kalanjiam, a microcredit movement in villages Traffic Ramasamy, self-appointed traffic policeman, public interest litigator and social activist from Chennai Kumi Naidoo, Secretary General of Amnesty international Rettamalai Srinivasan, Dalit activist Criminals Bentong Kali (1961–1993), was a Malaysian-Tamil criminal and mobster who gained a national attention in the 1990s. He was implicated in over 17 different murders, and terrorized the capital Kuala Lumpur through violence, extortion and heroin smuggling. He also made headlines when he challenged the police to arrest him. He was finally gunned down by Royal Malaysia Police's Special Actions Unit from Bukit Aman, Kuala Lumpur. Douglas Devananda (1957-) is a paramilitary leader, politician and a proclaimed offender in India and is wanted on charges of murder, attempt to murder, child prostitution, rioting, unlawful assembly and kidnapping. Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (Tamil Tigers), tried unsuccessfully to assassinate him over 10 times. Varadarajan Mudaliar (1926–1988), also known as Vardhabhai and Vardha, was an Indian-Tamil crime boss. He was one of the infamous trio of mafia gang leaders of Mumbai the other being Karim Lala and Haji Mastan. His origin is North Arcot district of Tamil Nadu, from where his father migrated to Tuticorin to work in shipping business. He was born in Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu. From early 1960s to the 1980s; he was one of the most powerful mob bosses in Bombay, along with Haji Mastan and Karim Lala. Auto Shankar (1954–1995), was a serial killer and a gangster from the state of Tamil Nadu active in Chennai throughout the 1970s and 1980s. Business and administration Tamil billionaires Ananda Krishnan, Chairman of Usaha Tegas Snd Bhd Kalanithi Maran, founder and chairman of Sun Group Shiv Nadar, founder and chairman emeritus of HCL Technologies Ram Shriram, founding board member of Google A. Vellayan, vice-chairman of the Murugappa Group Maha Sinnathamby, businessman and property developer G. Gnanalingam, chairman of Westports Malaysia R. G. Chandramogan, entrepreneur Sundar Pichai, CEO of Alphabet Inc B. S. Abdur Rahman, entrepreneur and philanthropist T. S. Kalyanaraman, chairman and managing director of Kalyan Jewellers Subaskaran Allirajah, chairman of LycaMobile Sridhar Vembu, CEO of Zoho Corporation Tamil executives and business people Palani G. Periasamy, Chairman of PGP Group of companies Indra Krishnamurthy Nooyi, former chairman and CEO of PepsiCo Sundar Pichai, CEO of Google, Inc. Neal Mohan, CEO of Youtube Vasant Narasimhan, CEO of Novartis Revathi Advaithi, CEO of Flex Ronald Arculli, Chairman of Hong Kong Exchanges and Clearing and Non-official Members Convenor of the Executive Council of Hong Kong (Exco) Prabhakar Raghavan, Senior vice President of Google Inc. Kalanidhi Maran, founder and head of Sun TV Network; ex-owner of SpiceJet Airline and owner of Sunrisers Hyderabad IPL team Natarajan Chandrasekaran, Chairman of Tata & Sons Subramaniam Ramadorai, adviser, Prime Minister of India Suresh Joachim, CEO WBBAS, No Poverty No Disease No War, World Peace Marathon and Suresh Joachim International Group Of Companies. Valiama Narain Ramamurthy Thyagarajan Educators L. S. Kandasamy, teacher at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Jeppiaar, founder, Sathyabama University V. L. Ethiraj, founder, Ethiraj College for Women Rajalakshmi Parthasarathy, founder, Padma Seshadri Bala Bhavan B. S. Abdur Rahman, founder, B. S. Abdur Rahman University Munirathna Anandakrishnan, former chairman, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur and former Vice-Chancellor, Anna University Bala V. Balachandran, founder, Dean & Chairman, Great Lakes Institute of Management V. M. Muralidharan, former chairman, Ethiraj College for Women Subra Suresh, President of Carnegie Mellon University, former Dean of the School of Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, former Director of the National Science Foundation Ramayya Krishnan, Dean of Heinz College and H. John Heinz III, W. W. Cooper and Ruth F. Cooper Professor of Management Science and Information Systems at Carnegie Mellon University Philanthropists Annamalai Chettiar Pachaiyappa Mudaliar Chengalvaraya Naicker Kandasamy Kandar Kajamian Rowther Alagappa Chettiar T. M. Jambulingam Mudaliar Jamal Mohamed Rowther Diplomats Lakshman Kadirgamar, former Sri Lankan foreign minister and diplomat Gopalapuram Parthasarathy, diplomat and author in India Yogendra Duraiswamy, Sri Lankan diplomat Tamara Kunanayakam Arunachalam Mahadeva Anton Muttukumaru Manicasothy Saravanamuttu H. W. Thambiah Krishnan Srinivasan K. Raghunath Beno Zephine N L Journalists and broadcasters J. S. Tissainayagam, journalist, first winner of the Peter Mackler Award for Courageous and Ethical Journalism George Alagiah, BBC reporter and journalist James Coomarasamy, BBC reporter and journalist Ranga Yogeshwar, Luxembourgish physicist and science journalist Marc Fennell, Irish-Australian journalist, media personality, and author Darshini David, BBC reporter and journalist Tim Kash, MTV and BBC reporter and journalist Taraki Sivaram, political analyst and a senior editor for Tamilnet.com E. Saravanapavan, managing director of the Uthayan and Sudar Oli Tamil newspapers N. Ram, editor-in-chief of The Hindu newspaper owned by Kasturi and Sons Cho Ramaswamy, editor of the Tamil political journal Tughlaq Thenkachi Ko. Swaminathan, deputy director of All India Radio, 'Indru oru thagaval Fame' Hari Sreenivasan, Public Broadcasting Service Scientists Mylswamy Annadurai, scientist with the Indian Space Research Organization; Director of ISRO Satellite Centre Shiva Ayyadurai, as a high school student in 1979, he developed an electronic version of an interoffice mail system, which he called "EMAIL" and copyrighted in 1982 Kailasavadivoo Sivan, current chairperson of Indian Space Research Organization. Social anthropologists Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah Academicians Arumugam Vijiaratnam, became the first Pro-Chancellor of Nanyang Technological University in 1992 and served until 2005 Bala V. Balachandran, founder and dean of Great Lakes Institute of Management, Chennai, India; professor at Northwestern University V. L. Ethiraj, founder of Ethiraj College for Women Malcolm Adiseshiah (1910–1994), economist; former Deputy Director General of UNESCO; founder of MIDS (Madras Institute of Development Studies) V. C. Kulandaiswamy, educator and technologist; formerly Vice Chancellor of Anna University, IGNOU and Tamil Virtual University M. Varadarasan, winner of sahitya Academy Award; Ex-Vice Chancellor of Madurai Kamaraj University Prof Philip Jeyaretnam, professor of law; member of Public Service Commission Prof Sittampalam Shanmugaratnam, former Head of the Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology at the National University of Singapore Arjun Appadurai, contemporary social theorist; educator; founder of the School of International Relations, JNU, New Delhi Dr. H.S.S. Lawrence, educator; formerly Director of School Education, Tamil Nadu; UNESCO Expert to the Government of Afghanistan C. K. Prahalad, Professor of Corporate Strategy at the Ross School of Business of the University of Michigan Prof B.P. Sanjay, Vice-Chancellor of First Central University in Tamil Nadu at Tiruvaroor M. S. Ananth, Director of Indian Institute of Technology, Madras Xavier Thaninayagam, known for setting up the International Association for Tamil Research (IATR) and organising the first World Tamil Conference Christie Jayaratnam Eliezer, appointed a Member of the Order of Australia Sanjay Subrahmanyam, awarded the Infosys Prize in the field of humanities (history) in 2012 Indira Samarasekera, 12th and current president and vice-chancellor of the University of Alberta Vilayanur S. Ramachandran, neuroscientist known primarily for his work in the fields of behavioral neurology and visual psychophysics Agriculture G. Nammalvar, Indian organic farming scientist E. A. Siddiq, agricultural scientist M. S. Swaminathan, agricultural scientist and Ramon Magsaysay Awardee Botanists Ganapathi Thanikaimoni (1938–1986) M. O. P. Iyengar Dr. C. Livingstone Computer science Ramanathan V. Guha, known for his work on Cyc, Schema.org, Meta Content Framework, Resource Description Framework; developed the first version of RSS Madhu Sudan (1966–), professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; member of MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory Hari Balakrishnan, professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; member of MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory Arogyaswami Paulraj (1944–), Professor of Electrical Engineering at Stanford University; a pioneer of wireless smart antenna technology Shiva Ayyadurai Ravindran Kannan, a principal researcher at Microsoft Research India T. V. Raman Sundar Pichai, CEO of Google Finance and economics Marti Subrahmanyam, professor at New York University (NYU); on board of directors of Infosys and ICICI Bala V. Balachandran, professor at the Kellogg School of Management Ravi Jagannathan, economist and professor at the Kellogg School of Management H. V. R. Iyengar, ex-Governor of the Reserve Bank of India (1957–1962) S. Jagannathan, ex-Governor of the Reserve Bank of India (1970–1975); executive at the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) M. Narasimham, banker; ex-Governor of the Reserve Bank of India (1977); executive at the World Bank and IMF S. Venkitaramanan, ex-Governor of the Reserve Bank of India (1990–1992) K. Ramachandran, Director and CFO of Barclays Wealth, India (2008–) T. N. Srinivasan (1933–), economist; Samuel C. Park Jr. Professor of Economics at Yale University Raghuram Rajan, Professor at University of Chicago Booth School of Business, ex- Governor of Reserve Bank of India (2013–2016), Chief Economist, International Monetary Fund (IMF), (2003–2007) Sendhil Mullainathan, co-founder of Ideas-42 Jomo Kwame Sundaram Ramon Navaratnam Raj Chetty, listed in 2008 by The Economist as one of the top eight young economists in the world Swaminathan Gurumurthy, Indian economist Arvind Subramanian, Indian Economist, Chief Economic Adviser to the Government of India (2014–2018) Krishnamurthy Subramanian, Indian Economist, Associate Professor in Indian School of Business and current Chief Economic Adviser to the Government of India (2018-) Law K. Sripavan, Chief Justice of Sri Lanka; former Deputy Solicitor General; judge and president of the Court of Appeal; Puisne Justice of the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka Rajesh Sreenivasan Karthy Govender, Commissioner of the South African Human Rights Commission; law professor at the University of Natal K. S. Rajah, former Supreme Court Judge – Singapore Navanethem Pillay, United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights; South African of Indian origin and Tamil descent; first non-white woman on the High Court of South Africa; has served as a judge of the International Criminal Court and President of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda M. Patanjali Sastri, Second Chief Justice of India V. Bhashyam Aiyangar, lawyer and jurist A. Vaidyanatha Iyer(1890–1955), Tamil Indian activist; participated in the Indian independence movement and organized the temple entry movement in the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai; President of the Tamil Nadu Harijan Seva Sangh Mythili Raman, Tamil American lawyer; current acting Assistant Attorney General for the Criminal Division Sri Srinivasan, United States circuit judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit Muthucumaraswamy Sornarajah, C. J. Koh Professor of Law at the National University of Singapore Malliha Wilson, Former Assistant Deputy Attorney General of the Government of Ontario Mathematics Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887–1920), known for his contributions to mathematical analysis, number theory, infinite series and continued fractions Swami Bharati Krishna Tirtha, known for his book Vedic Mathematics Ramachandran Balasubramanian, Indian number theorist; Director of the Institute of Mathematical Sciences in Chennai, India Subbayya Sivasankaranarayana Pillai (1901–1950), known for his work in number theory Kollagunta Gopalaiyer Ramanathan (1920–1992), known work in number theory Christie Jayaratnam Eliezer (1918–2001), mathematician and Tamil rights activist from Sri Lanka; recipient of the Order of Australia C. S. Seshadri, Director of the Chennai Mathematical Institute; Trieste awardee S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan, mathematician and fellow of the Royal Society, Abel Prize winner. Pioneer of LargeDeviations Theory. C. P. Ramanujam (1938–1974), worked on number theory and algebraic geometry T. S. Vijayaraghavan (1902–1955), worked on Pisot–Vijayaraghavan number Ravindran Kannan, Professor of Computer Science and Mathematics at Yale University; joint winner of the 1991 Fulkerson Prize in discrete mathematics for work on the volumes of convex bodies Kannan Soundararajan Ramaiyengar Sridharan Srinivasacharya Raghavan Madabusi Santanam Raghunathan A. A. Krishnaswami Ayyangar, exponent of Vedic mathematics Mudumbai Seshachalu Narasimhan, mathematician and fellow of the Royal Society (1996) K. R. Parthasarathy, Professor Emeritus at the Indian Statistical Institute of New Delhi Ramaiyengar Sridharan, mathematician at Chennai Mathematical Institute; awarded the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology in Mathematical Science Raman Parimala, known for her contributions to algebra S. Ramanan, works in algebraic geometry Kavita Ramanan, daughter of S. Ramanan. Mathematician at Brown University Medicine Balamurali Ambati, world's youngest doctor at age 17 Rangaswamy Srinivasan, ultraviolet excimer laser / LASIK inventor at IBM Research V. S. Ramachandran, neuroscientist; Director Professor at UC San Diego S. S. Ratnam, pioneer in Singapore in-vitro fertilisation; Sri Lankan Tamil ancestry Ganapathi Thanikaimoni, palynologist at French Institute of Pondicherry; awarded the Fyson Prize in Natural Science Govindappa Venkataswamy, founder of Aravind Eye Hospital Ravi Iyengar, professor and founder of the Iyengar Laboratory, Mount Sinai School of Medicine Gunamudian David Boaz, Indian Tamil psychologist Paul Kalanithi, Neurosurgeon Manoj Durairaj, Cardiac surgeon, philanthropist and winner of Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice Soumya Swaminathan, Chief Scientist of WHO Celine Gounder, is an American Tamil infectious disease physician, internist, epidemiologist, filmmaker, and medical journalist who specializes in infectious disease and global health Raghavan Varadarajan, Molecular Biologist At Indian Institute Of Science, Bangalore V. Shanta, Cancer Specialist Head Of Adyar Cancer Institute Engineering (scientists) Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, 1930 Nobel Prize Winner in physics Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, 1983 Nobel Prize Winner in physics Dr. K. Kasturirangan, former Chairman of ISRO; director of the National Institute of Advanced studies (NIAS) Raja Ramanna, former Chairman of Department of Atomic Energy; presided over India's first nuclear test in 1974 Dr. P. K. Iyengar, former Chairman of Department of Atomic Energy M. R. Srinivasan, former Chairman of the Department of Atomic Energy R. Chidambaram, scientific adviser to the Prime Minister of India and ex-Chairman of Atomic Energy Commission S. R. Ranganathan, devised the five laws of library science A. Sivathanu Pillai, defence scientist; CEO of the Indo-Russian Brahmos company G. N. Ramachandran (1922–2001), made major contributions to biology and physics R. V. Perumal, former Director of the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre Ramanuja Vijayaraghavan (1931–), physicist at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Udaya Kumar, designer of the Indian rupee sign Vallampadugai Srinivasa Raghavan Arunachalam Poondi Kumaraswamy, only person to have received both the Homi Bhabha Fellowship 1967–69 and the Jawaharlal Nehru Fellowship 1975–77, two of the country's top research awards; hydrologist P. S. Krishnaprasad, professor of electrical engineering at the University of Maryland S. Somasegar, recipient of the Asian American Engineer of the Year Award S. Vanajah, the only woman among four finalists who outlasted 11,000 other Malaysians who applied for the astronaut selection process in 2003 Ramamurti Shankar, John Randolph Huffman Professor of Physics at Yale University B. C. Shekhar, modernised Malaysia's natural rubber industry Raman Sundrum, developed a class of models called the Randall–Sundrum models Siva Sivananthan, awarded the "Champion of Change" (Immigrant Entrepreneurs and Innovators category) by the White House Zoologists Mahadeva Subramania Mani, entomologist Music Tamil music Muthu Thandavar, one of the Tamil Trinity Marimutthu Pillai, one of the Tamil Trinity Arunachala Kavi, one of the Tamil Trinity Kunangudi Mastan sahib Kollangudi Karuppayee Nagore E. M. Hanifa Carnatic music Ranjani & Gayatri Papanasam Sivan Sikkil Gurucharan Lalgudi Jayaraman Kunnakudi Vaidyanathan Ariyakudi Ramanuja Iyengar T. M. Krishna Madurai Mani Iyer Veena Dhanammal E. Gayathri D. K. Pattammal Semmangudi Srinivasa Iyer Muthuswami Dikshitar N. Ramani L. Athira Krishna Aruna Sairam T. Brinda T. Muktha T. Viswanathan R. Vedavalli Sirkazhi Govindarajan Maharajapuram Santhanam Sanjay Subrahmanyan T. M. Krishna T. M. Soundararajan Nithyashree Mahadevan Nisha Rajagopalan Chinmayi Mahathi Aruna Sayeeram Alathur Brothers, Alathur Brothers Srinivasa Iyer (1912–1964) and Sivasubramania Iyer (1916–1980) Ariyakudi Ramanuja Iyengar Poochi Srinivasa Iyengar Patnam Subramania Iyer G. N. Balasubramaniam S. Sowmya M. L. Vasanthakumari Charumathi Ramachandran Vasundhara Devi Vyjayanthimala Abraham Pandithar, musicologist and siddha medicine practitioner from Madras Presidency, British India Film music K. V. Mahadevan (1918–2001), composer; winner of the National Film Award for Best Music Direction (1968 & 1980) T. K. Ramamoorthy (1922–2013), composer V. Kumar (1934–1996) Ilayaraja Gangai Amaran (1947–), composer, singer, director Chandrabose (?–2010), composer Shankar–Ganesh, composer Deva (1950–), composer, singer S. A. Rajkumar (1964–), composer Sirpy (1962–), composer A. R. Rahman (1967–), composer, singer, winner of Academy Award for Best Original Song, National Film Award for Best Music Direction (1993, 1997, 2002 & 2003) Yuvan Shankar Raja (1979–), composer, singer, winner of Cyprus International Film Festival Award in 2006 for Raam Harris Jayaraj (1975–), composer Kavita Krishnamurti (1958–), singer D. Imman (1983–), composer, singer Srikanth Deva, composer, singer Bobo Shashi, composer, singer Karthik Raja (1973–), composer Bharadwaj (1960–), composer, singer G. V. Prakash Kumar (1987–), composer, singer, actor Vijay Antony (1975–), composer, singer, actor Anirudh Ravichander (1990–), composer, singer James Vasanthan, composer Santhosh Narayanan (1983–), composer Mohamaad Ghibran (1980–), composer Joshua Sridhar (2004–), composer Nivas K. Prasanna (2014–), composer Western music Master Dhanraj, Mentor of Ilaiyaraaja and A. R. Rahman Guy Sebastian, Malaysian-Australian singer and songwriter M.I.A. (Mathangi "Maya" Arulpragasam), British musician Sketchy Bongo (Yuvir Pillay), South African musician and DJ Clarence Jey (Clarence Jeyaretnam), Sri Lankan American record producer Yogi B (Yogeswaran Veerasingam), Malaysian hiphop artist, founder of Poetic Ammo Kamahl (Kandiah Kamalesvaran), Australian cabaret/easy listening singer Tharini Mudaliar, Australian singer and violinist Tommy Genesis, Canadian rapper Shan Vincent de Paul, Canadian singer-songwriter, Rapper Jacintha Abisheganaden, Singaporean singer Rudra, Singaporean death metal band Shruti Haasan, western singer, daughter of Tamil actor Kamal Haasan Blaaze, rap artist and playback singer Lord Kossity Siva Kaneswaran, band member of The Wanted Arjun Coomaraswamy, UK R&B singer Dinesh Kanagaratnam, Sri Lankan hiphop artist Hiphop Tamizha, Tamil rap duo Vidya Vox, American singer Yanchan, Canadian music artist Priya Ragu, Swiss singer Other Jaclyn Victor, Malaysian singer, winner of inaugural Malaysian Idol Chen Gexin, Chinese songwriter Chen Gang, Chinese composer Lydian Nadhaswaram, child prodigy, Indian pianist, winner of The World's Best, 2019 Ashan Pillai, Sri Lankan born British violist and professor Dance T. Balasaraswati Chitra Visweswaran Padma Subramanyam Rukmini Devi Arundale Anita Ratnam Vyjayanthimala Rajee Narayan Cinema Directors Thangar Bachan C. V. Sridhar A. P. Nagarajan A. C. Tirulokchandar K. Balachander Balu Mahendra Mahendran Bharathiraja Bharathan A. L. Vijay A. Bhimsingh S. P. Muthuraman S. A. Chandrasekhar Liaquat Ali Khan Bhagyaraj T. Rajendar P. Vasu Suresh Krissna K. S. Ravikumar Mani Ratnam S. Shankar Nelson Dilipkumar Vetrimaaran Atlee Lokesh Kanagaraj AR Murugadoss V. Z. Durai Seenu Ramasamy Bharathan Selvaraghavan Thiagarajan Kumararaja Bala Karthik Subbaraj Nalan Kumarasamy Gautham Vasudev Menon Mohan Raja Vasanthabalan Ram S. J. Surya Sankar R. Ajay Gnanamuthu Karthick Naren Kamal Haasan Balaji Sakthivel K. V. Anand P. C. Sreeram Jeeva Rajiv Menon Santosh Sivan Vijay Milton Dharani Hari Ameer Sultan Agathian S. P. Jananathan Mysskin Prabu Solomon Pandiraj Siruthai Siva Pa. Ranjith Samuthirakani Sasikumar Sasi R. K. Selvamani Ezhil Saran Prabhu Deva Chimbu Deven Silambarasan Suseenthiran Venkat Prabhu Vishnuvardhan Vikraman Actors Gemini Ganesan(half Tamil) Kamal Haasan Rajnikanth Suriya Silambarasan Vijay R. Madhavan Saravanan Sivaji Ganesan Jayam Ravi Arun Vijay Harish Kalyan Siddharth Karthi Vijay Sethupathi Sivakarthikeyan Vadivelu Goundamani Senthil Ramarajan Chitti Babu Vivek Santhanam Sathyaraj Shaam Sathish Sibi Sathyaraj Vikram M. K. Thyagaraja Bhagavathar N. S. Krishnan P. U. Chinnappa M. K. Mustafa T. R. Mahalingam Yogi Babu Manivannan Thengai Srinivasan Manobala Mansoor Ali Khan Vennira Aadai Moorthy Karunas Delhi Ganesh Singamuthu Kumarimuthu Vinu Chakravarthy Vijay Antony G. V. Prakash Kumar T. Rajendar Sam Anderson Prashanth Thyagarajan, half Tamil Actresses Trisha (actress) Nivetha Pethuraj Shruti Haasan, half Tamil Menaka (actress) Keerthy Suresh, half Tamil Priya Anand, half Tamil Regina Cassandra Priyamani Rekha, half Tamil Meena, half Tamil Sridevi, half Tamil Priya Bhavani Shankar Vyjanthimala Madhoo Meenakshi Seshadri Vidya Balan, half Tamil Riythvika Suhasini Maniratnam Hema Malini Esha Deol, half Tamil Priyanka Arul Mohan, half Tamil Indhuja Ravichandran Janani (actress) Amritha Aiyer Ramya Krishnan Sai Dhanshika Music composers See: Film music A. R. Rahman Anirudh Ravichander Yuvan Shankar Raja Ilaiyaraaja G. V. Prakash Kumar Harris Jayaraj D. Imman Ghibran Vivek-Mervin Santhosh Narayanan Justin Prabhakaran Gangai Amaran Deva (composer) Sam C. S. Vijay Antony Darbuka Siva Sean Roldan In Hollywood Sendhil Ramamurthy, actor in NBC drama Heroes and Netflix series Never Have I Ever; half Tamil Ashok Amritraj, filmmaker, producer Merle Oberon, actress Geraldine Viswanathan, actress from Blockers (film); half Tamil Sunkrish Bala, actor in ABC show Notes from the Underbelly Mindy Kaling, actor in NBC sitcom The Office; half Tamil Aziz Ansari, actor and comedian Poorna Jagannathan, actress in Netflix series Never Have I Ever Chandran Rutnam, award-winning director for the movie A Common Man at the Madrid International Film Festival; half Tamil. M. Night Shyamalan, director; half Tamil Maitreyi Ramakrishnan, a Canadian actress in Netflix series Never Have I Ever Selva Rasalingam, actor; half Tamil Nimmi Harasgama, actress in Funny Boy (2020 film); half Tamil Amara Karan, actress in The Darjeeling Limited Simone Ashley, actress in Bridgerton Charithra Chandran, actress in Bridgerton Other entertainers Padma Lakshmi, American model and television host Angela Jonsson, Icelandic model and actress Amelia Henderson, British-Malaysian media personality Anjana Vasan, British-Singaporean actress Law Lan, Hong Kong actress Cassandra Ponti, Filipino actress Tatiana Kumar, French-Malaysian model Huzir Sulaiman, Malaysian director and actor Waheeda Rehman, Indian actress and dancer Michelle Saram, Chinese-Singaporean actress and singer Romesh Ranganathan, British comedian Sindhu Vee, British stand-up comedian; half Tamil Aurore Kichenin, French model Deborah Priya Henry, Malaysian-Irish model and television personality Sports and games Athletics Mariyappan Thangavelu, winner of the gold medal in Paralympics, high jump Santhi Soundarajan, first World Peace Sports Festival Ambassador from India; first Tamil woman to win a medal at Asian Games Mani Jegathesan Sathish Sivalingam Gomathi Marimuthu, winner of the gold medal in Asian athletics championship Basketball Anitha Pauldurai, basketball player Boxing Venkatesan Devarajan was the second Indian to win a medal at the Boxing World Cup after Pu Zoramthanga (boxer), from Mizoram. He is from Chennai, India. He was awarded the Arjuna Award in 1995. He competed in the men's bantamweight event at the 1992 Summer Olympics. V. Devarajan has been a fighter on and off the boxing ring. He broke new ground by becoming the first Indian to win a World Cup medal on foreign soil in 1994. Kalaivani Srinivasan is a female boxer from Tamil Nadu who won a silver medal at the Indian Seniors National Boxing Championship in Vijayanagar in 2019. She was named the ‘Most Promising Boxer’ at the Indian National Boxing Championship in 2019. She later won a gold medal at the South Asian Games in Kathmandu, Nepal in 2019. Carrom A. Maria Irudayam, world carrom champion and Arjuna Award winner for carrom (1996) R. Arokiaraj, carrom champion B. Radhakrishnan, carrom champion Volleyball A. Palanisamy, first Arjuna Award winner for volleyball (1961) G. E. Sridharan, Arjuna Award winner Sivabalan, played for India and currently playing for IOB, Chennai Chess Viswanathan Anand, world chess champion; first Indian to earn the title of Grandmaster Manuel Aaron, first Indian to earn the title of International Master Murugan Thiruchelvam, chess player from United Kingdom Krishnan Sasikiran, Grandmaster and Arjuna Award winner for chess (2002) S. Vijayalakshmi, six-time women's national champion of India; first woman Grandmaster from India; Arjuna Award winner for chess (2000) Aarthie Ramaswamy, woman Grandmaster and under-18 girls' world chess champion Baskaran Adhiban, chess Grandmaster from Tamil Nadu S. P. Sethuraman, chess Grandmaster from Tamil Nadu Srinath Narayanan, Chess Grandmaster From Tamil Nadu Rameshbabu Praggnanandhaa, Chess Grandmaster From Tamil Nadu Cricket India M.J. Gopalan (1909–2003), represented India in both international field hockey and cricket C. R. Rangachari (1916–1993), pace bowler, Indian Cricket Team M. Suryanarayan (1930–2010), batsman, Indian Test cricketer C. D. Gopinath (1930–), batsman, Indian Cricket Team Ravichandran Ashwin, all rounder, Indian Cricket Team S. Venkataraghavan (1945–), ex-Captain of Indian Cricket Team and Test and ODI umpire K. Srikkanth (1959–), ex-Captain and current Chief Selector of Indian Cricket Team T. A. Sekhar (1956–), pace bowler, Indian Cricket Team Thiru Kumaran (1975–), pace bowler, Indian Cricket Team T.E. Srinivasan, batsman, Indian Cricket Team L. Sivaramakrishnan (1965–), spin bowler, Indian Cricket Team Margasahayam Venkataramana (1966–), test cricketer, off-spinner V. B. Chandrasekhar, batsman, Indian Cricket Team Bharat Arun (1962–), pace bowler, Indian Cricket Team Murali Kartik (1976–), spin bowler, Indian Cricket Team, Kolkata Knight Riders, Pune Warriors Sadagoppan Ramesh (1975–), batsman, Indian Cricket Team Subramaniam Badrinath (1980–), batsman, Indian Cricket Team, Chennai Super Kings Murali Vijay (1984–), batsman, Indian Cricket Team, Chennai Super Kings Lakshmipathy Balaji (1981–), pace bowler, Indian Cricket Team, Chennai Super Kings, Kolkata Knight Riders Dinesh Karthik (1985–), wicketkeeper, Indian Cricket Team, Delhi Daredevils, Kings XI Punjab, Mumbai Indians Washington Sundar (1999–), all-rounder, Indian Cricket Team, Royal Challengers Bangalore Thangarasu Natarajan, pacer From Salem Tamil Nadu Varun Chakravarthy, spinner Murugan Ashwin, leg spinner Venkatesh Iyer, Batsman Other countries Muttiah Muralitharan (1972–), highest wicket taker in test and ODI cricket from Sri Lanka Angelo Mathews, Sri Lankan all rounder and captain Russel Arnold, Sri Lankan cricketer and journalist Roy Dias, former Sri Lankan test cricketer/vice captain; a Tamil of Negombo Chetty Sridharan Jeganathan (?–1996), former NCC and Sri Lankan test cricketer/off spin bowler; first Sri Lankan test cricketer to die Vinodhan John, pace bowler, first Sri Lankan Tamil Test cricketer 1982 Pradeep Jayaprakashdaran, Sri Lankan One Day International (ODI) cricket player S. Illangaratnam, Sri Lankan cricketer, stalwart of Moratuwa and Bloomfield cricket clubs prior to the Test era Mahadevan Sathasivam, one of the best cricket batsmen produced by Ceylon Kandiah Thirugnansampandapillai Francis, international Test and ODI umpire from Sri Lanka Nasser Hussain (1968–), former Essex and England cricketer, test captain Sanjayan Thuraisingam (1969–), pace bowler, Canadian Cricket Team Alvin Kallicharan, former West Indies Guyana cricket captain Mahendra Nagamootoo, former West Indies and Guyana cricketer, nephew of Alvin Kallicharan Veerasammy Permaul, West Indies and Guyana cricketer Football Peter Velappan (1935–2018), General Secretary of Asian Football Confederation; member of FIFA Strategic Studies Committee & Organising Committee for the FIFA World Cup Samuel Moutoussamy Professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for FC Nantes and represents the DR Congo internationally. Gurusamy Kandasamy Syed Sabir Pasha, represented Indian football team in the early 1990s; also played for and coached Indian Bank-Chennai Hockey Vasudevan Baskaran, captain of the Indian hockey team that won Olympic Gold in 1980 Moscow Olympics; Arjuna Award winner (1979–1980) Dhanraj Pillay (1968–), ex-Indian hockey team Captain, Arjuna Award winner (1995); winner of Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award (1999–2000) Adam Sinclair, member of the Indian hockey team at the 2004 Athens Olympics Mountain climbing M. Magendran, conquered the highest peak in the world, Mount Everest Racing Karun Chandhok, Formula 1 driver Naren Kumar, four time National Rally Champion Ajith Kumar, mechanic, F2 racer, Moto gp racer Squash Nicol David, former world number 1 Joshna Chinappa, Indian women Squash Champion Tennis Vijay Amritraj, international champion and actor Anand Amritraj, international player Ashok Amritraj, international player Prakash Amritraj, international player Ramanathan Krishnan, international player Ramesh Krishnan, international player Nirupama Vaidyanathan, international player Entertainers Vyjayanthimala, Bharatanatyam dancer; introduced semi-classical dance in Bollywood Rukmini Devi Arundale, Bharatanatyam dancer; founder of Kalakshetra Balasaraswati, Bharatanatyam dancer Alarmel Valli, Bharatanatyam dancer Chitra Visweswaran, Bharatanatyam dancer Padma Subramanyam, Bharatanatyam dancer Pithukuli Murugadas, musician K. B. Sundarambal, actress and singer Sirkazhi Govindarajan, vocalist and Carnatic music exponent Dr.Sirkazhi G. Sivachidambaram, vocalist and Carnatic music exponent Religion and spirituality Bodhidharma (5th/6th century), Buddhist monk and 28th patriarch of Buddhism; traditionally credited as the leading patriarch and transmitter of Zen to China; spread Shaolin Kung Fu in China Ayya Vaikundar (1809–1851), founder and preceptor of the Ayyavazhi sect Ramalinga Swamigal (1823–1873), popularly known as Vallalar Ramanuja (1017–1137), philosopher and saint of Vaishnavism Iyothee Thass, Buddhist philosopher and activist Tamil literature Classical literature Tholkappiar, author of the Tholkappiyam Thiruvalluvar, poet and author of the Tirukkuṛaḷ Tirumular, poet and author of Tirumantiram Kambar, author of Ramavataram Avvaiyar, author of Ātticcūṭi Eelattu Poothanthevanar, classical Sri Lankan poet of the Sangam period Religious literature Shaivism Sekkilhar, author of the Periya Puranam Manikkavasagar, author of Thiruvasagam and one of the Nayanmars Siva Prakasar, author of Nanneri Thirumular, author of Tirumantiram Nakkeerar author of Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai Arunagirinathar, author of Tiruppugal Vaishnavism Nammalvar, author of Tiruvaymoli and one of the Alvars Tirumalisai Alvar, author of Tiruchanda Viruttam and one of the Alvars Andal, author of Tiruppavai and one of the Alvars Manavala Mamunigal, proponent of Sri Vaishnavism Periyalvar, author of Periyalvar Tirumoli and one of the Alvars V. Akilesapillai, scholar, poet, and author of Thirukonasala Vaipavam from Sri Lanka Islam Umaru Pulavar (1605–1703), author of Seerappuranam, Islamic tamil poet. Jainism Illango Adigal, poet and author of Silappathikaram Tirutakakatevar, author of Jivaka Chintamani Mandalapuruder, author of Vira Mandalaver is Sudamani Nigandhu'' Svarupananda Desikar Modern literature India Subramania Bharati, social and literary writer Bharathidasan (1891–1964), poet and rationalist Pattukkottai Kalyanasundaram, wrote revolutionary Tamil poems in common language Pudhumaipithan (1906–1948), fiction writer Samuel Vedanayagam Pillai, first Tamil novelist Akilan, novelist Ramalingam Pillai Thi. Janakiraman, novelist Mahavidwan Vasudeva Mudaliar, scholar Kalki Krishnamurthy (1899–1954), novelist and journalist Jayakanthan (1934–2015), writer and novelist G. P. Rajarathnam (1909–1979), Tamil-born Kannada poet and writer T. P. Kailasam (1884–1946), playwright and writer in Kannada literature from Karnataka Masti Venkatesha Iyengar (1891–1986), Kannada writer and recipient of Jnanpith Award Kannadasan (1927–1981), popularly called as Kavi Arasu; poet and film lyricist; winner of National Film Award for Best Lyrics (1969) Vairamuthu (1953–), poet and film lyricist; winner of National Film Award for Best Lyrics (1986, 1993, 1995, 2000, and 2003) Leena Manimekalai Indira Soundarajan, novelist and short story writer Ashoka Mitran (1931–2017), novelist and short story writer R. K. Narayan (1906–2001), English novelist and essayist Makaral Karthikeya Mudaliar, scholar Pa. Subramania Mudaliar, scholar Varadarasanar, novelist Sandilyan, novelist Pa. Vijay, film lyricist; winner of National Film Award for Best Lyrics (2005) Vaali, film lyricist Sujatha (1935–2008), novelist, haiku poet, film screenplay writer R. Raghava Iyengar K. S. Maniam Kavikko Abdul Rahman Makkal Pavalar Inqulab, left-leaning poet Mu. Metha Ka. Mu. Sheriff, film lyricist Manushyaputhiran Rajathi Salma, novelist Balakumaran (5 July 1946 – 15 May 2018)[1], Indian Tamil writer, author of over 200 novels, 100 short stories, etc. Pattukkottai Prabakar, Indian Tamil writer. He is a king of crime and thrill novels and also a versatile writer. Rajesh Kumar (writer), pseudonym of KR Rajagopal, Tamil author of crime fiction. Kalaimaamani Awardee. Other countries Ronnie Govender, South African playwright, actor, activist, won the 1997 Commonwealth Writers' Prize Pico Iyer, British-Japanese essayist and novelist Kessie Govender, South African playwright, actor and theatre director; founded the Stable Theatre Kandappu Murugesu, Sri Lankan poet Shyam Selvadurai, Sri Lankan-Canadian novelist; half Tamil Sharon Bala, Canadian writer Akwaeke Emezi, Nigerian writer and video artist; half Tamil Rani Manicka, Malaysian novelist, won the Commonwealth Writers' Prize in 2003 for South East Asia and South Pacific region Edwin Thumboo, Singaporean writer; half Tamil T. K. Doraiswamy (Nakulan) (1921–2007), poet, novelist, translator, professor of English Singapore writer; President of Singapore Law Society Gopal Baratham (1935–2002), Singaporean writer and neurosurgeon Others Arumuka Navalar (1822–1879), pioneer of Tamil prose; champion of Hinduism from Jaffna, Sri Lanka Siva prakasar, Saiva Siddantha, scholar, wrote 32 books in Tamil (Nanneri, Thiruchendur ula) Maraimalai Adigal, scholar and activist U. V. Swaminatha Iyer (1855–1942) Paventhar Bharathidasan, poet, also known as "Puratchi Kavignar" Kalyanasundara Mudaliar, writer Varadarasanar, novelist Erode Tamilanban, poet Solomon Pappaiah, scholar and debate judge Pudhumaipithan, revolutionary writer from the Tirunelveli Saiva Pillai community Jayakanthan, writer Kavimani Desigavinayagam Pillai, poet Manonmaniam Sundaram Pillai, writer Perumal Rasu, writer, poet, painter Ramanuja Kavirayar, poet Modern art S. Chandrasekaran, nominated for the APBF Signature Art Prize 2008 as one of the top ten Vivian Sundaram, Indian Jewish contemporary artist Manohar Devadoss, 2020 Padma Shri recipient See also Tamil people Tamil diaspora List of Sri Lankan Tamils Tamil Canadian Tamil American Tamil Malaysians British Tamil Tamil Australian Tamil Indonesians Tamil South Africans Tamil Germans Tamils in France Tamil Mauritian References Tamils List
401737	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20from%20Uttar%20Pradesh	List of people from Uttar Pradesh	This is a list of notable people from Uttar Pradesh, a state in India. The criteria of this list includes those who were born in the state of Uttar Pradesh and that part of the former United Provinces that now is part of the modern state of Uttar Pradesh. Deities and avatars Rishabhanatha or Aadinath(birthplace: Ayodhya ) 1st teerthankar of Jainism and founder of Jainism Aranath (birthplace: Hastinapur, Uttar Pradesh), 18th Teerthankar of Jainism Lord Shree Krishna (birthplace: Mathura) deity worshiped across many traditions of Hinduism Kunthunath (birthplace: Hastinapur, Uttar Pradesh), 17th Teerthankar of Jainism Lakshmana (birthplace: Ayodhya), brother and close companion of Rama; a hero in the epic Ramayana Neminath (birthplace: Mathura), 22nd Teerthanks of Jainism Parashuram (birthplace: Ghazipur), was an avatar of Vishnu Parsvanatha (birthplace: Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh), was 23rd Tirthankara of Jainism Rama (birthplace: Ayodhya), legendary or historical king of ancient India; in Hinduism, he is considered to be the seventh avatar of Vishnu Shantinath (birthplace: Hastinapur, Uttar Pradesh), 16th Teerthankar of Jainism Shreyansnath (birthplace: Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh), 11th Teerthankar of Jainism Authors of the great epics Bhrigu (birthplace: Ballia), one of the seven great sages, the Saptarshis, one of the Prajapatis created by Brahma Sur (birthplace: Mathura), saint, poet and musician Tulsidas (Ramayana: Chitrakoot), Awadhi poet and philosopher; wrote Rāmacaritamānasa ("The Lake of the Deeds of Rama"), an epic devoted to Lord Rama Vyasa, central and much revered figure in the majority of Hindu traditions; authored Mahabharata Yogis, Sufi poets and mystics Amir Khusro, Sufi mystic, one of the iconic figures in the cultural history of the Indian subcontinent Bharat Bhushan, only Padmashri recipient in yoga; founder President of Mokshayatan International Yogashram, Saharanpur Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud, Gazi Miya of Bahraich Kabir, poet and saint Varanasi Nizamuddin Auliya, Sufi saint, born in Budaun Paramahansa Yogananda, Yogi and Guru who introduced Yoga in the West. Born in Gorakhpur in 1893. Salim Chishti, Sufi saint of Fatehpur Sikri, Agra Dushyant Kumar Poet-saints and religious figures Narottama Dasa Devraha Baba, Yogi Allahabad Jagadguru Rāmabhadrācārya, Vaishnava scholar and Sanskrit commentator on the Prasthanatrayi, Jaunpur. Mulla Mahmud Jaunpuri (1606–1651), natural philosopher Karamat Ali Jaunpuri (1800-1873), Islamic scholar Hafiz Ahmad Jaunpuri (1834-1899), Islamic scholar Abdul Awwal Jaunpuri (1867–1921), Islamic scholar Abdur Rab Jaunpuri (1875–1935), Islamic scholar Majid Ali Jaunpuri (died 1935), Islamic scholar Syed Rashid Ahmed Jaunpuri (1889–2001), Sufi saint Muhammad Yunus Jaunpuri (1937–2017), Islamic scholar Malik Mohammad Jayasi Ramanand, founder of the Rāmānandī sect Prayag (in modern Allahabad) Raskhan Sant Ravidas, poet and saint, Varanasi Shiv Dayal Singh, founder and first guru of Radha Soami sect, Agra Shrivatsa Goswami, Indologist and Gaudiya Vaishnava leader Sur, blind Hindu poet, saint and musician born in Runkata near Agra Swami Karpatri, teacher of Advaita, popularly known as Dharma Samrat, Gorakhpur Swaminarayan, founder of the Swaminarayan sect, Gonda Tulsidas, composer of the Ramcharitmanas Rulers and generals Ancient Keśin Dālbhya, king of Panchal Pravahana Jaivali Pasenadi, King of Kosala Virudhaka Medieval Rajyavardhana Harsha Modern Nawab of Awadh Shuja-ud-Daula, third Nawab of Awadh Asaf-Ud-Dowlah, fourth Nawab, founder of modern Lucknow Wajid Ali Shah, poet, choreographer, the last King of Awadh Banaras state Balwant Singh Maharaja Chait Singh Prabhu Narayan Singh Vibhuti Narayan Singh Kohra Estate Babu Himmat Sah Babu Bhoop Singh Independence fighters 18th century Maharaja Chait Singh, ruler of Banaras, one of the earliest rebel against Company rule. Indian Rebellion of 1857 Mangal Pandey, one of the earliest independence fighters of 1857. Banke Chamar, was the freedom fighter of the 1857 revolution who was leading the revolution from Jaunpur. Bakht Khan, nominal commander-in-chief of Indian rebel forces in the Indian Rebellion of 1857 Amar Shahid Bandhu Singh, fighter in Indian Rebellion of 1857, he was from Dumari Riyasat of Gorakhpur Begum Hazrat Mahal, widow of the last Nawab of Awadh; Indian independence fighter in Indian Rebellion of 1857 Lal Pratap Singh, fighter in Indian Rebellion of 1857 and Yuvraj of Kalakankar Maulvi Liaquat Ali, Indian independence fighter of 1857 from Allahabad; captured the Khusro Bagh in Allahabad and declared the independence of India Rani Lakshmibai, Rani (Queen) of Jhansi Rao Kadam Singh, freedom fighter; elected by his Gurjar clansmen as their leader to fight against the British forces during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 Jhalkari Bai Koli, Great Indian freedom fighter of 1857; fought against British rule; Commander of Army of Jhansi Dhan Singh Gurjar, main freedom fighter of 1857 revolt from Meerut Babu Bhoop Singh, ruler of Kohra (estate) and a leader of Indian Rebellion of 1857 Rao Umrao Singh Bhati, ruler of Dadri and a leader of 1857 rebellion Later 19th and 20th centuries Acharya Narendra Dev, socialist Asaf Ali, independence fighter Chandra Shekhar Azad, leader of Hindustan Socialist Republican Association Ashfaqullah Khan of Kakori, independence fighter; member of Hindustan Socialist Republican Association; close associate of Bhagat Singh and Chandrashekhar Azad Chittu Pandey, independence fighter Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi, independence fighter, journalist Govind Ballabh Pant, Indian independence fighter and politician; Chief Minister of the United Provinces; Bharat Ratna recipient Hasrat Mohani, independence fighter and poet Laxmi Raman Acharya, freedom fighter accused of the Agra Conspiracy case Mahavir Singh Rathore, independence fighter; member of Naujawan Bharat Sabha who helped Bhagat Singh escape Mahavir Tyagi, independence fighter Maulana Mohammad Ali, independence fighter Maulana Shaukat Ali, independence fighter Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, independence fighter, Ghazipur Munishwar Dutt Upadhyay of Pratapgarh, Indian Independence fighter; two time Member of Parliament Purushottam Das Tandon, independence fighter Roshan Singh, (Kakori conspiracy) independence fighter Rafi Ahmed Kidwai, Indian independence fighter and socialist Raja Mahendra Pratap, King of Hathras Princely State, known as Aryan Peshwa Rajendra Lahiri, independence fighter Ram Manohar Lohia, socialist Ram Prasad Bismil Indian independence fighter and socialist (Kakori conspiracy) Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, freedom fighter. Vijay Singh Pathik Award winners Param Vir Chakra Company Quartermaster Havildar Abdul Hamid, Ghazipur Captain Manoj Kumar Pandey Naik Jadu Nath Singh Rathore Shahjahan pur, fighter of World War II and Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948 Captain Yogendra Singh Yadav, of Aurangabad, Bulandshahr; hero of Tiger Hill in Kargil war Maha Vir Chakra Brigadier Mohammad Usman Azamgarh Captain Mahendra Nath Mulla Lance Naik Ram Ugrah Pandey Air Chief Marshall Swaroop Krishna Kaul Ashok Chakra Constable Kamlesh Kumari Naik Neeraj Kumar Singh Lieutenant Colonel Harsh Uday Singh Gaur Lieutenant Colonel Jas Ram Singh Bharat Ratna Bhagwan Das, philosopher and freedom fighter, Varanasi Jawaharlal Nehru, leader of the Indian independence movement; first Prime Minister of India Lal Bahadur Shastri, freedom fighter, former Prime Minister; belonged to Varanasi and Allahabad Rajrishi Purushottam Das Tandon, freedom fighter, Allahabad Ravi Shankar, sitar maestro, Ghazipur Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya, educationist and politician, founder of Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi Atal Bihari Vajpayee, politician, eleventh Prime Minister of India Padma Vibhushan Ustad Ghulam Mustafa Khan Amitabh Bachchan Kishan Maharaj Uday Shankar Kalyan Singh Mulayam Singh Yadav Padma Bhushan Dhyan Chand, international hockey player Ustad Ghulam Mustafa Khan Amitabh Bachchan, film actor Mahesh Prasad Mehray, ophthalmologist Bhagwati Charan Varma, Hindi author Irfan Habib, historian Josh Malihabadi, poet Kishan Maharaj, tabla maestro Obaid Siddiqui, science Qurratulain Hyder, author Rahul Sankrityayan Ram Kinkar Upadhyay, scholar Srilal Shukla, Hindi writer Naushad, music director Padma Shree Bekal Utsahi poet, writer Giriraj Kishore writer Gopaldas Neeraj, Hindi poet and lyricist Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman, scholar of Unani medicine Hamid Ansari, Vice President of India K. P. Saxena, writer Kanhai Chitrakar Kapil Deva Dvivedi Kunwar Digvijay Singh Babu, hockey Olympian Mohammed Shahid, ex-captain of Indian hockey team, Varanasi Muzaffar Ali, film director Prakash Singh Praveen Chandra, cardiac surgeon Vidya Niwas Mishra, writer Yogiraj Bharat Bhushan, only Padmashri awardee yogi; founder director of Mokshayatan International Yogashram at Saharanpur Ravindra Jain, singer, music composer, lyricst Malini Awasthi Usha Yadav, Educationist Anil K. Rajvanshi, Grassroot research Dada Saheb Phalke Award Majrooh Sultanpuri, lyricist Naushad Ali, music composer Amitabh Bachchan, film actor, film producer, television host, occasional playback singer Gyananpith Awards Akhlaq Mohammed Khan Ali Sardar Jafri, writer and poet Amarkant Firaq Gorakhpuri, poet Mahadevi Verma, poet Qurratulain Hyder, writer Sri Lal Sukla Magasaysay Award Rajendra Singh, water conservationist Sandeep Pandey Arjuna Award Abhinn Shyam Gupta, badminton Ashish Kumar, gymnastics Narsingh Yadav, Wrestler Satish Kumar Yadav, Boxer Jagbir Singh, hockey Moraad Ali Khan, shooter Syed Modi, badminton Varun Bhati, Major DhyanChand Award Rajkumar Baisla, (Wrestling) from Vill. Mewla Bhatti, Ghaziabad Science and medicine Anil K. Rajvanshi, sustainability and rural development expert Afroz Ahmad, environmental scientist and administrator Harish-Chandra (Mehrotra), mathematician who did fundamental work in representation theory, especially harmonic analysis on semisimple Lie groups Atul Kumar, CSIR-CDRI (inventor of anti-osteoporosis drug) Lalji Singh, molecular biologist P. K . Sethi, inventor of the Jaipur foot Prem Chand Pandey, scientist, physicist, meteorologist, oceanographer Raj Vir Singh Yadav Kazi Mobin-Uddin, inventor of Inferior vena cava filter Shahid Jameel, Indian virologist Hassan Nasiem Siddiquie, Indian marine geologist and former director of the National Institute of Oceanography. Mriganka Sur, Indian-born neuroscientist working in the United States Digvijai Singh Jhillu Singh Yadav, Chemist Sri Niwas, Indian geophysicist. Nishith Gupta, molecular biologist Salimuzzaman Siddiqui, organic chemist specialising in natural product chemistry Rajendra K. Pachauri, chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Ravindra Khattree, Distinguished Professor and statistician who worked in statistical inference, multivariate analysis, experimental designs, biostatistics and quality control Syed Ziaur Rahman, medical pharmacologist Rajeev Kumar Varshney, agricultural scientist, genomics specialist, biotechnologist Zahoor Qasim, oceanographer, leader of first Indian expedition to Antarctica Science and Technology Dinesh Kunwar Patel, innovator and developer of world's most languages speaking humanoid Robot Shalu. Shalini Kapoor, India's first woman IBM Fellow Vijay Shekhar Sharma, Founder & CEO of Paytm Holders of high offices President Mohammad Hidayatullah, Acting President of India Ram Nath Kovind, 14th President of India Vice president Gopal Swarup Pathak, former Vice-President of India Mohammad Hidayatullah, former Vice-President of India Hamid Ansari, former Vice-President of India Prime ministers Jawaharlal Nehru, first Prime Minister of India and Bharat Ratna awardee Lal Bahadur Shastri, second Prime Minister of India and Bharat Ratna awardee Indira Gandhi, fourth Prime Minister of India and Bharat Ratna awardee Choudhary Charan Singh, fifth Prime Minister of India Rajiv Gandhi, sixth prime minister of India and Bharat Ratna awardee Vishwanath Pratap Singh, eighth Prime Minister of India Chandra Shekhar, ninth Prime Minister of India Atal Bihari Vajpayee. eleventh Prime Minister of India and Bharat Ratna awardee Prime Ministers of other Countries Anerood Jugnauth, former Prime Minister of Mauritius, His grand father migrated from Ballia district Pravind Jugnauth, Prime Minister of Mauritius, Son of Anerood Jugnauth President of Other Countries Anerood Jugnauth, former President of Mauritius, his grand father migrated from Ballia district, Governors A R Kidwai, former Governor of Haryana Girish Chandra Saxena, former Governor of Jammu & Kashmir K.M. Seth, former Governor of Chhattisgarh Kalyan Singh, Governor of Rajasthan Khurshid Alam Khan, former Governor of Karnataka Mohammad Fazal, former Governor of Maharashtra Mohammad Yunus Saleem, former Governor of Bihar Ram Naresh Yadav, former Governor of Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh Syed Sibtey Razi, Governor of Jharkhand Triloki Nath Chaturvedi, former CAG and former Governor of Karnataka Virendra Verma, former Governor of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh Kalraj Mishra, Governor of Rajasthan and former Governor Himanchal Pradesh Satya Pal Malik, former Governor of Meghalaya, Odisha, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, Goa Chief Justices Kailas Nath Wanchoo, former Chief Justice of India Kamal Narain Singh, former Chief Justice of India Mirza Hameedullah Beg, former Chief Justice of India Mohammad Hidayatullah, former Chief Justice of India Raghunandan Swarup Pathak, former Chief Justice of India V. N. Khare, former Chief Justice of India Chief Ministers Muhammad Ahmad Said Khan Chhatari Govind Ballabh Pant Sampurnanand Sucheta Kripalani Chandra Bhanu Gupta Choudhary Charan Singh Tribhuvan Narain Singh Kamalapati Tripathi Hemvati Nandan Bahuguna Narayan Dutt Tiwari Ram Naresh Yadav Banarsi Das Babulal Gaur, former Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh Vishwanath Pratap Singh Sripati Mishra Vir Bahadur Singh Mulayam Singh Yadav Kalyan Singh Ram Prakash Gupta Rajnath Singh Mayawati Akhilesh Yadav Yogi Adityanath Political figures Pre Independence Govind Ballabh Pant Jawaharlal Nehru Motilal Nehru, Indian National Congress leader Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, former President of Indian National Congress Munishwar Dutt Upadhyay Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya Rai Rajeshwar Bali, education minister (1924–1928) Sampurnanand Swami Sahajanand Saraswati Post Independence Ajai Rai, 5 time MLA from Varanasi Akhilesh Das, union minister Akhilesh Yadav Amar Mani Arif Mohammad Khan, political leader Bacha Pathak, 7 time MLA from Bansdih constituency, 2 time cabinet minister in Uttar Pradesh government Beni Prasad Verma, former minister and leader Chandra Shekhar, former prime minister of India Chaudhary Ajit Singh, political leader Choudhary Charan Singh Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Devendra Nath Dwivedi, Indian politician and Governor designate of Gujarat Dinanath Bhaskar, political leader; former minister Feroze Gandhi Govind Ballabh Pant Hemvati Nandan Bahuguna Indira Gandhi Kalyan Singh, UP CM and Rajasthan Governor; BJP Vice President K.C. Tyagi Kailash Nath Katju, former Union Home Minister and lawyer Kalpnath Rai Kamal Nath, politician Kamlesh Paswan, politician Kamlesh Tiwari, founder of Hindu Samaj Party, who insulted Muhammad, was imprisoned, and murdered after his release Kamalapati Tripathi Laxmi Raman Acharya Mahendra Singh Tikait, Kisan leader Manohar Lal (b. 1938), UP MLA, cabinet minister Mohsina Kidwai Mulayam Singh Yadav, former Defence Minister of India, former Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh, founder of Samajwadi Party Mayawati, former Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh Narayan Dutt Tiwari Om Prakash Singh, Former chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh and Uttrakhand Prakash Vir Shastri, member of Parliament and advocate of the Arya Samaj movement Rafi Ahmed Kidwai Raj Babbar, member of Parliament Raj Narain Raja Bhaiya, MLA Rajeev Shukla, journalist and political leader Rajendra Kumari Bajpai (1925–1999), former cabinet minister Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Gandhian, first lady Minister of India Ram Govind Chaudhary Ram Chandra Vikal, Deputy Chief Minister Ram Manohar Lohia Ram Naresh Yadav Sanjay Singh, King of Amethi Satyapal Singh Yadav, former union minister Satyaveer Munna Sheila Kaul Shriprakash Jaiswal, union minister Shiv Pratap Shukla, Member of Parliament (Rajya Sabha), Minister of state (finance), former Cabinet Minister (Government of Uttar Pradesh) Shyama Charan Gupta, politician, entrepreneur Shyamlal Yadav, former union minister and Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha Sunder Lal Suresh Pasi, ministries of housing, vocational education, skill development Thakur Ji Pathak, activist, Indian political leader Vishwanath Pratap Singh, 7th prime minister of India Authors Hindi Acharya Chatursen (1891–1960), Hindi writer Acharya Kuber Nath Rai Amitabh Thakur Hindi writer Amritlal Nagar, Hindi writer Ayodhya Prasad Upadhyay, Hindi writer Babu Gulabrai, Hindi writer Baldev Upadhyaya, Hindi scholar and writer Bhagwati Charan Verma, Hindi writer Bharatendu Harishchandra, Hindi writer Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, Hindi novelist Jaishankar Prasad, Hindi writer Kashi Nath Singh, Hindi writer Mahapandit Rahul Sankrityayan, polyglot Malik Muhammad Jayasi, author of Padmavat Munshi Prem Chand, novelist Rahi Masoom Raza, author of Topi Shukla and Adha Gaon Rajendra Yadav, Hindi novelist Ramchandra Shukla, Hindi writer and historian Parichay Das, essayist, poet, critic Ravindra Prabhat, Hindi novelist Sachchidananda Hirananda Vatsyayan Shrilal Shukla, writer of Raag Darbari Sri Krishna Rai Hridyesh Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, author of books on sociology, religion, freedom struggle, peasant movement, and autobiography Vibhuti Narain Rai, Hindi writer Vidya Niwas Mishra, Hindi scholar Vinod Kumar Shukla, writer Vishnu Sarma, author of Panchtantra Viveki Rai Yashpal, Hindi writer Urdu Firaq Gorakhpuri Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman, author of books on Unani medicine Ibne Safi, novelist of Jasoosi Duniya Ismat Chugtai, writer Mirza Hadi Ruswa, author of Umrao Jaan Qurratulain Hyder, writer of Aag Ka Darya English Leema Dhar, novelist, poet and columnist Attia Hosain, English author and journalist Ajay K. Pandey, English author Anil Swarup, English author Nayantara Sahgal, novelist and writer Allan Sealy, novelist and writer Vikas Swarup, author of Q&A Ruchita Misra, author Poets Urdu Akbar Allahabadi, poet Ali Sardar Jafri, Urdu poet Bekal Utsahi, Urdu poet Brij Narayan Chakbast, Urdu poet Daya Shankar Kaul Nasim, Urdu poet Firaq Gorakhpuri, Urdu poet, winner of Jnanpith award Hasrat Mohani, Urdu poet Jigar Moradabadi, Urdu poet Josh Malihabadi, Urdu poet Kaifi Azmi, Urdu and Hindi lyricist, poet and songwriter Khumar Barabankvi, Urdu poet Majaz, Urdu poet Majrooh Sultanpuri, poet and lyricist Maulana Hali, Urdu poet, biographer of Ghalib's life, and a commentator of his poetry Mir Anis, Urdu Marsiya poet Mir Taqi Mir Mirza Ghalib, classical Urdu and Persian poet A. M. Turaz, Poet & Film writer Safi Lakhnavi, Urdu poet Zaigham, Urdu poet who migrated to Bengal Hindi Acharya Kuber Nath Rai, Lit Nibandh Ayodhya Prasad Upadhyay Gopal Das Neeraj, Hindi poet Guru Bhakt Singh 'Bhakt' Harikrishna Prasad Gupta Agrahari, poet Harivansh Rai Bachchan, writer and poet Jaishankar Prasad, one of the four major pillars of the Chhayavaadi school of Hindi Kaka Hathrasi, humorous poet Virendra Kumar Baranwal, writer of Jinnah: ek punardrishti Kedarnath Singh Kumar Vishwas, Hindi Poet Mahadevi Varma, a major poet of the Chhayavaadi generation, a period of romanticism in modern Hindi poetry; won the Jnanpith award in 1982 Maithilisharan Gupt, modern Hindi poet Ramashankar Yadav, Hindi Poet Shivmangal Singh Suman Subhadra Kumari Chauhan Sumitranandan Pant, one of the four major pillars of the Chhayavaadi school of Hindi Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala' Bhojpuri Parichay Das Viveki Rai Founders of educational institutions Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, founder of Aligarh Muslim University Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, founder of Banaras Hindu University Jagdish Gandhi, founder of the City Montessori School Defence services Army Abdul Hamid, four Grenadiers, Indian Army, Param Vir Chakra recipient Brigadier Mohammad Usman, recipient of Maha Vir Chakra K.M. Seth Lt. General Zameerud-din Shah Manoj Kumar Pandey, 11 Gorkha Rifles of the Indian Army, Param Vir Chakra recipient Yogendra Singh Yadav, 18th Grenadiers of the Indian Army, Param Vir Chakra recipient Asaram Tyagi, Mahavir Chakra in Indo-Pak war of 1965 Air Force S.K. Kaul, Air Chief Marshal (Retd) Trevor Keelor IAF, Vir Chakra winner in Indo-Pak war of 1965 Denzil Keelor IAF, Air Marshall (Retd), Vir Chakra winner; Kirti Chakra recipient Norman Anil Kumar Browne, Air Chief Marshal (Retd) S.P. Tyagi, Air Chief Marshal (Retd) Rakesh Kumar Singh Bhadauria, Air Chief Marshal, 26th Chief of the Air Staff (India) Navy Captain Mahendra Nath Mulla Civil service / diplomacy Indian Foreign Service Asaf Ali, first Indian Ambassador to the United States Braj Kumar Nehru, Indian diplomat and Ambassador of India to the United States Girija Shankar Bajpai, first Secretary-General of Foreign Affairs Shilendra Kumar Singh, former Foreign Secretary of India; former Governor of Rajasthan and Arunachal Pradesh Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, Indian diplomat and politician; sister of Jawaharlal Nehru Civil services Afroz Ahmad, member of NCA, Government of India Baleshwar Rai Chandrika Prasad Srivastava, bureaucrat Dharma Vira, ICS, cabinet secretary and governor of West Bengal, Mysore Durga Shanker Mishra Isha Basant Joshi, first woman to be appointed an IAS officer Neera Yadav Vinod Rai, CAG Vinod Kumar Yadav, first CEO of Railway Board Wajahat Habibullah, Chief Information Commissioner of India Indian Police Service Brij Lal Girish Bihari Jagmohan Yadav Manoj Yadava Mukul Goel Navniet Sekera Prakash Singh Shrish Chandra Dikshit Sulkhan Singh Laxmi Singh Music and dance Musicians Ashutosh Bhattacharya (1917–2004), tabla player Begum Akhtar, ghazal singer Bismillah Khan, shehnai player, awarded the Bharat Ratna (2001) Cliff Richard, English singer Gopal Shankar Misra, vichitra veena player Hari Prasad Chaurasia, bansuri player Kishan Maharaj, tabla player Lalmani Misra, Indian classical musician Naushad Ali, music director; awarded the Dadasaheb Phalke Award for his contributions to Indian cinema Ravi Shankar, sitar player, awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1999; recipient of three Grammy awards Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande, musicologist Vikash Maharaj sarod player, awarded the Karmveer, Shiromai, Manishi Ratn. Singers Abhijeet Bhattacharya, from Kanpur Ankit Tiwari, from Kanpur Ravindra Jain Anup Jalota, Ghazal and Bhajan singer Girija Devi, Indian singer and represents the Banaras Gharana of singers Harshit Saxena, singer Kailash Kher, from Meerut Kanika Kapoor, from Lucknow Purshottam Das Jalota (1925–2011), bhajan singer, Padma Shri (2004) Sharafat Hussain Khan, from Atrauli Shubha Mudgal, singer Siddheshwari Devi, Hindustani singer from Banares, known as Maa (mother) Talat Mahmood, ghazal singer Folk Singers Baleshwar Yadav Bihari Lal Yadav Hiralal Yadav Malini Awasthi Rappers Hard Kaur, from Kanpur Baba Sehgal Dancers Birju Maharaj, Kathak exponent Lachhu Maharaj, Kathak exponent Kapila Vatsyayan, scholar of Indian classical dance Sitara Devi Uday Shankar Sports Hockey Dhyan Chand, former international field hockey player, awarded the Padma Bhushan Zafar Iqbal, former international captain of the Indian hockey team and Chief coach of Indian hockey team K. D. Singh, former national hockey player and Olympian Mohammed Shahid, former international field hockey player; member of the Indian team that won a gold medal at the 1980 Olympic Games in Moscow; awarded Arjuna Award in 1980 and Padma Shri in 1986 Jagbir Singh, captain and member of National Hockey team in 1988 and 1992 Olympics; awarded Arjuna Award in 1990 Baseball Rinku Singh, one of the first two Indians to sign a professional baseball contract in the United States Dinesh Patel, one of the first two Indians to sign a professional baseball contract in the United States Wrestling Anuj Chaudhary Divya Kakran Narsingh Yadav Sandeep Tulsi Yadav Cricket Arun Lal, former Test cricketer Ashish Zaidi, cricketer Obaid Kamal, cricketer Bhuvneshwar Kumar, international cricketer Chetan Chauhan, former Test cricketer Deepti Sharma, International cricketer Gyanendra Pandey, cricketer Hemlata Kala, member of Indian women's cricket team Manoj Prabhakar, cricketer Meghna Singh, International Cricketer Mohammed Kaif, international cricketer Mohammed Shami, international cricketer Narendra Hirwani Piyush Chawla Poonam Yadav, International Cricketer Priyam Garg Praveen Kumar Parvinder Awana R. P. Singh, Rae Bareli (U.P.), international cricketer Swapnil Singh, Rae Bareli (U.P.) Rajinder Hans Raman Lamba Rohan Gavaskar Sudip Tyagi Suresh Raina, international cricketer Suryakumar Yadav, international cricketer Surinder Amarnath Umesh Yadav, Deoria (U.P.), Indian cricketer Kuldeep Yadav, cricketer Shivam Mavi, cricketer Shubham Mavi Vijay Yadav, international cricketer Yashasvi Jaiswal, cricketer Badminton Abhinn Shyam Gupta, former national badminton champion Syed Modi, former national badminton champion Other sports Abhishek Yadav, footballer Annu Raj Singh, shooter Arjun Bhati, golfer Ghaus Mohammad, tennis player, the first Indian to reach quarterfinal of The Championships, Wimbledon Jaspal Rana, shooter Jitu Rai, shooter Moraad Ali Khan, shooter Nitin Tomar, Kabaddi Pawan Gupta (wushu), sanda fighter Punam Yadav, weightlifting Ram Singh Yadav, Marathon runner, represented India at the 2012 Summer Olympics Saurabh Chaudhary, shooter Satish Kumar, Boxing Varun Singh Bhati, para athlete Journalism Aniruddha Bahal, investigative journalist Arun Nehru, former minister and columnist Dharamvir Bharati, former editor of Dharamyug magazine Feroze Gandhi, managing editor of National Herald Manikonda Chalapathi Rau, Indian journalist and an authority on Nehruvian thought Narendra Mohan, Dainik Jagran Pankaj Mishra, journalist Parichay Das, writer, essayist, poet and editor of contemporary Bhojpuri poetry Raghuvir Sahay, editor of Dinmaan Ram Bahadur Rai, magazine editor Saeed Naqvi, journalist and TV producer Sahu Ramesh Chandra Jain, Times of India and Navbharat Times Surendra Pratap Singh, editor of Ravivar Vinod Mehta, editor Satire, comedy, cartoons Akbar Allahabadi, poet and satirist K. P. Saxena Kaak (b. 1940, Harish Chandra Shukla), cartoonist Kaka Hathrasi, satirist Rajpal Yadav, actor and comedian Raju Srivastava, actor and stand up comedian Tuntun, comedian Cinema and theatre Actors and actresses Amir Khan, actor; parents from Hardoi Aarun Nagar, actor and director Anushka Sharma, actress Disha Patani, actress Jimmy Shergill, actor Abhishek Bachchan, actor Urvashi Rautela, actor Ankit Tiwari, singer Mika Singh, singer Nawazuddin Siddiqui, actor Achint Kaur, Indian television actress Aditi Sharma, Bollywood actress Aditya Srivastava, actor and voiceover artist Akshay Oberoi, actor Ali Fazal, actor Amit Sial, Bollywood Amitabh Bachchan, Bollywood actor awarded the Padma Bhushan in 2001 Anushka Sharma Archana Puran Singh, actress Arun Govil Ashutosh Rana, Indian film actor Chandrachur Singh, actor Dinesh Lal Yadav, Bhojpuri Actor Disha Patani, actress from Bareilly Lara Dutta Pooja Batra Jimmy Shergill Rajpal Yadav Javed Jaffrey Dalip Tahil Zohra Segal Vivek Mushran Raj Babbar Tom Alter Kumar Gaurav Raza Murad Chunky Pandey Mandakini Nivedita Bhattacharya Dipti Bhatnagar Kamal Rashid Khan Nandini Singh Jaddanbai, actor K.N. Singh, actor Kadar Khan, actor Marc Zuber, actor Meenakshi Dixit, actress from Rae Bareli Naseeruddin Shah, actor; born in Barabanki district of Lucknow division, U.P. Nawazuddin Siddiqui, actor Nimmi, film actress in the 1950s Ravi Kishan, Bhojpuri film actor Saurabh Shukla, Bollywood actor Shweta Tiwari, Indian television actress Siddharth Nigam, Indian teen actor Sonal Chauhan, Bollywood actress Surinder Pal, actor Sushant Singh, actor Tanveer Zaidi, actor, educationist Tuntun, comedy actress Vedita Pratap Singh, model and actress Vishwajeet Pradhan, Bollywood actor Vineet Kumar Singh, actor Zakir Hussain, Indian film actor Zoya Afroz, Bollywood actress Harsh Nagar, Bollywood actor Directors/producers Aarun Nagar, director Abhinav Kashyap, director Abhishek Chaubey, director Anurag Kashyap, director Farhan Akhtar, director Gajendra Singh, editor, director and producer K. Asif, film director, film producer and screenwriter Kamal Amrohi, director Prakash Mehra, director Prasoon Pandey, director Shaad Ali, film director Tigmanshu Dhulia, director Vishal Bhardwaj, director Zoya Akhtar, director Singers Ankit Tiwari, singer Abhijeet Bhattacharya, singer Ravindra Jain Anup Jalota Baba Sehgal Kavita Seth Begum Akhtar Hemanta Kumar Mukhopadhyay Kabban Mirza Malini Awasthi Kanika Kapoor Rajkumari Dubey Sunidhi Chauhan Talat Mahmood Lyricists Ali Sardar Jafri Ravindra Jain Anjaan Indeevar Javed Akhtar Kaifi Azmi Khumar Barabankvi Majrooh Sultanpuri Sameer Shakeel Badayuni Manoj Muntashir Santosh Anand A. M. Turaz Amitabh Bhattacharya Composers Anand Milind Naushad Ali Shantanu Moitra Theatre Arvind Gaur Nadira Babbar Sushil Kumar Singh Cinematographers Ravikant Nagaich Story/script/dialogue writers Javed Siddiqi, film script writer K. P. Saxena, dialogue writer of Lagaan, Swades S. Ali Raza Wajahat Mirza Navratnas Raja Todar Mal, Finance Minister and one of the Navratnas of Akbar Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana, Hindi poet and a Navratna of Akbar Birbal, jester and poet of Akbar's court Television Pavitra Punia Aditya Srivastava Gajendra Singh, conceived the concept of the reality show in 1992 with Antakshari and Sa Re Ga Ma Rahi Masoom Raza, dialogue writer of TV serial Ramayan Raju Srivastav Surendra Pal, character actor, best known for playing Dronacharaya in Mahabharat. Harsh Nagar, actor in various films and TV serials Environmentalists Billy Arjan Singh, conservationist Afroz Ahmad Scholars Arun Tiwari, missile scientist, author, professor Acharya Narendra Dev Adya Prasad Pandey, notable economist of Banaras Hindu University and Currently Vice Chancellor of Manipur University Masud Husain Khan, eminent linguist; first Professor Emeritus in Social Sciences at Aligarh Muslim University; fifth Vice-Chancellor of Jamia Millia Islamia, a central university in New Delhi Mushirul Hasan, historian Raja Ram Yadav, educationist, Physicist, former Vice Chancellor of Veer Bahadur Singh Purvanchal University Renu Khator, Chancellor of the University of Houston System; President of the University of Houston; first Indian American to lead a major research university in the United States Saket Kushwaha, educationist and agricultural economist of Banaras Hindu University, currently Vice Chancellor of Rajiv Gandhi University, former Vice Chancellor of Lalit Narayan Mithila University Shah Syed Hasnain Baqai, Islamic scholar, thinker, reformer; known for his inclusive and broadminded interpretation of Islam; born in Safipur Fine arts Aman Singh Gulati, world's first almond artist Gogi Saroj Pal Ram Chandra Shukla, painter Business Sumit Jain, entrepreneur, co-founder and CEO Opentalk.to \| Co-Founder and ex-CEO Commonfloor.com Gajendra Singh, CMD Saaibaba Telefilms; founder of Ganga Gauri Mahavidyalaya, Ramnagar, Baijabari, Azamgarh K.P. Singh, president of DLF Universal Group Shyama Charan Gupta, founder of Shyam Group Subroto Roy, founder of Sahara India Vinod Gupta, former CEO and chairman of InfoUSA; founder of Vinod Gupta School of Management, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur Surendra Singh Nagar Vijay Shekhar Sharma, founder and CEO of Paytm Chairperson of Paras Milk Pvt. Ltd. Crime Abu Salem, underworld criminal Atique Ahmad, politician turned criminal Chavviram Singh Yadav, dacoit Daku Man Singh, dacoit Mukhtar Ansari, Ex MLA Munna Bajrangi Nirbhay Gujjar, dacoit Phoolan Devi, dacoit turned politician Shri Prakash Shukla, gangster Dadua, dacoit Photographers Lala Deen Dayal, Indian photographer Tarun Khiwal (born 1967), Indian fashion and commercial photographer Militants Abdul Subhan Qureshi Others Abdul Karim, Munshi to Queen Victoria Begum Samru, historical figure Deep Tyagi, pioneer of family planning programme in India Jaichand of Kannauj, historical figure Tabassum Mansoor, Indian educationist in Libya Rahul Mishra (born 1979), fashion designer Sampat Pal Devi, women's rights activist Sheila Dikshit, former Chief Minister of Delhi Vinod Rai, former CAG and IAS See also List of people by India state List of people from Purvanchal States and territories of India Notes Uttar Pradesh
401739	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20from%20West%20Bengal	List of people from West Bengal	This is a list of notable people from West Bengal, India. This list does not include the significant number of prominent East Bengali refugees from East Bengal who settled in West Bengal after the partition of the Indian sub-continent in 1947. Literature Major figures Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay Manik Bandopadhyay Tarasankar Bandyopadhyay Rajshekhar Basu Shibram Chakraborty Amiya Chakravarty Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay Pramatha Chaudhuri Mahasweta Devi Michael Madhusudan Dutt Sudhindranath Dutta Kazi Nazrul Islam Annada Shankar Ray Satyajit Ray Narayan Sanyal Rabindranath Tagore Children's story writers Sasthipada Chattopadhyay Shibram Chakraborty Upendrakishore Ray Chowdhury Narayan Debnath Narayan Gangopadhyay Sunil Gangopadhyay Leela Majumdar Samaresh Majumdar Premendra Mitra Shirshendu Mukhopadhyay Moti Nandi Satyajit Ray Sukumar Ray Hemendra Kumar Roy Syed Mustafa Siraj Medieval Bengal literary scene Chandidas Kashiram Das Govindadasa Krishnadasa Kaviraja Krittibas Ojha Bharatchandra Ray Vidyapati Other authors from early modern period Akshay Kumar Baral Ghulam Mustafa Burdwani Romesh Chunder Dutt Anil Kumar Gain Ishwar Chandra Gupta Peary Chand Mitra Parijat (writer) Indra Bahadur Rai Dwijendralal Ray Kaliprasanna Singha Jyotirindranath Tagore Swami Vivekananda Prominent foreign-language authors from Bengal Sri Aurobindo Anirban Bhattacharyya Upamanyu Chatterjee Amit Chaudhuri Souhardya De Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni Toru Dutt Kaberi Gayen Amitav Ghosh Jhumpa Lahiri Pritish Nandy Other authors from early/mid-twentieth century and some contemporary authors Ekram Ali Jatindramohan Bagchi Tarasankar Bandyopadhyay Subimal Basak Abul Bashar Sukanta Bhattacharya Nachiketa Chakraborty Nirendranath Chakravarty Shibram Chakraborty Sandipan Chattopadhyay Sanjib Chattopadhyay Shakti Chattopadhyay Malay Roy Choudhury Salil Chowdhury Alokeranjan Dasgupta Buddhadeb Dasgupta Mahasweta Devi Anil Kumar Gain Kaberi Gayen Narayan Gangopadhyay Joy Goswami Prabir Ghosh Santosh Kumar Ghosh Shankha Ghosh Subodh Ghosh Buddhadeb Guha Baby Halder Syed Kawsar Jamal Bimal Kar Binoy Majumdar Samaresh Majumdar Arun Mitra Bimal Mitra Narendranath Mitra Bibhutibhushan Mukhopadhyay Subhash Mukhopadhyay Kumud Ranjan Mullick Moti Nandi Purnendu Pattrea Dilipkumar Roy Samir Roychoudhury Narayan Sanyal Subodh Sarkar Jatindranath Sengupta Mallika Sengupta Shankar Journalists Ekram Ali Tamal Bandyopadhyay Mrinal Chatterjee Ramananda Chatterjee Sunanda K. Datta-Ray Kaberi Gayen Tushar Kanti Ghosh Chandan Mitra Moti Nandi Pritish Nandy Sukumar Ray Barun Sengupta Language/linguistics, anthropology, history, and other social sciences Raja Ram Mohan Roy, first Bengali prose writer Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, creator of Standard Bengali prose (sadhu bhasha) Bhudev Mukhopadhyay, earliest educationist Anil Kumar Gain, fellow of the Royal Society Rajendralal Mitra, first Indian to work with Indologists Haraprasad Shastri, historian of Bengali language and culture Dinesh Chandra Sen, historian of Bengali literature and folklorist Pramatha Chaudhuri, creator of modern Bengali prose (chalit bhasha) along with Tagore Sir Jadunath Sarkar, historian Rajsekhar Bose, major contributor for scientific terms in Bengali and lexicographer Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, historian Ramesh Chandra Dutta, historian Girindrasekhar Bose, first non-European correspondent of Freud Suniti Kumar Chatterjee, linguist Harinath De, linguist Biraja Sankar Guha, anthropologist Sukumar Sen, linguist Susobhan Sarkar, historian Nirmal Kumar Bose, anthropologist, associate of Gandhi Niharranjan Ray, historian Dineshchandra Sircar, epigraphist Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya, social philosopher Surajit Chandra Sinha, anthropologist Haricharan Bandopadhayaya, lexicographer Tapan Raychaudhuri, professor of history at Oxford University Amartya Sen, Nobel Prize awardee in Economics Ranajit Guha, subaltern theorist Sumit Sarkar, historian Kirti Narayan Chaudhuri, historian Maniklal Sinha, novelist, historian and archaeologist of west Rarh Gayatri Spivak, feminist Vina Mazumdar, women's studies academic Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri, Indian historian Scholars and polymaths Radhakanta Deb, linguist Asima Chatterjee, scholar of chemistry Anil Kumar Gain, scholar, mathematician Ramendra Sundar Tribedi, scientist Amlan Datta, economist, Vice Chancellor of Visva Bharati Prithwindra Mukherjee, scholar of Indian history, philosophy, religion and culture Suniti Kumar Chatterji, linguist Education Pioneers Girish Chandra Bose Anil Kumar Gain Ashutosh Mukherjee Satish Chandra Mukherjee Begum Rokeya Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar Post-independence Sudhi Ranjan Das, Chief Justice of India, Vice-chancellor of Visva Bharati Others Mahesh Chandra Nyayratna Bhattacharyya Teachers Katyayanidas Bhattacharya, philosophy, Presidency College Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya, philosophy, University of Calcutta Barun De, history, Presidency College K. C. Nag, mathematics, Mitra institution Susobhan Sarkar, history, Presidency College Babar Ali, the world's youngest headmaster, Headmaster & Founder of Ananda Siksha Niketan Philosophy Pre-modern period Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (Achintya Bhedabheda Vedanta) born in Nabadwip of Nadia district to parents who hailed from Sylhet in present day Bangladesh Madhusudana Saraswati (Advaita Vedanta), born in Kotalipara, Gopalganj District in present day Bangladesh & studied at Nabadwip in Nadia district Raghunatha Siromani (Navya Nyaya) from Nabadwip Modern age Chandril Bhattacharya, born in Kolkata Krishna Chandra Bhattacharya born in Serampore in Howrah district Anukulchandra Chakravarty born in Pabna district in present day Bangladesh, worked & preached in Kolkata. After the Partition of India in 1947, he relocated to Deoghar Surendranath Dasgupta, born in Kusthia of present day Bangladesh which was then a part of Nadia before Partition of India, studied in Kolkata Bimal Krishna Matilal, born in Jaynagar Majilpur in South 24 Parganas district Amartya Sen, born in Shantiniketan in Birbhum District Keshab Chandra Sen born in Kolkata Rabindranath Tagore born in Kolkata Swami Vivekananda born in Kolkata Sri Aurobindo Science Sanghamitra Bandyopadhyay, computer scientist Somnath Bharadwaj, cosmology Santanu Bhattacharya, chemistry Manilal Bhaumik Satyendra Nath Bose Upendranath Brahmachari Bidyut Baran Chaudhuri, Computer scientist Anil Kumar Gain, mathematics Partha Ghose Sankar Ghosh P.C. Mahalanobis Dwijesh Dutta Majumdar, Computer scientist Ujjwal Maulik, computer scientist Ashesh Prosad Mitra Sisir Kumar Mitra Subhash Mukhopadhyay, physician Sankar Kumar Pal, Computer scientist Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri Anjali Roy, mycologist Subrata Roy, plasma physics Ram Brahma Sanyal, zoology Amartya Sen, Nobel Laureate, economist, Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences Ashoke Sen, physics Radhanath Sikdar Religious scholars Muslim Jalaluddin Tabrizi (13th-century) Gazi Pir (13th-century) Pir Gorachand (13th-century) Usman Serajuddin (1258–1357) Alaul Haq (1301–1384) Nur Qutb Alam (d. 1416) Fakhr ad-Din al-Burdwani (d. 1785) Ghulam Mustafa Burdwani (fl. 1780s) Shah Mehr Ali (1808–1868) Ubaidullah Al Ubaidi Suhrawardy (1832–1885) Azangachhi Shaheb (1828–1932) Mohammad Abu Bakr Siddique (1865–1943) Abdullah al-Baqi (1886–1952) Abbas Siddiqui (born 1987) Pre-modern period Chaitanya Mahaprabhu Nityananda Six Goswamis of Vrindavana Krishnananda Agamavagisha Ramprasad Sen The Brahmo Samaj Debendranath Tagore Raja Ram Mohan Roy Ram Chandra Vidyabagish Keshub Chunder Sen Anandamohan Bose Hindu revival movement Ramakrishna Sarada Devi Swami Vivekananda Sri Aurobindo Mid-twentieth-century religious figures A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada Paramahansa Yogananda Swami Sri Yukteswar Giri Lahiri Mahasaya Social reformation and social work Major figures Ram Mohan Roy Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar Keshab Chandra Sen Swami Vivekananda Protap Chunder Mozoomdar Anil Kumar Gain Nibaran Chandra Mukherjee Sri Sri Harichand Thakur Satish Chandra Mukherjee Dwarkanath Ganguly Derozians Ramtanu Lahiri Radhanath Sikdar Rajnarayan Basu Peary Chand Mitra Rasik Krishna Mallick Krishna Mohan Banerjee Madhusudan Dutta Hara Chandra Ghosh Ramgopal Ghosh Kishori Chand Mitra Women's rights Rani Rashmoni Kadambini Ganguly Chandramukhi Basu Kaberi Gain Sarala Devi Begum Rokeya Charulata Mukherjee Romola Sinha Military Subhas Chandra Bose, founder, Indian National Army General Jayanto Nath Chaudhuri, Indian Army Chief during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 Admiral Adhar Kumar Chatterji, Indian Navy Chief between 1966 and 1970. Air Commodore Sudhindra Kumar Majumdar (1927–2011), India's first military helicopter pilot Air Marshal Subroto Mukherjee, former Head of Indian Air Force Chief of the Air Staff Designate Arup Raha, 24th chief of Indian Air Force. Indra Lal Roy, first Indian (pre Independence) flying ace General Shankar Roychowdhury, former Indian Army Chief Flight Lieutenant Suhas Biswas, recipient of Ashoka Chakra Captain Man Bahadur Rai, recipient of Ashoka Chakra Air Vice Marshal Madhavendra Banerji, recipient of Maha Vir Chakra Art Early modern period Abanindranath Tagore Gaganendranath Tagore Nandalal Bose Kalipada Ghoshal Mukul Dey Jamini Roy Ramkinkar Baij Binode Bihari Mukherjee Sailoz Mookherjea From mid-twentieth century Anil Karanjai Bikash Bhattacharjee Chintamani Kar Ganesh Pyne Hemen Majumdar Jahar Dasgupta Jogen Chowdhury Paresh Maity Paritosh Sen Samir Mondal Somenath Hore Film and photography Dulal Dutta Subrata Mitra, cinematographer Indrani Pal-Chaudhuri, Satyajit Roy, filmmaker, screenwriter, author, illustrator, and music composer Music Composers Abbasuddin Ahmed Atulprasad Sen Anil Biswas Dwijendralal Ray Dilipkumar Roy Gouri Prasanna Majumdar Hemanta Mukherjee Kazi Nazrul Islam Kamal Dasgupta Kabir Suman Manabendra Mukhopadhyay Nachiketa Ghosh Raichand Boral Rajanikanta Sen Salil Chowdhury Sachin Dev Burman Sudhin Dasgupta Performers (instrumental) Allauddin Khan, sarod and multi-instrumentalist Ali Akbar Khan, sarod Annapurna Devi, surbahar Buddhadeb Dasgupta, sarod Manilal Nag, sitar Nikhil Banerjee, sitar Ravi Shankar, sitar Radhika Mohan Maitra, Sarod and Mohanveena Sankha Chatterjee, tabla Shankar Ghosh, tabla Pannalal Ghosh, flute Jnan Prakash Ghosh, Harmonium and tabla Performers (vocal) Classical Gopeshwar Banerjee Naina Devi Ajoy Chakrabarty, vocal Bishnupur Gharana Tarapada Chakraborty Kaushiki Chakraborty Songs of Tagore and his contemporaries Dinendranath Tagore Dilipkumar Roy Sahana Devi Amiya Tagore Renuka Dasgupta Malati Ghoshal Santidev Ghosh Debabrata Biswas Uma Bose Subinoy Roy Kanika Bandyopadhyay Suchitra Mitra Nilima Sen Gita Ghatak Sarmila Bose Indrani Sen Modern K. C. Dey Sachin Dev Burman Pankaj Kumar Mullick Kanan Devi Hemanta Mukherjee Sandhya Mukhopadhyay Amit Kumar Abhijeet Bhattacharya Bappi Lahiri Babul Supriyo Geeta Dutt Indrani Sen R D Burman Kishore Kumar Kumar Sanu Madhushree Kabir Suman Manna Dey Manabendra Mukherjee Mohammed Aziz Monali Thakur Nachiketa Chakraborty Ruma Guha Thakurta Shaan Silajit Majumder Shyamal Mitra Shreya Ghoshal Antara Chowdhury Srikanta Acharya Anjan Dutt Pritam Arijit Singh Rupam Islam Anupam Roy Nazrul geeti Indrani Sen Purabi Dutta Manabendra Mukhopadhyay Movies Directors Aniruddha Roy Chowdhury Anjan Dutt Anurag Basu Aparna Sen Basu Bhattacharya Basu Chatterjee Bimal Roy Buddhadeb Dasgupta Chidananda Dasgupta Debaki Bose Goutam Ghose Hrishikesh Mukherjee Mrinal Sen Mujibar Rahaman Pritish Chakraborty Prem Prakash Modi Raj Chakraborty Mohammad Mohsin Rituparno Ghosh Ritwik Ghatak Satyajit Ray Shiboprosad Mukherjee Shoojit Sircar Srijit Mukherji Sujit Mondal Sujoy Ghosh Supriyo Sen Suman Mukhopadhyay Tapan Sinha Tarun Majumdar Actors Abhishek Chatterjee Abir Chatterjee Anil Chatterjee Anirban Bhattacharya Ankush Hazra Apurva Agnihotri Arun Mukherjee Asit Sen Bhanu Bandopadhyay Biswajit Chakraborty Chhabi Biswas Chinmoy Roy Chiranjeet Chakraborty Dev Dhritiman Chatterjee Harindranath Chattopadhyay Hiran Chatterjee Jeet Jisshu Sengupta Joy Kumar Mukherjee Jayant Kripalani Kali Banerjee Kamal Mitra Keshto Mukherjee Lokesh Mir Afsar Ali Mithun Chakraborty Pahari Sanyal Parambrata Chatterjee Pradeep Kumar Pritish Chakraborty Priyanshu Prosenjit Chatterjee Rabi Ghosh Rahul Roy Ranjit Mallick Saswata Chatterjee Soumitra Chatterjee Subhendu Chatterjee Tapas Paul Tathagata Mukherjee Tulsi Chakraborty Utpal Datta Uttam Kumar Victor Banerjee Actresses Anita Guha Aparna Sen Arundhati Devi Chhaya Devi Debashree Roy Devika Rani Indrani Haldar Joya Ahsan June Malia Kananbala Kanan Devi Koel Mullick Madhabi Mukherjee Mala Sinha Mamata Shankar Mimi Chakraborty Nusrat Jahan Moon Moon Sen Moushmi Chatterji Pratyusha Banerjee Prema Narayan Raakhee Rachna Banerjee Raima Sen Reema Sen Rimi Sen Rituparna Sengupta Riya Sen Ruma Guha Thakurta Sabitri Chatterjee Sharmila Tagore Srabanti Chatterjee Subhashree Ganguly Suchitra Sen Sumita Sanyal Supriya Devi Sushmita Sen Varsha Ashwathi Cinematographer Avik Mukhopadhyay Baby Islam Binod Pradhan Kamal Bose Nemai Ghosh (director) Ramananda Sengupta Subrata Mitra Sudeep Chatterjee Supratim Bhol Editor Dulal Dutta Arghyakamal Mitra Rabiranjan Maitra Mainak Bhaumik Srijit Mukherji Dance Uday Shankar Amala Shankar Mamata Shankar Sharmila Biswas Doctors B.C. Roy S. K. Burman Subhash Mukhopadhyay Nilratan Sircar Radha Gobinda Kar Rafiuddin Ahmed (dentist) Upendranath Brahmachari Sambhu Nath De Kadambini Ganguly Tabitha Solomon Madhusudan Gupta Drama/theatre Girish Chandra Ghosh Dinabandhu Mitra Jyotirindranath Tagore Dwijendralal Ray Sisir Bhaduri Bijon Bhattacharya Shambhu Mitra Utpal Dutt Bibhas Chakraborty Rudraprasad Sengupta Badal Sarkar Usha Ganguly Manoj Mitra Ajitesh Bandopadhyay Debshankar Halder Magicians Ganapati Chakraborty P. C. Sorcar P. C. Sorcar Jr. P. C. Sorcar, Young Maneka Sorcar Politicians and revolutionaries Pre-modern Shashanka Gopala Dharmapala Devapala Mahipala Ballal Sen Lakshman Sen Colonial period Titumir Satyendranath Tagore Romesh Chunder Dutt Lord Satyendra Prasanna Sinha Nripendra Narayan, philanthropist and ruler of Cooch Behar Indian freedom fighters Early figures Durjan Singh, leader of Chuar Rebellion Rani Shiromani, queen of Karnagarh and leader of Chuar Rebellion Surendranath Banerjee Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee Twentieth century Bipin Chandra Pal Sri Aurobindo Syed Badrudduja Barindra Kumar Ghosh Khudiram Bose Bagha Jatin Chittaranjan Das Rash Behari Bose Sarat Chandra Bose Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose Jatindra Nath Das Bina Das Matangini Hazra B. C. Roy Triguna Sen Panchanan Chakraborty Syama Prasad Mookerjee Basanta Kumar Biswas Ambika Chakrobarty Bipin Behari Ganguli Jogesh Chandra Chattopadhyay Narendra Mohan Sen Birendranath Sasmal Sudhamoy Pramanick Saroj Mukherjee Renuka Ray Shyama Prasad Mukherjee Hemchandra Kanungo Kanailal Bhattacharyya Kanailal Bhattacharjee Politicians Ashok Mitra Ajit Kumar Panja A. B. A. Ghani Khan Choudhury Atulya Ghosh Amit Mitra Abha Maiti Bidhan Chandra Roy Bimal Gurung Buddhadeb Bhattacharjee Bir Singh Mahato Babul Supriyo Derek O'Brien Dev Firhad Hakim Hashim Abdul Halim Jyoti Basu Kamal Guha Kanailal Bhattacharyya Kedarnath Bhattacharya Mamata Banerjee Mukul Roy Mriganko Mahato Mohammed Salim Narahari Mahato Partha Chatterjee Pratap Chandra Chunder Prafulla Chandra Sen Pranab Mukherjee Siddhartha Shankar Ray Subrata Mukherjee Sultan Ahmed (Indian politician) Saugata Roy Somnath Chatterjee Sabina Yeasmin Sovandeb Chattopadhyay Tathagata Roy Tanmoy Bhattacharya Others Abul Barkat Donation and social welfare Old Calcutta / Bengal legends Raja Nabakrishna Deb Raja Radhakanta Deb, published two Sanskrit dictionaries used by Westerners Gobindram Mitter Anil Kumar Gain Mutty Lal Seal Bijoy Chand Mahtab Uday Chand Mahtab Mother Teresa Manindra Chandra Nandy, Maharaja of Cossimbazar Sports Chess Dibyendu Barua, Grandmaster Surya Shekhar Ganguly, Grandmaster Nisha Mohota, first woman Grandmaster of West Bengal Cricket Arun Lal Benu Dasgupta Deep Dasgupta Gopal Bose Jhulan Goswami Pankaj Roy Priyanka Roy Probir Sen Rumeli Dhar Ambar Roy Saba Karim Sourav Ganguly Subrata Guha Saradindu Mukherjee Ashok Dinda Montu Banerjee Manoj Tiwary Nirode Chowdhury Wriddhiman Saha Shreevats Goswami Shute Banerjee Subroto Banerjee Utpal Chatterjee Football P. K. Banerjee Samar Banerjee Shibdas Bhaduri Subrata Bhattacharya Gostho Pal Krishanu Dey Sailen Manna Chuni Goswami Gautam Sarkar Lawn tennis Leander Paes, noted lawn tennis player of India Jaidip Mukerjea Squash Saurav Ghosal, currently highest ranked Indian player Ritwik Bhattacharya, currently second highest ranked Indian player Bodybuilding Manohar Aich, Mr. Universe, 1952 Monotosh Roy, Mr. Universe, 1951 Bishnu Charan Ghosh, Noted bodybuilder and hathayogi Swimming Arati Saha, first Asian woman to swim English Channel in 1959 Bula Choudhury, first Indian woman to swim the English Channel twice Mihir Sen, first Indian to swim across the English Channel in 1958 Prasanta Karmakar, para swimmer, 2010 Commonwealth Games, bronze medal Masudur Rahman Baidya, world's first physically handicapped swimmer to swim across the Strait of Gibraltar Table tennis Subhajit Saha, Commonwealth games gold medalist Mouma Das, table tennis player Poulomi Ghatak, table tennis player Ankita Das, table tennis player, 2012 Summer Olympics; participant in women's singles event, 2014 Commonwealth Games; participant in women's doubles even Soumyajit Ghosh, table tennis player; as of January 2013, his rank is 1st in India and 68th in Asia; 2014 Commonwealth Games, Participant in men's doubles event Others Chhanda Gain, mountaineering, first Bengali woman to climb Mount Everest Jyotirmoyee Sikdar, athletics, double gold medallist at Bangkok Asiad, 1996 Mohammad Ali Qamar, boxing, Commonwealth games gold medalist Arjun Atwal, golfer Anirban Lahiri, Indian golfer Balaram Bose, philanthropist Mohammed Ali Qamar, Indian boxer, 2002 Commonwealth Games, gold medal Sukhen Dey, Indian weightlifter; 2014 Commonwealth Games, gold medal; 2010 Commonwealth Games, gold medal Dipa Karmakar, Indian artistic gymnast; 2014 Commonwealth Games, bronze medal; 2010 Commonwealth Games participant Joydeep Karmakar, Indian shooter, 2012 Summer Olympics; qualified to represent India in men's 50m rifle prone event; 2014 Commonwealth Games participant Industry/business Jagat Seth Dwarakanath Tagore Diptendu Pramanick Rajen Mookerjee S. K. Burman Ghanshyam Das Birla Jugal Kishore Birla Ram Nath Goenka Madhav Prasad Birla Rajat Kumar Gupta Purnendu Chatterjee Sadhan Dutt Subir Raha Sumantra Ghoshal Pritish Chakraborty Alamohan Das Dilip Shanghvi Other areas Ashis Nandy, author, political psychologist Subroto Mukerjee Shankar Roychowdhury William Tolly P. C. Sorcar, Jr., magician from Kolkata Arup Raha Narayan Debnath See also List of people by India state List of Bengalis References West Bengal People
401753	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death%20by%20sawing	Death by sawing	Death by sawing is the act of sawing or cutting a living person in half, either sagittally (usually midsagittally), or transversely. Methods Different methods of death by sawing have been recorded. In cases related to the Roman Emperor Caligula, the sawing is said to be through the middle (transversely). This method is similar to the ancient Chinese execution method of waist chopping. In the cases of Morocco, it is stated that the sawing was lengthwise, both from the groin upwards and from the skull downwards (midsagittally). In only one case, the story about Simon the Zealot, the person is explicitly described as being hung upside-down and sawn apart vertically through the middle, starting at the groin, with no mention of fastenings or support boards around the person, in the manner depicted in illustrations. In other cases where details about the method beyond the mere sawing act are explicitly supplied, the condemned person was apparently fastened to either one or two boards prior to sawing. Ancient history and classical antiquity Ancient Persia The legend of Jamshid Jamshid was a legendary shah of Persia, whose story is told in the Shahnameh by Ferdowsi. After 300 years of blessed reign, Jamshid forgot the blessings came from God, and began demanding that he be revered as a god himself. The people rebelled, and Zahhak had him sawn asunder. Parysatis Parysatis, wife and half-sister of Darius II (r. 423–405 BC) was the real power behind the throne of the Achaemenid Empire; she instigated and became involved in a number of court intrigues, made several enemies, yet had an uncanny knack for dispatching them at an opportune time. At one point, she decided to have the siblings of her daughter-in-law Stateira killed, and only relented from killing Stateira as well due to the desperate pleas of her son, Artaxerxes II. Stateira's sister Roxana was the first of her siblings to be killed, by being sawn in half. When Darius II died, Parysatis moved quickly, and was able to have the new queen Stateira poisoned; Parysatis still remained a power to be reckoned with for years after. Hormizd IV Hormizd IV (), son of Khosrow I, was the twenty-first King of Persia from AD 579 to 590. He was deeply resented by the nobility due to his cruelties. In 590, a palace coup was staged in which his son, Khosrow II, was declared king. Hormizd was forced to watch his wife and one of his sons sawn in two, and the deposed king was then blinded. After a few days, the new king is said to have killed his father in a fit of rage. Thracians Thracians were regarded as warlike, ferocious, and bloodthirsty by Romans and Greeks. One of the most notorious was the king Diegylis, possibly only topped by his son Ziselmius. According to Diodorus Siculus, Ziselmius sawed several people to death and commanded their families to eat the flesh of their murdered relatives. The Thracians eventually rebelled, captured him and sought to inflict every conceivable torture upon him prior to his death. Ancient Rome The Twelve Tables Promulgated about 451 BC, the Twelve Tables is the oldest extant law code for the Romans. Aulus Gellius, whose work "Attic Nights" is partially preserved, states that death by the saw was mentioned for some offenses in the tables, but that the use of which was so infrequent that no one could remember ever having seen it done. Of the retained laws in the Twelve Tables, the following concerning how creditors should proceed with debtors is found in Table 3, article 6: "On the third market-day they [the creditors] shall cut pieces. If they shall have cut more or less [than their shares], it shall be with impunity." The translator notes the ambiguity of the original text, but says that later Roman writers understood this to mean that creditors were allowed to cut their shares from the body of the debtor. If true, that would constitute dismemberment, rather than sawing. Caligula This method of execution was uncommon throughout the time of the Roman Empire. However, it was used extensively during the reign of Caligula when the condemned, including members of his own family, were sawn across the torso rather than lengthwise down the body. It is said that Caligula would watch such executions while he ate, stating that witnessing the suffering acted as an appetiser. The Kitos War The Kitos War occurred 115–117 AD, and was a rebellion by the Jews within the Roman Empire. Major revolts happened several places, and the main source by Cassius Dio claims that in Cyrene, 220,000 Greeks were massacred by the Jews; in Cyprus, 240,000. Dio adds that many of the victims were sawn asunder, and that the Jews licked up the blood of the slain, and "twisted the entrails like a girdle about their bodies". Valens In 365 AD, Procopius declared himself emperor, and moved against Valens. He was defeated in battle, and due to the treachery of his two generals Agilonius and Gomoarius (they had been promised they would be "shown favour" by Valens), he was captured. In 366, he was fastened to two trees bent down with force; when the trees were released, Procopius was ripped apart in the manner of the legendary execution of the bandit Sinis. The "favour" Valens showed to Agilonius and Gomoarius was to have them both sawn asunder. Jewish tradition Death of Isaiah The prophet Isaiah was, according to some traditional rabbinic texts, sawn apart on orders of King Manasseh of Judah. One tradition states that he was put within a tree, and then sawn apart; another says he was sawn apart by means of a wooden saw. Christian martyrs Simon the Zealot Several early Christians are credited with being martyred by means of a saw. The earliest, and most famous, is the obscure apostle of Jesus, Simon the Zealot. He is said to have been martyred in Persia, and that the express mode by which he was executed was to be hanged up by the feet, as in the woodcut illustration. Conus and his son According to the Acta Sanctorum, after his wife's death in the age of Domitian, Conus went with his 7-year-old son into a desert. He destroyed several pagan idols in Cogni, Asia Minor (Anatolia). When caught, he and his son were tortured by starvation and fire, and were finally put to the saw, praying while they died. Symphorosa and her seven sons According to the 16th-century Foxe's Book of Martyrs, Symphorosa was a widow with seven sons living in the age of emperor Trajan (98–117) or Hadrian (117–138). Refusing a command to pray at a heathen temple, Symphorosa was scourged, and then thrown in the river Aniene with a large stone fastened to her. The six eldest sons were all killed by stab wounds, and the youngest, Eugenius, was sawn apart. The 38 monks and martyrs on Mount Sinai According to the Martyrologium Romanum, during the reign of Diocletian "wild barbarians" decided to rob a community of monks living at Mount Sinai. There was nothing of material wealth there, and in their rage, the Arabs slaughtered them all, several by flaying, others by sawing them with dull saws. St. Tarbula Accused of practising witchcraft and causing the sickness of the wife of the ardently anti-Christian Persian king Shapur II, Tarbula was condemned and executed by being sawn in half in the year 345. Africa Egypt The monk from Montepulciano In the 1630s, there are several reports from the Levant and Egypt that monks were killed. One of them, Brother Conrad d'Elis Barthelemy, a native of Montepulciano is said to have been sawn in two, from the head downwards. The renegade Coptic governor Writing in 1843, William Holt Yates speaks of a governor under Muhammad Ali (r.1801–1849), Abd-ur-Rahman Bey, who was said to be particularly cruel and avaricious. He was a renegade Copt, and abused his position to gain hold of wealth. He is even credited with having sawn people in two. Yates further supplies the detail: "This fellow has since been assassinated-report says, with sanction and approval of the Government" Morocco 1705 The sawing of Alcaide Melec One of the most notorious cases of sawing as execution is that of the Alcaide (castellan/governor) Melec under Sultan Moulay Ishmael (r. 1672–1727). The fullest description of this execution is found in Dominique Busnot's 1714 work Histoire du règne de Mouley Ismael, although a brief notice of the event can be found in the January 1706 edition of Present state of Europe. In the following, the tale as told by Busnot will be given. Melec was judged as the chief rebel to be punished in a rebellion instigated by one of the Sultan's sons, Mulay Muhammad. In particular, according to Busnot, the Sultaness was incensed that Melec had personally beheaded one of her cousins, Ali Bouchasra. In September/October 1705, Mulay Ismail sent for his chief carpenter and asked if his saws were capable of sawing a man in two. The carpenter answered "Sure enough". He was then given the grisly task, and before he left, he asked him whether Melec should be sawn across or along the length. The emperor said the sawing should proceed lengthwise, from the head downwards. He told, however, Boachasra's sons, they should follow the carpenter and decide for themselves how best to take revenge upon the murderer (i.e., Melec) of their father. Taking with him 8 of the public executioner's assistants, the master carpenter went to the prison where Melec was held, two of his brand new saws packed in cloth, in order to keep from Melec information of the intended manner of execution. Melec was now placed on a mule, bound with an iron chain, and led to the public square, where some 4000 of his relatives and members of his tribe were assembled. These made a "terrifying" spectacle through screaming, and clawing their faces in a public display of grief. Melec, on the other hand, seemed unperturbed, calmly smoking from his tobacco pipe. When taken down from the mule, Melec's clothes were removed, damning letters "proving" his treason was cast in the fire. Then, he was strapped onto a board, and placed upon a saw-bench, his arms and legs fastened. The executioner's team then sought to start by sawing him from the head downwards, but Boucasra's sons intervened, and demanded that one began between Melec's legs instead, because otherwise, he would die too quickly. Under the terrible screams of Melec and his relatives, thus began his execution. Once they had sawn him up to the navel, they pulled out the saw in order to commence from the other side. Melec is said to have been still conscious, asking for some water. His friends, though, thought it best to hasten his demise and shorten his sufferings, and the executioners went on, sawing him from skull to navel so he fell apart. In the process, chunks of flesh were ripped out by the saw's teeth, causing blood to splatter everywhere, thus making the execution quite unbearable to watch. Around 300 other conspirators were impaled alive, and another report states that in addition to these, some other 20 chief conspirators had their arms and legs sawn off, and left to expire in the marketplace. 1721 The sawing of Larbe Shott 19 July 1721, a noble descended from the Andalusian Moors, Larbe Shott was put to the saw. He had spent considerable time at Gibraltar, and one of the crimes imputed to him was to have spent time in Christian kingdoms without his emperor's leave. Furthermore, he had been found guilty of defiling himself with Christian women, and often drunk alcohol. In short, he was charged as an apostate and unbeliever, in addition to being charged with having invited the "Spaniards" to invade Barbary (i.e., treason). They brought him to one of the gates in the city, fastened him between two boards, and sawed him in two, from the skull downwards. After his death, Mulay Ishmael pardoned him, so that his body could be picked up and given a decent burial at least, instead of being eaten by the dogs. Americas Swiss sawing In 1757, a French officer was executed by his men in a mutiny on Cat Island in current-day Mississippi. Three of the mutineers were eventually captured and brought to New Orleans for trial. After conviction, two of the mutineers died on the French wheel. The last mutineer, a Swiss from the Karrer regiment, was allegedly, nailed into a coffin-shaped wooden box, and it was sawn in two with a cross-cut saw. This claim of a Swiss being sawn in two was first made by the French captain and traveller Jean Bernard Bossu in his 1768 Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes Occidentales, translated into English by Johann Reinhold Forster in 1771. Commenting on Bossu's general reliability in a footnote to his essay A Map within an Indian Painting?, jurist Morris S. Arnold says the following: "Bossu's books contain a lot of tall tales, so one needs to be cautious about relying on him". Bossu claims that being "sawed asunder" was a traditional Swiss military punishment, and alleges that one Swiss mutineer actually committed suicide to avoid that punishment. Therefore, the one who was allegedly sawn in half had his punishment as governed by Swiss military law, rather than French. An incident from 1741 (in Louisbourg, Canada) shows that at that time, when two Frenchmen and a Swiss were executed, Swiss mercenary troops had been placed under French military law, rather than under Swiss. Furthermore, detailing the recorded executions in the Swiss Canton of Zürich through the 15th-18th century, Gerold Meyer von Knonau records 1445 executions in total, none of them being through death by sawing. Haitian revolution In August 1791, a great slave revolt broke out at Saint-Domingue, eventually leading to Haitian independence. In the process, some 4,000 white planters and their family members were massacred. One of the victims was a carpenter by trade, Robert. The rebels decided he "should die in the way of his occupation" and accordingly fastened him between two boards and sawed him apart. Asia Levant An episode from the Crusades In 1123, Joscelin de Courtenay and Baldwin II were separately ambushed and surprised by a Turkish emir, Balac, and made prisoners at the castle at Quartapiert. Some 50 Armenians, bound by oath to Joscelin as Count of Edessa, decided to free their liege lord as well as Baldwin II. Dressed as monks and pedlars, they gained entry in the town where the two nobles were held captive, and managed, through massacre, to take control of the castle. Joscelin slipped out in order to raise a force, while Baldwin II and his nephew Galeran remained behind to hold the castle. Apprised of the capture of the castle, Balac sent quickly a force to recapture it, and Baldwin II saw no possibility of holding it. Graciously, Balac took Baldwin and his nephew merely prisoners. Not so merciful was he towards the Armenians: Several of them were flayed, others buried up to the neck and used as target practice, the rest were sawn apart. The Assassins The Assassins, a misnomer for the Nizari, an Ismaili sect, had an independent kingdom in the Levant during the age of the Crusades, and were feared and loathed by Muslims and Christians alike. The Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela, travelling the region around 1157 notes that the Assassins were reputed to saw in two the kings of other peoples, if they managed to capture them. Ottoman Empire A number of accounts exist where the Ottomans are said to have sawn persons in two, most of them said to occur in Mehmed the Conqueror's reign (1451–1481). 1453 conquest of Constantinople A number of cruel excesses against the populace of Constantinople is said to have happened in the wake of the taking of the city. according to one rendering of the tale: 1460 Capture of Mystras After the last Despot of Morea, Demetrios Palaiologos in 1460 switched allegiance to the Turks and gave them entry to Mystras, a tale grew up that the actual castellan at the castle of Mystras was ordered sawn in two. This tale was "well known" in later centuries, whatever actual veracity. 1460 Michael Szilágyi In 1460, the Hungarian general Michael Szilágyi was seized by the Turks, and since he was regarded as a traitor and spy, he was sawn in half at Constantinople. 1460-64 campaigns and slaughter in the Morea In the following years, inhabitants in Greece under the Venetians fought several battles in the Morea. In 1464, for example, a small city is said to have been subdued, and 500 prisoners sent to Constantinople. There, they were put to the saw, according to one account. 1463 conquest of Mytilene, Lesbos The Knights Hospitallers, then stationed at Rhodes, sent several knights to aid in the defence of Mytilene from the Turks. They eventually surrendered, under promise of having their lives spared. Instead, according to some reports, they were sawn asunder. According to Kenneth Meyer Setton, the sultan had actually promised to spare the heads of some 400 knights, and sawed them in half to keep his oath of not harming the heads. 1469/1470 conquest of Negroponte The Triarchy of Negroponte, a Crusader state or Stato da Màr under control of the Republic of Venice, was extinguished by the capture of the city in 1469/1470, and the governor Paolo Erizzo, is said to treacherously to have been ordered sawn in two, after have being promised his life would be spared. The sultan, Mehmed the Conqueror, is said to have cut off the head of Erizzo's daughter by his own hands, because she would not yield to his desires. 1473 the arsonist at Gallipoli In 1473, a Sicilian called Anthony, is said to have managed set fire to the sultan's ships at the Sanjak of Gelibolu, Gallipoli. After being captured at Negroponte, he was brought before the sultan who asked him what harm had been done to him that he performed such an evil deed? The young man answered that he simply wanted to harm the enemy of Christianity in some glorious way. The sultan is said to have ordered that Anthony should be sawn in two. 1480 invasion of Otranto In 1480, the Ottomans, led by Gedik Ahmed Pasha, invaded mainland Italy, occupying Otranto. A general massacre, of disputed magnitude, occurred. Archbishop Stefano Pendinelli was, by some reports, ordered to be sawn in half. 1611 revolt of Dionysius the Philosopher Dionysius the Philosopher led an eventually unsuccessful revolt against the Ottomans, seeking to establish a power base at Ioannina. Dionysius was flayed alive, and his skin, stuffed with straw, was sent as a present to the sultan, Ahmed I, at Constantinople. The other principal conspirators were said to be punished in various ways, some were burnt alive, others impaled, and yet others sawn asunder. The mythologized death of Rhigas, the protomartyr of Greek independence Rigas Feraios (1760–1798) was an early Greek patriot, whose struggle for independence of Greece preceded with about 30 years the general uprising known as the Greek War of Independence. His actual manner of death has garnered many tales; Encyclopædia Britannica 1911, for example, states that he was shot in the back. Yet others state that he was strangled. Some 19th century stories report that he was sawn in two. Finally, one source asserts he was beheaded. Mughal Empire The Sikh Bhai Mati Das, a follower of the 9th guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur was in 1675 AD ordered executed by emperor Aurangzeb, along with several other prominent Sikhs, including their Guru, because the Guru was resisting the forceful conversion of Kashmiri Pandits into Islam. Bhai Mati Das was sawn in half, the others in different manners. Burma Several reports state that even in the 1820s, sawing criminals in two was an occasional punishment in Burma for "certain offences". The criminals were fastened between two planks prior to the sawing. However, this might possibly have been conflated by reports of disembowelment, for which eyewitness reports exist. The Burmese general Maha Bandula is said to have had one of his high-ranking officers sawn in two, due to some act of disobedience, the person being fastened between two planks for that purpose. Vietnam Martyrdom of Augustin Huy On occasion, a confusion of reports may exist where, for example, performed post-mortem indignities are misinterpreted as the actual manner of execution: In 1839, the governor of Vietnam's Nam Định Province summoned five hundred soldiers to a banquet to pressure them into trampling upon a cross in renunciation of Christianity. Most of the guests complied, but three Catholic soldiers refused. One of the Vietnamese Martyrs, Augustin Huy, is reported by some sources to have been sawn in two. Others report that he was hacked to death, or cut in two. But, a letter from 1839, just three weeks after the execution 12 June, states that he was beheaded: Imperial China Technique The movement of a saw may cause a body to sway back and forth making the process difficult for the executioners. The Chinese overcame this problem by securing the victim in an upright position between two boards firmly fixed between stakes driven deep into the ground. Two executioners, one at each end of the saw, would saw downwards through the stabilized boards and enclosed victim. Whether sawing as an execution method actually existed, or that cases referred to are garbled accounts of the "slow slicing" method of execution will remain an open question. Tang dynasty The emperor Zhaozong of Tang (r. 888–904) is said to have commanded one of his prisoners sawn asunder. Qing dynasty When the last emperor of the Ming dynasty committed suicide in 1644, the new emperor had one of the previous regime's strongest supporters, Chen, said to be viceroy of Canton, sawn in two. However, growing in popularity in his martyrdom, the new regime condemned the execution of Chen, declared him to have been a holy man, and erected a pagoda in Canton for his memory. Cambodia Khmer Rouge Sawing a person in half vertically was one of many execution method used by the Khmer Rouge on infamous Tuol Sleng prison and killing fields. Guards tied turned up bodies on trees or special poles to saw the Chams, Vietnamese, captured foreigners or suspected crades in half. The sawn remains and organs were either left on display to decorate the trees, power poles and buildings tied or impaled on Meat hook or had their organs consumed inside a wine cup. Europe Spain Morisco revolt In the aftermath of the destruction of the last Islamic kingdom in Spain, Granada in 1492, the Moriscoes, the descendants of Muslims and those who still were, in secret, adherents of Islam, felt increasingly persecuted. In 1568, the Morisco revolt broke out, under leadership of Aben Humeya. The crushing of the revolt was extremely bloody, and at Almería 1569, the historian Luis del Marmol Carvajal states that one Morisco was sawn apart alive. La Mancha rebellion In the Spanish rebellion of 1808 against the occupying French forces, reports exist that some French officers were sawn in two. In one of those reports, it is colonel Rene (or Frene) who met this fate. In another report, Rene was merely thrown into a kettle of boiling water, whereas the officers Caynier and Vaugien were the ones sawn in two. Russia 1812 the Grande Armée After the Fire of Moscow in September 1812, the French Grande Armée had not exactly endeared itself to the local population. The peasant population is said to have become embittered, fanaticized, and even developed an effective guerrilla. In addition, the "wild Cossacks" lurked about, and both groups of Russians could be a deadly enemy to solitary French soldiers. Some of those unfortunates are said to have been sawn apart. Hungary 1848 Revolution The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 was a bitter struggle where atrocities were committed against others of different ethnicities and of different religious persuasions. A decidedly partisan pamphlet from 1850, Ungarns gutes recht (The well-founded right of Hungary) from 1850, states that in the struggles around Banat, some 4,000 Serbians, spurred on by the preaching of the Metropolitan of Karlovci, Josif Rajačić, committed heinous deeds against the Hungarians. Women, children and old men were mutilated, roasted over slow fires, some sawn apart. Cultural references Tortures in Hell Hindu mythology In Hindu lore, Yama is the god of death. He determines the punishments to those who were wicked in life. Those guilty of robbing a Brahmin, are to be sawn apart while being in Naraka (Hell). Chinese mythology Sawing people asunder is one of the punishments said to occur in Buddhist Hell, and the priests knew how to make a visible spectacle of sufferings in the beyond, by commissioning artists to make paintings the populace were meant to see and reflect upon: Segare la vecchia In Italy and Spain, a curious tradition of "segare la vecchia" ("sawing the old woman") was upheld on Laetare Sunday (Mid-Lent Sunday) in hamlets and towns, well into the 19th century. The custom consisted of the boys running about to find the "oldest woman in the village", and then make a wooden effigy in her likeness. Then, the wooden figure was sawn across the middle. The folklorist Jacob Grimm regards this as an odd spring ritual, in which the "old year"/winter is symbolically defeated. He also notes that a rather similar custom existed in his day among Southern Slavs. References Bibliography Web resources Torture Sawing
401763	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedism	Encyclopedism	Encyclopedism is an outlook that aims to include a wide range of knowledge in a single work. The term covers both encyclopedias themselves and related genres in which comprehensiveness is a notable feature. The word encyclopedia is a Latinization of the Greek enkýklios paideía, which means all-around education. The encyclopedia is "one of the few generalizing influences in a world of overspecialization. It serves to recall that knowledge has unity," according to Lewis Shore, editor of Collier's Encyclopedia. It should not be "a miscellany, but a concentration, a clarification, and a synthesis", according to British writer H. G. Wells. Besides comprehensiveness, encyclopedic writing is distinguished by its lack of a specific audience or practical application. The author explains facts concisely for the benefit of a reader who will then use the information in a way that the writer does not try to anticipate. Early examples of encyclopedic writing include discussions of agriculture and craft by Roman writers such as Pliny the Elder and Varro – discussions presumably not intended as practical advice to farmers or craftsmen. The vast majority of classical learning was lost during the Dark Ages. This enhanced the status of encyclopedic works which survived, including those of Aristotle and Pliny. With the development of printing in the 15th century, the range of knowledge available to readers expanded greatly. Encyclopedic writing became both a practical necessity and a clearly distinguished genre. Renaissance encyclopedists were keenly aware of how much classical learning had been lost. They hoped to recover and record knowledge and were anxious to prevent further loss. In their modern form, encyclopedias consist of alphabetized articles written by teams of specialists. This format was developed in the 18th century by expanding the technical dictionary to include non-technical topics. The Encyclopédie (1751–1772), edited by Diderot and D'Alembert, was a model for many later works. Like Renaissance encyclopedists, Diderot worried about the possible destruction of civilization and selected knowledge he hoped would survive. Etymology The word "encyclopedia" is a Latinization of the Greek enkýklios paideía. The Greek phrase refers to the education that a well-round student should receive. Latin writer Quintilian uses it to refer to the subjects a student of oratory should be familiar with before beginning an apprenticeship. It translates literally as "in (en) the circle (kýklios) of knowledge (paideía)." The earliest citation for "encyclopedia" given in Oxford English Dictionary refers to the Greek curriculum and is dated 1531. The use of the term to refer to a genre of literature was prompted by a line that Pliny used in the preface of Natural History:</ref> "My object is to treat of all those things which the Greeks include in the Encyclopædia [tē̂s enkyklíou paideías], which, however, are either not generally known or are rendered dubious from our ingenious conceits." Pliny writes the relevant phrase using Greek letters. Latin printers of incunabula lacked the typeface to render it. Some printers substituted encyclopædia or another Latin phrase. Others just left a blank space. This led to the misunderstanding that Pliny had called his work an encyclopedia. In the Renaissance, writers who wanted their work compared to that of Pliny used the word. In 1517, Bavarian Johannes Aventinus wrote Encyclopedia orbisqve doctrinarum, a Latin reference work. Ringelberg's Cyclopedia was published in 1541 and Paul Scalich's Encyclopedia in 1559. Both of these reference works were written in Latin. The French Encyclopédistes popularized the word in the 18th century. The Oxford English Dictionary'''s first citation of "enyclopedism" is dated 1833. The context is a book on Diderot. History Aristotle The Greek writer and teacher Aristotle (384–322 BC) had much to say on a broad range of subjects, including biology, anatomy, psychology, physics, meteorology, zoology, poetics, rhetoric, logic, epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and political thought. He was among the first writers to describe how to classify material by subject, the first step in writing an encyclopedia. Aristotle wrote to help his students follow his teaching, so his corpus did not much resemble an encyclopedia during his lifetime. Long after his death, commentators filled in the gaps, reordered his works, and put his writing in a systematic form. Catalogs of his work were produced by Andronicus in the first century and by Ptolemy in the second century. As Aristotle's corpus was one of the few encyclopedic works to survive the Middle Ages, it became a widely used reference work in late medieval and Renaissance times. Alexandria Dorotheus (mid first century AD) and Pamphilus (late first century AD) both wrote enormous lexicons. Neither work has survived, but their lengths suggest that they were considerably more than just dictionaries. Pamphilus's work was 95 books long and was a sequel to a lexicon of four books by Zopyrion. This passage from the Souda suggests that it was made up of alphabetized entries: Hesychius (fifth century) credits Diogenianus as a source, who in turn used Pamphilus. This is the only form in which any of Pamphilus's work may have survived. Rome A Roman who wanted to learn about a certain subject would send a slave to a private library with orders to copy relevant passages from whatever books were available. As they were less likely to withdraw or buy a book, readers were little concerned with the scope of a given work. So the emergence of encyclopedic writing cannot be explained by practical need. Instead, it may have been inspired by Cato's ideal of the vir bonus, the informed citizen able to participate in the life of the Republic. Three Roman works are commonly identified as encyclopedic: The collected works of Varro (116–27 BC), Pliny the Elder's (c. 77–79 AD) Natural History, and On the Arts by Cornelius Celsus (c. 25 BC – c. 50 AD). These three were grouped together as a genre, not by the Romans themselves, but by later writers in search of antique precedent. In Cicero's time, the study of literature was still controversial. In Pro Archia, Cicero explains that he studied literature to improve his rhetorical skills and because it provides a source of elevating moral examples. Varro's emphasis on the city's history and culture suggests patriotic motives. Pliny emphasized utilitarian motives and public service. He criticized Livy for writing history simply for his own pleasure. Varro Varro's Antiquities consisted of 41 books on Roman history. His Disciplines was nine books on liberal arts. Varro also wrote 25 books on Latin and 15 on law. Only fragments of Varro's work survive. According to Cicero, Varro's comprehensive work allowed the Romans to feel at home in their own city. Cornelius Celsus Celsus wrote prolifically on many subjects. "Cornelius Celsus, a man of modest intellect, could write not only about all these arts but also left behind accounts of military science, agriculture, and medicine: indeed, he deserves, on the basis on this design alone, to be thought to have known all things," according to Quintilian. Only the medical section of his massive On the Arts has survived. This is eight books long. Celsus followed the structure of the medical writers that had gone before him. He summarized their views in a workmanlike manner. He seldom presented insights of his own. He struggled to manage the overwhelming quantity of relevant source material. His medical books were rediscovered in 1426-1427 at libraries in the Vatican and in Florence and published in 1478. He is our main source concerning Roman medical practices. Pliny the Elder If Varro made the Romans feel at home their own city, Pliny tried to do the same for the natural world and for the Empire. Pliny's approach was very different than that of Celsus. He was a man ahead of his time. Not content to build on what went before, he reorganized the world of knowledge to fit his encyclopedic vision. In a Latin preface, the writer customarily listed the models he hoped to surpass. Pliny found no model in previous writing. Instead, he emphasized that his work was novicium (new), a word suitable for describing a major discovery. Although Pliny was widely read, no later Roman writer followed his structure or claimed him as a model. Niccolò Leoniceno published an essay in 1492 listing Pliny's many scientific errors. In the introduction of Natural History, Pliny writes:... in Thirty-six Books I have comprised 20,000 Things that are worthy of Consideration, and these I have collected out of about 2000 Volumes that I have diligently read (and of which there are few that Men otherwise learned have ventured to meddle with, for the deep Matter therein contained), and those written by one hundred several excellent Authors; besides a Multitude of other Matters, which either were unknown to our former Writers, or Experience has lately ascertained. With an entire book dedicated to listing sources, Natural History is 37 books long. (It's 10 volumes in the modern translation.) Eschewing established disciplines and categories, Pliny begins with a general description of the world. Book 2 covers astronomy, meteorology, and the elements. Books 3–6 cover geography. Humanity is covered in Book 7, animals in Books 8–11, trees in 12–17, agriculture in 18–19, medicine in 20–32, metals in 33–34, and craft and art in 35–37. Following Aristotle, Pliny counts four elements: fire, earth, air and water. There are seven planets: Saturn, Jupiter, Mars ("of a fiery and burning nature"), the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and the Moon ("the last of the stars"). The earth is a "perfect globe," suspended in the middle of space, that rotates with incredible swiftness once every 24 hours. As a good Stoic, Pliny dismisses astrology: "it is ridiculous to suppose, that the great head of all things, whatever it be, pays any regard to human affairs." He considers the possibility of other worlds ("there will be so many suns and so many moons, and that each of them will have immense trains of other heavenly bodies") only to dismiss such speculation as "madness." The idea of space travel is "perfect madness." Pliny had opinions on a wide variety of subjects often interjected them. He tells us which uses of plants, animals, and stone are proper, and which ones are improper. Was the Roman Empire benefiting or corrupting the classical world? Pliny returns to this theme repeatedly. He analogizes Rome's civilizing mission to the way poisonous plants of all nation were tamed into medicines. Pliny also wants us to know that he is a heroic explorer, a genius responsible for a highly original and most remarkable work. The extensive reading and note taking of his slave secretaries is rarely mentioned. At the very end of the work, Pliny writes, "Hail Nature, parent of all things, and in recognition of the fact that I alone have praised you in all your manifestations, look favorably upon me." Here Pliny points to comprehensiveness as his project's outstanding asset. Nature awarded Pliny a heroic death that gave him "a kind of eternal life," according to his nephew. The great encyclopedist was commander of the Naples fleet and died trying to assist the local inhabitants during the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79. The Middle Ages While classical and modern encyclopedic writers sought to distribute knowledge, those of the Middle Ages were more interested in establishing orthodoxy. They produced works to be used as educational texts in schools and universities. Students could consider the knowledge within them as safely orthodox and thus be kept from heresy. Limiting knowledge was an important part of their function. As a Stoic, Pliny began with astronomy and ended with the fine arts. Cassiodorus attempted to write a Christian equivalent to Pliny's work. His Institutiones (560) begins with discussions of scripture and the church. Other subjects are treated briefly toward the end of the work. With onset of the Dark Ages, access to Greek learning and literacy in Greek declined. The works of Boethius (c. 480–524) filled the gap by compiling Greek handbooks and summarizing their content in Latin. These works served as general purpose references in the early Middle Ages.The Etymologies (c. 600–625) by Isidore of Seville consisted of extracts from earlier writers. Three of the Isidore's twenty books represent material from Pliny. Isidore was the most widely read and fundamental text in terms of medieval encyclopedic writing. These early medieval writers organized their material in the form of a trivium (grammar, logic, rhetoric) followed by a quadrivium (geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, music). This division of seven liberal arts was a feature of monastic education as well as the medieval universities, which developed beginning in the 12th century. From the fourth to the ninth centuries, Byzantium experienced a series of religious debates. As part of these debates, excerpts were compiled and organized thematically to support the theological views of the compiler. Once orthodoxy was established, the energy of the compilation tradition transferred to other subjects. The tenth century, or Macedonian dynasty, saw a flowering of encyclopedic writing. The Suda is believed to have been compiled at this time. This is the earliest work that a modern reader would recognize as an encyclopedia. It contains 30,000 alphabetized entries. The Suda is not mentioned until the 12th century, and it might have been put together in stages. The most massive encyclopedia of the Middle Ages was Speculum Maius (The Great Mirror) by Vincent of Beauvais. It was 80 books long and was completed in 1244. With a total of 4.5 million words, the work is presumably the product of an anonymous team. (By comparison, the current edition of Britannica has 44 million words.) It was divided into three sections. "Naturale" covered God and the natural world; "Doctrinale" covered language, ethics, crafts, medicine; and "Historiale" covered world history. Vincent had great respect for classical writers such Aristotle, Cicero, and Hippocrates. The encyclopedia shows a tendency toward "exhaustiveness," or systemic plagiarism, typical of the medieval period. Vincent was used as a source by Chaucer. The full version of Speculum proved to be too long to circulate in the era of manuscripts and manual copying. However, an abridged version by Bartholomeus Anglicus did enjoy a wide readership. The Arab counterpart to these works was Kitab al-Fehrest by Ibn al-Nadim. Renaissance With the advent of printing and a dramatic reduction in paper costs, the volume of encyclopedic writing exploded in the Renaissance. This was an age of "info-lust" and enormous compilations. Many compilers cited the fear of a traumatic loss of knowledge to justify their efforts. They were keenly aware of how much classical learning had been lost in the Dark Ages. Pliny was their model. His axiom that, "there is no book so bad that some good cannot be got from it" was a favorite. Conrad Gesner listed over 10,000 books in Bibliotheca universalis (1545). By including both Christian and barbarian works, Gesner rejected the medieval quest for orthodoxy. Ironically, Jesuit Antonio Possevino used Bibliotheca universalis as a basis to create a list of forbidden books. England The invention of printing helped spread new ideas, but also revived old misconceptions. Printers of incunabulia were eager to publish books, both ancient and modern. The best-known encyclopedia of Elizabethan England was Batman upon Bartholomew, published in 1582. This book is based on a work compiled by Bartholomaeus Anglicus in the 13th century. It was translated by John Trevisa in 1398, revised by Thomas Berthelet in 1535, and revised again by Stephen Batman. In Shakespeare's day, it represented a worldview already four centuries old, only modestly updated. Yet several ideas inspired by Batman can be found in Shakespeare. The idea that the rays of the moon cause madness can be found Measure for Measure and Othello, hence the word "lunacy." The discussion of the geometric properties of the soul in King Lear is likely to reflect the influence of Batman as well. An encyclopedia that Shakespeare consulted more obviously than Batman is French Academy by Pierre de la Primaudaye. Primaudaye was much taken with analogies, some of which have found their way into Shakespeare: the unweeded garden, death as an unknown country, and the world as a stage. (Various other sources have also been suggested for the last analogy.) Both Batman and Primaudaye were Protestant. Francis Bacon wrote a plan for an encyclopedia in Instauratio magna (1620). He drew up a checklist of the major areas of knowledge a complete encyclopedia needed to contain. Bacon's plan influenced Diderot and thus indirectly later encyclopedias, which generally follow Diderot's scheme. The Enlightenment While ancient and medieval encyclopedism emphasized the classics, liberal arts, informed citizenship, or law, the modern encyclopedia springs from a separate tradition. The advance of technology meant that there was much unfamiliar terminology to explain. John Harris's Lexicon Technicum (1704) proclaims itself, "An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences: Explaining not only the Terms of Art, but the Arts Themselves." This was the first alphabetical encyclopedia written in English. Harris's work inspired Ephraim Chambers's Cyclopedia (1728). Chambers's two-volume work is considered the first modern encyclopedia.Encyclopédie (1751–1777) was a massively expanded version of Chambers's idea. This 32-volume work, edited by Diderot and D'Alembert, was the pride of Enlightenment France. It consisted of 21 volumes of text and 11 volumes of illustrations. There were 74,000 articles written by more than 130 contributors. It presented a secular worldview, drawing the ire of several Church officials. It sought to empower its readers with knowledge and played a role in fomenting the dissent that led to the French Revolution. Diderot explained the project this way: This is a work that cannot be completed except by a society of men of letters and skilled workmen, each working separately on his own part, but all bound together solely by their zeal for the best interests of the human race and a feeling of mutual good will. This realization that no one person, not even a genius like Pliny assisted by slave secretaries, could produce a work of the comprehensiveness required, is the mark of the modern era of encyclopedism. Diderot's project was a great success and inspired several similar projects, including Britain's Encyclopædia Britannica (first edition, 1768) as well as Germany's Brockhaus Enzyklopädie (beginning 1808). Enlightenment encyclopedias also inspired authors and editors to undertake or critique "encyclopedic" knowledge projects in other genres and formats: the 65-volume Universal History (Sale et al) (1747-1768), for example, far exceeded its predecessors in terms of scope, and The General Magazine of Arts and Sciences (1755-1765) published by Benjamin Martin (lexicographer) sought to bring encyclopedism to the monthly periodical. A loyal subscriber, he wrote, would “be allowed to make a great Proficiency, if he can make himself Master of the useful Arts and Sciences in the Compass of Ten Years.” In Laurence Sterne's The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (1759-1767), the title character satirically refers to his fictional autobiography as a “cyclopædia of arts and sciences." Such "experiments in encyclopedism" demonstrate the widespread literary and cultural influence of the form in the 18th century. The 19th and 20th centuries Once solely for society's elites, in the 19th and 20th centuries encyclopedias were increasingly written, marketed to, and purchased by middle and working class households. Different styles of encyclopedism emerged which would target particular age groups, presenting the works as educational tools—even made available through payment plans advertised on TV. One of the earliest individuals to advocate for a technologically enhanced encyclopedia indexing all the world's information was H. G. Wells. Inspired by the possibilities of microfilm, he put forward his idea of a global encyclopedia in the 1930s through a series of international talks and his essay World Brain. It would be another several decades before the earliest electronic encyclopedias were published in the 1980s and 1990s. The production of electronic encyclopedias began as conversions of printed work, but soon added multimedia elements, requiring new methods of content gathering and presentation. Early applications of hypertext similarly had a great benefit to readers but did not require significant changes in writing. The launching of Wikipedia in the 2000s and its subsequent rise in popularity and influence, however, radically altered popular conception of the ways in which an encyclopedia is produced (collaboratively, openly) and consumed (ubiquitously). China The nearest Chinese equivalent to an encyclopedia is the leishu. These consist of extensive quotations arranged by category. The earliest known Chinese encyclopedia is Huang Lan (Emperor's mirror), produced around 220 under the Wei dynasty. No copy has survived. The best-known leishu are those of Li Fang (925–996), who wrote three such works during the Song dynasty. These three were later combined with a fourth work, Cefu Yuangui, to create Four Great Books of Song. References External links Pliny the Elder, The Natural History. A translation of Pliny's first century description of the natural world.Annotated Justinian Code, a sixth-century legal encyclopedia, online and translated. Suda On Line. A translation of a 10th-century Byzantine general encyclopedia.A Vincent of Beauvais website. This site describes the best-known general encyclopedia of the Middle Ages.Cyclopædia or an universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (1728) by Ephraim Chambers. The first modern encyclopedia.Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, par une Société de Gens de lettres by Diderot and d'Alembert. (1751–1772). There is partial translation of this French encyclopedia at the University of Michigan.Encyclopædia Britannica'' (1911)
401767	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-ratio	Cross-ratio	In geometry, the cross-ratio, also called the double ratio and anharmonic ratio, is a number associated with a list of four collinear points, particularly points on a projective line. Given four points , , , on a line, their cross ratio is defined as where an orientation of the line determines the sign of each distance and the distance is measured as projected into Euclidean space. (If one of the four points is the line's point at infinity, then the two distances involving that point are dropped from the formula.) The point is the harmonic conjugate of with respect to and precisely if the cross-ratio of the quadruple is , called the harmonic ratio. The cross-ratio can therefore be regarded as measuring the quadruple's deviation from this ratio; hence the name anharmonic ratio. The cross-ratio is preserved by linear fractional transformations. It is essentially the only projective invariant of a quadruple of collinear points; this underlies its importance for projective geometry. The cross-ratio had been defined in deep antiquity, possibly already by Euclid, and was considered by Pappus, who noted its key invariance property. It was extensively studied in the 19th century. Variants of this concept exist for a quadruple of concurrent lines on the projective plane and a quadruple of points on the Riemann sphere. In the Cayley–Klein model of hyperbolic geometry, the distance between points is expressed in terms of a certain cross-ratio. Terminology and history Pappus of Alexandria made implicit use of concepts equivalent to the cross-ratio in his Collection: Book VII. Early users of Pappus included Isaac Newton, Michel Chasles, and Robert Simson. In 1986 Alexander Jones made a translation of the original by Pappus, then wrote a commentary on how the lemmas of Pappus relate to modern terminology. Modern use of the cross ratio in projective geometry began with Lazare Carnot in 1803 with his book Géométrie de Position. Chasles coined the French term [anharmonic ratio] in 1837. German geometers call it [double ratio]. Carl von Staudt was unsatisfied with past definitions of the cross-ratio relying on algebraic manipulation of Euclidean distances rather than being based purely on synthetic projective geometry concepts. In 1847, von Staudt demonstrated that the algebraic structure is implicit in projective geometry, by creating an algebra based on construction of the projective harmonic conjugate, which he called a throw (German: Wurf): given three points on a line, the harmonic conjugate is a fourth point that makes the cross ratio equal to . His algebra of throws provides an approach to numerical propositions, usually taken as axioms, but proven in projective geometry. The English term "cross-ratio" was introduced in 1878 by William Kingdon Clifford. Definition If , , , and are four points on an oriented affine line, their cross ratio is: with the notation defined to mean the signed ratio of the displacement from to to the displacement from to . For colinear displacements this is a dimensionless quantity. If the displacements themselves are taken to be signed real numbers, then the cross ratio between points can be written If is the projectively extended real line, the cross-ratio of four distinct numbers in is given by When one of is the point at infinity this reduces to e.g. The same formulas can be applied to four distinct complex numbers or, more generally, to elements of any field, and can also be projectively extended as above to the case when one of them is Properties The cross ratio of the four collinear points , , , and can be written as where describes the ratio with which the point divides the line segment , and describes the ratio with which the point divides that same line segment. The cross ratio then appears as a ratio of ratios, describing how the two points and are situated with respect to the line segment . As long as the points , , , and are distinct, the cross ratio will be a non-zero real number. We can easily deduce that if and only if one of the points or lies between the points and and the other does not Six cross-ratios Four points can be ordered in ways, but there are only six ways for partitioning them into two unordered pairs. Thus, four points can have only six different cross-ratios, which are related as: See Anharmonic group below. Projective geometry The cross-ratio is a projective invariant in the sense that it is preserved by the projective transformations of a projective line. In particular, if four points lie on a straight line in then their cross-ratio is a well-defined quantity, because any choice of the origin and even of the scale on the line will yield the same value of the cross-ratio. Furthermore, let be four distinct lines in the plane passing through the same point . Then any line not passing through intersects these lines in four distinct points (if is parallel to then the corresponding intersection point is "at infinity"). It turns out that the cross-ratio of these points (taken in a fixed order) does not depend on the choice of a line , and hence it is an invariant of the 4-tuple of lines This can be understood as follows: if and are two lines not passing through then the perspective transformation from to with the center is a projective transformation that takes the quadruple of points on into the quadruple of points on . Therefore, the invariance of the cross-ratio under projective automorphisms of the line implies (in fact, is equivalent to) the independence of the cross-ratio of the four collinear points on the lines from the choice of the line that contains them. Definition in homogeneous coordinates If four collinear points are represented in homogeneous coordinates by vectors such that and , then their cross-ratio is . Role in non-Euclidean geometry Arthur Cayley and Felix Klein found an application of the cross-ratio to non-Euclidean geometry. Given a nonsingular conic in the real projective plane, its stabilizer in the projective group acts transitively on the points in the interior of . However, there is an invariant for the action of on pairs of points. In fact, every such invariant is expressible as a function of the appropriate cross ratio. Hyperbolic geometry Explicitly, let the conic be the unit circle. For any two points and , inside the unit circle . If the line connecting them intersects the circle in two points, and and the points are, in order, . Then the hyperbolic distance between and in the Cayley–Klein model of the hyperbolic plane can be expressed as (the factor one half is needed to make the curvature ). Since the cross-ratio is invariant under projective transformations, it follows that the hyperbolic distance is invariant under the projective transformations that preserve the conic . Conversely, the group acts transitively on the set of pairs of points in the unit disk at a fixed hyperbolic distance. Later, partly through the influence of Henri Poincaré, the cross ratio of four complex numbers on a circle was used for hyperbolic metrics. Being on a circle means the four points are the image of four real points under a Möbius transformation, and hence the cross ratio is a real number. The Poincaré half-plane model and Poincaré disk model are two models of hyperbolic geometry in the complex projective line. These models are instances of Cayley–Klein metrics. Anharmonic group and Klein four-group The cross-ratio may be defined by any of these four expressions: These differ by the following permutations of the variables (in cycle notation): We may consider the permutations of the four variables as an action of the symmetric group on functions of the four variables. Since the above four permutations leave the cross ratio unaltered, they form the stabilizer of the cross-ratio under this action, and this induces an effective action of the quotient group on the orbit of the cross-ratio. The four permutations in make a realization of the Klein four-group in , and the quotient is isomorphic to the symmetric group . Thus, the other permutations of the four variables alter the cross-ratio to give the following six values, which are the orbit of the six-element group : As functions of these are examples of Möbius transformations, which under composition of functions form the Mobius group . The six transformations form a subgroup known as the anharmonic group, again isomorphic to . They are the torsion elements (elliptic transforms) in . Namely, , , and are of order with respective fixed points and (namely, the orbit of the harmonic cross-ratio). Meanwhile, the elements and are of order in , and each fixes both values of the "most symmetric" cross-ratio (the solutions to , the primitive sixth roots of unity). The order elements exchange these two elements (as they do any pair other than their fixed points), and thus the action of the anharmonic group on gives the quotient map of symmetric groups . Further, the fixed points of the individual -cycles are, respectively, and and this set is also preserved and permuted by the -cycles. Geometrically, this can be visualized as the rotation group of the trigonal dihedron, which is isomorphic to the dihedral group of the triangle , as illustrated at right. Algebraically, this corresponds to the action of on the -cycles (its Sylow 2-subgroups) by conjugation and realizes the isomorphism with the group of inner automorphisms, The anharmonic group is generated by and Its action on gives an isomorphism with . It may also be realised as the six Möbius transformations mentioned, which yields a projective representation of over any field (since it is defined with integer entries), and is always faithful/injective (since no two terms differ only by ). Over the field with two elements, the projective line only has three points, so this representation is an isomorphism, and is the exceptional isomorphism . In characteristic , this stabilizes the point , which corresponds to the orbit of the harmonic cross-ratio being only a single point, since . Over the field with three elements, the projective line has only 4 points and , and thus the representation is exactly the stabilizer of the harmonic cross-ratio, yielding an embedding equals the stabilizer of the point . Exceptional orbits For certain values of there will be greater symmetry and therefore fewer than six possible values for the cross-ratio. These values of correspond to fixed points of the action of on the Riemann sphere (given by the above six functions); or, equivalently, those points with a non-trivial stabilizer in this permutation group. The first set of fixed points is However, the cross-ratio can never take on these values if the points , , , and are all distinct. These values are limit values as one pair of coordinates approach each other: The second set of fixed points is This situation is what is classically called the , and arises in projective harmonic conjugates. In the real case, there are no other exceptional orbits. In the complex case, the most symmetric cross-ratio occurs when . These are then the only two values of the cross-ratio, and these are acted on according to the sign of the permutation. Transformational approach The cross-ratio is invariant under the projective transformations of the line. In the case of a complex projective line, or the Riemann sphere, these transformations are known as Möbius transformations. A general Möbius transformation has the form These transformations form a group acting on the Riemann sphere, the Möbius group. The projective invariance of the cross-ratio means that The cross-ratio is real if and only if the four points are either collinear or concyclic, reflecting the fact that every Möbius transformation maps generalized circles to generalized circles. The action of the Möbius group is simply transitive on the set of triples of distinct points of the Riemann sphere: given any ordered triple of distinct points, , there is a unique Möbius transformation that maps it to the triple . This transformation can be conveniently described using the cross-ratio: since must equal , which in turn equals , we obtain An alternative explanation for the invariance of the cross-ratio is based on the fact that the group of projective transformations of a line is generated by the translations, the homotheties, and the multiplicative inversion. The differences are invariant under the translations where is a constant in the ground field . Furthermore, the division ratios are invariant under a homothety for a non-zero constant in . Therefore, the cross-ratio is invariant under the affine transformations. In order to obtain a well-defined inversion mapping the affine line needs to be augmented by the point at infinity, denoted , forming the projective line . Each affine mapping can be uniquely extended to a mapping of into itself that fixes the point at infinity. The map swaps and . The projective group is generated by and the affine mappings extended to In the case , the complex plane, this results in the Möbius group. Since the cross-ratio is also invariant under , it is invariant under any projective mapping of into itself. Co-ordinate description If we write the complex points as vectors and define , and let be the dot product of with , then the real part of the cross ratio is given by: This is an invariant of the 2-dimensional special conformal transformation such as inversion . The imaginary part must make use of the 2-dimensional cross product Ring homography The concept of cross ratio only depends on the ring operations of addition, multiplication, and inversion (though inversion of a given element is not certain in a ring). One approach to cross ratio interprets it as a homography that takes three designated points to and . Under restrictions having to do with inverses, it is possible to generate such a mapping with ring operations in the projective line over a ring. The cross ratio of four points is the evaluation of this homography at the fourth point. Differential-geometric point of view The theory takes on a differential calculus aspect as the four points are brought into proximity. This leads to the theory of the Schwarzian derivative, and more generally of projective connections. Higher-dimensional generalizations The cross-ratio does not generalize in a simple manner to higher dimensions, due to other geometric properties of configurations of points, notably collinearity – configuration spaces are more complicated, and distinct -tuples of points are not in general position. While the projective linear group of the projective line is 3-transitive (any three distinct points can be mapped to any other three points), and indeed simply 3-transitive (there is a unique projective map taking any triple to another triple), with the cross ratio thus being the unique projective invariant of a set of four points, there are basic geometric invariants in higher dimension. The projective linear group of -space has dimensions (because it is projectivization removing one dimension), but in other dimensions the projective linear group is only 2-transitive – because three collinear points must be mapped to three collinear points (which is not a restriction in the projective line) – and thus there is not a "generalized cross ratio" providing the unique invariant of points. Collinearity is not the only geometric property of configurations of points that must be maintained – for example, five points determine a conic, but six general points do not lie on a conic, so whether any 6-tuple of points lies on a conic is also a projective invariant. One can study orbits of points in general position – in the line "general position" is equivalent to being distinct, while in higher dimensions it requires geometric considerations, as discussed – but, as the above indicates, this is more complicated and less informative. However, a generalization to Riemann surfaces of positive genus exists, using the Abel–Jacobi map and theta functions. See also Hilbert metric Notes References Lars Ahlfors (1953,1966,1979) Complex Analysis, 1st edition, page 25; 2nd & 3rd editions, page 78, McGraw-Hill . Viktor Blåsjö (2009) "Jakob Steiner's Systematische Entwickelung: The Culmination of Classical Geometry", Mathematical Intelligencer 31(1): 21–9. John J. Milne (1911) An Elementary Treatise on Cross-Ratio Geometry with Historical Notes, Cambridge University Press. Dirk Struik (1953) Lectures on Analytic and Projective Geometry, page 7, Addison-Wesley. I. R. Shafarevich & A. O. Remizov (2012) Linear Algebra and Geometry, Springer . External links MathPages – Kevin Brown explains the cross-ratio in his article about Pascal's Mystic Hexagram Cross-Ratio at cut-the-knot Projective geometry Ratios
401784	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholesbury	Cholesbury	Cholesbury (recorded as Chelwardisbyry in the 13th century) is a village and former civil parish, now in the parish of Cholesbury-cum-St. Leonards, in Buckinghamshire, England, on the border with Hertfordshire. It is situated in the Chiltern Hills, about east of Wendover, north of Chesham and from Berkhamsted. Cholesbury is one of four villages comprising Cholesbury-cum-St Leonards parish. Braziers End is a hamlet which has always been closely associated with Cholesbury. It is a rural community and most local people rely for employment on neighbouring towns, the proximity of London and the availability of broadband technology. Geography At , Cholesbury is one of the smallest villages in the county and is located within Chiltern downland landscape on the upland plateau and close to the chalk escarpment which overlooks the Aylesbury Vale. At its highest point the village is some above sea level. Geology The geology of the area has dictated the land use. The soil comprises gravely clay, intermixed with flints, small pebbles and öolite over a chalk formation. Several examples of puddingstones a characteristic form of this aggregate have been found locally. There are no streams in the area due to the porous chalk sub soil. In places the occurrence of clay close to the surface accounts for several natural ponds fed by springs. Until connection with mains water in the mid-20th century, the scarcity of water had necessitated the sinking of deep wells and capture of rainwater. Land use In contrast to nearby areas of the Chilterns more land is given over to open space, namely agricultural, both arable and pasture; paddocks; heathland and most significantly the Common on either side of which the majority of houses are arranged. Mature woodland is a feature, including a stand of beech trees which mark out the circumference of the hillfort. Some beech plantation remains formerly associated with the chair-making industry in High Wycombe. Both chalk and a small amount of clay have been extracted over the years. The latter as a raw material for pottery and more recently brick-making. Meanwhile, in more recent times flint was dug out for road making. Both activities have left their mark in the form of small mounds and shallow depressions. Historically, many homes had access to orchards, gardens for vegetable production and pasture for domestic animals. These have largely disappeared and over the last ten years or so the increasing popularity of horse riding has created a demand for suitable land for paddocks. Settlement Villages in this part of the Chilterns are often set out around Greens and Commons or strung out along ridges with which they connect often without a gap to adjacent settlements. Cholesbury is consequently more closely linked in this way with the neighbouring villages of Hawridge, St Leonards and Buckland Common. The hamlet of Braziers End is closely associated with the village of Cholesbury. The name is purported to derive from braziers lit by Travellers who periodically gathered to celebrate weddings. Until 1935 Cholesbury did not have mains water and drainage did not arrive until 1963. The road down to Chesham was frequently impassable in winter and periodic flooding has occurred even in recent years. The Second World War resulted in an influx of people escaping the London Blitz and not returning afterwards. This migration had a lasting effect with more houses built or greatly enlarged or refurbished. Transport improvements enabling daily commuting to London from the 1950s onwards also led to a further change with the growth in more affluent families which irrevocably changed the composition of the village community. Concerns in the 1960s about uncontrolled housing development encouraged the establishment of resident's groups focused on preserving the village scene. Situated in the Chilterns AONB, and combined with national and local government planning controls there is strict enforcement of restrictions on residential building developments. This has led to a shortage in affordable and social housing. The scarcity of available property has added a premium onto house prices in Cholesbury (average selling price circa £950k as at 2007) and neighbouring villages compared to other areas in the rest of South East England. History Origins and the first settlement The village name is Anglo Saxon in origin, and means 'Cealwald's burh' (or plateau camp). This name refers to the Iron Age hillfort known as Cholesbury Camp close to the centre of the village, which from investigations (Kimball 1933) is understood to have been constructed between 300 and 100BC, possibly on the site of an earlier settlement which is also supported by the find of a Bronze Age axe nearby. Despite the extent of the defences trading activity rather than military purpose was the predominant use of the fort over most of its period of occupation. There is evidence of iron smelting with several hearths and waste slag having been identified from archaeological investigations. The Roman conquest of Britain meant that the use of the hillfort was relatively short-lived. By the 2nd century it had been largely deserted as the result of a probable organised migration of labour from the hill plateau to valley where villa settlements were being established (Branigan 1967). More recent investigations (Gover 2001) have suggested from evidence of rectangular structures that there was a subsequent period of occupation during early medieval times. There have been finds indicating earlier settlement including during the 1960s, a Palaeolithic hand axe. Development of the manor and village In Edward the Confessor's time the land was part of the estate of Aluric, the King's thane and is only recorded in the Domesday Book as 'Chowdesbury', a part of the manor of Draiton valued at 100 shillings (£5). Magno le Breton who held the manor under a tenancy to one Helgist would have valued the hilltop area for its summer pasture supported by reliable springs feeding ponds. From the record of land use the area was still heavily wooded being able to sustain 200 hogs. During this period Cholesbury still would have been a small, temporary settlement. Over the next 150 years a permanent hamlet was established remaining part of the Drayton estates and a typical example of a Chiltern strip parish. In 1091 the le Breton family although retaining ownership, passed control of the land and the income to the Knights Templar who when dissolved in 1312 passed it subsequently to the Knights Hospitaller as an endowment to the Commandery of Hogshaw. After this period Cholesbury gradually detached from Drayton Beauchamp and became a separate manor, developing into a village community indicated by the construction, within the hillfort, of an early 12th-century church dedicated to St Laurence. This is one of two churches, both incidentally called St Lawrence, to be found within hillforts in the Chilterns. The other is at West Wycombe. By the reign of Henry III around 1248 the population was large enough to warrant Cholesbury being split off as a separate manor, still controlled by the le Bretons. The church was enlarged with the adding of a porch and its importance recognised with the appointment of a resident parson by the name of Abel. Around 1330 Thomas Perot became Lord of the Manor of the estate where Parrott's Farm is today. But independence was short-lived with its association with Drayton Beauchamp being re-established in 1336 when taken control of by Mary the Dowager Countess of Norfolk. The family granted the estate to Edward II but in 1364 it was passed to Thomas Cheyne. Full independence from then manor of Drayton Beauchamp finally came in 1541 when Robert Cheyne sold the manor to Chief Justice John Baldwin. In 1618 John Baldwin sold the manor to one Thomas Stile, one of the attorneys of the Court of King's Bench. By 1650 the rights attaching to the Lord of the Manor were transferred to the Seare family who also held the manor in neighbouring Hawridge. Until the middle of the 18th century, Cholesbury continued to be just a chapelry under the administration of the parish of Drayton Beauchamp. The establishment Cholesbury as a separate ecclesiastical parish was sanctioned by the Bishop of Lincoln in 1756. English Civil War It is known that in common with many parts of the Chilterns there was much discontent with the levying of Ship Money and the oath required in support of the Protestation some of the causes of the dispute between Parliamentarians and King Charles I. As with other villages Parliamentarian troops were billeted in Cholesbury during the English Civil War and took part in skirmishes involving Prince Rupert at Chesham and Wendover. Impact of the Poor Laws The Darell (Daryell) family had held sway in Cholesbury from 1748 until 1814 when Edward Darvell an absentee owner and Director of the Bank of England, passed it on his death to his nephew, the Rev. John Jeffreys, Rector of Barnes, Surrey. This also signalled a change in fortunes for the village. Cholesbury can claim one modest contribution to the reform of social policy in England. From the time of Elizabeth I a levy was imposed on property owners to fund poor relief in their parish. The amount collected increased significantly during the 18th and early 19th centuries. The increasingly desperate living available off the land in this part of the Chilterns from 1812 onwards meant the parish vestry was unable to raise sufficient funds to support the poor and in 1832 declared itself bankrupt. An account of the plight of the parish was recorded in the report to Parliament by the Poor Law Commission provided by the Rev. Henry Jeston. He had arrived as vicar in 1830, chaired vestry meetings and between 1832 and 1835 and eventually raised sufficient loans from neighbouring parishes and advances from landowners, including himself, to rescue the parish from its plight and put into effect measures to ensure the future financial security of the parish. He was mentioned in the subsequent debate which led to reform of the Poor Laws for which Herbert Spencer provided an account in his most famous book The Man Versus the State. The village recognised Jeston's achievements through raising a subscription for a stained-glassed window in his honour. Local economy Cholesbury stands at the crossroads of several droving routes, the Commons providing a safe place to rest their animals. In turn this regular traffic supported local trades and several alehouses over the years. By 1753 The Castle, the Maidenhead (later the Bricklayers Arms), next door to it the Queen's Head and The Slip Inn were operating for at least a period. They were able to flourish due to the boost in trade between the 18th and the early part of the 20th centuries when they were also frequented by the growing numbers of brickyard and agricultural labourers. None of these public houses has survived to the present day. Prior to the 20th century, agriculture and woodworking had been the main employment for villagers although work was often of a casual nature, supplemented by road mending and season fruit picking when orchards were commonplace. Straw plaiting was the chief occupation of women and children during most of the 19th century. The plait was sent to Luton or London. Until the Second World War agriculture had been the principle industry in the area. In Chesham work could be found in mills and boot factories. The discovery of clay deposits in the surrounding area had been a source for small-scale pottery production since the 17th century. The demand for new houses after the First World War lead to the rapid expansion of brickmaking in the area and St Brown's brickworks was opened on the site of clayfields in Shire Lane. At its height it was producing between 3–3.5m bricks per year. In 1946 another local brickmaking company Dunton's, encouraged by the Ministry of Works rented land on an adjacent site to meet the demand for post-war reconstruction and new house building. Since the Second World War some land has been progressively taken out of agricultural use although today there is still a significant area around the village given over to arable crops and sheep-grazing. Improvement to the road networks and public transport resulted in work being sought from further afield. The arrival of the railway to Chesham during the 1880s enabled travel to London and other conurbations. Today there are no significant employers remaining in the village. The 2001 census indicated a further change with increasing numbers of remote workers living in Cholesbury. Demographics The census of 1801 records there were 122 inhabitants in 25 families living in 22 houses in Cholesbury. According to the subsequent censuses the population fell between 1801 and 1861 when it was 105. It remained around this level into the 20th century and in 1931 was still only 115. As at 2001 93.5% of the local people were recorded as of White ethnic origin. Just under 80% declared they were Christians. Some 45% of people were in employment and 21%, a significantly higher proportion than elsewhere in the district, were self-employed and over 15% were retired which was slightly higher than in nearby areas. Notable people Hawidge Mill (also known as Cholesbury Mill), as it strides the boundary between the two villages, became associated with members of two artists' groups, the Bloomsbury Group and the lesser known London Group around the time of the First World War. Gilbert Cannan used the mill tower as a studio and with his wife Mary Ansell frequently invited friends to stay or to rent cottages nearby. These included Katherine Mansfield and John Middleton Murry who were having an affair and lodged next door at The Gables as did Mark Gertler who between 1915–16 painted Gilbert Cannan at his Mill depicting Cannan outside the Mill with his two dogs. The black and white one had belonged to J.M. Barrie and was the inspiration for Nana in the book Peter Pan. Others visiting included D.H. Lawrence, Lady Ottoline Morrell, Compton Mackenzie, Bertrand Russell, the historian G.M. Trevelyan, the painter and interior decorator Dora Carrington, Lytton Strachey. The Cannans left the mill in 1916 and it was subsequently rented by the celebrated American actress of the day, Doris Keane. John Haden Badley born 1865, a progressive educationalist and author who founded Bedales School now located in Steep, Hampshire in 1893, lived in Cholesbury after retiring in 1935, having served as headmaster for 42 years. After the death of his wife, Amy he returned to live in the grounds of the school until his death in 1967. General Robert Money after a distinguished military career during the First and Second World War lived in the village from the 1950s until his death in 1985. Aneurin Bevan MP lived at Asheridge Farm in the village until his death on 6 July 1960. [Nye: Beloved Patrician, David Llewelyn] In the churchyard there are at several gravestones of interest. One commemorates David Newton who died in 1878, a Royal Marine who fought at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. There are adjoining gravestones of two sisters Margaret Lowenfeld a pioneer of child psychology and psychotherapy who died in 1973, her sister Helena Wright known internationally for her campaigning work in birth control and family planning who died in 1982, and their cousin's wife Claire Loewenfeld who wrote books on herb gardening and nutrition and died in 1974. Margaretta Scott (Wooldridge) also lies here. Danny Dunton was an English international motorcycle speedway rider and promoter who reached the final of the Speedway World Championship in 1950. Landmarks and buildings The Manor House, where the Lord of the Manor held his court periodically between 1599 and 1607, dates back to the end of the 16th century and was once considerably larger than it is today. Many of the older houses in the village also date from around this time of expansion. Cholesbury Camp an Iron Age hillfort and scheduled monument, is the dominant feature in the landscape. It almost circular in shape, and the site is enclosed by a double rampart or vellum, broken on its southern side by houses. Originally, a palisade, requiring wood from between 10–15,000 trees, would have topped the earthworks. Today, the extent of the fort is demarcated by a magnificent stand of mature beech trees. Associated with the fort is a pond, known locally as the 'Holy' or 'Bury' pond, which is fed by a spring, that is perpetual: it has never been known to run dry, even in the severest of droughts. The church of St Lawrence is within the hillfort's boundary. Cholesbury Common runs through the village either side of the road. Buildings of note include Cholesbury Windmill which was first built in 1863 as a smock mill but was rebuilt in the style of a tower mill in 1883. Cholesbury Village Hall, built in 1895 on land given by Frederick Butcher, a banker, from Tring and contemporary of the other banking dynasty, the Rothschild family who also lived in the area. Butcher was a staunch supporter of the Temperance movement and saw the importance of providing recreational facilities for working men as an alternative to the alehouses. An exterior shot of the village hall was used in the 2013 BBC television comedy Up the Women. In 1899 Henry J. Turner, J.P. bought the lordship and living at Braziers End House was the first Lord to reside in his Manor for nearly 300 years. The 'Full Moon' public house dates from the 17th century. The pub was known as the Half Moon until 1812, the Moon from then until 1883, when it took its present name. The Full Moon was the traditional meeting place for the Lord of the Manor of Hawridge to hold court, with proceedings mainly concerned with the use of the commons, especially grazing rights and enclosures. A stone obelisk on the boundary between Hawridge and Cholesbury was erected in 1898 to mark Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee the year before. Nearby a group of three puddingstones was assembled and dedicated in November 2012 on the occasion of the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II. Governance The manorial rights originating from the 12th century, which have continued to be held jointly with Hawridge since the 17th century no longer control village life. Hawridge and Cholesbury Commons Preservation Society manage the Commons, which is still owned by a Lord of the Manor. The church vestry has been succeeded by the parochial church council focusing on church affairs and its responsibilities for the village ceded to the parish council. Cholesbury is one of four 'Hilltop Villages', the others being Hawridge, St Leonards and Buckland Common. Prior to 1934 Cholesbury had been a separate parish and part of Aylesbury Rural District. On 1 April 1934 it came together with the other villages to form the new civil parish of Cholesbury-cum-St Leonards and was also transferred to Amersham Rural District. As part of the 1974 Local Government reorganisation the rural district was succeeded by Chiltern District. Education Until the opening of the National School in Hawridge in 1874 education was provided in the village by a straw plaiting school also mentioned in a Select committee report of 1819. (Hay and Hay 1994) Children between the ages of 5 and 11 attend Hawridge and Cholesbury Church of England School in nearby Hawridge. A private nursery school is based at Cholesbury Village Hall. The catchment area secondary schools are:- Chiltern Hills Academy and Chesham Grammar School in Chesham, Dr Challoner's Grammar School for boys in Amersham and – Dr Challoner's High School for girls in Little Chalfont. Transport Almost 95% of local residents have access to a car. Over the years the provision of buses has decreased significantly. Today a bus service runs once each way on alternative days connecting to Chesham, Tring and local villages. School buses are a valuable facility transporting children to secondary schools in Chesham and Amersham. Sport and recreation The cricket club was founded in 1885 with permission from the Lord of the Manor to use the Common and continues to thrive today with the First XI playing in the Premier Division of the Morrant Chiltern League. The local area with its open views, rural lanes, commons and woodland, criss-crossed by footpaths and bridleways consequently are very popular with cyclists, walkers and horse riders. The churches of Hawridge and Cholesbury jointly hold a summer fête on the August Bank Holiday Monday, alternatively on Hawridge and Cholesbury Commons. The Vale of Aylesbury with Garth & South Berks Hunt traditionally hold a meet on Boxing Day (26 December) which draws a large crowd from the local district. The Village Hall hosts events from the organisations, of the local villages (Horticultural Society, Local History Group, Commons Preservation Society, Thursday Club) as well as 'Cholesbury Teas' on Sundays during summer months. External links Village website The Man Versus the State (1884). Citations References Villages in Buckinghamshire Hill forts in Buckinghamshire Former civil parishes in Buckinghamshire
401834	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20boxing%20families	List of boxing families	This is a list of boxing families with two or more notable boxers. Many families have had multiple members become famous in the sport of boxing, with some having held multiple world titles. While this does not have extensive details, their highest career achievements are listed. Argentina Matthysse siblings Walter Matthysse: 1978-08-29 to ----, WBO Latino welterweight champion Edith Soledad Matthysse: 1980-08-06 to ----, WBA and WBC female featherweight champion Lucas Matthysse: 1982-09-27 to ----, WBA (Regular) welterweight, WBC interim light welterweight champion Bermúdez siblings Gustavo David Bermúdez: 1988–02–05 to ----, WBC Latino interim light welterweight champion Daniela Romina Bermúdez: 1989–07–07 to ----, WBO female super flyweight; IBF, and WBO female bantamweight champion Roxana Ayelyn Bermúdez: 1995–07–19 to ---- Evelyn Nazarena Bermúdez: 1996–04–01 to ----, IBF female light flyweight champion Australia Mundine family Tony Mundine (born 1951), Commonwealth middleweight champion; Australian middleweight, light heavyweight, cruiserweight and heavyweight champion Anthony Mundine (Tony's son; born 1975), WBA super middleweight champion; IBO middleweight champion Moloney brothers Andrew Moloney 1991-1-10 to ---, Interim WBA super-flyweight champion Jason Moloney 1991-1-10 to ---, WBO bantamweight champion Brazil Falcão brothers Yamaguchi Falcão: 1987-12-24 to ---, WBO Latino middleweight champion, silver medal at 2011 Pan American Games, bronze at 2012 Olympics Esquiva Falcão: 1989-12-12 to ---, Middleweight bronze medal at 2011 World Championships, silver at 2012 Summer Olympics Bulgaria Pulev brothers Kubrat Pulev: 1981-05-04 to ----, European heavyweight champion Tervel Pulev: 1983-01-10 to ----, Bronze medal at 2012 Summer Olympics, European cruiserweight champion Canada Gatti brothers Joe Gatti (born 1967), light middleweight world title challenger Arturo Gatti (1972–2009), IBF super featherweight champion; WBC light welterweight champion Hilton family Dave Hilton Sr. (born 1940), Canadian middleweight champion Dave Hilton Jr. (Dave Sr.'s son; born 1963), WBC super middleweight champion Alex Hilton (Dave Sr.'s son; born 1964), Canadian middleweight champion Matthew Hilton (Dave Sr.'s son; born 1965), IBF light middleweight champion Vanderpool brothers Fitz Vanderpool (born 1967), World Boxing Federation (WBF) welterweight and light middleweight champion Syd Vanderpool (born 1972), WBO-NABO super middleweight champion Colombia Cardona brothers Prudencio Cardona: 1951-12-22 to 2019-08-04, WBC flyweight champion Ricardo Cardona: 1952-11-09 to 2015-10-12, WBA super bantamweight champion Cuba Savón family Félix Savón: 1967-12-22 to ----, Gold medals at 1992, 1996 and 2000 Summer Olympics, and 1986, 1989, 1991, 1993, 1995 and 1997 World Championships Erislandy Savón: 1990-07-20 to ----, (Félix's nephew), Bronze medal at 2016 Summer Olympics, gold medal at 2017 World Championships Ribalta brothers José Ribalta (eldest): welterweight José Ribalta (middle): heavyweight, 1976 Giraldo Córdova Cardín participant, fought Teófilo Stevenson three times in the mid-1970s, also fought Aziz Salihu José Manuel Ribalta (youngest): 1963-03-31 to ----, heavyweight, 1979-1981 Florida State Golden Gloves Champion and AAU District Champ, 1981 National Golden Gloves finalist, WBC contender during the mid-1980s and the early 1990s, fought James Smith, Mike Tyson, Leon Spinks, Larry Holmes, Vitali Klitschko, Chris Byrd, Donovan Ruddock Denmark Bredahl brothers Jimmi Bredahl: 1967-08-26 to ----, WBO, IBO, European super featherweight champion Johnny Bredahl: 1968-08-27 to ----, WBA, IBO, WBU, European bantamweight, WBO super flyweight champion; first Danish WBA champion The only brothers in the world to become world champions the same night at the same event. Took place at Parken Stadium on September 4, 1992. Dominican Republic Cruz brothers Carlos Cruz: 1937-11-24 to 1970-02-15, WBA, and WBC lightweight champion Leo Cruz: 1953-01-17 to ----, WBA super bantamweight champion France Tiozzo brothers Christophe Tiozzo: 1963-06-01 to ----, WBA super middleweight champion Fabrice Tiozzo: 1969-05-08 to ----, WBA, and WBC light heavyweight, WBA cruiserweight champion Germany Rocchigiani brothers Ralf Rocchigiani: 1963-02-13 to ----, WBO cruiserweight champion Graciano Rocchigiani: 1963-12-29 to 2018-10-01, IBF super middleweight, WBC light heavyweight champion Italy Dundee brothers (first siblings to become world champions) Joe Dundee: 1903-08-06 to 1982-03-31, NYSAC welterweight champion Vince Dundee: 1907-10-22 to 1949-07-27, NYSAC middleweight champion Stecca brothers Loris Stecca: 1960-03-30 to ----, WBA super bantamweight champion Maurizio Stecca: 1963-03-09 to ----, WBO featherweight champion Japan Ioka family Kazunori Ioka: 1967-07-27 to ----, (Kazuto's father), Promoter Hiroki Ioka: 1969-01-08 to ----, (Kazunori's brother), WBC mini flyweight, WBA light flyweight champion Kazuto Ioka: 1989-03-24 to ----, (Kazunori's son & Hiroki's cousin), WBA mini flyweight, WBC mini flyweight, WBA light flyweight, WBA flyweight, WBO super flyweight champion Kameda family Shiro Kameda: 1965-05-22 to ----, Trainer of Kameda brothers Koki Kameda: 1986-11-17 to ----, (Shiro's son), WBA light flyweight, WBA bantamweight, WBC flyweight champion Daiki Kameda: 1989-01-06 to ----, (Shiro's son), WBA flyweight, IBF super flyweight champion Tomoki Kameda: 1991-07-12 to ----, (Shiro's son), WBO bantamweight champion Inoue family Koki Inoue: 1992-05-11 to ----, (Naoya's cousin), WBO Asia Pacific light welterweight champion Naoya Inoue: 1993-04-10 to ----, WBC light flyweight, WBO super flyweight, and WBA (Super), IBF, and The Ring bantamweight champion Takuma Inoue: 1995-12-26 to ----, (Naoya's brother), WBC interim bantamweight champion Noguchi family Susumu Noguchi, welterweight champion Kyō Noguchi, flyweight champion Osamu Noguchi, boxing promoter Mexico Álvarez brothers Rigoberto Álvarez: 1978-01-20 to ----, WBA interim light middleweight champion Ricardo Álvarez: 1981-11-21 to ----, WBC Latino and WBC Continental Americas light welterweight champion Ramon Álvarez: 1986-05-28 to ----, WBC-NABF light middleweight champion Canelo Álvarez: 1990-07-18 to ----, WBA (Unified), WBC, WBO, and The Ring light middleweight, WBA (Super), WBC, IBF, and The Ring middleweight, WBA (Super), WBC, WBO, and The Ring super middleweight, and WBO light heavyweight champion Arce brothers Jorge Arce: 1979-07-27 to ----, WBC, WBO light flyweight, WBO super flyweight, WBO bantamweight, WBO super bantamweight champion Francisco Arce Armenta: 1981-08-29 to ----, WBC-NABF super bantamweight champion Arredondo brothers Ricardo Arredondo: 1949-05-26 to 1991-09-20, WBC super featherweight champion Roberto Arredondo: 1958-05-03 to ----, Japanese featherweight champion René Arredondo: 1961-06-15 to ----, WBC light welterweight champion Burgos family Víctor Burgos: 1974-04-10 to ----, IBF light flyweight champion Juan Carlos Burgos: 1987-12-26 to ----, (Victor's nephew), WBC Silver super featherweight champion Castillo brothers José Luis Castillo: 1973-12-14 to ----, WBC lightweight champion Ricardo Castillo: 1979-06-07 to ----, WBC-NABF featherweight champion Chávez family Julio César Chávez: 1962-07-12 to ----, WBC super featherweight, WBA, and WBC lightweight, WBC, and IBF light welterweight champion Roberto Chávez González: ---- to ----, (Julio's brother), bantamweight Julio César Chávez Jr.: 1986-02-16 to ----, (Julio's son), WBC middleweight champion Omar Chávez: 1990-01-04 to ----, (Julio's son), WBO-NABO light middleweight champion Díaz brothers Joel Díaz: 1973-02-18 to ----, IBF lightweight champion Antonio Díaz: 1976-06-13 to ----, IBA light welterweight champion Julio Díaz: 1979-12-24 to ----, IBF lightweight champion Espadas family Guty Espadas: 1954-12-20 to ----, WBA flyweight champion Guty Espadas Jr.: 1974-09-02 to ----, (Guty's son), WBC featherweight champion García brothers Raúl García: 1982-09-10 to ----, IBF, and WBO mini flyweight champion Ramón García Hirales: 1982-09-10 to ----, WBO light flyweight champion González family Alejandro Martín González: 1973-08-11 to ----, WBC featherweight champion Alejandro González Jr.: 1993-03-08 to ----, (Alejandro's son), super bantamweight Juárez sisters Mariana Juárez: 1980-01-29 to ----, WBC female flyweight and WBC female bantamweight champion Lourdes Juárez: 1986-12-19 to ----, WBC female super flyweight champion Karass brothers Jesús Soto Karass: 1982-10-15 to ----, WBC-NABF welterweight champion López family Ricardo Lopez: 1966-01-25 to ----, WBA, WBC, and WBO mini flyweight, IBF light flyweight champion Alonso López: 1986-05-28 to ----, (Ricardo's son), flyweight Margarito family Antonio Margarito: 1978-03-18 to ----, WBA, IBF, and WBO welterweight champion Hanzel Martínez: 1991-11-21 to ----, (Antonio's brother-in-law), bantamweight Márquez brothers Juan Manuel Márquez: 1973-08-23 to ----, IBF & WBO featherweight, WBC super featherweight, WBA, and WBO lightweight, WBO light welterweight champion Rafael Márquez: 1975-03-25 to ----, IBF, and IBO bantamweight champion Mijares family Vicente Mijares: 1954-06-14 to ----, lightweight Cristian Mijares: 1981-10-02 to ----, (Vicente's nephew), WBA, WBC, and IBF super flyweight champion Ricardo Mijares: 1988-06-14 to ----, (Vicente's nephew), lightweight Montiel family Manuel Montiel Sr.: ---- to ----, 1970s flyweight and trainer Alejandro Felix Montiel: 1971-04-24 to ----, (Manuel Sr.'s son), IBA flyweight champion Pedro Montiel: 1973-11-30 to ----, (Manuel Sr.'s son), middleweight Fernando Montiel: 1979-03-01 to ----, (Manuel Sr.'s son), WBO flyweight, WBO super flyweight, WBC, and WBO bantamweight champion Manuel Montiel Jr.: ---- to ----, (Manuel Sr.'s son), bantamweight Eduardo Montiel: ---- to ----, (Manuel Sr.'s son), middleweight Morales family José Morales: ---- to ----, 1970s boxing contender, Erik's manager Érik Morales: 1976-09-01 to ----, (Jose's son), WBC, and WBO super bantamweight, WBC featherweight, WBC, and IBF super featherweight, WBC light welterweight champion Diego Morales: 1979-12-11 to ----, (Jose's son), WBO super flyweight champion Iván Morales: 1991-10-09 to ----, (Jose's son), bantamweight prospect Páez family Jorge Páez: 1965-10-27 to ----, IBF, and WBO featherweight champion Jorge Páez Jr.: 1987-11-30 to ----, (Jorge's son), WBC Youth Intercontinental welterweight champion Azriel Páez: 1989-05-28 to ----, (Jorge's son), welterweight Ruelas brothers Gabriel Ruelas: 1970-07-23 to ----, WBC super featherweight champion Rafael Ruelas: 1971-04-26 to ----, IBF lightweight champion Sánchez family Salvador Sánchez: 1959-01-26 to 1982-08-12, WBC featherweight champion Salvador Sánchez II: 1985-09-20 to ----, (Salvador's nephew), featherweight Solís brothers Jorge Solís: 1979-10-23 to ----, WBA interim super featherweight champion Ulises Solís: 1981-08-28 to ----, IBF light flyweight champion Zárate family Carlos Zárate: 1951-05-23 to ----, WBC bantamweight champion Joel Luna Zárate: 1965-11-12 to ----, (Carlos's nephew), WBO Latino super flyweight champion Carlos Zárate Jr.: 1988-05-23 to ----, (Carlos's son), light welterweight Norway Havnå family Magne Havnå: 1963-09-16 to 2004-05-29, WBO cruiserweight champion Kai Robin Havnå: 1989-01-20 to ----, (Magne's son), IBO International cruiserweight champion Panama Durán family Roberto Durán: 1951-06-16 to ----, WBA, and WBC lightweight, WBC welterweight, WBA light middleweight, WBC middleweight champion Santiago Samaniego: 1974-01-25 to ----, (Roberto's nephew), WBA light middleweight champion Irichelle Durán: 1976-11-18 to ----, (Roberto's daughter), super bantamweight Pedroza Family Eusebio Pedroza: 1956-03-02 to 2019-03-01, WBA featherweight champion Rafael Pedroza: 1955-03-27 to ----, (Eusebio's cousin), WBA super flyweight champion Philippines Donaire family Glenn Donaire: 1979-12-07 to ----, (Nonito's brother), WBC Latino super flyweight champion Nonito Donaire: 1982-11-16 to ----, IBF, and IBO flyweight, WBA (Super), WBC, and WBO bantamweight, WBO, IBF, and The Ring super bantamweight, WBA (Super) featherweight champion Richard Donaire: 1987-05-25 to ----, (Nonito's cousin), super flyweight Magramo family Ric Magramo Sr.: ---- to ----, 1960s Flyweight contender Ric Magramo Jr.: 1961-11-06 to ----, (Ric Sr.'s son), light flyweight Melvin Magramo: 1971-04-28 to ----, WBO Inter-Continental, and OPBF flyweight champion Ronnie Magramo: 1972 to ----, WBF mini flyweight champion Giemel Magramo: 1994-10-05 to ----, (Melvin's son), WBC International flyweight champion Pacquiao brothers Manny Pacquiao: 1978-12-17 to ----, WBC flyweight, IBF super bantamweight, WBA (Super), IBF, and The Ring featherweight, WBC, and The Ring super featherweight, WBC lightweight, IBO, and The Ring light welterweight, WBA (Super), and WBO welterweight, WBC light middleweight champion Bobby Pacquiao: 1980-12-12 to ----, WBO Asia-Pacific lightweight champion Pagara brothers Jason Pagara: 1988-07-17 to ----, WBO Asia-Pacific Youth lightweight, WBO Asia-Pacific Youth and WBO International light welterweight champion Albert Pagara: 1994-02-18 to ----, IBF Intercontinental, and WBO Intercontinental super bantamweight champion Peñalosa family Carl Peñalosa: 1938-03-02 to ----, lightweight and light welterweight Jonathan Peñalosa: ---- to ----, (Carl's son), WBC International flyweight champion Dodie Boy Peñalosa: 1962-11-19 to ----, (Carl's son), IBF light flyweight, IBF flyweight champion Gerry Peñalosa: 1972-08-07 to ----, (Carl's son), WBC super flyweight, WBO bantamweight champion Dodie Boy Jr.: 1991-02-20 to ----, (Carl's grandson), featherweight Jaro family Aljoe Jaro: 1973-05-19 to ----, 1980-90s super featherweight contender, Amnat Ruenroeng's trainer Francisco Jaro: ---- to ----, (Aljoe's younger brother), Amnat Ruenroeng's trainer Sonny Boy Jaro: 1982-03-24 to ----, (Francisco & Aljoe's cousin), WBC flyweight champion Rubillar brothers Ernesto Rubillar: 1970-12-26 to ----, mini flyweight and flyweight Juanito Rubillar: 1977-02-22 to ----, light flyweight Robert Rubilar: 1981-06-07 to ----, super bantamweight Sonsona family Eden Sonsona: 1988-12-27 to ----, Philippines Games & Amusement Board bantamweight champion Marvin Sonsona: 1990-07-25 to ----, (Eden's cousin), WBO super flyweight champion Poland Skrzecz brothers Grzegorz Skrzecz Paweł Skrzecz Kosedowski brothers Dariusz Kosedowski Krzysztof Kosedowski Leszek Kosedowski Puerto Rico Arroyo brothers McJoe Arroyo: 1985-12-05 to ----, WBO Latino super flyweight champion McWilliams Arroyo: 1985-12-05 to ----, WBO Latino flyweight champion Bisbal brothers Victor Bisbal: 1980-07-02 to ----, heavyweight Gerardo Bisbal: 1984-09-11 to ----, amateur heavyweight Camacho family Héctor Camacho: 1962-05-24 to 2012-11-24, WBC super featherweight, WBC lightweight, WBO light welterweight, IBC welterweight, IBC middleweight, and IBC light middleweight champion Felix Camacho: 1966-06-27 to ----, (Héctor's brother), WBF super bantamweight champion Héctor Camacho Jr.: 1978-09-20 to ----, (Héctor's son), welterweight Cotto family José Miguel Cotto: 1977-06-22 to --, WBO Intercontinental super featherweight champion Abner Cotto: 1987-08-10 to ----, (José's cousin), lightweight Miguel Cotto: 1980-10-29 to ----, (José's brother), WBO light welterweight, WBA, and WBO welterweight, WBA light middleweight, WBC middleweight champion Serrano sisters Cindy Serrano: 1986-05-08 to ----, WBO female featherweight champion Amanda Serrano: 1988-10-09 to ----, WBO female super flyweight, bantamweight, super bantamweight, featherweight, lightweight, light welterweight, and IBF female super featherweight champion Solis brothers Enrique Solis: ---- to ----, world title challenger Santos Solis: 1954 to 2007, light welterweight, welterweight and light middleweight Julian Solís: 1957-01-07 to ----, WBA bantamweight champion Rafael Solis: 1958-01-02 to ----, super featherweight world title challenger Vázquez family Wilfredo Vázquez: 1960-08-02 to ----, WBA bantamweight, WBA super bantamweight, WBA featherweight champion Wilfredo Vázquez Jr.: 1984-06-18 to ----, (Wilfredo's son), WBO super bantamweight champion Romania Simion brothers Marian Simion: 1975-09-14 to ----, light middleweight silver medal at 2000 Summer Olympics Dorel Simion: 1977-02-13 to ----, welterweight bronze medal at 2000 Summer Olympics Thailand Amateur Boonjumnong brothers Manus Boonjumnong: 1980-06-23 to ----, light welterweight gold medal at 2004 Summer Olympics, silver medal at 2008 Summer Olympics Non Boonjumnong: 1982-06-12 to ----, welterweight silver medal at 2007 AIBA World Championships Kamsing brothers Somrot Kamsing: 1971-11-24 to ----, light flyweight participant at 1996 Summer Olympics Somluck Kamsing: 1973-01-16 to ----, featherweight gold medal at 1996 Summer Olympics Jongjohor family Somjit Jongjohor: 1975-01-19 to ----, flyweight gold medal at 2008 Summer Olympics Weerapon Jongjoho: 2001-02-07 to ----, (Somjit's nephew) Best Male Boxer at 2017 Thailand Youth Amateur Boxing Championships Pannon family Suban Pannon: 1978-05-10 to ----, light flyweight gold medal at 1998 Asian Games Bannaphol Pannon: ---- to ----, (Suban's son), welterweight bronze medal at 2017 Asian Youth Amateur Boxing Championships Professional Poontarat brothers Payao Poontarat: 1957-10-18 to 2006-08-13, light flyweight bronze medal at 1976 Summer Olympics, WBC super flyweight champion Panieng Poontarat: 1969-08-22 to ----, PABA light flyweight champion, Fahlan Sakkreerin Jr.'s trainer Galaxy brothers Khaosai Galaxy: 1959-05-15 to ----, WBA super flyweight champion Kaokor Galaxy: 1959-05-15 to ----, WBA bantamweight champion Payakaroon brothers Samart Payakaroon: 1962-12-05 to ----, WBC super bantamweight champion Kongtoranee Payakaroon: 1960-07-12 to ----, WBC, and WBA super flyweight challenger Sor Vorapin brothers Ratanapol Sor Vorapin: 1974-06-06 to ----, IBF mini flyweight champion Ratanachai Sor Vorapin: 1976-11-01 to ----, WBO bantamweight champion Kaichon Sor Vorapin: 1981-10-22 to ----, WBO Asian Pacific light flyweight champion Kosol Sor Vorapin: 1984-05-05 to ----, PABA super bantamweight champion Sitbangprachan brothers Pichit Sitbangprachan: 1966-01-15 to ----, IBF flyweight champion Pichitnoi Sitbangprachan: 1975-01-31 to ----, WBA light flyweight champion Porpaoin brothers Chana Porpaoin: 1966-03-25 to ----, WBA mini flyweight champion Songkram Porpaoin: 1966-03-25 to ----, WBA interim mini flyweight champion Charoen family Wanwin Charoen: 1971-07-12 to ----, WBF mini flyweight challenger Wandee Singwancha: 1980-02-05 to ----, (Wanwin's cousin) WBC mini flyweight, WBC interim light flyweight champion Dejrath family Takrawlek Dejrath: 1972-04-24 to ----, 1990s light flyweight contender Chainoi Worawut: 1997-06-24 to ----, (Dejrath's nephew) WBC-ABC super bantamweight champion Dutch Boy Gym brothers Samson Dutch Boy Gym: 1972-07-11 to ----, WBF super flyweight champion Dutch Boy Dutch Boy Gym: ---- to ----, 1990s contender Sor Rungvisai brothers Suriyan Sor Rungvisai: 1989-03-02 to ----, WBC super flyweight champion Nawaphon Sor Rungvisai: 1991-09-02 to ----, WBC-ABC flyweight champion Sakkreerin family Fahlan Sakkreerin: 1968-04-11 to ----, IBF mini flyweight, WBF flyweight champion Fahlan Sakkreerin Jr.: 1993-06-07 to ----, (Fahlan's son) IBF mini flyweight, IBF interim light flyweight challenger Kratingdaenggym family Poonsawat Kratingdaenggym: 1980-11-20 to----, WBA super bantamweight champion Stamp Kratingdaenggym: 1998-01-07 to ----, (Poonsawat's cousin) WBA interim flyweight champion Petchyindee family Sagat Petchyindee: 1957-11-30 to----, WBC super bantamweight challenger Suriya Prasathinphimai: 1980-04-02 to----, (Petchyindee's cousin) middleweight bronze medal at 2004 Summer Olympics Phisitvuthinun family Surachart Phisitvuthinun: 1950 to ----, 1960s contender, Venice Borkhorsor's boxing partner, Veeraphol Sahaprom, Suriyan Sor Rungvisai & Srisaket Sor Rungvisai's manager Chokchai Phisitvuthinun: 1977 to ----, (Surachart's son), Suriyan Sor Rungvisai & Srisaket Sor Rungvisai's trainer Ukraine Klitschko brothers Vitali Klitschko: 1971-07-19 to ----, WBC, WBO, and The Ring heavyweight champion Wladimir Klitschko: 1976-03-25 to ----, super heavyweight gold medal at 1996 Summer Olympics, WBA (Super), IBF, WBO, IBO, and The Ring heavyweight champion Sydorenko brothers Volodymyr Sydorenko: 1976-09-23 WBA Bantamweight champion Valeriy Sydorenkno: 1976-09-23 (twin) 2000 Sydney Olympian United Kingdom Benn family Nigel Benn (born 1964), WBO middleweight and WBC super middleweight champion Conor Benn (Nigel's son; born 1996), WBA Continental welterweight champion Booth brothers Jason Booth (born 1977), British and Commonwealth flyweight champion; IBO super flyweight champion; Commonwealth bantamweight champion; British and Commonwealth super bantamweight champion Nicky Booth (1980–2021), British and Commonwealth bantamweight champion Dubois siblings Daniel Dubois (born 1997), British, Commonwealth, and WBC Silver heavyweight champion Caroline Dubois (born 2001), lightweight gold medal at 2018 Youth Olympics Edwards brothers Charlie Edwards (born 1993), WBC flyweight and British super flyweight champion Sunny Edwards (born 1996), IBF flyweight and British super flyweight champion Eubank family Chris Eubank (born 1966), WBO middleweight and sBO uper middleweight champion Chris Eubank Jr. (Chris Sr.'s son; born 1989), British and WBA interim middleweight champion; IBO super middleweight champion Finnegan brothers Chris Finnegan (1944–2009), British, Commonwealth, and European light heavyweight champion Kevin Finnegan (1948–2008), British and European middleweight champion Fury family John Fury (Tyson's father; born 1964) Peter Fury (Tyson's uncle; born 1968) Andy Lee (Tyson's cousin; born 1984), WBO middleweight champion Tyson Fury: (born 1988), WBA (Super), WBC, IBF, WBO, IBO, The Ring heavyweight champion Hosea Burton (Tyson's cousin; born 1988), British light heavyweight champion Hughie Fury (Tyson's cousin; born 1994), British heavyweight champion Nathan Gorman (Tyson's cousin; born 1996), WBC International Silver heavyweight champion Tommy Fury (Tyson's half brother; born 1999), light heavyweight and Love Island contestant Hatton family Ricky Hatton (born 1978), WBA, IBF, IBO, and The Ring light welterweight champion; WBA welterweight champion Matthew Hatton (Ricky's brother; born 1981), European welterweight champion Campbell Hatton (Ricky's son; born 2001) Khan brothers Amir Khan (born 1986), WBA (Super) and IBF light welterweight champion, Haroon Khan (born 1991), flyweight bronze medal at 2010 Commonwealth Games London family Jack London (1913–1963), British heavyweight champion Brian London (Jack's son; 1934–2021), British heavyweight champion Magee brothers Terry Magee (born 1964), Northern Ireland Area light middleweight champion; BUI light middleweight champion Noel Magee (born 1965), Commonwealth light heavyweight champion Eamonn Magee (born 1971), Commonwealth light welterweight champion McDonnell twins Gavin McDonnell (born 1986), British and European super bantamweight champion Jamie McDonnell (born 1986), WBA (Regular) and IBF bantamweight champion Minter family Alan Minter (1951 – 2020), WBC middleweight champion Ross Minter (born 1978), English welterweight champion Selby brothers Lee Selby (born 1987), IBF featherweight champion Andrew Selby (born 1988), flyweight silver medal at 2011 AIBA World Championships, flyweight bronze medal at 2013 AIBA World Championships Smith brothers Paul Smith (born 1982), British middleweight champion; British super middleweight champion Stephen Smith (born 1985), British, and Commonwealth featherweight, British super featherweight champion Liam Smith (born 1988), British, Commonwealth, and WBO light middleweight champion Callum Smith (born 1990), WBA (Super) and The Ring super middleweight champion Yafai brothers Khalid Yafai (born 1989), WBA super flyweight champion Gamal Yafai (born 1991), Commonwealth super bantamweight champion Galal Yafai (born 1992), light flyweight gold medal at 2018 Commonwealth Games United States Ali family Muhammad Ali: 1942-01-17 to 2016-06-03, WBA, WBC, and The Ring heavyweight champion Rahman Ali: 1943-07-18 to ----, (Muhammad's brother), heavyweight Laila Ali: 1977-12-30 to ----, (Muhammad's daughter), WBC female super middleweight champion Ibn Ali: 1979-01-31 to ----, (Rahman's son), cruiserweight and heavyweight Nico Ali Walsh: 2001 to ----, (Rasheda's son, Muhammad's grandson), amateur boxer Ayala family Tony Ayala Sr.: 1935-07-31 to 2014-04-10, former boxer and trainer of his four sons Mike Ayala: 1958-01-19 to ----, (Tony Sr.'s son), WBC-NABF super bantamweight, WBC-NABF featherweight champion Sammy Ayala: 1959-07-31 to ----, (Tony Sr.'s son), welterweight Tony Ayala Jr.: 1963-02-13 to ----, (Tony Sr.'s son), light middleweight Paulie Ayala: ---- to ----, (Tony Sr.'s son), featherweight Edgar Ayala Baer brothers Max Baer: 1909-02-11 to 1959-11-21, heavyweight world champion Buddy Baer: 1915-01-11 to 1986-01-18, heavyweight Baltazar brothers Frankie Baltazar: 1958-04-14 to ----, super featherweight contender Tony Baltazar: 1961-02-05 to ----, lightweight contender Robert Baltazar: 1963-01-16 to ----, welterweight contender Beard brothers Rickey Beard: 1959-03-16 to 1985-11-07, welterweight Jackie Beard: 1961-09-10 to ----, WBC-NABF featherweight champion Obie Beard: ---- to ----, light welterweight Byrd family Joe Byrd Sr.: ---- to ----, 1992 US Olympic Team head coach Antoine Byrd: 1962-02-27 to ----, (Joe Sr.'s son), IBF-USBA super middleweight champion Tracy Byrd: 1964-08-27 to ----, (Joe Sr.'s daughter), IBA female lightweight, WIBO light welterweight champion Patrick Byrd: 1968-11-28 to ----, (Joe Sr.'s son), welterweight Chris Byrd: 1970-08-15 to ----, (Joe Sr.'s son), IBF, and WBO heavyweight champion Lamon Brewster: 1973-06-05 to ----, (Joe Sr.'s nephew), WBO heavyweight champion Carbajal brothers Michael Carbajal: 1967-09-17 to ----, light flyweight silver medal at 1988 Summer Olympics, WBC, IBF, and WBO light flyweight champion Cruz Carbajal: 1974-05-03 to ----, WBO bantamweight champion Canizales brothers Gaby Canizales: 1960-05-01 to ----, WBA, and WBO bantamweight champion Orlando Canizales: 1965-11-25 to ----, IBF bantamweight champion Charlo brothers Jermall Charlo: 1990-05-19 to ----, IBF light middleweight, WBC middleweight champion Jermell Charlo: 1990-05-19 to ----, WBA (Super), WBC, IBF, and The Ring light middleweight champion Cisneros family Ron Cisneros: 1961-07-13 to ----, bantamweight Mike Alvarado: 1980-07-28 to ----, (Ron's son), WBO light welterweight champion Ricky Lopez: 1987-03-03 to ----, (Mike's cousin), super bantamweight Cortez brothers Joe Cortez: 1943-10-13 to ----, featherweight and world championship referee Mike Cortez: 1942-09-27 to ----, lightweight Curry brothers Bruce Curry: 1956-03-29 to ----, WBC light welterweight champion Graylin Curry: 1960-01-18 to ----, light middleweight Donald Curry: 1961-09-07 to ----, WBA, WBC, IBF welterweight, and The Ring welterweight, WBC light middleweight champion De La Hoya family Joel De La Hoya Sr.: ---- to ----, Mike Anchondo & Daniel Ponce de León's manager Joel De La Hoya Jr.: ---- to ----, (Joel Sr.'s son), Diego De La Hoya's manager Oscar De La Hoya: 1971-02-04 to ----, (Joel Sr.'s son), lightweight gold medal at 1992 Summer Olympics, WBO super featherweight, IBF, and WBO lightweight, WBC light welterweight, WBC welterweight, WBA, WBC, and The Ring light middleweight, WBO middleweight champion Diego De La Hoya: 1994-08-13 to ----, (Oscar's cousin), WBC-NABF, and WBO-NABO super bantamweight champion Douglas family William Douglas: 1940-03-21 to ----, 1999-10-07, middleweight and light heavyweight James Buster Douglas: 1960-04-07 to ----, (William's son), WBA, WBC, and IBF heavyweight champion Lamar Douglas (James' son) Eklund & Ward brothers Dicky Eklund: 1957-05-03 to ----, welterweight Micky Ward: 1965-10-04 to ----, WBU light welterweight champion Flanagan brothers Del Flanagan: 1928-11-18 to 2003-12-26, welterweight Glen Flanagan: 1926-11-16 to 1979-01-28, featherweight Folley family Zora Folley, 1931-03-27 to 1972-07-07, heavyweight Robert Folley: 1959-11-27 to ----, (Zora's son), light heavyweight and cruiserweight Foreman family George Foreman: 1949-01-10 to ----, WBA, WBC, IBF, and The Ring heavyweight champion Freeda Foreman: 1976-10-16 to 2019-03-08, (George's daughter), middleweight George Foreman III: 1983-01-23 to ----, (George's son), heavyweight Frazier family Joe Frazier: 1944-01-12 to 2011-11-07, NYSAC, WBA, WBC, and The Ring heavyweight champion Marvis Frazier: 1960-09-12 to ----, (Joe's son), heavyweight Jackie Frazier-Lyde: 1961-12-02 to ----, (Joe's daughter), WIBA light heavyweight champion Tyrone Frazier: 1962-05-11 to ----, (Joe's nephew), super middleweight and light heavyweight Joe Frazier Jr.: 1962-10-02 to ----, (Joe's son), welterweight Fullmer brothers Gene Fullmer: 1931-07-21 to 2015-04-27, WBA middleweight champion Jay Fullmer: 1937-03-09 to 2015-04-22, lightweight and welterweight Don Fullmer: 1939-02-21 to 2012-01-28, middleweight Garcia family Eduardo Garcia: 1942-12-23 to ----, world champion trainer Robert Garcia: 1975-01-29 to ----, (Eduardo's son), IBF super featherweight champion Miguel Garcia: 1987-12-15 to ----, (Eduardo's son), WBO featherweight, WBO super featherweight champion Irving Garcia: 1989-01-20 to ----, (Robert's nephew), lightweight prospect Javier Garcia Calderón: 1989-01-20 to ----, (Robert's nephew), lightweight David Garcia: 1990-09-11 to ----, (Robert's nephew), welterweight Gardner brothers George Gardner: 1877-03-17 to 1954-07-08, light heavyweight world champion Billy Gardner: 1879-07-04 to 1950-02-23, New England featherweight champion Jimmy Gardner: 1885-12-25 to 1964-05, welterweight world champion Gibbons brothers Mike Gibbons: 1887-07-20 to 1956-08-31, middleweight Tommy Gibbons: 1891-03-22 to 1960-11-19, heavyweight title challenger Hagler & Sims brothers Marvin Hagler: 1954-05-23 to 2021-03-13, WBA, WBC, IBF, and The Ring middleweight champion Robbie Sims: 1959-11-05 to ----, middleweight title challenger Harris & Johnson brothers James Harris Mark Johnson: 1971-08-13 to ----, IBF flyweight, IBF, and WBO super flyweight champion Hearns family Thomas Hearns: 1958-10-18 to ----, WBA welterweight, WBC light middleweight, WBO super middleweight, WBA, and WBC light heavyweight, IBO cruiserweight champion Billy Hearns: ---- to ----, (Thomas's brother), super featherweight Ronald Hearns: 1978-03-19 to ----, (Thomas's son), middleweight title challenger Holyfield family Evander Holyfield: 1962-10-19 to ----, Undisputed cruiserweight and heavyweight champion Evan Holyfield: 1997-10-23 to ----, light middleweight contender Hopkins family Bernard Hopkins: 1965-01-15 to ----, WBA, WBC, IBF, WBO, and The Ring middleweight, WBA (Super), WBC, IBF, and The Ring light heavyweight champion Demetrius Hopkins: 1980-10-10 to ----, (Bernard's nephew), IBF-USBA light welterweight Jackson family Julian Jackson: 1960-09-12 to ----, WBA light middleweight, WBC middleweight champion Julius Jackson: 1987-08-01 to ----, (Julian's son), super middleweight John Jackson: 1989-01-16 to ----, (Julian's son), light middleweight Jones family Roy Jones Sr. Roy Jones Jr.: 1969-01-16 to ----, IBF middleweight, IBF super middleweight, WBA, WBC, IBF, IBO, and The Ring light heavyweight, WBA heavyweight champion Judah family Johnny Saxton: 1930-07-04 to 2008-10-04, The Ring welterweight champion Yoel Judah: 1956 to ----, (Johnny's nephew), boxing trainer and kickboxing champion Daniel Judah: 1977-08-08 to ----, (Yoel's son), light heavyweight Zab Judah: 1977-10-27 to ----, (Yoel's son), IBF, and WBO light welterweight, WBA (Undisputed), WBC, IBF, and The Ring welterweight champion Josiah Judah: 1978-08-21 to ----, (Yoel's son), super middleweight Leonard brothers Roger Leonard: 1953-07-21 to ----, light welterweight Sugar Ray Leonard: 1956-05-17 to ----, WBA, WBC, and The Ring welterweight, WBA, and The Ring light middleweight, WBC, and The Ring middleweight, WBC super middleweight, WBC light heavyweight champion Litzau brothers Allen Litzau: 1982-04-12 to ----, featherweight Jason Litzau: 1983-06-29 to ----, NABF super featherweight champion Lopez brothers Ernie Lopez: 1945-09-24 to 2009-10-03, welterweight title challenger Danny Lopez: 1952-07-06 to ----, WBC featherweight champion Magdaleno brothers Diego Magdaleno: 1986-10-28 to ----, NABF super featherweight champion Jessie Magdaleno: 1991-11-08 to ----, WBO super bantamweight champion Marco Magdaleno: 1995-11-02 to ----, lightweight Mancini family Lenny Mancini: 1919-07-12 to 2003-11-29, lightweight Ray Mancini: 1961-03-04 to ----, (Lenny's son), WBA lightweight champion Mayweather family Floyd Mayweather Sr.: 1952-10-19 to ----, super welterweight, trainer Roger Mayweather: 1961-04-24 to 2020-03-17, (Floyd Sr.'s brother), Floyd Jr.'s Trainer, WBA super featherweight, WBC light welterweight champion Jeff Mayweather: 1964-07-04 to ----, (Floyd Sr.'s brother) 1990s lightweight Floyd Mayweather Jr.: 1977-02-24 to ----, (Floyd Sr.'s son), WBC super featherweight, WBC, and The Ring lightweight, WBC light welterweight, WBA, WBC, IBF, and The Ring welterweight, WBA, WBC, and The Ring light middleweight champion Justin Jones: 1987-04-21 to ----, (Floyd Sr.'s son) McCall family Oliver McCall: 1965-4-21 to ----, WBC heavyweight champion Elijah McCall: 1988-03-03 to ----, heavyweight McCrory brothers Milton McCrory: 1962-02-07 to ----, WBC welterweight champion Steve McCrory: 1964-04-13 to 2000-08-01, flyweight gold medal at 1984 Summer Olympics McGirt family Buddy McGirt: 1964-01-17 to ----, IBF light welterweight, WBC welterweight champion James McGirt Jr.: 1982-11-25 to ----, (Buddy's son), super middleweight McNeeley family Tom McNeeley Sr.: ---- to ----, heavyweight Tom McNeeley Jr.: 1937-02-27 to 2011-10-25, heavyweight world title challenger Peter McNeeley: 1986-10-06 to ----, heavyweight Norris brothers Orlin Norris: 1965-10-04 to ----, WBA cruiserweight champion Terry Norris: 1967-06-17 to ----, WBC, and IBF light middleweight champion Patterson family Floyd Patterson: 1935-01-04 to 2006-05-11, WBA, and The Ring heavyweight champion Raymond ”Ray” Patterson: 1942-10-24 to ----, (Floyd's brother), heavyweight Tracy Harris Patterson: 1964-12-26 to ----, (Floyd's adopted son), WBC super bantamweight, IBF super featherweight champion Perez Brothers Irleis (Cubanito ) Perez Tomas Perez Quarry brothers Jerry Quarry: 1945-05-15 to 1999-01-03, heavyweight Mike Quarry: 1951-03-04 to 2006-06-11, light heavyweight Bobby Quarry: 1962-11-11 to ----, heavyweight Richardson family Greg Richardson: 1958-02-07 to ----, WBC bantamweight champion Durrell Richardson: 1979-07-07 to ----, light middleweight Chester: ---- to ----, Golden Gloves champion Randy: ---- to ----, Golden Gloves champion Ollie: ---- to ----, Golden Gloves champion Russell brothers Gary Russell Jr.: 1988-06-05 to ----, WBC featherweight champion Gary Allen Russell: 1993-02-04 to ----, 2010 National Golden Gloves light welterweight champion Sandoval brothers Alberto Sandoval: 1958-03-12 to ----, bantamweight Richie Sandoval: 1960-10-18 to ----, WBA bantamweight champion Shuler brothers James Shuler: 1959-05-29 to 1986-03-17, WBC-NABF middleweight champion Marvin Shuler: 1960-06-03 Spinks family Leon Spinks: 1953-07-11 to 2021-02-05, WBA, WBC, and The Ring heavyweight champion Michael Spinks: 1956-07-13 to 2021-02-05, (Leon's brother), WBA, WBC, IBF, and The Ring light heavyweight, IBF, and The Ring heavyweight champion Leon Spinks Jr.: 1970-09-16 to 1990-07-22, (Leon's son), fought as Leon Calvin Darrel Spinks: 1973-07-24 to ----, (Leon's son), super welterweight Cory Spinks: 1978-02-20 to ----, (Leon's son), WBA, WBC, IBF, The Ring welterweight, IBF light middleweight champion Leon Spinks III: 1988-02-14 to ----, (Leon's grandson) Tate brothers Thomas Tate: 1965-12-19 to ----, WBC-NABF super middleweight champion, middleweight and super middleweight world title challenger Frank Tate: 1964-08-27 to ----, IBF middleweight champion Tubbs family Tony Tubbs: 1958-02-15 to ----, WBA heavyweight champion Nate Tubbs: 1964-12-01 to ----, (Tony's brother), heavyweight Robert Tubbs: 1972-12-12 to ----, (Tony's cousin), middleweight Roy Dale: 1942 to ----, (Tony's uncle), middleweight Antwaun Taylor: 1985-01-19 to ----, (Tony's son) Tucker family Bob Tucker: ---- to ----, Tony Tucker: 1958-12-27 to ----, IBF heavyweight champion Vargas brothers Fernando Vargas: 1977-12-07 to ----, WBA, and IBF light middleweight champion Rogelio Vargas: 1982-11-25 to ----, super middleweight Webber sisters Cora Webber: 1958 to ----, IFBA light middleweight champion Dora Webber: 1958 to ----, IWBF lightweight champion Zivic brothers Fritzie Zivic: 1913-05-08 to 1984-05-18, NYSAC, NBA, and Ring Magazine welterweight champion Jack Zivic: 1903-06-23 to 1973-05-22, lightweight and welterweight contender Peter Zivic: 1901-03-26 to 1987-01-29, bantamweight and featherweight contender Eddie Zivic 1910-05-30 to 1996-04-15, welterweight contender Venezuela España brothers Ernesto España: 1954-11-07 to ----, WBA lightweight champion Crisanto España: 1964-10-25 to ----, WBA welterweight champion See also List of current world boxing champions References Families Boxing families Combat sports families
401835	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenji%20Doihara	Kenji Doihara	was a Japanese army officer. As a general in the Imperial Japanese Army during World War II, he was instrumental in the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. As a leading intelligence officer, he played a key role to the Japanese machinations that led to the occupation of large parts of China, the destabilization of the country, and the disintegration of the traditional structure of Chinese society to diminish reaction to the Japanese plans by using highly-unconventional methods. He became the mastermind of the Manchurian drug trade and the real boss and sponsor behind every kind of gang and underworld activity in China. After the end of World War II, he was prosecuted for war crimes in the International Military Tribunal for the Far East. He was found guilty, sentenced to death, and hanged in December 1948. Early life and career Kenji Doihara was born in Okayama City, Okayama Prefecture. He attended military preparatory schools as a youth, and graduated from the 16th class of the Imperial Japanese Army Academy in 1904. He was assigned to various infantry regiments as a junior officer, and returned to school to graduate from the 24th class of the Army Staff College in 1912. Doihara longed for a high-ranking military career, but his family's low social status stood in the way. He therefore contrived to use his 15-year-old sister as a concubine for a prince, who in exchange, rewarded him with a military rank and a posting to the Japanese embassy in Beijing as assistant to the military attaché General Hideki Tōjō. After that, Doihara quickly rose within the ranks of the army. He spent most of his early career in various postings in northern China, except for a brief tour in 1921-1922 as part of the Japanese forces in eastern Russia during the Siberian Intervention. He was attached to IJA 2nd Infantry Regiment from 1926 to 1927 and IJA 3rd Infantry Regiment in 1927. In 1927, he was part of an official tour to China and then attached to IJA 1st Division from 1927 to 1928. He learned to speak fluent Mandarin Chinese and other Chinese dialects, and with this, he managed to take a position in military intelligence. From that post in 1928, it was he who masterminded the assassination of Zhang Zuolin, the Chinese warlord who controlled Manchuria, devising a scheme to detonate Zuolin's train as it traveled from Beijing to Shenyang. After that he was made military adviser to the Kuomintang Government until 1929. In 1930, he was promoted to colonel and commanded IJA 30th Infantry Regiment. Member of the "Eleven Reliable" clique Doihara's performance was recognized, and by 1930 he was assigned to the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office. There, together with Hideki Tojo, Seishirō Itagaki, Daisaku Komoto, Yoshio Kudo, Masakasu Matsumara and others, he became a chosen member of the "Eleven Reliable" circle of officers. The Eleven Reliable clique was an external tool of a more closed group of three influential senior military officers called the "Three Crows" (Tetsuzan Nagata, Yasuji Okamura and Toshishiro Obata) who wanted to modernize the Japanese military and to purge it of its anachronistic samurai tradition and the dominant allied clans of Chōshū and Satsuma that favored that tradition. The real sponsor behind both two bodies was Field Marshal Royal Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni, uncle and advisor of the Emperor Hirohito, and responsible for eight fake coups d'état, four assassinations, two religious hoaxes, and countless threats of murder and blackmail between 1930 and 1936 in his effort to neutralize the Japanese moderates, who opposed war, by spreading terror. Higashikuni highly favored covered work by faithful officers inside the intelligence departments in order to bring about the political program of his own clique named Tōseiha. This clique had a decisive materialistic, westernizing approach on the issue of the Empire's expansion, in a rather colonization-like fashion, as opposed to the rival Kōdōha clique which was for a more "spiritual" way of expansion as an effort to liberate and unite all Asian peoples under a racial, not nationalistic Empire. Kōdōha, headed by Gen. Sadao Araki, under the national socialistic, totalitarian and populistic philosophical influence of Ikki Kita charged Tōseiha for collusion with the Zaibatsu financial conglomerate business clique, or to simply put it, for amoralism and pro-capitalism. It is not quite clear whether Doihara joined the movement for ideological or opportunistic reasons, but in any case, from then on his military career accelerated. In 1931, he became head of the military espionage operations of the Japanese Army of Manchuria in Tientsin. The following year, he was transferred to Shenyang as head of the Houten Special Agency, the military intelligence service of the Japanese Kwantung Army. "Lawrence of Manchuria” While at Tientsin, Doihara, together with Seishirō Itagaki engineered the infamous Mukden Incident by ordering Lieutenant Suemori Komoto to place and fire a bomb near the tracks at the time when a Japanese train passed through. In the event, the bomb was so unexpectedly weak and the damage of the tracks so negligible that the train passed undamaged, but the Imperial Japanese Government still blamed the Chinese military for an unprovoked attack, invaded and occupied Manchuria. During the invasion, Doihara facilitated the tactical cooperation between the Northeastern Army Generals Xi Qia in Kirin, Zhang Jinghui in Harbin and Zhang Haipeng at Taonan in the northwest of Liaoning province. Next, Doihara took the task to return former Qing dynasty Emperor Pu Yi to Manchuria as to give legitimacy to the puppet regime. The plan was to pretend that Pu Yi had returned to resume his throne due to imaginary popular demand of the people of Manchuria and that although Japan had nothing to do with his return, it could do nothing to oppose the will of the people. To carry out the plan, it was necessary to land Pu Yi at Yingkou before that port froze; therefore, he had to arrive there before 16 November 1931. With the help of the legendary spy Kawashima Yoshiko, a woman well-acquainted with the Emperor, who regarded her as a member of the Chinese Imperial Family, he succeeded in bringing him into Manchuria within the deadline. In early 1932, Doihara was sent to head the Harbin Special Agency of the Kwantung Army, where he began negotiations with General Ma Zhanshan after he had been driven from Tsitsihar by the Japanese. Ma's position was ambiguous; he continued negotiations while he supported Harbin-based General Ting Chao. When Doihara realized his negotiations were not going anywhere, he requested that Manchurian warlord Xi Qia advance with his forces to take Harbin from General Ting Chao. However, General Ting Chao was able to defeat Xi Qia's forces, and Doihara realized he would need Japanese forces to succeed. Doihara engineered a riot in Harbin to justify their intervention. That resulted in the IJA 12th Division under General Jirō Tamon coming from Mukden by rail and then marching through the snow to reinforce the attack. Harbin fell on 5 February 1932. By the end of February, General Ting Chao retreated into northeastern Manchuria and offered to cease hostilities, ending Chinese formal resistance. Within a month, the puppet state of Manchukuo was established under Doihara's supervision who had named himself mayor of Mukden. He then arranged for the puppet government to ask Tokyo to supply "military advice". During the next months 150,000 soldiers, 18,000 gendarmes and 4,000 secret police came into the newly founded protectorate. He used them as an occupying army, imposing slave labour and spreading terror to force the 30 million Chinese inhabitants into abject submission. Ma's fame as an uncompromising fighter against the Japanese invaders survived after his defeat and so Doihara made contact with him offering a huge sum of money and the command of the puppet state's army if he would defect to the new Manchurian government. Ma pretended that he agreed and flew to Mukden in January 1932, where he attended the meeting on which the state of Manchukuo was founded and was appointed War Minister of Manchukuo and Governor of Heilongjiang Province. Then, after using the Japanese funds to raise and re-equip a new volunteer force, on 1 April 1932, he led his troops to Tsitsihar, re-establishing the Heilongjiang Provincial Government as part of the Republic of China and resumed the fight against the Japanese. From 1932 to 1933, the newly promoted Major General Doihara commanded IJA 9th Infantry Brigade of IJA 5th Division. After the seizure of Jehol in Operation Nekka, Doihara was sent back to Manchukuo to head Houten Special Agency once again until 1934. He was then attached to IJA 12th Division until 1936. For the key role he played in the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, he earned the nickname "Lawrence of Manchuria," a reference to Lawrence of Arabia. However, according to Jamie Bisher, the flattering sobriquet was rather misapplied, as that Colonel T.E. Lawrence had fought to liberate, not to oppress people. Second Sino-Japanese War and Second World War From 1936 to 1937, Doihara was the commander of the 1st Depot Division in Japan until the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, when he was given command of the IJA 14th Division under the Japanese First Army in North China. There, he served in the Beiping–Hankou Railway Operation and spearheaded the campaign of Northern and Eastern Henan, where his division opposed the Chinese counterattack in the Battle of Lanfeng. After the Battle of Lanfeng, Doihara was attached to the Army General Staff as head of the Doihara Special Agency until 1939, when he was given command of the Japanese Fifth Army, in Manchukuo under the overall control of the Kwantung Army. In 1940, Doihara became a member of the Supreme War Council which shifted its military policy in China that year to what was called the Three Alls ("Kill all – Burn all – Loot all"). He then became head of the Army Aeronautical Department of the Ministry of War, and Inspector-General of Army Aviation until 1943. From 1940 to 1941, he was appointed Commandant of the Imperial Japanese Army Academy. On 4 November 1941, as a general in the Japanese Army Air Force and a member of the Supreme War Council he voted his approval of the attack on Pearl Harbor. In 1943, Doihara was made Commander in Chief of the Eastern District Army. In 1944, he was appointed the Governor of Johor State, Malaya, and commander in chief of the Japanese Seventh Area Army in Singapore until 1945. Returning to Japan in 1945, Doihara was promoted to Inspector-General of Military Training (one of the most prestigious positions in the Army) and commander in chief of the Japanese Twelfth Area Army. At the time of the surrender of Japan in 1945, Doihara was commander in chief of the 1st General Army. Criminal activities Doihara's activity in China vastly exceeded the normal behaviour of an intelligence officer. As chief of the Japanese secret services in China, he worked out, put in motion, and oversaw a wide series of activities, systematically exploiting the occupied areas and disrupting Chinese social structure in the rest of the country to weaken public resistance by using every possible kind of action, including deliberately fueling criminality; fostering drug addiction; sponsoring terrorism, assassinations, blackmail, bribery, opium trafficking, and racketeering; and spreading every kind of corruption in the almost-ungovernable country. The extent of his activities and covert operations is still inadequately understood. According to Ronald Sydney Seth, his activity played a key role in shattering China's ability to confront Japan's expansion by generating chaotic conditions, which prevented any mass reaction in the invaded country. After the occupation of Manchuria, the Japanese secret service, under his supervision, soon turned Manchukuo into a vast criminal enterprise in which rape, child molestation, sexual humiliation, sadism, assault, and murder became institutionalized means of terrorizing and controlling Manchuria's Chinese and Russian populations. Robbery by soldiers and gendarmes of the Kenpetai, arbitrary confiscation of property, and unabashed extortion became common. Underground brothels, opium dens, gambling houses, and narcotics shops run by Japanese gendarmes competed with the state monopoly syndicate of opium. Many conscientious Japanese officers protested the conditions, but Tokyo ignored them and so they were silenced. The ritual suicide of Gensui Baron Mutō Nobuyoshi, who allegedly had left a note to the emperor, Hirohito, pleading for mercy for the people of Manchuria, was in vain. Doihara soon expanded his activity into the still unoccupied parts of China. By using about 80,000 paid Chinese villains known as Chiang Mao Tao, he funded hundreds of criminal groups, using them for every kind of social disturbance, turnover, assassinations and sabotage inside unoccupied China. Through the organizations, he soon managed to control a large part of the opium traffic in China, using the money earned to fund his covert operations. He hired an army of agents and sent them throughout China as representatives of various humanitarian organizations. They established thousands of health centers, mainly in the villages of the districts, for curing tuberculosis, which was then epidemic in China. By adulterating medicines with opium, he managed to addict millions of unsuspecting patients, expanding societal degeneration into areas which had been hitherto untouched by the increasing breakdown of Chinese society. The scheme also created a pool of addicted victims desperate to offer any kind of service to secure a daily dose of opium. He initially gave food and shelter to tens of thousands Russian White émigré women who had taken refuge in the Far East after the defeat of the White Russian anti-Bolshevik movement during the Russian Civil War and the withdrawal of the Entente and Japanese armies from Siberia. Having lost their livelihoods, and with most of them widowed, Doihara forced the women into prostitution, using them to create a network of brothels throughout China where they worked under inhuman conditions. The use of heroin and opium was promoted to them as a way to tolerate their miserable fate. Once addicted, the women were used to further spread the use of opium among the population by earning one free opium pipe for every six they were selling to their customers. Winning the necessary support from the authorities in Tokyo he persuaded the Japanese tobacco industry Mitsui of Mitsui Zaibatsu to produce special cigarettes bearing the popular to the Far East trademark "Golden Bat". Their circulation was prohibited in Japan, as they were intended only for export. Doihara's services controlled their distribution in China and Manchuria where the full production was exported. In the mouthpiece of each cigarette a small dose of opium or heroin was concealed, and by this subterfuge millions of unsuspecting consumers were added to the ever-growing crowds of drug addicts in the crippled country, simultaneously creating huge profits. According to testimony presented at the Tokyo War Crimes trials in 1948, the revenue from the narcotization policy in China, including Manchukuo, was estimated as twenty to thirty million yen per year, while another authority stated during the trial that the annual revenue was estimated by the Japanese military at 300 million dollars a year. Given the chaotic situation in China, the corruption Doihara methodically spread did not take long to reach the very top. In 1938, Chiang had eight generals, all in command of Chinese divisions, executed when it was found that they were informers for Doihara's services. This heralded a wave of executions of high-ranking Chinese officials found guilty for every kind of dealing with Doihara during the next six years of the war. To many Westerners in touch with the Chinese leadership, the purges did not have lasting results. Prosecution and conviction After the surrender of Japan, he was arrested by the Allied occupation authorities and tried before the International Military Tribunal of the Far East as a Class A war criminal together with other members of the Manchurian administration responsible for the Japanese policies there. He was found guilty on counts 1, 27, 29, 31, 32, 35, 36, and 54 and was sentenced to death, while his close colleague Naoki Hoshino, financial expert and director of the Japanese State Opium Monopoly Bureau in Manchuria, was sentenced to life imprisonment. According to the indictment, as tools of successive Japanese governments they: "... pursued a systematic policy of weakening the native inhabitants' will to resist ... by directly and indirectly encouraging the increased production and importation of opium and other narcotics and by promoting the sale and consumption of such drugs among such people." He was hanged on 23 December 1948 at Sugamo Prison. See also Japanese war crimes References Books External links Imperial Japanese Army generals of World War II Imperial Japanese Army personnel of World War II Japanese generals Japanese people convicted of the international crime of aggression Japanese people convicted of crimes against humanity People executed by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East Executed military leaders 1883 births 1948 deaths Generals of Manchukuo People from Okayama History of Manchuria People executed for crimes against humanity
401840	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plessey	Plessey	The Plessey Company plc was a British electronics, defence and telecommunications company. It originated in 1917, growing and diversifying into electronics. It expanded after World War II by acquisition of companies and formed overseas companies. It was listed on the London Stock Exchange and was a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index. In 1989, it was taken over by a consortium formed by GEC and Siemens which split the assets of the Plessey group. The majority of Plessey's defence assets were amalgamated into BAE Systems in 1999 when British Aerospace merged with the defence arm of GEC, Marconi Electronic Systems (MES). The Plessey Microsystems division was the subject of a management buyout in 1988 becoming Radstone Technology, which survives today as part of Abaco Systems based in Towcester, Northamptonshire. The bulk of Plessey's telecommunications assets were acquired by Ericsson through its 2005 acquisition of Marconi Communications, a successor company of GEC. History Early history The Plessey company was founded in 1917 in Marylebone, central London. The original shareholders were Thomas Hurst Hodgson, C. H. Whitaker, Raymond Parker and his brother Plessey Parker. A talented German engineer, William Oscar Heyne, was employed by the company. Heyne later became the managing director and chairman of Plessey and was one of the key figures in the development of Plessey during the 1920s and 1930s. The company moved to Cottenham Road in Ilford early in 1919. In 1925, the original company was wound up and a new one was formed with a greater share capital. Most of the early work carried out by the company was in mechanical engineering. The Clark connection An early customer of Plessey was a galvanising company called British Electro Chemists. One of that company's shareholders was Byron G. Clark, an American, who was also a business associate of T. H. Hodgson, one of the founders of Plessey. The Clark family would eventually dominate the management of Plessey for most of its history. Byron's son Allen George Clark joined the company in 1921, and went on to become a driving force behind the development of Plessey, followed later by his sons John Allen Clark, and Michael William Clark, both of whom rose to prominent positions in the company. Electrical manufacturing During the 1920s Plessey began to diversify into electrical manufacturing. Important contracts included the manufacture of early radios for Marconi and the production of telephones for the General Post Office. In order to increase production, Plessey moved to Vicarage Lane, Ilford, in 1923. In 1929, the television pioneer John Logie Baird had his first production televisions made by Plessey. The company also produced the first British-made portable radio in the same year. The manufacture of electrical components became an area of growth for Plessey. A vast array of components was manufactured, many under licence from overseas companies. Plessey became one of the largest manufacturers in this field as the radio and television industries grew. In 1936/7, turnover was more than £1 million and Plessey became a public company on 17 March 1937. Aircraft components Aircraft components was another market into which the company diversified. In 1936, Plessey obtained a number of important manufacturing licences from American companies such as Breeze Corporation for aircraft multi-pin electrical connectors, Federal Laboratories for Coffman starters (an explosive cartridge device used to start aircraft engines), and Pump Engineering Services Corporation for the manufacture of Pesco fuel pumps. Plessey went on to produce large numbers of these fuel pumps for Rolls-Royce Merlin engines, and in 1940 the fuel pump for Britain's first jet engine was also supplied by Plessey. World War II During World War II, Plessey produced a vast array of components and equipment for the war effort, including shell cases, aircraft parts, and radio equipment such as the R1155 (receiver), and T1154 (transmitter). In all, 161,500 pieces of wartime electronic equipment were produced. To allow greater production, Plessey converted five miles of twin tunnel, built for a new extension to the London Underground Central line from Leytonstone to Newbury Park, into a factory. The company also built a new factory at Swindon in Wiltshire, and opened several other shadow factories around the country to produce munitions. Caswell, Northamptonshire became the site of Plessey's first dedicated research centre in 1940. The wartime workforce of Plessey grew to over 10,000. Post World War II With the end of the war the company's orders dropped from £5 million in 1944/5 to £263,000 in 1946 and the workforce fell to less than 6,000. Radio and television sales were the main area of activity until the renewed demand for defence products with the onset of the Korean War. From a turnover of £5 million in 1949/50, there was an increase to £32 million in 1959/60. In 1951, the Electronics Division was started by Michael Clark. By 1955, this had expanded to become the Electronics and Equipment Group with 5,000 staff. The following year the Roke Manor research facility was set up under the direction of H. J. Finden near Romsey, Hampshire. Plessey produced an early integrated circuit model in 1957, before the patents of Jack St. Clair Kilby of Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce of Fairchild. In the 1960s the Group continued to expand, setting up facilities at places such as West Leigh (Havant, Hampshire) and Templecombe, Somerset. In 1961 Plessey merged with Ericsson Telephones and Automatic Telephone Manufacturing Company of Liverpool, to become Britain's largest manufacturer of telecommunications equipment, including the majority of the country's crossbar switches. Alongside the Telecommunications Division, three other businesses were set up: Plessey Avionics and Communications, Plessey Radar and Plessey Marine. In 1970, the Command and Control unit was set up at Christchurch, Dorset, which became the centre of the Plessey Defence Systems business. In 1979, a major subsidiary was set up, Plessey Electronic Systems, which incorporated the three businesses and by 1986 achieved sales of over £500 million and employed 15,000. Plessey were partners in the development of the Atlas Computer in 1962 and in the development of digital telephone systems, including System X, from the late 1970s. In 1988, Plessey's Telecommunications Division merged with that of GEC to become GEC Plessey Telecommunications. Plessey Naval Systems was formed in 1986 by the merger of Plessey Marine with Plessey Displays, which had been part of Plessey Radar. In 1967 or 1968, English Electric was subject to a takeover bid by Plessey, but chose instead to accept an offer from GEC. Plessey were among the first firms to use computers. Their Training Department developed an interactive management game (PITDEX) using TeleType printer/keyboards to link to LEASCO computers in the United States via standard telephones and acoustic couplers. Plessey also pioneered the gathering and consolidation of accounting information from around the world using in-house software. Each of their 140 management reporting entities used HP125s with DIVAT (data input, validation and transmission) software. Nearly 450 validation rules ensured accuracy within and between various reports. The data were then transmitted to Ilford where a HP 3000 ran Fortran software for consolidation and reporting—also on HP125s. During the 1970s and early 1980s, Plessey manufactured a series of computer systems and peripherals compatible with Digital Equipment Corporation's PDP-11. By 1972, Plessey designed the first industrial capability-based security computer, a fault-tolerant multiprocessor system called Plessey System 250. Plessey was also the lead contractor for the Ptarmigan communications system supplied to the British Army, which adopted the System 250 architecture. UK air defence In 1959 AT&E, later Plessey, became the prime contractor for a new UK air defence system, known by the company under the name Plan Ahead and, from 1961, as Project Linesman. To enable the system to be designed and built without too much information becoming public knowledge, a new factory called "Exchange Works" was built in Cheapside in Liverpool city centre, where young employees were granted exemption from conscription. At the heart of the system, installed in a huge building in the middle of a council housing estate in West Drayton, was the computer room, occupying an area of around and filled with around 1,000 racks of electronics, including mainly the XL4 computer, based entirely on germanium transistors and using a computer language developed at Exchange Works in the 1950s and 1960s. The secure status of the factory attracted many other secret contracts and led to it becoming one of the major designers and manufacturers of cryptographic equipment. Exchange Works is now luxury flats. South Africa The South African roots of Plessey can be traced to the acquisition of AT&E and Ericsson in 1963, and a Cape Town based company, the Instrument Manufacturing Company (IMC), acquired in 1964. At the time, IMC was in the process of industrialising a unique South African invention, the Tellurometer, the first successful microwave electronic distance measurement equipment. The instrument was invented by Dr. Trevor Lloyd Wadley of the Telecommunications Research Laboratory of the South African Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), also responsible for the Wadley loop receiver, which allowed precision tuning over wide bands, a task that had previously required switching out multiple crystals. South African insurance and investment company Sanlam bought 26% of Plessey South Africa in 1974, with first right of refusal to purchase more of the company. These shares were later transferred to Sankorp, Sanlam's industrial holdings company. In 1989, when GEC-Siemens took control of the Plessey Company, Sankorp indicated its intention to purchase the remaining 74% of shares in the South African subsidiary. Australia Plessey had a manufacturing plant in Sydney, Australia that made defense equipment and TVs. GEC takeover bid In December 1985, GEC launched a takeover bid for the Plessey Company, valuing the group at £1.2 billion. Both Plessey and the Ministry of Defence were against the merger, since GEC and Plessey were the two largest suppliers to the MoD and in many tenders the only competitors. In January 1986, the bid was referred to the Monopolies & Mergers Commission (MMC), whose report published in August advised against the merger. The government concurred and blocked GEC's bid. In 1988, Plessey and GEC merged their telecom units to form GEC Plessey Telecommunications (GPT), at the time the UK's leading telecommunications manufacturer. GEC Siemens takeover In 1988, GEC and Siemens set up a joint holding company, GEC Siemens, to launch a hostile takeover of Plessey. Their initial offer was made on 23 December 1988, valuing Plessey at £1.7 billion. Again, Plessey rejected the offer and again it was referred to the MMC. The original proposal envisaged joint ownership of all of Plessey's defence businesses, with GPT and Plessey's North American businesses split in the ratios 60:40 and 51:49 respectively. The level of GEC's involvement in the Plessey defence businesses was not likely to meet with regulatory approval and in February 1989, GEC Siemens announced a new organisation. In an effort to head off the bid, Plessey announced in May 1989 the closure of its compound semiconductor business in Towcester, Plessey 3-5. The takeover was completed in September 1989. Break-up of the business In April 1990, GEC and Siemens agreed a new structure of ownership of the Plessey businesses: GEC acquisitions In the UK Plessey Aerospace Plessey Avionics Plessey Crypto Plessey Materials Plessey Naval Systems Plessey Semiconductors Plessey Research Caswell Plessey Microsystems In North America Plessey Aero Precision Corp Plessey Dynamics Corp Plessey Electronic Systems Corp (including ES Marine Systems) Sippican Plessey Materials Leigh Instruments Siemens acquisitions Siemens Plessey Radar Siemens Plessey Defence Systems Siemens Plessey Controls Siemens Plessey Australia Siemens Plessey Assessment Services Roke Manor Research Jointly owned GEC Plessey Telecommunications: 60% GEC and 40% Siemens Disposals Birkby Plastics (1989-1990) Hoskyns Group Plessey Valdarno S.p.A. (Italy), sold to Magnetek in 1991 51% share in Plessey Telenet acquired by minority partner in 1992 74% share in Plessey South Africa acquired by minority partner Sankorp Subsequent history UK In 1997, British Aerospace and DaimlerChrysler Aerospace acquired the UK operations and the German part of Siemens Plessey Systems, respectively. By 1997, the GPT name disappeared in the UK and the company was known as Siemens GEC Communication Systems (SGCS), which later became Siemens Communications. In August 1998, GEC acquired Siemens' 40% stake in GPT (by now only existing as a legal entity) and merged GPT with the telecoms units of its other subsidiaries, namely Marconi SpA, GEC Hong Kong and ATC South Africa, to form Marconi Communications. In December 1999, GEC's defence arm Marconi Electronic Systems was amalgamated with British Aerospace to form BAE Systems. The remainder of GEC was renamed to Marconi plc, and Marconi Communications became its principal subsidiary. This company was affected by the dot-com bubble and was restructured into Marconi Corporation in 2003, then collapsed in 2005. Most of it (including Marconi Communications) was bought by Ericsson and the remainder became Telent. The part of GPT which evolved into Siemens Communications would eventually become Siemens Enterprise Communications in 2008. GEC Plessey Semiconductors (GPS) was purchased by Mitel Semiconductors of Canada in 1998. After a number of downsizes, including the purchase of the power semiconductor and silicon on sapphire operation at Lincoln, Lincolnshire by Dynex Semiconductor in 2000, the company renamed itself Zarlink Semiconductor in 2001. The GPS fabrication plant in Plymouth was acquired by Xfab. Plessey Semiconductors Ltd After the sale of the Roborough site in Plymouth to Xfab, the original Plessey Semiconductors site at Cheney Manor, Swindon continued to operate under the Zarlink Semiconductor name until it was sold to MHS Industries in early 2008. In February 2009, the UK business was forced into receivership following the collapse of the parent MHS Electronics business in France. After a subsequent management buyout the company traded as Plus-Semi Ltd. The Roborough site ( 8" and 6" lines) was re-acquired from Xfab on 1 January 2010 and the company renamed as Plessey Semiconductors Ltd. The new company transferred its bipolar processes on silicon and SOI into the 8" Plymouth facility during 2010, exploiting the combined technology base in the development of new processes and products in a number of markets. The Swindon site on the Cheney Manor Industrial estate in the west of the town was demolished in July 2012. In 2011/2, Plessey acquired the rights to disruptive GaN-on-silicon technology by acquisition of CamGaN, a startup company, from Cambridge Enterprises. Using the GaN-on-silicon technology and semiconductor expertise, Plessey Semiconductors Ltd manufactured solid state lighting, horticultural lighting and medical sensing products. Their GaN-on-silicon i2LED high power LEDs and Stellar Orion Beam Forming modules, launched in autumn 2016, which enabled new form factors of lighting products and remove critical design constraints for lighting product designers. In horticulture, the Plessey Attis Growlight was at the forefront of an engineering approach to LED based plant grow lights which was then developed into a new brand, Hyperion Grow Lights. The company's medical products were based on the EPIC sensor, which were used in the advanced portable ECG monitoring device, Impulse, and was also the basis of an R&D program, named Warden, to develop driver alertness monitoring devices in automotive and aeronautical applications. In 2017, Plessey pivoted the focus of the business to the R&D and manufacturing of microLEDs (micro light-emitting diodes) as a market disrupting display technology for a wide range of applications, including: Augmented Reality, Mixed Reality, smartphones, televisions, smartwatches, head-up displays, head-mounted displays and more. Plessey continues to operate in the Roborough site with leading-edge 150mm and 200mm wafer processing facilities to undertake design, test and assembly of products, and a comprehensive suite of photonic characterisation and applications laboratories. Their original microLED product was an illuminator for display light engines (DMD and LCOS), which offered a 40% reduction in light engine size whilst delivering higher energy efficiency. They have now upgraded to full-field emissive microLED displays that combine very high-density RGB pixel arrays with high-performance CMOS backplanes to produce very high-brightness, low-power and high-frame-rate image sources. These are innovative products that are widely recognised within the industry with many accolades from prestigious electronics, engineering and display industry award programs, including: Elektra Awards 2017, British Engineering Excellence Awards 2017, National Technology Awards 2018, CES Innovation Awards 2019 and Electronics Industry Awards 2019. In March 2019, Plessey used their GaN-on-silicon technology, which natively emits blue, to innovatively engineer the early layers within the process to emit native green, opening more opportunities for markets such as military. Plessey also achieved the world's first GaN-on-silicon monolithic, wafer to wafer bonding, in May which was a massive breakthrough for not only the company but the industry. South Africa In South Africa, following the successful GEC/Siemens takeover, after protracted negotiations in 1991, Plessey South Africa became a wholly owned subsidiary of Sankorp under the new name of Plessey Tellumat South Africa Limited (PTSA). The addition of the name Tellumat had a double symbolism, firstly for the company's commitment to exports, as it is the name of its UK-based export subsidiary. Secondly, the name derives from the Tellurometer, South Africa's world first electronic surveying development—and by implication, a commitment to ongoing electronic research and development. PTSA continued to grow with a strong focus on telecommunications and defence products, particularly with a major expansion into large projects, rolling out the microwave backbone of MTN, one of South Africa's first GSM cellular networks and the installation of a fibre optic network and radio broadcasting system in Malaysia. A software division was formed through the acquisition of BSW data, largely staffed by engineers from the recently terminated South African space programme in which PTSA had also participated, both in the electronics of the launch vehicle and the satellite itself. 1995 was a landmark year in the history of the business in South Africa. The merger of PTSA and Tek Electronics, the consumer electronics audio and video products, manufacturer and distributor, (also wholly owned by Sankorp) took the business full circle back to its consumer electronics roots. This resulted in the renaming of PTSA back to the original name of Plessey South Africa Limited. The full acquisition of AWA-Plessey Communications, which Plessey jointly owned in Australia with Amalgamated Wireless (Australasia) Ltd (AWA) and had a similar product portfolio, resulted in penetration into the Pacific Rim market. The culmination of this growth was the company's listing on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE) as the Plessey Corporation in the same year. Trading started off at R4.80 a share. On the evening of 6 February 1996, a devastating fire swept through two bays of the White Road factory in Retreat, Cape Town causing huge damage to stock, instruments, plant and work in progress. No one was injured, but work was disrupted for several weeks. Large sections of the factory had to be rebuilt. At the end of 1996, Plessey Corporation sold off the Sales and marketing business of Telefunken, Pioneer and Satellite TV. In August 1998, Plessey Corporation was bought by Dimension Data Holdings and Worldwide African Investment Holdings for R1.6 billion. The new owners retained BSW Data, Plessey Solutions and Communications Systems. The remaining divisions, notably with a product development and manufacturing focus, were bought back by a combined management buyout supported by Rand Merchant Bank. The corporate name was changed to Tellumat Pty Ltd. Tellumat continues to develop and manufacture Plessey-branded products as before and operates in the defence, telecommunications and contract manufacturing markets. Plessey barcodes The name is also used to refer to a barcode symbology developed by Plessey, which is still used in some libraries and for shelf tags in retail stores, in part as a solution to their internal requirement for stock control. The system was first used in the early 1970s by J.Sainsbury to identify all of its products on supermarket shelves for its product restocking system. The chief advantages are the relative ease of printing using the dot-matrix printers, which were popular at the time of the code's introduction, and its somewhat higher density than the more common 2 of 5 and 3 of 9 codes. Plessey barcodes use two bar widths. Whitespace between bars is not significant. The start element is a wide bar, and the stop element is two narrow bars. In between, the bars are in groups of four. High order bars appear leftmost. Narrow bars are 0 and wide bars are 1. This symbology is not self checking, though a modulo 10 or modulo 11 checksum (or some combination of both checksums, depending on application) is usually appended. References External links History of Plessey Plessey history Aircraft component manufacturers of the United Kingdom Avionics companies Barcodes Companies formerly listed on the London Stock Exchange Defunct computer hardware companies Defunct manufacturing companies of the United Kingdom Electronics companies established in 1917 Electronics companies disestablished in 1989 Electronics companies of the United Kingdom Electronics industry in London Former defence companies of the United Kingdom Plessey 1917 establishments in England 1989 disestablishments in England 1989 mergers and acquisitions
401855	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992%20World%20Series	1992 World Series	The 1992 World Series was the championship series of Major League Baseball's (MLB) 1992 season. The 89th edition of the World Series, it was a best-of-seven playoff played between the American League (AL) champion Toronto Blue Jays and the National League (NL) champion Atlanta Braves. Toronto defeated Atlanta four games to two, marking the first time a team based outside the United States won the World Series. The Blue Jays remain the only Canadian team to have appeared in, and won, a World Series (which they would do again the following year, in ). The 1992 World Series was the first World Series in which games were played outside the United States, as well as the first to have games played in a stadium with a retractable roof (Toronto's SkyDome). Background The Blue Jays won the American League Eastern Division title for the second consecutive season and third time in four years. They faced the winners of the Western Division, the Oakland Athletics, in the American League Championship Series. The A's were looking to advance to the World Series for the fourth time in five years, having previously been in the World Series in 1988, 1989, and 1990, winning it in 1989. The Blue Jays, meanwhile, were looking to become the first Canadian team to win a pennant. The Blue Jays lost the first game at home but then won the next three to take a commanding lead, eventually closing the series out at home in Game 6. The Braves won the National League Western Division for the second straight season and earned another matchup with the three-time defending Eastern Division winners, the Pittsburgh Pirates, in the National League Championship Series. The Braves won three of the first four games in the series, but the Pirates won the next two and were leading in the bottom of the ninth in Game 7 before the Braves rallied, capped off by a single by seldom-used utility man Francisco Cabrera that drove in two runs and won the series. Summary Matchups Game 1 Braves fans had plenty to worry about in regard to both starting pitchers. Tom Glavine's post-season career had been less than stellar, including giving up eight runs in the second inning of Game 6 of the NLCS against Pittsburgh. Entering Game 1, Glavine's career post-season record was 1–5 despite two starts where he had pitched well and only given up one earned run each time. Glavine was 0–2 in those starts. In addition to Glavine's struggles in the postseason, the Braves would be facing their nemesis from the previous postseason. In the offseason, the Blue Jays signed the MVP of the 1991 World Series, Jack Morris, away from the Minnesota Twins. The Braves were more than familiar with Morris' work, as he had defeated them twice in three starts and only allowed a total of three runs. One of the victories came in the decisive seventh game, where Morris pitched a ten-inning complete game shutout. Morris' fortunes in 1992, however, were quite the opposite. Despite leading the Blue Jays with 21 wins in the regular season, Morris had not performed well in the postseason. He lost one of his two starts in the 1992 American League Championship Series despite throwing a complete game and took a no-decision in the other despite giving up five early runs. Toronto's other big offensive acquisition had been veteran Dave Winfield, who entered his 20th season in 1992 having yet to win a World Series ring. Winfield, primarily just the team's designated hitter by this point, paid dividends by recording his best batting average and runs batted in numbers in several years and added two home runs in the ALCS. His presence in the lineup was one that manager Cito Gaston wanted to keep, which forced some maneuvering of the lineup for the games to be played in Atlanta under National League rules; Winfield's natural position was right field, which was manned by All-Star Joe Carter during the season. Therefore, for Game 1, Winfield was inserted into Carter's place in the outfield. Carter, in turn, played first base in place of normal starter John Olerud. Both teams had early scoring opportunities but could not cash in on them. In the bottom of the first inning, Braves center fielder and lead off hitter Otis Nixon singled and stole second. After Jeff Blauser tried and failed to advance him on a bunt, Nixon reached third on a groundout by Terry Pendleton. Morris, however, struck out David Justice to end the inning. Toronto responded in the next half inning with Winfield reaching on a single. After Glavine struck out Candy Maldonado and got Kelly Gruber to pop out, Pat Borders singled to put two runners on. Glavine got out of the inning, though, by inducing Manuel Lee to ground into a fielder's choice that retired Borders at second. Carter finally put the Blue Jays on the board first in the top of the fourth, hitting a solo home run for the first run of the series. The Braves threatened with two outs in the bottom half of the inning. Morris walked Justice and Sid Bream after retiring Blauser and Pendleton to start the inning, and then threw a wild pitch on his second pitch to Ron Gant to advance the runners to second and third. Morris ended the threat, however, by striking out Gant. After Glavine retired Toronto in order in the top of the fifth, Morris again ran into a jam in the Atlanta half of the inning. Like he had in the fourth, Morris retired the first two batters by getting Damon Berryhill to fly out to deep center field and retiring Mark Lemke on a groundout. But as he had in the previous inning, he extended the inning by walking Glavine and Nixon. Blauser struck out swinging to end the inning, keeping the shutout intact. To this point, Nixon's single in the first stood as the only Braves hit. Morris went back to work in the bottom of the sixth after the Blue Jays again went down in order in the top half. He got Pendleton to ground out, but walked Justice for the second time in as many plate appearances. Bream followed with a single that advanced Justice to second, but was himself retired on a fielder's choice by Gant on the next at bat. Gant then stole second to put the go ahead run into scoring position. Up stepped Berryhill, who had hit a deep fly ball against Morris the last time he had faced him. Berryhill later said he had gone up to the plate looking for Morris to throw him a forkball, as he had observed that Morris had been able to get several strikeouts with the pitch so far. The Braves’ catcher took advantage of a pitch that Morris was unable to get enough break on and drove it over the right field wall to give the Braves the lead. The three-run home run would prove to be the only offense the Braves would need that night. The Blue Jays were retired in order in the seventh, eighth, and ninth innings, while the Braves only managed to have one runner reach base against relievers Todd Stottlemyre and David Wells after Morris left the game following the sixth. Glavine went the distance for the victory, only giving up four total hits. In taking the loss, Morris suffered his first career World Series defeat in his sixth start, with one no-decision. Berryhill's home run marked the first runs Morris had given up in the World Series since Pendleton hit a home run in the bottom of the third inning of Game 4 of the 1991 Series. Morris pitched an additional innings in that game, all ten in Game 7, and the first innings of this game to run his scoreless innings streak in the World Series to 19. Game 2 Before the game started, during the performance of the National Anthems of the United States and Canada, the U.S. Marine Corps Color Guard accidentally flew the flag of Canada upside down The Corps apologized for the error and took pains to carry the flag properly prior to Game 3 in Toronto after insisting that they would be honored to do so. Also, Canadian rock/country musician Tom Cochrane sang the Canadian national anthem incorrectly. Instead of singing the line "... from far and wide, O Canada, we stand on guard for thee ...", Cochrane instead sang a lyric that was in the previous version of the anthem: "... O Canada, we stand on guard, we stand on guard for thee ...". Not only did Cochrane substitute the archaic lyric, he also did not sing it correctly, as the lyric said "and stand on guard, O Canada, we stand on guard for thee" before it was changed. The pitching match-up featured, strangely, the top two pitchers in the National League in strikeouts for 1992. On August 27, 1992, the Blue Jays traded rookie infielder Jeff Kent and minor league outfield prospect Ryan Thompson to the New York Mets for their ace starting pitcher, David Cone. At the time of the trade, Cone had been leading the National League in strikeouts and was looking to do so for a third consecutive season. Major League Baseball rules dictate that when a player changes leagues during a season, the statistics he earns in each league are kept separate from each other. As such, Cone's total of 214 strikeouts with the Mets was frozen. Smoltz eventually caught and passed Cone toward the end of the season, finishing with a total of 215 strikeouts to lead the league. Cone, meanwhile, settled for the overall major league lead at a career high 261 strikeouts after recording 47 with the Blue Jays. As far as the postseason had gone to that point, both men's fortunes varied. Smoltz had started three games in the NLCS, winning two and being saved from a loss when the Braves made a two-out rally in the decisive final game; his performance was enough to make him the series MVP. Cone started the second and fifth games of the ALCS, winning his first start by allowing one run over eight innings. His second start saw him give up five runs (three unearned) over four innings, saddling him with the loss. A controversial call was made by umpire Mike Reilly in the top of the fourth inning with Atlanta leading 1–0 after David Justice walked, stole second, advanced to third, and scored on a wild pitch from Cone in the bottom of the second. Roberto Alomar was at third base with John Olerud batting. On the first pitch of the at-bat, Smoltz threw a breaking ball that skipped past Damon Berryhill. Alomar broke for home plate while Berryhill went to retrieve the ball. As Smoltz moved in to receive the throw he nearly collided with a sliding Alomar, who had reached the plate at exactly the same time that both Smoltz and the ball did. Smoltz tagged Alomar and Reilly called him out on the close play, despite an angry Alomar's protest, and the inning came to an end. Replays shown by CBS showed that Alomar might have touched the plate with his hands before Smoltz was able to apply a tag. The Braves scored again in the bottom of the fourth, when Sid Bream walked and eventually scored on a Mark Lemke two-out single to make the score 2–0. In the top of the fifth Pat Borders and Manuel Lee both reached base in front of Cone, who had already singled earlier in the game. Cone responded with his second hit of the game (only the third hit for a pitcher in the World Series since 1979) to drive in Borders and cut the Atlanta lead to 2–1. Lee then scored on a single by Devon White, tying the game. The Braves rallied in the bottom half of the inning as Deion Sanders provided a spark. With one out, Sanders singled. He then immediately stole second, and after Borders made an errant throw he got up and ran to third. Cone then walked Terry Pendleton, then gave up the go-ahead run when David Justice singled in Sanders and moved Pendleton to third. Blue Jays manager Cito Gaston then pulled Cone in favor of David Wells, who gave up the fourth Atlanta run (which would be charged to Cone, as the runner had reached base while Cone was pitching) when pinch hitter Brian Hunter's sacrifice fly scored Pendleton. Toronto made another rally in the eighth inning. After Alomar doubled to left with one out, Joe Carter and Dave Winfield hit back to back singles, the second of which scored Alomar and cut the lead to 4–3. Smoltz was then lifted in favor of left-handed specialist Mike Stanton, who retired Olerud for the second out. With third baseman Kelly Gruber stepping to the plate, the Braves called upon their own August trade acquisition to pitch, former Boston Red Sox closer and the then-holder of baseball's all-time career saves record Jeff Reardon. He managed to strike Gruber out, keeping the Atlanta at one, but the Braves could not increase the lead as Duane Ward set them down in order in the bottom of the inning. The Jays entered the ninth trailing by the one run Reilly had cost them and turned to their bench, which the team had nicknamed "The Trenches". After a walk to pinch-hitter Derek Bell (batting for Lee), Toronto reserve infielder Ed Sprague Jr. pinch-hit for Ward and drilled a pitch from Reardon to left for a two-run homer to give the Blue Jays the lead. The play was called by legendary Blue Jays announcer the late Tom Cheek, who said "Watch him hit a homer.", during Sprague's at bat. Atlanta tried to rally in the ninth. After Mark Lemke flew out, Toronto closer Tom Henke hit pinch hitter Lonnie Smith with a pitch. Ron Gant came in to pinch run for him and, after Otis Nixon recorded the second out, he stole second. Sanders then walked to put the winning run on base and Pendleton, an NL MVP candidate, came to the plate. Pendleton had led the majors with a .391 average with runners in scoring position and two out. However, he popped out to Gruber to seal the victory for Toronto. Gruber then angered Braves fans and players by mocking the "Tomahawk Chop" as he left the field. Game 3 Before this game, the U.S. Marine Corps Color Guard offered to hoist the Canadian flag once more in order to make amends for the inverted flag incident of Game 2. Likewise, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police flew the flag of the United States. The two guards received a standing ovation from the Toronto fans. As Game 3 moved across the border (for the first Canadian Classic) the question still remained of the Blue Jays' ballpark benefit. Before this series, the Blue Jays had previously only gone 3–6 in the postseason in their home park. Two of the wins, however, had come in the American League Championship Series as the Blue Jays won Game 2 and the clinching Game 6 against Oakland at home. The starters for this game were Steve Avery for the Braves and Juan Guzman for the Blue Jays. In the fourth inning, the first big defensive play of the Series nearly resulted in a rare World Series triple play and another bit of World Series history was made. Deion Sanders and Terry Pendleton reached base to start the inning, and with nobody out David Justice hit a deep fly to center field. Devon White was able to chase down the ball and make a leap to snare it before crashing into the wall. Sanders and Pendleton, meanwhile, had stopped running to watch the play develop. In the confusion, Pendleton accidentally crossed in front of Sanders and by rule was automatically out. The ball was eventually relayed to third baseman Kelly Gruber as Sanders remained frozen between second and third. Gruber began chasing Sanders back toward second, and as Sanders attempted to slide back in Gruber made a last second lunging dive with his glove to try to tag him. Second base umpire Bob Davidson called Sanders safe, but Gruber maintained he had tagged Sanders on the heel just before he got back. The television replays seemed to confirm his side of the argument, as a reverse angle showed contact being made. The Braves would not score that inning, as Guzman struck out Lonnie Smith to end it. The history making event followed as, with one out in the bottom of the fourth, Joe Carter hit a home run off of Avery. This resulted in not only the first run being scored in Canada during the World Series, but also the first home run being hit. With the Blue Jays still ahead entering the sixth inning, the Braves mounted a rally. With one out, Sanders doubled off of Guzman. Pendleton followed with a single to advance him to third, and Justice then added his own single to score Sanders and tie the game. Guzman recovered, however, and retired Smith and Sid Bream to leave the go-ahead run stranded at second. In the eighth, the Braves managed to take the lead. Otis Nixon led off and hit a line drive to the left side. Gruber was unable to field the ball cleanly, as it hit his glove and popped out, and thus the Braves had the go-ahead run on base. Nixon then stole second, putting himself in scoring position with nobody out. Guzman retired Sanders and Pendleton, but Nixon advanced to third on the latter's groundout. With Justice due up, Blue Jays manager Cito Gaston decided to walk him intentionally and pitch to Smith. The decision backfired as Smith singled to score Nixon. Although Justice was thrown out trying to advance to third, the Braves had a 2-1 lead. With the Blue Jays coming to bat in the bottom half, Gruber received an immediate chance to make up for his gaffe in the field and in doing so, would erase a long hitless streak. After going hitless in the ALCS opener, Gruber had recorded a home run and a double in the second game, both of which led to runs that were necessary to win that game. Those had been the only two hits he had recorded to that point in the postseason, as he failed to record a hit in either the remaining four ALCS games or the first two games in the World Series and was 0-for-1 in this game with a walk in his previous at bat. After going 23 consecutive at-bats without recording a single hit, Gruber worked a full count on Avery and then drilled a home run into left field to tie the game. Gruber would only record one more hit in the series after this. Duane Ward replaced Guzman for the top of the ninth and gave up a single to Bream. The sequence of events that followed resulted in something that had not occurred in a World Series in seven years. Bream was a notoriously slow baserunner throughout his career, and Braves manager Bobby Cox would often call for a pinch runner late in games for the veteran first baseman. At this time, Cox's go-to was a young Brian Hunter, who had more speed and could be called upon to steal if necessary. Ward then faced shortstop Jeff Blauser and worked the count to an even 2-2. Cox then called for a hit-and-run. Blauser tried to check his swing as Blue Jays catcher Pat Borders threw down to second to try and catch Hunter. Shortstop Manuel Lee fielded the throw and tagged Hunter out before he reached the base. Once that happened, Lee pointed to first base as if to ask Borders to check for an appeal on the check swing. Umpire Dan Morrison ruled that Blauser had swung at the pitch, which resulted in a double play. As Damon Berryhill came to bat, home plate umpire Joe West noticed that a batting helmet had made its way from the Braves’ dugout onto the field of play. Cox admitted that he had thrown it after West questioned him, and the two began arguing over the incident. Cox later said that he had been frustrated with West's strike calls the whole evening and he picked up the helmet off of the floor of the dugout and threw it down in anger, not realizing the helmet had bounced off of the dugout step and rolled onto the field. Cox was ejected for the incident, making for the first World Series managerial ejection since 1985. An angry Lonnie Smith emerged from the dugout to argue as well, believing that he had also been ejected, but West allowed him to stay in the game. Avery started the bottom of the ninth for the Braves and gave up a single to Roberto Alomar. Acting manager Jimy Williams (usually the team's third base coach) pulled Avery from the game and brought in hard-throwing Mark Wohlers to face Carter, a right-handed batter. CBS announcer Tim McCarver questioned the strategy, as Alomar was a threat to steal a base and Avery, as a left-handed pitcher, had a quicker pickoff move than the right-handed Wohlers. With Carter facing a 2-0 pitch, Alomar took off for second and beat Berryhill's throw. The pitch did not find the strike zone, and with Wohlers now behind 3-0 to Carter he decided to put him on intentionally. Dave Winfield was the next batter and the double play possibility existed. However, Cito Gaston had told the veteran slugger that if Alomar and Carter had gotten on base ahead of him, he was going to call for a sacrifice bunt to move then into scoring position. This indeed proved the case, as Winfield dropped down a bunt that advanced the winning run to third with one out. John Olerud was due next, so Williams came back to the mound to bring in Mike Stanton, his left-handed specialist, to face the Blue Jays’ first baseman. Gaston responded by sending up right-handed Ed Sprague Jr., whose home run in Game 2 won the game for Toronto, up to pinch hit to give the Blue Jays a more advantageous situation. Stanton instead was asked to put Sprague on with an intentional walk, which loaded the bases. After another pitching change followed, the Braves got the matchup they wanted, with Jeff Reardon facing off against left fielder Candy Maldonado. Reardon had recorded a fair amount of success against Maldonado to this point in their careers, as he had faced him multiple times and only allowed three hits. To this, he started Maldonado out with two curveballs which resulted in strikes. Maldonado decided to wait and see if Reardon would throw it again, which he did; Maldonado drove the ball over a drawn-in outfield to bring home Alomar with the winning run and give the Blue Jays the lead in the series. Like Gruber after Game 2, Alomar celebrated by Tomahawk Chopping his way to home plate. Ward, the winner of Game 2, got his second victory of the series. The loss went to Avery as he was responsible for the lead runner (Alomar) on base when the game ended. Reardon would not pitch again in the series after his back to back poor performances, and would not pitch in a postseason game again in his career before his 1994 retirement. Game 4 The Braves continued to employ the short rotation they had used during the postseason and sent Tom Glavine, the Game 1 winner, out for his second start of the series, bypassing 15-game-winner Charlie Leibrandt, who had only seen mop-up duty for Atlanta in Games 5 and 6 of the NLCS. For the Blue Jays, veteran Jimmy Key was given the start. Key had been with the Blue Jays since 1984 and was one of several players from their first ever division champion squad that were still with the team. However, he had not performed particularly well during the season and Cito Gaston had not included him in the ALCS rotation; Key only pitched in Toronto's Game 5 loss in relief. The Braves began the game with a single off the bat of Otis Nixon, who was a threat to steal a base. Although Key managed to pick Nixon off of first, he immediately gave up a single to Jeff Blauser, hitting second in place of the resting Deion Sanders, and allowed him to steal second. Key neutralized the threat by forcing Terry Pendleton to line out and Lonnie Smith to ground out. Over the next six innings, the Braves only recorded one hit (another single by Nixon) and did not advance the runner past first base. In the third inning, the Blue Jays scored their first run when Pat Borders hit a home run. They added a second run in the bottom of the seventh, which would prove decisive, when Kelly Gruber scored on a single by Devon White with two out. The Braves broke through against Key in the eighth. Ron Gant, starting in place of Sanders, led off with a double. Brian Hunter, starting at first base in place of Sid Bream, followed by beating out a bunt down the third base line to put runners on the corners with nobody out. Key recorded back-to-back outs, retiring Damon Berryhill on a failed sacrifice bunt attempt that didn't advance the runners and getting Mark Lemke to ground out to third. On the Lemke play, Gant scored the Braves' first run of the game and with the tying run now in scoring position as Hunter advanced to second on the groundout, Key was removed from the game. On his way off the field, he tipped his cap to the fans as they gave him a standing ovation. Duane Ward was brought in for his third consecutive appearance and his first batter was Nixon, who had recorded two of the Braves' hits. Although Ward got Nixon to strike out swinging, the third strike got past Borders and Nixon took off for first base, and being a speedy runner he was able to reach first safely, ahead of the throw. Nixon then stole second to put the go-ahead runs in scoring position, with Hunter having advanced to third on the wild pitch. Blauser, however, ended the inning by grounding out to Olerud. Tom Henke closed the game for the Blue Jays by retiring Pendleton, Smith, and David Justice in order in the ninth and Toronto found itself a win away from becoming the first World Series championship team from outside the United States. Tom Glavine would pitch another solid complete game, but his bad luck in the postseason continued and he was charged with a loss—the third time he had lost a post-season game despite turning in a very solid outing, previously losing a 1–0 game to Pittsburgh and a 3–2 game to Minnesota (in which two of the three runs were unearned) along with the 2–1 loss in this game. He would later add another hard-luck World Series loss four years later despite another stellar outing giving up one earned run and four hits in seven innings. In what proved to be his last start for the Blue Jays after nine years, Key recorded his first victory in the postseason since he won Game 3 of the 1989 ALCS. Game 5 Down three games to one and facing elimination, the Braves returned John Smoltz to the mound for Game 5, who was still seeking his first World Series win after three previous solid starts all resulted in no decisions. Toronto countered by returning Jack Morris as starter, as he looked to atone for his postseason struggles and, for a second consecutive year, win the deciding game of the World Series. Although Atlanta's situation was dire, it was not impossible for them to come back as several teams in the past had done so. The most recent example had been in 1985, when the Kansas City Royals rallied from a 3-1 deficit to defeat the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games. In fact, Braves third baseman Terry Pendleton had been a member of that Cardinals team and met with his teammates before the game to remind them of the possibility that they might come back and win the series. Entering the night, the middle of the Braves' lineup, which consisted that evening of Pendleton hitting third, David Justice fourth, and Lonnie Smith fifth, had been struggling with the rest of the team when it came to producing hits and scoring runs. In fact, none of the batters hitting in those three slots (Pendleton, Justice, Smith, or Sid Bream who had hit fifth in the first two games in Atlanta) had recorded an extra base hit. The Braves took care of that statistic quickly. Otis Nixon led the game off for the Braves with a ground rule double due to fan interference. After Deion Sanders struck out, Nixon stole third as Pendleton batted. He then scored as Pendleton responded with a double of his own to right field, scoring the first run of the game and giving Justice a chance to drive in a runner in scoring position. Morris settled down, however, and retired Justice on a strikeout and Smith on a flyball to end the inning. The Blue Jays tied the game in the bottom of the second. With one out, John Olerud singled and Candy Maldonado reached on a walk. Smoltz struck out Kelly Gruber for the second out, but Pat Borders responded with a double. The slow-footed Olerud was sent home on the play and the throw to the plate was wide, which enabled him to score and put Maldonado on third with the lead run. Manuel Lee ended the threat, however, by lining out to Pendleton. The fourth inning saw the teams exchange runs again. In the visiting half, Justice led off with a home run for a 2–1 lead. Morris quickly retired Smith and Sid Bream, however, and Borders threw Jeff Blauser out stealing to keep the deficit at one. In the bottom half, Olerud and Maldonado reached base in front of Borders with one out, and as he had in the second inning he drove in Olerud with a single. But once again, the Blue Jays could not score the lead run as Lee grounded into a fielder's choice which forced Maldonado out at third and Smoltz struck Devon White out with Borders at second. Morris started the fifth inning by striking out Damon Berryhill, whose home run in Game 1 saddled him with the loss, and forcing Mark Lemke to ground out. Nixon followed with a single, after which he stole second base. Sanders singled to drive him in and give the Braves the lead, and Pendleton followed with another ground rule double due to fan interference. The call prevented Sanders from scoring on the play, as he was forced to stop at third, and brought Justice back to the plate having already homered an inning earlier. Blue Jays manager Cito Gaston, with his ace struggling to record the third out and with one of the Braves' biggest bats at the plate with a chance to break the game open, decided to go with the same strategy he had when facing Justice with two out in the eighth inning of game three and called for an intentional walk. This brought Smith to the plate, who later said he took the move as an insult and felt that, by opting to pitch to him instead of Justice, that he would be an "easy out". Indeed, Smith had been struggling in the series to this point; entering Game 5, he had only recorded one hit and was already 0 for 2 this night. His lone hit, however, had come in the aforementioned Game 3 and resulted in an RBI which gave the Braves the lead. Smith fouled the first pitch off, then took a ball to even the count. Morris got Smith to foul off the next pitch, leaving him one strike away from escaping the jam and leaving the Braves with the bases loaded. Smith, however, was determined to make the Blue Jays pay for disrespecting his ability and after he fouled off two more pitches, he deposited Morris' sixth pitch over the wall and into the Atlanta bullpen. The grand slam home run gave the Braves a five-run lead and Gaston finally removed his starter from the game. David Wells retired Bream to end the inning, with the Blue Jays trailing 7–2. Smoltz pitched into the seventh inning giving up one hit afterward, a single to Dave Winfield in the bottom of the fifth. After walking Lee to lead off the seventh, he was pulled in favor of Mike Stanton, who got White to ground into a fielder's choice and then induced a double play from Roberto Alomar to end the threat. The Blue Jays only received one more baserunner the rest of the night as Joe Carter singled, stole second, then advanced to third on a sacrifice fly by Ed Sprague Jr. in the eighth inning but got nothing additional. Meanwhile, the Toronto relief corps of Wells, Mike Timlin, and Mark Eichhorn managed to keep the Braves in check for the remainder of the game. Atlanta threatened one more time in the ninth with one out as Lemke, Nixon, and Sanders all reached base, but Todd Stottlemyre induced a fly ball out to Maldonado off the bat of Pendleton and Lemke was thrown out trying to score. Smoltz took the win, his first ever World Series victory, with Stanton getting the save and Morris taking his second loss. Morris would not pitch another postseason game after this, with Smith being the last batter he would face in the postseason. With Smoltz and Morris earning the decisions, this was, to date, the last World Series game in which both the winning and losing pitcher were later inducted into the Hall of Fame until Game 7 of the 2001 World Series (Randy Johnson and Mariano Rivera were the pitchers of record). Atlanta's offensive outburst ensured the series would return to the United States for at least one more game and dashed the Blue Jays' hopes of clinching the World Series at home on Canadian soil. The Braves would return home looking to force a second straight Game 7 of the World Series, and potentially supplant the 1985 Kansas City Royals as the most recent team to come back from 3-1 down to win the World Series. Smoltz's win in Game 5 was the first of only two World Series wins he recorded in his Hall of Fame career. After recording three no decisions in as many starts (Games 4 and 7 in 1991 and Game 2 in this series), Smoltz would go another four years before winning another World Series game before winning Game 1 of the 1996 World Series. His overall record in World Series play was 2-2, despite a track record of seven quality starts out of eight. He lost Game 5 in 1996, 1-0 (the one run was unearned) and Game 4 in 1999. Smoltz's only other World Series start was in the 1995 World Series and this was his only poor start in a World Series, but this one also resulted in a no decision in Game 3 after the Braves rallied to force extra innings. Morris, meanwhile, continued his struggles in the 1992 postseason. In four total appearances, Morris allowed a total of 19 runs and went 0–3 with an ERA above 7.00. In the World Series alone, his ERA was 8.44, over seven runs higher than his performance the year before when he recorded a 1.17 ERA. Game 5 would be his last postseason appearance for his career; Morris was injured toward the end of the following season and did not pitch in the postseason. He would retire from baseball in 1995. Smith's grand slam was the first in a World Series since 1988, when Jose Canseco hit one in the Oakland Athletics' eventual 5–4 loss to the Los Angeles Dodgers. Smith became the first player to hit one for the winning team since Kent Hrbek did so in Game 6 of the 1987 World Series for the Minnesota Twins, and was the last for a player on the visiting team until Addison Russell did so in Game 6 of the 2016 World Series for the Chicago Cubs. Game 6 The Braves returned home for Game 6 having staved off elimination for one more day. Meanwhile, the Blue Jays entered the game with their second chance at clinching the series and becoming the first Canadian team to win the World Series. The Braves gave the start to Steve Avery for Game 6, as they had done in 1991; Avery took the loss after Jeff Reardon gave up the winning hit to Candy Maldonado in Game 3, as he had allowed Roberto Alomar, who scored the winning run, to reach base. Avery had yet to win a World Series game in what was now his fourth try. David Cone, meanwhile, returned to the mound for the Blue Jays in Game 6. He had failed to get out of the fifth inning in his previous start in Game 2, giving up all four runs the Braves scored (three of which were earned). He had been bailed out, however, when Ed Sprague's late heroics gave the Blue Jays the win. Since the game was back under National League rules, Toronto manager Cito Gaston went back to his Game 1 lineup. Dave Winfield started the game in his natural position of right field, while Joe Carter spelled John Olerud at first base. The Blue Jays opened the scoring in the top of the first. Devon White led off with a single, then stole second base. He advanced to third on a groundout by Alomar, and Carter followed with a fly ball to right that David Justice could not field cleanly. White scored and Carter ended up on second. Avery then walked Winfield and got Candy Maldonado to hit a ground ball to the left side. The Braves only managed to get Winfield out, as Carter advanced to third. A Kelly Gruber groundout ended the inning, stranding Carter ninety feet from home. The first scoring chance for the Braves came in the second. After Sid Bream drew a walk to lead off the inning, Jeff Blauser followed with a single. Damon Berryhill then flew out to White, with the fly ball deep enough to allow the slow-footed Bream to reach third. Cone retired Mark Lemke on a fly out, then struck out Avery to end the threat and keep the Braves off the scoreboard. In the third, the Blue Jays again had a chance to score but did not take advantage. With one out, Alomar singled and stole second. Carter grounded out to Bream, which advanced Alomar to third. But as in the first, Avery got out of trouble as Winfield flew out to end the inning. In the home half of the inning, Atlanta managed to tie the game. A one out double by Deion Sanders was followed by him stealing third, and Terry Pendleton scored Sanders on a sacrifice fly to tie the score. Toronto went back to work in the fourth. Maldonado led off with a home run, and with one out Pat Borders doubled. After Avery struck out Manuel Lee, he walked Cone to keep the inning going. White followed with a single and Borders attempted to score from second. The throw from Sanders beat him to the plate, however, and the Blue Jays only managed the one run. Avery left the game after the inning. After the Braves went down in order in the bottom of the fourth, the Blue Jays had another chance to add to the lead as Carter doubled off of Pete Smith in the top of the fifth. Again, they left him in scoring position as Smith got Winfield and Maldonado out. The Braves tried to rally against Cone in the last half of the inning, with Lemke drawing a walk to start. Cone got the next two outs, but Sanders singled and stole second to put the go-ahead run in scoring position. Pendleton, however, struck out to end the frame. After neither team got a runner past first base in the sixth or seventh innings, the Blue Jays tried again to score an insurance run in the eighth. Mike Stanton gave up a single to Maldonado, who advanced on a sacrifice bunt by Gruber. Borders was then walked intentionally, and Lee popped out for the second out. Stanton then got pinch hitter Derek Bell to ground out, leaving the Blue Jays with another runner stranded in scoring position. Stanton came back out for the ninth, but after he gave up a double to Carter, Mark Wohlers entered the game and retired Winfield. The Braves bullpen had pitched five scoreless innings to keep the score at 2-1 entering the bottom of the ninth, where they would need to score at least one run to keep their season alive. The bottom of the order would be due up against Blue Jays closer Tom Henke. Entering the game, the Blue Jays bullpen had not allowed a run all series against the Braves, with the streak continuing with two combined innings of work by Todd Stottlemyre and David Wells. Henke had already converted two save opportunities, saving Game 2 for Duane Ward and Game 4 for Jimmy Key. The Toronto bullpen had also converted every save opportunity it had been presented with, with their last blown save coming in the previous year's ALCS when Mike Timlin failed to hold a 5-4 lead in the Blue Jays' Game 5 loss to the eventual World Series champion Minnesota Twins that ended their season. Henke had already saved a total of five games across both the World Series and ALCS. Blauser led off the inning with a single and, with Berryhill up, Cox wanted to move the runner into scoring position. Although Berryhill had not recorded a sacrifice bunt the entire season, and had been unsuccessful in his one attempt in the series in Game 4, he did so this time and advanced Blauser to second. Lemke was called back to the dugout in favor of Lonnie Smith, whose heroics in Game 5 brought the Braves back to Atlanta for at least one more game. After falling behind 0-2, Smith fought back to draw a walk and put the potential game winning run on base with one out. With the pitcher's spot now due, Cox decided to call on another one of his postseason heroes to pinch hit for Wohlers. After recording the game and series winning hit against the Pirates in the NLCS, Francisco Cabrera had yet to make an appearance in the World Series before Cox sent him up to pinch hit. On a 2-2 count, Cabrera hit a sharp liner to left field to Maldonado. However, Maldonado temporarily lost sight of the ball and he had to leap to catch it at the last second. Otis Nixon then stepped to the plate with the Braves one out away from a second consecutive World Series defeat, needing a hit to extend the game. Down to his final strike, Nixon lined a single to left field. Maldonado fielded the ball as Blauser rounded third, but made a wild throw that sailed over Borders and into the netting behind the backstop. Blauser scored and Smith and Nixon advanced a base on the error. Ron Gant, who had replaced Sanders earlier when he left the game due to an injury, came up with a chance to win the game with a hit, but Henke retired him on a fly ball to end the inning and keep the score tied. The Braves sent out Charlie Leibrandt to make his first appearance of the World Series against the middle of the Blue Jays' lineup in the top of the tenth. He retired Maldonado to start the inning, and then after he gave up a single to Gruber he set down Borders on a fly ball and Pat Tabler on a line drive back to the mound. Henke took the mound to face Pendleton and retired him on a groundout to start the Braves' half of the tenth. With two left-handed batters due up in Justice and Bream, Gaston brought in Key to face them. Both batters grounded out as well, extending the game. The Braves began the eleventh with action in their bullpen as the right-handed Reardon, who had not pitched since he cost Avery the win in Game 3, was loosening up. Cox, however, sent the left-handed Leibrandt back out to start the eleventh despite the potential of facing Carter and Winfield, both right-handers, if the inning were to be extended beyond the first three hitters. The half-inning would prove to have a similar result to Leibrandt's last World Series outing a year earlier. After retiring Key to start the inning, Leibrandt got ahead of the switch-hitting White 1-2 before hitting him with the next pitch. Alomar, another switch-hitter, followed up with a single to center that advanced White to second base. With Carter now the batter and Reardon having been warmed up for some time, CBS analyst Tim McCarver remarked on the broadcast that he believed Cox would come out to remove the veteran starter in favor of his struggling closer. Cox chose to stand pat, however, and Leibrandt managed to retire Carter on a deep fly to center field for the second out. Winfield, to this point hitless in four at bats, was the next batter. He had not hit well in the series to this point, and had also struggled in his only other appearance in the World Series, hitting just .045 for the Yankees in 1981. However, he had faced Leibrandt many times when he pitched for the Kansas City Royals in the 1980s and had recorded a .302 batting average against him with four home runs. On the sixth pitch of the at-bat, Winfield hit a line drive that dropped into left field. White scored from second, and Alomar followed closely behind as the ball took a strange hop off of the left field corner and Gant could not field it cleanly. It was Winfield's first career World Series extra-base hit and made the score 4-2. The Braves got out of the inning with no further damage though as Maldonado popped out. For the second consecutive year in the World Series, Leibrandt had given up a go-ahead extra base hit in extra innings in Game 6. In 1991, he had allowed the game-winning home run to Kirby Puckett in the eleventh inning that allowed the Twins to tie the series and force the deciding seventh game that they would eventually win. Unlike that situation, the Braves would get one more at bat to try and rally. And as they had in the bottom of the ninth inning of this game, the bottom third of the Atlanta batting order would be due up. Blauser led off the bottom of the eleventh by singling off of Key. On the very next pitch, Key got Berryhill to hit what should have been a double play ball toward veteran shortstop Alfredo Griffin, who had entered the game as a defensive replacement in the tenth. At the last moment, however, the ball took a strange hop and bounced off of Griffin's glove, which allowed Blauser to advance to third base and putting the tying run on first with nobody out. Cox then called for a pinch runner, but with a relatively thin bench left at his disposal he sent out Game 5 winning pitcher John Smoltz to take Berryhill's position. The next batter was Rafael Belliard, who had replaced Lemke at second base in the tenth inning and who also had yet to record a hit in the series to this point. Cox called for a sacrifice bunt to move Smoltz into scoring position, which he did successfully. With the pitcher's spot up next, Cox sent pinch hitter Brian Hunter up to try and drive the runners home with a hit. On the second pitch of the at-bat, Hunter hit the ball to the right side of the infield, which Carter fielded and stepped on the bag for the putout. The runners advanced, with Blauser scoring, but the Braves were still behind by one run and were once again down to their last out. With Nixon, who had driven in the tying run in the ninth after being down to his final strike, stepping up with another chance to tie the game, Gaston visited the mound to have a conference with his infielders. During the course of the meeting at the mound, Gaston decided to pull Key from the game and hand the ball to the right-handed Timlin, who had thrown one scoreless inning in the Blue Jays’ Game 5 loss. The possibility of Nixon trying to beat out a bunt for a base hit was also discussed, and Timlin was advised by Carter to “be careful” and watch for the bunt. With Timlin coming in, the switch-hitting Nixon would be forced to bat left-handed. Although he had a higher average from the right side of the plate, the left side was closer to the first base line and would allow Nixon to get a quicker start if he decided to try to beat out a bunt. On the second pitch of the at-bat, Nixon laid down the expected bunt. The ball rolled to Timlin, who fielded it cleanly and fired it to first base in plenty of time to retire Nixon and clinch the series for the Blue Jays. After the final out was recorded, Timlin asked Carter for the ball so he could commemorate his title winning save. Carter obliged, and gave his pitcher a hug in celebration. Key received his second win of the series, making him and Ward the only two Blue Jay pitchers to record victories during the series (the only other pitcher of record was Jack Morris, who went 0-2 in his two starts). Leibrandt took the loss, his third in as many appearances for the Braves in a World Series. Aftermath It was both pitchers' last games with their respective teams as well. Key joined the New York Yankees for the following season and would eventually return to the World Series with them against the Braves in 1996, pitching in two games and, as he had in this series, winning the clinching Game 6. He would retire in 1998 after two seasons with the Baltimore Orioles. Leibrandt would pitch one more season with the Texas Rangers in 1993, retiring following a 9-10 campaign. Although Timlin pitched in the majors for another sixteen seasons after this, his save in Game 6 was his only career postseason save. He would go on to win three more World Series as a player, one more with the Blue Jays and two with the Boston Red Sox before retiring after the 2008 season. With the series win, Gaston became the first African American manager in baseball history to win a World Series. Until Dusty Baker won the 2022 World Series with the Houston Astros, he was the only one to do so. American League president Dr. Bobby Brown presented the World Series Trophy in the place of the commissioner. Just a month earlier, Fay Vincent was forced to resign and was replaced by Bud Selig on what was originally perceived to be an "interim basis." Dr. Brown also presented the Blue Jays the trophy in 1993. The last World Series not to be presided over by a commissioner had taken place in 1919. Selig officially became commissioner of baseball in 1998. The victory marked the first major championship for the city of Toronto since the National Hockey League's Toronto Maple Leafs won the 1967 Stanley Cup Finals. On January 29, 1995, Deion Sanders while a member of the National Football League's San Francisco 49ers participated in Super Bowl XXIX, thus Sanders became the first and to date, only professional athlete to play in both a World Series and Super Bowl. Composite box 1992 World Series (4–2): Toronto Blue Jays (A.L.) over Atlanta Braves (N.L.) This World Series is notable for being one of the few six-game series in which the winning team was outscored. It happened previously in 1918, 1959, and 1977; later in 1996 and 2003. Seven-game winners were outscored in 1957, 1960, 1962, 1964, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1991, 1997, and 2002; (equaled in 2016 and 2017). The Blue Jays became the fourth World Series champion where each of their wins in the Series was by the margin of one run. This also happened in 1915, 1918 and 1972. Broadcasting At 30 years of age, CBS' Sean McDonough became the youngest man to call all nine innings and games of a World Series (while serving as a full network television employee). Although Vin Scully and Al Michaels were several years younger when they called their first World Series (1955 and 1972 respectively), they were products of the then broadcasting policy of announcers representing the participating teams (a process that ended following the 1976 World Series). McDonough's record would subsequently be broken by Fox's Joe Buck, who at 27 years of age, called the 1996 World Series. Coincidentally, it was Joe Buck's father, Jack, that McDonough had replaced as CBS's lead play-by-play man. Serving as field reporters for CBS's coverage were Jim Kaat (in the Braves' dugout) and Lesley Visser (in the Blue Jays' dugout). The Series drew an overall Nielsen rating of 20.2, down from the previous year's 24.0 but higher than that of any subsequent World Series. CBS Radio also broadcast the Series nationally, with Vin Scully and Johnny Bench announcing. Locally, the Series was called on WGST-AM in Atlanta by Skip Caray, Pete Van Wieren, Ernie Johnson, Joe Simpson, and Don Sutton, and on CJCL-AM in Toronto by Jerry Howarth and Tom Cheek. Notes See also 1992 Japan Series References External links 1992 NLCS\|Game 7 and World Series memories from MLB.com 1992 Toronto Blue Jays and 1992 Atlanta Braves at baseballlibrary.com 1992 World Series World Series Toronto Blue Jays postseason Atlanta Braves postseason History of Canada (1982–1992) World Series World Series 1992 in Atlanta 1992 in Toronto October 1992 sports events in North America Baseball competitions in Atlanta Baseball competitions in Toronto
401875	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welfare%20reform	Welfare reform	Welfare reform is the process of proposing and adopting changes to a welfare system in order to improve the efficiency and administration of government assistance programs with the goal of enhancing equity and fairness for both welfare recipients and taxpayers. Reform programs have various aims: empowering individuals to help them become self-sufficient, ensuring the sustainability and solvency of various welfare programs, and/or promoting equitable distribution of resources. Welfare reform is constantly debated because of the varying opinions on a government's need to balance the imperatives of guaranteeing welfare benefits and promoting self-sufficiency. Overview From the 1970s, welfare systems came under greater scrutiny around the world. Demographic changes such as the post-war "baby boom" and the subsequent "baby bust", coupled with economic shifts such as the 1970 oil shocks, led to aging populations, a dwindling workforce, and increased dependency on social welfare systems, which inevitably brought up the issue of welfare reform. U.S. systems primarily focused on reducing poor single parents' need for welfare assistance through employment incentives. The U.K. focused primarily on reducing general unemployment through the U.K. New Deal introduced by the Labour Government in the 1990s. The Netherlands emphasized reforming disability programs, and Latin America focused primarily on pension reforms. Politics of Welfare Reform Classical liberals, libertarians, and conservatives generally argue that welfare and other tax-funded services reduce incentives to work, exacerbate the free-rider problem, and intensify poverty. On the other hand, social democrats and socialists generally criticize welfare reforms that minimize the public safety net and strengthens the capitalist economic system. History Many historians trace the beginnings of contemporary welfare in Europe and America to Germany's health insurance laws introduced in the late 19th century. German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck introduced government healthcare and approved the 1883 Health Insurance Act which was the first to introduce compulsory government-monitored health insurance. The German legislation ensured contributory retirement and disability benefits. Participation became mandatory. In the United States, the Great Depression led to President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's introduction of the Aid to Families with Dependent Children program and the Social Security Program through the Social Security Act, which created a public welfare system to provide assistance to various dependent persons in need. This eventually evolved into the system we know today. United States In 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson introduced a series of legislation known as the War on Poverty in response to a persistently high poverty rate around 20%. He funded programs such as Social Security, and Welfare programs Food Stamps, Job Corps, and Head Start. The War on Poverty included new federal programs such as Medicare and Medicaid, which provided seniors, low-income individuals, and other disadvantaged groups with health insurance coverage. Furthermore, the US Government began providing direct assistance to school districts, passed sweeping environmental protections, instituted urban renewal projects, furthered civil rights protections, and expanded funding for the arts and humanities. President Richard Nixon's administration proposed the 1969 Family Assistance Plan, which instituted a work requirement for all welfare recipients except mothers with children under age three. This requirement was removed in 1972 amidst criticism from liberals that the plan provided too little support and having excessively stringent work requirements. Ultimately, the Nixon Administration presided over the continued expansion of major welfare programs. In 1981, President Ronald Reagan cut Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) spending and allowed states to require welfare recipients to participate in workfare programs. Charles Murray's book Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950–1980 (1984) argued that the welfare state actually harms the poor, especially single-parent families, by making them increasingly dependent on the government, and discouraging them from working. Murray proposed that current welfare programs be replaced by short-term local programs. In his 1992 campaign, Bill Clinton promised to “end welfare as we have come to know it.” The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act was crafted as a response to the perceived failings of AFDC Concerns about AFDC had started in the 1960s, at the same time when anti-poverty solutions and programs were being debated and created. Some of these concerns included that it: caused family dysfunction among the poor (especially among poor black families as a result of the Moynihan Report), discouraged marriage and promoted single-motherhood, and discouraged poor women from seeking employment by encouraging dependency on government aid. The 1980s concerns about the budget and spending on welfare also intensified with the growth of AFDC caseloads. Concerns about fraudulent welfare claims, dependency, and misuse by recipients created the stereotypical trope of the “welfare queen.” Between the late 1980s and early 1990s, growing public concern about out-of-wedlock births and teen pregnancy also fueled concern towards AFDC. Despite the public and political concerns, “sociologists, poverty analysts, and ethnographers have demonstrated that AFDC itself had little impact on women’s marital or childbearing decisions and the program acted for most recipients as a supplement to earnings or as a temporary source of support between periods of employment.” In addition to public and political perception of welfare, also important to welfare reform is the drastic change in women's labor market participation since ADC was first enacted. By the 1990s it was more common for women to engage in waged work, and this change contributed to the expectation that women receiving welfare should be required to do work outside the home. The economic and social context of the labor market had changed as well. Jobs that provided a steady and livable family wage had declined over the decades, the growth and expansion of the low-wage labor market had created jobs that provided little economic security or chance for upward economic mobility. The idea of the “work-first” approach to work requirements prioritized getting recipients to quickly enter the job market, with the work programs offered focusing on job readiness and immediate job placement at the first available job. These concerns about the women receiving AFDC and the impact of the program on marriage and motherhood, as well as the increased demand for low-wage, low-skilled workers in the job market and the expectation for women to participate in the labor-market provide the context for the 1996 welfare reform act. The 1996 PRWORA ended AFDC and replaced it with Temporary Assistance for Needy Families. The most significant change from AFDC to TANF is the end to an individual entitlement for poor families to receive federal aid. This signified that no one could “make a legally enforceable claim for assistance just because they were poor.” United Kingdom New Deal In recent years reform of the welfare system in Britain began with the introduction of the New Deal programme introduced by the Labour government in 1997. The aim of this programme was to increase employment through requiring that recipients make serious efforts to seek employment. The Labour Party also introduced a system of tax credits for low-income workers. Welfare Reform Act 2007 The Welfare Reform Act 2007 provides for "an employment and support allowance, a contributory allowance, [and] an income-based allowance". The objectives of the Welfare Reform Act of 2007 were to increase the employment rate to 80% from 75%, to assist 300,000 single parents find employment, to increase the number of workers over 50 by 1 million, and to reduce the number of people claiming incapacity benefits by 2 million. Welfare Reform Act 2009 This welfare reform proposed an increase of personal responsibility within the welfare system. The reform eliminated Income support, and allocated funds over to the Jobseeker's allowance, to encourage employment. It also encouraged increased parental responsibility by amending child support laws, and requiring births be registered jointly by both parents. Welfare Reform Act 2012 This welfare reform proposed changes to the Housing Benefit, which reduced the benefit paid to recipients depending on the size of their living space. This act got the nickname of the “Bedroom Tax.” from the media. It was stated that similarly to other welfare reforms, this act would reduce welfare dependency. France Beginning in the mid-1970s, a deficit in the social insurance program began to appear. The deficit saw peaks at 27.75% of the social insurance budget in 1992. This led to a major push by the government to cut back spending in the welfare program. By the end of the 1990s the deficit had been almost completely eradicated. The often large deficits that the program has endured has led to a tremendous amount of opposition to the program as it stands. In February 2020, a pension overhaul was adopted by decree using Article 49 of the French constitution. Brazil During the 2015–2018 Brazilian economic crisis, there has been both economic and political turmoil. President Dilma Rousseff, who was later impeached and replaced by President Michel Temer, strived to expand the social welfare program Bolsa Família instated by her predecessor Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva. As a social-democrat, Rousseff pledged that "Brazil will continue to grow, with social inclusion and mobility." When Michel Temer took office, to cope with the severe economic recession, he proposed social welfare reforms to change labor rules and the social security pension system. Temer's plan included limiting pension benefits and raising the retirement age in order to save money and fix the economy. Additionally, under his reform, companies have greater power to require longer work days and use part-time workers. In response to this reform, labor unions, rural workers, and government employees held protests all over Brazil. The vote to approve the pension reform was first suspended until February 2018, and now has been further postponed as a campaign issue in this year's election. Temer's critics believe that the reason for the postponed reform is its vast public disapproval. India India has taken substantial strides toward dramatically reforming its welfare architecture over the last five years especially, ranging from direct benefit transfers (DBT), Ayushman Bharat, income support (PM-Kisan), and the implementation of the 14th Finance Commission recommendations. However, crucial unanswered and hotly debated concerns regarding the welfare state's architecture lie under these changes. The issues are concentrated on centralisation and the ability of different levels of government to deliver. The new government's welfare policy would inevitably have to address these issues, as well as the opportunities and threats they raise. The new government's ability to manage this complexity would decide its ability to provide high-quality public services to India's poorest citizens. But the trend of introducing welfare reforms has not been introduced lately as some schemes were brought into action since the 1960s. Hence, giving an insight in India's historical background of welfare schemes is essential to form the base layer for further examples. India’s Banks Nationalised Indira Gandhi, who was both Prime Minister and Finance Minister in charge, agreed to nationalise 14 of the country's largest private banks on July 19, 1969. In 1955, with Imperial Bank having already been nationalised and renamed State Bank of India, this decision in 1969, effectively placed 80 percent of banking assets under state control. Nationalization of banks was defined as the "single most significant economic decision taken by any government since 1947" in the third volume of the Reserve Bank of India's history. The aim of nationalising banks was to align the banking sector with the Indian government's post-independence socialist goals. According to the RBI's records, the proposal to nationalise banks and insurance companies was first proposed in a report by the All India Congress Committee in 1948. Nationalization of banks is perhaps the most significant systemic change in the financial sector in India's post-independence period. Bank nationalisation, according to the second volume of the Reserve Bank of India's official history, after 1947, was the single most critical economic policy decision made by any government. After 1967, banks were not lending to agriculture nor lending enough to industries making these sectors face heavy crisis. There has long been a perception that Indian banks are unwilling to lend money especially to agriculture sector. Furthermore, since private banks were controlled by large industrialists, they often ended up lending to themselves. The top bank directors have held directorships in a variety of other sectors, creating a conflict of interest. Aside from political and economic considerations, there were also banking considerations. Some included, examining the escalating economic crisis that afflicted the 1960s. Removing the few's monopoly in the banking sector. Ensuring adequate credit for agriculture, small businesses, and exports. Professionalizing the banking sector's management. Encouraging new business owners and enhancing and developing India's rural areas. This action resulted in a significant rise in bank deposits and investment and this transition had a long-term effect on the success of small-scale industries and agriculture. It has also resulted in increased bank penetration in rural India. Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) Prime Minister Narendra Modi launched this financial inclusion programme in the year 2014 as his welcome move. It aims at laying the groundwork for the construction of the infrastructure needed to implement direct cash transfers across the region. The Jan Dhan Yojana, which pledges each Indian household a bank account, insurance coverage, and overdraft facility over the next two years, would finally give the government the opportunity to implement a universal basic income transfer to all people, reshaping the country's leaky affluent economy and even the dysfunctional welfare system. Until now, the scheme hasn't proved much beneficial in organising the welfare system of India and the country still awaits it advantages. Technology, income support, citizens and bureaucracy For the last decade, technology has been at the forefront of the welfare reform project. When the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) first came to power in 2014, it adopted Aadhar (national document) and DBT (direct benefit transfers) systems (effort and rapid progress) and just 28 schemes used DBT to pass funds in March 2014 but by May 2019, it has risen to over 400. With the introduction of PM-Kisan in January 2019, India made its first national attempt to implement a basic income support programme using the DBT architecture. However, putting too much emphasis on technology to enforce DBT has revealed three major flaws in the system: the last-mile challenge, a lack of reliable data to identify beneficiaries, and citizen alienation. The desire to reduce payment leakage and increase performance is a key reason for scaling DBT and shifting toward direct cash transfers by income support programmes. In arguing for a Universal Basic Income (UBI), the 2017 Economic Survey claimed that income transfers have the ability to reduce bureaucratic layers by transferring money directly into beneficiary accounts. This will minimise corruption by reducing discretion and simplifying monitoring. Recent research, however, show that having the DBT architecture correct necessitates substantial bureaucratic interference, rather than reducing it. Local bureaucrats are important to DBT, from opening accounts to fostering financial literacy and facilitating bank transactions. Recent research, however, show that having the DBT architecture correct necessitates substantial bureaucratic interference, rather than reducing it. Local bureaucrats are important to DBT, from opening accounts to fostering financial literacy and facilitating bank transactions. Muralidharan et al. recently completed a Niti Aayog-commissioned process monitoring exercise by using DBT to access the Public Distribution System scheme in three Union Territories (Chandigarh, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, and Puducherry). Muralidharan et al. discovered that 20% of beneficiaries acknowledged not receiving payment, despite official records indicating a transfer rate of failure of less than 1%. The study attributes the difference to a lack of beneficiary awareness and knowledge of transactions, as well as administrative problems such as amount paid into bank accounts that recipients may not have access to, or processing errors. However, once a new welfare reform system in inculcated into the system, it faces a lot of challenges and as by its very nature, technology produces centralised networks that are distant and perplexing for average people, in ways similar to the unpleasant daily interactions readers of this document have had with call centre agents. When citizens' rights are denied, digital welfare programmes run the risk of closing off spaces for citizens to petition, protest, and seek transparency and the point being made here is not to argue against efficiency of administration. Therefore, a balance must be struck between centralised power for performance and decentralised, citizen-centric governance for responsiveness. Canada In 1945, the White Paper on Employment and Income was introduced by Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King. At this time, King had already begun to change and remove many of the previous policies for state intervention that were established during the world war periods. This paper focused on a new Keynesian approach to economic management, such as full employment and high income. Full employment was to be mainly achieved through assistance to private enterprises. In this regard, King deviated from the idea of expanding welfare measures and wanted to instead focus on liberal corporatism. However, despite this new approach, the King government did eventually go on to expand some social insurance and health measures. Between 1951 and 1952 there were several key welfare reforms in Canada. Under then Prime Minister, Louis St. Laurent, an amendment to the Indian Act was made in 1951, to allow Indigenous people to apply for provincial social welfare for the first time. This permitted Indigenous people to collect cash benefits. However, these changes to the Indian Act also gave more powers to the provinces over the lives of Indigenous people. Under this amendment, the provinces were permitted to take Indigenous children under their care which facilitated the beginning of a period in the 1960s where many Indigenous children were forcibly taken from their homes and enrolled into residential schools, or placed with other families. Prime Minister St. Laurent also adopted universal old-age pensions for Canadians over 70, and means-test old age security for Canadians between 65 and 70 in the period of 1951 to 1952. In 1956, the Unemployment Assistance Act was also adopted under St. Laurent due to increasing pressure from the provinces over high unemployment rates. During the beginning of the 1960s, the country saw the introduction of three key pieces of legislation of the modern Canadian welfare state. In 1964, under Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson, the National Housing Act was amended significantly to allow for federal loans to the provinces for the establishment of public housing, up to 90% of the cost of construction. Following this development, in 1965 the Canada Pension Plan and Quebec Pension Plan were established as a national compulsory contributory pension plan. In 1966, the Canada Assistance Plan was made to merge the Unemployment Assistance Act with other assistance plans such as those for the physically disabled and single parents. The Canadian Assistance plan also established a federal cost-sharing mechanism for social service such as a national healthcare system. The provinces became responsible for administering the new national healthcare systems within their own jurisdictions. In 1971, under the government of Pierre Elliott Trudeau, Unemployment Insurance coverage was expanded to an extent that it became almost universal. At this point, the only people who were excluded from coverage were the self-employed, people over the age of 70, and people who did not earn the minimum weekly earnings of 20% of the maximum weekly insurable earnings. One of the main goals was to "provide adequate income support for all persons experiencing temporary earnings interruptions". This new amendment liberalized the former system. The National Housing Act was also expanded under Trudeau to cover co-operative and non-profit assistance. In 1978, for the first time the tax system was also used to provide Canadians with a child tax credit. The 1970s in Canada saw economic stagnation and rising inflation. This led to a new conservative political approach that rejected the former Keynesian beliefs held by Prime Ministers such as Mackenzie King. This decade favoured politicians who promised decreasing government expenditure on social programs. During this time unemployment was used strategically to reduce wage increases and inflation. In 1977, the Established Programs Financing and Fiscal Arrangements Act "replaced the previous federal–provincial cost-sharing arrangements, which were conditional grants, with a formula that increased federal contributions to provincial programs according to increases in gross national product". Arguably this decade saw the beginning of the decline of the Canadian welfare state. In 1989 the federal Family Allowance was terminated. As a result of similar measures such as reductions and terminations of welfare programs, the 1980s and 1990s saw a rise in charity based institutions such as food banks and emergency shelters. This was due to the lack of government-funded facilities, and the growth of unemployment and housing costs. In 1995, under the government of Jean Chrétien, the Canada Assistance Plan was terminated. It was a federal-provincial cost sharing agreement. In 1996 it was replaced by the Canada Health and Social Transfer which provided funds to provinces and territories to support health care, post-secondary education, social assistance and social services. The Canada Health and Social Transfer "was a combination of the 1977 tax transfer and a cash transfer, and the total was allocated on an equal per capita basis". Following the adoption of this plan, many provinces adopted workfare policies which placed pressure on those who were deemed employable to find employment and leave welfare. This included single parents and people with addictions. In keeping with the trend of this decade, the federal government also raised the requirements for unemployment insurance to require 30% more hours worked to qualify. In 1997, the Social Union Framework Agreement was signed by the Federal government and every province except Québec. This agreement helped to increase funds once again in the areas of health care, social assistance, and social services under a neo-liberalt approach. Prime Minister Stephen Harper focused his welfare policies mainly on reducing the public service and supporting families. To achieve this, in 2006 Harper passed the Universal Child Care Benefit. This benefit provided $100 a month per child to households caring for a child under the age of six. This program is similar to the previous Family Allowance that was terminated. In 2022, under the current Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, the federal government finalized an agreement with all the provinces and one territory for a publicly funded, Canada-wide system of childcare. Trudeau promised to deliver $10 a day daycare for families in Canada. See also Austerity Self-Sufficiency Project Social reform Welfare dependency Workfare References Public economics Privatization Austerity Neoliberalism
401877	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boca%20Juniors	Boca Juniors	Club Atlético Boca Juniors () is an Argentine professional sports club based in La Boca, a neighbourhood of Buenos Aires. The club is best known for its professional football team which, since its promotion in 1913, has always played in the Argentine Primera División. The team has won 74 official titles, the most by any Argentine club. National titles won by Boca Juniors include 35 Primera División championships, and 17 domestic cups. Boca Juniors also owns an honorary title awarded by the Argentine Football Association for their successful tour of Europe in 1925. Internationally, Boca Juniors has won a total of 22 international titles, with 18 organised by CONMEBOL and the rest organised jointly by the Argentine and Uruguayan Associations. Consequently, Boca is ranked third in the world in terms of number of complete international titles, after Real Madrid (28) and Egyptian side Al Ahly (25). Boca Juniors' international achievements also include Tie Cup, Copa de Honor Cousenier, and Copa Escobar-Gerona, organized jointly by AFA and AUF together. Their success usually has the Boca Juniors ranked among the IFFHS's Club World Ranking Top 25, which they have reached the top position six times (mostly during the coaching tenure of Carlos Bianchi). Boca was named by the IFFHS as the top South American club of the first decade of the 21st century (2001–2010). It was designated by FIFA as the twelfth best Club of the Century, in December 2000, occupying the same place as Liverpool of England, Inter of Italy, or Benfica of Portugal, among others. Boca Juniors is also known to be one of the most popular football clubs in Argentina, along with River Plate. Boca Juniors has a fierce rivalry with River Plate and matches between them are known as the Superclásico. It is the most heated rivalry in Argentina and one of the biggest in the world, as the clubs are the two most popular in the country. Boca's home stadium is Estadio Alberto J. Armando, which is colloquially known as La Bombonera. The youth academy has produced many Argentine internationals such as Oscar Ruggeri, Sebastián Battaglia, Nicolás Burdisso, Carlos Tevez, Éver Banega, Fernando Gago, Leandro Paredes and Nahuel Molina, who have played or are playing for top European clubs. In addition to men's football, Boca Juniors has professional women's football and basketball teams. Other (amateur) activities held in the club are: bocce, boxing, chess, field hockey, futsal, artistic and rhythmic gymnastics, handball, martial arts (judo, karate and taekwondo), swimming, volleyball, weightlifting and wrestling. As of January 2023, Boca Juniors ranked first among the clubs with the most members in Argentina, with 315,879. History On 3 April 1905, a group of Greek and Italian boys (more specifically from Genoa) met in order to find a club. The house where the meeting was arranged was Esteban Baglietto's and the other four people who attended were Alfredo Scarpatti, Santiago Sana and brothers Ioannis (Juan) and Theodoros (Teodoro) Farengas from Chios and Konstantinos Karoulias from Samos. Other important founding members include Arturo Penney, Marcelino Vergara, Luis Cerezo, Adolfo Taggio, Giovanelli, Donato Abbatángelo, and Bertolini. In 1913, Boca was promoted to Primera División after some previous failed attempts. This was possible when the Argentine Association decided to increase the number of teams in the league from 6 to 15. In 1925, Boca made its first trip to Europe to play in Spain, Germany and France. The squad played a total of 19 games, winning 15 of them. For that reason Boca was declared "Campeón de Honor" (Champion of Honour) by the Association. During successive years, Boca consolidated as one of the most popular teams of Argentina, with a huge number of fans not only in the country but worldwide. The club is one of the most successful teams in Argentine football, having won 47 domestic titles (34 league titles and 13 national cups). At international level, Boca Juniors have won 22 titles, with 18 competitions organised by CONMEBOL and four by the Argentine and Uruguayan Associations together. Kit and badge According to the club's official site, the original jersey colour was a white shirt with thin black vertical stripes, being then replaced by a light blue shirt and then another striped jersey before adopting the definitive blue and gold. Nevertheless, another version states that Boca Juniors' first jersey was pink, although it has been questioned by some journalists and historians who state that Boca, most probably, never wore a pink jersey, by pointing out the lack of any solid evidence and how this version stems from, and is only supported on, flawed testimonies. Legend has it that in 1906, Boca played Nottingham de Almagro. Both teams wore such similar shirts that the match was played to decide which team would get to keep it. Boca lost, and decided to adopt the colors of the flag of the first boat to sail into the port at La Boca. This proved to be a Swedish ship, therefore the yellow and blue of the Swedish flag were adopted as the new team colours. The first version had a yellow diagonal band, which was later changed to a horizontal stripe. Through Boca Juniors history, the club has worn some alternate "rare" models, such as the AC Milan shirt in a match versus Universidad de Chile (whose uniform was also blue) in the 1963 Copa Libertadores. When Nike became official kit provider in 1996, the first model by the company introduced two thin white stripes surrounding the gold band, causing some controversy. The brand also introduced a silver jersey designed exclusively for the 1998 Copa Mercosur. For the 100th anniversary of the club, Nike launched commemorative editions of several models worn by the club since its foundation, including a version of the 1907 shirt with the diagonal sash, which was worn in two matches during the 2005 Torneo de Verano (Summer Championship). Other models were a black and white striped jersey (similar to Juventus FC) and a purple model, worn in the 2012 and 2013 "Torneos de Verano," respectively. Nevertheless, no shirt caused more controversy than the pink model released as the away jersey for the 2013–14 season, which was widely rejected by the fans. Because of that, the introduction of this model (to be initially worn v. Rosario Central) was delayed until the last fixture when Boca played Gimnasia y Esgrima (LP). As a replacement for the pink model, Nike designed a fluorescent yellow shirt launched that same season. In 2016, the club wore a black jersey for the first time in its history, originally launched as the third kit. Although the President of the club, Daniel Angelici, had stated that the black kit would never be worn, the kit debuted in a match v. Tigre, only four days after the announcement. Adidas is the club's current kit supplier since January 2020. The agreement (which will remain in force until 2029) was signed for US $10,069,000 plus 40% in royalties per year for the club. Kit evolution Uniforms worn by the team through its history: Notes Kit suppliers and shirt sponsors Notes Badge The club has had five different designs for its badge during its history, although its outline has remained unchanged through most of its history. The first known emblem dates from 1911, appearing on club's letterhead papers. In October 1932, the club stated that one star would be added to the badge for each Primera División title won. Nevertheless, the stars would not appear until 1943, on a Report and Balance Sheet. A version with laurel leaves appeared on a magazine in 1955 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the club, although the club never used it officially. The emblem with the stars was rules in 1932 but it has regularly appeared on Boca Juniors uniforms since 1993. In 1996, the Ronald Shakespear Studio introduced a new badge –with the horizontal band suppressed– as part of a visual identity for the club. The new Boca Juniors image also featured new typography and style. Notes Stadium Boca Juniors used several locations before settling on their current ground on Brandsen. Club's first ground was in Dársena Sur of the old Buenos Aires port (currently Puerto Madero) but it was vacated in 1907 as it failed to meet the minimum league requirements. Boca Juniors then used three grounds in the Isla Demarchi area between 1908 and 1912. In the first year in the Primera Division (1913) the club hadn't an own stadium and played the home games in the pitches of the other teams, likely in Estudiantes de Buenos Aires in Palermo (on Figueroa Alcorta y Dorrego), but also in Avellaneda (first official derby against the River). Between 1914 and 1915, the club moved away from La Boca for the second time in its history (beyond the 1913), moving to Wilde in the Avellaneda Partido of the Greater Buenos Aires but a relatively poor season and poor attendances in 1915 forced the club to move back to La Boca. On 25 May 1916, Boca Juniors opened its new stadium at the intersection of Ministro Brin and Senguel streets, playing there until 1924 when the club moved to Brandsen and Del Crucero (Del Valle Iberlucea nowadays) streets, to build a new stadium there, which lasted until 1938 when the club decided to build a totally new venue, made of concrete grandstand instead of wood. Building of Boca Juniors' current stadium began in 1938, under the supervision of Engineer José L. Delpini. Boca played its home matches in Ferro Carril Oeste's Estadio Ricardo Etcheverry in Caballito until it was completed on 25 May 1940. A third level was added in 1953, originating then its nickname La Bombonera ('The Chocolate Box'). The stand opposite the Casa Amarilla railway platforms remained mostly undeveloped until 1996, when it was upgraded with new balconies and quite expensive VIP boxes. Three sides of the Bombonera are thus made up of traditional sloping stadium stands, but the fourth side was built vertically, with several seating areas stacked one on top of the other, the only way that makes it stand into the club premises. La Bombonera is known for vibrating when Boca fans (La 12) jump in rhythm; in particular, the unique vertical side will sway slightly, leading to the phrase, "La Bombonera no tiembla. Late" (The Bombonera does not tremble. It beats) La Bombonera currently has a capacity of around 54,000. The club's popularity make tickets hard to come by, especially for the Superclásico game against River Plate. There are further improvements planned for the stadium, including measures to ease crowd congestion, use of new technology and improved corporate facilities. Apart from the venues listed, Boca Juniors also played its home games at Estudiantes de Buenos Aires's stadium (in 1913, then located on Figueroa Alcorta Avenue) and Ferro Carril Oeste stadium (1938–40, while La Bombonera was under construction). Notes Supporters Boca Juniors is traditionally regarded as the club of Argentina's working class, in contrast with the supposedly more upper-class base of cross-town arch rival Club Atlético River Plate. Boca Juniors claims to be the club of "half plus one" (la mitad más uno) of Argentina's population, but a 2006 survey placed its following at 40%, still the largest share. They have the highest number of fans, as judged by percentage in their country. As of early 2023 Boca has a 314,000 member base, which ranks second only to Bayern Munich worldwide, and it is first in Argentina and also first in South America. The Boca-River Superclásico rivalry is one of the most thrilling derbies in the world. Out of their 338 previous meetings, Boca have won 126, River have won 107 and there have been 105 draws. After each match (except draws), street signs cover Buenos Aires at fans' own expense, "ribbing" the losing side with humorous posters. This has become part of Buenos Aires culture ever since a Boca winning streak in the 1990s. In 1975, a film (La Raulito) was made about the life of Mary Esher Duffau, known as La Raulito, a well-known Boca Juniors fan. She died at the age of 74 on 30 April 2008, the same day Boca Juniors played a Copa Libertadores match against Brazilian club, Cruzeiro Esporte Clube with the players and fans observing a minute's silence in her memory. Nicknames Boca fans are known as Los Xeneizes (the Genoese) after the Genoese immigrants who founded the team and lived in La Boca in the early 20th century. Many rival fans in Argentina refer to the Boca Juniors' fans as Los Bosteros (the manure handlers), originating from the horse manure used in the brick factory which occupied the ground where La Bombonera stands. Originally an insult used by rivals, Boca fans are now proud of it. Reflecting the team's colors, Boca's shirt is also called la azul y oro (the blue and gold). There is also a society which dedicates all of its activities to supporting the team known as la número 12 or la doce (player number doce or 12, meaning "the 12th player"). The origin of the group dates back to 1925, when the Boca Juniors fanatic "Toto" Caffarena accompanied the team during a tournament in Europe in 1925. From then on, he was considered the "twelveth player", hence the name "La doce". The ultra organization similar to other "barra brava" gangs associated with football clubs in Argentina. Illegal activities by La doce include assault, drug sales and trafficking, extortion, and murder. La doce finances its activities by selling parking, reselling club tickets as well as extorting commission from the sale of players. La doce also extorts Boca Juniors for transportation to domestic and international events as well as their means of financing their activities. If their demands are not met they threaten violence at home matches or to take down club officials. The naming of "La 12" (the twelfth player), by which Boca Juniors' fans became known, dates back to the year 1925, during the European tour they made that year. At that time, the team was accompanied by a Boca fan called Victoriano Caffarena, who belonged to a wealthy family and funded part of the tour. During that tour he helped the team in everything, thus establishing a strong relationship with the players, so they named him "Player No. 12". When they returned to Argentina, Caffarena was as well known as the players themselves. Nowadays, this nickname is used primarily to name their group of supporters, known as "La 12". International Peñas (fan clubs) exist in a number of Argentine cities and abroad in countries such as Russia, Ukraine, Spain, Israel and Japan. Boca Juniors are particularly popular in Japan, because of the club's success in the early 2000s at the Intercontinental Cup held in Japan. Elsewhere internationally, fans are drawn to Boca by the club's international titles and by the success of Boca players who went on to play in European football such as Hugo Ibarra, Rodolfo Arruabarrena, Diego Cagna, Enzo Ferrero, Roberto Abbondanzieri, Nicolás Burdisso, Fernando Gago, Diego Maradona, Claudio Caniggia, Gabriel Batistuta, Juan Román Riquelme and Carlos Tevez. Boca have fans throughout Latin America and also in parts of the United States where there has been Latin immigration and where in July 2007, after the club had toured pre-season, it was reported that the club were considering the possibility of creating a Boca Juniors USA team to compete in Major League Soccer. Rivalries Boca Juniors has had a long-standing rivalry with River Plate. The Superclásico is known worldwide as one of world football's fiercest and most important rivalries. It is particularly noted for the passion of the fans, the stands of both teams feature fireworks, coloured confetti, flags and rolls of paper. Both sets of supporters sing passionate songs (often based on popular Argentine rock band tunes) against their rivals, and the stadiums are known to bounce with the simultaneous jumping of the fans. Sometimes the games have been known to end in riots between the hardest supporters of both sides or against the police. The English newspaper The Observer put the Superclásico (played at La Bombonera) at the top of their list of 50 sporting things you must do before you die. The two clubs both have origins in the poor riverside area of Buenos Aires known as La Boca. River however moved to the more affluent district of Núñez in the north of the city in 1923. Boca Juniors and River Plate have played 259 official games all time against each other, with Boca winning 91, River winning 85 and 83 draws. This intense rivalry has not stopped players from playing for both clubs, most notably José Manuel Moreno, Hugo Orlando Gatti, Alberto Tarantini, Oscar Ruggeri, Julio Olarticoechea, Carlos Tapia, Gabriel Batistuta and Claudio Caniggia. Players Current squad Other players under contract Out on loan Reserves and Academy For the reserve and academy squads, see Boca Juniors Reserves and Academy Records Most goals Last updated on: 31 July 2023 – Los 10 máximos goleadores at historiadeboca.com.ar Most appearances Last updated on: 31 July 2023 – Top 10 most appearances of all time at historiadeboca.com.ar Notable players This section lists players who have appeared in least 100 matches or scored at least 35 goals for the club. 1905–1930s Máximo Pieralini (1909–18) Francisco Taggino (1910–15) Pedro Calomino (1911–13; 1915–24) Enrique Bertolini (1912–23) Alfredo Elli (1916–28) Alfredo Garasini (1916–28) Américo Tesoriere (1916–27) Pablo Bozzo (1918–23) Mario Busso (1918–27) Antonio Cerroti (1920–29) Ramón Muttis (1923–32) Ludovico Bidoglio (1922–31) Ángel Médici (1922–31) Domingo Tarasconi (1922–32) Roberto Cherro (1926–35) Mario Evaristo (1926–31) Estaban Kuko (1926–33) Gerardo Moreyras (1927–33) Donato Penella (1928–32) Antonio Alberino (1929–34) Pedro Arico Suárez (1929–42) 1930s–1970s Francisco Varallo (1931–39) Delfín Benítez Cáceres (1932–38) Juan Yustrich (1932–37) José Manuel Marante (1934–38; 1940–50) Ernesto Lazzatti (1934–47) Víctor Valussi (1935–36; 1938–45) Juan Alberto Estrada (1938–43) Claudio Vacca (1938–40; 1942–50) Segundo Gregorio Ibáñez (1939–42) Jaime Sarlanga (1940–48) Mario Boyé (1941–49; 1955) Pío Corcuera (1941–48) Carlos Sosa (1941–51) Natalio Pescia (1942–56) Severino Varela (1943–45) Obdulio Diano (1944–53) Rodolfo Dezorzi (1945–48) Héctor Raúl Otero (1948–56) Marcos Busico (1949–54) Herminio Antonio González (1949–54; 1956–59) Juan Carlos Colman (1950–57) José Borello (1951–58) Federico Roberto Edwards (1951–59) Juan Francisco Lombardo (1952–60) Eliseo Mouriño (1953–60) Julio Musimessi (1953–59) Antonio Rattín (1956–70) Juan José Rodríguez (1956–62; 1964) Osvaldo Nardiello (1958–62) Ernesto Grillo (1960–66) Silvio Marzolini (1960–72) Antonio Roma (1960–72) Heleno de Freitas (1948–49) Paulo Valentim (1960–64) Almir Pernambuquinho (1961–62) Orlando (1961–65) Alberto Mario González (1962–68) Norberto Menéndez (1962–67) José María Silvero (1962–66) Carmelo Simeone (1962–67) Ángel Clemente Rojas (1963–71) Alcides Silveira (1963–68) Óscar Pianetti (1964–71) Alfredo Rojas (1964–68) Norberto Madurga (1966–71) Nicolás Novello (1966–72; 1974) Armando Ovide (1966–76) Ramón Héctor Ponce (1966–74) Miguel Nicolau (1967–72; 1974–75) Rubén Omar Sánchez (1967–75) Rubén Suñé (1967–72; 1976–80) Julio Meléndez (1968–72) Roberto Rogel (1968–75) Jorge Coch (1969–71; 1980) Orlando José Medina (1969–72) Rubén Peracca (1969–73) 1970s–1990s Hugo Curioni (1970–73) Enzo Ferrero (1971–75) Roberto Mouzo (1971–84) Osvaldo Potente (1971–75; 1979–80) Jorge José Benítez (1973–83) Vicente Pernía (1973–81) Alberto Tarantini (1973–77) Marcelo Trobbiani (1973–76; 1981–82) Carlos García Cambón (1974–77) Abel Alves (1975–83) Darío Felman (1975–78) Hugo Gatti (1976–88) Ernesto Mastrangelo (1976–81) Jorge Ribolzi (1976–78, 1980–81) Francisco Sá (1976–81) José María Suárez (1976–82) Carlos Veglio (1976–78; 1980) Mario Zanabria (1976–80) Hugo Alves (1977–84) Hugo Perotti (1977–82; 1982–84) Carlos Córdoba (1978–84) Ricardo Gareca (1978–80; 1982–84) Oscar Ruggeri (1980–84) Ariel Krasouski (1981–85; 1986–88) Diego Maradona (1981–82; 1995–97) Roberto Passucci (1981–86) Fabián Carrizo (1983–90; 1994–96) Ivar Stafuza (1983–91) Luis Abramovich (1985–92) Alfredo Graciani (1985–91; 1993–94) Enrique Hrabina (1985–91) Carlos Daniel Tapia (1985–94) Jorge Comas (1986–89) José Luis Cuciuffo (1987–90) Diego Latorre (1987–92; 1996–98) José Luis Villarreal (1987–93) Carlos Navarro Montoya (1988–96) Walter Pico (1988–92; 1994–96) Juan Simón (1988–94) Diego Soñora (1988–95) Blas Giunta (1989–93; 1995–97) Víctor Hugo Marchesini (1989–93) Carlos Moya (1989–94) 1990s–2000s Luis Carranza (1992–95) Carlos Mac Allister (1992–96) Alberto Márcico (1992–95) Sergio Martínez (1992–97) Rodolfo Arruabarrena (1993–00) Néstor Fabbri (1994–98) Claudio Paul Caniggia (1995–98) Diego Cagna (1995–98; 2003–05) Juan Román Riquelme (1995–02; 2007–14) Aníbal Matellán (1996–01; 2004–05) Roberto Abbondanzieri (1997–06; 2009–10) Guillermo Barros Schelotto (1997–07) José Basualdo (1997; 1998–00) Jorge Bermúdez (1997–02) Óscar Córdoba (1997–01) Martín Palermo (1997–00; 2004–11) Walter Samuel (1997–00) Cristian Traverso (1997–02; 2004–05) Antonio Barijho (1998–02; 2003–04) Mauricio Serna (1998–02) Hugo Ibarra (1998–01; 2002–03; 2007–10) Sebastián Battaglia (1998–03; 2005–13) Nicolás Burdisso (1999–04) 2000s– Source: Marcelo Delgado (2000–03; 2005–06) José María Calvo (2000–06; 2008–11) Clemente Rodríguez (2001–04; 2007; 2010–13) Rolando Schiavi (2001–05; 2011–12) Carlos Tevez (2001–04; 2015–16; 2018–21) Raúl Alfredo Cascini (2002–05) Pablo Ledesma (2003–08; 2012–14) Fabián Vargas (2003–06; 2007–09) Neri Cardozo (2004–08) Fernando Gago (2004–07; 2013–18) Claudio Morel Rodríguez (2004–10) Cristian Chávez (2005–13) Daniel Díaz (2005–07; 2013–16) Rodrigo Palacio (2005–09) Pablo Mouche (2006–12) Facundo Roncaglia (2007–12; 2022–) Lucas Viatri (2007–14) Nicolás Colazo (2008–16) Cristian Erbes (2009–16) Gary Medel (2009–2011) Juan Manuel Insaurralde (2010–12; 2016–18) Juan Manuel Sánchez Miño (2010–14) Walter Erviti (2011–13) Agustín Orion (2011–16) Guillermo Fernández (2012–15; 2020; 2022–) Cristian Pavón (2014–22) Pablo Pérez (2015–18) Darío Benedetto (2016–19; 2022–) Frank Fabra (2016–) Leonardo Jara (2016–21) Agustín Rossi (2017–23) Julio Buffarini (2018–21) Carlos Izquierdoz (2018–22) Sebastián Villa (2018–) Jorman Campuzano (2019–) Cristian Medina (2020–) Alan Varela (2020–23) FIFA World Cup participants List of players that were called up for a FIFA World Cup while playing for Boca Juniors. In brackets, the tournament played: Roberto Cherro (1930) Mario Evaristo (1930) Ramón Muttis (1930) Arico Suárez (1930) Juan Francisco Lombardo (1958) Julio Musimessi (1958) Federico Edwards (1958) Eliseo Mouriño (1958) Alberto Mario González (1962, 1966) Silvio Marzolini (1962, 1966) Antonio Rattín (1962, 1966) Antonio Roma (1962, 1966) Alfredo Rojas (1966) Carmelo Simeone (1966) Diego Maradona (1982) Julio Olarticoechea (1986) Carlos Tapia (1986) Juan Simon (1990) Alejandro Mancuso (1994) Jorge Bermúdez (1998) Oscar Córdoba (1998) Mauricio Serna (1998) Roberto Abbondanzieri (2006) Rodrigo Palacio (2006) Juan Roman Riquelme (2006) Gary Medel (2010) Claudio Morel Rodríguez (2010) Martín Palermo (2010) Fernando Gago (2014) Agustín Orión (2014) Wílmar Barrios (2018) Nahitan Nandez (2018) Cristian Pavón (2018) Coaches The first Boca Juniors coach recorded is Mario Fortunato, who had been player before becoming coach of the team. Fortunato led Boca to win a total of five titles (4 league in 1930, 1931, 1934 and 1935) and one National cup (Copa de Competencia Británica in 1946). He had three tenures on the club, coaching Boca Juniors in 1930–1936, 1946 and 1956. Carlos Bianchi is the most successful coach in Boca Juniors' history, having won nine titles, including Aperturas in 1998, 2000 and 2003, the 1999 Clausura, the Copa Libertadores in 2000, 2001 and 2003, and the Intercontinental Cup in 2000 and 2003. Juan Carlos Lorenzo (1976–79, 1987), El Toto, won five titles with the team, including the Copa Libertadores in 1977 and 1978, the Intercontinental Cup in 1977, and the Metropolitano and Nacional in 1976. Alfio Basile also won 5 titles along with Mario Fortunato and Toto Lorenzo. With Basile, Boca won two domestic titles, 2005 Apertura and 2006 Clausura and three international (2005 Copa Sudamericana, 2005 and 2006 Recopa Sudamericana), all of them won within two years. Miguel Ángel Russo was hired as Ricardo Lavolpe's replacement. Under his coaching Boca Juniors won the 2007 Copa Libertadores with a 5–0 overall rout of Brazilian Grêmio. Julio César Falcioni led the team to the 2011 Apertura championship, which Boca won unbeaten with only seven goals conceded in 19 rounds. With Falcioni as coach, Boca also won the 2011–12 Copa Argentina. Current coaching staff \|- \|Head coach \|\| Jorge Almirón \|- \|Assistant coach \|\| Maximiliano Velázquez \|- \|Assistant coach \|\| Pablo Manusovich \|- \|Goalkeeping coach \|\| Fernando Gayoso \|- \|Fitness coach \|\| Pablo Santella \|- \|Fitness coach \|\| Alejandro Blasco \|- \|Team doctor \|\| Rubén Argemi \|- \|Team doctor \|\| Lucas Logioco \|- \|Kinesiologist \|\| Leonardo Betchakian \|- Institutional Executive board Jorge Amor Ameal is the current President of Boca Juniors since December 2019, when he was elected over Christian Gribaudo, getting more than 51% of the votes (a record of 38,000 members went to the club to vote). Ameal returned to the presidency of the club after his first tenure in 2008–11, when he succeeded Pedro Pompilio after his sudden death. Apart from Ameal, the Boca Juniors' Executive Board consists of the following members: 1st Vice-president: Juan Román Riquelme General Secretary: Ricardo Rosica Treasurer: Carlos Montero Staff Presidents of Boca Juniors sections: Football: Juan Román Riquelme Basketball: Alejandro Desimone Amateur Sports: Martín Mendiguren Culture: Christian Debortoli Notes Honours Senior titles Other titles Independent leagues Liga Central de Football: 1906 Copa Barone : 1908 Friendly Torneo Triangular Buenos Aires: 1963 Torneo Cuadrangular de Montevideo: 1963 Mohammed V Trophy: 1964 Trofeo Ciudad de San Sebastián (Spain): 1966 Copa Rio de la Plata: 1970 Trofeo Ciudad de Valladolid (Spain): 1975 Cuadrangular de los Grandes: 1985 Trofeo Naranja: 1985 Trofeo Isla de Tenerife: 1993 Vodafone Cup (England): 2004 Copa 100 Años de Atilio García (Uruguay): 2014 Antonio Puerta Trophy (Spain): 2016 Maradona Cup: 2021 Reserve and Youth titles For the reserve and academy honours, see Boca Juniors Reserves and Academy Notes Records and facts Seasons in Primera División: 110 (all seasons since the team's debut in 1913). Largest win: Domestic: 11–1 to Tigre, on 7 June 1942. International: 7–0 to Bolívar on 26 April 2007 at 2007 Copa Libertadores Worst defeat: Domestic: 0–7 v San Isidro on 10 October 1915. International: 1–6 v Palmeiras at 1994 Copa Libertadores Worst position in official domestic tournaments: 19th. at 2013 Torneo Final All-time topscorer: Martín Palermo (236 goals) Topscorer in a single tournament: Domingo Tarasconi (40 goals in 33 games during 1923 Primera División) Topscorer at international tournaments: Martín Palermo (43 goals) Topscorer at Copa Libertadores: Román Riquelme (25 goals) Most games unbeaten in domestic tournaments: 40 matches (from 15th fixture of Clausura 1998 to 16th fixture of 1999 Clausura) Most capped player: Roberto Mouzo (426 matches) Player with most titles won: Sebastián Battaglia (17 titles) Goalkeeper with minute-record scoreless goal: Esteban Andrada (864' with no goals allowed) Tied for 4th club in the world with most international cups won (18) Other sports sections Football reserves and academy The reserve and youth academy football teams of the club, currently coached by former club player Rolando Schiavi, who debuted in February 2015. Boca Juniors is the most winning Torneo de Reserva championships with 21 titles won since it was established in 1910. Notable players from the youth academy include Américo Tesoriere, Natalio Pescia, Ernesto Lazzatti, Antonio Rattín, Ángel Clemente Rojas, Roberto Mouzo, Oscar Ruggeri, Diego Latorre, Carlos Tevez and Fernando Gago, among others. Women's football The Boca Juniors women's football team plays in the Campeonato de Fútbol Femenino and have won the championship a record 27 times of which 10 were in succession from the 2003 Apertura to the 2008 Clausura. Though the club has not yet won any international competition, it secured the third place at the 2010 Copa Libertadores de Fútbol Femenino, and in the 2022 Copa Libertadores Femenina finished in second place. Basketball The Boca Juniors basketball team, established in 1929, won several Argentine championships organised by now-defunct bodies "Asociación de Básquetbol de Buenos Aires" and "Federación Argentina de Básquetbol". Since the Liga Nacional de Básquet was created in 1985, Boca Juniors has won the LNB league title three times (1996–97, 2003–04, and 2006–07), five Copa Argentina (2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2006), and one Torneo Top 4 (in 2004). At international level, Boca Juniors won three South American Club Championships in 2004, 2005, and 2006. Their home arena is the Estadio Luis Conde, better known as La Bombonerita (small Bombonera). Field hockey In September 2022, Boca Juniors announced the club would open a field hockey section for men and women. In May 2023, the club inaugurated a hockey field, with Las Leonas all-time top scorer Vanina Oneto as part of the project. Oneto was appointed manager of Boca Juniors Hockey. Futsal Boca Juniors men's compete in Primera División de Futsal, the top division of the futsal league system and organised by AFA. The club is the 2nd most winning team (after Club Pinocho) of Primera División, with 13 titles. One of those came in 2017 when they defeated Kimberley in the finals. The men's team won those thirteen league championship in 1992, 1993, 1997 Clausura, 1998 Apertura, 2003 Clausura, 2011 Clausura, 2012 Apertura, 2013 Apertura, 2013 Clausura, 2014 Apertura, 2014 Clausura, 2017, 2020–21. Boca also has a women's futsal team which plays in the Campeonato de Futsal Femenino, they won the inaugural tournament in 2004 and they won it again in 2014. Volleyball Boca Juniors has a men's professional volleyball team that won the Metropolitan championship in 1991, 1992 and 1996, and achieved the second place in the 1996–97 A1 season. Because of a lack of sponsors, the team was disbanded, but later it was reincorporated through the coaching of former Boca player Marcelo Gigante; after playing in the second division, it returned to the A1 league in 2005. In August 2015 it was announced that Boca Juniors's volleyball team would not participate in the Liga Argentina de Voleibol – Serie A1 from 2016. The decision was personally taken by Boca Juniors chairman, Daniel Angelici. The club alleged that taking part in a professional league resulted in a hugh commercial deficit so Boca Juniors declined to participate, although the volleyball department had reached an agreement with several sponsors which would put the money to cover the costs (about A$ 3 million). On 1 August 2023, it was announced that Boca Juniors after almost 8 years, will once again play in the Liga Argentina de Voleibol – Serie A1. Boca has a women's volleyball team that plays in the Liga Femenina de Voleibol Argentino and it has won the tournament a record 8 times (2010–11, 2011–12, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2023). Also Boca representatives compete in other disciplines such as judo, karate, taekwondo, wrestling, weight lifting and gymnastics, amongst others. Merchandising Boca Juniors has expanded its activity beyond sport, providing its fans with a number of other products and services. In 2003, it became the fifth football club in the world to open its own TV channel. Boca TV broadcast 24 hours a day, featuring sports programs and talk shows. The channel was closed in 2005 due to low audience, returning in 2015 as a website. In 2005, a funerary company started to produce a line of coffins available for dead fans. The club also opened a "Boca Juniors" exclusive section of 3,000 hectare in the Parque Iraola Cemetery of La Plata Partido in 2006. Also in 2006, Boca expanded its business launching its own fleet of taxis operating in Buenos Aires, as well as its own brand of wine, called "Vino Boca Juniors". In 2012 Boca Juniors opened in Buenos Aires its first thematic hotel not only in Argentina but worldwide. The hotel was designed by Uruguayan architect Carlos Ott. All the rooms were decorated with the colours of the club, apart from photos and paintings of notable players in the history of the club. There is an Argentine steakhouse in Queens, NYC which is a Boca Juniors theme restaurant. Sponsorships In racing, Argentine Turismo Carretera stock-car competition league spun off the Top Race V6 category, in which teams were sponsored by football teams. Veteran race pilots Guillermo Ortelli and Ernesto Bessone and former Boca player Vicente Pernía drove for the "Boca Juniors" team; Ortelli finally won the first Top Race V6 championship with his car painted in Boca Juniors colors. References External links Boca Juniors results and statistics at RSSSF Historia de Boca Juniors Player biographies at Informe Xeneize (archived, 21 Aug 2019) Boca Juniors Association football clubs established in 1905 Basketball teams established in 1905 1905 establishments in Argentina Football clubs in Buenos Aires Unrelegated association football clubs Basketball teams in Argentina Handball clubs in Argentina Volleyball clubs in Argentina Copa Libertadores winning clubs Copa Sudamericana winning clubs Recopa Sudamericana winning clubs Intercontinental Cup winning clubs Field hockey clubs in Buenos Aires
401880	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faisalabad	Faisalabad	Faisalabad (; Punjabi, , ; ), formerly known as Lyallpur(Punjabi, Urdu: لائل پور), is the second largest city and industrial centre of the Pakistani province of Punjab. It is the third largest and populous city in Pakistan, with an estimated population of 3.7 million in 2023. It is situated in the north-east of the country, lying between the plains of the Ravi and Chenab River. Faisalabad is one of Pakistan's wealthiest and most industrialized cities, the largest industrial hub and second largest city of the wider Punjab region. Historically one of the largest villages of Punjab, Lyallpur was one of the first planned cities within British India, it has long since developed into a cosmopolitan metropolis. Faisalabad was restructured into city district status; a devolution promulgated by the 2001 local government ordinance (LGO). The total area of Faisalabad District is while the area controlled by the Faisalabad Development Authority (FDA) is . Faisalabad has grown to become a major industrial and distribution centre because of its central location in the region and connecting roads, rails, and air transportation. It has been referred to as the Manchester of Pakistan". , GDP of Faisalabad was estimated at $43 billion and projected to rise to $87 billion in 2025 at a growth rate of 5.7%. Faisalabad contributes over 10 percent to the Punjab's GDP and has an average annual GDP (nominal) of $20.5 billion. Agriculture and industry remain its hallmark. Etymology Faisalabad was formerly (until 1977) known as Lyallpur. When founded in 1890 it was named for Sir James Broadwood Lyall, lieutenant governor of the Punjab. It became headquarters of the Lower Chenab colony and in 1898 was incorporated as a municipality. In September 1977, the city of Lyallpur was renamed "Faisalabad" by the Government of Pakistan in honor of King Faisal of Saudi Arabia, respecting his long relationship with Pakistan and its people. History Toponymy The city was settled or established in 1880 during the colonisation of the lower Chenab Valley. This city was settled down by Rai Bahadur Bhavanidas Sikka, after which the British Government granted jagirs to him. After Partition his descendants settled in India, now settled in Mumbai. This city was named in honour of Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab, Sir James Broadwood Lyall, for his role in establishing the canal colonisation project. The surname Lyall was joined with the noun pur, meaning 'city' in Sanskrit. On 1 September 1977, the Government of Pakistan changed the name of the city from Lyallpur to Faisalabad ('City of Faisal') in honour of King Faisal of Saudi Arabia, who made several financial contributions to Pakistan. Early settlements The region encompassing modern day Faisalabad district was originally inhabited by a number of forest-dwelling tribes. It is believed these early settlements belonged to the ancient districts of Jhang and Sandalbar, and included the area between Shahdara to Shorekot and Sangla Hill to Toba Tek Singh. The shrine of Baba Noor Shah Wali was erected in the area in the 1600s. Development At the conclusion of the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, the entire Punjab region became administered as Punjab province, firstly by the East India Company and after 1858 as part of the British Raj. In the 1880s the Punjab government began an irrigation scheme to cultivate large tracts of western Punjab through the creation of canal colonies. The Chenab colony was the largest of these colonisation projects, and covered the entirety of present-day Faisalabad district. Popham Young, the Colonisation Officer managing the project identified the site of the current city to establish headquarters for the colony. Young designed the settlement's centre to replicate the design in the Union Jack with eight roads extending from a large clock tower at its epicentre; a design geometrically symbolic of the Cross of Saint Andrew counterchanged with the Cross of Saint Patrick, and Saint George's Cross over all. The eight roads developed into eight separate bazaars (markets) leading to different regions of the Punjab. In 1892, the newly constructed town with its growing agricultural surplus was added to the British rail network. Construction of the rail link between Wazirabad and Lyallpur was completed in 1895. In 1896, Gujranwala, Jhang and Sahiwal comprising the Tehsils of Lyallpur were under the administrative control of the Jhang District. The town became one of the first planned settlements within British India. In 1904, the new district of Lyallpur was created to include the tehsils of Samundri and Toba Tek Singh with a sub-tehsil at Jaranwala, which later became a full tehsil in itself. The University of Agriculture, originally the Punjab Agricultural College and Research Institute, Lyallpur, was established in 1906. The Town Committee was upgraded to a Municipal Committee in 1909. Lyallpur grew into an established agricultural tool and grain centre. By 1911 the city had a population of 19,578. The 1930s brought industrial growth and market expansion to the textile industry as well as to food processing, grain crushing and chemicals. Independence In August 1947, following three decades of nationalist struggles, India and Pakistan achieved independence. The British agreed to partition British India into two sovereign states – Pakistan with a Muslim majority, and India with a Hindu majority; however, more Muslims remained in India than what governing authorities believed would assimilate into Pakistan. The partitioning led to a mass migration of an estimated 10 million people which made it the largest mass migration in human history. The Punjab province was divided into Punjab, West Pakistan and Punjab, India. There were also respective divisions of the British Indian Army, the Indian Civil Service, various administrative services, the central treasury, and the railways. Riots and local fighting followed the expeditious withdrawal of the British, resulting in an estimated one million civilians deaths, particularly in the western region of Punjab. Lyallpur, which was located in the region of the Punjab Province that became West Pakistan, was populated by a minority of Hindus and Sikhs who migrated to India, while Muslim refugees from East Punjab settled in the district. In 1977, Pakistani authorities changed the name of the city from Lyallpur to Faisalabad, in order to honor the close friendship of King Faisal of Saudi Arabia with Pakistan. During the eighties, the city saw an influx of foreign investments in the textile sector. Large number of residents of Faisalabad began working abroad as bilateral ties improved as part of new trade agreements. This led to more foreign remittances into the city. This aided the development of large scale infrastructure projects within the city. In 1985, the city was upgraded as a division with the districts of Faisalabad, Jhang and Toba Tek Singh. Geography Location Faisalabad lies in the rolling flat plains of northeast Punjab, at above sea level. The city proper comprises approximately while the district encompasses more than . The Chenab River flows about , and the Ravi River meanders to the southeast. The lower Chenab canal provides water to 80% of cultivated lands making it the main source of irrigation. Faisalabad is bound on the north by Chiniot and Sheikhupura, on the east by Sheikhupura and Sahiwal, on the south by Sahiwal and Toba Tek Singh and on the west by Jhang. Geology The district of Faisalabad is part of the alluvial plains between the Himalayan foothills and the central core of the Indian subcontinent. The alluvial deposits are typically over a thousand feet thick. The interfluves are believed to have been formed during the Late Pleistocene and feature river terraces. These were later identified as old and young floodplains of the Ravi River on the Kamalia and Chenab Plains. The old floodplains consist of Holocene deposits from the Ravi and Chenab rivers. The soil consists of young stratified silt loam or very fine sand loam which makes the subsoil weak in structure with common kankers at only five feet. The course of the rivers within Faisalabad are winding and often subject to frequent alternations. In the rainy season, the currents are very strong. This leads to high floods in certain areas which do last for a number of days. The Rakh and Gogera canals have encouraged the water levels in the district however the belt on the Ravi River has remained narrow. The river bed does include the river channels which have shifted the sand bars and low sandy levees leading to river erosion. Faisalabad is situated at the centre of the lower Rechna Doab, the area is located between the Chenab and Ravi rivers. There is a mild slope from the northeast to the southwest with an average fall of . The city is situated at an elevation of about . The topography is marked by valleys, local depression and high ground. Climate Faisalabad overlaps between a semi-arid climate and a humid subtropical climate. The weather in the city is monitored by the Pakistan Meteorological Department. The Pakistan Meteorological Department regularly provides forecasts, public warnings and rainfall information to farmers with the assistance of the National Agromet Centre. Average annual rainfall is approximately . It is at its peak in July, August and September during monsoon season though western disturbances during winter months also bring considerable rainfall associated with hail. Monsoon season which starts in July and ends in September brings heavy rain to the city causing flash flooding. If the monsoon currents interact with the western disturbance, then cloudburst can also occur. July is the wettest month of the year during which flooding is reported number of times. Monsoon ends in September and then the dry period begins. October and November are the driest months with very little rainfall. During winter the weather usually remains cloudy associated with frequent fog. Record-breaking rainfall of was recorded on 5 September 1961 by the Pakistan Meteorological Department. The temperature of the city has reached a summer maximum record temperature of 48.0 °C (118.4 °F), which was observed on 9 June 1947 and again on 26 May 2010. An extreme minimum temperature of −4.0 °C (24.8 °F) was recorded on 15 January 1978. The highest wind gust ever recorded in Faisalabad occurred during a severe dust-thunderstorm on 2 June 2000, when the maximum wind speed reached 151 kilometers per hour (94 mph). Apart from temperature and rainfall records, the winds in Faisalabad are generally light. The city lies in an area with low wind speeds. Westerly breeze dominates the afternoons, while the nights are calm. Southeast / easterly winds are common here during the monsoon season. Faisalabad, being in the plains, can experience severe thunderstorms and high wind gusts that can be damaging to its crops. Culture Faisalabad, the third most populated metropolis in Pakistan after Karachi and Lahore is an epicentre for trade that has gained popularity for its colonial heritage sites. In 1982, the Government of Punjab established the Faisalabad Arts Council, a division of the Punjab Arts Council which is overseen administratively by the Information, Culture and Youth Affairs Department. The Faisalabad Arts Council building, designed by architect Nayyer Ali Dada, was completed in 2006. The auditorium was named after the late Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, a Pakistani musician and singer. Festivals The Punjabi people celebrate a variety of cultural and religious festivals throughout the Punjab region, such as arts and craft, music, local events, and religious celebrations. The city of Faisalabad customarily celebrates its independence day on 14 August every year by raising the Pakistan flag at the clock tower in the Commissioner Office compound. Bazaars are colourfully decorated for the celebration, government and private buildings are brightly lit, and there are similar flag–raising ceremonies that are typically held in the district and its tehsils. The arrival of spring brings the annual "Rang-e-Bahar" festival where the Parks & Horticulture Authority of the city district government organise a flower show and exhibition at Jinnah Gardens. The University of Agriculture organises a similar event at their main campus which is known as the "Kissan Mela". The festival of Basant which involves kite flying is an annual tradition in the city despite the ban. The provincial government introduced the "Canal Mela" which involves five days of festivities including the main canal in the city being decorated with national floats and lights ending with a musical concert to conclude the festival. Being a Muslim majority the city religious observances include Ramadan and Muharram. The festivals of Chaand Raat, Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha are celebrated and are national holidays. The celebration of the Prophet Muhammad birthday is observed in the city which is often referred to as "Eid Milād-un-Nabī". There are a number of darbar and shrines which attract a number of devotees during the annual Urs. There are a number of Christian churches in the city where Easter and Christmas services take place each year. Attire Traditional attire in Faisalabad is Punjabi clothing such as the Kurta and Sherwanis. Faisalabadi men wear white shalwar kameez as do women but also with a dupatta (scarf). The more religious women wear burqas that may or may not cover the face. Combinations of Pakistani and Western attire are worn by women, such as an embroidered kurta worn with jeans or trousers, and half sleeve or sleeveless shirts with Capri pants. Men and women have adopted some of the modern Western styles for both casual and formal business dress such as dress pants, trousers, T-shirts and jeans. Faisalabad Institute of Textile and Fashion Design at the Government College University teaches Fashion Design as part of their Fine Arts program. Some of the more conservative establishments and universities follow strict dress codes, such as the National Textile University in Faisalabad where a notice was issued on 27 April 2016 by university professor Muhammad Ashfaq. The intent of the notice was to "promote a positive image of the NTU and to maintain good moral, religious and cultural values among the faculty, staff and students." The dress code bans certain styles of Western attire including shorts, sleeveless shirts and shawls for men. Women are prohibited from wearing jeans, tights or leggings, sleeveless or half-sleeved shirts for women. Women are also prohibited from wearing heavy make-up and expensive jewellery. Cuisine Faisalabadi cuisine is a mixture Punjabi cuisine as well as Mughlai cuisine and Anglo-Indian cuisine. Famous dishes include rice or roti (flatbread) served with a vegetable or non-vegetable curry, a salad consisting of spiced tomatoes and onions, and yogurt. This is usually accompanied by a variety of South Asian sweets such as gud, gajar ka halwa, gulab jamun, and jalebi. Tandoori barbecue specialties consist of a variety of naan bread served with tandoori chicken, chicken tikka or lamb shishkebab served with a mint chutney. Street foods are a key element to Faisalabadi cuisine. Samosas (deep fried pastry filled with vegetables or meat) topped with an onion salad and two types of chutney. There is even a square dedicated to them in the old city. Other street foods include, dahi bhale (deep fried vadas in creamy yoghurt), gol gappay (fried round puri filled with vegetables and topped with tamarind chutney) and vegetable or chicken pakoras. Biryani and murgh pilao rice are a speciality in Faisalabad. A typical breakfast in Faislabadi is halwa poori, consisting of a deep fried flatbread served with a spicy chickpea curry and sweet orange coloured halwa. It is customarily accompanied by a sweet or salty yoghurt based drink called lassi. During winter, a common breakfast is roghni naan served with paya. Certain drinks are available seasonally, such as, such as rabri doodh, a drink commonly made with full-fat milk, almonds, pistachios and basil seeds, dhood patti (milky tea), and Kashmiri chai, a pink coloured milky tea containing almonds and pistachios, which is had in the winters. During summer, drinks such as sugar cane juice, nimbu pani (iced lemon water), skanjvi (iced orange and black pepper) and lassi are consumed. There are American fast food franchises that cater to the local community, such as McDonald's, Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC), and Pizza Hut. Literacy According to a report by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the 2015 literacy rate for Pakistan ranked 160th which is among the lowest literacy rates in the world. In 1981, Faisalabad was among four districts in Punjab, which included Gujranwala, Jhelum and Gujrat, that were experiencing low literacy rates, due primarily to either a lack of resources or family pressure; the latter of which may also be attributable to illiteracy. In 1998, Faisalabad progressed to a higher literacy rate with the most improvement realised at the primary school level. In 2008, Faisalabad District ranked 51.9% which placed the district ninth in literacy out of the 34 Punjab districts. In 2014, the city held its first literary festival which brought a number of writers to the city to encourage the community to follow the arts. Two literary groups were established, the Faisalabad Union of Column Writers and Faisalabad Union of Journalists, to bring together printed media personalities for the purpose of providing training to budding writers from the city. Notable people Many famous and notable people were either born or lived in Faisalabad, some of them are; Freedom fighters Rai Ahmad Khan Kharal and Bhagat Singh Master Sunder Singh Lyallpuri, Indian independence movement leader, educationist and journalist Grahanandan Singh, field hockey player Shahbaz Ahmed, field hockey player Cricketers Rameez Raja, Aqeel Ahmed, Saeed Ajmal, Naeem Akhtar, Shahid Nazir, Wasim Haider, Mohammad Talha, Misbah-ul-Haq and Asif Ali Snooker player Muhammad Asif Scientist Nitya Anand Iqrar Ahmad Khan, agricultural scientist Famous playback singer Mala Fateh Ali Khan, famous Qawwali singer Famous Qawali singers Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan and Rahat Fateh Ali Khan Famous singer, politician and philanthropist Abrar-ul-Haq Famous singer Karnail Gil Jassi Lailpuria, a Punjabi singer of pop and bhangra music Famous singer Amanat Ali Swarn Noora, Punjabi Sufi singer Lal Chand Yamla Jatt, famous Punjabi folk singer Naqsh Lyallpuri, pen name of Jaswant Rai Sharma, Indian ghazal and Bollywood film lyricist Well-known Punjabi language writer and poet, Hari Singh Dilbar Ifti Nasim, poet Naz Khialvi, lyricist, poet and radio broadcaster Gurcharan Das author, spokesperson, columnist, writer, CEO of Pundit & Intellectual Khalid Maqbool, lieutenant general and politician Arjan Singh marshal and only officer of the Indian Air Force to be promoted to five-star rank, recipient of Padma Bhushan and Padma Shri Arfa Karim, famous computer prodigy Social activist Teji Bachchan The legendary actor Prithviraj Kapoor Zia Mohyeddin, artist, actor Resham, famous film actress Tariq Teddy, television actor and stand-up comedian Nabeel Zafar, television actor and producer Sakhawat Naz, television actor and stand-up comedian Barkat Ali Ludhianwi, a Sufi and founder of the non-political, non-profit, religious organisation, Dar-ul-Ehsan Rufin Anthony, Roman Catholic priest and bishop John Joseph, Roman Catholic priest and bishop Ch.Muhammad Akram Deol Khaksaar, a well known advocate, assistant attorney general Muhammad Boota Deol, Ex District Teacher Educator Demographics The language of Faisalabad is Punjabi predominantly 96%, Urdu and Pashto are spoken by 2% population each. Faisalabad is world's second largest Punjabi speaking city. Faisalabad was established as one of the first planned towns of British India, covering an area of . It was initially designed to accommodate 20,000 people. The city's population increased from 69,930 in 1941 to 179,000 in 1951 (152.2% increase). Much of the increase is attributed to the settlement of Muslim refugees from East Punjab and Haryana, India. In 1961, the population rose to 425,248, an increase of 137.4%. Faisalabad set a record in the demographic history of Pakistan by registering an overall population increase of 508.1% between 1941 and 1961. The industrial revolution of the 1960s contributed to population growth. In 1961, the population was 425,248. A 1972 census ranked Faisalabad as the third largest city of Pakistan with a population of 864,000. In a 1981 census, the population was 1,092,000; however, the Faisalabad Development Authority estimated the number to be 1,232,000. In the 2017 consensus, the total population of the city was 3,203,846 Religion and ethnic groups The province of Punjab, in which Faisalabad is the second largest city, has prevalent sociocultural distinctions. Population sizes vary by district but some distinguishing factors include a young age structure, high age dependency ratio, a higher percentage of males, a higher proportion of married population, and heterogeneity in tribes and languages. Islam is the most common religion, with a 97.22% Muslim majority according to the 1998 Pakistan census report and 2001 population data sheet. People live in tight-knit joint families, although a nuclear family system is emerging due to changing socio-economic conditions. Ancient culture prevails in most marriage practices in the region, as do certain restrictions related to ethnicity and tribes. However, the influences of more modern societies have effected some change, particularly in the area of the dowry system. In the following ancient culture, marriages are customarily arranged by the parents or matchmakers. In some instances, the husband must buy his wife from her parents. Studies conducted in 2007 and 2013, the latter in an outlying rural village in Faisalabad District, acknowledged the existence of gender bias and discrimination against females, stating that "Gender discrimination is not a new phenomenon", and that it still exists in the modern world. Social change in the region has been a slow process but there are indications that change has occurred as more villages are exposed to various forms of media and modernized urban communities. In early 2014, there was a march known as the "White Ribbon Campaign" which took place in front of the Faisalabad Press Club. Protestors appealed to the government to adopt new laws "to protect women who are discriminated against in the family and workplace." Prevalent minorities, particularly Hindu and Christian, feel a sense of vulnerability because of their religious beliefs. Labourers and farmhands form the countless Christian villages throughout Punjab; many are descendants of people who converted from Hinduism to Christianity under the British Raj, and considered low caste by virtue of their birth. A small population of wealthy, well-educated Christians have settled in Karachi; however, as a result of increasing Islamization, religious intolerance in Pakistani society, blasphemy laws and Islamist militancy, most have left Pakistan to settle in other countries where there is more religious tolerance, such as Canada and Australia. Economy As of 2015 GDP of Faisalabad was estimated at $63 billion and projected to rise to $107 billion in 2025 at a growth rate of 5.7%. Faisalabad contributes over 35% toward Pakistan's annual GDP and export revenue. The textile and apparel industry is the major industry in Faisalabad. It is also responsible for almost 60-80% of the export revenue of Pakistan. The Faisalabad Chamber of Commerce and Industry (FCCI) and Pakistan Hosiery Manufacturers Association (PHMA) are the regulatory bodies for all textile and apparel manufacturers in the city. These organizations work closely with the Ministry of Trade. Faisalabad is as an industrial center with industries like processing mills, engineering, industrial goods, textile manufacturing including cotton and silk textiles, super phosphates, apparel and hosiery, industrial chemicals and dyes, pulp and paper, agricultural research and equipment, oil and ghee (clarified butter), and concentrated beverages. It has also been a hub for real estate, particularly gated neighbourhoods such as Abdullah Gardens, owned by Akbar Pervaiz and not Sheikh Ayub. Ghanta Ghar The Faisalabad clock tower and its eight bazaars (markets) is a major trading zone in the city. The eight markets were designed based on the English flag, Union Jack. Every one of the eight bazaars is known for certain goods. Katchery Bazar is known for its mobile phones and accessories market. It is named for the session courts located adjacent to the street Rail Bazar is famous for its gold and cloth market. Kharkhana Bazaar is known for its spices and herbs. Montgomery Bazaar (also known as Sutar Mandi) is known for yarn and raw cloth trading. Jhang Bazaar is known for its fish, meat, vegetables and fruits. Bhawana Bazaar has all the commercial and industrial electrical goods. Aminpur Bazaar has some of the oldest books, stationery and interior décor boutiques. Chiniot Bazaar is known for allopathic and homoeopathic medicinal stores. Industrial zones Faisalabad Industrial Estate Development & Management Company (FIEDMC) was established by Federal Government to boost manufacturing in Faisalabad. Its objectives are to promote business and develop new clientele for the city's factories. It further supports businesses to find suitable land, infrastructure, provision of utilities and dedicated business support services. Value Addition City (VAC) commonly known as Garment city is located at Sahianwala Road, near Khurrianwala. It is home to many garments and apparel factories. M-3 Industrial City (M-3-IC) comprises 4356 acres of land and Allama Iqbal City (AllC) comprises more than 3300 acres. They house large scale manufacturing companies including textiles, yarn mills, pharmaceuticals, chemicals automotive, and spare parts, etc. Small Industrial Estate (SME) located at Punj Pullian Road houses small to medium-sized industries. It was provided by former Prime Minister, Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif to provide international grade services to small and medium-sized companies at promotional packages. Faisalabad has received substantial funding from the government of Punjab and the city district government to improve infrastructure and roads to rural areas. In an effort to deal with the energy crisis, the FCCI has been working with private companies to develop renewable energy resources such as solar energy and the construction of dams within the district. CAE, a German-based renewable energy company, has disclosed plans to establish the first solar panel manufacturing facility in Faisalabad, second of its kind in Asia, with intentions of investing upwards of €100 million (Rs 12.9 billion) for its development. 2020 Covid-19 Pandemic Pakistan entered a complete lockdown on the 20th of March 2020. All national and international travel was suspended. The industry in Faisalabad was hit hard. The federal government ordered complete closure of all industrial units. Some industrial units are screening their workers for the coronavirus and making sure they follow the SOPs issued by the government as well. Punjab has reported more than 11,000 coronavirus cases so far. 2022 Floods Impact Pakistan saw a record flooding in the western and southern part of the country during the monsoon season in 2022. This resulted in a massive food shortage and provision of industrial raw materials such as cotton. Faisalabad's textile industry took a massive hit in the costs and availability of cotton. Education Faisalabad has several research and educational institutions. Faisalabad is considered a regional hub for of research and higher education, specializing in agriculture, medical sciences, chemical sciences, textile universities and economics. There are many public funded institutions that offer scholarships and financing options to lower and middle income households. Many private schools, colleges and universities offer huge range of courses at various levels of education. Education system The education system is administered by the chief executive officer (CEO) of the District Education Authority of Faisalabad. The city district Government is responsible for funding, finances, management and resource allocation for public run institutions. It falls under the Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training and the Minister for Education. High ranking institutions Public funded Faisalabad Medical University (formerly: Punjab Medical College Faisalabad) Divisional Public School Faisalabad Divisional Model School & College, Faisalabad University of Agriculture Government College University Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology Government College for Women University Faisalabad (GCWUF) University of Engineering & Technology of Lahore Private funded National Textile University National University of Modern Languages (NUML) NFC Institute of Engineering and Fertilizer Research (NFC-IEFR) University of Faisalabad The Millennium Universal College Faisalabad Campus (TMUC Faisalabad) Beaconhouse School System The City School Roots Ivy School Allied School Punjab Group of Colleges SKANS School of Accountancy Government and Administration Civic Administration Faisalabad was restructured into city district status; a devolution promulgated by the 2001 local government ordinance (LGO). It is governed by the city district's seven departments: Agriculture, Community Development, Education, Finance and Planning, Health, Municipal Services, and Works and Services. The district coordination officer of Faisalabad (DCO) is head of the city district government and responsible for co-ordinating and supervising the administrative units. Each of the seven departments has its own Executive District Officer who is charged with co-ordinating and overseeing the activities of their respective departments. The aim of the city district government is to empower politics by improving governance which basically involved decentralising administrative authority with the establishment of different departments and respective department heads, all working under one platform. The stated vision and mission of the city district government of Faisalabad is to "establish an efficient, effective and accountable city district government, which is committed to respecting and upholding women, men and children's basic human rights, responsive towards people's needs, committed to poverty reduction and capable of meeting the challenges of the 21st century. Our actions will be driven by the concerns of local people." Tehsil Municipal Administration In 2005, Faisalabad was reorganised as a city district composed of eight Tehsil municipal administrations (TMAs) or towns as follows: Lyallpur, Madina, Jinnah, Iqbal, Chak Jhumra, Jaranwala, Samundari, and Tandlianwala. The functions of the TMA include preparation of the spatial and land use plans, management of these development plans and exercise of control over land use, land sub-division, land development and zoning by public and private sectors, enforcement of municipal laws, rules and by-laws, provision and management of water, drainage waste and sanitation along with allied municipal services. There are 118 union councils in Faisalabad. Their role is to collect and maintain statistical information for socio-economic surveys. They consolidate ward neighbourhood development needs and prioritise these into union-wide development proposals. The council identifies any deficiencies in the delivery of these services and makes recommendations for improvement to the TMA. Faisalabad Development Authority The Faisalabad Development Authority (FDA) was validly established in October 1976 under The Punjab Development of Cities Act (1976) to regulate, supervise and implement development activities in its jurisdiction area. The FDA acts as a policy-making body for the development of the city and is in charge of arranging and supervising major developments within the city. It is responsible for the administration of building regulations, management of parks and gardens and subsoil water management. The FDA works with the Water and Sanitation Agency (WASA) to control and maintain the water supply, sewerage and drainage. The FDA works to improve conditions in the slums. Public Services Law enforcement Punjab Police Law enforcement in Faisalabad is carried out by provincial police force officially called Punjab Police. Within the city of Faisalabad, it is under the command of the city police officer (CPO), an appointment by the provincial government appointments for Punjab Police. The office of the CPO is located in the District Courts, Faisalabad. Faisalabad Region is headed by an officer not less than the rank of Deputy Inspector-General of Police (DIG). Faisalabad Police is headed by a District Police Officer who is assisted by a varying number of Superintendents and Deputy Superintendents of Police. City Traffic Police Faisalabad City Traffic Police is a branch of Punjab Police which is a public funded entity of the provincial government of Punjab. The department is responsible for maintaining the following within the district of Faisalabad: Conduct traffic safety and compliance Traffic signs Road signs and closures Road marking and planning Traffic signals and maintaining uninterrupted flow of traffic Traffic violation ticketing and penalty collection Issuance of driving license Conducting driving tests and provisional licensing District and Session Courts Faisalabad District and Sessions Court in Faisalabad is an extension of the provincial bench of High Court in Lahore. The offices are located at District Courts Faisalabad.. Directions can also be found at Google Maps for Sessions Courts Faisalabad and District Courts Faisalabad. Special Offices Police formations including District Police, Elite Police, Punjab highway Patrol, Crime Investigation Branch, and Special Operations Branch have offices in the city. Taxation Regional Tax Office is a field formation of the Federal Board of Revenue (FBR). It is situated at Regional Tax Office, Jail Road, Faisalabad and can be found at Google Maps Regional Tax Office. This office is responsible for monitoring and collection of federal taxes imposed by the Government of Pakistan. This office has jurisdiction to send notices, research and execute legal notices for entities operating within the district of Faisalabad. This office actively runs mass media campaigns to create awareness regarding taxation, legal rights of citizens and to facilitate voluntary tax compliances. This office can provide information regarding Income Tax, Sales Tax (VAT), Corporation Tax and Zero-Tax rated services. The website managed and operated by the FBR, is a reliable and up-to-date source of information for all tax related matters. FBR does issue regular notices to ensure correct information is published and to disregard false information circulating in the market places by unverified sources. Excise, Taxation and Narcotics Control Department is another department managed by the provincial Govt. of Punjab. This department is responsible for the following: Collection of property tax Issuance of property notices, and property taxes Motor vehicle registration Online verification of registered vehicles Online self assessment of property tax Motor vehicle clearance Control of regulated substances and prosecutions The department can be accessed by its website ETNC. The office can be accessed by the Google Maps ETNC. Water and Sanitation The Water and Sanitation Agency (WASA) is a subsidiary of Faisalabad Development Authority (FDA), established on 23 April 1978 under the Development of Cities Act 1976. Estimates in indicate that the WASA provides about 72% of the city's sewerage services and about 60% of their water services. The existing production capacity of the WASA is , almost all of which is drawn from wells located in the old beds of the Chenab River. From the wells, water is pumped to a terminal reservoir located on Sargodha Road. Water is normally supplied for a total of about 8 hours per day to the majority of the city. The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) has provided financial and hardware equipment to help improve the water and sanitation conditions in the city. Healthcare Government Hospitals Faisalabad is home to some large public hospitals within the district. Allied Hospital Faisalabad is the largest public funded and managed hospital within the city of Faisalabad as well as the district. It offers many advanced treatments and specialist care facilities. Other notable government–run hospitals are DHQ (District Headquarter) Hospital, Institute of Child Care, PINUM Cancer Hospital, Govt. Children Hospital, Punjab Social Security Hospital, Social Security Newborn and Children Hospital, Punjab Employees Maternity Ward, and Faisalabad Institute of Cardiology. There are other government funded and managed general hospitals in Ghulam Muhammadabad, Samanabad and Peoples Colony No. 2. Media Television and radio The Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority (PEMRA) is responsible for the regulation and monitoring of electronic media entertainment in the country. Pakistan Television Corporation, is the state-owned regulated television broadcasting network. The government began licensing private broadcasters in 2002. The government of Pakistan installed the first radio transmitters in the city on 15 September 1982. "Radio Pakistan" broadcasts three government regulated FM stations: "Radio Pakistan FM101, Radio Pakistan FM93 and Radio Pakistan Sautul Qur'an Channel FM93.4. FM101 became operational in 2002, FM93 went live in 2010 and FM93.4 Sautul Qur'an Channel went live in 2016; PBC all three stations are standard power KW 2.5. Telecommunications Pakistan Telecommunication Authority is a government-owned organisation that is responsible for the establishment, operation and maintenance of telecommunications in the city. The organisation monitors and prevents illegal exchanges in the city. Pakistan Telecommunication Company Limited is the main provider of fixed line, mobile and broadband services. Regional headquarters is located at the Central Telecom House in Chinot Bazaar. With the deregulation of the telecommunication sector by the Ministry of Information Technology, a range of companies now offer mobile and broadband services in the city. Film and theatre In 2008, the Government of Pakistan lifted a forty-year ban on Bollywood films which allowed Indian films to be played in cinemas. The cinema industry has since seen the introduction of new cinemas such as Cinepax by Hotel One, and Cine Nagina. The Government College University in Faisalabad encourages students from the University of Agriculture to hold workshops and explore themes of peace and tolerance which can be used in an engaging and entertaining way to communicate complex issues to different audiences. Recreation Social clubs The Chenab Club, founded in 1910 is the oldest social club in Faisalabad. It was founded by the British armed forces serving in the area, during the British rule. Today it is a prestigious club offering sports, recreation, dining and cultural activities. Public parks The Parks and Horticulture Authority (PHA) is responsible for running and managing all public parks within the district of Faisalabad. Jinnah Gardens is the oldest and most established public park in the city. It serves as the city's central park, and a cultural hub. It is commonly known as "Company Bagh". A monument of Sir James Broadwood Lyall is situated at the eastern corner of the park. Dhobi Ghat Park is a historic park, in the oldest part of the city. It is located on Kotwali Road, just next to the Government College University, Faisalabad. The park has a long history of rallies and protests. The park was chosen as a venue of choice by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Liaqat Ali Khan, Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, Benazir Bhutto, Nawaz Sharif, Shebaz Sharif, Maryam Nawaz and Imran Khan. Gatwala Park is located in the outskirts of the city, on the north-eastern side. It serves as a family park with amusements such as a zoo and a lake. The Gatwala Wildlife Park is a botanical natural reserve located next to the Gatwala Park. It that was renovated by the city district government. Pahari Grounds is located in Peoples Colony #2. It is a residential area popular locations such as Babar Chowk, Fawara Chowk and the old gates. A Pakistan Air Force retired F-86 Sabre is on display on a hilltop within this park. It is a local attraction. D-Ground Park is located in the Peoples Colony #1 area, within the D-Ground shopping area. Several models of Pakistani monuments are on display in this park, all year round. Sports Cricket is a popular sport in Faisalabad. Regional and international cricket matches are held in Iqbal Stadium, named after Pakistani poet Sir Allama Muhammad Iqbal. The stadium is home to Faisalabad's local team, the Faisalabad Wolves. Iqbal Stadium hosted the 1987 Cricket World Cup, and the 1996 Cricket World Cup. The Faisalabad Hockey Stadium, located on Susan Road, was constructed in 2002, and can accommodate 25,000 spectators. On 16 April 2003, the stadium was inaugurated by Khalid Maqbool, governor of Punjab. It is the third-largest field hockey stadium in the country. The stadium has hosted field hockey matches for both national and international competition but by the beginning of 2016 was reported to be in "pathetic condition as its astroturf has completed its life span about eight years ago." Commissioner Naseem Nawaz advised that efforts were under way to maintain the stadium. In October 2002, the Government College University established a Directorate of Sports to promote university and national level sports for male and female players. Infrastructure and facilities are available for university players in track, hockey, tennis, basketball, table tennis, badminton and cricket pitch. Public libraries and museums There are two libraries that are open to the public: Allama Iqbal Library and Municipal Corporation Public Library. They are funded and regulated by the government of Punjab under the service sector. Allama Iqbal Library is located on University Road, opposite the District Courts. The library is housed in the 1911-built colonial building originally named "Coronation Library" during the rule of the British Empire. In 2012, the building came under control of the Lyallpur Heritage Foundation and the Punjab Archives and Libraries Department. Lyallpur Museum is located adjacent to the Allama Iqbal Library on University Road. It is a heritage museum and art gallery open to the public. The museum is primarily focused on regional history with a collection of artwork, artefacts and photographs. Municipal Library is located in Iqbal Park on Narwala Road, opposite the historical grounds of Dhobi Ghat. The library has a large collection of books, a photo gallery and a conference centre. In 2011, the library underwent a renovation costing 40 million rupees. The Forest Library at the Punjab Forestry Research Institute (PFRI) is one of two specialist libraries, the other being in Lahore. Opened in 1986, the research library is based at the Wildlife Research Center in Gatwala. Sister cities Faisalabad is a globally recognized city due to its textiles export trade. Its sister cities are: Qingdao, China Wuhan, China Tabriz, Iran Kanpur, India Kobe, Japan Cordoba, Spain Sharjah, United Arab Emirates Manchester, United Kingdom Los Angeles, United States of America Transport Aviation Faisalabad International Airport is approximately from the city center. It is located at Faisalabad-Jhang Road. The airport underwent major renovations during between 2014 and 2017. The main termainal building was completed renovated. Major extensions were carried out as part of a major development initiative by the former Prime Minister of Pakistan, Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif. It is a regional airport that serves domestic and international travel. The airport offers cargo, freight, passenger travel, private terminal, flying school, and military base to Pakistan Air Force. The airlines with operations at Faisalabad International Airport include Pakistan International Airlines, FlyDubai, Qatar Airways, Air Arabia, Gulf Air and Serene Air. Road network Faisalabad has a highly developed road network. There are many access ways in and out of the city. It is well connected through motorways, dual-carriageways and highways. Rail The Faisalabad railway station is the central railway station in the city. The railway line forms part of the Khanewal–Wazirabad railway line. Rail services are operated by Pakistan Railways, owned and operated by the Ministry of Railways. Cargo Express services are operated by Pakistan Railways which runs from Karachi to Faisalabad via Multan. Twenty-seven bogies compose the goods train, and are handled respectively by private contractors at the station. The station has a special cargo facility operated by the Ministry of Railways (Pakistan) for handling various goods from the city to other regions of the country. An express parcel service runs from Karachi to Lahore via Faisalabad. See also List of people from Faisalabad Faisalabad District Faisalabad Electric Supply Company References External links Faisalabad City District Punjab Government website Faisalabad Postal Codes (Complete List) Cities and towns in Faisalabad District Metropolitan areas of Pakistan Planned communities in Pakistan Populated places in Punjab, Pakistan Cities in Punjab (Pakistan) Populated places established in 1892
401897	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy%20Star	Energy Star	Energy Star (trademarked ENERGY STAR) is a program run by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) that promotes energy efficiency. The program provides information on the energy consumption of products and devices using different standardized methods. The Energy Star label is found on more than 75 different certified product categories, homes, commercial buildings, and industrial plants. In the United States, the Energy Star label is also shown on the Energy Guide appliance label of qualifying products. Elements of the Energy Star Program are being implemented in Japan, Taiwan, and Switzerland, as well as by Energy Star Canada. In 2018, a 15-year long agreement with the European Union expired. A previous agreement with the European Free Trade Association has expired. History The Energy Star program was established by the Environmental Protection Agency in 1992 and operates under the authority of the Clean Air Act, section 103(g), and the 2005 Energy Policy Act, section 131 (which amended the Energy Policy and Conservation Act, section 324). Since 1992, Energy Star and its partners are estimated to have reduced various energy bills by at least $430 billion. The EPA manages Energy Star products, as well as home and commercial/industrial programs. The EPA develops and manages Energy Star Portfolio Manager, an online energy tracking and benchmarking tool for commercial buildings. The DOE manages Home Performance with Energy Star and provides technical support, including test procedure development for products and some verification testing of products. Initiated as a voluntary labeling program designed to identify and promote energy efficient products, Energy Star began with labels for computer and printer products. In 1995 the program was significantly expanded, introducing labels for residential heating and cooling systems and new homes. In 2000, the Consortium for Energy Efficiency was directed by members to begin an annual survey of Energy Star impact. According to the U.S. Energy and Employment Report for 2016, 290,000 American workers are involved in the manufacture of Energy Star certified products and building materials. The report also projects that employment in energy efficiency will grow much faster than other areas of the energy sector—9 percent in 2017 vs. average projected growth of 5 percent across all of the energy sector—and that Energy Star will be an integral part of that market. Specifications Energy Star specifications differ with each item, and are set by the EPA. Computers Energy Star 4.0 specifications for computers became effective on July 20, 2007. The requirements are more stringent than the previous specification and existing equipment designs can no longer use the service mark unless re-qualified. They require the use of 80 Plus Bronze level or higher power supplies. Energy Star 5.0 became effective on July 1, 2009. Energy Star 6.1 became effective on September 10, 2014. Energy Star 7.1 became effective on November 16, 2018. The Version 8.0 specification for computers was finalized on October 15, 2019 and became effective on October 15, 2020. Servers The EPA released Version 1.0 of the Computer Server specifications on May 15, 2009. It covered standalone servers with one to four processor sockets. A second tier to the specification adding active state power and performance reporting for all qualified servers, as well as blade and multi-node server idle state requirements became effective December 16, 2013. The Version 2.0 Energy Star specification for Computer Servers came into effect on December 16, 2013. The Version 3.0 Energy Star specification for Enterprise Servers came into effect on June 17, 2019 . Appliances As of early 2008, average refrigerators need 20% savings over the minimum standard. Dishwashers need at least 41% savings. Most appliances as well as heating and cooling systems have a yellow EnergyGuide label showing the annual cost of operation compared to other models. This label is created through the Federal Trade Commission and often shows if an appliance is Energy Star rated. While an Energy Star label indicates that the appliance is more energy efficient than the minimum guidelines, purchasing an Energy Star labeled product does not always mean one is getting the most energy efficient option available. For example, dehumidifiers that are rated under per day of water extraction receive an Energy Star rating if they have an energy factor of 1.2 (higher is better), while those rated to per day receive an Energy Star rating for an energy factor of 1.4 or higher. Thus a higher-capacity but non-Energy Star rated dehumidifier may be a more energy efficient alternative than an Energy Star rated but lower-capacity model. The Energy Star program's savings calculator has also been criticized for unrealistic assumptions in its model that tend to magnify savings benefits to the average consumer. Another factor yet to be considered by the EPA and DOE is the overall effect of energy-saving requirements on the durability and expected service life of a mass-market appliance built to a consumer-level cost standard. For example, a refrigerator may be made more efficient by the use of more insulative spacing and a smaller-capacity compressor using electronics to control operation and temperature. However, this may come at the cost of reduced interior storage (or increased exterior mass) or a reduced service life due to compressor or electronic failures. In particular, electronic controls used on new-generation appliances are subject to damage from shock, vibration, moisture, or power spikes on the electrical circuit to which they are attached. Critics have pointed out that even if a new appliance is energy efficient, any consumer appliance that does not provide customer satisfaction, or must be replaced twice as often as its predecessor contributes to landfill pollution and waste of natural resources used to construct its replacement. Heating and cooling systems Energy Star qualified heat pumps, boilers, air conditioning systems, and furnaces are available. In addition, cooling and heating bills can be significantly lowered with air sealing and duct sealing. Air sealing reduces the outdoor air that penetrates a building, and duct sealing prevents attic or basement air from entering ducts and lessening the heating/cooling system’s efficiency. Energy Star qualified room air conditioners are at least 10% more energy efficient than the minimum U.S. federal government standards. Home electronics Energy Star qualified televisions use 30% less energy than average. In November 2008, television specifications were improved to limit on-mode power use, in addition to standby power which is limited by the current specifications. Standby power consumption for televisions must be 3 watts or less. A wider range of Energy Star qualified televisions will be available. Other qualified home electronics include cordless phones, battery chargers, VCRs and external power adapters, most of which use 90% less energy. Imaging equipment The Energy Star Program Requirements for Imaging Products are focused on product families such as electrophotographic (EP) printers, inkjet printers (e.g., thermal), copiers, facsimile machines and other imaging equipment including MFD's (multifunctional devices). Typical Electrical Consumption (TEC) of a product family are measured and reported against an allowance set by the maximum throughput of the device. Operation modes (OM) are measured and reported for devices such as inkjet products against an allowance set by the functions present in the EUT (equipment under test). Devices that included "adders" such as Ethernet, on-board memory, wireless, etc. are mathematically "added" to increase the OM allowance. Recently on February 1, 2011, the EPA/DOE added the requirement that all products registered under the Energy Star service mark, must be tested by an AB (Accredited Body) or CB (Certification Body) Laboratory. Lighting The Energy Star is awarded to only certain bulbs that meet strict efficiency, quality, and lifetime criteria. Energy Star qualified fluorescent lighting uses 75% less energy and lasts up to ten times longer than normal incandescent lights. Energy Star Qualified light-emitting diode (LED) Lighting: Reduces energy costs — uses only 20–25% of the electricity that incandescent bulbs use, and last as much as 25 times as long. LEDs use 25%-30% of the amount of energy as halogen incandescent bulbs, and last 8–25 times as long. Reduces cooling costs — LEDs produce very little heat. To qualify for Energy Star certification, LED lighting products must pass a variety of tests to prove that the products will display the following characteristics: Brightness is equal to or greater than existing lighting technologies (incandescent or fluorescent) and light is well distributed over the area lighted by the fixture. Light output remains constant over time, only decreasing towards the end of the rated lifetime (at least 35,000 hours or 12 years based on use of 8 hours per day). Excellent color quality. The shade of white light appears clear and consistent over time. Efficiency is as good as or better than fluorescent lighting. Light comes on instantly when turned on. No flicker when dimmed. No off-state power draw. The fixture does not use power when it is turned off, with the exception of external controls, whose power should not exceed 0.5 watts in the off state. New Homes New homes or apartments that earn the Energy Star label have been verified to meet energy efficiency requirements set by U.S. EPA. Energy Star certified homes are at least 10% more efficient than homes built to code and achieve a 20% improvement on average, while providing homeowners with better quality, performance, and comfort. Nearly 1.9 million Energy Star certified homes and apartments have been certified to date. These high-performing homes can be found across the U.S. and include a complete thermal enclosure system, a high-efficiency heating, ventilation and cooling system, a comprehensive water management system, and energy-efficient lighting and appliances. Together, U.S. homeowners living in certified homes saved $360 million on their energy bills in 2016 alone. In 2020, ENERGY STAR separated single-family and multifamily construction types into their own programs: Single-Family New Construction (SFNC) and Multifamily New Construction (MFNC). A new tier of ENERGY STAR certification, called the ENERGY STAR NextGen Certified Homes and Apartments, will be launched in 2023. This new certification uses a baseline of the ENERGY STAR Single-Family and Multifamily certification, with additional requirements such as heat pump water heaters and EV-ready charging capabilities. Energy performance ratings The Energy Star program has developed energy performance rating systems for several commercial and institutional building types and manufacturing facilities. These ratings, on a scale of 1 to 100, provide a means for benchmarking the energy efficiency of specific buildings and industrial plants against the energy performance of similar facilities. The ratings are used by building and energy managers to evaluate the energy performance of existing buildings and industrial plants. The rating systems are also used by EPA to determine if a building or plant can qualify to earn Energy Star recognition. For many types of commercial buildings, one can enter energy information into EPA's free online tool, Portfolio Manager, and it will calculate a score for one's building on a scale of 1–100. Buildings that score a 75 or greater may qualify for the Energy Star. Portfolio Manager is an interactive energy management tool that allows one to track and assess energy and water consumption across one's entire portfolio of buildings in a secure online environment. Whether one owns, manages, or holds properties for investment, Portfolio Manager can help one set investment priorities, identify under-performing buildings, verify efficiency improvements, and receive EPA recognition for superior energy performance. Portfolio Manager uses an automated benchmarking tool that can award Energy Star certification to buildings that have uploaded 12 months of consecutive energy usage data and received scores of 75 or above. In 2020 energystar.gov released an updated guide for verifying Energy Star certifications. Energy Star ratings have been compared to other clean energy rating systems and green building certification systems such as those by independent firms like MiQ, or LEED certifications for office buildings. Buildings The number of space types that can receive the energy performance rating in Portfolio Manager is expanding and now includes housing, bank/financial institutions, courthouses, hospitals (acute care and children's), hotels and motels, houses of worship, K-12 schools, medical offices, offices, residence halls/dormitories, retail stores, supermarkets, warehouses (refrigerated and non-refrigerated), data centers, senior care facilities, and wastewater facilities. See the technical descriptions for models used in the rating system at. These documents provide detailed information on the methodologies used to create the energy performance ratings including details on rating objectives, regression techniques, and the steps applied to compute a rating. A 1–100 rating can be generated for ratable space types by entering building attributes, such as square footage and weekly operating hours, and monthly energy consumption data into Portfolio Manager, a free online tool provided by Energy Star. This process is known as benchmarking and reveals how a building's energy consumption compares to that of other similar buildings of the same space type, based on a national average. Earning a rating of 75 or above is the first step towards achieving the Energy Star for a building. Energy Star energy performance ratings have been incorporated into some green buildings standards, such as LEED for Existing Buildings. In the U.S., builders of energy efficient homes are able to qualify for Federal Income tax credits and deductions. Energystar.gov estimated that energy use in commercial buildings accounts for 20% of greenhouse gas emissions, costing more than $100B per year. Industrial facilities Energy performance ratings have been released for the following industrial facilities: Automobile assembly plants Cement plants Wet corn mills Container glass manufacturing Flat glass manufacturing Frozen fried potato processing plants Juice processing Petroleum refineries Pharmaceutical manufacturing plants Small business award The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) annually recognizes small businesses that demonstrate abilities to reduce waste, conserve energy, and recycle. The businesses use resources and ideas outlined in the Energy Star program. The award was established in 1999. Controversies In March 2010, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) performed covert testing of the Energy Star product certification process and found that Energy Star was for the most part a self-certification program that was vulnerable to fraud and abuse. While the GAO demonstrated, by submitting fake products from made-up companies, that cheating was possible, they found no evidence of consumer fraud relating to the quality or performance of Energy Star qualified products. In response, the Environmental Protection Agency instituted third-party certification of all Energy Star products starting in 2011. Under this regime, products are tested in an EPA-recognized laboratory and reviewed by an EPA-recognized certification body before they can carry the label. In order to be recognized, labs and certification bodies must meet specified criteria and be subject to oversight by a recognized accreditation body. In addition, a percentage of Energy Star certified product models in each category are subject to off-the-shelf verification testing each year. As of 2017, there are 23 independent certification bodies and 255 independent laboratories recognized for purposes of Energy Star product certification and testing. Most cover multiple product types. In 2016, 1,881 product models were subject to verification testing with an overall compliance rate of 95%. In March 2017 the Trump Administration proposed a budget that would eliminate the program. This prompted an outpouring of expressions of support for the Energy Star program from environmental groups, energy efficiency advocates, and businesses. Adoption in building codes The current and projected status of energy codes and standards adoption is show in the maps at the link. The following cities have mandatory reporting requirements. Atlanta, GA Austin, TX Boston, MA Minneapolis, MN New York, NY Philadelphia, PA San Francisco, CA Seattle, WA Washington, DC See also ASUE (Germany) Bureau of Energy Efficiency (India) Energy performance certificate EnerWorks European Union energy label Green computing Green energy Nationwide House Energy Rating Scheme (Australia) Miscellaneous electric load One Watt Initiative Plug load Power management Weatherization References External links Energy Star Energy Star Australia Energy Star Canada Energy Consumption Calculator Energy Star entry at Ecolabelling.org Energy Efficiency Breakdown of the costs, savings, and energy efficiency of Energy Star appliances Energy Star qualified Energy Service & Product Providers list EPA recognized Certification Bodies (CBs) and Laboratories Energy Star 5.0 Computer specification (November 14, 2008) 10 CFR 430, Subpart B, Appendix A to Subpart B of Part 430 – Uniform Test Method for Measuring the Energy Consumption of Electric Refrigerators and Electric Refrigerator–Freezers Product certification Energy conservation in the United States Environmental certification marks Symbols introduced in 1992 1992 establishments in the United States
401902	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erhu	Erhu	The erhu (; ) is a Chinese two-stringed bowed musical instrument, more specifically a spike fiddle, which may also be called a Southern Fiddle, and is sometimes known in the Western world as the Chinese violin or a Chinese two-stringed fiddle. It is used as a solo instrument as well as in small ensembles and large orchestras. It is the most popular of the huqin family of traditional bowed string instruments used by various ethnic groups of China. As a very versatile instrument, the erhu is used in both traditional and contemporary music arrangements, such as pop, rock and jazz. History The erhu can be traced back to proto-Mongolic instruments which first appeared in China during the Tang dynasty. It is believed to have evolved from the Xiqin (奚琴). The xiqin is believed to have originated from the Xi people located in current northeast China. The first Chinese character of the name of the instrument (二, èr, two) is believed to come from the fact that it has two strings. An alternate explanation states that it comes from the fact that it is the second highest huqin in pitch to the gaohu in the modern Chinese orchestra. The second character (胡, hú) indicates that it is a member of the Huqin family, with Hu commonly meaning barbarians. The name Huqin literally means "instrument of the Hu peoples", suggesting that the instrument may have originated from regions to the north or west of China generally inhabited by nomadic people on the extremities of past Chinese kingdoms. For most of history, the erhu was mostly a folk instrument used in southern China, whereas the sihu was preferred among northern musicians. However, in the 1920s, Liu Tianhua introduced the erhu to Beijing, and since, it has become the most popular of the huqin. Historical erhu and bowed string bows Historic bowed zithers of China, including the Xiqin, Yazheng, and Wenzhenqin, and also the Korean Ajaeng, were originally played by bowing with a rosined stick, which created friction against the strings. As soon as the horsehair bow was invented, it spread very widely. Construction The erhu consists of a long vertical stick-like neck, at the top of which are two big tuning pegs, and at the bottom is a small resonator body (sound box) which is covered with python skin on the front (playing) end. Two strings are attached from the pegs to the base, and a small loop of string (千斤, Qiān jīn) placed around the neck and strings acting as a nut pulls the strings towards the skin, holding a minute wooden bridge in place. The erhu has some unusual features: Its characteristic sound is produced through the vibration of the python skin by bowing. There is no fingerboard; the player stops the strings by pressing their fingertips onto the strings without the strings touching the neck. The horse hair bow is never separated from the strings (which were formerly of twisted silk but which today are usually made of metal); it passes between them as opposed to over them (the latter being the case with western bowed stringed instruments). Although there are two strings, they are very close to each other and the player's left hand in effect plays as if on one string. The inside string (nearest to player) is generally tuned to D4 and the outside string to A4, a fifth higher. The maximum range of the instrument is three and a half octaves, from D4 up to A7, before a stopping finger reaches the part of the string in contact with the bow hair. The usual playing range is about two and a half octaves. Various dense and heavy hardwoods are used in making the erhu. According to Chinese references the woods include zi tan (紫檀 red sandalwood and other woods of the genus Pterocarpus such as padauk), Lao hong mu (老红木 aged red wood), wu mu (乌木 black wood), and hong mu (红木 red wood). Particularly fine erhus are often made from pieces of old furniture. A typical erhu measures 81 cm from top to bottom, the length of the bow also being 81 cm. The parts of the erhu: Qín tǒng (琴筒), sound box or resonator body; it is hexagonal (liù jiǎo, southern), octagonal (Bā jiǎo, northern), or, less commonly, round. Qín pí/Shé pí (琴皮/蛇皮), skin, made from python. The python skin gives the erhu its characteristic sound. Qín gān (琴杆), neck. Qín tóu (琴頭), top or tip of neck, usually a simple curve with a piece of bone or plastic on top, but is sometimes elaborately carved with a dragon's head. Qín zhóu (琴軸). tuning pegs, traditional wooden, or metal machine gear pegs Qiān jīn (千斤), nut, made from string, or, less commonly, a metal hook Nèi xián (内弦), inside or inner string, usually tuned to D4, nearest to player Wài xián (外弦), outside or outer string, usually tuned to A4 Qín mǎ (琴碼), bridge, made from wood Gōng (弓), bow, has screw device to vary bow hair tension Gōng gān (弓杆), bow stick, made from bamboo Gōng máo (弓毛), bow hair, usually white horsehair Qín diàn (琴墊), pad, a piece of sponge, felt, or cloth placed between the strings and skin below the bridge to improve its sound Qín tuō (琴托), base, a piece of wood attached to the bottom of the qín tong to provide a smooth surface on which to rest on the leg Most erhu are mass-produced in factories. The three most esteemed centres of erhu making are Beijing, Shanghai, and Suzhou. In the collectivist period after the establishment of the People's Republic of China, these factories were formed by merging what had been previously private workshops. Although most erhu were machine-made in production lines, the highest quality instruments were handmade by specialist craftsmen. In the 20th century, there have been attempts to standardize and improve the erhu, with the aim of producing a louder and better sounding instrument. One major change was the use of steel strings instead of silk. The move to steel strings was made gradually. By 1950 the thinner A-string had been replaced by a violin E-string with the thicker D-string remaining silk. By 1958 professional players were using purpose made D and A steel erhu strings as standard. Use of python skin In 1988 China passed its Law on the Protection of Endangered Species after ratifying the UN Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), making it illegal to use and trade unlicensed pythons. To regulate the use of python skins, China's State Forestry Administration introduced a certification scheme between python skin sellers in Southeast Asia and musical instrument makers in China. From January 1, 2005, new regulations also require erhus to have a certificate from the State Forestry Administration, which certify that the erhu python skin is not made with wild pythons, but from farm-raised pythons. Individuals are allowed to take up to two erhus out of China when traveling; commercial buyers need additional export certificates. Outside China, manufacturers of erhu can issue their own CITES licenses with approval by governments of their respective countries. Such exports are legal as they have been made from legal skin sources. Some erhus are made of recycled products. The Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra began their research for an alternative to python skin in 2005 and has since designed the Eco-Huqin series, which substitutes python skin with PET Polyester Membrane. For this innovation the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra received the Ministry of Culture Innovation Award in 2012. Erhu music A notable composer for the erhu was Liu Tianhua (刘天华/劉天華; Liú Tiānhuá; 1895–1932), a Chinese musician who also studied Western music. He composed 47 exercises and 10 solo pieces (1918–32) which were central to the development of the erhu as a solo instrument. His works for the instrument include Yue Ye (月夜; Yuè yè, Moon Night) and Zhu ying Yao hong (烛影摇红; Zhú yǐng yáo hóng, Shadows of Candles Flickering Red). Other solo pieces include Er Quan Ying Yue (1950, Two Springs Reflecting the Moon) by Abing, [[Sai Ma (Horse Race) by Huang Haihuai]] , Henan Xiaoqu (Henan Folk Tune) by Liu Mingyuan, and Sanmenxia Changxiangqu (1961, Sanmen Gorge Capriccio) by Liu Wenjin. Most solo works are commonly performed with yangqin accompaniment, although pieces such as the ten solos by Liu Tianhua and Er Quan Ying Yue(Two Springs Reflecting the Moon) originally did not have accompaniment. In addition to the solo repertoire, the erhu is one of the main instruments in regional music ensembles such as Jiangnan sizhu, Chinese opera ensembles, and the modern large Chinese orchestra. The erhu is used in the music of the Cirque du Soleil show O and in solo performances in select Shen Yun tours. Even fusion progressive rock groups like The Hsu-nami have incorporated the erhu into their music and it is their lead instrument. It is incorporated in the Taiwanese black metal band ChthoniC and used in the song "Field Below" by Regina Spektor. An instrumental album by erhu artist Song Fei (宋飞; Song Fei) expresses the painting Along the River During the Qingming Festival (清明上河图; Qīngmíng Shànghé Tú) drawn in the Song dynasty by Zhang Zeduan (张择端; Zhang Zeduan). It was performed with the erhu, Jinghu, Banhu, Gaohu, etc., to show the Livelihood, Trade, Festival of the Song dynasty; the album contains 18 parts. More recently, the erhu has appeared in several soundtracks, featuring prominently in the TV series Earth: Final Conflict (played by George Gao) and the massively multiplayer online role-playing game World of Warcraft: Mists of Pandaria (played by Jiebing Chen). An erhu solo is featured in several cues related to Vulcans from 2009's Star Trek soundtrack by Michael Giacchino. Musical groups for wedding celebrations in Cambodia often use the Tro, a similar instrument to the erhu. An erhu is listed in the credits for the Doug Anthony All Stars album Icon as being played by Paul McDermott. The erhu can be heard in the character songs of China, a character in Axis Powers Hetalia. Comparisons to Western instruments Violin The erhu is often described as a Chinese fiddle, in which, when compared to a fiddle, it has a relatively different style. While most of the instrument is built from wood, like the violin, the wood is not where the 'bridge' is put on. The bridge of an erhu has a flat base, and does not require 'fitting' onto an instrument. The reason is that the erhu uses python skin as its 'top', whereas a violin's top is a wooden plate. The python skin is stretched out like a flat surface, unlike the curved plate of a violin. Also, erhu have the hairs of the bow strung between the two strings, in which both sides of bow hair is used. The violin has the bow hair played on top of the strings. The erhu has only two strings while violin has four. Playing technique Tuning The erhu is almost always tuned to the interval of a fifth. The inside string (nearest to player) is generally tuned to D4 and the outside string to A4. This is the same as the two middle strings of the violin. Position The erhu is played sitting down, with the sound box placed on the top of the left thigh and the neck held vertically, in the similar fashion as that of a cello or double bass player. However, performers of more recent years have played while standing up using a specially developed belt-clip. Right hand The bow is held with an underhand grip. The bow hair is adjusted so it is slightly loose. The fingers of the right hand are used to push the hairs away from the stick in order to create tension in the hairs. The bow hair is placed in between the two strings and both sides of the bow hair are used to produce sound, the player pushes the bow away from the body when bowing the A string (the outside string), and pulls it inwards when bowing the "inside" D string. Because the bow rests on the barrel, either string can be bowed with minimal effort; the outer string can be played by pressing the stick downwards with the thumb, and the inner string by pressing the hair towards the player with the middle finger. All other fingers are technically unnecessary and are only used to support and stabilize the bow. Aside from the bowing technique used for most pieces, the erhu can be plucked, usually using the second finger of the right hand. This produces a dry, muted tone (if either of the open strings is plucked, the sound is somewhat more resonant) which is sometimes used in contemporary pieces such as Horse Race. Left hand The left hand alters the pitch of the strings by pressing on the string at the desired point. Being a fretless instrument, the player has fine control over tuning. Techniques include hua yin (slides), rou xian (vibrato), and huan ba (changing positions). Notable performers Prior to the 20th century, most Huqin instruments were used primarily to accompany various forms of Chinese opera and narrative. The use of the erhu as a solo instrument began in the early 20th century along with the development of guoyue (literally "national music"), a modernized form of Chinese traditional music written or adapted for the professional concert stage. Active in the early 20th century were Zhou Shaomei (周少梅; 1885–1938) and Liu Tianhua (刘天华; 1895–1932). Liu laid the foundations of modern erhu playing with his ten unaccompanied solos and 47 studies composed in the 1920s and 1930s. Liu Beimao (刘北茂; 1903–1981) was born in Jiangyin, Jiangsu. His compositions include Xiao Hua Gu (1943) (Little Flower-drum). Jiang Fengzhi (蔣风之; 1908–1986) and Chen Zhenduo (陈振铎) were students of Liu Tianhua, the piece Hangong Qiuyue (Autumn Moon over the Han Palace) was adapted and arranged by Jiang. Hua Yanjun (A Bing) (华彥君-阿炳, 1893–1950) was a blind street musician. Shortly before his death in 1950, two Chinese musicologists recorded him playing a few erhu and Pipa solo pieces, the best-known being Erquan Yingyue. With the founding of the People's Republic of China and the expansion of the conservatory system, the solo erhu tradition continued to develop. Important performers during this time include Lu Xiutang (陆修堂; 1911–1966), Zhang Rui (张锐; born 1920), Sun Wenming (孙文明; 1928–1962), Huang Haihuai (黄海怀), Liu Mingyuan (刘明源; 1931–1996), Tang Liangde (汤良德; 1938–2010), Zhang Shao (张韶) and Song Guosheng (宋国生). Liu Mingyuan (刘明源; 1931–1996) was born in Tianjin. He was known for his virtuosity on many instruments of the huqin family, in particular the banhu. His compositions and arrangements include Henan Xiaoqu (Henan Folk Tune) and Cao Yuan Shang (On Grassland) for Zhonghu. For many years, he taught at the China Conservatory of Music in Beijing. Tang Liangde (Cantonese: Tong Leung Tak; 汤良德; 1938–2010) was born in Shanghai into a famous Shanghainese musical family. He won the "Shanghai's Spring" erhu competition and continued to be the soloist for the Chinese Film Orchestra in Beijing, his composition and solos can be heard throughout the Nixon to China documentary movie. Tang was the soloist and performed at the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra, then went on to music broadcasting and education for the Hong Kong Government's Music Office making worldwide tours and was named Art Educator of the Year in 1991 by the Hong Kong Artist Guild. Wang Guotong (王国潼; born 1939) was born in Dalian, Liaoning. He studied with Jiang Fengzhi, Lan Yusong and Chen Zhenduo and, in 1960, graduated from the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing. He performed the premiere of Sanmenxia Changxiangqu (Sanmen Gorge Rhapsody) composed by Liu Wenjin. In 1972, Wang became the erhu soloist and later art director of the China Broadcasting Traditional Orchestra. He returned to the Central Conservatory of Music in 1983 as head of the Chinese music department. He has written many books and articles on erhu playing and has performed in many countries. Wang also worked with the Beijing National Instruments Factory to further develop erhu design. Min Huifen (閔惠芬; 1945–2014) was born in Yixing, Jiangsu. She first became known as the winner of the 1963 fourth Shanghai Spring Art Festival. She studied with Lu Xiutang and Wang Yi, and graduated from the Shanghai Conservatory of Music in 1968, and became the erhu soloist with the Shanghai Minzu Yuetuan (Shanghai Folk Orchestra). She was the undisputed master of erhu for 50 years. Yang Ying (杨英; born 1959) was the featured soloist for the Chinese National Song and Dance Ensemble (中央歌舞团) of Beijing from 1978 to 1996. She was a national erhu champion, frequently recorded for the Chinese film and record industry, and is listed in famous persons of China. Sun Huang 孙凰 has recently recorded a difficult classical violin piece, played by her on the erhu See also Dan nhi Dotara Ektara Haegeum Huqin, family of traditional Chinese spike fiddles. Khuuchir Morin khuur Kokyū Music of China Rebab Lanna salo String instruments Traditional Chinese musical instruments Bibliography Stephen Jones (1995). Folk Music of China. Oxford: Clarendon Press OUP. Terence Michael Liu (1988). "Development of the Chinese Two-stringed Bowed Lute Erhu Following the New Culture Movement (c. 1915–1985)". Ph.D. dissertation. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University. Jonathan Stock. "A Historical Account of the Chinese Two-Stringed Fiddle Erhu". Galpin Society Journal, v. 46 (March 1993), pp. 83–113. Jonathan Stock (1996). Musical Creativity in Twentieth-Century China: Abing, His Music, and Its Changing Meanings. Eastman Studies in Music. Rochester, New York: Rochester University Press. Yongde Wang (1995). Qing shao nian xue er hu'' (Young person's erhu study). Shanghai Music Publishing House. References External links Chinese musical instruments Continuous pitch instruments Drumhead lutes Huqin family instruments Necked bowl lutes
401909	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Romani	Battle of Romani	The Battle of Romani was the last ground attack of the Central Powers on the Suez Canal at the beginning of the Sinai and Palestine campaign during the First World War. The battle was fought between 3 and 5 August 1916 near the Egyptian town of Romani and the site of ancient Pelusium on the Sinai Peninsula, east of the Suez Canal. This victory by the 52nd (Lowland) Division and the Anzac Mounted Division of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) over a joint Ottoman and German force, which had marched across the Sinai, marked the end of the Defence of the Suez Canal campaign, also known as the Offensive zur Eroberung des Suezkanals and the İkinci Kanal Harekâtı, which had begun on 26 January 1915. This British Empire victory ensured the safety of the Suez Canal from ground attacks and ended the Central Powers' plans to disrupt traffic through the canal by gaining control of the strategically important northern approaches to it. The pursuit by the Anzac Mounted Division, which ended at Bir el Abd on 12 August, began the Sinai and Palestine Campaign. Thereafter the Anzac Mounted Division supported by the Imperial Camel Brigade were on the offensive, pursuing the German and Ottoman army many miles across the Sinai Peninsula, reversing in a most emphatic manner the defeat suffered at Katia three months earlier. From late April 1916, after a German-led Ottoman force attacked British yeomanry at Katia, British Empire forces in the region at first doubled from one brigade to two and then grew as rapidly as the developing infrastructure could support them. The construction of the railway and a water pipeline soon enabled an infantry division to join the light horse and mounted rifle brigades at Romani. During the heat of summer, regular mounted patrols and reconnaissance were carried out from their base at Romani, while the infantry constructed an extensive series of defensive redoubts. On 19 July the advance of a large German, Austrian and Ottoman force across the northern Sinai was reported. From 20 July until the battle began, the Australian 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades took turns pushing out to battle the advancing hostile column. During the night of 3–4 August the advancing force, including the German Pasha I formation and the Ottoman 3rd Infantry Division, launched an attack from Katia on Romani. Forward troops quickly became engaged with the screen established by the 1st Light Horse Brigade (Anzac Mounted Division). During fierce fighting before dawn on 4 August, the Australian light horsemen were forced to slowly retire. At daylight their line was reinforced by the 2nd Light Horse Brigade, and about mid morning the 5th Mounted Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade joined the battle. Together these four brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division managed to contain and direct the determined German and Ottoman forces into deep sand. Here they came within range of the strongly entrenched 52nd (Lowland) Division defending Romani and the railway. Coordinated resistance by all these EEF formations, the deep sand, the heat and thirst prevailed, and the German, Austrian and Ottoman advance was checked. Although the attacking force fought strongly to maintain its positions the next morning, by nightfall they had been pushed back to their starting point at Katia. The retiring force was pursued by the Anzac Mounted Division between 6 and 9 August, during which the Ottomans and Germans forces fought a number of strong rearguard actions against the advancing Australian light horse, British yeomanry and New Zealand mounted rifle brigades. The pursuit ended on 12 August, when the German and Ottoman force abandoned their base at Bir el Abd and retreated to El Arish. Background At the beginning of the First World War the Egyptian police controlling the Sinai Peninsula had withdrawn, leaving the area largely unprotected. In February 1915 a German and Ottoman force unsuccessfully attacked the Suez Canal. Minor Ottoman and Bedouin forces operating across the Sinai continued to threaten the canal from March through the Gallipoli campaign until June, when they practically ceased until the autumn. Meanwhile, the German and Ottoman Empires supported an uprising by the Senussi (a political-religious group) on the western frontier of Egypt which began in November 1915. By February 1916, however, there was no apparent sign of any unusual military activity in the Sinai itself, when the British began construction on the first stretch of standard gauge railway and water pipeline from Kantara to Romani and Katia. Reconnaissance aircraft of the Royal Flying Corps and seaplanes of the Royal Naval Air Service found only small, scattered Ottoman forces in the Sinai region and no sign of any major concentration of troops in southern Palestine. By the end of March or early in April, the British presence in the Sinai was growing; 16 miles (26 km) of track, including sidings, had been laid. Between 21 March and 11 April the water sources at Wady Um Muksheib, Moya Harab and Jifjafa along the central Sinai route from southern Palestine were destroyed. In 1915 they had been used by the central group of about 6,000–7,000 Ottoman soldiers who moved across the Sinai Desert to attack the Suez Canal at Ismailia. Without these wells and cisterns, the central route could no longer be used by large forces. German General Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein's raiding force retaliated to this growing British presence by attacking the widely dispersed 5th Mounted Brigade on 23 April—Easter Sunday and also St George's Day—when yeomanry were surprised and overwhelmed at Katia and Oghratina east of Romani. The mounted Yeomanry brigade had been sent to guard the water pipeline and railway as they were being extended beyond the protection of the Suez Canal defences into the desert towards Romani. In response to this attack, the British Empire presence in the region doubled. The next day the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and the 2nd Light Horse Brigade which had served dismounted during the Gallipoli campaign, of the Australian Major General Harry Chauvel's Anzac Mounted Division reoccupied the Katia area unopposed. Prelude On 24 April—the day after the Katia and Oghratina—Chauvel, commander of the Anzac Mounted Division, was placed in command of all the advanced troops: the 2nd Light Horse Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades at Romani and an infantry division; the 52nd (Lowland) at Dueidar. The infantry moved forward to Romani between 11 May and 4 June 1916. The building of the railway and pipeline had not been greatly affected by the fighting on 23 April, and by 29 April four trains a day were running regularly to the railhead, manned by No. 276 Railway Company, and the main line to Romani was opened on 19 May. A second standard-gauge railway line from Romani to Mahamdiyah on the Mediterranean coast was completed by 9 June. However, conditions on the ground were extreme; after the middle of May and in particular from mid-June to the end of July, the heat in the Sinai Desert ranged from extreme to fierce, when temperatures could be expected to be in the region of in the shade. The terrible heat was not as bad as the Khamsin dust storms that blow once every 50 days for between a few hours and several days; the air is turned into a haze of floating sand particles flung about by a strong, hot southerly wind. No major ground operations were carried out during these midsummer months, the Ottoman garrisons in the Sinai being scattered and out of reach of the British forces. But constant patrolling and reconnaissance were carried out from Romani to Ogratina, to Bir el Abd and on 16 May to Bir Bayud, south-east of Romani, on 31 May to Bir Salmana east north-east of Romani by the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade, when they covered in 36 hours. These patrols concentrated on an area of great strategic importance to large military formations wishing to move across the Sinai along the northern route. Here water was freely available in a large area of oases which extends from Dueidar, from Kantara on the Suez Canal, along the Darb es Sultani (the old caravan route), to Salmana away. Between 10 and 14 June, the last water source on the central route across the Sinai Peninsula was destroyed by the Mukhsheib column. This column, consisting of engineers and units of the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, the Bikaner Camel Corps, and the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps drained of water from pools and cisterns in the Wadi Mukhsheib and sealed the cisterns. This action effectively narrowed the area in which Ottoman offensives might be expected to the coastal or northern route across the Sinai Peninsula. Ottoman aircraft attacked the Suez Canal twice during May, dropping bombs on Port Said. British aircraft bombed the town and aerodrome at El Arish on 18 May and 18 June, and bombed all the Ottoman camps on a front of parallel to the canal on 22 May. By the middle of June, the No. 1 Australian Squadron, Australian Flying Corps, had begun active service, with "B" Flight at Suez performing reconnaissance. On 9 July, "A" Flight was stationed at Sherika in Upper Egypt, with "C" Flight based at Kantara. German and Ottoman force At the beginning of July, it was estimated there were at least 28,000 Ottoman troops in the Gaza–Beersheba area of southern Palestine, and that just before the battle began at Romani, there were 3,000 troops at Oghratina, not far from Katia, another 6,000 at the forward base of Bir el Abd, east of Oghratina, 2,000 to 3,000 at Bir Bayud to the south-east, and another 2,000 at Bir el Mazar, some to the east, not far from El Arish. Kress von Kressenstein's Fourth Army was made up of the 3rd (Anatolian) Infantry Division's three regiments, the 31st, 32nd and 39th Infantry Regiments, totalling 16,000 men, of whom 11,000 to 11,873 were combatants, Arab ancillary forces; and one regiment of the Camel Corps. Estimates of their arms range from 3,293 to 12,000 rifles, 38 to 56 machine guns, and two to five anti-aircraft gun sections; they also fielded four heavy artillery and mountain gun batteries (30 artillery pieces) and the Pasha I formation. Nearly 5,000 camels and 1,750 horses accompanied the advance. The Pasha I formation with a ration strength of about 16,000, consisted of personnel and materiel for a machine gun battalion of eight companies with four guns each with Ottoman drivers, five anti-aircraft groups, the 60th Battalion Heavy Artillery consisting of one battery of two 100 mm guns, one battery of four 150 mm howitzers and two batteries of 210 mm howitzers (two guns in each battery). The officers, NCOs and "leading numbers" of this artillery battalion were German; the remainder were Ottoman Army personnel. In addition Pasha I also included two trench mortar companies, the 300th Flight Detachment, Wireless detachment, three railway companies and two field hospitals. Austria provided two mountain howitzer batteries of six guns each. With the exception of the two 210 mm howitzers, the trench mortars and the railway personnel the remainder of Pasha I took part in the advance to Romani. The 300th Flight Detachment provided a squadron for aerial reconnaissance, and increased the numbers of aircraft available to support the advance across Sinai. These Pasha I aircraft were faster and more effective than the "hopelessly outclassed" British aircraft and were able to maintain air superiority over the battleground. It is also possible that the 81st Regiment of the 27th Division advanced to Bir el Abd and took part in the defence of that place. The objectives of the German, Austrian and Ottoman advance were to capture Romani and to then establish a strongly entrenched position opposite Kantara, from which place their heavy artillery would be within range of the Suez Canal. The attacking force assembled in the southern Ottoman Empire at Shellal, north-west of Beersheba, and departed for the Sinai on 9 July; they reached Bir el Abd and Ogratina ten days later. British forces General Sir Archibald Murray, the commander of the British Empire forces in Egypt, formed the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) in March by merging the Force in Egypt, which had protected Egypt since the beginning of the war, with the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force which had fought at Gallipoli. The role of this new force was to both defend the British Protectorate of Egypt and provide reinforcements for the Western Front. Murray had his headquarters in Cairo to better deal with his multiple responsibilities, although he was at Ismailia during the battle for Romani. With the occupation of Romani, the area became part the Northern or No. 3 Sector of the Suez Canal defences, which originally stretched along the canal from Ferdan to Port Said. Two further sectors grouped the defence forces along the central and southern sections of the Canal; No. 2, the Central Sector, stretched south from Ferdan to headquarters at Ismailia and on to Kabrit, where the No. 1 or Southern Sector extended from Kabrit to Suez. Murray considered it very unlikely that an attack would occur anywhere other than in the northern sector and therefore was prepared to reduce the troops in Nos 1 and 2 Sectors to a minimum. He decided not to reinforce his four infantry brigades, but to increase the available fire-power at Romani by moving up the 160th and 161st Machine Gun Companies of the 53rd (Welsh) and the 54th (East Anglian) Divisions. He also ordered the concentration of a small mobile column made up of the 11th Light Horse, the City of London Yeomanry (less one squadron each) with the 4th, 6th and 9th Companies of the Imperial Camel Brigade in No. 2 Sector. He calculated that the whole of the defensive force, including the camel transport necessary to enable infantry in the 42nd (East Lancashire) Division to advance into the desert, would be fully equipped and the camels assembled by 3 August. Approximately 10,000 Egyptian Camel Transport Corps camels concentrated at Romani prior to the battle. British monitors in the Mediterranean Sea off Mahamdiyah got into position to shell the assembling Ottoman force, while an armoured train at Kantara was ready to assist the defence of the right flank, and all available aircraft were on standby at Ismailia, Kantara, Port Said and Romani. Major General H. A. Lawrence commanded No. 3 Section Canal Defences, and as part of those defences, the Romani position was commanded by Lawrence, who had his headquarters at Kantara. Stationed at Kantara were infantry in the 42nd Division, an infantry brigade of the 53rd (Welsh) Division with 36 guns and the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, detached from the Anzac Mounted Division. Lawrence moved two infantry battalions of the 42nd Division from No. 2 Section Canal defences to Kantara, and sent infantry in the 158th (North Wales) Brigade of the 53rd (Welsh) Division to Romani on 20 July. The deployments on 3 August on and near the battlefield were as follows: at Hill 70, southwest from Romani, the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade (less the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment, but with the 2nd Light Horse Brigade's 5th Light Horse Regiment, temporarily attached), commanded by Edward Chaytor, and the 5th Mounted Brigade, under the direct command of Lawrence, were joined on the railway by infantry in the 126th (East Lancashire) Brigade (42nd Division). Together with the 5th Light Horse Regiment, attached to the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade at Dueidar, to the east of Hill 70, this force was to stop or delay von Kressenstein's attack should he attempt to bypass Romani and advance directly towards the Suez Canal, at Hill 40, a little further southwest of Hill 70, infantry from the 125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade and the 127th (Manchester) Brigade (42nd Division) were also on the railway line at Gilban Station, the Mobile Column was based in the Sinai at the end of the El Ferdan railway, while the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was at Ballybunion, also in the Sinai at the end of the Ballah railway. The force at Romani, responsible for its defence when the battle began, consisted of infantry from the British 52nd (Lowland) Division, commanded by Major General W. E. B. Smith, and the Anzac Mounted Division commanded by Chauvel (less the 3rd Light Horse Brigade). The 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades, (less the 5th Light Horse Regiment, but with the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade's Wellington Mounted Rifle Regiment attached) were commanded by Lieutenant Colonels J. B. H Meredith and J. R. Royston respectively. Development of defensive positions Infantry from the 52nd (Lowland) Division joined the two mounted brigades at Romani between 11 May and 4 June, when the development of the railway made it possible to transport and supply such a large number of soldiers. The infantry occupied a defensive position known as Wellington Ridge, facing a tangle of sand dunes. The area favoured defence; sand dunes, stretching about inland, covered an area of , including, to the south of Romani, the northern route from El Arish. On the southern and south eastern edges, a series of dunes of shifting sand with narrow sloping lanes led to a tableland of deep soft sand. The 52nd (Lowland) Division developed a strong defensive position at Romani which had its left flank on the Mediterranean Sea, here a series of redoubts were built running southwards from Mahamdiyah along the line of high sand hills about to a dune known as Katib Gannit high. This line of sand hills, which were high enough to see Katia oasis from, marked the eastern edge of an area of very soft and shifting sand beyond which were lower dunes and harder sand where movement by both infantry and mounted forces was considerably easier. Between the shore at the western end of the Bardawil Lagoon and Katib Gannit (the principal tactical point on the eastern slopes of the Romani heights), the infantry constructed a line of 12 redoubts about apart, with a second series of redoubts covering the Romani railway station and the right of the defensive position which curved like a hook westward, then northward. A total of 18 redoubts were constructed, which when fully garrisoned held from 40 to 170 rifles each, with Lewis guns and an average of two Vickers machine guns allotted to each position; they were well wired on the right side of each of the positions, although there was no wire between the redoubts. This defensive line was supported by artillery. The threat of an Ottoman attack towards the Suez Canal had been considered by Lawrence in consultation with his divisional commanders, and a second defensive area was developed to address their concerns. Their plans took into account the possibility of an Ottoman army at Katia moving to attack Romani or following the old caravan route to assault Hill 70 and Dueidar on their way to the Suez Canal. Any attempt to bypass Romani on the right flank would be open to attack from the garrison, which could send out infantry and mounted troops on the hard ground in the plain to the south-west. The New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade was stationed at Hill 70 at the end of June and the 5th Light Horse Regiment at Dueidar to prevent such an Ottoman force from reaching the Suez Canal. Light Horse patrols before the battle Active patrolling by mounted troops continued throughout the period leading up to the battle, but by early July, there were no indications of any imminent resumption of hostilities. The nearest Ottoman garrison of 2,000 men was at Bir el Mazar east of Romani, and on 9 July, a patrol found Bir Salmana unoccupied. However, greatly increased aerial activity over the Romani area began about 17 July, when faster and better-climbing German aircraft quickly established superiority over British aircraft. But they could not stop British aircraft from continuing to reconnoitre the country to the east, and on 19 July, a British aircraft, with Brigadier General E. W. C. Chaytor (commander of the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade) acting as observer, discovered an Ottoman force of about 2,500 at Bir Bayud. A slightly smaller force was detected at Gameil and another similar sized force was found at Bir el Abd with about 6,000 camels seen at the camps or moving between Bir el Abd and Bir Salmana. The next morning, 3,000 men were found to be entrenched at Mageibra, with an advance depot for supplies and stores at Bir el Abd. A small force was spotted as far forward as the oasis of Oghratina, which by the next day, 21 July, had grown to 2,000 men. On 20 July, the 2nd Light Horse Brigade with two guns mounted on ped-rails of the Ayrshire Battery demonstrated against Oghratina, capturing several prisoners, and beginning a series of patrols which, together with the 1st Light Horse Brigade, they continued until the eve of battle. Every day until 3 August, these two brigades alternated riding out from their base at Romani towards Katia at about 02:00 and bivouacking until dawn, at which time they advanced on a wide front until German or Ottoman fire was provoked. If the enemy position was weak, the light horse pushed forward, and if a counterattack began, the brigade retired slowly, thereafter to return to camp at Romani at nightfall. The following day, the other brigade carried out similar manoeuvres in the direction of Katia and the advancing Ottoman columns, picking up the officers patrols which had been left out during the night to monitor enemy movements. During this period, one of many clashes occurred on 28 July at Hod Um Ugba, from the British line. Two squadrons of the Wellington Mounted Rifle Regiment, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel W. Meldrum, made a bayonet assault, supported by several machine guns and two 18-pounder guns. They drove the Ottomans from the Hod, leaving 16 dead and taking eight prisoners from the Ottoman 31st Infantry Regiment. The tactic of continuous forward patrolling was so successful that the advancing force's every move was known to the defenders, but the light horsemen were substantially outnumbered and could not stop the advance. By daylight on 3 August, the German, Austrian and Ottoman force had occupied Katia and were within striking distance of Romani, Dueidar, Hill 70 and the Suez Canal. Their line ran north-east and south-west from the Bardawil Lagoon to east of Katia, with their left flank thrown well forward. Plans The German and Ottoman objective was not to cross the canal, but to capture Romani and establish a strongly entrenched heavy artillery position opposite Kantara, from which to bombard shipping on the canal. Kress von Kressenstein's plan for the attack on Romani was to bombard the line of defensive redoubts with heavy artillery and employ only weak infantry detachments against them, while his main force launched attacks against the right and rear of the Romani position. The defenders expected the German and Ottoman attack to be one of containment against their prepared line of defence, and an all-out attack on the right south of Katib Gannit. They also appreciated that such an attack would expose the German and Ottoman left flank. Murray's plan was to firstly delay the attackers and make it very difficult for them to gain ground south of Katib Gannit, and secondly, only when the German and Ottoman force was totally committed, to then disorganise their flank attack with an attack by Section Troops at Hill 70 and Dueidar, with the 3rd Light Horse Brigade and the Mobile Column operating more widely against the flank and rear. Chauvel had selected a position for the defence of Romani, which stretched for between Katib Gannit and Hod el Enna, with a second fall-back position covering a series of parallel gullies running south-east and north-west giving access to the area of soft sand to the rear of the Romani defences. No visible works were constructed, but together with Chauvel, the commanders of the two light horse brigades, whose task it would be to hold the attackers on this ground until the flank attack could begin, studied the area closely. Battle on 4 August Just before midnight on 3/4 August, three columns of the German Pasha I and the 4th Ottoman Army, consisting of about 8,000 men, began their attack on an outpost line held by the 1st Light Horse Brigade three and a half hours after the return of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade from their regular daytime patrol. In addition to the usual officers patrols left out overnight to monitor the enemy's positions, Chauvel decided to leave out for the night the whole of the 1st Light Horse Brigade to hold an outpost line of about 3 miles (4.8 km), covering all entrances to the sandhill plateau which formed the Romani position and which were not protected by infantry posts. A shot or two fired out in the desert to the south-east of their position put the long piquet line of the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Regiment (1st Light Horse Brigade) on alert about midnight, when the 3rd Light Horse Regiment (1st Light Horse Brigade) was called up to the front line. The Austrian, German and Ottoman advance paused after finding the gullies held by the light horsemen, but at about 01:00, a sudden heavy burst of fire along the whole front began the attack of the considerably superior Ottoman and German forces, and by 02:00 they had in many places advanced to within of the Australian line. The Ottoman centre and left columns were skilfully led round the open flank of the infantry's entrenchments and on towards the camp and railway. After the moon had set at around 02:30, the Germans and Ottomans made a bayonet charge on Mount Meredith. Although vastly outnumbered, the light horsemen fought an effective delaying action at close quarters, but were forced to relinquish ground slowly and to ultimately evacuate the position by 03:00. Without the benefit of moon light, the light horsemen had fired at the flashes of the enemy's rifles until they were close enough to use bayonets. The 1st Light Horse Brigade was eventually forced back; withdrawing slowly, troop covering troop with steady accurate fire, staving off a general attack with the bayonet to their fall-back position; a large east/west sand dune called Wellington Ridge at the southern edge of the Romani encampment. During the retirement to Wellington Ridge, the covering squadrons on the left near Katib Gannit were also attacked, as was the squadron on the right, which was taken in the flank and suffered considerable loss, but managed to hold its ground until the position in its rear was occupied. By 03:30, all light horsemen south of Mount Meredith had been forced back to their led horses and had succeeded in disengaging and falling back to their second position. Soon after, an Ottoman machine gun was shooting down on the light horse from Mount Meredith. Chauvel had relied on the steadiness of the 1st Light Horse Brigade, which he had commanded during the Gallipoli campaign, to hold the line against greatly superior numbers for four hours until dawn, when the general situation could be assessed. Daylight revealed the weakness of the light horse defenders in their second position on Wellington Ridge and that their right was outflanked by strong German and Ottoman forces. At 04:30, the 2nd Light Horse Brigade, commanded by Colonel J. R. Royston, was ordered up by Chauvel from Etmaler and went into action in front of Mount Royston to support and prolong the 1st Light Horse Brigade's right flank by moving up the 6th and 7th Light Horse Regiments into the front line. German, Austrian or Ottoman artillery now opened fire on the infantry defences and camps in the rear; shrapnel inflicted some losses, but the high explosive shells were smothered by the soft sand. The attackers succeeded in forcing the light horse off Wellington Ridge, which placed them within of the Romani camp. However, they were unable to press further, as they now became exposed to machine gun and rifle fire from the entrenched infantry of the 52nd (Lowland) Division, and shelling from the horse artillery supporting the light horsemen's determined defence. Having been held south of Romani, the German and Ottoman force attempted a further outflanking manoeuvre to the west, concentrating 2,000 troops around Mount Royston another sand dune, south-west of Romani. At 05:15, the Ottoman 31st Infantry Regiment pushed forward; then the 32nd and the 39th Infantry Regiments swung around the left and into the British rear. This outflanking movement was steadily progressing along the slopes of Mount Royston and turning the right of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade, whose third regiment, the Wellington Mounted Rifles, was now also committed to the front line. The two brigades of light horse continued to gradually withdraw, pivoting on the extreme right of the infantry position, which covered the left flank and rear of Romani. They were pushed back between Wellington Ridge and Mount Royston, about west of the former; the attackers continually forcing back their right flank. Between 05:00 and 06:00, they were compelled to also retire slowly from this ridge, although the 6th and 7th Light Horse Regiment (2nd Light Horse Brigade) still held the western edge. At 06:15, Meredith was ordered to withdraw the 1st Light Horse Brigade behind the line occupied by the 7th Light Horse Regiment north of Etmaler camp. At 07:00, the 6th and 7th Light Horse Regiments retired, squadron by squadron, from the remainder of Wellington Ridge. By about 08:00, German, Austrian and Ottoman fire from the ridge top was directed into the camp only a few hundred yards away, but the Ayrshire and Leicester Batteries quickly stopped this artillery attack. It became apparent that the German and Ottoman right column, (31st Infantry Regiment) was attempting a frontal attack on redoubts held by infantry in the 52nd (Lowland) Division. The defenders were able to hold on, but were subjected to severe artillery shelling during the day. Frontal attacks began with heavy German or Austrian fire by their artillery which attempted to breach the infantry defensive line. About 08:00, attacks were being made on Numbers 4 and 5 redoubts which began with heavy artillery fire, but the attacks broke completely when the 31st Ottoman Infantry Regiment were within of No. 4 redoubt; subsequent attempts were less successful. At about 10:00, Chauvel contacted Brigadier General E. S. Girdwood, commanding 156th Infantry Brigade, requesting his brigade temporarily relieve the light horse brigades until they had watered their horses in preparation for a mounted counterattack. Girdwood refused because his brigade was being held in reserve to support an intended attack eastward by infantry in the 52nd (Lowland) Division. The light horse had gradually withdrawn back until, at about 11:00, the main German and Ottoman attack was stopped by well directed fire from the Royal Horse Artillery batteries of the Anzac Mounted Division and by light horse rifle and machine gun fire, to which the 52nd (Lowland) Division contributed considerable firepower. The attackers appeared to have exhausted themselves, but they held their ground while Austrian and Ottoman artillery of various calibres, including 5.9" and 10.5 cm guns, fired on the defenders and their camps, and German and Ottoman aircraft severely bombed the defenders. The three columns of the German, Austrian and Ottoman attacking force were brought to a standstill by the coordinated, concerted and determined defence of the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades and the 52nd (Lowland) Division. The Ottoman advance was at a standstill everywhere. After a long night's march, the German and Ottoman troops faced a difficult day under the desert sun without being able to replenish their water and exposed to artillery fire from Romani. At this time, the attacking forces held a line running from the Bardawil (on the Mediterranean coast) southward along the front of the 52nd Infantry Division's entrenchments and then westward through and including the very large sand dunes of Mount Meredith and Mount Royston. But from their position on Mount Royston, the German, Austrian and Ottoman force dominated the camp area of Romani and threatened the railway line. Reinforcements Chaytor, commander of the New Zealander Mounted Rifles Brigade, had been advised of the Austrian, German and Ottoman advance against Romani at 02:00. By 05:35, Lawrence at his headquarters of the Northern No. 3 Canal Defences Sector at Kantara, had been informed of the developing attack. He recognised that the main blow was falling on Romani and ordered the 5th Mounted Yeomanry Brigade at Hill 70 to move towards Mount Royston. They were led by a Composite Regiment, which moved off at once, the remainder of the brigade preparing to follow. At 07:25, Lawrence ordered the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade consisting of brigade headquarters and the Canterbury Mounted Rifle Regiment (less the Auckland Mounted Rifles and the attached 5th Light Horse Regiments, 2nd Light Horse Brigade), to move towards Mount Royston via Dueidar and there, pick up the Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment. The Yeomanry and New Zealand brigades had both been stationed at Hill 70, from Romani, when their orders to move were received. The New Zealanders were to "operate vigorously so as to cut off the enemy, who appears to have got round the right of the Anzac Mounted Division." Meanwhile, the 3rd Light Horse Brigade at Ballybunion was directed to move forward to Hill 70 and send one regiment to Dueidar, while the Mobile Column was ordered by GHQ to march towards Mageibra. Mount Royston counterattack The German, Austrian and Ottoman attack on Mount Royston was checked to the north by the 3rd and 6th Light Horse Regiments (1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades), and under constant bombardment from the horse artillery and the infantry's heavy artillery of the 52nd (Lowland) Division. At 10:00, the front held by the two light horse brigades faced south from a point northwest of No. 22 Redoubt north of Wellington Ridge to the sand hills north of Mount Royston. As the line had fallen back, the 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Regiments (1st Light Horse Brigade) had come in between the 6th and 7th Light Horse Regiments (2nd Light Horse Brigade); from right to left, the line was now held by the 6th, 3rd, 2nd and 7th Light Horse and the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiments, while north north-west of Mount Royston, "D" Squadron of the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars (a regiment in the 5th Mounted Brigade) held its ground. The plan called for the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades, the 5th Mounted and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades to swing round the attackers' left flank and envelop them. The first reinforcements to arrive were the Composite Regiment of the 5th Mounted Brigade; they came up on the flank of their mounted regiment; the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars' "D" Squadron west of Mount Royston, which was being attacked by a strong body of Ottoman soldiers. The regiment attacked the Ottomans in enfilade and forced them back. When the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade's headquarters and the Canterbury Mounted Rifle Regiments were within of Dueidar on the old caravan road, they were ordered to move directly to Canterbury Hill, the last defensible position in front of the railway, east of Pelusium Station, as the strong German and Ottoman attack was threatening to take the railway and Romani. The Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment arrived with its brigade between 11:00 and 11:30 to find the Composite Yeomanry Regiment (5th Mounted Yeomanry Brigade) in contact with the German and Ottoman forces on the south-west side of Mount Royston. The 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades first made contact with the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade by heliograph, after which Royston, commanding the 2nd Light Horse Brigade, galloped across to explain the situation. Chaytor then moved the Auckland and Canterbury Mounted Rifles Regiments, supported by the Somerset Battery, onto high ground between the right of the light horse and the Yeomanry, which was shortly afterwards joined by the remainder of the 5th Mounted Brigade under the command of Brigadier General Wiggin. At the most critical period of the day's fighting, when the German and Ottoman force of 2,000 dominated the Romani area from Mount Royston, the five mounted brigades (still less the 5th Light Horse Regiment) began their counterattack at 14:00 from the west towards Mount Royston. The New Zealand riflemen soon gained a footing on Mount Royston, aided by accurate and rapid shooting from the Somerset Royal Horse Artillery Battery. By 16:00, the attack had proceeded to a point where Chaytor arranged with the 5th Mounted Brigade for a squadron of Royal Gloucestershire Hussars and two troops of the Worcestershire Yeomanry to gallop against the southern spur of Mount Royston. They easily took the spur, the defenders not waiting for the onslaught of the mounted charge. From the crest of the spur, the Gloucestershire squadron shot down the horse teams of an Austrian, German or Ottoman battery of pack guns concentrated in the hollow behind the spur, and the attacking force began to surrender. The New Zealand Mounted Rifle and 5th Mounted Brigades were supported by leading infantry battalions of the 127th (Manchester) Brigade (which had just arrived) when Ottoman and German soldiers began to surrender en masse. At about 18:00, 500 prisoners, two machine guns and the pack battery were captured, and the outer flank of the attacking force was completely routed. Meanwhile, the inner flank of the German and Ottoman force on Wellington Ridge made a last effort to advance across the ridge, but was driven back by artillery fire. Fresh frontal attacks launched against the main British infantry system of redoubts broke down completely. At 17:05, Major General Smith ordered infantry in the 156th (Scottish Rifles) Brigade to attack the enemy force on Wellington Ridge on the left of the light horse and in coordination with the counterattack on Mount Royston. An artillery bombardment of Wellington Ridge began at 18:45. Just before 19:00, infantry in the 7th and 8th Cameronians (Scottish Rifles) moved south from behind No. 23 Redoubt; the 8th Scottish Rifles advancing to within of the crest of Wellington Ridge, before being stopped by heavy rifle fire. When darkness put an end to the fighting, the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades established an outpost line and spent the night on the battlefield, while the New Zealand Mounted Rifles and 5th Mounted Brigades withdrew for water and rations at Pelusium Station, where the newly arrived infantry brigades of the 42nd Division were assembling. The 3rd Light Horse Brigade halted at Hill 70, while the Mobile Force had reached the Hod el Bada, south of Romani station. At 19:30, when the New Zealand Mounted Rifle and 5th Mounted Brigades moved from the positions they had won to water and rest at Pelusium, the area was consolidated by infantry in the 127th (Manchester) Brigade, 42nd Division. Brigadier General Girdwood ordered infantry in the 7th and 8th Scottish Rifles Battalions to hold their ground on Wellington Ridge until daylight, but to keep close contact with the enemy during the night in the hope of capturing large numbers of tired and disorganised soldiers in the morning. Approximately 1,200 unwounded prisoners were captured during the day and sent to the Pelusium railway station. Battle on 5 August Within 24 hours, British commanders were able to concentrate a force of 50,000 men in the Romani area, a three to one advantage. This force included the two infantry divisions—the 52nd and the newly arrived 42nd—four mounted brigades, two of which had been on active duty since 20 July, and two heavily engaged on the front line the day before, and may have included the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, although it was still at Hill 70, and the Mobile Column at Hod el Bada. At this time, command of the 5th Mounted Brigade passed from the Anzac Mounted Division to the infantry division; the 42nd Division, it being suggested that orders required the Anzac Mounted Division to remain in position, and that the 3rd Light Horse Brigade alone was to make a flank attack. However, Lawrence's orders for a general advance on 5 August beginning at 04:00 included an advance by the Anzac Mounted Division. His orders read: Anzac Mounted Division to press forward with its right on the Hod el Enna and its left in close touch with the infantry from the 156th (Scottish Rifles) Brigade, 52nd (Lowland) Division, advancing on the line Katib Gannit to Mount Meredith. 3rd Light Horse Brigade to move towards Bir el Nuss and attack Hod el Enna from the south keeping in close touch with the Anzac Mounted Division. 5th Mounted Brigade, under orders of 42nd Infantry Division to assist the 3rd Light Horse Brigade's link with the Anzac Mounted Division's right. 42nd Division to move on the line Canterbury Hill–Mount Royston–Hod el Enna and drive back any opposition to the advance of the mounted troops in close support of Anzac Mounted Division's right flank. 52nd (Lowland) Division to move in close support of Anzac Mounted Division's left flank towards Mount Meredith and to prepare for a general advance towards Abu Hamra which was not to be undertaken until further orders from Lawrence at No. 3 Section Headquarters. Meanwhile, the German, Austrian and Ottoman force was now spread from Hill 110 almost to Bir en Nuss, but with their left flank unprotected. They could not have been in good shape after fighting all the previous day in intense midsummer heat and having to remain in position overnight, far from water and harassed by British infantry. Their situation was now precarious, as their main attacking force was well past the right of the main British infantry positions; infantry in the 52nd (Lowland) Division was closer to the nearest enemy-controlled water source at Katia than most of the attacking force. Had the British infantry left their trenches promptly and attacked in a south easterly direction, von Kressenstein's force would have had great difficulty escaping. British capture Wellington Ridge At daybreak, infantry in the 8th Scottish Rifles, 156th (Scottish Rifles) Brigade, 52nd (Lowland) Division) advanced with the 7th Light Horse and the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiments (2nd Light Horse Brigade), covered by infantry in the 7th Scottish Rifles, 156th (Scottish Rifles) Brigade, 52nd (Lowland) Division on the left, who had brought 16 machine guns and Lewis guns into a position from which they could sweep the crest and reverse slopes of Wellington Ridge. The Wellington Mounted Rifle Regiment, with the 7th Light Horse Regiment and supported on the left by Scottish Rifles' infantry posts, fixed bayonets and stormed Wellington Ridge. They encountered heavy rifle and machine gun fire, but rushed up the sandy slope and quickly broke through the German and Ottoman front line. After clearing Wellington Ridge, the mounted riflemen, light horsemen and infantrymen pressed forward from ridge to ridge without pause. These troops swept down on a body of about 1,000 to 1,500 Ottoman soldiers, who became demoralised. As a result of this attack, a white flag was hoisted and by 05:00 the German and Ottoman soldiers who had stubbornly defended their positions on Wellington Ridge, dominating the camps at Romani, were captured. A total of 1,500 became prisoners in the neighbourhood of Wellington Ridge; 864 soldiers surrendered to infantry in the 8th Scottish Rifles alone, while others were captured by the light horse and mounted rifles regiments. By 05:30, the main German and Ottoman force was in a disorganised retreat towards Katia, with the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades and the Ayrshire and Leicestershire batteries not far behind. At 06:00, a further 119 men surrendered to the infantry in No. 3 Redoubt; while these prisoners were being dealt with, it became apparent that they were part of a rearguard and that a full retreat was under way. At 06:30, Lawrence ordered Chauvel to take command of all troops and to initiate a vigorous general advance eastwards. British advance on Ottoman rearguard at Katia Infantry from the 42nd Division had arrived during the battle the day before by train from Hill 70, Hill 40 and Gilban Station, and along with infantry from the 52nd (Lowland) Division, was ordered to move out in support of the mounted Australian, New Zealand and British Yeomanry brigades. The 42nd Division was ordered to advance to Hod el Enna; their 127th (Manchester) Brigade marched out at 07:30 and reached Hod el Enna between 09:30 and 10:00, while their 125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade arrived at 11:15. They were supported by the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps, which worked with the Army Service Corps to supply them with drinking water. In much distress in the scorching midsummer sands, infantry in the 42nd Division marched very slowly and far in the rear. The 52nd (Lowland) Division also experienced difficulties; although Lawrence ordered the division to move at 06:37, the men did not leave their trenches until nearly midday, reaching their objective of Abu Hamra late in the evening. As a result, Kress von Kressenstein was able to extricate most of his troops and heavy guns from the immediate battle area during the day. Although it has been stated that "British reserves hammered" the Germans and Ottomans to a halt on 5 August, it appears one of the infantry divisions was reluctant to leave their defences; neither infantry division were trained in desert warfare and found the sand dunes extremely difficult to negotiate. They could not match the pace and endurance of the well-trained German and Ottoman force and were hampered by water supply problems. At 06:30, when Lawrence ordered Chauvel to take command of all mounted troops (excluding the Mobile Column), the New Zealand Mounted Rifles, the 5th Mounted and the 3rd Light Horse Brigades were somewhat scattered. By 08:30, the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade had reached Bir en Nuss; there they found the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, which had been ordered to move first on Hamisah and then left towards Katia to cooperate in a general attack. The advance guard moved to fulfill these orders at 09:00. At 10:30, the general mounted advance began and by midday, was on a line from west of Bir Nagid to south of Katib Gannit; in the centre the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade were approaching the south-west edge of the Katia oasis; on their left the 1st, the 2nd Light Horse, the 5th Mounted Brigades and infantry in the 52nd (Lowland) Division were attacking Abu Hamra, to the north of the old caravan road, while the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was away to the New Zealander's right, south of the old caravan road, attacking German and Ottoman units at Bir el Hamisah. Between 12:00 and 13:00, the commanders of the New Zealand Mounted Rifle, 1st and 2nd Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades reconnoitred the German, Austrian and Ottoman rearguard position west of Katia. It was decided that the three light horse brigades would advance mounted with the Yeomanry to attack the German and Ottoman right flank. The rearguard force made a very determined stand on a well-prepared line, stretching from Bir El Hamisah to Katia and on to Abu Hamra. Their artillery and machine guns were well placed in the palms fringing the eastern side of a great flat marsh, which stretched right across the front of their position, giving them an excellent field of fire. A general mounted attack commenced at 14:30. By 15:30, the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades were advancing at the gallop on Katia. When they had reached the edge of the white gypsum, the light horse and mounted rifle brigades formed a line, fixed bayonets, and charged over the exposed country. They galloped in a long line of charging horses, through shell fire and bullets, holding fixed bayonets. On the far left, the intensity of fire from the rearguard made it necessary for the 5th Mounted Brigade of sword carrying Yeomanry to send back their horses and advance dismounted. While all the brigades which charged, were eventually forced to attack dismounted also, when the ground became too swampy. They were met by well-directed, heavy German, Austrian and Ottoman artillery fire, which completely outgunned the supporting Ayrshire and Somerset Batteries; by sunset, the advance of the British Empire mounted brigades had been stopped. The 9th Light Horse Regiment (3rd Light Horse Brigade) on the extreme right was held up by a determined German and Ottoman rearguard and was unable to work round the right flank of that position. But after galloping to within a few hundred yards of the rearguard's line, they made a dismounted bayonet attack under cover of machine gun fire and the Inverness Battery. As a result, the German and Ottoman force abandoned their position, leaving 425 men and seven machine guns to be captured. But, instead of holding their ground, they drew off, and this withdrawal led to a strong German and Ottoman counterattack falling on the Canterbury Mounted Rifle Regiment. Darkness finally put an end to the battle. During the night, the Germans, Austrians and Ottomans withdrew back to Oghrantina, while the Anzac Mounted Division watered at Romani, leaving a troop of the Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment as a listening post on the battlefield. The two-day battle for Romani and the Suez Canal had been won by the British infantry and Australian, British and New Zealand mounted troops. They captured approximately 4,000 German and Ottoman combatants and killed more than 1,200, but the main enemy force was able to escape with all their artillery, except for one captured battery, and retreat back to Oghratina after fighting a successful rearguard action at Katia. Having borne the burden of the long days of patrolling, reconnaissance and minor engagements with the advancing Austrian, German and Ottoman columns prior to the battle, the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades had alone withstood the attack from midnight on 3/4 August until dawn on 4 August, as well as continuing to fight during the long days of battle. By the end of 5 August, they were completely exhausted; their depleted ranks stumbled back to their bivouac lines at Romani and Etmaler where they were ordered one day's rest. Pursuit begins Von Kressenstein had prepared successive lines of defence during his advance towards Romani, and despite losing one artillery battery and more than one third of his soldiers, fought a series of effective rearguard actions which slowed the pursuit by British Empire mounted troops and enabled his force to retreat back to El Arish. During the night of 5/6 August, infantry in the 155th (South Scottish) Brigade and 157th (Highland Light Infantry) Brigade were at Abu Hamra, the 127th (Manchester) Brigade (42nd Division) at Hod el Enna, the 125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade (42nd Division) on its left in touch with the 156th (Scottish Rifles) Brigade, (52nd Division) which had its left on Redoubt No. 21. The next morning, infantry in the 42nd Division was ordered to advance eastwards at 04:00 and occupy a line from Bir el Mamluk to Bir Katia, while the 52nd (Lowland) Division was to advance from Abu Hamra and prolong the infantry line of the 42nd Division to the north-east. Although they carried out their orders during their two-day march from Pelusium Station to Katia, infantry in the 127th (Manchester) Brigade lost 800 men, victims to thirst and the sun; other infantry brigades suffered similarly. It became clear that the infantry could not go on, and they ceased to be employed in the advance. Indeed, it was necessary for the Bikanir Camel Corps and Yeomanry detachments, as well as the medical services, to search the desert for those who had been left behind. The Mobile Column in the south, consisting of the Imperial Camel Brigade, the 11th Light Horse, and the mounted City of London Yeomanry Regiments (less two squadrons), advanced from Ferdan and the Ballah railhead to attack the German and Ottoman left flank, working through Bir El Mageibra, Bir El Aweidia and Hod El Bayud. They found Mageibra evacuated on 5 August. After camping there for the night, they fought strong hostile forces between Bayud and Mageibra the following day, but could make no impression. Some days later, on 8 August, the Mobile Column did succeed in getting round the Ottoman flank, but was too weak to have any effect and retired to Bir Bayud. Advance towards Oghratina – 6 August During the previous night, the German and Ottoman force evacuated Katia and was moving towards Oghratina when Chauvel ordered the Anzac Mounted Division to continue the attack. The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades and the 5th Mounted Brigade were ordered to capture Oghratina. Despite attempts by these two brigades to turn the enemy flank, they were forced to make a frontal attack on strongly entrenched rearguards in positions which favoured the defenders and which were supported by carefully positioned artillery. Meanwhile, the two infantry divisions moved to garrison Katia and Abu Hamra and Lawrence moved his headquarters forward from Kantara to Romani. The 3rd Light Horse Brigade on the right advanced towards Badieh, but could only make small progress, against positions securely held by German and Ottoman forces. The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade had moved out at dawn, followed by the 5th Mounted Brigade without ambulance support, as the New Zealand Field Ambulance had not returned from Romani and the 5th Mounted Field Ambulance had not yet arrived. Fortunately, casualties were light, and both ambulances arrived in the evening. The 3rd Light Horse Field Ambulance, had formed a dressing station at Bir Nagid to the south of Romani, treating wounded from 3rd Light Horse Brigade's engagement at Bir el Hamisah, a convoy brought in wounded Ottomans from a hod to the south of Romani, and 150 cases of heat exhaustion from infantry in the 42nd Division were treated during the day. Oghratina entered on 7 August The same three brigades—one mounted rifle, one light horse and one Yeomanry, with the 10th Light Horse Regiment (3rd Light Horse Brigade) supporting the Yeomanry—moved to attack the German and Ottoman position at Oghratina, but the rearguard position was again found to be too strong. Lacking the support of infantry or heavy artillery, the mounted force was too small to capture this strong rearguard position, but the threat from the mounted advance was enough to force the hostile force to evacuate the position. During the night, the German and Ottoman forces retreated back to Bir el Abd, where they had been three weeks before, on 20 July, when they established a base with a depot for supplies and stores. On 7 August the Greater Bairam (a feast day celebrating the end of the Islamic year) coincided with the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps at Romani being ordered to move out with supplies for the advancing troops, but 150 men, most of whom were past the end of their contracts and entitled to be discharged, refused orders to fill their water bottles, draw their rations and saddle up. One man was hit about the head with the butt of a pistol and the dissenters were dispersed into small groups and reassigned to various units in the infantry division; the 52nd (Lowland) Division. Debabis occupied on 8 August The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade reached Debabis on 8 August. As the 3rd Light Horse Brigade came up, they passed many dead Ottomans and Yeomanry; one dead Ottoman sniper had a heap of hundreds of rounds of empty cartridge shells beside him. Meanwhile, the Bikanir Camel Corps and a squadron of aircraft continued searching the desert sands for missing men. Action of Bir el Abd – 9 to 12 August Chauvel planned, with Lawrence's approval, to capture the Ottoman rearguard at their forward base of Bir El Abd, to the east of Romani. The position was strongly held by greatly superior numbers of Germans, Austrians and Ottomans, supported by well-placed artillery, but the garrison was seen burning stores and evacuating camps. Chauvel deployed the Anzac Mounted Division for the advance, with the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade in the centre following the telegraph line. On their right, with a gap of , was the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, which was in touch with a small flying column; the Mobile Column of the City of London Yeomanry, 11th Light Horse Regiments and the Imperial Camel Brigade, which was to again attempt to get round the German and Ottoman left flank and cut off their retreat. The advance of the 3rd Light Horse and the New Zealand Mounted Brigades from Oghratina to Bir el Abd was to begin at daylight on 9 August, with the 5th Mounted Brigade forming the reserve. On the left of the New Zealanders, Royston's Column; a composite of the depleted 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades, had gone to Katia to water and had then march through the night to the Hod Hamada north-west of Bir el Abd, where they arrived at 03:00 on 9 August. They were to bivouac for one and a half hours before advancing to a point north-east of Bir el Abd, to cooperate with the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade's attack on the rearguard position at 06:30. Since the attack, supported by only four horse artillery batteries, was on a prepared position held in superior strength, strong in machine guns, and covered by double the number of guns, including heavy howitzers, it was something of a gamble. The attacking force's only advantage was its mobility. Attack on 9 August The 3rd Light Horse Brigade set out to find and turn the German and Ottoman left, while at 04:00 the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade headed directly towards Bir el Abd along the old caravan route. By 05:00, they had driven in enemy outposts and reached high ground overlooking Bir el Abd. Royston's Column moved off at 05:00 with the intention of enveloping the Ottoman right, while the New Zealanders attacked in the centre; the four brigades covering a front of . The forward troops of the German and Ottoman rearguard, which held a front of about , were driven back to Bir el Abd by the New Zealanders. At this time, the attackers appeared likely to succeed, as they had firmly established themselves across the telegraph line and the old caravan road, supported by the Somerset and Leicester batteries. But the German, Austrian and Ottoman rearguard quickly realised how thin the attacking line was, and at 09:00 advanced out of their trenches to counterattack. This aggressive move was only checked by artillery fire from the Somerset Battery effectively combined with fire from machine guns. The subsequent fire fight made it extremely difficult for the mounted riflemen to maintain their position, and on the flanks the light horse were also held up. The German and Ottoman infantry renewed their attack towards a gap between the New Zealanders and the 2nd Light Horse Brigade, but the 5th Light Horse Regiment covered the gap, and the German and Ottoman advance was halted. Chauvel ordered the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, which had been unable to turn the German and Ottoman flank, to move towards the New Zealanders who renewed their efforts, but they only succeeded in exposing their flanks, as the Australians were unable to conform to their forward movement. By 10:30, all progress had stopped. The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade continued to hold on in the centre, while both flanks were bent back by pressure from the strong German and Ottoman force. The result was that the New Zealanders ended up holding a very exposed salient line on the forward slopes of the hills overlooking the Hod. Fresh German or Ottoman reinforcements from El Arish, then launched a fierce counterattack on a front of about , on the centre. This fell on the Canterbury and Auckland Regiments and a squadron of Warwickshire Yeomanry of the 5th Mounted Brigade under Chaytor's command. The New Zealanders were supported by machine guns; one section, attached to the Canterbury Mounted Rifles Regiment, fired all their guns directly on the advancing soldiers, stopping them when they were within of the New Zealand position. By midday, the advance had been completely held up by determined counterattacks supported by fresh German or Ottoman troops from El Arish. Even more than at Katia on 5 August, these soldiers were more numerous, ready, full of fight and more strongly supported by well-placed Austrian and Ottoman guns delivering both heavy and accurate fire. At this time, the rearguard launched another heavy counterattack with two columns of 5,000 and 6,000 German and Ottoman soldiers against the Canterbury and Auckland Regiments and the squadron of the Warwickshire Yeomanry. By 14:00, the attack had extended to the mounted force's left flank where the Ayrshire Battery with Royston's Column was badly cut up by this fire, losing 39 horses killed and making it extremely difficulty to move the guns. They were forced to retire nearly and the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, after advancing well up on the right flank, was also forced to give ground by the accuracy of enemy shellfire. A further withdrawal by the 3rd Light Horse Brigade made the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade's position critical and at 17:30, Chauvel gave orders for a general retirement. Disengagement proved to be a challenge; it was only the tenacity of the New Zealanders and nightfall which saved them from certain capture. At the last, the Machine Gun Squadron had all its guns in line, some of them firing at a range of ; they were supported by squadrons of the 5th Mounted Brigade, which together, successfully covered the New Zealanders' withdrawal. After this day of fierce fighting, which has been described as the hardest-fought action of the whole Sinai campaign, the Anzac Mounted Division's advance was effectively stopped. Chauvel ordered the division to return to water at Oghratina, despite Lawrence's wish for them to bivouac close to Bir el Abd but Chauvel concluded that his force was in no condition to remain within reach of this strong and aggressive enemy force. Further, the Anzac Mounted Division had lost a significant proportion of their strength; over 300 casualties, including eight officers and 65 other ranks killed. Planned attack for 12 August At daylight on 10 August, strong patrols went forward and remained in touch with the force at Bir el Abd throughout the day, but without fresh troops, an attack in force could not be made. No serious fighting took place on 11 August, but von Kressenstein's force at Bir el Abd was watched and harassed, and plans were made for an attack on 12 August. The advance of the Anzac Mounted Division began at daylight, but soon afterwards, forward patrols reported that the garrison at Bir el Abd was retiring. The mounted force followed the Austrians, Germans and Ottomans as far as Salmana, where another rearguard action delayed the mounted force, as the enemy withdrawal continued back to El Arish. The Anzac Mounted Division's lines of communication were now fully extended, and the difficulties of supplying the mounted troops from Romani made it impossible for the British Empire mounted force to consider any further advance at that time. Arrangements were made to hold and garrison the country decisively won by this series of indecisive engagements, from Katia eastwards to Bir El Abd. Von Kressenstein succeeded in withdrawing his battered force from a potentially fatal situation; both his advance to Romani and the withdrawal were remarkable achievements of planning, leadership, staff work and endurance. Casualties According to the Australian official medical history, the total British Empire casualties were: Other sources put the total killed at 202, with all casualties at 1,130, of whom 900 were from the Anzac Mounted Division. Ottoman Army casualties have been estimated to have been 9,000; 1,250 were buried after the battle and 4,000 were taken prisoner. Casualties were cared for by medical officers, stretcher bearers, camel drivers and sand-cart drivers who worked tirelessly, often in the firing line, covering enormous distances in difficult conditions and doing all they could to relieve the suffering of the wounded. The casualties were transported on cacolets on camels or in sand-carts back to the field ambulances, as the heavy sand made it impossible to use motor- or horse-drawn ambulances. Between 4 and 9 August, the Anzac Mounted Division's five field ambulances brought in 1,314 patients, including 180 enemy wounded. In the absence of orders coordinating evacuation from the field ambulances, the assistant director of Medical Services (ADMS) made their own arrangements. The ADMS, Anzac Mounted Division arranged with his counterparts in the two infantry divisions to set up a clearing station at the railhead beyond Romani. This station was formed from medical units of the Anzac Mounted, the 42nd and the 52nd (Lowland) Divisions. With no orders from No. 3 Section Headquarters as to the method of evacuation of casualties of the three divisions, prisoners of war were transported back to Kantara by train before the wounded, generating amongst all ranks a feeling of resentment and distrust towards the higher command which lasted for a long time. Aftermath The Battle of Romani was the first large-scale mounted and infantry victory by the British Empire in the First World War. It occurred at a time when the Allied nations had experienced nothing but defeat, in France, at Salonika and at the capitulation of Kut in Mesopotamia. The battle has been widely acknowledged as a strategic victory and a turning point in the campaign to restore Egypt's territorial integrity and security, and marked the end of the land campaign against the Suez Canal. This series of successful British infantry and mounted operations resulted in the complete defeat of the 16,000 to 18,000 strong German, Austrian and Ottoman force, about half of whom were killed or wounded, and nearly 4,000 taken prisoner. Also captured were a mountain gun battery of four heavy guns, nine machine guns, a complete camel-pack machine gun company, 2,300 rifles and a million rounds of ammunition, two complete field hospitals with all instruments, fittings and drugs, while a great quantity of stores in the supply depot at Bir el Abd was destroyed. All the captured arms and equipment were made in Germany, and the camel-pack machine gun company's equipment had been especially designed for desert warfare. Many of the rifles were of the latest pattern and made of rustless steel. Murray estimated the total German and Ottoman casualties at about 9,000, while a German estimate put the loss at one third of the force (5,500 to 6,000), which seems low considering the number of prisoners. The tactics employed by the Anzac Mounted Division were to prove effective throughout the coming campaigns in the Sinai and in the Levant (also known at the time as Palestine). The key to the mounted rifles and light horse's approach was to quickly move onto tactical ground and then to effectively operate as infantry once dismounted. In defence, the artillery and machine guns wrought havoc on enemy attacks, and during the mounted advance, they covered and supported the British Empire mounted force. This battle was fought under extreme conditions in the Sinai desert in midsummer heat over many days, causing much suffering to man and beast and demanding tenacity and endurance on the part of all who took part. The battle of Romani marked the end of the German and Ottoman campaign against the Suez Canal; the offensive had passed decisively into the hands of the British Empire force led by the Anzac Mounted Division. After the battle, von Kressenstein's force was pushed back across the Sinai Peninsula, to be beaten at the Battle of Magdhaba in December 1916 and back to the border of Ottoman Empire-controlled Palestine to be defeated at the Battle of Rafa in January 1917, which effectively secured the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula. This successful, seven-month-long British Empire campaign, begun at Romani in August, ended at the First Battle of Gaza in March 1917. Some criticisms The Battle of Romani has, however, been surrounded with controversy and criticism. It has been suggested that, like the attack on the Suez Canal in 1915, it was merely a raid to disrupt maritime traffic rather than a determined attempt to gain control of the canal. That the Ottoman Empire's intention was to strongly occupy Romani and Kantara is supported by preparations in the southern territory of Palestine adjacent to, and extending into, the Sinai. These included extending the Palestine railway system to Wadi El Arish, with a good motor road beside the railway. Cisterns and other works were constructed along this route to store water and at Wadi El Arish, enormous rock cut reservoirs were under construction in December 1916 when the Anzac Mounted Division reached that place just before the Battle of Magdhaba. Murray, Lawrence and Chauvel have all been criticised for letting von Kressenstein's force escape. Further, it has been asserted that the tactics of the mounted troops actually helped the enemy withdrawal by concentrating on direct assaults rather than flank attacks. The official British historian acknowledges the disappointment caused by the successful retirement of the German, Austrian and Ottoman force but he also notes the quality of the successive rearguard positions constructed during the advance, and the strength, determination and endurance of the enemy. The strength of the rearguards was clearly demonstrated at Bir el Abd on 9 August, when the mounted force attempted to outflank the large entrenched force. They failed because they were greatly outnumbered. Indeed, if the Anzac Mounted Division had succeeded in getting round the flank without infantry support, they would have been faced with vastly superior forces and could have been annihilated. It has been suggested that an opportunity was lost on 5 August to encircle and capture the invading Austrian, German and Ottoman force when it was allowed to withdraw to Katia. The infantry's difficulties regarding the supply of water and camel transport combined with their lack of desert training, together with Lawrence's confusing orders for infantry in the 52nd (Lowland) Division to move south and east, stopped them from promptly advancing to cut off the retreating force in the early hours of the second day's battle. General Lawrence was criticised for taking a grave and unnecessary risk by relying on just one entrenched infantry division and two light horse brigades to defend Romani. That the strong enemy attack on the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades during the first night's battle pushed them so far back that the planned flanking attack by the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade became almost a frontal attack. Lawrence was also faulted for remaining at his headquarters at Kantara, which was considered to be too far from the battlefield, and that this contributed to his loss of control of the battle during the first day, when the telephone line was cut and he was out of contact with Romani. Lawrence was also criticised for not going forward to supervise the execution of his orders on 5 August, when there was a failure to coordinate the movements of the 3rd Light Horse Brigade and the Mobile Column. Chauvel responded by pointing out that the criticisms of the battle were in danger of obscuring the significance of the victory. Awards Murray lavished praise on the Anzac Mounted Division in cables to the Governors General of Australia and New Zealand and in his official despatch and in letters to Robertson, writing: Every day they show what an indispensable part of my forces they are ... I cannot speak too highly of the gallantry, steadfastness and untiring energy shown by this fine division throughout the operations ... These Anzac troops are the keystone of the defence of Egypt. But he failed to ensure the fighting qualities of these soldiers earned them a proportionate share of recognition and honours. Further, despite claims that Chauvel alone had a clear view of the battle, that his coolness and skill were crucial in gaining the victory, his name was omitted from the long list of honours published on New Year's Day 1917. Murray did offer Chauvel a lesser award (a Distinguished Service Order) for Romani which he declined. On reading Murray's description in his official despatch covering the battle, and reprinted in a Paris edition of the 'Daily Mail', Chauvel wrote to his wife on 3 December 1916, I am afraid my men will be very angry when they see it. I cannot understand why the old man cannot do justice to those to whom he owed so much and the whole thing is so absolutely inconsistent with what he had already cabled. It was not until after the victory at the Battle of Rafa that Chauvel was made a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George, but this particular order is awarded for important non-military service in a foreign country. It was not just his military service at Romani which had not been recognised, but also the service of all those who fought in the Anzac Mounted Division at Romani, at El Arish, at Magdhaba and at Rafa. In September 1917, not long after General Edmund Allenby became Commander in Chief of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, Chauvel wrote to GHQ to point out the injustice done to his front-line troops, acknowledging that it was "difficult to do anything now to right this, but consider the Commander-in-Chief should know that there is a great deal of bitterness over it." Notes References Bibliography Further reading External links The Turkish Rout at Romani – from a British illustrated magazine, published September 1916. Australian Light Horse Studies Centre has transcribed the complete War Diary (from 29 March to 27 July 1916) of the German 605th Machine Gun Company which was captured at Romani. Conflicts in 1916 1916 in Egypt Battles of World War I involving Australia Battles of World War I involving New Zealand Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire Battles of World War I involving Austria-Hungary Battles of World War I involving Germany Battles of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign History of the Royal Air Force during World War I August 1916 events Ismailia
401931	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri-State%20tornado%20outbreak	Tri-State tornado outbreak	On March 18, 1925, one of the deadliest tornado outbreaks in recorded history generated at least twelve significant tornadoes and spanned a large portion of the midwestern and southern United States. In all, at least 751 people were killed and more than 2,298 were injured, making the outbreak the deadliest tornado outbreak, March 18 the deadliest tornado day, and 1925 the deadliest tornado year in U.S. history. The outbreak generated several destructive tornadoes in Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on the same day, as well as significant tornadoes in Alabama and Kansas. In addition to confirmed tornadoes, there were undoubtedly others with lesser impacts, the occurrences of which have been lost to history. The outbreak included the Tri-State tornado, the deadliest disaster in Illinois, the deadliest tornado in U.S. history, and the second-deadliest registered in world history. The track left by the tornado, as it crossed from southeastern Missouri, through southern Illinois, and then into southwestern Indiana, is also the longest ever recorded. Modern meteorological re-analysis has suggested that the extremely long path length and lifespan reported in historical accounts are perhaps more plausibly attributed to multiple independent tornadoes belonging to a tornado family, rather than a single, continuous tornado. Although not officially rated by NOAA, the Tri-State tornado is recognized by most experts (such as Tom Grazulis and Ted Fujita) as an F5 tornado, the maximum damage rating issued on the Fujita scale. Background During a six-year review study of the Tri-State tornado published in 2013, new surface and upper air data was obtained and meteorological reanalysis was utilized, adding significantly to knowledge of the synoptic and even mesoscale background of the event. The late winter to early spring of 1925 was warmer and drier than normal over much of the central United States. There apparently was persistent ridging in the western U.S. with a troughing pattern over the central U.S. The extratropical cyclone that set the synoptic stage for the outbreak was centered over northwestern Montana at 7:00 a.m. CST (13:00 UTC) on March 17. Meanwhile, a diffuse area of surface low pressure was centered near Denver, Colorado, in association with a lee trough. Occluded fronts extended from Hudson Bay southwestward into the northern Plains states and into the lee trough. The synoptic cyclone moved south-southeastward across the mountain states to eastern Colorado. A warm front stretched along the Gulf Coast, separating warm, moist air from cool, showery weather with areas of fog that extended from Texas to the Carolinas. A well-mixed early-season continental tropical (cT) air mass existed over West Texas and northern New Mexico. To the east of this hot, dry air, buoyant maritime tropical (mT) air was advecting from the Gulf of Mexico. Simultaneously, a mid- to upper-level shortwave trough likely approached the northwest coast of the U.S. and moved rapidly through the persistent ridge then digging southeastward across the Great Basin and central Rocky Mountains and emerging in the Plains over Colorado. This initiated a "Colorado low" cyclogenesis. At 7:00 a.m. CST on March 18, the surface low-pressure area, at approximately , moved to far northeastern Oklahoma while the warm front shot north into the circulation where the front then extended eastward. A maritime Polar (mP) cold front draped southwestward across eastern Texas with a dry line forming directly to the south of the low. The open shortwave, likely somewhat negatively tilted, was continuing to approach from the northwest and an apparent outflow boundary moved just to the south of the warm front over northeastern Arkansas and northwestern Tennessee. Several weak pressure troughs were traversing the cool sector over the north-central U.S.. Surface temperatures in the warm sector near the dry line and warm front ranged from , and the dew point was , with higher values farther south and increasing over time as the deepening low-pressure area continued to pull up air from the Gulf of Mexico. This resulted in unstable air and lower cloud bases, or low LCL heights, which is favorable to tornadogenesis. From southeastern Kansas to Kentucky and Indiana, early morning showers and thunderstorms north of the low and warm front cooled and stabilized that air, retarding northward advancement of the front, and led to a sharp contrast in temperature from north to south. Such baroclinic zones are also associated with tornadic storms. Ahead of the surface dry line, which are uncommon as far east as the Mississippi River, an apparent "dry punch" of air aloft served to further increase instability. Concurrently, a capping inversion likely suppressed storms throughout the warm sector, leaving the Tri-State supercell undisturbed by nearby convection. By 12:00 p.m. CST (18:00 UTC), the deepening surface low was centered over south-central Missouri, the shortwave axis was moving easterly and oriented over eastern Oklahoma, and the dry line was rapidly advancing eastward directly south of the low as the warm front, situated due east of the low, slowly shifted northward. Morning clouds cleared by midday across much of the Tri-State tornado's eventual path. A pronounced pressure trough extended northeast of the low and signaled its future track as a prefrontal trough formed southeast of the low ahead of the dry line. A bulge in the dry line may also have been forming slightly south of the low, and southerly to southeasterly surface winds were backing and increasing with time throughout the warm sector. The Tri-State supercell formed in a highly favorable area just ahead of the triple point where the cold front, warm front, and dry line met. The supercell initiated very near the surface low and moved east-northeastward, faster than the low, such that the storm gradually deviated east of the low's track. The supercell remained near this "sweet spot" for a prolonged period as it also traveled near the highly baroclinic warm front (likely just across the cool side of the boundary) for several hours. By 2:00 p.m. CST (20:00 UTC), the low was centered slightly south-southwest of St. Louis, Missouri, as the Tri-State supercell neared the Mississippi River. Other storms in the warm sector, removed from the Tri-State supercell, were initiating around 3:00 p.m. CST (21:00 UTC). Around 4:00 p.m. CST (22:00 UTC), the low's central pressure lowered to around , centered over south-central Illinois, as the supercell was moving into Indiana. This pressure is not particularly low compared to many other outbreak setups, but the pressure gradient was strong, which induced strong gradient winds and significant advection in the warm sector. A very strong low level jet was also in place just above the surface as winds veered with height, resulting in low-level curvature and long hodographs. Strong wind shear thus existed, with pronounced directional shear likely in the vicinity of the warm front, with winds at the 700 hPa height level west-southwesterly around and winds at the 500 hPa level about . Theoretical hodographs returned estimated storm relative environmental helicity (SREH) values of 340 m2 s−2 in the vicinity of the Tri-State supercell track. Strong thunderstorms were now scattered throughout the warm sector and a line of severe thunderstorms was occurring near the dry line. The Tri-State supercell appeared to still be discrete and isolated, with a severe storm north of Cairo, Illinois, placed well to its south. By 6:00 p.m. CST (00:00 UTC), the shortwave axis was over eastern Missouri and was lifting northeast. At 7:00 p.m. CST (01:00 UTC), the low was placed near Indianapolis, Indiana, with numerous thunderstorms east and south of the low and a squall line moving into the southeastern U.S. Cold air advection behind the strong cold front fed into the cyclone as snow and sleet fell from eastern Iowa to central Michigan. At 7:00 a.m. CST on March 19, the low was deepening and lifting rapidly northeastward into Canada. Confirmed tornadoes These are estimated tornado ratings as tornado ratings in the United States are not official until 1950. Tri-State tornado The tornado was first sighted as a highly visible and relatively small condensation funnel in the rugged forested hills of Moore Township, Shannon County, Missouri, at about 12:40 p.m. CST. However, this was likely a separate member of the tornado family, and the main member likely began in Reynolds County, west-northwest of Ellington, around five minutes later. The first fatality occurred around 1:01 p.m. CST (19:01 UTC), when a farmer was caught off-guard north-northwest of Ellington. The tornado sped to the northeast, moving into Iron County and hitting the mining town of Annapolis. Within a matter of minutes, two people were killed and 90% of the town was leveled. It then crossed into the sparsely populated areas of Madison County south of Fredericktown, where near Cherokee Pass the tornado steadily began to grow larger. In Bollinger County, 32 children were injured when two schools were damaged. Multiple homes and farms were completely destroyed near Lixville, where a farmer and two children were killed, and a third child died from her injuries one week after the storm. Deep ground scouring was observed near the town of Sedgewickville as well. The tornado carried sheets of iron as far as away. Crossing into Perry County, the tornado reportedly developed a double funnel as it struck the town of Biehle, destroying many homes in and around the town and killing two people. At Brazeau, another farmer was gravely injured and died four days later. Altogether, at least 12 people (possibly more) died and another 200 were injured in Missouri. The tornado then crossed the Mississippi River into southern Illinois, debarking trees and deeply scouring the ground in rural areas before hitting the riverside town of Gorham at 2:30 p.m. CST (20:30 UTC), essentially obliterating the entire town. More than half the town's population was injured or killed; 30 were killed in the immediate storm and 170 were injured, six of whom later died. Continuing to the northeast at an average speed of (and up to ), the tornado cut a swath almost wide through the city of Murphysboro, a thriving coal shipping center and railroad town of 10,000. The tornado leveled all but the extreme southeastern side of town, where many densely populated working-class neighborhoods saw some of the storm's most horrific work. Entire rows of homes were leveled and swept away in some areas. After the tornado passed, large fires ignited and swept through the rubble, burning many of the trapped survivors alive. In all, 188 people died in the immediate storm at Murphysboro, including at least 20 who were never identified. The official number of injured was a staggering 623, while some other sources claim it could have been higher. Of those injured, 46 more later died, bringing the storm's death toll at Murphysboro to 234, to date being the highest exacted by a tornado of any single city in the United States. The tornado then struck the farming town of De Soto, which on a scale paralleling Gorham was virtually obliterated. Fifty-six people were killed in the immediate storm, and another 105 were injured, five of whom later died, and many homes were swept away. Thirty-three of the deaths were students that were killed in the partial collapse of the De Soto School, the worst tornadic death toll at a single school in U.S. history. Also killed at De Soto was Jackson County Deputy Sheriff George Boland. While on patrol when the storm struck, the tornado lifted him from the ground and he disappeared into the funnel. His body was never found. After exiting De Soto, the tornado clipped the northwest corner of Williamson County, narrowly missing the town of Hurst and striking the small village of Bush. Several homes were leveled, and pieces of wood were speared into the town's water tower. Heavy railroad axles were reportedly lifted and scattered across the railyard. The tornado killed 10 people in Bush and the surrounding area, and injured another 37, four of whom later died. Further east, the tornado crossed into Franklin County, narrowly missing the towns of Royalton and Zeigler, devastating rural areas and killing 25 people—20 of whom perished immediately and another five in the days to come—before heading towards the large mining town of West Frankfort. At the Orient Mine, a large multi-ton coal tipple was blown over and rolled by the tornado. Extreme damage continued east of town, as a railroad trestle was torn from its supports, and of railroad track was ripped from the ground and blown away. The immediate storm claimed 81 lives at West Frankfort, while injuring a staggering 410, 21 of whom later died, bringing the death toll for the town to 102. Several small mining villages in the area were obliterated, resulting in numerous fatalities. At Caldwell, a mining village northeast of West Frankfort, 24 people died in the storm, later to be joined by two more of the injured. The heaviest loss to befall a single family was exacted on that of Caldwell storekeeper Isaac 'Ike' Karnes, which lost 11 members. Karnes' wife, a married daughter and her husband, a daughter-in-law and seven grandchildren, ages ranging from newborn to seven years, died in the tornado. Further to the northeast, the tornado then completely destroyed the small town of Parrish, killing 28 people and injuring 60, five of whom later died, bringing the death toll at Parrish to 33. The destruction of the town was so complete that many residents and businesses moved on, and the town was never rebuilt. The storm continued to devastate more rural areas in the eastern side of the county, claiming another six lives. In all, the storm claimed 192 lives in Franklin County: 159 in the immediate impact and another 33 among the injured in the following weeks. The tornado proceeded to devastate additional rural areas across Hamilton and White counties, between the two counties claiming 45 lives and injuring 140, 20 of whom later died. As the tornado charged across Hamilton County south of McLeansboro, the tornado reached its greatest width at . Dozens of farms, homes, schools and churches were swept away, 28 people were killed, and nine more of those injured later died. In White County the tornado passed just two miles north of Carmi, missing the towns of Enfield and Crossville by just a few hundred yards. Another 17 were killed and 11 of those injured later died. Crossing the Wabash River just north of New Harmony, the tornado then entered Indiana. Grazing the northernmost edge of Posey County, the tornado struck and completely demolished the town of Griffin, where not a single structure was left untouched by the storm, and many were completely swept away; 41 people were killed at Griffin and in the surrounding areas, another 202 were injured, with five later dying, bringing the death toll at Griffin to 46. After exiting Griffin, the tornado made a slight turn towards the northeast as it crossed into Gibson County, devastating rural areas and clipping the northwest corner of Owensville, resulting in nine fatalities. The tornado then roared into the large factory town of Princeton, destroying much of the southern side of the town, killing 38 people and injuring 152, six of whom later died. The tornado traveled more than to the northeast, crossing into Pike County before finally dissipating at about 4:30 p.m. CST, near Oatsville. In Indiana, at least 95 (and probably more) perished. Non-tornadic effects Strong thunderstorms were reported in a broad area that also included parts of Oklahoma, Michigan, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Ontario. Numerous reports of hail and straight-line winds were reported, with up to hail recorded (by comparison, a softball is in diameter). What began in the early afternoon as discrete supercell thunderstorms eventually consolidated into a potent squall line. By all accounts it was a widespread outbreak with severe thunderstorms occurring as far east as Ohio, as far southwest as Louisiana, and as far southeast as Georgia. Aftermath and recovery In the immediate aftermath, hospitals from St. Louis to Evansville were inundated with the injured and dying, as the storm injured more than 2,000 people, 105 of whom later died from their injuries. In Missouri, relief trains carried the most seriously injured north to St. Louis, while the remainder were sent to hospitals at Perryville and Cape Girardeau. At Gorham, where half the town's population was injured, the Missouri Pacific Railroad shuttled most of the injured north to East St. Louis, and the remainder south to Cairo. The town hospital in Murphysboro, where several hundred were injured, was ill-equipped to deal with the casualties, prompting hundreds to be shipped out to other towns by train once the lines were cleared. The most seriously injured were sent by train to Barnes Hospital in St. Louis. For most of the injured, dying and destitute from Murphysboro, the college town of Carbondale, some seven miles to the southeast, provided a safe haven. However, at De Soto, chaos ensued as the affected were scattered in three different directions; six miles south to Carbondale, five miles east to Hurst, or for many, fourteen miles north to Du Quoin. For the tornado victims at Parrish, relief came from Thompsonville three miles to the southeast, where a team of railroad workers with the Illinois Central Railroad led by a heroic physician from Iowa, pulled a train directly into the demolished village. The train was loaded beyond capacity with the dead, injured and dying before proceeding to the northwest to the hospital at Benton. The storm claimed its final victim on January 3, 1926, when Gervais Burgess, a 46-year-old coal miner from West Frankfort, died from injuries sustained in the tornado. In addition to the dead and injured, thousands were left without shelter or food. Fires erupted, growing to conflagrations in some places, exacerbating the damage. In the end, a total of 695 were confirmed dead – 12 in Missouri, 95 in Indiana and 588 in Illinois. Three states, 14 counties, and more than 19 communities, four of which were effectively effaced (several of these and other rural areas never recovered), were in the path of the tornado, which had lasted a record duration of three and a half hours. Approximately 15,000 homes were destroyed by the Tri-State tornado. Total damage was estimated at $16.5 million in 1925 dollars; adjusted for increases in population/wealth and inflation, the toll is approximately $1.4 billion (1997 USD), surpassed only by two extremely destructive tornadoes, each of which was posthumously rated F4, both in the City of St. Louis, in 1896 and 1927. Nine schools across three states were destroyed, in which 69 students were killed. More schools were destroyed and more students killed (as well as the single school record of 33 deaths in De Soto, Illinois) than in any other tornadic event in U.S. history. Deaths occurred at many rural schools. Counting those returning home from schools and those that died in schools, the toll was 72 students. Approximately one-third of the tornado's victims were children. The rural death toll of 65 in Hamilton and White counties in southeastern Illinois is unprecedented. The tornado killed at least 20 farm owners in southeastern Illinois and southwestern Indiana, more than the combined total of the next four deadliest tornadoes in the history of the United States. Meteorological significance While no photographs or film reels of the Tri-State tornado were taken or are known to exist, the tornado was frequently described by witnesses as an "amorphous rolling fog" or "boiling clouds on the ground", and fooled normally weather-wise farm owners (in addition to people in general) who did not sense the danger until the storm was upon them. The condensation funnel was also reportedly sometimes wrapped in copious dust and debris, which likely obscured it and made it less recognizable. The parent supercell apparently transitioned to a high-precipitation (HP) variety by the time it struck West Frankfort, meaning that the tornado was not readily visible as it approached, as it was often shrouded in heavy rain and hail. The very strong tornado – modern meteorologists estimate that its wind speeds topped in some locations – at times exhibited an unusual appearance due partially to its size (at one point in Missouri, it was a full mile wide) and the probable low cloud base of its parent thunderstorm. The tornado was often accompanied by extreme downburst winds throughout the entirety of its course; the accompanying downburst periodically increased the width of the damage path from the overall average of , varying from wide at times. There has long been uncertainty as to whether the originally recognized reports of a path over 3.5 hours represent a single continuous tornado or multiple independently tracking tornadoes belonging to a tornado family. Because of the scarcity of verifiable meteorological data from the time of the event and the apparent absence of any record of a tornado having approached this path length and duration in the years since, doubts have been raised about the plausibility of the conclusion that a single tornado was responsible for them. To date no definitive conclusion has been reached and a complete understanding of what occurred remains unachieved. Modern meteorological theory regarding tornado and supercell morphology and dynamics suggests that a single tornado lasting for such a duration is highly improbable. Several other historical accounts of very long track (VLT) tornadoes have subsequently been determined to be the product of tornado families (notably the Charleston-Mattoon, Illinois tornado family of May 1917 and the Woodward, Oklahoma tornado family of April 1947). In more recent years, some VLT tornadoes and supercells have indeed occurred, with 12 tornadoes exceeding path lengths from 1980 to 2012, and 60 since 1950. Yet the high-end estimates of the Tri-State tornado path length are still far longer than the nearest verified VLT tornado. Only four tornadoes have confirmed paths longer than without being tornado families. Two of them occurred during the 2011 Super Outbreak, one an EF5, and another an EF4, another occurred during an outbreak in April 2010, rated EF4, and a fourth occurred in December 2021, also rated EF4. On the other hand, meteorological analysis reveals no record of any analogous mesoscale circumstances in recent history, meaning that the weather conditions which led to the Tri-State tornado were apparently unique. No single factor accounts for the exceptional path length and duration, though the fast forward motion of the tornado, which averaged , may have translated to more distance covered. In 2001, tornado expert Tom Grazulis wrote that the first of the track was probably the result of two or more tornadoes, and that a segment of the overall path length was seemingly continuous. Exhaustive research published in 2013 found no definitive resolution, but did locate additional tornado sightings and damage west of the previously known beginning of the tornado and east of the previously known ending, extending the total path length by to long. The scientists concluded it is likely that at least some of the track, both at the beginning and ending, was indeed caused by separate tornadoes. They also located a path (apparently created within a period of about 20 minutes) from a large tornado which was likely spawned from the same supercell and was about east-northeast of the aforementioned path ending. This brings the known length of the Tri-State tornado family to around over nearly 5.5 hours. The 2013 study concludes that it is likely that the segment from central Madison County, Missouri to Pike County, Indiana, was the result of one continuous tornado, and that the segment from central Bollinger County, Missouri to western Pike County, Indiana, was very likely the result of a single continuous tornado. Either of these two values still holds the record for the longest recorded tornado track. However, this segment of the path is considered most likely to be continuous solely because observations were sufficiently dense, whereas the portion from westernmost Reynolds County, Missouri, to westernmost Pike County, Indiana, contained several gaps in which eyewitnesses and reports of damage were lacking, owing primarily to sparse patterns of human settlement, but even this may well have been continuous because the alignment of reports showed a consistent heading, suggestive of a single tornado rather than a family. See also List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks List of North American tornadoes and tornado outbreaks List of tornado-related deaths at schools List of F5 and EF5 tornadoes Tornado outbreak sequence of December 18–20, 1957 – Produced another violent tornado that paralleled the Tri-State tornado in Illinois Daulatpur–Saturia tornado – Deadliest tornado worldwide in recorded history that struck Manikganj District in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989. Tornado outbreak of December 10–11, 2021 – Also known as the "Quad-State tornado outbreak", another deadly tornado outbreak that produced a long-tracked tornado, which was initially believed to have tracked over 4 states, but was later found to have not done so Notes References Sources External links 1925 Tri-State Tornado (NWS Paducah, KY) The Weather Channel's Storm of the Century list – #7 The Tri-State Tornado The Great Tri-State Tornado (RootsWeb Genealogy) The 1925 Tornado (Carolyar.com Genealogy) aerial film of damage path 'The 1925 Tri-State Tornado Damage Path Analysis' By R.H. Johns & Associates F5 tornadoes 20th-century tornadoes Tornadoes, 03-18 Tornadoes in Missouri Tornadoes in Illinois Tornadoes in Indiana Tornado, 1925-03-18 Tornado, 1925-03-18 Tornado, 1925-03-18 Tornado, 1925-03-18 Tornado, 1925-03-18 Tornado, 1925-03-18 Tornado, 1925-03-18 Tornado, 1925-03-18 Tornado, 1925-03-18 Tornado, 1925-03-18 Tornado, 1925-03-18 Tornado, 1925-03-18 Tornado, 1925-03-18 Tornado, 1925-03-18 Tornado, 03-18 Tornado, 03-18 Tornado, 03-18 Tornado, 18 Tornado, 03-18
401936	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo%20Frank	Leo Frank	Leo Max Frank (April 17, 1884August 17, 1915) was an American factory superintendent and lynching victim. He is primarily notable for his conviction in 1913 of the murder of a 13-year-old employee, Mary Phagan, in Atlanta, Georgia, although the general consensus among modern historians is that he was wrongfully convicted. Frank's trial, conviction, and appeals attracted national attention. His kidnapping from prison and lynching two years later, in response to the commutation of his death sentence, became the focus of social, regional, political, and racial concerns, particularly regarding antisemitism and racism. Modern researchers generally agree that Frank was wrongly convicted and Jim Conley was likely the actual murderer. Born to a Jewish-American family in Texas, Frank was raised in New York and earned a degree in mechanical engineering from Cornell University before moving to Atlanta in 1908. Marrying in 1910, he involved himself with the city's Jewish community and was elected president of the Atlanta chapter of the B'nai B'rith, a Jewish fraternal organization, in 1912. At that time, there were growing concerns regarding child labor at factories. One of these children was Mary Phagan, who worked at the National Pencil Company where Frank was director. The girl was strangled on April 26, 1913, and found dead in the factory's cellar the next morning. Two notes, made to look as if she had written them, were found beside her body. Based on the mention of a "night witch", they implicated the night watchman, Newt Lee. Over the course of their investigations, the police arrested several men, including Lee, Frank, and Jim Conley, a janitor at the factory. On May 24, 1913, Frank was indicted on a charge of murder and the case opened at Fulton County Superior Court, on July 28. The prosecution relied heavily on the testimony of Conley, who described himself as an accomplice in the aftermath of the murder, and who the defense at the trial argued was, in fact, the perpetrator of the murder. A guilty verdict was announced on August 25. Frank and his lawyers made a series of unsuccessful appeals; their final appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States failed in April 1915. Considering arguments from both sides as well as evidence not available at trial, Governor John M. Slaton commuted Frank's sentence from capital punishment to life imprisonment. The case attracted national press attention and many reporters deemed the conviction a travesty. Within Georgia, this outside criticism fueled antisemitism and hatred toward Frank. On August 16, 1915, he was kidnapped from prison by a group of armed men, and lynched at Marietta, Mary Phagan's hometown, the next morning. The new governor vowed to punish the lynchers, who included prominent Marietta citizens, but nobody was charged. In 1986, the Georgia State Board of Pardons and Paroles issued a pardon in recognition of the state's failures—including to protect Frank and preserve his opportunity to appeal—but took no stance on Frank's guilt or innocence. The case has inspired books, movies, a play, a musical, and a TV miniseries. The African American press condemned the lynching, but many African Americans also opposed Frank and his supporters over what historian Nancy MacLean described as a "virulently racist" characterization of Jim Conley, who was Black. His case spurred the creation of the Anti-Defamation League and the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan. Background Social and economic conditions In the early 20th century, Atlanta, Georgia's capital city, underwent significant economic and social change. To serve a growing economy based on manufacturing and commerce, many people left the countryside to relocate in Atlanta. Men from the traditional and paternalistic rural society felt it degrading that women were moving to the city to work in factories. During this era, Atlanta's rabbis and Jewish community leaders helped to resolve animosity toward Jews. In the half-century from 1895, David Marx was a prominent figure in the city. In order to aid assimilation, Marx's Reform temple adopted Americanized appearances. Friction developed between the city's German Jews, who were integrated, and Russian Jews who had recently immigrated. Marx said the new Russian Jews were "barbaric and ignorant" and believed their presence would create new antisemitic attitudes and a situation which made possible Frank's guilty verdict. Despite their success, many Jews recognized themselves as different from the Gentile majority and were uncomfortable with their image. Despite his own acceptance by Gentiles, Marx believed that "in isolated instances there is no prejudice entertained for the individual Jew, but there exists wide-spread and deep seated prejudice against Jews as an entire people." An example of the type of tension that Marx feared occurred in April 1913: at a conference on child labor, some participants blamed the problem, in part, on the fact that many factories were Jewish-owned. Historian Leonard Dinnerstein summarized Atlanta's situation in 1913 as follows: Early life Leo Max Frank was born in Cuero, Texas on April 17, 1884, to Rudolph Frank and Rachel "Rae" Jacobs. The family moved to Brooklyn when Leo was three months old. He attended New York City public schools and graduated from Pratt Institute in 1902. He then attended Cornell University, where he studied mechanical engineering. After graduating in 1906, he worked briefly as a draftsman and as a testing engineer. At the invitation of his uncle Moses Frank, Leo traveled to Atlanta for two weeks in late October 1907, to meet a delegation of investors for a position with the National Pencil Company, a manufacturing plant in which Moses was a major shareholder. Frank accepted the position, and traveled to Germany to study pencil manufacturing at the Eberhard Faber pencil factory. After a nine-month apprenticeship, Frank returned to the United States and began working at the National Pencil Company in August 1908. Frank became superintendent of the factory the following month, earning $180 per month plus a portion of the factory's profits. Frank was introduced to Lucille Selig shortly after he arrived in Atlanta. She came from a prominent, upper-middle class Jewish family of industrialists who, two generations earlier, had founded the first synagogue in Atlanta. They married in November 1910. Frank described his married life as happy. In 1912, Frank was elected president of the Atlanta chapter of the B'nai B'rith, a Jewish fraternal organization. The Jewish community in Atlanta was the largest in the Southern United States, and the Franks belonged to a cultured and philanthropic community whose leisure pursuits included opera and bridge. Although the Southern United States was not specifically known for its antisemitism, Frank's northern culture and Jewish faith added to the sense that he was different. Murder of Mary Phagan Phagan's early life Mary Phagan was born on June 1, 1899, into a Georgia family of tenant farmers. Her father died before she was born. Shortly after Mary's birth, her mother, Frances Phagan, moved the family back to their hometown of Marietta, Georgia. During or after 1907, they again relocated to East Point, Georgia, in southwest Atlanta, where Frances opened a boarding house. Phagan left school at age 10 to work part-time in a textile mill. In 1912, after her mother married John William Coleman, the family moved into the city of Atlanta. That spring, Phagan took a job with the National Pencil Company, where she earned ten cents an hour operating a knurling machine that inserted rubber erasers into the metal tips of pencils, and worked 55 hours per week. She worked across the hallway from Leo Frank's office. Discovery of Phagan's body On April 21, 1913, Phagan was laid off due to a materials shortage. Around noon on April 26, she went to the factory to claim her pay. The next day, shortly before 3:00 a.m., the factory's night watchman, Newt Lee, went to the factory basement to use the toilet. After leaving the toilet, Lee discovered Phagan's body in the rear of the basement near an incinerator and called the police. Her dress was up around her waist and a strip from her petticoat had been torn off and wrapped around her neck. Her face was blackened and scratched, and her head was bruised and battered. A strip of wrapping cord was tied into a loop around her neck, buried deep, showing that she had been strangled. Her underwear was still around her hips, but stained with blood and torn open. Her skin was covered with ashes and dirt from the floor, initially making it appear to first responding officers that she and her assailant had struggled in the basement. A service ramp at the rear of the basement led to a sliding door that opened into an alley; the police found the door had been tampered with so it could be opened without unlocking it. Later examination found bloody fingerprints on the door, as well as a metal pipe that had been used as a crowbar. Some evidence at the crime scene was improperly handled by the police investigators: a trail in the dirt (from the elevator shaft) along which police believed Phagan had been dragged was trampled; the footprints were never identified. Two notes were found in a pile of rubbish by Phagan's head, and became known as the "murder notes". One said: "he said he wood love me land down play like the night witch did it but that long tall black negro did boy his slef." The other said, "mam that negro hire down here did this i went to make water and he push me down that hole a long tall negro black that hoo it wase long sleam tall negro i write while play with me." The phrase "night witch" was thought to mean "night watch[man]"; when the notes were initially read aloud, Lee, who was black, said: "Boss, it looks like they are trying to lay it on me." Lee was arrested that morning based on these notes and his apparent familiarity with the bodyhe stated that the girl was white, when the police, because of the filth and darkness in the basement, initially thought she was black. A trail leading back to the elevator suggested to police that the body had been moved by Lee. Police investigation In addition to Lee, the police arrested a friend of Phagan's for the crime. Gradually, the police became convinced that these were not the culprits. By Monday, the police had theorized that the murder occurred on the second floor (the same as Frank's office) based on hair found on a lathe and what appeared to be blood on the ground of the second floor. Both Newt Lee, after the discovery of Phagan's body, and the police, just after 4 a.m., had unsuccessfully tried to telephone Frank early on Sunday, April 27. The police contacted him later that morning and he agreed to accompany them to the factory. When the police arrived after 7 a.m. without telling the specifics of what happened at the factory, Frank seemed extremely nervous, trembling, and pale; his voice was hoarse, and he was rubbing his hands and asking questions before the police could answer. Frank said he was not familiar with the name Mary Phagan and would need to check his payroll book. The detectives took Frank to the morgue to see Phagan's body and then to the factory, where Frank viewed the crime scene and walked the police through the entire building. Frank returned home about 10:45 a.m. At this point, Frank was not considered a suspect. On Monday, April 28, Frank, accompanied by his attorney, Luther Rosser, gave a written deposition to the police that provided a brief timeline of his activities on Saturday. He said Phagan was in his office between 12:05 and 12:10 p.m., that Lee had arrived at 4 p.m. but was asked to return later, and that Frank had a confrontation with ex-employee James Gantt at 6 p.m. as Frank was leaving and Lee arriving. Frank explained that Lee's time card for Sunday morning had several gaps (Lee was supposed to punch in every half-hour) that Frank had missed when he discussed the time card with police on Sunday. At Rosser's insistence, Frank exposed his body to demonstrate that he had no cuts or injuries and the police found no blood on the suit that Frank said he had worn on Saturday. The police found no blood stains on the laundry at Frank's house. Frank then met with N. V. Darley, his assistant, and Harry Scott of the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, whom Frank hired to investigate the case and prove his innocence. The Pinkerton detectives would investigate many leads, ranging from crime scene evidence to allegations of sexual misconduct on the part of Frank. The Pinkertons were required to submit duplicates of all evidence to the police, including any that hurt Frank's case. Unbeknownst to Frank, however, was Scott's close ties with the police, particularly his best friend, detective John Black, who believed in Frank's guilt from the outset. On Tuesday, April 29, Black went to Lee's residence at 11 a.m. looking for evidence, and found a blood-smeared shirt at the bottom of a burn barrel. The blood was smeared high up on the armpits and the shirt smelled unused, suggesting to the police that it was a plant. The detectives, suspicious of Frank due to his nervous behavior throughout his interviews, believed that Frank had arranged the plant. Frank was subsequently arrested around 11:30 a.m. at the factory. Steve Oney states that "no single development had persuaded ... [the police] that Leo Frank had murdered Mary Phagan. Instead, to the cumulative weight of Sunday's suspicions and Monday's misgivings had been added several last factors that tipped the scale against the superintendent." These factors were the dropped charges against two suspects; the rejection of rumors that Phagan had been seen on the streets, making Frank the last person to admit seeing Phagan; Frank's meeting with the Pinkertons; and a "shifting view of Newt Lee's role in the affair." The police were convinced Lee was involved as Frank's accomplice and that Frank was trying to implicate him. To bolster their case, the police staged a confrontation between Lee and Frank while both were still in custody; there were conflicting accounts of this meeting, but the police interpreted it as further implicating Frank. On Wednesday, April 30, a coroner's inquest was held. Frank testified about his activities on Saturday and other witnesses produced corroboration. A young man said that Phagan had complained to him about Frank. Several former employees spoke of Frank flirting with other women; one said she was actually propositioned. The detectives admitted that "they so far had obtained no conclusive evidence or clues in the baffling mystery ...". Lee and Frank were both ordered to be detained. In May, the detective William J. Burns traveled to Atlanta to offer further assistance in the case. However, his Burns Agency withdrew from the case later that month. C. W. Tobie, a detective from the Chicago affiliate who was assigned to the case, said that the agency "came down here to investigate a murder case, not to engage in petty politic[s]." The agency quickly became disillusioned with the many societal implications of the case, most notably the notion that Frank was able to evade prosecution due to his being a rich Jew, buying off the police and paying for private detectives. James "Jim" Conley The prosecution based much of its case on the testimony of Jim Conley, the factory's janitor, who is believed by many historians to be the actual murderer. The police had arrested Conley on May 1 after he had been seen washing red stains out of a blue work shirt; detectives examined it for blood, but determined that it was rust as Conley had claimed, and returned it. Conley was still in police custody two weeks later when he gave his first formal statement. He said that, on the day of the murder, he had been visiting saloons, shooting dice, and drinking. His story was called into question when a witness told detectives that "a black negro ... dressed in dark blue clothing and hat" had been seen in the lobby of the factory on the day of the murder. Further investigation determined that Conley could read and write, and there were similarities in his spelling with that found on the murder notes. On May 24, he admitted he had written the notes, swearing that Frank had called him to his office the day before the murder and told him to write them. After testing Conley again on his spellinghe spelled "night watchman" as "night witch"the police were convinced he had written the notes. They were skeptical about the rest of his story, not only because it implied premeditation by Frank, but also because it suggested that Frank had confessed to Conley and involved him. In a new affidavit (his second affidavit and third statement), Conley admitted he had lied about his Friday meeting with Frank. He said he had met Frank on the street on Saturday, and was told to follow him to the factory. Frank told him to hide in a wardrobe to avoid being seen by two women who were visiting Frank in his office. He said Frank dictated the murder notes for him to write, gave him cigarettes, then told him to leave the factory. Afterward, Conley said he went out drinking and saw a movie. He said he did not learn of the murder until he went to work on Monday. The police were satisfied with the new story, and both The Atlanta Journal and The Atlanta Georgian gave the story front-page coverage. Three officials of the pencil company were not convinced and said so to the Journal. They contended that Conley had followed another employee into the building, intending to rob her, but found Phagan was an easier target. The police placed little credence in the officials' theory, but had no explanation for the failure to locate Phagan's purse that other witnesses had testified she carried that day. They were also concerned that Conley did not mention that he was aware a crime had been committed when he wrote the notes, suggesting Frank had simply dictated the notes to Conley arbitrarily. To resolve their doubts, the police attempted on May 28 to arrange a confrontation between Frank and Conley. Frank exercised his right not to meet without his attorney, who was out of town. The police were quoted in The Atlanta Constitution saying that this refusal was an indication of Frank's guilt, and the meeting never took place. On May 29, Conley was interviewed for four hours. His new affidavit said that Frank told him, "he had picked up a girl back there and let her fall and that her head hit against something." Conley said he and Frank took the body to the basement via the elevator, then returned to Frank's office where the murder notes were dictated. Conley then hid in the wardrobe after the two had returned to the office. He said Frank gave him $200, but took it back, saying, "Let me have that and I will make it all right with you Monday if I live and nothing happens." Conley's affidavit concluded, "The reason I have not told this before is I thought Mr. Frank would get out and help me out and I decided to tell the whole truth about this matter." At trial, Conley changed his story concerning the $200. He said Frank decided to withhold the money until Conley had burned Phagan's body in the basement furnace. The Georgian hired William Manning Smith to represent Conley for $40. Smith was known for specializing in representing black clients, and had successfully defended a black man against an accusation of rape by a white woman. He had also taken an elderly black woman's civil case as far as the Georgia Supreme Court. Although Smith believed Conley had told the truth in his final affidavit, he became concerned that Conley was giving long jailhouse interviews with crowds of reporters. Smith was also anxious about reporters from the Hearst papers, who had taken Frank's side. He arranged for Conley to be moved to a different jail, and severed his own relationship with the Georgian. On February 24, 1914, Conley was sentenced to a year in jail for being an accomplice after the fact to Phagan's murder. Media coverage The Atlanta Constitution broke the story of the murder and was soon in competition with The Atlanta Journal and The Atlanta Georgian. Forty extra editions came out the day Phagan's murder was reported. The Atlanta Georgian published a doctored morgue photo of Phagan, in which her head was shown spliced onto the body of another girl. The papers offered a total of $1,800 in reward money for information leading to the apprehension of the murderer. Soon after the murder, Atlanta's mayor criticized the police for their steady release of information to the public. The governor, noting the reaction of the public to press sensationalism soon after Lee's and Frank's arrests, organized ten militia companies in case they were needed to repulse mob action against the prisoners. Coverage of the case in the local press continued nearly unabated throughout the investigation, trial, and subsequent appeal process. Newspaper reports throughout the period combined real evidence, unsubstantiated rumors, and journalistic speculation. Dinnerstein wrote, "Characterized by innuendo, misrepresentation, and distortion, the yellow journalism account of Mary Phagan's death aroused an anxious city, and within a few days, a shocked state." Different segments of the population focused on different aspects. Atlanta's working class saw Frank as "a defiler of young girls", while the German-Jewish community saw him as "an exemplary man and loyal husband." Albert Lindemann, author of The Jew Accused, opined that "ordinary people" may have had difficulty evaluating the often unreliable information and in "suspend[ing] judgment over a long period of time" while the case developed. As the press shaped public opinion, much of the public's attention was directed at the police and the prosecution, whom they expected to bring Phagan's killer to justice. The prosecutor, Hugh Dorsey, had recently lost two high-profile murder cases; one state newspaper wrote that "another defeat, and in a case where the feeling was so intense, would have been, in all likelihood, the end of Mr. Dorsey, as solicitor." Trial On May 23, 1913, a grand jury convened to hear evidence for an indictment against Frank for the murder of Phagan. The prosecutor, Hugh Dorsey, presented only enough information to obtain the indictment, assuring the jury that additional information would be provided during the trial. The next day, May 24, the jury voted for an indictment. Meanwhile, Frank's legal team suggested to the media that Jim Conley was the actual killer, and put pressure on another grand jury to indict him. The jury foreman, on his own authority, convened the jury on July 21; on Dorsey's advice, they decided not to indict Conley. On July 28, the trial began at the Fulton County Superior Court (old city hall building). The judge, Leonard S. Roan, had been serving as a judge in Georgia since 1900. The prosecution team was led by Dorsey and included William Smith (Conley's attorney and Dorsey's jury consultant). Frank was represented by a team of eight lawyersincluding jury selection specialistsled by Luther Rosser, Reuben Arnold, and Herbert Haas. In addition to the hundreds of spectators inside, a large crowd gathered outside to watch the trial through the windows. The defense, in their legal appeals, would later cite the crowds as factors in intimidation of the witnesses and jury. Both legal teams, in planning their trial strategy, considered the implications of trying a white man based on the testimony of a black man in front of an early 1900s Georgia jury. Jeffrey Melnick, author of Black-Jewish Relations on Trial: Leo Frank and Jim Conley in the New South, writes that the defense tried to picture Conley as "a new kind of African Americananarchic, degraded, and dangerous." Dorsey, however, pictured Conley as "a familiar type" of "old negro", like a minstrel or plantation worker. Dorsey's strategy played on prejudices of the white 1900s Georgia observers, i.e., that a black man could not have been intelligent enough to make up a complicated story. The prosecution argued that Conley's statement explaining the immediate aftermath of the murder was true, that Frank was the murderer, and that Frank had dictated the murder notes to Conley in an effort to pin the crime on Newt Lee, the night watchman. The prosecution presented witnesses who testified to bloodstains and strands of hair found on the lathe, to support their theory that the murder occurred on the factory's second floor in the machine room near Frank's office. The defense denied that the murder occurred on the second floor. Both sides contested the significance of physical evidence that suggested the place of the murder. Material found around Phagan's neck was shown to be present throughout the factory. The prosecution interpreted the scene in the basement to support Conley's storythat the body was carried there by elevatorwhile the defense suggested that the drag marks on the floor indicated that Conley carried the body down a ladder and then dragged it across the floor. The defense argued that Conley was the murderer and that Newt Lee helped Conley write the two murder notes. The defense brought many witnesses to support Frank's account of his movements, which indicated he did not have enough time to commit the crime. The defense, to support their theory that Conley murdered Phagan in a robbery, focused on Phagan's missing purse. Conley claimed in court that he saw Frank place the purse in his office safe, although he denied having seen the purse before the trial. Another witness testified that, on the Monday after the murder, the safe was open and there was no purse in it. The significance of Phagan's torn pay envelope was disputed by both sides. Frank's alleged sexual behavior The prosecution focused on Frank's alleged sexual behavior. They alleged that Frank, with Conley's assistance, regularly met with women in his office for sexual relations. On the day of the murder, Conley said he saw Phagan go upstairs, from where he heard a scream coming shortly after. He then said he dozed off; when he woke up, Frank called him upstairs and showed him Phagan's body, admitting that he had hurt her. Conley repeated statements from his affidavits that he and Frank took Phagan's body to the basement via the elevator, before returning in the elevator to the office where Frank dictated the murder notes. Conley was cross-examined by the defense for 16 hours over three days, but the defense failed to break his story. The defense then moved to have Conley's entire testimony concerning the alleged rendezvous stricken from the record. Judge Roan noted that an early objection might have been upheld, but since the jury could not forget what it had heard, he allowed the evidence to stand. The prosecution, to support Frank's alleged expectation of a visit from Phagan, produced Helen Ferguson, a factory worker who first informed Phagan's parents of her death. Ferguson testified that she had tried to get Phagan's pay on Friday from Frank, but was told that Phagan would have to come in person. Both the person behind the pay window and the woman behind Ferguson in the pay line disputed this version of events, testifying that in accordance with his normal practice, Frank did not disburse pay that day. The defense called a number of factory girls, who testified that they had never seen Frank flirting with or touching the girls, and that they considered him to be of good character. In the prosecution's rebuttal, Dorsey called "a steady parade of former factory workers" to ask them the question, "Do you know Mr. Frank's character for lasciviousness?" The answers were usually "bad". Timeline The prosecution realized early on that issues relating to time would be an essential part of its case. At trial, each side presented witnesses to support their version of the timeline for the hours before and after the murder. The starting point was the time of death; the prosecution, relying on the analysis of stomach contents by their expert witness, argued that Phagan died between 12:00 and 12:15 p.m. A prosecution witness, Monteen Stover, said she had gone into the office to get her paycheck, waiting there from 12:05 to 12:10, and did not see Frank in his office. The prosecution's theory was that Stover did not see Frank because he was at that time murdering Phagan in the metal room. Stover's account did not match Frank's initial account that he had not left the office between noon and 12:30. Other testimony indicated that Phagan exited the trolley (or tram) between 12:07 and 12:10. From the stop it was a two- to four-minute walk, suggesting that Stover arrived first, making her testimony and its implications irrelevant: Frank could not be killing Phagan because at the time she had not yet arrived. Lemmie Quinn, foreman of the metal room, testified that he spoke briefly with Frank in his office at 12:20. Frank had not mentioned Quinn when the police first interviewed him about his whereabouts at noontime on April 26. Frank had said at the coroner's inquest that Quinn arrived less than ten minutes after Phagan had left his office, and during the murder trial said Quinn arrived hardly five minutes after Phagan left. According to Conley and several experts called by the defense, it would have taken at least thirty minutes to murder Phagan, take the body to the basement, return to the office, and write the murder notes. By the defense's calculations, Frank's time was fully accounted for from 11:30 a.m. to 1:30 p.m., except for eighteen minutes between 12:02 and 12:20. Hattie Hall, a stenographer, said at trial that Frank had specifically requested that she come in that Saturday and that Frank had been working in his office from 11:00 to nearly noon. The prosecution labeled Quinn's testimony as "a fraud" and reminded the jury that early in the police investigation Frank had not mentioned Quinn. Newt Lee, the night watchman, arrived at work shortly before 4:00 and Frank, who was normally calm, came bustling out of his office. Frank told Lee that he had not yet finished his own work and asked Lee to return at 6:00. Newt Lee noticed that Frank was very agitated and asked if he could sleep in the packing room, but Frank was insistent that Lee leave the building and told Lee to go out and have a good time in town before coming back. When Lee returned at 6:00, James Gantt had also arrived. Lee told police that Gantt, a former employee who had been fired by Frank after $2 was found missing from the cash box, wanted to look for two pairs of shoes he had left at the factory. Frank allowed Gantt in, although Lee said that Frank appeared to be upset by Gantt's appearance. Frank arrived home at 6:25; at 7:00, he called Lee to determine if everything had gone all right with Gantt. Conviction and sentencing During the trial, the prosecution alleged bribery and witness tampering attempts by the Frank legal team. Meanwhile, the defense requested a mistrial because it believed the jurors had been intimidated by the people inside and outside the courtroom, but the motion was denied. Fearing for the safety of Frank and his lawyers in case of an acquittal, Roan and the defense agreed that neither Frank nor his defense attorneys would be present when the verdict was read. On August 25, 1913, after less than four hours of deliberation, the jury reached a unanimous guilty verdict convicting Frank of murder. The Constitution described the scene as Dorsey emerged from the steps of city hall: "...three muscular men swung Mr. Dorsey, (the prosecuting attorney,) on their shoulders and passed him over the heads of the crowd across the street to his office. With hat raised and tears coursing down his cheeks, the victor in Georgia's most noted criminal battle was tumbled over a shrieking throng that wildly proclaimed its admiration." On August 26, the day after the guilty verdict was reached by the jury, Judge Roan brought counsel into private chambers and sentenced Frank to death by hanging with the date set to October 10. The defense team issued a public protest, alleging that public opinion unconsciously influenced the jury to the prejudice of Frank. This argument was carried forward throughout the appeal process. Appeals Under Georgia law at the time, appeals of death penalty cases had to be based on errors of law, not a re-evaluation of the evidence presented at trial. The appeals process began with a reconsideration by the original trial judge. The defense presented a written appeal alleging 115 procedural problems. These included claims of jury prejudice, intimidation of the jury by the crowds outside the courthouse, the admission of Conley's testimony concerning Frank's alleged sexual perversions and activities, and the return of a verdict based on an improper weighing of the evidence. Both sides called forth witnesses involving the charges of prejudice and intimidation; while the defense relied on non-involved witness testimony, the prosecution found support from the testimony of the jurors themselves. On October 31, 1913, Judge Roan denied the motion, adding, "I have thought about this case more than any other I have ever tried. With all the thought I have put on this case, I am not thoroughly convinced that Frank is guilty or innocent. But I do not have to be convinced. The jury was convinced. There is no room to doubt that." State appeals The next step, a hearing before the Georgia Supreme Court, was held on December 15. In addition to presenting the existing written record, each side was granted two hours for oral arguments. In addition to the old arguments, the defense focused on the reservations expressed by Judge Roan at the reconsideration hearing, citing six cases where new trials had been granted after the trial judge expressed misgivings about the jury verdict. The prosecution countered with arguments that the evidence convicting Frank was substantial and that listing Judge Roan's doubts in the defense's bill of exceptions was not the proper vehicle for "carry[ing] the views of the judge." On February 17, 1914, in a 142-page decision, the court denied Frank a new trial by a 4–2 vote. The majority dismissed the allegations of bias by the jurors, saying the power of determining this rested strictly with the trial judge except when an "abuse of discretion" was proved. It also ruled that spectator influence could only be the basis of a new trial if ruled so by the trial judge. Conley's testimony on Frank's alleged sexual conduct was found to be admissible because, even though it suggested Frank had committed other crimes for which he was not charged, it made Conley's statements more credible and helped to explain Frank's motivation for committing the crime according to the majority. On Judge Roan's stated reservations, the court ruled that these did not trump his legal decision to deny a motion for a new trial. The dissenting justices restricted their opinion to Conley's testimony, which they declared should not have been allowed to stand: "It is perfectly clear to us that evidence of prior bad acts of lasciviousness committed by the defendant ... did not tend to prove a preexisting design, system, plan, or scheme, directed toward making an assault upon the deceased or killing her to prevent its disclosure." They concluded that the evidence prejudiced Frank in the jurors' eyes and denied him a fair trial. The last hearing exhausted Frank's ordinary state appeal rights. On March 7, 1914, Frank's execution was set for April 17 of that year. The defense continued to investigate the case and filed an extraordinary motion before the Georgia Supreme Court. This appeal, which would be held before a single justice, Ben Hill, was restricted to raising facts not available at the original trial. The application for appeal resulted in a stay of execution and the hearing opened on April 23, 1914. The defense successfully obtained a number of affidavits from witnesses repudiating their testimony. A state biologist said in a newspaper interview that his microscopic examination of the hair on the lathe shortly after the murder did not match Phagan's. At the same time that the various repudiations were leaked to the newspapers, the state was busy seeking repudiations of the new affidavits. An analysis of the murder notes, which had only been addressed in any detail in the closing arguments, suggested Conley composed them in the basement rather than writing what Frank told him to write in his office. Prison letters written by Conley to Annie Maude Carter were discovered; the defense then argued that these, along with Carter's testimony, implicated Conley as the actual murderer. The defense also raised a federal constitutional issue on whether Frank's absence from the court when the verdict was announced "constituted deprivation of the due process of law". Different attorneys were brought in to argue this point since Rosser and Arnold had acquiesced in Frank's absence. There was a debate between Rosser and Arnold on whether it should be raised at this time since its significance might be lost with all of the other evidence being presented. Louis Marshall, President of the American Jewish Committee and constitutional lawyer, urged them to raise the point, and the decision was made that it should be made clear that if the extraordinary motion was rejected they intended to appeal through the federal court system and there would be an impression of injustice in the trial. For almost every issue presented by the defense, the state had a response: most of the repudiations were either retracted or disavowed by the witnesses; the question of whether outdated order pads used to write the murder notes had been in the basement before the murder was disputed; the integrity of the defense's investigators were questioned and intimidation and bribery were charged; and the significance of Conley's letters to Annie Carter was disputed. The defense, in its rebuttal, tried to bolster the testimony relating to the murder notes and the Carter letters. (These issues were reexamined later when the governor considered commuting Frank's sentence.) During the defense's closing argument, the issue of the repudiations was put to rest by Judge Hill's ruling that the court could only consider the revocation of testimony if the subject were tried and found guilty of perjury. The judge denied Frank a new trial and the full court upheld the decision on November 14, 1914. The full court also said that the due process issue should have been raised earlier, characterizing what it considered a belated effort as "trifling with the court". Federal appeals The next step for the Frank team was to appeal the issue through the federal system. The original request for a writ of error on the absence of Frank from the jury's announcement of the verdict was first denied by Justice Joseph Rucker Lamar and then Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. Both denied the request because they agreed with the Georgia court that the issue was raised too late. The full Supreme Court then heard arguments, but denied the motion without issuing a written decision. However, Holmes said, "I very seriously doubt if the petitioner ... has had due process of law ... because of the trial taking place in the presence of a hostile demonstration and seemingly dangerous crowd, thought by the presiding Judge to be ready for violence unless a verdict of guilty was rendered." Holmes's statement, as well as public indignation over this latest rejection by the courts, encouraged Frank's team to attempt a habeas corpus motion, arguing that the threat of crowd violence had forced Frank to be absent from the verdict hearing and constituted a violation of due process. Justice Lamar heard the motion and agreed that the full Supreme Court should hear the appeal. On April 19, 1915, the Supreme Court denied the appeal by a 7–2 vote in the case Frank v. Mangum. Part of the decision repeated the message of the last decision: that Frank failed "to raise the objection in due season when fully cognizant of the fact." Holmes and Charles Evans Hughes dissented, with Holmes writing, "It is our duty to declare lynch law as little valid when practiced by a regularly drawn jury as when administered by one elected by a mob intent on death." Commutation of sentence Hearing On April 22, 1915, an application for a commutation of Frank's death sentence was submitted to a three-person Prison Commission in Georgia; it was rejected on June 9 by a vote of 2–1. The dissenter indicated that he felt it was wrong to execute a man "on the testimony of an accomplice, when the circumstances of the crime tend to fix the guilt upon the accomplice." The application then passed to Governor John Slaton. Slaton had been elected in 1912 and his term would end four days after Frank's scheduled execution. In 1913, before Phagan's murder, Slaton agreed to merge his law firm with that of Luther Rosser, who became Frank's lead attorney (Slaton was not directly involved in the original trial). After the commutation, popular Georgia politician Tom Watson attacked Slaton, often focusing on his partnership with Rosser as a conflict of interest. Slaton opened hearings on June 12. In addition to receiving presentations from both sides with new arguments and evidence, Slaton visited the crime scene and reviewed over 10,000 pages of documents. This included various letters, including one written by Judge Roan shortly before he died asking Slaton to correct his mistake. Slaton also received more than 1,000 death threats. During the hearing, former Governor Joseph Brown warned Slaton, "In all frankness, if Your Excellency wishes to invoke lynch law in Georgia and destroy trial by jury, the way to do it is by retrying this case and reversing all the courts." According to Tom Watson's biographer, C. Vann Woodward, "While the hearings of the petition to commute were in progress Watson sent a friend to the governor with the promise that if Slaton allowed Frank to hang, Watson would be his 'friend', which would result in his 'becoming United States senator and the master of Georgia politics for twenty years to come.'" Slaton produced a 29-page report. In the first part, he criticized outsiders who were unfamiliar with the evidence, especially the press in the North. He defended the trial court's decision, which he felt was sufficient for a guilty verdict. He summarized points of the state's case against Frank that "any reasonable person" would accept and said of Conley that "It is hard to conceive that any man's power of fabrication of minute details could reach that which Conley showed, unless it be the truth." After having made these points, Slaton's narrative changed course and asked the rhetorical question, "Did Conley speak the truth?" Leonard Dinnerstein wrote, "Slaton based his opinions primarily upon the inconsistencies he had discovered in the narrative of Jim Conley." Two factors stood out to Slaton: the transporting of the body to the basement and the murder notes. Transport of the body During the initial investigation, police had noted undisturbed human excrement in the elevator shaft, which Conley said he had left there before the murder. Use of the elevator on the Monday after the murder crushed the excrement, which Slaton concluded was an indication that the elevator could not have been used as described by Conley, casting doubt on his testimony. During the commutation hearing, Slaton asked Dorsey to address this issue. Dorsey said that the elevator did not always go all the way to the bottom and could be stopped anywhere. Frank's attorney rebutted this by quoting Conley, who said that the elevator stops when it hits the bottom. Slaton interviewed others and conducted his own tests on his visit to the factory, concluding that every time the elevator made the trip to the basement it touched the bottom. Slaton said, "If the elevator was not used by Conley and Frank in taking the body to the basement, then the explanation of Conley cannot be accepted." Murder notes The murder notes had been analyzed before at the extraordinary motion hearing. Handwriting expert Albert S. Osborn reviewed the previous evidence at the commutation hearing and commented, for the first time, that the notes were written in the third person rather than the first person. He said that the first person would have been more logical since they were intended to be the final statements of a dying Phagan. He argued this was the type of error that Conley would have made, rather than Frank, as Conley was a sweeper and not a Cornell-educated manager like Frank. Conley's former attorney, William Smith, had become convinced that his client had committed the murder. Smith produced a 100-page analysis of the notes for the defense. He analyzed "speech and writing patterns" and "spelling, grammar, repetition of adjectives, [and] favorite verb forms". He concluded, "In this article I show clearly that Conley did not tell the truth about those notes." Slaton compared the murder notes, Conley's letters to Annie Maude Carter, and his trial testimony. Throughout these documents, he found similar use of the words "like", "play", "lay", "love", and "hisself". He also found double adjectives such as "long tall negro", "tall, slim build heavy man", and "good long wide piece of cord in his hands". Slaton was also convinced that the murder notes were written in the basement, not in Frank's office. Slaton accepted the defense's argument that the notes were written on dated order pads signed by a former employee that were only kept in the basement. Slaton wrote that the employee signed an affidavit stating that, when he left the company in 1912, "he personally packed up all of the duplicate orders ... and sent them down to the basement to be burned. This evidence was never passed upon by the jury and developed since the trial." Timing and physical evidence Slaton's narrative touched on other aspects of the evidence and testimony that suggested reasonable doubt. For example, he accepted the defense's argument that charges by Conley of perversion were based on someone coaching him that Jews were circumcised. He accepted the defense's interpretation of the timeline; citing the evidence produced at trialincluding the possibility that Stover did not see Frank because she did not proceed further than the outer officehe wrote: "Therefore, Monteen Stover must have arrived before Mary Phagan, and while Monteen Stover was in the room it hardly seems possible under the evidence, that Mary Phagan was at that time being murdered." Slaton also said that Phagan's head wound must have bled profusely, yet there was no blood found on the lathe, the ground nearby, in the elevator, or the steps leading downstairs. He also said that Phagan's nostrils and mouth were filled with dirt and sawdust which could only have come from the basement. Slaton also commented on Conley's story (that Conley was watching out for the arrival of a lady for Frank on the day of the murder): Conclusion On Monday, June 21, 1915, Slaton released the order to commute Frank's murder conviction to life imprisonment. Slaton's legal rationale was that there was sufficient new evidence not available at the original trial to justify Frank's actions. He wrote: The commutation was headline news. Atlanta Mayor Jimmy Woodward remarked that "The larger part of the population believes Frank guilty and that the commutation was a mistake." In response, Slaton invited the press to his home that afternoon, telling them: He also told reporters that he was certain that Conley was the actual murderer. Slaton privately told friends that he would have issued a full pardon, if not for his belief that Frank would soon be able to prove his own innocence. Reaction of the public The public was outraged. A mob threatened to attack the governor at his home. A detachment of the Georgia National Guard, along with county policemen and a group of Slaton's friends who were sworn in as deputies, dispersed the mob. Slaton had been a popular governor, but he and his wife left Georgia immediately thereafter. For Frank's protection, he was taken to the Milledgeville State Penitentiary in the middle of the night before the commutation was announced. The penitentiary was "strongly garrisoned and newly bristling with arms" and separated from Marietta by of mostly unpaved road. However, on July 17, The New York Times reported that fellow inmate William Creen tried to kill Frank by slashing his throat with a butcher knife, severing his jugular vein. The attacker told the authorities he "wanted to keep the other inmates safe from mob violence, Frank's presence was a disgrace to the prison, and he was sure he would be pardoned if he killed Frank." Antisemitism and media coverage The sensationalism in the press started before the trial and continued throughout the trial, the appeals process, the commutation decision, and beyond. At the time, local papers were the dominant source of information, but they were not entirely anti-Frank. The Constitution alone assumed Frank's guilt, while both the Georgian and the Journal would later comment about the public hysteria in Atlanta during the trial, each suggesting the need to reexamine the evidence against the defendant. On March 14, 1914, while the extraordinary motion hearing was pending, the Journal called for a new trial, saying that to execute Frank based on the atmosphere both within and outside the courtroom would "amount to judicial murder." Other newspapers in the state followed suit and many ministers spoke from the pulpit supporting a new trial. L. O. Bricker, the pastor of the church attended by Phagan's family, said that based on "the awful tension of public feeling, it was next to impossible for a jury of our fellow human beings to have granted him a fair, fearless and impartial trial." On October 12, 1913, the New York Sun became the first major Northern paper to give a detailed account of the Frank trial. In discussing the charges of antisemitism in the trial, it described Atlanta as more liberal on the subject than any other Southern cities. It went on to say that antisemitism did arise during the trial as Atlantans reacted to statements attributed to Frank's Jewish supporters, who dismissed Phagan as "nothing but a factory girl". The paper said, "The anti-Semitic feeling was the natural result of the belief that the Jews had banded to free Frank, innocent or guilty. The supposed solidarity of the Jews for Frank, even if he was guilty, caused a Gentile solidarity against him." On November 8, 1913, the executive committee of the American Jewish Committee, headed by Louis Marshall, addressed the Frank case. They did so following Judge Roan's reconsideration motion and motivated by the issues raised in the Sun. They chose not to take a public stance as a committee, instead deciding to raise funds individually to influence public opinion in favor of Frank. Albert Lasker, a wealthy advertising magnate, responded to these calls to help Frank. Lasker contributed personal funds and arranged a public relations effort in support of Frank. In Atlanta, during the time of the extraordinary motion, Lasker coordinated Frank's meetings with the press and coined the slogan "The Truth Is on the March" to characterize the efforts of Frank's defense team. He persuaded prominent figures such as Thomas Edison, Henry Ford, and Jane Addams to make statements supporting Frank. During the commutation hearing, Vice President Thomas R. Marshall weighed in, as did many leading magazine and newspaper editors, including Herbert Croly, editor of the New Republic; C.P.J. Mooney, editor of the Chicago Tribune; Mark Sullivan, editor of Collier's; R. E. Stafford, editor of the Daily Oklahoman; and D. D. Moore, editor of the New Orleans Times-Picayune. Adolph Ochs, publisher of The New York Times, became involved about the same time as Lasker, organizing a prolonged campaign advocating for a new trial for Frank. Lindemann argues that the publicity campaign had a wide national reach:Outside of Georgia, as the case gained national visibility, widespread sympathy for Frank was expressed. He received at final count close to a hundred thousand letters of sympathy in jail, and prominent figures throughout the country, including governors of other states, U.S. senators, clergymen, university presidents, and labor leaders, spoke up in his defense. Thousands of petitions in his favor, containing over a million signatures, flowed in. Both Ochs and Lasker attempted to heed Louis Marshall's warnings about antagonizing the "sensitiveness of the southern people and engender the feeling that the north is criticizing the courts and the people of Georgia." Dinnerstein writes that these attempts failed, "because many Georgians interpreted every item favorable to Frank as a hostile act." Tom Watson, editor of the Jeffersonian, had remained publicly silent during Frank's trial. Among Watson's political enemies was Senator Hoke Smith, former owner of The Atlanta Journal, which was still considered to be Smith's political instrument. When the Journal called for a reevaluation of the evidence against Frank, Watson, in the March 19, 1914, edition of his magazine, attacked Smith for trying "to bring the courts into disrepute, drag down the judges to the level of criminals, and destroy the confidence of the people in the orderly process of the law." Watson also questioned whether Frank expected "extraordinary favors and immunities because of his race" and questioned the wisdom of Jews to "risk the good name ... of the whole race" to save "the decadent offshoot of a great people." Subsequent articles concentrated on the Frank case and became more and more impassioned in their attacks. C. Vann Woodward writes that Watson "pulled all the stops: Southern chivalry, sectional animus, race prejudice, class consciousness, agrarian resentment, state pride." When describing the public reaction to Frank, historians mention the class and ethnic tensions in play while acknowledging the complexity of the case and the difficulty in gauging the importance of his Jewishness, class, and northern background. Historian John Higham writes that "economic resentment, frustrated progressivism, and race consciousness combined to produce a classic case of lynch law. ... Hatred of organized wealth reaching into Georgia from outside became a hatred of Jewish wealth." Historian Nancy MacLean writes that some historians have argued that this was an American Dreyfus affair, which she said "[could] be explained only in light of the social tensions unleashed by the growth of industry and cities in the turn-of-the-century South. These circumstances made a Jewish employer a more fitting scapegoat for disgruntled whites than the other leading suspect in the case, a black worker." Albert Lindemann said that Frank on trial found himself "in a position of much latent tension and symbolism." Stating that it is impossible to determine the extent to which antisemitism affected his image, he concluded that "[Frank was seen as] a representative of Yankee capitalism in a southern city, with row upon row of southern women, often the daughters and wives of ruined farmers, 'at his mercy'a rich, punctilious, northern Jew lording it over vulnerable and impoverished working women." Abduction and lynching of Frank The June 21, 1915, commutation provoked Tom Watson into advocating Frank's lynching. He wrote in The Jeffersonian and Watson's Magazine: "This country has nothing to fear from its rural communities. Lynch law is a good sign; it shows that a sense of justice lives among the people." A group of prominent men organized themselves into the "Vigilance Committee" and openly planned to kidnap Frank from prison. They consisted of 28 men with various skills: an electrician was to cut the prison wires, car mechanics were to keep the cars running, and there was a locksmith, a telephone man, a medic, a hangman, and a lay preacher. The ringleaders were well known locally, but were not named publicly until June 2000, when a local librarian posted a list on the Web based on information compiled by Phagan's great-niece, Mary Phagan Kean (b. 1953). The list included Joseph Mackey Brown, former governor of Georgia; Eugene Herbert Clay, former mayor of Marietta and later president of the Georgia Senate; E. P. Dobbs, mayor of Marietta at the time; Moultrie McKinney Sessions, lawyer and banker; part of the Marietta delegation at Governor Slaton's clemency hearing; several current and former Cobb County sheriffs; and other individuals of various professions. On the afternoon of August 16, the eight cars of the lynch mob left Marietta separately for Milledgeville. They arrived at the prison at around 10:00 p.m., and the electrician cut the telephone wires, members of the group drained the gas from the prison's automobiles, handcuffed the warden, seized Frank, and drove away. The trip took about seven hours at a top speed of through small towns on back roads. Lookouts in the towns telephoned ahead to the next town as soon as they saw the line of cars pass by. A site at Frey's Gin, two miles (3 km) east of Marietta, had been prepared, complete with a rope and table supplied by former Sheriff William Frey. The New York Times reported Frank was handcuffed, his legs tied at the ankles, and that he was hanged from a branch of a tree at around 7:00 a.m., facing the direction of the house where Phagan had lived. The Atlanta Journal wrote that a crowd of men, women, and children arrived on foot, in cars, and on horses, and that souvenir hunters cut away parts of his shirt sleeves. According to The New York Times, one of the onlookers, Robert E. Lee Howellrelated to Clark Howell, editor of The Atlanta Constitutionwanted to have the body cut into pieces and burned, and began to run around, screaming, whipping up the mob. Judge Newt Morris tried to restore order, and asked for a vote on whether the body should be returned to the parents intact; only Howell disagreed. When the body was cut down, Howell started stamping on Frank's face and chest; Morris quickly placed the body in a basket, and he and his driver John Stephens Wood drove it out of Marietta. In Atlanta, thousands besieged the undertaker's parlor, demanding to see the body; after they began throwing bricks, they were allowed to file past the corpse. Frank's body was then transported by rail on Southern Railway's train No. 36 from Atlanta to New York and buried in the Mount Carmel Cemetery in Glendale, Queens, New York on August 20, 1915. (When Lucille Frank died, she was not buried with Leo; she was cremated, and eventually buried next to her parents' graves.) After the trial and lynching Immediate reactions On August 19, 1915, The New York Times reported that the vast majority of Cobb County believed Frank had received his "just deserts", and that the lynch mob had simply stepped in to uphold the law after Governor Slaton arbitrarily set it aside. A Cobb County grand jury was convened to indict the lynchers; although they were well known locally, none were identified, and some of the lynchers may have served on the very same grand jury that was investigating them. Nat Harris, the newly elected governor who succeeded Slaton, promised to punish the mob, issuing a $1,500 state reward for information. Despite this, Charles Willis Thompson of The New York Times said that the citizens of Marietta "would die rather than reveal their knowledge or even their suspicion [of the identities of the lynchers]", and the local Macon Telegraph said, "Doubtless they can be apprehendeddoubtful they will." Several photographs were taken of the lynching, which were published and sold as postcards in local stores for 25 cents each; also sold were pieces of the rope, Frank's nightshirt, and branches from the tree. According to Elaine Marie Alphin, author of An Unspeakable Crime: The Prosecution and Persecution of Leo Frank, they were selling so fast that the police announced that sellers would require a city license. In the postcards, members of the lynch mob or crowd can be seen posing in front of the body, one of them holding a portable camera. Historian Amy Louise Wood writes that local newspapers did not publish the photographs because it would have been too controversial, given that the lynch mob can be clearly seen and that the lynching was being condemned around the country. The Columbia State newspaper, which opposed the lynching, sarcastically wrote: "The heroic Marietta lynchers are too modest to give their photographs to the newspapers." Wood also writes that a news film of the lynching that included the photographs was released, although it focused on the crowds without showing Frank's body; its showing was prevented by censorship boards around the U.S., though Wood says there is no evidence that it was stopped in Atlanta. The lynching of Frank and its publicity temporarily halted lynchings. Frank's case was mentioned by Adolf Kraus when he announced the creation of the Anti-Defamation League in October 1913. After Frank's lynching, around half of Georgia's 3,000 Jews left the state. According to author Steve Oney, "What it did to Southern Jews can't be discounted ... It drove them into a state of denial about their Judaism. They became even more assimilated, anti-Israel, Episcopalian. The Temple did away with chupahs at weddingsanything that would draw attention." Many American Jews saw Frank as an American Alfred Dreyfus, like Frank, a victim of antisemitic persecution. Two weeks after the lynching, in the September 2, 1915, issue of The Jeffersonian, Watson wrote, "the voice of the people is the voice of God", capitalizing on his sensational coverage of the controversial trial. In 1914, when Watson began reporting his anti-Frank message, The Jeffersonian's circulation had been 25,000; by September 2, 1915, its circulation was 87,000. Later consensus: a miscarriage of justice The consensus of researchers on the subject is that Frank was wrongly convicted. The Atlanta Constitution stated it was investigating the case again in the 1940s. A reporter who visited Frank's widow (she never remarried), Lucille, stated that she started crying when he discussed the case with her. Jeffrey Melnick wrote, "There is near unanimity around the idea that Frank was most certainly innocent of the crime of murdering Mary Phagan." Other historians and journalists have written that the trial was "a miscarriage of justice" and "a gross injustice", "a mockery of justice", that "there can be no doubt, of course, that ... [Frank was] innocent", that "Leo Frank ... was unjustly and wrongly convicted of murder", that he "was falsely convicted", and that "the evidence against Frank was shaky, to say the least". C. Vann Woodward, like many other authors, believed that Conley was the actual murderer and was "implicated by evidence overwhelmingly more incriminating than any produced against Frank." Critics cite a number of problems with the conviction. Local newspaper coverage, even before Frank was officially charged, was deemed to be inaccurate and prejudicial. Some claimed that the prosecutor Hugh Dorsey was under pressure for a quick conviction because of recent unsolved murders and made a premature decision that Frank was guilty, a decision that his personal ambition would not allow him to reconsider. Later analysis of evidence, primarily by Governor Slaton and Conley's attorney William Smith, seemed to exculpate Frank while implicating Conley. Although, overwhelmingly, the evidence points to Frank's innocence, the case has become a modern focal point for neo-Nazis and anti-Semites. This is partly because it led to the creation of the Anti-Defamation League but also because it fed into anti-semitic conspiracy theories claiming Jewish control of the media. As a consequence, in recent years a number of websites have been established by white supremacists disputing the prevailing consensus of Frank's innocence. On the centenary of the trial, the Anti-Defamation League issued a press release condemning what it called "misleading websites" from "anti-Semites ... to promote anti-Jewish views". Applications for posthumous pardon First attempt In 1982, Alonzo Mann, who had been Frank's office boy at the time of Phagan's murder, told The Tennessean that he had seen Jim Conley alone shortly after noon carrying Phagan's body through the lobby toward the ladder descending into the basement. Though Mann's testimony was not sufficient to settle the issue, it was the basis of an attempt by Charles Wittenstein, Southern counsel for the Anti-Defamation League, and Dale Schwartz, an Atlanta lawyer, to obtain a posthumous pardon for Frank from the Georgia State Board of Pardons and Paroles. The board also reviewed the files from Slaton's commutation decision. It denied the pardon in 1983, hindered in its investigation by the lack of available records. It concluded that, "After exhaustive review and many hours of deliberation, it is impossible to decide conclusively the guilt or innocence of Leo M. Frank. For the board to grant a pardon, the innocence of the subject must be shown conclusively." At the time, the lead editorial in The Atlanta Constitution began, "Leo Frank has been lynched a second time." Second attempt Frank supporters submitted a second application for pardon, asking the state only to recognize its culpability over his death. The board granted the pardon in 1986. It said: In response to the pardon, an editorial by Fred Grimm in the Miami Herald said, "A salve for one of the South's most hateful, festering memories, was finally applied." Historical marker In 2008, a state historical marker was erected by the Georgia Historical Society, the Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation, and Temple Kol Emeth, near the building at 1200 Roswell Road, Marietta where Frank was lynched. In 2015, the Georgia Historical Society, the Atlanta History Center, and the Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation dedicated a Georgia Historical Society marker honoring Governor John M. Slaton at the Atlanta History Center. Anti-lynching memorial In 2018, The Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation, with support from the ADL, and Rabbi Steve Lebow of Temple Kol Emeth, placed the first national anti-lynching memorial at the Georgia Department of Transportation designated Leo Frank memorial site. The anti-lynching memorial was facilitated by a strong letter of support to the Georgia Department of Transportation by the late Congressman John Lewis when the Department turned down siting permission. The text of the anti-lynching memorial text reads, "In Respectful Memory of the Thousands Across America, Denied Justice by Lynching; Victims of Hatred, Prejudice and Ignorance. Between 1880-1946, ~570 Georgians Were Lynched." Conviction Integrity Unit In 2019, Fulton County District Attorney Paul Howard founded an eight-member panel called the Conviction Integrity Unit to investigate the cases of Wayne Williams and Frank. The board will re-examine the cases and make recommendations to Howard on whether they should be re-adjudicated. In popular culture During the trial, the Atlanta musician and millworker Fiddlin' John Carson wrote and performed a murder ballad entitled "Little Mary Phagan". During the mill strikes of 1914, Carson sang "Little Mary Phagan" to crowds from the Fulton County courthouse steps. His daughter, Moonshine Kate, later recorded the song. An unrecorded Carson song, "Dear Old Oak in Georgia", sentimentalizes the tree from which Leo Frank was hanged. The Frank case has been the subject of several media adaptations. In 1921, African-American director Oscar Micheaux directed a silent race film entitled The Gunsaulus Mystery, followed by Murder in Harlem in 1935. In 1937, Mervyn LeRoy directed They Won't Forget, based on the Ward Greene novel Death in The Deep South, which was in turn inspired by the Frank case. An episode of the 1964 TV series Profiles in Courage dramatized Governor John M. Slaton's decision to commute Frank's sentence. The episode starred Walter Matthau as Governor Slaton and Michael Constantine as Tom Watson. The 1988 TV miniseries The Murder of Mary Phagan was broadcast on NBC, starring Jack Lemmon as Gov. John Slaton and also featuring Kevin Spacey. The 1998 Broadway musical Parade, based on the case, won two Tony Awards. In 2009, Ben Loeterman directed the documentary film The People v. Leo Frank. A 2023 Broadway revival of Parade won the Tony Awards for Best Revival of a Musical and Best Direction of a Musical. See also Blood libel Beilis affair Antisemitism in the United States Lynching of Samuel Bierfield Abraham Surasky References Informational notes Citations Bibliography Alphin, Elaine Marie. An Unspeakable Crime: The Prosecution and Persecution of Leo Frank. Carolrhoda Books, 2010. Google Books abridged version. Retrieved June 10, 2011. . Carter, Dan. "And the Dead Shall Rise: The Murder of Mary Phagan and the Lynching of Leo Frank". Journal of Southern History, Vol. 71, Issue 2 (May 2005), p. 491. DOI: 10.2307/27648797. Chanes, Jerome. "Who Does What?". In Maisel, Louis; Forman, Ira; Altschiller, Donald; Bassett, Charles. Jews in American Politics: Essays. Rowman & Littlefield, 2001. p. 105. . Coleman, Kenneth. A History of Georgia. University of Georgia Press, 1991. . Dinnerstein, Leonard. Antisemitism in America. Oxford University Press, 1994. Google Books abridged version. Retrieved June 5, 2016. . Dinnerstein, Leonard. The Leo Frank Case. University of Georgia Press, 1987. . Eakin, Frank. What Price Prejudice?: Christian Antisemitism in America. Paulist Press, 1998. . Freedman, Eric. Habeas Corpus: Rethinking the Great Writ of Liberty. New York University Press, 2003. Retrieved August 23, 2014. . Frey, Robert Seitz; Thompson-Frey, Nancy. The Silent and the Damned: The Murder of Mary Phagan and the Lynching of Leo Frank. New York, New York: Cooper Square Press (of Rowman & Littlefield), 2002. Google Books abridged version. Retrieved June 17, 2015. . Friedman, Lawrence M. "Front Page: Notes on the Nature and Significance of Headline Trials". St. Louis University Law Journal, Vol. 55, Issue 4 (Summer 2011), pp. 1243–1284. Golden, Harry. A Little Girl is Dead. World Publishing Company, 1965. Retrieved June 25, 2011. (published in Great Britain as The Lynching of Leo Frank) Henig, Gerald. "'He Did Not Have a Fair Trial': California Progressives React to the Leo Frank Case". California History, Vol. 58, No. 2 (Summer 1979), pp. 166–178. DOI: 10.2307/25157909. Higham, John. Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860–1925. Rutgers University Press, 1988. . Knight, Alfred H. The Life of the Law. Oxford University Press, 1996. Google Books abridged version. . Kranson, Rachel. "Rethinking the Historiography of American Antisemitism in the Wake of the Pittsburgh Shooting." American Jewish History 105.1 (2021): 247-253. summary Lawson, John Davison (ed.). American State Trials Volume X (1918), contains the abridged trial testimony and closing arguments starting on p. 182. Retrieved August 23, 2010. Lindemann, Albert S. The Jew Accused: Three Anti-Semitic Affairs (Dreyfus, Beilis, Frank), 1894–1915. Cambridge University Press, 1991. Google Books abridged version. Retrieved June 11, 2011. . MacLean, Nancy. "The Leo Frank Case Reconsidered: Gender and Sexual Politics in the Making of Reactionary Populism". The Journal of American History, Vol. 78, No. 3 (December 1991), pp. 917–948. DOI: 10.2307/2078796. Melnick, Jeffrey Paul. Black-Jewish Relations on Trial: Leo Frank and Jim Conley in the New South. University Press of Mississippi, 2000. Google Books abridged version. . Moore, Deborah. B'nai B'rith and the Challenge of Ethnic Leadership. State University of New York Press, 1981. . Moseley, Clement Charlton. "The Case of Leo M. Frank, 1913–1915". The Georgia Historical Quarterly, Vol. 51, No. 1 (March 1967), pp. 42–62. Oney, Steve. And the Dead Shall Rise: The Murder of Mary Phagan and the Lynching of Leo Frank. Pantheon Books, 2003. . Phagan Kean, Mary. The Murder of Little Mary Phagan. Horizon Press, 1987. . Samuels, Charles; Samuels, Louise Night Fell on Georgia, Dell, 1956 Theoharis, Athan; Cox, John Stuart. The Boss: J. Edgar Hoover and the Great American Inquisition. Temple University Press, 1988. . Watson, D. R. "Reviewed Works: Dreyfus: A Family Affair, 1789–1945 by Michael Burns; The Jew Accused: Three Anti-Semitic Affairs (Dreyfus, Beilis, Frank), 1894–1915 by Albert S. Lindemann". The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 66, No. 2 (June 1994), pp. 393–395. DOI: 10.1086/244854. Wood, Amy Louise. Lynching and Spectacle. The University of North Carolina Press, 2009. . Woodward, Comer Vann. Tom Watson: Agrarian Rebel. New York: Oxford University Press, 1963. Google Books abridged version. External links Historical marker at the Old Marietta City Cemetery, Marietta, Georgia Leo Frank Clemency File from the Georgia Archives Leo Frank Exhibit from the Digital Library of Georgia Leo Frank Papers from the Digital Library of Georgia Leo M. Frank v. C. Wheeler Mangum, Sheriff of Fulton County, Georgia Writ of habeas corpus filed by Frank 1884 births 1915 deaths 1915 murders in the United States Burials at Mount Hebron Cemetery (New York City) Jewish-American lynching victims Murdered American Jews 20th-century controversies in the United States Cornell University College of Engineering alumni Lynching deaths in Georgia (U.S. state) People convicted of murder by Georgia (U.S. state) People from Atlanta People from Brooklyn People from Cuero, Texas People from Marietta, Georgia People murdered in Georgia (U.S. state) People who have received posthumous pardons Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by Georgia (U.S. state) Recipients of American gubernatorial clemency Recipients of American gubernatorial pardons Antisemitic attacks and incidents in the United States Jews and Judaism in Georgia (U.S. state) 1915 in Judaism Victims of antisemitic violence Prisoners sentenced to death by Georgia (U.S. state) American prisoners sentenced to death Wrongful convictions
401950	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerson%20College	Emerson College	Emerson College is a private college with its main campus in Boston, Massachusetts. It also maintains campuses in Hollywood, Los Angeles, California and Well, Limburg, Netherlands (Kasteel Well). Founded in 1880 by Charles Wesley Emerson as a "school of oratory," the college offers more than three dozen degree and professional training programs specializing in the fields of arts and communication with a foundation in liberal arts studies. The college is one of the founding members of the ProArts Consortium, an association of six neighboring institutions in Boston dedicated to arts education at the collegiate level. Emerson is also notable for the college's namesake public opinion poll, Emerson College Polling. Originally based in Boston's Pemberton Square, the college moved neighborhoods several times, and is now located in the Theater District along the south side of the Boston Common. Emerson owns and operates the historic Colonial, Paramount, and Cutler Majestic theaters, as well as several smaller performance venues. History Origins Charles Wesley Emerson founded the Boston Conservatory of Elocution, Oratory, and Dramatic Art in 1880, a year after Boston University closed its School of Oratory. Classes were held at Pemberton Square in Boston, where ten students enrolled in the conservatory's first class. The following year, the institution changed its name to the Monroe Conservatory of Oratory, in honor of Charles Emerson's teacher at Boston University's School of Oratory, Professor Lewis B. Monroe. In 1890, the name changed again to Emerson College of Oratory and was later shortened to Emerson College in 1939. Early expansion and growth The college expanded and rented space at 36 Bromfield Street, and moved to Odd Fellows Hall on Berkeley and Tremont Streets in the South End of Boston. With the new location, the college's first library was established in 1892. Henry Lawrence Southwick, a faculty member and alumnus, became a financial partner for the college with Emerson. This financial partnership led to the acquisition of the Boston School of Oratory from Moses T. Brown in 1894. At the turn of the century, faculty members Henry and Jessie Eldridge Southwick and William H. Kenney purchased the college from Dr. Emerson. Soon after, the college rented a new location in Chickering Hall. Dr. Emerson retired in 1903 and William J. Rolfe, a Shakespearean scholar and actor, was named the second President of Emerson College of Oratory. His service as president lasted until his retirement in 1908. As the Student Government Association of the college held its first meeting in 1908, the third president of the college, Henry Lawrence Southwick, was inaugurated. He introduced the study of acting and stagecraft into the college curriculum. During his tenure, the college rented a new building at 30 Huntington Avenue in Copley Square. The college was also granted the right to award Bachelor of Literary Interpretation (B.L.I.) degrees. In addition, Emerson became the first school with a collegiate-level program in children's theater in 1919. The school offered its first course in Journalism in 1924. The college purchased its first piece of real estate with a new women's dormitory building at 373 Commonwealth Avenue in the Back Bay, and started intramural sports in 1931 with the organization of volleyball games. Administrative restructuring In 1930, full charge and control of the college was transferred to the Board of Trustees by William H. Kenney, Henry Lawrence Southwick, and Jessie Eldridge Southwick. When Harry Seymour Ross was appointed the fourth president of Emerson College in 1931, the first course in Radio Broadcasting was taught by the program director of WEEI, a Boston AM radio station. The purchase of buildings at 130 Beacon Street and 128 Beacon Street a year later began the presence of Emerson College in Boston's Back Bay. Emerson kept ownership of these buildings until summer 2003. In the following years, a professional training program in Speech Pathology (1935) and the first undergraduate program in Broadcast Journalism (1937) were offered for the first time in the United States. Construction of a theater behind 128–130 Beacon began, and the institution was granted the right to award Master of Arts degrees. Post-war era In the post-war era, the G.I. Bill of Rights and the Broadcasting curriculum contributed to the rebalancing of the student body from a primarily-female population to an equally-balanced population of men and women. Boylston Green, the first president to have no prior association with the college, used his background as a dean of students to enhance extracurricular activities, including the establishment of a student activities fee. These efforts led to the first publication of Emerson's student newspaper, The Berkeley Beacon, in 1947, which is still in production today. Emerson also saw major development in its broadcasting program. A one-year Certificate of Broadcasting was offered via evening classes. The FCC awarded the college a 10-watt license in 1949, and WERS, the first educational FM radio station in New England, was born. The station's power was increased to 300 watts three years later, and 18,000 watts by 1953. At the start of the decade, in 1950, Emerson College became a member of the New England Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, an accreditation association for schools and colleges in New England. President Green left the college in 1949 after being selected as president of the University of the South, and Godfrey Dewey served as Acting President until 1951. At that time, Jonathon French was appointed as Acting President, and he became president in December of that year, despite never being formally inaugurated. Financial crisis of 1952 and recovery The college suffered from a severe financial crisis in 1952, and sought $50,000 in emergency funding. At the time, the Chairman of the Corporation stated that without these funds, the college had three alternatives: go broke, sell out, or merge with another institution. Led by the National Alumni Council, a grassroots campaign was launched to improve the financial situation of the college. The efforts led to the resignation of the Council of Trustees, which was then replaced mostly by alumni. The new board elected a former Emerson history professor, S. Justus McKinley, as the fifth President of Emerson College. Pulling out of its financial crisis, the college started to develop its programs with new facilities. In 1953, Emerson opened The Robbins Speech, Language and Hearing Clinic at 145 Beacon Street, furthering the Communication Sciences and Disorders Program. A television studio was dedicated at 130 Beacon in 1954, with its first closed-circuit TV program the following year as WERS-TV. The first annual spring musical, Lady in the Dark by Moss Hart, was presented. Later, the school was authorized to grant honorary degrees, Bachelors and Masters of Science in speech, and a Bachelors of Music in conjunction with the Longy School of Music. Back Bay as Emerson's campus As the 1960s started, 373 Commonwealth Avenue was sold to purchase a dormitory at 100 Beacon Street for 609 undergraduate and 29 graduate students. A year later, a building at 150 Beacon Street was obtained for dorms, a dining hall, and administrative offices. With major gifts from Elisabeth Abbot Smith and J.F. Buzzard, the college library moved from the fourth floor of 130 Beacon Street into its own building at 303 Berkeley Street. In 1964, two buildings were purchased: 96 Beacon Street, which became the student union building, and 132–134 Beacon Street, which became a dormitory. The campus remained primarily in Back Bay until the late 1990s. In 1967, Richard Chapin, former Dean of the Harvard Business School was inaugurated as the seventh president of Emerson College. Shortly afterwards, an academic planning committee approved a new course of study for general education requirements. The first level of this program replaced the college-wide requirements with a two-year interdisciplinary course of study and electives. In order to accommodate this new program, the building at 67–69 Brimmer Street was purchased. The Institute of Interdisciplinary Studies was born. A year later in 1972, the college gained authorization to grant BFA, and MFA degrees. Attempted relocation Though Emerson College has moved to various locations within the city of Boston, the appointment of Allen E. Koenig (the ninth President of Emerson College) almost took the college completely outside of Boston. As soon as he was inaugurated in 1979, Koenig initiated talks with Pine Manor College in Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts to relocate Emerson and merge the two schools. However, an agreement was never reached and the plan was dropped entirely. At the start of the 1980s, Koenig made a proposal to the board of trustees for a major renovation of the college's facilities. The plan allowed for new performance spaces, classrooms, and faculty offices at Brimmer Street; remodeling the Library and Learning Resources Center at 150 Beacon; remodeling the 303 Berkeley building for the Humanities and Social Sciences Division; a new radio/audio complex at 126 Beacon; and construction of two new television studios behind 130 Beacon. In 1984, 335 Commonwealth Avenue was purchased for Administration and the Communication Studies department. The college also received the authorization to grant MFA degrees in Creative Writing. Despite the newly purchased Commonwealth Avenue buildings, Lawrence, Massachusetts, was soon being discussed as a new location for Emerson College, about away from Boston. The Mayor of Lawrence announced that the necessary land would be taken by eminent domain and sold to Emerson for a token payment of $100. However, the five affected private landowners disagreed with this arrangement and fought the city in court. Three years later in 1988, Judge John Forte ruled in favor of the City of Lawrence. The river-front site in Lawrence was proposed as the new campus for the college. However, as real estate values in Boston dropped and the costs of constructing a new campus increased, the plans were put on hold and eventually abandoned when Koenig resigned as president in 1989. In 1988, the college bought a building at Zero Marlborough Street (also known as 6 Arlington Street) for dormitories and a dining hall. Rebirth in the Historic Theater District John Zacharis became the tenth President of Emerson College and faced a college fractured by the failed move to Lawrence, Massachusetts. Over the course of two years, he worked to restore unity to the campus by purchasing a building at 180 Tremont Street, now called the Ansin Building. This purchase started a transition from Back Bay to the Boston Theater District. Zacharis went on medical leave in 1992 and died of leukemia shortly after. During Zacharis's leave, speech pathologist Jacqueline Weis Liebergott was appointed as Acting President and, a year later, inaugurated to become the first female president of the college. Shortly after, she submitted a 10-year master plan to the Boston Redevelopment Authority which involved moving the college to the Washington Street Theatre District. In the mid-1990s, a planning document of the college's future plans was drafted and public hearings were held. The college also extended health care benefits to domestic partners of gay and lesbian faculty, administration and staff. Under the plan, dental coverage and tuition waivers were also available. That same year, the college debuted online with a $100,000 gift from Mrs. Mary E. Tufte. Financed by the contribution, The Tufte Lab was placed on the fourth floor of the Ansin Building and dedicated in Mrs. Tufte's honor. The lab was the catalyst for a telecommunications/fiber optic network installation, which was completed in October 1995. In addition, the college announced the purchase and restoration of The Little Building (1994) across the street from the Ansin Building and next to Emerson's Majestic Theatre. Restoration was completed on the facades of the college's buildings at 126, 128, 130, 132–134, 168 Beacon Street, and 21 Commonwealth Avenue. In 1998, Emerson purchased the Walker Building (Boston) at 120 Boylston. The building currently hosts the school's Department of Television, Radio, Film Production, the Institutional Advancement (Alumni and Development) department, and the Government and Community Relations department. It also contains the school's library and many of its classrooms. 21st century The Tufte Performance Production Center (PPC) at 10 Boylston Place opened in 2003. The 11-story steel-and-glass building houses the Department of Performing Arts and includes two theaters (The Semel Theatre and The Greene Theatre), two television studios, makeup and costume labs, faculty offices, and an exhibition area. Also that year, the Cutler Majestic Theatre finished renovations and re-opened as one of the main stages of Emerson Stage productions. Circa 2001 Emerson adjuncts voted to establish a union and in 2004 ratified its first contract with the college. The Affiliated Faculty of Emerson College, American Association of University Professors (AFEC-AAUP) represents 240 adjunct faculty members at Emerson College as of 2022. In 2004, it was announced that the buildings at 96, 100, and 132 Beacon had been sold and would be vacated by the Fall 2006 semester. Construction of a new 14-story residence hall at 150 Boylston Street began in March 2004, and was completed in September 2006. It is the first entirely-new residence hall in Emerson's history. The facility includes residential suites, athletic facilities, offices and meeting rooms for student organizations, informal gathering places for off-campus students, spaces for small-group rehearsals and performances, and dining facilities. The school purchased the historic Paramount Theatre (Boston) on Washington Street in 2005, with plans to build a new complex at the site including a 565-seat main stage theater inside the existing Paramount Theater and a 125-seat black box theater in an adjacent new building. Plans also included a 200-seat film screening room, eight rehearsal studios ranging from , six smaller rehearsal spaces, a sound stage for film students, a new scene shop, and a dormitory. In May 2006, the Campus Center in the Piano Row building was named the Max Mutchnick Campus Center after a major gift from the 1987 graduate and co-creator of the television sitcom Will & Grace. In the same year, the school exercised its purchase option on the Colonial Theatre, adjacent to the Little Building, and then converted the upper floors of the building to a 372-bed dormitory. With the addition of dorm space here and at the Paramount Theatre, the school hoped to accommodate up to 75% of its students in on-campus housing by 2010. In September 2006, a long-running labor dispute between the administrators and faculty union was resolved. The administration limited the union's role in promotion and tenure, and brought department chairs into administrative roles, where they were not covered by the union. In response, the college agreed not to dismantle the union. In September 2007, students in Emerson Alliance for Gays, Lesbians, and Everyone (E.A.G.L.E.) as well as the Student Government Association (S.G.A.) received the gender neutral bathrooms they had pitched to the administration in the spring. In September 2016, every bathroom on Emerson's campus was converted into a gender inclusive restroom. On December 2, 2009, President Liebergott announced she would step down in June 2011. On September 8, 2010, the college announced she would be succeeded by M. Lee Pelton of Willamette University. On March 18, 2010, the newly renovated Paramount Center officially opened, with Boston Mayor Thomas M. Menino illuminating the Paramount's original art deco marquee, which Emerson had restored. In addition to the 590-seat Paramount Theatre, the Paramount Center also houses an experimental black box theater, the Bright Family Screening Room, a sound stage, a scene/prop production shop, nine rehearsal studios, six practice rooms, four classrooms, 20 faculty offices, and a student commons area. , two students are suing the college for mishandling their rape cases and failing to provide their Title IX rights. In late 2019, Marlboro College announced that it would merge with Emerson at the end of the 2019–20 academic year. Under the agreement, finalized on July 23, 2020, Marlboro gave its endowment to Emerson, which created the Marlboro Institute of Liberal Arts and Interdisciplinary Studies. Marlboro students were guaranteed admission and tenure-track faculty were guaranteed teaching positions at Emerson. At that time, Marlboro had approximately 150 students. In December 2020, President Lee Pelton announced his planned departure from the college in June 2021 to assume a new role as CEO and President of the Boston Foundation. Jay M. Bernhardt became the 13th president of Emerson College on June 1, 2023, after serving as Dean of the Moody College of Communication at The University of Texas at Austin (UT). Campus Emerson College's permanent move from the Back Bay to its current location revitalized and preserved the distinct character and profiles of the surrounding neighborhoods, which comprise many significant historic landmarks and structures - the most notable being Boston Public Garden and Boston Common. Presently, the majority of the college's acquired properties were reclaimed, renovated and/or restored without having to introduce new developments into the Downtown core. Abutting the southeast corner of the Boston Common, the 8-acre urban campus at the intersection of Boylston Street and Tremont Street is served by Boylston station on the MBTA Green Line and Chinatown station on the Orange Line. In addition, Emerson College extends its campus outside Massachusetts state, operating in a fourteenth-century castle in the Netherlands and a major academic center on Sunset Boulevard in Hollywood for its long-established Los Angeles program. Academic and theater buildings Ansin Building (180 Tremont Street) Once owned by the Boston Edison Company, the Ansin Building was purchased by Emerson in 1992. The building stands 14 stories high and contains all Visual & Media Arts (VMA) labs and facilities, offices for all VMA and Writing, Literature & Publishing (WLP) departments, and is the home of WERS, WECB, and ETIN (Emerson's Talk and Information Network, an online radio service). It also contains the registrar's office, Tufte and 3D computer labs, Digital Production labs, and the Media Services center. 216 Tremont Street The former Union Bank building at 216 Tremont Street houses the Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders and the in-house clinic, The Robbins Speech, Language and Hearing Center. Also located here are the offices of Student Financial Services, Health Services, Career Services, the Counseling Center and the International Student Center. The Bill Bordy Theater and Auditorium on the ground floor is used for lectures, performances, performance classes and special events. Computer labs: Communication Sciences and Disorders Lab (CSD) Walker Building (120 Boylston Street) Provides classrooms, study rooms, offices to various non-academic and academic departments, five computer labs, and the Iwasaki Library. The fifth and sixth floors connect to the Tufte building. Computer labs: Advanced Projects Lab (APL), Advanced Teaching Lab (ATL), Communication & Marketing Labs (CML) 1, 2, and Journalism Lab (JRL) Production facilities: Newsroom TV Studio, Newsroom Editing Labs Academic facilities: Iwasaki Library, Emerson College Archives and Special Collections One of the sets of popular NBC sitcom Will & Grace (1998–2006, 2017–2020), donated by Emerson alumnus Max Mutchnick, was displayed in the Iwasaki Library. The set, Will and Grace's living room and kitchen, remained in the library until 2013, when it was moved to Emerson's Los Angeles campus. Tufte Performance Production Center (10 Boylston Place) The 11-story building is home to two television studios, two performing art theaters, the Huret and Spector Gallery, set and costume studios, classrooms, and the offices of the Department of Performing Arts. The fifth and sixth floors of the building are connected to the Walker Building. Computer labs: CAD Lab Performance theaters and facilities: Semel Theatre, The Kermit and Elinore Greene Theater, The Bobbi Brown and Steven Plofker Design Technology and Makeup Studio Television studio and facilities: Di Bona Television Studio & Control Room, Studio B & Control Room Cutler Majestic Theatre (219 Tremont Street) The Cutler Majestic Theatre is home to Emerson Stage productions each year, various speaking events, Open House, and the EVVY Awards, Emerson's own award show and the largest student-run live television production in the country. Paramount Center (555 Washington Street) Opening in 1932 as a movie theatre seating 1,700, the Paramount Center was one of the first movie houses in Boston to play talking motion pictures. In 2005, Emerson College announced plans to renovate the Paramount Theatre, building an entire performing arts facility in and around the theatre. The renovated Paramount Center was designed by Elkus Manfredi Architects of Boston and built by Bond Brothers, and completed in 2010. The project included not only renovating the Paramount Theatre into a 550-seat theater, but building both a new Performance Development Center and a new residence hall for the school on the 6th through 9th floors of the building. The complex features the 120-seat Liebergott Black Box Theatre, the 174-seat Bright Family Screening Room, nine rehearsal studios ranging from , five practice rooms for individuals and small groups, a sound stage for film production classes, a scene shop, several classrooms, a restaurant, and Emerson faculty and staff offices. Little Building (80 Boylston Street) Emerson College purchased the building in 1994 and converted it into a 750-bed dormitory, which opened in September 1995. In 2016, the college unveiled plans to do a complete renovation of the Little Building, which would replace and restore the building's façade and add an additional floor behind the parapet on the top of the building, adding approximately 300 beds. The renovated dorm opened for the Fall 2019 semester and now houses up to 1,035 residents. 2 Boylston Place 2 Boylston Place is the most recent addition to the campus, It opened in 2017, and contains an 18-story residence hall that houses approximately 375 students. External programs ELA—Hollywood Center (Los Angeles) Situated on Sunset Boulevard (at Gordon St) in Hollywood, ELA building is a permanent home to Emerson's decades-old Los Angeles program. The international design firm Morphosis, headed by Pritzker Prize winning architect Thom Mayne, designed a signature building incorporating residential, teaching and administrative spaces. The 10-story building was opened for the college's winter semester in 2014. The new facility accommodates 217 students, approximately twice the number of students that were supported by Emerson's older facility in Burbank. The center allows undergraduate students to spend a full fall, spring or summer semester taking classes in Hollywood and participating in a semester-long internship at enterprises related to their field of study. In addition, ELA also offers professional training and workplace education for Los Angeles-area professionals who are not enrolled in the college degree programs. Kasteel Well in the Netherlands Emerson College owns and operates Kasteel Well in the rural province of Limburg, Netherlands, a national historical monument that provides living accommodations, classrooms, a resource center, and related facilities. Approximately 85 matriculated Emerson students attend the program each semester, and are chosen through a lottery-style system. Classes are taught by Dutch teachers, with several Belgian and other teachers from Europe on staff. The Max Mutchnick Campus Center and the Bobbi Brown and Steven Plofker Gymnasium are important campus buildings. The former features several conference, meeting, and rehearsal spaces open to all students, offices for Student Life and the Student Government Association, and storage for any student organization. Also housing new offices for the Athletics Department, it is Emerson College's first-ever indoor athletic facility. The construction of the gym was controversial at the time of its announcement, considering the lack of performing space on campus and the lack of enthusiasm around athletics at Emerson. Academics Emerson College is divided into two schools (School of Communication and School of the Arts) and eight departments (Marketing Communication; Communication Studies; Journalism; Communication Sciences & Disorders; Performing Arts; Writing, Literature & Publishing; Visual & Media Arts; Liberal Arts & Interdisciplinary Studies) offering 31 undergraduate majors and 19 minors (Bachelor of Arts/Fine Arts, or Science), and 12 graduate degree programs (Master of Arts/Fine Arts, or Science). Though the college's programs are primarily focused on communications and the arts, the curriculum is delivered through a liberal arts and sciences education model, where students are required to take courses from other academic disciplines and also have the opportunity to declare a minor outside their major. Emerson College is ranked by U.S. News & World Report in the Regional Universities North category. In 2021, it is ranked tied for 8th best overall, tied for 3rd in the Most Innovative Schools category, tied for 11th in Best Undergraduate Teaching, and 50th in the Best Value Schools category. In 2018, Emerson admitted 36% of applicants, and is ranked 6th in the Universities-Master's (North) category according to U.S. News & World Report. There are 3,871 undergraduate and 1,048 graduate students as of 2019. Tuition for the 2018–2019 academic year is $46,016 for a full-time student; approximately 76% of students receive financial assistance in scholarships and grants, low-interest loans and part-time employment. Film Emerson College has an extensive film program that is one of the largest in the United States. In 2008/2009, it awarded 368 degrees in film, Radio, and Television. In August 2022, Emerson's Visual and Media Arts program was rated #6 in the nation by The Hollywood Reporter. Along with its VMA program, Emerson also operates a joint degree program with Paris College of Art in the 10th arrondissement of Paris, France called the Global BFA in Film Art. This program opened in 2019. Marketing The college offers undergraduate programs in Marketing Communications (BS) and Business of Creative Enterprises (BA). Emerson's Department of Marketing Communication has on-campus graduate degrees in Integrated Marketing Communication and Global Marketing Communication & Advertising, as well as online degree in Digital Marketing and Data Analytics. Starting in the 2018–19 academic year, the GMCA and IMC programs were merged into a single MA program in Strategic Marketing Communication. In 2014 Emerson was named #5 on the list of top 10 U.S. colleges to get a marketing degree published by USA Today. It was ranked #14 of 47 in 2018 Best Master's of Marketing Programs ranking by TFE Times, and #15 of 416 in 2019 Best Marketing Colleges in the U.S. ranking by College Factual. Engagement Game Lab The Engagement Game Lab is an applied research lab at Emerson College devoted to getting people involved with civic engagement in innovative ways and studying citizenship in a digital era. It is facilitated by professionals, but also has student assistants and offers its resources to students. Athletics The college is a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (Division III), the Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC), and the New England Women's and Men's Athletic Conference (NEWMAC). Emerson previously competed as a charter member of the Great Northeast Athletic Conference (GNAC) from 1995 to 2013. The college was also a charter member of the Commonwealth Coast Conference (CCC), which it competed in from 1984 to 1989. The athletics department has men's and women's lacrosse, tennis, basketball, cross country running, golf, volleyball and soccer teams, in addition to a women's softball team and a men's baseball team. The women's softball team defeated Western New England College in 2007 to clinch the GNAC championship and earn the department's first appearance in the NCAA tournament. In 2012, Emerson's women's volleyball team defeated Rivier to become the 2012 GNAC Champions. In 2019, the men's basketball team won its first NEWMAC title in program history. In 2022 the women's soccer team defeated Clark University to clinch the NEWMAC title. Student life Student organizations Emerson College offers a large number of organizations, most of which are highly active and diverse ranging from curriculum-based activities to social action organizations. Organizations are either maintained by the Student Government Association (if the organizations are student-led) or by campus departments (if the organizations are managed by faculty or staff). The EVVY Awards The largest student run, multi-camera, production in the nation, the EVVY Awards are Emerson College's annual award show. Judged by industry professionals, The EVVYs recognize Emerson student's achievements in their chosen discipline. Each May the show is broadcast live from the Cutler Majestic Theatre. Over 500 students are annually involved with the EVVY Awards. The organization is run entirely by Emerson students, and advised by staff members. The 31st and 33rd Annual EVVY Awards won the College Television Award for Alternative/Variety programming. Emerson Channel The Emerson Channel is Emerson College's award-winning television station. The channel was created in 1999 under the Television, Radio, and Film Department. The organization is managed by a full-time staff member, and is run by Emerson College Students. Student works regularly receive collegiate EVVY awards. Emerson Independent Video EIV was founded in 1975 and is Emerson's largest entirely student run organization. EIV funds and assists in the production of live news, teleplays, single camera narratives, and other shows selected by the student management board from proposals made by fellow students at the end of each semester. EIV is known for their Emmy and AP Award-winning show, EIV News at 9p, as well as their pre-taped Evening News broadcast. Emertainment Monthly Emertainment Monthly is Emerson College's official entertainment magazine. Modeled after professional entertainment journalism outlets like Entertainment Weekly, Emertainment Monthly has been nominated for several EVVY Awards and participates in major entertainment events as official members of the press. Emertainment Monthly received the title of Best in Show in the "Website Small School" Category by the Associated Collegiate Press in 2015. The Berkeley Beacon The Berkeley Beacon is Emerson's student-run, weekly print newspaper. In 2012, it became the first collegiate newspaper website with a responsive design. It received the titles of Best in Show in the "Four-Year Weekly" and "Website Small School" categories by the Associated Collegiate Press in 2015. Emerson Dance Company Dance plays a large role in the student culture at Emerson College. In the fall of 2007 Emerson student, Michael Lupacchino ('10), re-founded the Emerson Dance Company—an SGA recognized, inclusive organization focused on bringing an open outlet for dance to students of all levels, years, and majors at the college. The company holds bi-annual showcases at the end of every semester highlighting student dancers and choreographers, all of whom have auditioned at the start of every semester and applied to choreograph through a selection process run by the company's executive board. Emerson Dance Company (commonly referred to as EDC) also offers master classes, workshops, and events which are open to the entire Emerson community. In addition to participating in internal college activities, the group also engages in community service around the Boston area. The organization is actively involved with its alumni (inviting one back each semester to choreograph an alumni piece), as well as fellow college and professional level dance organizations around the Boston area (i.e. The Boston Ballet, Suffolk Dance, Northeastern Dance Company {NUDANCO}, and Urbanity Dance). The company has been advised by Senior Dancer-In-Residence in the college's Performing Arts Department, Marlena Yannetti, since its inception. Emerson Dance Company uses Emerson's theatres, including the newly renovated Paramount Center Mainstage. Student radio WECB is the campus student run radio station, overseen by a faculty advisor. WECB broadcasts online at its website and on closed-circuit campus television (channel 56). In 1983–84, WECB was scheduled for demolition without reconstruction, as part of the Mass Communications $1.6M renovation project. Carol Kamerschen, Greg Weremey, Barry Scott and Russ Weisenbacher were instrumental in fighting the board of trustees, and convincing them to allow Weremey and Weisenbacher to design and build new studios at 126 Beacon Street, replacing the former facilities at 130 Beacon Street, 4th floor. ETIN (Emerson's Talk and Information Network), an online talk radio service run by students, is also housed in the same space as WERS and WECB. Comedy The college has a long tradition in the comedy community, including student groups specializing in various combinations of sketch comedy, improvisation, and short films. There are twelve recognized comedy organizations: Emerson Comedy Workshop, Chocolate Cake City, Inside Joke, Jimmy's Traveling All-Stars, Derbyn Comedy, This is Pathetic, Stroopwafel, SwoMo Comedy, The Girlie Project, A Goose Troupe, Stand-Up in the Park, and Flawed Comedy. Several comedy classes, including "Comedy Writing for Television," "Intermediate Creative Writing: Comedy," and "Comedy Writers' Room" are a regular part of the curriculum. In September 2016, the college began offering a B.F.A. in Comedic Arts, claiming it to be "the first degree of its kind in the country." The Emerson College Comedy Scholarship is offered each year to one rising senior who has "demonstrated leadership and talent in the writing, performance, or direction of comedy." The college is also home to the American Comedy Archives, established in 2005 to "acquire, preserve and make available primary source material that documents the professional activities of the ground breaking individuals who have written, produced or performed comedy for radio, television, motion pictures or live performance". Presidents of Emerson Charles Wesley Emerson (1880–1903) William James Rolphe (1903–08) Henry Lawrence Southwick (1908–32) Harry S. Ross (1932–45) Boylston Green (1945–49) Samuel Justus McKinley (1949–67) Richard Chapin (1967–75) Gus Turbeville (1975–77) Oliver Woodruff (1977–79) Allen E. Koenig (1979–89) John Zacharis (1989–92) Jacqueline Liebergott (1992–2011) M. Lee Pelton (2011–2021) William Gilligan (Interim president, 2021–2023) Jay Bernhardt (2023–present) Notable People References External links Emerson Athletics website Official Online Programs Universities and colleges in Boston Cultural history of Boston Performing arts education in the United States Educational institutions established in 1880 Film schools in the United States Liberal arts colleges in Massachusetts Cinema of Massachusetts Boston Theater District 1880 establishments in Massachusetts Private universities and colleges in Massachusetts
401971	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Massachusetts%20Dartmouth	University of Massachusetts Dartmouth	The University of Massachusetts Dartmouth (UMass Dartmouth or UMassD) is a public research university in Dartmouth, Massachusetts. It is the southernmost campus of the University of Massachusetts system. Formerly Southeastern Massachusetts University (known locally as SMU), it was merged into the University of Massachusetts system in 1991. The campus has an overall student body of 8,513 students (school year 2019–2020), including 6,841 undergraduates and 1,672 graduate/law students. As of the 2019–2020 academic year, UMass Dartmouth had 402 full-time faculty on staff. The Dartmouth campus also includes the University of Massachusetts School of Law. UMass Dartmouth is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity". History The Dartmouth campus of the University of Massachusetts traces its roots to 1895 when the Massachusetts legislature chartered the New Bedford Textile School in New Bedford and the Bradford Durfee Textile School in Fall River. The New Bedford Textile School was renamed the New Bedford Institute of Textiles and Technology, and the Bradford Durfee Textile School was renamed the Bradford Durfee College of Technology. In 1962, the two schools were combined to create the Southeastern Massachusetts Technological Institute, expanding to become Southeastern Massachusetts University by 1969. In 1964, the ground was broken on a unified campus not far from the Smith Mills section of Dartmouth between the two cities. The Liberal Arts building was completed in 1966, the Science & Engineering building in 1969, and the other original buildings were finished by 1971. The main campus has been expanded several times, including the Cedar Dell residences (begun in 1987), the Dion Science & Engineering Building in 1989, the Charlton College of Business in 2004, the new apartment-style residence halls in 2005, and the Research Building in 2007. In 1991, SMU joined the UMass system and adopted its present name, the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth. Since then, the university has expanded back into its original cities as well, with the Center for Innovation & Entrepreneurship, formerly Advanced Textiles & Manufacturing Center, (2001, at the former Kerr Mill site in Fall River) and Professional and Continuing Education Center (2002, in the former Cherry & Webb building in Fall River), and the School for Marine Science and Technology (1996, adjacent to Fort Rodman in New Bedford), the Star Store visual arts building in New Bedford (2001) and a second Center for Professional and Continuing Education (2002, one block north on Purchase Street) in New Bedford. Campuses Main campus, is located approximately south of Downtown Boston 285 Old Westport Road, Dartmouth, MA 02747-2300 Satellite campuses and initiatives Dartmouth, Massachusetts School of Law New Bedford, Massachusetts Star Store Visual Arts Building Professional and Continuing Education (PCE) School for Marine Science & Technology (SMAST) Fall River, Massachusetts Center for Innovation & Entrepreneurship College of Nursing and Health Sciences The College of Nursing and Health Sciences offers five undergraduate Bachelor of Science degrees, two of which are offered online, and a Master of Science in Nursing (MSN) degree. Programs include the Diversity Nursing Scholars Program, Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP) program, a PhD program offered to both BS and MS, and an online certificate program for Advanced Graduate Study: Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner. The college also offers a Global Health Minor to all majors. The Commission on Collegiate Nursing Education (CCNE), an independent accrediting body that is officially recognized by the United States Secretary of Education, has approved UMass Dartmouth's bachelor's and master's degree programs in nursing, as well as the Doctor of Nursing Practice program. The Massachusetts Board of Regulation of Nursing has also given the nursing education curriculum Full Approval. Charlton College of Business The Charlton College of Business at the University of Massachusetts-Dartmouth offers seven undergraduate Bachelor of Science degrees, a Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree, a Master of Science in Healthcare Management degree (both face-to-face and online), and several graduate certificates. It also offers a combined MBA/Juris Doctor (JD). There are certificate programs in Accounting, Business Foundations, Environmental Policy, Finance, International Business, Marketing, Organizational Leadership, Supply Change Management and Information Systems, and Sustainable Development. The college is the only AACSB-accredited (Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business) public business school in the southeastern region of Massachusetts. The Charlton College of Business houses multiple nationally ranked degree programs. For the 2021–2022 academic year, the online MBA program was ranked No. 51 in the nation according to U.S. News & World Report. The school's undergraduate program is nationally ranked No. 150 by U.S. News. The Princeton Review lists the Charlton College of Business as one of their best 296 business schools, while the Academic Ranking of World Universities in its Global Ranking of Academic Subjects ranks Management subjects 201-300 globally Architecture The buildings on the campus were designed by Modernist architect Paul Rudolph beginning in the early 1960s to distinguish the campus from the outside world and provide what might be considered a Social Utopian environment. The building architecture is similar to that of the Boston Government Service Center. Rudolph made both the exterior and interior of each building of rough concrete (béton brut), an essential element of the style known as Brutalism, and he endowed buildings with large windows. The stairs were made relatively short in height. Atria was also placed in the Liberal Arts and Science & Engineering buildings to give people a place to socialize between sections of the halls. These areas are also filled with hanging and potted indoor plants. The main door of each building faces towards the Robert Karam Campanile, keeping students within the academic life area, where buildings for classes are located. Large mounds of earth (berms) also stand between the parking lots, making the lots partially invisible from the original Academic Life area (though not from within some recent additions to it, such as the Charlton College of Business building). More recent buildings, most notably the Woodland Commons and residence halls south of the main campus, have been built to complement Rudolph's Late Modernist aesthetic. In October 2013, Travel and Leisure named the university one of the most mysterious campuses in the United States. It compared the library to a concrete spaceship, describing it as an icon of the Brutalist style of architecture that has been both beloved and derided since its construction in the 1960s. The university has large areas of undeveloped green space with numerous footpaths, including wooded areas, grasslands, wetlands, and ponds. Claire T. Carney Library Archives & Special Collections The Archives & Special Collections preserves historical records, publications and graduate theses of the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth (University Records) as well as personal and professional papers of faculty, staff, students and selected individuals and organizations from the surrounding communities of southeastern Massachusetts (Manuscript Collections). Robert F. Kennedy Assassination Archives The world's largest, most complete compilation of materials relating to the assassination of Robert F. Kennedy. Established in 1984, the archives contains thousands of copies of government documents obtained through the Freedom of Information Act public disclosure process as well as manuscripts, photographs, audiotape interviews, video tapes, news clippings and research notes compiled by journalists and other private citizens who have investigated discrepancies in the case. Ferreira-Mendes Portuguese American Archives Records of fraternal, religious and social organizations; family photographs, scrapbooks and oral histories which illustrate the collective experience of immigration, settlement, and life in the United States; the records of prominent individuals of Portuguese descent; and records of local business and other institutions that either serve or were created by Portuguese-Americans. Paul Rudolph & His Architecture This featured section of the Claire T. Carney website is a comprehensive reference resource for the architect and his designs, with particular emphasis on SMTI / UMass Dartmouth. It provides a comprehensive bibliography of the works, writings, and life of the architect, complete with supporting images, documents, and media. Student life Student organizations The Student Government Association, which is controlled by 34 seats, is a student-run group that handles all student activity fees and disperses them to the various clubs and organizations. There are over 160 student clubs and organizations, 11 intramural sports teams/organizations, and a full-service, public radio spectrum campus radio station, WUMD 89.3, broadcasting at 9,600 watts. Housing and residential education General information On-campus living provides three different residence options: Traditional Residence Halls Apartments Townhouses Each hall is staffed by a professional Resident Director, and 8–14 student Resident Assistants. Each Hall also features a Hall Council which plans events, holds elections, and engages with the larger residential population through Resident Student Association (a student-government organization for all residential students). Transportation On-campus transportation is provided by the university, which includes a campus-loop shuttle that makes several stops across the main campus, shuttle services to nearby stores and businesses, and shuttle services from the main campus to the satellite campuses. The university also manages a "safe-rides" program, which offers on-request shuttle services across the campus for students after the shuttle stops operating, and "safe-walk" services which offers a campus police officer to escort students when the safe-ride shuttle stops. Zipcar and bus charters are also offered on campus, and taxi services are available nearby. The shuttle stop outside the campus center also serves as a stop for the Southeastern Regional Transit Authority, which provides public bus services to New Bedford and Fall River at no cost to students. Daily bus service to Taunton and Boston is also offered via DATTCO buses. Athletics UMass Dartmouth athletic teams, known by their nickname, the Corsairs, compete in a variety of sports. Men and women compete in NCAA Division III. The men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, football, ice hockey, soccer, and track and field. The women's sports are basketball, cross country, field hockey, lacrosse, soccer, softball, track and field, and volleyball. Most of the teams compete in the Little East Conference, while the men's ice hockey and football teams compete in the Massachusetts State Collegiate Athletic Conference. In the midst of the Coronavirus Pandemic, UMass Dartmouth cut 8 athletic teams to redirect funding into the remaining 17 other programs. The sports impacted include the discontinuation of men's lacrosse, women's equestrian, men's golf, co-ed sailing, men's and women's swimming and diving, and men's and women's tennis. Rankings and recognition In 2016, the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth received its new designated status from Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education as "Doctoral University: Higher research activity". In the 2020 college ranking published by The Wall Street Journal and Times Higher Education, UMass Dartmouth was featured among top 800 of all public and private higher education institutions in the country, while Business Insider listed the university in 2014 among its 600 "Smartest Colleges in America" based on ACT and SAT scores of the entering students. The Princeton Review lists the university among their most 361 "Green Colleges" of the country. UMass Dartmouth is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education. Other rankings and recognition: In 2017, the university ranked #204 by PayScale by salary potential for 2016–2017. In 2019, the university ranked #76 in "Best Online Graduate Business Programs (Excluding MBA)", #41-#51 in "Best Online Graduate Computer Information Technology Programs" and #132-#170 in "Best Online Graduate Nursing Programs" by U.S. News & World Report. In 2019, the university ranked #7 in College Gazette's top 10 "hidden gem" public universities in the United States. In 2021, the university ranked #217 in "Best National Universities", #76 in "Top Performers on Social Mobility", #109 in "Top Public Schools", and #145 in "Best Undergraduate Engineering Programs". In 2021, Academic Ranking of World Universities listed academic subject in Oceanography as 76-100 globally. Notable alumni Kevin Aguiar, politician who represented the 7th Bristol district in the Massachusetts House of Representatives Steven Baddour, attorney and politician from the Commonwealth of Massachusetts Antonio F. D. Cabral (B.A. 1978), member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives 1990–present Robert Correia (B.S. 1962), member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives 1976–2008, mayor of Fall River 2008–09 Charles A. Dewey, United States federal judge in Iowa's southern district Scott Ferson, President Liberty Square Group Bruce Gray (B.F.A. 1983), sculptor Pooch Hall, actor Brian Helgeland, Academy Award-winning screenwriter Marques Houtman, Cape Verdean American basketball point guard Robert Koczera, member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives for the 11th Bristol district; former member of the New Bedford City Council Edward M. Lambert, Jr., commissioner of the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation Gerald A. LeBlanc, Professor Emeritus in the Department of Biological Sciences at the North Carolina State University Robert Leduc (B.S. 1978), president of Pratt & Whitney 2016–present Sheri McCoy, CEO Avon Products, former executive at Johnson & Johnson Lawrence G. McDonald, former vice president at Lehman Brothers; author Mark C. Montigny (B.A.), member of the Massachusetts Senate 1993–present David Nyzio (BFA, 1982), artist Jim Perdue (M.S.), chicken industry executive Susan Mohl Powers (M.F.A.), artist Joe Proctor (attended), professional mixed martial artist, won the RF & AFO Lightweight Titles, current UFC Lightweight John F. Quinn, American politician, who represented 9th Bristol District in the Massachusetts House of Representatives from 1992 to 2011 Michael Rodrigues, Democratic member of the Massachusetts Senate Craig Rousseau (B.A. 1993, B.A. 1994), comic book artist and co-creator of The Perhapanauts Bonnie Seeman, ceramic artist and University of Miami art professor Seabury Stanton, chairman of Berkshire Hathaway, prior to its takeover by Warren Buffett, attended the New Bedford Institute of Technology David B. Sullivan (B.A. 1979), member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives 1997–2013 Jimmy Tingle, comic Scott D. Tingle, NASA astronaut Philip Travis, politician who represented the 4th Bristol District in the Massachusetts House of Representatives 1983–2007 Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, convicted and sentenced to death for the 2013 Boston Marathon bombing Leah Van Dale, fitness model and professional wrestler currently signed to WWE under the ring name Carmella Gregory Yob, computer game designer References External links Official website Official athletics website School newspaper The Paul Rudolph Heritage Foundation - a non-profit organization representing the Paul Rudolph estate, dedicated to communicating, preserving and extending Paul Rudolph's legacy with an online archive of over 12,000 images in addition to written and biographical materials. The University of Massachusetts Dartmouth Project Page from the Paul Rudolph Heritage Foundation archives 1895 establishments in Massachusetts University of Massachusetts Dartmouth Dartmouth, Massachusetts Educational institutions established in 1895 Universities and colleges in Bristol County, Massachusetts Dartmouth Universities and colleges formed by merger in the United States University of Massachusetts Dartmouth
401983	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khalid%20of%20Saudi%20Arabia	Khalid of Saudi Arabia	Khalid bin Abdulaziz Al Saud (; 13 February 1913 13 June 1982) was a Saudi Arabian statesman and politician who served as King and Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia from 25 March 1975 to his death in 1982. Prior to his ascension, he was Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia from 29 March 1965 to 25 March 1975. He was the fifth son of King Abdulaziz, the founder of modern Saudi Arabia. Khalid was the son of King Abdulaziz and Al Jawhara bint Musaed Al Jiluwi. He assisted his half-brother Prince Faisal in his duties as foreign minister of Saudi Arabia. Khalid served as viceroy of the Hejaz region for a brief time in the 1930s. He visited the United States in 1943 together with Faisal, establishing relations between the two countries. He was appointed as the deputy prime minister of Saudi Arabia in 1962. After Khalid's full brother Prince Muhammad stepped aside from the royal succession, King Faisal named Khalid as crown prince in 1965. Following the assassination of King Faisal in 1975, Khalid ascended to the throne. His reign saw both huge developments in the country due to increase in oil revenues and significant events in the Middle East. In 1979, a group of civilians seized the Grand Mosque of Mecca and sought but failed to kidnap Khalid. Saudi forces regained control over the mosque, but the seizure resulted in the introduction of stricter religious policies in Saudi Arabia. Khalid died in 1982 and was succeeded by his half-brother Fahd. Early life and education Khalid was born in Qasr Al Hukm, Riyadh, on 13 February 1913. He was the fifth son of King Abdulaziz. His mother, Al Jawhara bint Musaed, was from the important Al Jiluwi clan. She was a second cousin of Abdulaziz, their paternal grandfathers Jiluwi bin Turki and Faisal bin Turki being brothers. This was in keeping with long-standing traditions in Arabia of marriage within the same lineage, and members of Al Jiluwi frequently intermarried with the members of Al Saud. Khalid had one full-brother, Muhammad. His full sister, Al Anoud, married to the sons of King Abdulaziz's brother Sa'ad bin Abdul Rahman. She first married Saud bin Sa'ad. After Saud died, she married Fahd bin Sa'ad. Khalid attended the Mufirej school founded by Sheikh Abdul Rahman Al Mufirej in 1879 based in the Sheikh Abdullah bin Abdul Latif Mosque in the Dukhna neighborhood of Riyadh. There he acquired basic literacy skills and studied arithmetics. Early experience Aged 14, Khalid was sent by Abdulaziz as his representative to the desert tribes to hear their concerns and problems. In 1928 he and his brother Muhammad were given the task of observing the Transjordan border during the Ikhwan revolt. Prince Khalid's preparation for ruling a modern state started through his visits with his brother Prince Faisal on foreign missions. He served as advisor to Faisal. Prince Khalid became an international figure due to his visits and service as a Saudi representative. He was more liberal in informing the press about the rationale behind foreign policy decisions. Prince Khalid was made acting viceroy of Hejaz in early 1932 when his full brother Prince Muhammad carried out the task badly. The same year he was named as viceroy of Hejaz, replacing Prince Faisal in the post, who was named minister of foreign affairs, and Prince Khalid's term lasted until 1934. Prince Khalid joined the Saudi army led by his older brother Prince Faisal and fought against Yemeni forces in 1934. After the war, Prince Khalid served as the chairman of the Saudi delegation at the Taif Conference with Yemen in 1934. This was a diplomatic move that led to the Taif Treaty later that year which was signed by Prince Khalid on behalf of Saudi Arabia and Abdullah Al Wazeer on behalf of Yemen. Prince Khalid was named interior minister in 1934 and was the Saudi representative at the peace negotiations in Yemen in 1935. In 1939, he participated in the St. James Conference on Palestine in London as the minister of interior as well as an assistant to Prince Faisal, head of the Saudi delegation. In October 1943 Prince Faisal and Prince Khalid visited the United States representing their father, upon the July 1943 invitation of U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The visit was the earliest high-level contact between Saudi Arabia and the USA. Vice President Henry A. Wallace organized a dinner for them at the White House. They also met with President Roosevelt. They stayed at the official government guest house, Blair House, and visited the West Coast by a special train that was officially provided by the U.S. government. A foreign diplomat described Prince Khalid following the visit as the "nicest man in Saudi Arabia." However, after this visit and during the most of the 1950s Prince Khalid did not play a significant role in the government partly due to the fact that his half-brother Mansour bin Abdulaziz and his nephew Abdullah bin Faisal became much more dominant political figures. Prince Khalid reemerged as a significant figure in 1960 when King Saud named him acting prime minister. In addition, on 31 October 1962 he was appointed deputy prime minister in the new cabinet formed by Crown Prince Faisal. This move indicated his prominence in the line of succession. During the rivalry between Crown Prince Faisal and King Saud, Prince Khalid supported the former together with other princes who were members of the Al Jiluwi branch of Al Saud through maternal lineage or marriage. The group was led by Prince Muhammad, Prince Khalid and Prince Abdullah. At the beginning of King Faisal's reign Prince Khalid was made a member of the council which had been established by the king to guide the succession issues. Crown prince Khalid's older full-brother Prince Muhammad declined a place in the succession. Khalid also refused the offer of King Faisal to be named as crown prince several times until March 1965. In addition, he asked King Faisal to remove him from the position various times. However, the King persuaded Khalid that his presence as crown prince was necessary to keep peace within the House of Saud. One of the speculations about Prince Khalid's selection as heir designate was his lack of predilection for politics. In short, by selecting him as heir designate the royal family could create intra-familial consensus. Khalid was named crown prince on 29 March 1965. King Faisal announced Khalid's appointment on the same day through a broadcast over Mecca Radio:Since the position of Crown Prince is a fundamental factor for the continuation and firmness of the reign, now the country enjoys stability, advancement and prosperity. Thanks to its adherence to Islam. It gives me great pleasure to announce...that I have chosen my brother Prince Khalid bin Abdulaziz as Crown Prince to rule after me. Prince Khalid was also named first deputy prime minister following his appointment as crown prince. Although Joseph A. Kéchichian argues that Crown Prince Khalid was not active in daily issues, but acted as a representative during King Faisal's absences in meetings or ceremonies, he governed all organisational and executive powers of the Council of Ministers. He also dealt with the affairs of the Governorate of Mecca on behalf of King Faisal. However, in 1968 Crown Prince Khalid expressed his desire not to preside over the Council of Ministers against King Faisal's request which led to the appointment of Prince Fahd as second deputy prime minister with the task of leading the Council meetings. In 1970 Crown Prince Khalid led Saudi delegations to Jordan to meet the needs of Palestinians who were seriously affected from Israel's attacks. According to the declassified US diplomatic documents of 1971, he enjoyed the support of the tribal chiefs, religious authorities and of Prince Abdullah, head of the Saudi National Guard, during this period. Reign Khalid succeeded to the throne on 25 March 1975 when King Faisal was assassinated. He was proclaimed king after a meeting of senior members of Al Saud: his uncle Abdullah bin Abdul Rahman and his brothers Muhammad, Nasser, Saad, Fahd, and Abdullah. The meeting occurred just hours after the assassination of King Faisal. Khalid also became the de facto prime minister of Saudi Arabia and the chairman of two significant councils, namely the Higher Council for Administrative Reform and the Supreme Council for National Security. Although there are various reports stating that King Khalid was only a figurehead during his reign, he was in fact not a figurehead, but the final decision-maker on all major policy issues during his reign. King Faisal established a system in which the king was the final mediator in family problems. King Khalid reduced the power of the Sudairi Seven concerning succession in 1977 when he was in London for treatment. Following the unsuccessful attempt of the Sudairi Seven to overthrow King Khalid and to install one of their own, Prince Sultan, as deputy crown prince instead of Prince Abdullah, the King asked Crown Prince Fahd and Prince Abdullah to fully obey the existing succession plan without any change. King Khalid also closely checked the activities of Crown Prince Fahd due to the latter's clear support for the pro-Western policies and hostile tendency against Iran and Shia population of Saudi Arabia. In addition, King Khalid was not an ineffective leader. Although he seemed to be reluctant to rule the country initially, he later warmed to the throne and displayed an apparent interest in improving the education, health-care and infrastructure of the country during his seven-year reign. During the first two years of his reign he was not active in politics due to his poor health condition, but later he became much more active as a result of his much better health. King Khalid is also considered to have been a genial caretaker during his reign. However, he failed to monopolize power during his reign, leading to the empowerment of the princes who had been in powerful posts in late King Faisal's reign. He had some personal characteristics that made him a respected king. He was admired as an honest man who managed to have good relations with the traditional establishment of Saudi Arabia. Therefore, he was granted support by other princes and powerful forces of the country. Ghadah Alghunaim, a board member of the King Abdulaziz Center for National Dialogue, argues in her doctoral dissertation that Khalid's reign was a golden era and the "era of goodness" for the country. Domestic affairs King Khalid's reign was of massive development in Saudi Arabia and therefore, the country became one of the richest countries in that the oil revenues became $40 billion in 1977 and $90 billion in 1980. King Khalid primarily dealt with domestic affairs with special focus on agricultural development. The industrial cities of Jubail and Yanbu were created during the early days of his reign. In 1975 the Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu was founded to run the cities, and its first secretary general was Abdullah bin Faisal bin Turki. Jeddah Port Authority was established in September 1976 to expand the capacity of the existing port. The number of schools increased during his reign. In 1975, there were 3,028 elementary schools, 649 secondary schools and 182 high schools. In 1980, there were 5,373 elementary, 1,377 secondary and 456 high schools. The other significant development in the field of education during his reign was the establishment of King Faisal University. The others were the Higher Education Center for Women which was opened in 1976 as well as colleges of medicine and pharmacology established specifically for female students. Immediately following his ascension to the throne King Khalid issued a general amnesty which allowed the release of political prisoners who had been members of the left wing movements and the return of those who had been in exile to Saudi Arabia. Most of them were arrested during the reign of King Faisal. In terms of administrative functions King Khalid followed the structure established by King Faisal in which both royals and non-royals occupied significant positions. The political power consolidation of the ruling family was intensified during his reign. However, King Khalid expanded the role of nonroyals in bureaucracy without diminishing the roles of royal family members. These non-royals were mostly graduates of foreign universities, and by 1977 ten of the thirty-six members in the council of ministers were those who received a master's or doctorate degree from Western universities. The strict financial policies of King Faisal, coupled with the aftermath of the 1973 oil crisis, created a financial windfall that fueled development and led to a commercial and economic boom in the country. Notable achievements in his reign included the institution of the second Five-Year Plan in 1975, which aimed to build up Saudi infrastructure and health care. The planned budget for the development plan was $142 billion. Although not all goals were achieved, the second development plan was much more successful than the first one. King Khalid also launched the Kingdom's third development plan with the budget of $250 billion in May 1980. In a reorganization of the council of ministers on 30 March 1975, King Khalid named Crown Prince Fahd deputy prime minister and Prince Abdullah second deputy prime minister. Appointment of Prince Fahd as both crown prince and first deputy prime minister made him much powerful figure in contrast to the status of King Khaled when he was crown prince under King Faisal reign. Prince Nayef was named minister of interior succeeding Prince Fahd on 30 March 1975. King Khalid also appointed Prince Saud as the foreign affairs minister in March 1975. In addition to the existing ministerial bodies six new ones were established by King Khalid. One of them was the ministry of municipal and rural affairs established in October 1975, and Prince Majid was appointed minister. Additionally, Prince Mutaib was appointed minister of public works and housing that was also established by King Khalid in October 1975. These two appointments were a move to reduce the power of Sudairi Seven in the cabinet. Besides, the ministry of industry and electricity, the ministry of higher education, the ministry of post, telegraph, and telephone and the ministry of planning were all founded by King Khalid. In the same government reshuffle he removed Prince Musaid, his uncle, from the post of finance minister which he had been held since 16 March 1962, and Mohammed bin Ali Aba Al Khail was made new finance minister. King Khalid also expanded the internal structure of some ministries, for instance, in 1976 the Public Security Administration was created to preserve the public order and tranquility, to promote of the public health, safety, and morals, and to detect and punish the crimes, and attached it to the ministry of interior. The members of the inner family council headed by King Khalid included his brothers, namely Prince Mohammad, Crown Prince Fahd, Prince Abdullah, Prince Sultan, and Prince Abdul Muhsin and two of his uncles, Prince Ahmed and Prince Musaid. Prince Mohammad was one of King Khalid's key advisors. In fact, they acted together on almost all political issues. Another of his advisors was Maarouf al-Dawalibi, former Prime Minister of Syria and founder of the Islamic Socialist Front. Kamal Adham served as the president of Al Mukhabarat Al A'amah or the general intelligence directorate until 19 January 1979 which he had held since 1965. Adham's successor in the post was Turki bin Faisal. In 1977 a coup attempt by Saudi Air Force personnel, backed by the Libyan Intelligence Service, was discovered and quickly defeated. Saudi Arabia acquired full control of Aramco in 1980 during his reign and the company was renamed as Saudi Aramco. In March 1980 King Khalid established a constitutional committee with eight members under the presidency of Prince Nayef. However, the committee could not manage to produce the basic law that had been promised. King Khalid implemented a significant policy towards bedouins through a decree dated 15 March 1981 which required them to settle in a fixed place. In November 1979, Khalid's reign saw two major local incidents which have had significant effects on the politics of Saudi Arabia: the Grand Mosque seizure and the Qatif Uprising. Grand Mosque seizure Some foreign observers thought traditionalism was no longer a strong force in Saudi Arabia. This idea was disproved when at least 500 dissidents invaded and seized the Grand Mosque in Mecca on 20 November 1979. The same day two other raids were made by the groups related to these dissidents in Medina and Taif. The dissidents in Medina were immediately defeated by the Saudi troops. The goal of the dissidents in Taif was to abduct King Khalid who escaped the attack due to the changes in his plans. When the first news of the attack in Mecca reached Riyadh, the initial reaction of King Khalid was to consult the ulama, to get permission to use military force to eject the attackers. The ulama hesitated and refrained from a definite answer. Only after the assault had been underway for 36 hours did some ulama allow the use of force. At the time of the event, Crown Prince Fahd was in Tunisia for a meeting of the Arab Summit and the commander of the National Guard Prince Abdullah was in Morocco for an official visit. Therefore, King Khalid assigned the responsibility to Prince Sultan, the minister of defense, and Prince Nayef, the minister of interior, to deal with the incident. The Grand Mosque was regained by Saudi forces on 4 December 1979 and 63 rebels were executed on 9 January 1980 in eight different cities. The executions were decreed by King Khalid after the edict issued by ulemas. Although the Saudi government under King Khalid executed the rebels, the religious establishment that inspired them were given greater powers. And ulema successfully pressed King Khalid to realize their intentions. 1979 Qatif Uprising In November 1979, Shiites in the Eastern Province, particularly in Qatif and in nearby villages, organized protests. Several demonstrators were arrested. The major reason for the uprising was negative conditions in villages. In the spring of 1979, King Khalid announced an annual budget of 160 billion riyals, indicating that this budget would be employed to improve the living conditions of all Saudi citizens. However, the budget did not make any significant contribution to the services. Instead, the royal family benefitted from the budget. Following the release of the demonstrators in February 1980, King Khalid and Crown Prince Fahd visited the Eastern region from town to town. Due to King Khalid's policy change towards the Shiite population in the region, they positively modified their approach towards the Saudi government and abandoned their oppositional ideas and actions. International relations Although King Khalid did not have an extensive interest in foreign affairs as much as King Faisal had, his reign witnessed many important international events, including the Iranian Revolution, the assassination of Anwar Sadat and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, all of which had significant effects for Saudi Arabia. In addition, the Saudi government led by King Khalid was much more active in improving the relations of Saudi Arabia with neighbouring states in contrast to the reign of Faisal. His government was also much more moderate and less conservative in regard to the Arab–Israeli conflict than that of King Faisal. Kamal Adham was King Khalid's key counsellor on foreign policy during his reign from 1975 to 1982. King Khalid initiated a move to bring in foreign labor to help with the country's development. 1975–1980 In April 1975, King Khalid's first diplomatic coup was the conclusion of a demarcation agreement concerning the Al Buraymi Oasis, where the frontiers of Abu Dhabi, Oman and Saudi Arabia meet. Claims and counterclaims over this frontier had exacerbated relations among them for years. Therefore, King Khalid aimed at settling this long-standing boundary disputes. The conclusion of negotiations under King Khalid added to his stature as a statesman. Another significant event was the visit of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran to Riyadh on 28 April 1975. In June 1975, Saudi Arabia appointed an ambassador to the United Arab Emirates, which also assigned an ambassador to Saudi Arabia the same date. His first official visit as the King of Saudi Arabia was to Cairo, Egypt in mid-July 1975. The visit was an indication of Saudi Arabia's support of the initiatives of Anwar Sadat concerning peace settlement between the Arabs and Israel. King Khalid visited Damascus in December 1975 and met with Syrian President Hafez Assad to discuss the ways to support Muslims in Lebanon, where a civil war began in April 1975. He declared the Saudi Arabia's support to Syria's role in the war. Diplomatic relations with the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen were reestablished in March 1976. A month later, in April 1976, King Khalid made state visits to all of the Gulf states in the hope of promoting closer relations with his peninsular neighbors. On 24 May 1976 King Khalid visited Tehran to meet with Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. He also called numerous summits and inaugurated the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) in 1981 that is seen an outcome of his early visits. Then GCC was established along with Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates. One of the significant international moves occurred in the reign of King Khalid was the establishment of the Safari Club, of which the treaty was signed on 1 September 1976. It was a secret organization with the participation of Egypt, France, Iran, Morocco and Saudi Arabia to eliminate the potential influence of communism in the region. The treaty was signed by Kamal Adham on behalf of Saudi Arabia. King Khalid organized a conference in Riyadh in October 1976 to resolve the ongoing Lebanese civil war, and the conference contributed to end the war. The same month he also visited Pakistan, and the visit was mostly concerned with Saudi Arabia's financial support for the joint developmental projects in Pakistan. In addition, he visited Islamabad, Rawalpindi, Lahore and Karachi, and initiated the construction of King Faisal Mosque in Islamabad. On 19 May 1977, King Khalid met Hafez Assad and Anwar Sadat in Riyadh to initiate a coordinated policy on the Arab–Israeli conflict. He also met Prime Minister of Pakistan Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in Riyadh on 18 June 1977. Lebanese Foreign Minister Fuad Butrus was received by King Khalid in Riyadh on 5 July 1977 to discuss the current situation in Lebanon. On 10 July 1977, Yen Chia-kan, President of Taiwan, visited Saudi Arabia and was received by the King in Riyadh. Two days later, on 12 July 1977, King Khalid and Somali President Mohamed Siad Barre met in Jeddah. Sudanese President Jaafar Nimeiry and King Khalid met in Ta'if on 2 August 1977. King Khalid's next visitors were Italian Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti and Foreign Minister Arnaldo Forlani who visited Saudi Arabia on 5–6 August. In early January 1978 the US President Jimmy Carter paid an official visit to Riyadh and met King Khalid to discuss the Middle East peace efforts. Immediately after this meeting Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi visited King Khalid on 11 January 1978 to discuss some topics related to the security of the region. Following King Khalid's heart surgery at the Cleveland Clinic on 3 October 1978 Jimmy Carter invited him to the White House for lunch, and they met on 27 October. The Camp David accord which was signed by Egypt and Israel in September 1978 severely affected the Saudi–Egyptian alliance, and Saudi Arabia's diplomatic relations with Egypt were terminated following the Baghdad Conference in November 1978. The same year King Khalid visited France to finalize the procurement of $24 billion military equipment, namely tanks, helicopters, and a complete radar network which was capable of covering the entire Red Sea. Much of this equipment was sent to North Yemen, Sudan, and Somalia to assist their resistance against communism. Following the 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran, King Khalid sent Khomeini a congratulatory message, stating that Islamic solidarity could be the basis for closer relations of two countries. He also argued that with the foundation of the Islamic Republic in Iran there were no obstacles that inhibited the cooperation between two countries. In addition, King Khalid requested the secretary-general of the Organization of the Islamic Conference to congratulate the new Iranian government. However, his initiatives were unsuccessful in that Saudi Arabia unofficially supported Iraq against Iran in the Iran–Iraq War in 1980. On 24 December 1979 Pakistan President Zia ul Haq visited Riyadh and met King Khalid in relation to the Grand Mosque crisis which had been solved at the beginning of the month. 1980–1982 In April 1980 King Khalid cancelled the state visit to Britain as a protest over the broadcasting of Death of a Princess on 9 April 1980 in the United Kingdom that narrated the execution of Misha'al bin Fahd, the granddaughter of Prince Mohammad bin Abdulaziz. King Khalid had been invited by Queen Elizabeth II in June 1979, following the Queen's visit to Saudi Arabia in February 1979, during which King Khalid gave her a diamond necklace. In addition, the British ambassador was expelled from Saudi Arabia for five months due to the broadcasting of the documentary on ITV. Egyptian actress Suzan Abu Talib or Sawsan Badr and other actors who had roles in the documentary were banned from entering Saudi Arabia. King Khalid in the capacity of the chairman of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation assisted Pakistani authorities to end the hijacking of the Pakistan International Airlines Flight 326 on 2 March 1981 first to Kabul and to Damascus on the request of President Zia ul Haq. Upon meeting then-British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in Saudi Arabia in April 1981, King Khalid is reputed to have said he would be happy to discuss falcons with her, but for all matters of administration she should talk to Crown Prince Fahd. King Khalid's visit to the United Kingdom that had been cancelled in 1980 was realized on 9 June 1981 for four days. Next he visited Spain on 15 June 1981. King Khalid asked the US President Jimmy Carter to sell advanced fighter planes to Saudi Arabia to assist in countering communist aggression in the area. The delivery of the first of sixty F-15s under the agreement approved by Carter arrived in the Kingdom in 1982. He purchased a Boeing 747 with an operating room should he be stricken while on his travels. Jimmy Carter in his memoirs stated that both King Khalid and then Crown Prince Fahd assured him of "their unequivocal support for Sadat", but they would realize no concrete move in this direction, at least not publicly. Views In June 1974 when he was Crown Prince Khalid argued that France taught the Syrians to be stubborn, and the British instilled the idea for the Arabs to differ with each other. At the very beginning of his reign King Khalid stated "Islamic law is and will remain our standard, our source of inspiration, and our goal." and "We are against communism and we will protect ourselves against it by all means. If the United States pressed Israel into making a just peace settlement, Russia would not acquire a single foothold in the Middle East." He questioned the support of the US administration to Greece instead of Turkey in late May 1976 citing Turkey's contributions in the Korean War during the 1950s. In an interview on BBC Summary of World Broadcasts he expressed the following views on Zionism, Communism and colonialism on 3 July 1979: "We regard Zionism, communism and colonialism as a trinity allied against Arab and Islamic rights and aspirations. Our policy is based on that understanding, and it is natural for us to be always subjected to biased and poisonous campaigns at the hand of that very trinity." Following the defeat of invaders of Grand Mosque King Khalid expressed the following: "if [Juhayman] al Otaibi and his cohorts had targeted palaces rather than the Grand Mosque [in their 1979 uprising] the results of the uprising might have been very different." At the third summit of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation in Taif in January 1981 he declared non-alignment of Saudi Arabia concerning the tensions between the USA and Soviet Union: "Our loyalty must be neither to an eastern bloc nor to a western bloc. The security of the Islamic nation will not be assured by joining a military alliance, nor by taking refuge under the umbrella of a superpower." Personal life King Khalid married four times and was the father of ten children. While the sequence in seniority of his wives is not known clearly, his wives were: Latifa bint Ahmed Al Sudairi. Latifa was a daughter of King Abdulaziz's maternal uncle and Khalid was fifteen when he married her. They had no children. Tarfa bint Abdullah bin Abdul Rahman Al Saud. She was a daughter of his uncle, Abdullah bin Abdul Rahman. They had no children. Noura bint Turki bin Abdulaziz bin Abdullah bin Turki Al Saud. She was the mother of Khalid's elder sons, Prince Bandar and Prince Abdullah and his elder daughter, Al Bandari. Noura bint Turki died at age 95 on 12 September 2011. Seeta bint Fahd Al Damir had seven children with King Khalid: Al Jawhara, Fahd (died young), Nouf, Moudi, Hussa, Mishaal, and Faisal. She was from the Ujman tribe in Al Badiyah and was a niece of Wasmiyah Al Damir, wife of Abdullah bin Jiluwi. She died on 25 December 2012 at the age of 90. Khalid had four sons and six daughters. Prince Bandar, the eldest son of King Khalid, was born in 1935. He was one of the members of Al Saud Family Council established by Crown Prince Abdullah in June 2000 to discuss private issues such as business activities of princes and marriages of princess to individuals who were not member of House of Saud. Prince Bandar died in Mecca in March 2018. His youngest child, Prince Faisal, is the former governor of Asir Province and a member of the Allegiance Council. Khalid's eldest daughter, Princess Al Bandari, married her cousin Prince Badr, son of Prince Abdul Muhsin. Another of his daughters, Princess Hussa, married Abdullah bin Faisal bin Turki, grandson of Turki I bin Abdulaziz. She died at the age of 59 in November 2010. Two of his daughters married the sons of Abdullah bin Faisal: Princess Al Jawhara married Khalid bin Abdullah Al Saud and has a son, Mohammed, and Princess Nouf married Mohammed bin Abdullah and has four children, including Noura. Another daughter of Khalid, Moudi, married Prince Abdul Rahman bin Faisal and is the general secretary of the King Khalid Foundation and the Al Nahda Foundation, and a former member of the Consultative Assembly. One of Khalid's daughters, Mishael bint Khalid died in Riyadh in April 2014. Personality, pastimes and property Khalid was described as warm, cheerful, attentive and devout and was adored by his sisters and brothers. An American journalist from Christian Science Monitor, John K. Cooley, following his observation of King Khalid at majlis stated that he carefully listened to his subjects showing his sense of humor and amused smile. During the first year of his rule King Khalid was said by his close observers to be an open and good man without any pretense representing the best example of Arab gentlemanly culture. His favourite topics to discuss at majlis with visitors were the problems related to education and youth. Khalid had the capacity to settle conflicts which was first recognized by his father. It was the reason for sending him to Yemen in 1935 to handle the problems with local people. During his kingship Khalid acted as a mediator between the Sudairi brothers and Prince Abdullah although he was much closer to the latter. Falconry and horse-riding were Khalid's favorite pastimes. He was described as a man of the desert. He had one of the best falcon collections. In the late 1970s King Khalid was given a rare Alberta-trained gyrfalcon by the Canadian government as a gift. Hunting was also one of his favorites, and he went to African countries to participate in hunting safaris when he was young. Khalid bought the first Toyota Landcruiser in 1955 for falconry. In December 1975 he bought the then longest Cadillac at 25 feet and 2 inches long again for falconry, and Time magazine called it "Khalidillac". In June 1974 while he was Crown Prince in a meeting with US Foreign Minister Henry Kissinger Khalid stated that he had been interested in hunting with hawks for forty years. In the same meeting Kissinger asked him where he lived. In response he stated that he lived in Riyadh, but in the summer he stayed in Taif. King Khalid owned a desert farm outside Riyadh at Um Hamam. He bought Beechwood House in the north London suburb of Highgate for £1.9 million in March 1977 to use following two operations on his hip in the Wellington Hospital in London. Health When Khalid bin Abdulaziz was crown prince, he had a massive heart attack in 1970 and had a heart surgery in 1972 at the Cleveland Clinic in the United States. Since King Khalid suffered from heart ailment for a long period of time, Crown Prince Fahd was in charge of ruling the country. On 3 October 1978, he underwent a second heart surgery again in Cleveland. He also had a hip operation at Wellington Hospital in London in 1976. In February 1980, King Khalid had a minor heart attack. Death and funeral King Khalid died on 13 June 1982 due to a heart attack in his summer palace in Taif. On the same day his body was brought from Taif to Mecca. After funeral prayers at the Grand Mosque in Mecca, King Khalid was buried in Al Oud cemetery in Riyadh. Leaders of Qatar, Kuwait, Djibouti, the United Arab Emirates and Bahrain, as well as President of Egypt Hosni Mubarak, participated in the funeral. Legacy King Khalid International Airport, King Khalid University, King Khalid Eye Specialist Hospital in Riyadh, King Khalid Military City and King Khalid Medical City in the Eastern province were all named after him. In Riyadh there is also a mosque named after him, King Khalid Mosque, serving the Muslims since 1988. In Jeddah a bridge is named after King Khalid. There is a research center on wildlife in Saudi Arabia named after him, Khalid Wildlife Research Centre. In addition, his family established King Khalid Foundation, which is being headed by his son, Abdullah bin Khalid. The foundation awards individuals who have achievements in the fields of corporate social responsibility, nonprofit management and social innovation. Awards In January 1981 King Khalid was awarded by the United Nations (UN) a gold medal which is the UN's highest decoration for the statesmen who significantly contributed to peace and cooperation worldwide. King Khalid also received the King Faisal International Prize for Service to Islam due to his efforts in support of Islamic solidarity in 1981. Honours Foreign honours Honorary Recipient of the Order of the Crown of the Realm (Malaysia, January 1982) Grand Cross of the Order of Civil Merit (Spain, 15 February 1974) Collar of the Order of Charles III (Spain, 15 June 1981) Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim (Sweden, 20 January 1981) Ancestry See also List of things named after Saudi Kings#Khalid References External links Khalid 1913 births 1982 deaths Khalid Khalid Khalid Khalid Khalid Khalid Khalid
402018	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multistage%20rocket	Multistage rocket	A multistage rocket or step rocket is a launch vehicle that uses two or more rocket stages, each of which contains its own engines and propellant. A tandem or serial stage is mounted on top of another stage; a parallel stage is attached alongside another stage. The result is effectively two or more rockets stacked on top of or attached next to each other. Two-stage rockets are quite common, but rockets with as many as five separate stages have been successfully launched. By jettisoning stages when they run out of propellant, the mass of the remaining rocket is decreased. Each successive stage can also be optimized for its specific operating conditions, such as decreased atmospheric pressure at higher altitudes. This staging allows the thrust of the remaining stages to more easily accelerate the rocket to its final speed and height. In serial or tandem staging schemes, the first stage is at the bottom and is usually the largest, the second stage and subsequent upper stages are above it, usually decreasing in size. In parallel staging schemes solid or liquid rocket boosters are used to assist with launch. These are sometimes referred to as "stage 0". In the typical case, the first-stage and booster engines fire to propel the entire rocket upwards. When the boosters run out of fuel, they are detached from the rest of the rocket (usually with some kind of small explosive charge or explosive bolts) and fall away. The first stage then burns to completion and falls off. This leaves a smaller rocket, with the second stage on the bottom, which then fires. Known in rocketry circles as staging, this process is repeated until the desired final velocity is achieved. In some cases with serial staging, the upper stage ignites before the separation—the interstage ring is designed with this in mind, and the thrust is used to help positively separate the two vehicles. A multistage rocket is required to reach orbital speed. Single-stage-to-orbit designs are sought, but have not yet been demonstrated. Performance The reason multi-stage rockets are required is the limitation the laws of physics place on the maximum velocity achievable by a rocket of given fueled-to-dry mass ratio. This relation is given by the classical rocket equation: where: is delta-v of the vehicle (change of velocity plus losses due to gravity and atmospheric drag); is the initial total (wet) mass, equal to final (dry) mass plus propellant; is the final (dry) mass, after the propellant is expended; is the effective exhaust velocity (determined by propellant, engine design and throttle condition); is the natural logarithm function. The delta v required to reach low Earth orbit (or the required velocity of a sufficiently heavy suborbital payload) requires a wet to dry mass ratio larger than can realistically be achieved in a single rocket stage. The multistage rocket overcomes this limit by splitting the delta-v into fractions. As each lower stage drops off and the succeeding stage fires, the rest of the rocket is still traveling near the burnout speed. Each lower stage's dry mass includes the propellant in the upper stages, and each succeeding upper stage has reduced its dry mass by discarding the useless dry mass of the spent lower stages. A further advantage is that each stage can use a different type of rocket engine, each tuned for its particular operating conditions. Thus the lower-stage engines are designed for use at atmospheric pressure, while the upper stages can use engines suited to near vacuum conditions. Lower stages tend to require more structure than upper as they need to bear their own weight plus that of the stages above them. Optimizing the structure of each stage decreases the weight of the total vehicle and provides further advantage. The advantage of staging comes at the cost of the lower stages lifting engines which are not yet being used, as well as making the entire rocket more complex and harder to build than a single stage. In addition, each staging event is a possible point of launch failure, due to separation failure, ignition failure, or stage collision. Nevertheless, the savings are so great that every rocket ever used to deliver a payload into orbit has had staging of some sort. One of the most common measures of rocket efficiency is its specific impulse, which is defined as the thrust per flow rate (per second) of propellant consumption: = When rearranging the equation such that thrust is calculated as a result of the other factors, we have: These equations show that a higher specific impulse means a more efficient rocket engine, capable of burning for longer periods of time. In terms of staging, the initial rocket stages usually have a lower specific impulse rating, trading efficiency for superior thrust in order to quickly push the rocket into higher altitudes. Later stages of the rocket usually have a higher specific impulse rating because the vehicle is further outside the atmosphere and the exhaust gas does not need to expand against as much atmospheric pressure. When selecting the ideal rocket engine to use as an initial stage for a launch vehicle, a useful performance metric to examine is the thrust-to-weight ratio, and is calculated by the equation: The common thrust-to-weight ratio of a launch vehicle is within the range of 1.3 to 2.0. Another performance metric to keep in mind when designing each rocket stage in a mission is the burn time, which is the amount of time the rocket engine will last before it has exhausted all of its propellant. For most non-final stages, thrust and specific impulse can be assumed constant, which allows the equation for burn time to be written as: Where and are the initial and final masses of the rocket stage respectively. In conjunction with the burnout time, the burnout height and velocity are obtained using the same values, and are found by these two equations: When dealing with the problem of calculating the total burnout velocity or time for the entire rocket system, the general procedure for doing so is as follows: Partition the problem calculations into however many stages the rocket system comprises. Calculate the initial and final mass for each individual stage. Calculate the burnout velocity, and sum it with the initial velocity for each individual stage. Assuming each stage occurs immediately after the previous, the burnout velocity becomes the initial velocity for the following stage. Repeat the previous two steps until the burnout time and/or velocity has been calculated for the final stage. It is important to note that the burnout time does not define the end of the rocket stage's motion, as the vehicle will still have a velocity that will allow it to coast upward for a brief amount of time until the acceleration of the planet's gravity gradually changes it to a downward direction. The velocity and altitude of the rocket after burnout can be easily modeled using the basic physics equations of motion. When comparing one rocket with another, it is impractical to directly compare the rocket's certain trait with the same trait of another because their individual attributes are often not independent of one another. For this reason, dimensionless ratios have been designed to enable a more meaningful comparison between rockets. The first is the initial to final mass ratio, which is the ratio between the rocket stage's full initial mass and the rocket stage's final mass once all of its fuel has been consumed. The equation for this ratio is: Where is the empty mass of the stage, is the mass of the propellant, and is the mass of the payload. The second dimensionless performance quantity is the structural ratio, which is the ratio between the empty mass of the stage, and the combined empty mass and propellant mass as shown in this equation: The last major dimensionless performance quantity is the payload ratio, which is the ratio between the payload mass and the combined mass of the empty rocket stage and the propellant: After comparing the three equations for the dimensionless quantities, it is easy to see that they are not independent of each other, and in fact, the initial to final mass ratio can be rewritten in terms of structural ratio and payload ratio: These performance ratios can also be used as references for how efficient a rocket system will be when performing optimizations and comparing varying configurations for a mission. Component selection and sizing For initial sizing, the rocket equations can be used to derive the amount of propellant needed for the rocket based on the specific impulse of the engine and the total impulse required in N·s. The equation is: where g is the gravity constant of Earth. This also enables the volume of storage required for the fuel to be calculated if the density of the fuel is known, which is almost always the case when designing the rocket stage. The volume is yielded when dividing the mass of the propellant by its density. Asides from the fuel required, the mass of the rocket structure itself must also be determined, which requires taking into account the mass of the required thrusters, electronics, instruments, power equipment, etc. These are known quantities for typical off the shelf hardware that should be considered in the mid to late stages of the design, but for preliminary and conceptual design, a simpler approach can be taken. Assuming one engine for a rocket stage provides all of the total impulse for that particular segment, a mass fraction can be used to determine the mass of the system. The mass of the stage transfer hardware such as initiators and safe-and-arm devices are very small by comparison and can be considered negligible. For modern day solid rocket motors, it is a safe and reasonable assumption to say that 91 to 94 percent of the total mass is fuel. It is also important to note there is a small percentage of "residual" propellant that will be left stuck and unusable inside the tank, and should also be taken into consideration when determining amount of fuel for the rocket. A common initial estimate for this residual propellant is five percent. With this ratio and the mass of the propellant calculated, the mass of the empty rocket weight can be determined. Sizing rockets using a liquid bipropellant requires a slightly more involved approach because there are two separate tanks that are required: one for the fuel, and one for the oxidizer. The ratio of these two quantities is known as the mixture ratio, and is defined by the equation: Where is the mass of the oxidizer and is the mass of the fuel. This mixture ratio not only governs the size of each tank, but also the specific impulse of the rocket. Determining the ideal mixture ratio is a balance of compromises between various aspects of the rocket being designed, and can vary depending on the type of fuel and oxidizer combination being used. For example, a mixture ratio of a bipropellant could be adjusted such that it may not have the optimal specific impulse, but will result in fuel tanks of equal size. This would yield simpler and cheaper manufacturing, packing, configuring, and integrating of the fuel systems with the rest of the rocket, and can become a benefit that could outweigh the drawbacks of a less efficient specific impulse rating. But suppose the defining constraint for the launch system is volume, and a low density fuel is required such as hydrogen. This example would be solved by using an oxidizer-rich mixture ratio, reducing efficiency and specific impulse rating, but will meet a smaller tank volume requirement. Optimal staging and restricted staging Optimal The ultimate goal of optimal staging is to maximize the payload ratio (see ratios under performance), meaning the largest amount of payload is carried up to the required burnout velocity using the least amount of non-payload mass, which comprises everything else. This goal assumes that the cost of a rocket launch is proportional to the total liftoff mass of the rocket, which is a rule of thumb in rocket engineering. Here are a few quick rules and guidelines to follow in order to reach optimal staging: Initial stages should have lower , and later/final stages should have higher . The stages with the lower should contribute less ΔV. The next stage is always a smaller size than the previous stage. Similar stages should provide similar ΔV. The payload ratio can be calculated for each individual stage, and when multiplied together in sequence, will yield the overall payload ratio of the entire system. It is important to note that when computing payload ratio for individual stages, the payload includes the mass of all the stages after the current one. The overall payload ratio is: Where n is the number of stages the rocket system comprises. Similar stages yielding the same payload ratio simplify this equation, however that is seldom the ideal solution for maximizing payload ratio, and ΔV requirements may have to be partitioned unevenly as suggested in guideline tips 1 and 2 from above. Two common methods of determining this perfect ΔV partition between stages are either a technical algorithm that generates an analytical solution that can be implemented by a program, or simple trial and error. For the trial and error approach, it is best to begin with the final stage, calculating the initial mass which becomes the payload for the previous stage. From there it is easy to progress all the way down to the initial stage in the same manner, sizing all the stages of the rocket system. Restricted Restricted rocket staging is based on the simplified assumption that each of the stages of the rocket system have the same specific impulse, structural ratio, and payload ratio, the only difference being the total mass of each increasing stage is less than that of the previous stage. Although this assumption may not be the ideal approach to yielding an efficient or optimal system, it greatly simplifies the equations for determining the burnout velocities, burnout times, burnout altitudes, and mass of each stage. This would make for a better approach to a conceptual design in a situation where a basic understanding of the system behavior is preferential to a detailed, accurate design. One important concept to understand when undergoing restricted rocket staging, is how the burnout velocity is affected by the number of stages that split up the rocket system. Increasing the number of stages for a rocket while keeping the specific impulse, payload ratios and structural ratios constant will always yield a higher burnout velocity than the same systems that use fewer stages. However, the law of diminishing returns is evident in that each increment in number of stages gives less of an improvement in burnout velocity than the previous increment. The burnout velocity gradually converges towards an asymptotic value as the number of stages increases towards a very high number. In addition to diminishing returns in burnout velocity improvement, the main reason why real world rockets seldom use more than three stages is because of increase of weight and complexity in the system for each added stage, ultimately yielding a higher cost for deployment. Tandem vs parallel staging design A rocket system that implements tandem staging means that each individual stage runs in order one after the other. The rocket breaks free from the previous stage, then begins burning through the next stage in straight succession. On the other hand, a rocket that implements parallel staging has two or more different stages that are active at the same time. For example, the Space Shuttle has two Solid Rocket Boosters that burn simultaneously. Upon launch, the boosters ignite, and at the end of the stage, the two boosters are discarded while the external fuel tank is kept for another stage. Most quantitative approaches to the design of the rocket system's performance are focused on tandem staging, but the approach can be easily modified to include parallel staging. To begin with, the different stages of the rocket should be clearly defined. Continuing with the previous example, the end of the first stage which is sometimes referred to as 'stage 0', can be defined as when the side boosters separate from the main rocket. From there, the final mass of stage one can be considered the sum of the empty mass of stage one, the mass of stage two (the main rocket and the remaining unburned fuel) and the mass of the payload. Upper stages High-altitude and space-bound upper stages are designed to operate with little or no atmospheric pressure. This allows the use of lower pressure combustion chambers and engine nozzles with optimal vacuum expansion ratios. Some upper stages, especially those using hypergolic propellants like Delta-K or Ariane 5 ES second stage, are pressure fed, which eliminates the need for complex turbopumps. Other upper stages, such as the Centaur or DCSS, use liquid hydrogen expander cycle engines, or gas generator cycle engines like the Ariane 5 ECA's HM7B or the S-IVB's J-2. These stages are usually tasked with completing orbital injection and accelerating payloads into higher energy orbits such as GTO or to escape velocity. Upper stages, such as Fregat, used primarily to bring payloads from low Earth orbit to GTO or beyond are sometimes referred to as space tugs. Assembly Each individual stage is generally assembled at its manufacturing site and shipped to the launch site; the term vehicle assembly refers to the mating of all rocket stage(s) and the spacecraft payload into a single assembly known as a space vehicle. Single-stage vehicles (suborbital), and multistage vehicles on the smaller end of the size range, can usually be assembled directly on the launch pad by lifting the stage(s) and spacecraft vertically in place by means of a crane. This is generally not practical for larger space vehicles, which are assembled off the pad and moved into place on the launch site by various methods. NASA's Apollo/Saturn V crewed Moon landing vehicle, and Space Shuttle, were assembled vertically onto mobile launcher platforms with attached launch umbilical towers, in a Vehicle Assembly Building, and then a special crawler-transporter moved the entire vehicle stack to the launch pad in an upright position. In contrast, vehicles such as the Russian Soyuz rocket and the SpaceX Falcon 9 are assembled horizontally in a processing hangar, transported horizontally, and then brought upright at the pad. Passivation and space debris Spent upper stages of launch vehicles are a significant source of space debris remaining in orbit in a non-operational state for many years after use, and occasionally, large debris fields created from the breakup of a single upper stage while in orbit. After the 1990s, spent upper stages are generally passivated after their use as a launch vehicle is complete in order to minimize risks while the stage remains derelict in orbit. Passivation means removing any sources of stored energy remaining on the vehicle, as by dumping fuel or discharging batteries. Many early upper stages, in both the Soviet and U.S. space programs, were not passivated after mission completion. During the initial attempts to characterize the space debris problem, it became evident that a good proportion of all debris was due to the breaking up of rocket upper stages, particularly unpassivated upper-stage propulsion units. History and development An illustration and description in the 14th century Chinese Huolongjing by Jiao Yu and Liu Bowen shows the oldest known multistage rocket; this was the "fire-dragon issuing from the water" (火龙出水, huǒ lóng chū shuǐ), which was used mostly by the Chinese navy. It was a two-stage rocket that had booster rockets that would eventually burn out, yet before they did they automatically ignited a number of smaller rocket arrows that were shot out of the front end of the missile, which was shaped like a dragon's head with an open mouth. The British scientist and historian Joseph Needham points out that the written material and depicted illustration of this rocket come from the oldest stratum of the Huolongjing, which can be dated roughly 1300–1350 AD (from the book's part 1, chapter 3, page 23). Another example of an early multistaged rocket is the Juhwa (走火) of Korean development. It was proposed by medieval Korean engineer, scientist and inventor Choe Museon and developed by the Firearms Bureau (火㷁道監) during the 14th century. The rocket had the length of 15 cm and 13 cm; the diameter was 2.2 cm. It was attached to an arrow 110 cm long; experimental records show that the first results were around 200m in range. There are records that show Korea kept developing this technology until it came to produce the Singijeon, or 'magical machine arrows' in the 16th century. The earliest experiments with multistage rockets in Europe were made in 1551 by Austrian Conrad Haas (1509–1576), the arsenal master of the town of Hermannstadt, Transylvania (now Sibiu/Hermannstadt, Romania). This concept was developed independently by at least five individuals: Polish–Lithuanian Kazimieras Simonavičius (1600–1651) Russian Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935) American Robert Goddard (1882–1945) German Hermann Oberth (1894–1989) French (1889–1969) The first high-speed multistage rockets were the RTV-G-4 Bumper rockets tested at the White Sands Proving Ground and later at Cape Canaveral from 1948 to 1950. These consisted of a V-2 rocket and a WAC Corporal sounding rocket. The greatest altitude ever reached was 393 km, attained on February 24, 1949, at White Sands. In 1947, the Soviet rocket engineer and scientist Mikhail Tikhonravov developed a theory of parallel stages, which he called "packet rockets". In his scheme, three parallel stages were fired from liftoff, but all three engines were fueled from the outer two stages, until they are empty and could be ejected. This is more efficient than sequential staging, because the second-stage engine is never just dead weight. In 1951, Soviet engineer and scientist Dmitry Okhotsimsky carried out a pioneering engineering study of general sequential and parallel staging, with and without the pumping of fuel between stages. The design of the R-7 Semyorka emerged from that study. The trio of rocket engines used in the first stage of the American Atlas I and Atlas II launch vehicles, arranged in a row, used parallel staging in a similar way: the outer pair of booster engines existed as a jettisonable pair which would, after they shut down, drop away with the lowermost outer skirt structure, leaving the central sustainer engine to complete the first stage's engine burn towards apogee or orbit. Separation events Separation of each portion of a multistage rocket introduces additional risk into the success of the launch mission. Reducing the number of separation events results in a reduction in complexity. Separation events occur when stages or strap-on boosters separate after use, when the payload fairing separates prior to orbital insertion, or when used, a launch escape system which separates after the early phase of a launch. Pyrotechnic fasteners, or in some cases pneumatic systems like on the Falcon 9 Full Thrust, are typically used to separate rocket stages. Two-stage-to-orbit Three-stage-to-orbit The three-stage-to-orbit launch system is a commonly used rocket system to attain Earth orbit. The spacecraft uses three distinct stages to provide propulsion consecutively in order to achieve orbital velocity. It is intermediate between a four-stage-to-orbit launcher and a two-stage-to-orbit launcher. Examples of three-stage-to-orbit systems Saturn V Vanguard Ariane 4 (optional boosters) Ariane 2 Ariane 1 (four stages) GSLV (three stages and boosters) PSLV (four stages) Proton (optional fourth stage) Long March 5 (optional boosters and optional third stage) Long March 1, Long March 1D Zenit-3SL Unha-3 KSLV-2 "Nuri" Examples of two stages with boosters Other designs (in fact, most modern medium- to heavy-lift designs) do not have all three stages inline on the main stack, instead having strap-on boosters for the "stage-0" with two core stages. In these designs, the boosters and first stage fire simultaneously instead of consecutively, providing extra initial thrust to lift the full launcher weight and overcome gravity losses and atmospheric drag. The boosters are jettisoned a few minutes into flight to reduce weight. US Space Shuttle — SRB first stage ; External Tank + SSME second stage ; OMS on internal tanks third stage ; Angara A5 Ariane 5 Atlas V 551 Delta II third stage) Delta III Delta IV-Medium+ and -Heavy Falcon Heavy Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mk III (However, like the Titan IIIC, the GSLV MkIII is launched solely by the side boosters. The main core only ignites a few minutes into flight, shortly before the boosters are jettisoned.) H-IIA, H-IIB Soyuz Space Launch System Titan IV Long March 2E, Long March 2F, Long March 3B Four-stage-to-orbit The four-stage-to-orbit launch system is a rocket system used to attain Earth orbit. The spacecraft uses four distinct stages to provide propulsion consecutively in order to achieve orbital velocity. It is intermediate between a five-stage-to-orbit launcher and a three-stage-to-orbit launcher, most often used with solid-propellant launch systems. Examples of four-stage-to-orbit systems Ariane 1 PSLV Minotaur IV Proton (optional fourth stage) Minotaur V (five stages) ASLV (five stages) Examples of three stages with boosters Other designs do not have all four stages inline on the main stack, instead having strap-on boosters for the "stage-0" with three core stages. In these designs, the boosters and first stage fire simultaneously instead of consecutively, providing extra initial thrust to lift the full launcher weight and overcome gravity losses and atmospheric drag. The boosters are jettisoned a few minutes into flight to reduce weight. Long March 5 (optional boosters and optional third stage) Extraterrestrial Rockets NASA-ESA Mars Ascent Vehicle(MAV) (A 2-stage rocket, planned launch from Mars in 2028) See also Multistage rocket Three-stage-to-orbit Two-stage-to-orbit Single-stage-to-orbit Adapter Reusable launch system Space tug Apogee kick motor Conrad Haas Modular rocket References Aerospace engineering Rocket propulsion Space access Space launch vehicles ja:ロケット#多段式ロケット
402020	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cagot	Cagot	The Cagots () were a persecuted minority who lived in the west of France and northern Spain: the Navarrese Pyrenees, Basque provinces, Béarn, Aragón, Gascony and Brittany. Evidence of the group exists as far back as 1000 CE. Name Etymology The origins of both the term (and , , , etc.) and the Cagots themselves are uncertain. It has been suggested that they were descendants of the Visigoths defeated by Clovis I at the Battle of Vouillé, and that the name derives from ("dog") and the Old Occitan for Goth around the 6th century. Yet in opposition to this etymology is the fact that the word is first found in this form no earlier than the year 1542. Seventeenth century French historian Pierre de Marca, in his , propounds the reverse – that the word signifies "hunters of the Goths", and that the Cagots were descendants of the Saracens and Moors of Al-Andalus (or even Jews) after their defeat by Charles Martel, although this proposal was comprehensively refuted by the Prior of Livorno, Abbot as early as 1754. Antoine Court de Gébelin derives the term cagot from the Latin , meaning "false, bad, deceitful", and meaning "god", due to a belief that Cagots were descended from the Alans and followed Arianism. Variations Their name differed by province and the local language: In Gascony they were called , and In Bordeaux they were called , or In Agenais, Bordeaux, and Landes de Gascogne they were called In the Spanish Basque country they were called , , , and In the French Basque Country the forms and were also used. In Anjou, Languedoc, and Armagnac they were called , and (marsh people) In Brittany they were called , (possibly from the Breton word meaning leprous), and . They were also sometimes referred to as , , , , and , names of the local due to similar low stature and discrimination in society. In Bigorre they were also called or In Aunis and Poitou they were also called / , or referencing Gehazi the servant of Elisha who was cursed with leprosy due to his greed. With the recording as an insult regularly used against Cagots. is seen in the writings of Dominique Joseph Garat. Elizabeth Gaskell records the anglicised Gehazites in her work An Accursed Race. Other recorded names include , , , , , and (most likely from the Old French meaning leper). Previously some of these names had been viewed as being similar yet separate groups from the Cagots, though this changed in some cases in later research. Geography The cagots were present in France in Gascony to the Basque Country, but also in the north of Spain (in Aragon, south and north Navarre, and Asturias) where they are referred to commonly by the term Agotes. Cagots were typically required to live in separate quarters, on the outskirts of towns. These hamlets were called then from the 16th century , which were often on the far outskirts of the villages. On the scale of Béarn, for example, the distribution of cagots, often carpenters, was similar to that of other craftsmen, who were numerous mainly in the Piedmont. Far from congregating in only a few places, the cagots were scattered in over 137 villages and towns. Outside the mountains, 35 to 40% of communities had cagots, especially the largest ones, excluding very small villages. Toponomy Toponymy and topography indicate that the places where the cagots were found have constant characteristics; these are gaps, generally across rivers or outside town walls, called “” (and derivatives) or “” (Laplace names are frequent) next to water points, places allocated to live and above all to practice their trades. Toponymy also provides evidence of areas where Cagots had lived in the past. Various Street names are still in use such as: in the municipalities of Montgaillard and Lourdes in Laurède in (Roquefort) in Saint-Girons in the municipalities of Mézin, Sos, Vic-Fezensac, Aire-sur-l'Adour, Eauze, and Gondrin in Villeneuve-de-Marsan in Vérines In Aubiet, there is a locality called “”. It was in this hamlet, that the cagots () of Aubiet lived, on the left bank of the Arrats, separated from the village by the river. In this last example, the discovery of the name of the place allowed teachers to discover the local history of the cagots and to start educational work. Until the beginning of the 20th century, several districts of cagots still bore the name of ("Carpenter"). Treatment Cagots were shunned and hated; while restrictions varied by time and place, with many discriminatory actions being codified into law in France in 1460, they were typically required to live in separate quarters. Cagots were excluded from various political and social rights. Religion and government Cagots were not allowed to marry non-Cagots leading to forced endogamy, though in some areas in the later centuries (such as Béarn) they were able to marry non-Cagots though the non-Cagot would then be classed as a Cagot. They were not allowed to enter taverns or use public fountains. The marginalization of the Cagots began at baptism where chimes were not rung in celebration as was the case for non-Cagots and that the baptisms were held at nightfall. Within parish registries the term , or its scholarly synonym , was entered. Cagots were buried in cemeteries separate from non-Cagots with reports of riots occurring if bishops tried to have the bodies moved to non-Cagot cemeteries. Commonly Cagots were not given a standard last name in registries and records but were only listed by their first name, followed by the mention "" or "", such as on their baptismal certificate, They were allowed to enter a church only by a special door and, during the service, a rail separated them from the other worshippers. They were forbidden from joining the priesthood. Either they were altogether forbidden to partake of the sacrament, or the Eucharist was given to them on the end of a wooden spoon, while a holy water stoup was reserved for their exclusive use. They were compelled to wear a distinctive dress to which, in some places, was attached the foot of a goose or duck (whence they were sometimes called ), and latterly to have a red representation of a goose's foot in fabric sewn onto their clothes. Whilst in Navarre a court ruling in 1623 required all Cagots to wear cloaks with a yellow trim to identify them as Cagots. Work Cagots were prohibited from selling food or wine, touching food in the market, working with livestock, or entering mills. The Cagots were often restricted to craft trades including those of carpenter, masons, woodcutters, wood carvers, coopers, butcher, and rope-maker. Due to association with woodworking crafts, Cagots often worked as the operators of instruments of torture and execution, as well as making the instruments themselves. Such professions may have perpetuated their social ostracisation. Cagot women were often midwives until the 15th century. Due to social exclusion, in France the Cagots were exempt from taxation until the 18th century. By the 19th century these restrictions seem to have been lifted, but the trades continued to be practiced by Cagots, along with other trades such as weaving and blacksmithing. Cagots who were involved in masonry and carpentry were often contracted to construct major public buildings, such as churches, an example being the . Because the main identifying mark of the Cagots was the restriction of their trades to a few small options, their segregation has been compared to the caste system in India. Accusations and pseudo-medical beliefs The Cagots were not an ethnic nor a religious group. They spoke the same language as the people in an area and generally kept the same religion as well, with later researchers remarking that there was no evidence to mark the Cagots as distinct from their neighbours. Their only distinguishing feature was their descent from families long identified as Cagots. Few consistent reasons were given as to why they were hated; accusations varied from Cagots being cretins, lepers, heretics, cannibals, sorcerers, werewolves, sexual deviants, to actions they were accused of such as poisoning wells, or for simply being intrinsically evil. also notes how it was also believed that they could cause children to fall ill by touching them or even just looking at them. So pestilential was their touch considered that it was a crime for them to walk the common road barefooted or to drink from the same cup as non-Cagots. It was also a common belief that the Cagots gave off a foul smell. recorded that many believed Cagots were born with a tail. The French early psychiatrist Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol wrote in his 1838 works that the Cagots were a subset of "idiot", and separate from "cretins". By the middle of the 19th century, previous pseudo-medical beliefs and beliefs of them being intellectually inferior had waned and German doctors, by 1849, regarded them as “not without the ability to become useful members of society.” Though various French and British doctors were continuing to label the Cagots as a race inherently afflicted with congenital disabilities to the end of the 19th century. Daniel Tuke wrote in 1880 after visiting communities where Cagots lived, noted how local people would not subject "cretins" born to non-Cagots to living with Cagots. The Cagots did have a culture of their own, but very little of it was written down or preserved; as a result, almost everything that is known about them relates to their persecution. The repression lasted through the Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Industrial Revolution, with the prejudice fading only in the 19th and 20th centuries. Origin Biblical legends Various legends placed the Cagots as originating from biblical events, including being descendants of the carpenters who made the cross that Jesus was crucified on, or being descendants of the bricklayers who built Solomon's Temple after being expelled from ancient Israel by God due to poor craftsmanship. Similarly a more detailed legend places the origins of the Cagots in Spain as being descendants of a Pyrenean master carver named Jacques, who traveled to ancient Israel via Tartessos, to cast Boaz and Jachin for Solomon's Temple. While in Israel he was distracted during the casting of Jachin by a woman, and due to the imperfection this caused in the column his descendants were cursed to suffer leprosy. Religious origin Another theory is that the Cagots were descendants of the Cathars, who had been persecuted for heresy in the Albigensian Crusade. With some comparisons including the use the term to refer to Cagots, which evokes the name that the Cathars gave to themselves, . A delegation by Cagots to Pope Leo X in 1514 made this claim, though the Cagots predate the Cathar heresy and the Cathar heresy was not present in Gascony and other regions where Cagots were present. Perhaps this was a strategic move: in statutes such stains of heresy expired after four generations and if this was the cause of their marginalisation, it also gave grounds for their emancipation. Others have suggested an origin as Arian Christians. One early mention of the Cagots is from 1288, when they appear to have been called or . Other terms seen in use prior to the 16th century include , , and , which in medieval texts became inseparable from the term , and so in Béarn became synonymous with the word leper. Thus, another theory is that the Cagots were early converts to Christianity, and that the hatred of their pagan neighbors continued after they also converted, merely for different reasons. Medical origin Another possible explanation of their name or is to be found in the fact that in medieval times all lepers were known as , and that, whether Visigoths or not, these Cagots were affected in the Middle Ages with a particular form of leprosy or a condition resembling it, such as psoriasis. Thus would arise the confusion between Christians and Cretins, and explain the similar restrictions placed on lepers and Cagots. Guy de Chauliac wrote in the 14th century, and Ambroise Paré wrote in 1561 of the Cagots being lepers with "beautiful faces" and skin with no signs of leprosy, describing them as "white lepers" (people afflicted with "white leprosy"). Later dermatologists believe that Paré was describing leucoderma. Early edicts apparently refer to lepers and Cagots as different categories of undesirables, With this distinction being explicit by 1593. The Parlement of Bordeaux repeated customary prohibitions against them but added when they are lepers, if there still are any, they must carry (rattles). One belief in Navarre were that the were descendants of French immigrant lepers to the region. Later English commentators supported the idea of an origin among a community of lepers due to the similarities in the treatment of Cagots in churches and the measures taken to allow lepers in England and Scotland to attend churches. Other origins wrote that the Cagots were likely descendants of Spanish Roma from the Basque country. In Bordeaux, where they were numerous, they were called . This name has the same form as the Old French word , meaning leper (ultimately derived from Latin ). It also has the same form as the Gascon word for thief (ultimately derived from Latin , and cognate to the Catalan and the Spanish meaning robber or looter), which is similar in meaning to the older, probably Celtic-origin Latin term (or bagad), a possible origin of . The alleged physical appearance and ethnicity of the Cagots varied wildly from legends and stories; some local legends (especially those that held to the leper theory) indicated that Cagots had blonde hair and blue eyes, while those favoring the Arab descent story said that Cagots were considerably darker. In Pío Baroja's work comments that Cagot residents of had both individuals with "Germanic" features as well as individuals with "Romani" features. Though people who set out to research the Cagots found them to be a diverse class of people in physical appearance, as diverse as the non-Cagot communities around them. One common trend was to claim that Cagots had no ears or no earlobes, or that one ear was longer than the other, with other supposed identifiers including webbed hands and/or feet, or the presence of goitres. Graham Robb finds most of the above theories unlikely: A modern hypothesis of interest is that the Cagots are the descendants of a fallen medieval guild of carpenters. This theory would explain the most salient thing Cagots throughout France and Spain have in common: that is, being restricted in their choice of trade. The red webbed-foot symbol Cagots were sometimes forced to wear might have been the guild's original emblem. There was a brief construction boom on the Way of St. James pilgrimage route in the 9th and 10th centuries; this could have brought the guild both power and suspicion. The collapse of their business would have left a scattered, yet cohesive group in the areas where Cagots are known. For similar reasons due to their restricted trades, Delacampagne suggests a possible origin as a culturally distinct community of woodsmen who were Christianised relatively late. Religion Cagots followed the same religion as the non-Cagots who lived around them. They were forced to use a side entrance to churches, often an intentionally low one to force Cagots to bow and remind them of their subservient status. This practice, done for cultural rather than religious reasons, did not change even between Catholic and Huguenot areas. They had their own holy water fonts set aside for Cagots, and touching the normal font was strictly forbidden. These restrictions were taken seriously; in the 18th century, a wealthy Cagot had his hand cut off and nailed to the church door for daring to touch the font reserved for "clean" citizens. Cagots were expected to slip into churches quietly and congregate in the worst seats. Many Bretons believed that Cagots bled from their navel on Good Friday. An appeal by the Cagots to Pope Leo X in 1514 was successful, and he published a papal bull in 1515, instructing that the Cagots be treated "with kindness, in the same way as the other believers." Still, little changed, as most local authorities ignored the bull. Government The nominal though usually ineffective allies of the Cagots were the government, the educated, and the wealthy. This included Charles V who officially supported tolerance of and improvements to the lives of Cagots. It has been suggested that the odd patchwork of areas which recognized Cagots has more to do with which local governments tolerated the prejudice, and which allowed Cagots to be a normal part of society. In a study in 1683, doctors examined the Cagots and found them no different from normal citizens. Notably, they did not actually suffer from leprosy or any other disease that could clarify their exclusion from society. The Parliaments of Pau, Toulouse and Bordeaux were apprised of the situation, and money was allocated to improve the lot of the Cagots, but the populace and local authorities resisted. In 1673, the Ursúa lords of the municipality of Baztán advocated the recognition of the local Cagots as natural residents of the Baztán. Also in the 17th century Jean-Baptiste Colbert officially freed Cagots in France from their servitude to parish churches and from restrictions placed upon them, though in practicality nothing changed. By the 18th century Cagots made up considerable portions of various settlements, such as in Baigorri where Cagots made up 10% of the population. In 1709, the influential politician planned and constructed the manufacturing town of Nuevo Baztán (after his native Baztan Valley in Navarre) near Madrid. He brought many Cagot settlers to Nuevo Baztán, but after some years, many returned to Navarre, unhappy with their work conditions. In 1723 the instituted a fine of 500 French livres for anyone insulting any individual as "alleged descendants of the Giezy race, and treating them as agots, cagots, gahets or ladres"; ordering that they will be admitted to general and particular assemblies, to municipal offices and honors of the church, they may even be placed in the galleries and other places of the said church where they will be treated and recognized as the other inhabitants of the places, without any distinction; as also that their children will be received in the schools and colleges of the cities, towns and villages, and will be admitted in all the Christian instructions indiscriminately. During the French Revolution substantive steps were taken to end discrimination toward Cagots. Revolutionary authorities claimed that Cagots were no different from other citizens, and de jure discrimination generally came to an end. And while their treatment did improve compared to previous centuries, local prejudice from the non-Cagot populace persisted, though the practice began to decline. Also during the revolution, Cagots stormed record offices and burned birth certificates in an attempt to conceal their heritage. These measures did not prove effective, as the local populace still remembered. Rhyming songs kept the names of Cagot families known. Modern status Kurt Tucholsky wrote in his book on the Pyrenees in 1927: "There were many in the Argelès valley, near Luchon and in the Ariège district. Today they are almost extinct, you have to search hard if you want to see them". Examples of prejudice still occurred into the 19th and 20th century, including a scandal in the village of Lescun where in the 1950s a non-Cagot woman married a Cagot man. There was a distinct Cagot community in Navarre until the early 20th century, with the small northern village called Arizkun in Basque (or Arizcun in Spanish) being the last haven of this segregation, where the community was contained within the neighbourhood of Bozate. Between 1915 and 1920 the Ursúa noble family sold the land that Cagots had worked for the Ursúa for centuries in the area of Baztan to the Cagot families. Family names in Spain still associated with having Cagot ancestors include: Bidegain, Errotaberea, Zaldua, Maistruarena, Amorena, and Santxotena. The Cagots no longer form a separate social class and were largely assimilated into the general population. Very little of Cagot culture still exists, as most descendants of Cagots have preferred not to be known as such. There are two museums dedicated to the history of the Cagots, one in the neighborhood of Bozate in the town of Arizkun, Spain, the (Ethnographic Museum of the Agotes), opened by in 2003, and a museum in the Château des Nestes in Arreau, France. Cagot symbols used in anti-vaccination protests In 2021 and 2022 anti-vaccination and anti-vaccine passport protestors in France started wearing the red goose's foot symbol that Cagots were forced to wear, and handed out cards explaining the discrimination against the Cagots. In media Legend states that in the battle of 1373 that led to The Tribute of the Three Cows, the people of the French were led by a cagot with four ears. In the 1793 French play , by Sylvain Maréchal, the liberated subjects of the kings of Europe provide critiques of and insult their former rulers, where they say the Spanish king has "stupidity, cagotism and despotism [...] imprinted on his royal face". The author Thomas Colley Grattan's 1823 story The Cagot's Hut details the otherness he perceived in the Cagots during his travels in the French Pyrenees, detailing many of the mythical features that became folklore about the Cagots appearance. The German poet Heinrich Heine visited the town of Cauterets in July 1841 and learned of the Cagots minority and their discrimination by others, subsequently becoming the topic of his poem Canto XV in Atta Troll. References to Cagots have appeared in multiple poems by the 19th century French poet Édouard Pailleron. The 2012 Spanish-language film Baztan by , deals with a young man fighting against the discrimination he and his family have suffered for centuries due to being Cagots. The Cagot sculptor Xabier Santxotena, whose work explores the history and identity of the Cagots, opened the in his former family home. A character called Beñat Le Cagot appears in the novel Shibumi published in 1979 by Trevanian, a pseudonym of Rodney William Whitaker. Gallery Fonts Doors See also , untouchable caste in Korea. , outcast community of Vietnam after the Fall of Saigon. , a discriminated group in Japan. , a derogatory term used to describe coopers and ropemakers. , an ethnic group in the Spanish Basque country and the French Basque coast sometimes linked to the Cagots. Cleanliness of blood, ethnic discrimination in the Spanish Old Regime. Dalit, (also known as untouchables) in India. , an ethnic minority in Spain and Portugal. , an ethnic group in Spain who were also discriminated against and have unknown origins. Melungeons, of America's central Appalachia. Osu in the Igbo society of west Africa In China, Tanka in Guangdong (Cantonese: 疍家, "boat people"), Fuzhou Tanka in Fujian (Fuzhounese: 曲蹄, ), si-min (small people) and mianhu in Jiangsu, Gaibu (丐戶) and Duomin (Wu Chinese: 惰民, , "idle/lazy/fallen/indolent people") in , jiuxing yumin () in the Yangtze River region, Yueji in Shaanxi (Jin Chinese: 乐籍, , the social class who entertains [the imperial court]") Untouchability, the practice of ostracising a group of people regarded as 'untouchables'. , a discriminated group of cowherders in Northern Spain. a persecuted ethnic minority in Mallorca, often referenced in works discussing the persecution of Cagots in Spain. References Bibliography Further reading External links Cagot Museum in Arreau with illustrations Basque history Kingdom of France Social history of France Discrimination in France Discrimination in Spain
402027	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20Kingdom%20labour%20law	United Kingdom labour law	United Kingdom labour law regulates the relations between workers, employers and trade unions. People at work in the UK can rely upon a minimum set of employment rights, which are found in Acts of Parliament, Regulations, common law and equity. This includes the right to a minimum wage of £10.42 for over-23-year-olds from April 2023 under the National Minimum Wage Act 1998. The Working Time Regulations 1998 give the right to 28 days paid holidays, breaks from work, and attempt to limit long working hours. The Employment Rights Act 1996 gives the right to leave for child care, and the right to request flexible working patterns. The Pensions Act 2008 gives the right to be automatically enrolled in a basic occupational pension, whose funds must be protected according to the Pensions Act 1995. Workers must be able to vote for trustees of their occupational pensions under the Pensions Act 2004. In some enterprises, such as universities, staff can vote for the directors of the organisation. In enterprises with over 50 staff, workers must be negotiated with, with a view to agreement on any contract or workplace organisation changes, major economic developments or difficulties. This happens through a steadily increasing number of work councils, which can be requested by staff or unions with over 2% support. The UK Corporate Governance Code recommends worker involvement in voting for a listed company's board of directors but does not yet follow international standards in protecting the right to vote in law. Collective bargaining, between democratically organised trade unions and the enterprise's management, has been seen as a "single channel" for individual workers to counteract the employer's abuse of power when it dismisses staff or fix the terms of work. Collective agreements are ultimately backed up by a trade union's right to strike: a fundamental requirement of democratic society in international law. Under the Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992 strike action is protected when it is "in contemplation or furtherance of a trade dispute". As well as the law's aim for fair treatment, the Equality Act 2010 requires that people are treated equally, unless there is a good justification, based on their sex, race, sexual orientation, religion or belief and age. To combat social exclusion, employers must positively accommodate the needs of disabled people. Part-time staff, agency workers, and people on fixed-term contracts must be treated equally compared to full-time, direct and permanent staff. To tackle unemployment, all employees are entitled to reasonable notice before dismissal after a qualifying period of a month, after two years they can only be dismissed for a fair reason, and are entitled to a redundancy payment if their job was no longer economically necessary. If an enterprise is bought or outsourced, the Transfer of Undertakings (Protection of Employment) Regulations 2006 require that employees' terms cannot be worsened without a good economic, technical or organisational reason. The purpose of these rights is to ensure people have dignified living standards, whether or not they have the relative bargaining power to get good terms and conditions in their contract. History Modern labour law is mostly a creation of the last three decades of the 20th century. However, as a system of regulating the employment relationship, labour law has existed since people worked. In feudal England, after the Black Death with a shortage of workers and consequent price rises, the Ordinance of Labourers 1349 and the Statute of Labourers 1351 suppressed wages to pre-plague levels, banned workers unionising, and created offences for any able-bodied person that did not work. Ultimately this led to the Peasants' Revolt of 1381, which was followed by the Statute of Cambridge 1388, banning workers moving around the country. All these repressive acts were signs that serfdom was breaking down. The more enlightened Truck Acts, dating from 1464, required that workers be paid in cash and not kind. In 1772 slavery was declared to be illegal in R v Knowles, ex parte Somersett, and the subsequent Slave Trade Act 1807 and Slavery Abolition Act 1833 enforced prohibition throughout the British Empire. In the 19th century, production boomed. Gradually people's relationship to their employers moved from one of status - formal subordination and deference - to "freedom of contract" in choosing where to work. However, freedom of contract did not, as the economist Adam Smith observed, change a worker's factual dependency on employers and the threat of poverty from unemployment.A Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776) Book I, ch 8, §12. Also JS Mill, Chapters on Socialism (1879) ch 1, "No longer enslaved or made dependent by force of law, the great majority are so by force of poverty; they are still chained to a place, to an occupation, and to conformity with the will of an employer, and debarred, by the accident of birth both from the enjoyments, and from the mental and moral advantages, which others inherit without exertion and independently of desert. That this is an evil equal to almost any of those against which mankind have hitherto struggled, the poor are not wrong in believing." At the Industrial Revolution's height, the British Empire organised half the world's production, on a third of the globe's surface, with a quarter of its population. Joint Stock Companies, building railways, canals and factories, manufacturing household goods, connecting telegraphs, distributing coal, formed the backbone of commerce, yet with miserable factory life. The Factory Acts dating from 1803 required minimum standards on hours and conditions of working children. Trade unions were suppressed, especially after the French Revolution of 1789, in the Combination Act 1799. The Master and Servant Act 1823 criminalised workers for disobedience, strikes were branded as an "aggravated" breach of contract. Despite this, unions grew and through massive pressure won the right to exist and bargain in the Trade Union Act 1871 and the Conspiracy, and Protection of Property Act 1875. Toward the turn of the 20th century, in Mogul Steamship Co Ltd v McGregor, Gow & Co, the House of Lords emphasised that businesses should be free to organise into trade associations in the same way that employees organised into unions. However, in the notorious judgment of Taff Vale Railway Co v Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants, the House of Lords changed its mind and made unions liable in economic tort for the costs of industrial action. Although a combination of employers in a company could dismiss employees without notice, a combination of employees in a trade union were punished for withdrawing their labour. The case led trade unions to form a Labour Representation Committee, which then became the Labour Party, to lobby for the reversal of the law. After their landslide victory in the 1906 general election, the Trade Disputes Act 1906 enshrined the essential principle of collective labour law that any strike "in contemplation or furtherance of a trade dispute" is immune from civil law sanctions. The Old Age Pensions Act 1908 provided pensions for retirees. The Trade Boards Act 1909 created the first minimum wages and the National Insurance Act 1911 levied a fee to insure people got benefits in the event of unemployment. After the brutality of World War I, the Versailles Treaty created the International Labour Organization to draw up common standards between countries, for as it said, "peace can be established only if it is based on social justice", and echoed the US Clayton Act 1914 in pronouncing that "labour should not be regarded merely as a commodity or an article of commerce". But the international system remained disjointed as the United States Congress withheld its approval to join the League of Nations. Within the UK the postwar settlement was to make a home fit for heroes. Whitley Councils extended the Trade Boards Act 1909 system to Joint Industrial Councils that created sector-wide fair wage agreements, while the Ministry of Labour actively organised the growth of trade unions. This was based on a theory of collective bargaining, agreement or action, advocated by Sidney Webb and Beatrice Webb in Industrial Democracy to remedy the inequality of bargaining power of workers. Without legal force behind collective agreements, the law remained in a state of collective laissez faire, encouraging voluntarism for agreement and dispute settlement between industrial partners. The 1920s and 1930s were economically volatile. In 1926 a General Strike against coal miners' pay cuts paralysed the country, at though it was broken, the Labour Party formed its first government in Parliament in 1929. The onset of the Great Depression, and then war, meant little was achieved. After the Second World War, under the first majority Labour government of Clement Attlee which promised to "win the peace", collective agreements covered over 80 per cent of the workforce. As the British Empire dissolved, migration from Commonwealth countries, and record levels of female workplace participation, changed Britain's workforce. While the common law was sometimes progressive, but mostly not, the first statutes prohibiting discrimination based on gender and race emerged in the 1960s, after the Civil Rights Act was passed in the United States. Discrimination in employment (as in consumer or public service access) was formally prohibited on grounds of race in 1965, gender in 1975, disability in 1995, sexual orientation and religion in 2003 and age in 2006. A complicated and inconsistent jamboree of Acts and statutory instruments was placed into a comprehensive code in the Equality Act 2010. This was backed by European Union law, which the UK acceded to with the European Communities Act 1972. Although labour laws in the early European Treaties were minimal, the Social Chapter of the Maastricht Treaty brought employment rights squarely into EU law. Meanwhile, starting from the Contracts of Employment Act 1963, workers gained a growing list of minimum statutory rights, such as the right to reasonable notice before a fair dismissal and a redundancy payment. Labour governments through the 1960s and 1970s were troubled by reform of the unwieldy trade union system. Despite producing reports such as In Place of Strife and the Report of the committee of inquiry on industrial democracy which would have codified union governance, and created more direct workplace participation, reform did not take place. From 1979, a new Conservative government began dismantling most labour rights. During the 1980s ten major Acts gradually reduced the autonomy of trade unions and the legality of industrial action. Reforms to the internal structure of unions mandated that representatives be elected and a ballot is taken before a strike, that no worker could strike in sympathetic secondary action with workers with a different employer, and that employers could not run a closed shop system of requiring all workers to join the recognised union. The wage councils were dismantled. A public campaign against the merits of unions paralleled the decline of membership and collective agreement coverage to under 40 per cent. In addition, the government opted out of the EU Social Chapter in the Maastricht Treaty. In 1997 the new Labour government brought the UK into the EU's Social Chapter, which has served as the source for most reform in UK law since that time. Domestic led reform was minimal. The National Minimum Wage Act 1998 established a country-wide minimum wage, but did not attempt to reinvigorate the Wage Board system. The Employment Relations Act 1999 introduced a 60-page procedure requiring employers to compulsorily recognise and bargain with a union holding support among workers, though union membership remained at a level steadily declining below 30 per cent. Most advances in labour rights since 1997 came through EU law, such as paid holidays, information and consultation, or spreading equality. Since 2010, the coalition government continued a programme of labour rights by requiring people who take zero hour contracts to get unemployment insurance, and frustrating the right to strike in the Trade Union Act 2016. This has led to consistently rising inequality since 1979, and to large increases in child poverty since 2010. Employment rights and duties UK labour law's main concerns are to ensure that every working person has a minimum charter of rights in their workplace, and voice at work to get fair standards beyond the minimum. It distinguishes self-employed people, who are free to contract for any terms they wish, and employees, whose employers are responsible for complying with labour laws. UK courts and statutes also, however, give more or fewer rights to different groups including "worker", "jobholder", "apprentice" or someone with an "employment relation". A "worker", for example, is entitled to a minimum wage (£8.21 per hour in 2019), 28 statutory minimum days of paid holiday, enrolment in a pension plan, a safe system of work, and the right to equal treatment that also applies to consumers and public service users. An "employee" has all those rights, and also the right to a written contract of employment, time off for pregnancy or child care, reasonable notice before a fair dismissal and a redundancy payment, and the duty to contribute to the National Insurance fund and pay income tax. The scope of the terms "worker", "employee", and others, are more or less left to the courts to construe according to the context of its use in a statute, but someone is essentially entitled to more rights if they are in a weaker position and thus lack bargaining power. English courts view an employment contract as involving a relation of mutual trust and confidence, which allows them to develop and enlarge the remedies available for workers and employers alike when one side acts out of bad faith. Scope of protection The UK has not yet codified a single definition of who is protected by labour rights. The law has two main definitions (employee and worker) and three minor definitions (jobholder, apprentice, and an "employment relation") each with different rights. EU law does have one consolidated definition of a 'worker': someone who has a contract for work in return for a wage, or an indirect quid pro quo (as in a communal cooperative), and also stands as the more vulnerable party to the contract. This reflects the kernel of classical labour law theory, that an employment contract is one infused with "inequality of bargaining power", and stands as a justification for mandating additional terms to what might otherwise be agreed under a system of total freedom of contract. First, an "employee" has all main rights, including job security, retirement, child care, and the right to equal treatment. Most people are employees, although this has not yet been fully defined in the Employment Rights Act 1996 section 230. Instead, Parliament left it to the courts to decide what "employee" with a "contract of service" meant, although the government can explicitly put people into the "employee" category. The classical common law test was that an employee was subject to the employer's 'control'. But in the 20th century, more people worked outside factories where they had greater autonomy in performing their jobs. New tests were used, such as whether an employee was "integrated" into the workplace, or wore the "badge" of the organisation. Most importantly, because employers paid National Insurance contributions for their employees, the tax authorities had a central role in enforcing the proper distinction. Courts focused on "economic reality", and substance over form. It could also be relevant (but not decisive) if employees owned their tools, if they had the chance of profit, or bore the risk of loss. But in the late 1970s and 1980s, some courts introduced a new test of "mutuality of obligation". The dominant view of this, now approved by the UK Supreme Court, was merely that employees only needed to exchange work for a wage: this was the "irreducible core" of an employment contract. But a rival view stated that the employment relationship had to be one where there was an ongoing obligation to offer and accept work. This led to cases where employers, who hired people on a casual basis, low wages, and with little bargaining power, argued they owed no duties to their staff, because they had neither side had assumed any such obligation. However, the leading case, Autoclenz Ltd v Belcher decided by a unanimous Supreme Court in 2011, adopted the view that mutuality of obligation is the consideration of work for a wage. Lord Clarke held that an exchange of work for a wage was essential, but that employment contracts could not be treated like commercial agreements. As he put it, This meant that a group of car valeters, although their contracts said they were self-employed, and professed to have no obligation to undertake work, were entitled to a minimum wage and paid leave. The contract terms could be disregarded because they did not represent the reality of the situation. The second major category is of a 'worker'. This is defined in Employment Rights Act 1996 section 230 as someone with a contract of employment or someone who personally performs work and is not a client or a customer. This means all employees are workers, but not all workers are employees. Non-employee workers are entitled to a safe system of work, a minimum wage and limits on working time, anti-discrimination rights, and trade union rights, but not job security, child care, and employers do not make National Insurance contributions for them. The Supreme Court has held that this category contains quasi-self-employed professionals, such as partners of a law firm, and high-earning plumbers. However, staff who are employed through an agency, will be employees in relation to the agency. Though not entitled to employee rights, these workers may form trade unions and take collective action under UK, EU and international law, to protect their interests. Contract of employment Once a person's work contract is categorised, the courts have specific rules to decide, beyond the statutory minimum charter of rights, what are its terms and conditions. Just like ordinary contract law there are rules on incorporation, implied terms and unjust factors. However, in Gisda Cyf v Barratt, Lord Kerr emphasised that if it affects statutory rights, the way courts construe a contract must be "intellectually segregated" from the general law of contract, because of the employee's relation of dependency. In this case, Ms Barratt was told her employment was terminated in a letter that she opened 3 days after its arrival. She claimed her dismissal was unfair within three months (the time limit to bring claims in Tribunals) after reading the letter, but the employer argued it was barred because in commercial contract cases, one is bound by a notice as soon as it arrives in business hours. The Supreme Court held that Ms Barratt could claim: she was only bound by the notice when she actually read it. The purpose of employment law to protect the employee, and so the rules must be construed to uphold employees' rights. Everything an employee is promised or agrees to becomes a term of the contract, so long as this does not contradict statutory labour rights. In addition, terms can be incorporated by reasonable notice, for instance by referring to a staff handbook in a written employment agreement, or even in a document in a filing cabinet next to the staff handbook. While without express wording they are presumed not binding between the union and employer, a collective agreement may give rise to individual rights. The test applied by the courts is to ask loosely whether its terms are 'apt' for incorporation, and not statements of 'policy' or 'aspiration'. Where the collective agreement's words are clear, a "last in, first out" rule was held in one case to potentially qualify, but in another case a clause purporting to censure compulsory redundancies was held to be binding 'in honour' only. As well as statutory rights, expressly agreed terms, and incorporated terms, the employment relation contains standardised implied terms, on top of the individualised implied terms that courts always construe to reflect the reasonable expectations of the parties. First, the courts have long held that employees are owed additional and beneficial obligations, such as a safe system of work, and payment of wages even when the employer has no work to offer. The House of Lords held employers have a duty to inform their employees of their workplace pension rights, although a lower court stopped short of requiring employers to give advice on qualifying for workplace disability benefits. The key implied term is the duty of good faith, or "mutual trust and confidence". This is applied in many circumstances. Examples include requiring that employers do not act in an authoritarian manner, do not call employees names behind their back, do not treat workers unequally when upgrading pay, do not run the company as a front for international crime, or do not exercise discretion to award a bonus capriciously. There has been disagreement among judges about the extent to which the core implied term of mutual trust and confidence can be 'contracted out of', with the House of Lords having held that the parties may when they are "free" to do so, while others approach the question as a matter of construction of the agreement which is within exclusive judicial competence to define. The second, and older, hallmark of the employment contract is that employees are bound to follow their employers' instructions while at work, so long as that does not contravene statute or agreed terms. Employments relation give the employer discretion in limited fields. This used to be called the 'master–servant' relationship. The employer has some ability to vary the way work is done in accordance with business needs, so long as it does not contradict a contract's express terms, which always require an employee's consent, or a collective agreement. The status of 'flexibility clauses', purporting to allow employers the discretion to vary any contract term, has been contested, as it will often enable abuse of power that the common law controls. The limits of the courts' tolerance for such practices are evident if they touch procedures for accessing justice, or potentially if they would contravene the duty of mutual trust and confidence. Health and safety Every employer must provide a "safe system of work". In the industrial revolution from 1802 the Factories Acts required workplaces to be cleaner, ventilated, with machinery fenced. The Acts restricted child labour and limited the working day. They targeted mines, or textile mills, before the Factories Act 1961 spread to all "factories": where an article is made or changed, or animals are kept and slaughtered. The Employer's Liability (Defective Equipment) Act 1969 made employers automatically liable for equipment with defects supplied by third parties. Because individual employees tend not to litigate, to ensure enforcement, there are inspectors under the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974, enforced by the Health and Safety Executive. The HSE can delegate enforcement to local authorities. Inspectors have the power to investigate and require changes to workplace systems. HSWA 1974 section 2 also foresees that employees will set up their own workplace committees, elected by the employees and with the power to codetermine health and safety matters with management. Health and safety regulations remain in line with the European-wide harmonised requirements of the Health and Safety Directive. The most important protection for people's health has been the National Health Service (NHS), founded by the National Health Service Act 1946. The National Health Service Act 2006 entitles everyone to health care in the UK, and is funded through the tax system. If people are injured at work, they may be treated regardless of their means to pay. There is also the right, under the Social Security Contributions and Benefits Act 1992, to statutory sick pay. People at work can also sue for compensatory damages whenever they are injured and employers have breached a statutory duty. They can claim for the injury itself, loss of income, and relatives or dependents may recover small sums to reflect distress. Employers are vicariously liable for all agents acting for them in the "course of employment" whenever their actions have a "close connection" to the job, and even if it breaks an employer's rules. An employer only has a defence if an employee, on a "frolic of his own", was not placed by an employer in a position to cause harm. Under the Employers' Liability (Compulsory Insurance) Act 1969, employers must take out insurance for all injury costs. Insurance companies may not sue their employee to recover costs unless there is fraud. Until the mid-20th century there was an "unholy trinity" of defences: common employment, volenti non fit injuria, and contributory negligence. These are gone, but a fourth defence taken advantage of by employers is ex turpi causa non oritur actio, that if the employee was engaged in any illegal activity they may not claim compensation for injuries. In Hewison v Meridian Shipping Services Pte Ltd Hewison concealed his epilepsy so that he could work offshore, and so was technically guilty of illegally attempting to gain a pecuniary advantage by deception under the Theft Act 1968 section 16. After being struck in the head by a defective gangplank he suffered worse fits than before, but the Court of Appeal, by a majority, held his illegal act precluded any compensation. Tort law remains relevant when there is scientific uncertainty about an injury's cause. In asbestos disease cases, a worker may have been employed at a number of companies where he was exposed to asbestos, but his injury cannot with certainty be traced to any one, and some may be insolvent. In Fairchild v Glenhaven Funeral Services Ltd, the House of Lords held that if any employer had materially increased the risk of harm to the worker, they could would be jointly and severally liable and could be sued for the full sum, leaving it up to them to seek contribution from others and thus the risk of other businesses' insolvency. For a brief period, in Barker v Corus the House of Lords then decided that employers would only be liable on a proportionate basis, thus throwing the risk of employers' insolvency back onto workers. Immediately Parliament passed the Compensation Act 2006 section 3 to reverse the decision on its facts. It has also been held in Chandler v Cape plc that even though a subsidiary company is the direct employer of a worker, a parent company will owe a duty of care. Thus shareholders may not be able to hide behind the corporate veil to escape their obligations for the health and safety of the workforce. Wages and tax Since 1998, the United Kingdom has fixed a national minimum wage, but collective bargaining is the main mechanism to achieve "a fair day's wage for a fair day's work". The Truck Acts were the earliest wage regulations, requiring workmen to be paid in money, and not kind. Today, the Employment Rights Act 1996 section 13 stipulates that employers can only dock employees' wages (e.g. for destroying stock) if the employee has consented to deductions in writing. This, however, does not cover industrial action, so following 18th century common law on part performance of work, employees who refused to 3 out of 37 hours a week in minor workplace disobedience had their pay cut for the full 37. From the Trade Boards Act 1909, the UK had set minimum wages according to the specific needs of different sectors of work. This eroded from 1986, and then repealed in 1993. One wages council that survived was the Agricultural Wages Board, established under the Agricultural Wages Act 1948. It was abolished in England in October 2013, though boards still operate for Scotland, Northern Ireland, and Wales. To bring the UK back into compliance with international law, the National Minimum Wage Act 1998 was introduced. Every worker" who personally performs work, but not for a client or customer, However, it was held that a pupil barrister did not count as a worker. The minimum wage rate is revised annually after guidance from the Low Pay Commission, but since 2010 has been cut for under-25-year-olds and young people doing apprenticeships. The National Minimum Wage Regulations 2015 state that for people who are not paid by the hour, total pay is divided by the hours actually worked over an average "pay reference period" of one month. Workers who are "on call" have to be paid when they are on call. But if a worker is given sleeping facilities and is not awake, the minimum wage need not be paid. However, an employer may agree with a worker what the hours worked actually are, if hours are ordinarily unmeasured. In Walton v Independent Living Organisation Ltd a worker who cared for a young epileptic lady had to be on call 24 hours a day, 3 days a week, but could do her own activities, such as going shopping, making meals and cleaning. Her company made an agreement with her that her tasks took 6 hours and 50 minutes a day, which resulted in her £31.40 allowance meeting the minimum wage. Deductions up to £6 per day can be made for accommodation the employer provides, though extra bills, such as for electricity, should not ordinarily be charged. The minimum wage can be enforced individually through an Employment Rights Act 1996 section 13 claim for a shortfall of wages in a Tribunal. A worker may not be subjected to any detriment for requesting records or complaining about it. However, because many workers will not be informed about how to do this, or have the resources, a primary enforcement mechanism is through inspections and compliance notices issued by Her Majesty's Revenue and Customs (HMRC). A remedy of up to 80 times the minimum wage is available to the worker and HMRC can enforce a penalty of twice the minimum wage per worker per day. Unlike the rules for Value Added Tax Act 1994, where consumers must see the prices they actually pay after tax, there is currently no requirement for workers to see the final wages they will actually earn after income tax, and National Insurance contributions. Under the Income Tax Act 2007, as amended each year by the Finance Acts, in 2019 the 'personal allowance' with 0% was up to £12,500 in income, a 'basic rate' of 20% tax was paid on £12,500 to £50,000, a higher rate was 40% on income over £50,000, and a top rate of 45% over £150,000. The top rate of income tax has been dramatically cut since 1979, while taxation for the richest people, who receive most money through capital gains, dividends, or corporate profits has been cut even further. People will be classified as liable to pay income tax whether or not they work through a company. From 2015 to 2019, the "personal allowance" was linked to the minimum wage, but only up to 30 hours a week of pay (as if people usually had a three-day weekend). This link was cut, and there is no personal allowance for National Insurance contributions, which fund the state pension, unemployment insurance (now partly the universal credit), and the insolvency fund. While self-employed people generally pay the same income tax (albeit with more exemptions and deductions) they pay 9% in National Insurance contributions, while an employee pays 12%. In addition, the employee's employer makes a standard 13.8% contribution, while the "self-employed" person has no employer to make such a contribution. These disparities give a large incentive for employers to misrepresent true employment status with "sham self-employment". Working time and child care The Working Time Regulations 1998 and the Working Time Directive give every worker the right to paid holidays, breaks and the right to a weekend. Following international law, every worker must have at least 28 days, or four full weeks in paid holidays each year (including public holidays). There is no qualifying period for this, or any other working time right, because the law seeks to ensure both a balance between work and life, and that people have enough rest and leisure to promote better physical and psychological health and safety. Because the purpose is for workers to have the genuine freedom to rest, employers may not give a worker "rolled up holiday pay", for instance an additional 12.5% in a wage bill, in lieu of taking actual holidays. However, if the worker has not used his or her holidays before the job terminates, the employer must give an additional payment for the unused holiday entitlement. People working at night may only work 8 hours in any 24-hour period on average, or simply 8 hours at most if the work is classified as "hazardous". Moreover, every worker must receive at least 11 consecutive hours of rest in a 24-hour period, and in every day workers must have at least a 20-minute break in any 6-hour period. The most controversial provisions in the working time laws concerns the right to a maximum working week. The labour movement has always bargained for a shorter working week as it increased economic productivity: the current maximum is 48 hours, averaged over 17 weeks, but it does not apply to the self-employed or people who can set their own hours of work. In Pfeiffer v Deutsches Rotes Kreuz the Court of Justice said the rules aim to protect workers who possess less bargaining power and autonomy over the way they do their jobs. Nevertheless, the UK government negotiated to let workers "opt out" of the 48-hour maximum by individually signing an opt out form. Theoretically and legally, a worker may always change his or her mind after having opted out, and has a right to sue the employer for suffering any detriment if they so choose. "On call" time where people must be ready to work is working time. The European Court of Justice's decision in Landeshauptstadt Kiel v Jaegar that junior doctors' on call time was working time led a number of countries to exercise the same "opt out" derogation as the UK, but limited to medical practice. The Health and Safety Executive is the UK body charged with enforcing the working time laws, but it has taken a "light touch" approach to enforcement. Possibly the most important time off during working life will be to care for newly born or adopted children. However, unlike paid holidays or breaks that are available for "workers", child care rights are restricted to "employees". They are also less favourable for male parents, which exacerbates the gender pay gap as women take more time out of their careers than men. Going beyond the minimum in the Pregnant Workers Directive, the Employment Rights Act 1996 section 71 to 73 and the Maternity and Parental Leave etc. Regulations 1999 guarantee maternity leave for 52 weeks in total, but in four steps, paid and unpaid. First, women must take two weeks compulsory leave at the time of child birth. Second, and covering the compulsory leave, there is a right to 6 weeks' leave paid at 90% of ordinary earnings. Third, there is a right to 33 weeks' leave at the statutory rate, or 90% of ordinary earnings if this is lower, which was £138.18 per week in 2014. The government reimburses employers for the costs according to the employer's size and national insurance contributions. Fourth, the mother may take additional, but unpaid maternity leave for another 13 weeks. A contract of employment can always be, and if collectively bargained usually is, more generous. There is no qualifying period for the right to unpaid leave, but the mother must have worked for 26 weeks for the right to paid leave. The mother must also tell the employer 15 weeks before the date of the expected birth, in writing if the employer requests it. Employees may not suffer any professional detriment or dismissal while they are absent, and should be able to return to the same job after 26 weeks, or another suitable job after 52 weeks. If parents adopt, then the rights to leave follow maternity rules for one primary carer. However, for fathers ordinarily, the position is less generous. The Paternity and Adoption Leave Regulations 2002 entitle a father to 2 weeks leave, at the statutory rate of pay. Both parents may also take "parental leave". This means that, until a child turns 5, or a disabled child turns 18, parents can take up to 13 weeks unpaid leave. Unless there is another collective agreement in place, employees should give 21 days' notice, no more than 4 weeks in a year, at least 1 week at a time, and the employer can postpone the leave for 6 months if business would be unduly disrupted. Otherwise, employees have a right to suffer no detriment, nor be dismissed, and have the right to their previous jobs back. To redress the imbalance between women and men bearing children, the Additional Paternity Leave Regulations 2010 made it possible for the woman to transfer up to 26 weeks of her maternity leave entitlements to her partner. This has not stopped the gender pay gap. In further specific situations, there are a jumble of other rights to leave spread across the Employment Rights Act 1996 sections 55 to 80I. "Emergency leave" is, under the Employment Rights Act 1996 section 57A, available for employees to deal with birth or a child's issues at school, as well as other emergencies such as dependents' illness or death, so long as the employee informs the employer as soon as reasonably practicable. In Qua v John Ford Morrison Solicitors, Cox J emphasised that there is no requirement to deliver daily updates. After Employment Act 2002, employees gained the right to request flexible working patterns for the purpose of caring for a child under the age of 6, or a disabled child under age 18. The right to make the request is contained in Employment Rights Act 1996 section 80F, and despite the fact that employers may decline the request, employers grant requests in 80% of cases. An employee must make the request in writing, the employer must reply in writing, and can only decline the request on the basis of a correct fact assessment, and within 8 grounds listed in section 80G, which generally concern business and organisational necessity. In Commotion Ltd v Rutty a toy warehouse assistant was refused a reduction to part-time work because, according to the manager, everyone needed to work full-time to maintain "team spirit". The Employment Appeal Tribunal ruled that because "team spirit" was not one of the legitimate grounds for refusal, Rutty should get compensation, which is set at a maximum of 8 weeks' pay. Finally, the Employment Rights Act 1996 sections 63D-I give employees (and agency workers are expressly included) the right to request the right to get time off for training. Occupational pensions There are three "pillars" of the UK pension system, which aim to ensure dignity and a fair income in retirement. The first pillar is the state pension, administered by the government, and funded by National Insurance contributions. The third pillar is private, or "personal pensions", which individuals buy themselves. The second pillar, and deriving from the contract of employment, is occupational pensions. Traditionally, these came from a collective agreement, or from an employer setting one up. The Pensions Act 2008 gives every "jobholder" (defined as a worker, age 16 to 75, with wages between £5,035 and £33,540) the right to be automatically enrolled by the employer in an occupational pension, unless the jobholder chooses to opt out. This is a simple "defined contribution" scheme: whatever the jobholder contributes, they get out. Although collectively invested, benefits are individualised, meaning the risk of living longer and running out of money grows. To reduce administration costs, a non-departmental trust fund called the National Employment Savings Trust was established as a "public option" competing with private asset managers. Employers set aside an agreed percentage of jobholders' wages, and negotiate how much they will contribute. This is particularly important for people who have not created a union and collectively bargained for an occupational pension. Collectively bargained pensions are often better, and historically had "defined benefits": on retirement, people receive money based either on their final salary, or a career average of earnings for the rest of their lives. Living longer does not become an individual risk, but is collectivised among all contributors. In principle, the rules for pension trusts differ from ordinary law of trusts as pensions are not gifts and people pay for their benefits through their work. Pensions operating through contracts also engender mutual trust and confidence in the employment relationship. An employer is under a duty to inform their staff about how to make the best of their pension rights. Moreover, workers must be treated equally, on grounds of gender or otherwise, in their pension entitlements. The management of a pension trust must be partly codetermined by the pension beneficiaries, so that a minimum of one third of a trustee board are elected or "member nominated trustees". The Secretary of State has the power by regulation, as yet unused, to increase the minimum up to one half. Trustees are charged with the duty to manage the fund in the best interests of the beneficiaries, in a way that reflects their preferences, by investing the savings in company shares, bonds, real estate or other financial products. Because pension schemes save up significant amounts of money, which many people rely on in retirement, protection against an employer's insolvency, or dishonesty, or risks from the stock market were seen as necessary after the 1992 Robert Maxwell scandal. Defined contribution funds must be administered separately, not subject to an employer's undue influence. The Insolvency Act 1986 also requires that outstanding pension contributions are a preferential over creditors, except those with fixed security. However, defined benefit schemes are also meant to ensure everyone has a stable income regardless of whether they live a shorter or longer period after retirement. The Pensions Act 2004 sections 222 to 229 require that pension schemes have a minimum "statutory funding objective", with a statement of "funding principles", whose compliance is periodically evaluated by actuaries, and shortfalls are made up. The Pensions Regulator is the non-departmental body which is meant to oversee these standards, and compliance with trustee duties, which cannot be excluded. However, in The Pensions Regulator v Lehman Brothers, the Supreme Court concluded that if the Pensions Regulator issued a "Financial Support Direction" to pay up funding, and it was not paid when a company had gone insolvent, this ranked like any other unsecured debt in insolvency, and did not have priority over banks that hold floating charges. In addition, there exists a Pensions Ombudsman who may hear complaints and take informal action against employers who fall short of their statutory duties. If all else fails, the Pension Protection Fund guarantees a sum is ensured, up to a statutory maximum. Privacy and free expression Civil liberties at work, particularly the right to privacy and freedom of expression, are part of the UK's constitution and are protected in multiple statutes. Under the Human Rights Act 1998, section 3, domestic law should be interpreted so far as possible to be compatible with the European Convention on Human Rights. If a compatible interpretation would bend an Act's words too much, section 4 requires courts to issue a declaration of incompatibility, for Parliament to amend the law. Under section 6, courts are public bodies, themselves bound to act compatibly with human rights. The first main right affecting the workplace is privacy, which is protected in ECHR article 8 and the Data Protection Act 2018, which includes the General Data Protection Regulation. First, it is an offence under the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 section 1(3) for an employer to intercept any private communication, such as reading email, searching an inbox, or tracking calls or websites, without lawful authority. Second, the employer must preserve a minimum content of privacy, whatever it tells an employee. In Barbulescu v Romania the European Court of Human Rights held that a sales engineer had a 'reasonable expectation of privacy' against personal messages to his brother and fiancé being read, even though he was told not to use a workplace Yahoo messenger for personal reasons, because he was not specifically told his messages would be checked. Even if he was, "an employer’s instructions cannot reduce private social life in the workplace to zero. Respect for private life and for the privacy of correspondence continues to exist, even if these may be restricted in so far as necessary". An employer cannot read private messages, for instance to a fiancé or family member. This followed several other similar cases. In Halford v United Kingdom the European Court of Human Rights held that intercepting an employee's phone calls violated their private life, particularly since they had not been told of any extent of monitoring, and they had been given a reasonable expectation of privacy. In Smith and Grady v United Kingdom the Court held that the private life of a woman in the Royal Air Force was violated after an investigation and intimate questioning of her sex life and HIV status. Then, in Copland v United Kingdom the Court found that it violated ECHR article 8 for a manager to monitor the calls and internet use of an employee, and then insinuate and gossip about the employee having an affair, again without any warning. On the other hand, in Kopke v Germany, the Court held that video surveillance of employees was lawful, after an employer had found money was going missing from the till, in pursuit of the legitimate aim of protecting property rights: implicitly, general video surveillance without any reasonable suspicion of a wrongful act would be a violation. Third, under the GDPR personal data can only be processed by consent or law, fairly, transparently, with a legitimate purpose, kept secure, and no longer than needed. The law distinguishes between ordinary data, and 'sensitive' personal data, such as political opinions, union membership, or biometric data. There is a right to have any inaccurate data rectified, and erased if consent is withdrawn and there is no longer a lawful ground for it to be kept. All rights are backed by criminal offences and enforceable through complaints to the Information Commissioner. The second main civil liberty in the workplace is the right to freedom of expression, protected in ECHR article 10. First, freedom of expression includes statements of political opinion, as well as association. In Vogt v Germany it was held that dismissing a teacher, simply for being a member of the German Communist Party and expressing political views, violated ECHR article 10. There was no expression of disobedience to the country's constitution or democratic order, and so a complete ban on party membership was disproportionate. Second there could be disclosures to improve an employer's workplace practices. In Heinisch v Germany it was held to be unlawful to dismiss from an elderly care home a nurse who complained to a criminal prosecutor about shortages in the home, creating intolerable pressure on staff, and putting patients at risk: there was a failure to balance the public interest in care for the elderly and the employer's business interests, and dismissal was an extreme sanction that could have a chilling effect on all freedom of speech if allowed. Third, there is explicit protection for disclosures in the public interest, for instance of unlawful activity, under the Employment Rights Act 1996 section 43A to 43K. These "whistleblower" provisions protect 'qualifying disclosures' such as any criminal offence, a breach of legal duty, miscarriage of justice, health and safety violations, environmental damage, or deliberate concealment of wrongs. The disclosures must be made with a reasonable belief in their truth, not for personal gain, and need not be made first to employers if the employee reasonably believes they may be subject to detriment. This does not protect employees against breaching the Official Secrets Act 1989. Beyond privacy and expression, the human rights that also affect the workplace include the right to a fair trial, the right to property, and critically the right to freedom of association in ECHR article 11, that protects workplace participation. Workplace participation While UK law creates a "charter protecting employees' rights" at work, people need a voice in enterprise management to get fair wages and standards beyond the minimum. In law, this means the right to vote for managers, or to vote on important issues such as pensions, and the right to collective bargaining. Trade unions are the main way that workers organise their voices. Unions aim to improve their members' lives at work. Unions are founded on contract, but members must have the right to elect the executive, not be excluded without good reason, and not be discriminated against by employers. Unions' main functions are organising and representing a workforce through statutory participation channels, collective bargaining, providing mutual assistance, and being a forum for social deliberation and activism. Collective agreements, which unions make with employers, usually aim to set fair scales of pay and working hours, require pensions, training and workplace facilities, and update standards as the enterprise changes. Trade union bargaining power rests, in the last resort, on collective action. To balance employer power to change the employment relation's terms, or dismiss staff, an official trade union has been protected by law in its right to strike. Since the 1875, UK law has said collective action, including the right to strike, is lawful if it is "in contemplation or furtherance of a trade dispute". Since the 1980s, there have also been a number of requirements for balloting the workforce and warning the employer, suppression of sympathy strikes and picketing. In these respects UK law falls below international labour standards. There are legal rights to information about workplace changes and consultation on redundancies, business restructuring and management generally. Finally, there are a small number of rights for direct participation in workplace and company affairs, particularly pension management. In some enterprises, such as universities, staff can vote for representatives on boards that manage the enterprise. Trade unions In principle, UK law guarantees trade unions and their members freedom of association. This means people can organise their affairs in the way they choose, a right reflected in the ILO Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949 and the European Convention on Human Rights, article 11. Under the ECHR article 11, freedom of association can only be restricted by law as is "necessary in a democratic society". Traditional common law and equity was superficially similar, since unions form through contract, and the association's property is held on trust for its members according to the association's rules. However, before Parliament became democratic, unions were suppressed for allegedly being in "restraint of trade" and their actions (particularly strikes to improve conditions at work) could be regarded as criminal conspiracy. Nineteenth century reformers, who recognised that unions were democratic, gradually succeeded in guaranteeing unions' freedom of association. The Trade Union Act 1871 aimed to keep the courts away from unions' internal affairs, while the Trade Disputes Act 1906 finally confirmed the right of unions to take collective action, free from liability in tort, if it was "in contemplation or furtherance of a trade dispute". The basic philosophy of "legal abstention" from union organisation lasted until 1971 when the Conservative government attempted comprehensive regulation. This intervention was reversed by Labour in 1974, but after 1979 unions became heavily regulated. Today union governance can be configured in any manner, so long as it complies with the compulsory standards set by the Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992. Before 1979, all unions had systems of elections and were democratic. In most the members elected union executives directly. However, it was thought that indirect elections (e.g. where members voted for delegates, who elected executives in conference) made a minority of unions more "out of touch" and militant than was natural. Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992, section 46, requires that members have direct voting rights for the executive, which cannot stay in office for more than five years. In addition, rules were passed (though there was little evidence of problems before) saying no candidate may be unreasonably excluded from an election, all voters are equal, and postal ballots must be available. In practice, UK union elections are often competitive, although voter turnouts (without electronic voting) tend to be low. Minor procedural irregularities that would not affect outcomes do not undermine an election, but otherwise a Certification Officer can hear complaints about malpractice, make inquiries, and issue enforcement orders, which can in turn be appealed to the High Court. For example, in Ecclestone v National Union of Journalists Jake Ecclestone, who had been the Deputy General Secretary of the National Union of Journalists for 40 years, was dismissed by the executive. He attempted to run for election again, but the executive introduced a rule that candidates had to have the executive's "confidence". Smith J held the union had no express rule stating the executive could do this, nor could any be construed consistently with the democratic nature of the union's constitution. The executive's "new rule" was also contrary to TULRCA 1992 section 47, which prohibits unfair exclusions of candidates. Where statute is not explicit, standard principles of construction apply. There have been dissenting views, notably in Breen v Amalgamated Engineering Union, over the extent to which principles of natural justice may override a union's express rules. However, the better view appears that construction of a union's rules consistently with statutory principles of democratic accountability do require that express rules are disapplied if they undermine the "reasonable expectations" of members. In addition, "best practice" standards will be used to interpret union rules. In AB v CD, where the union's rules were silent on what would happen when an election was tied, the court referred to the Electoral Reform Society's guidance. Beyond union governance through the vote and elections, members have five main statutory rights. First, although statute asserts that a union is "not a body corporate", in every practical sense it is: it can make contracts, commission torts, hold property, sue and be sued. The union's executives and officials carry out actions on its behalf, and their acts are attributed to it by ordinary principles of agency. However, if any union official acts ultra vires, beyond the union's powers, every member has a right to claim a remedy for the breach. For example, in Edwards v Halliwell a decision of the executive committee of the National Union of Vehicle Builders to increase membership fees was restrained, because the constitution required a two-thirds vote of members first. Second, TULRCA 1992 section 28 requires unions to keep accounts, giving a "true and fair" view of its financial affairs. Records are kept for six years, members have a right to inspect them, they are independently audited and overseen by the Certification Officer. Third, members have a right to not give contributions to the trade union's political fund, if there is one. Since the early success of the UK Labour Party in promoting working people's welfare through Parliament, both courts and Conservative governments attempted to suppress unions' political voice, particularly compared to funding by employers through control of corporations. Under TULRCA 1992 sections 72, 73 and 82, a union must hold a separate fund for any "political object" (such as advertising, lobbying or donations), members must approve the fund by ballot at least every 10 years, and individual members have a right to opt-out of it (unlike shareholders in companies). Unions must also have political objects in the constitution. In 2010, just 29 from 162 unions had political funds, though 57 per cent of members contributed. This generated £22m. Consolidated statistics on corporate political spending, by contrast, are not available. Fourth, members must be treated fairly if they are disciplined by a union, in accordance with judicially developed principles of natural justice. For example, in Roebuck v NUM (Yorkshire Area) No 2 Templeman J held that it was unfair that Arthur Scargill was on the appeal panel for journalists being disciplined for appearing as witnesses against a libel action by Scargill himself. In another example, Esterman v NALGO held that Miss Esterman could not be disciplined for taking up an election counting job outside of her work, especially since the power of the union to restrain her was not clearly in its own rules. Fifth, members cannot be expelled from the union without a fair reason, set out in the statutory grounds under TULRCA 1992 section 174. This could include an expulsion under the Bridlington Principles, an agreement among unions to maintain solidarity and not attempt to "poach" each other's members. However, the legislation was amended after ASLEF v United Kingdom to make clear that unions may exclude members whose beliefs or actions are opposed to the union's legitimate objectives. In ASLEF, a member named Lee was involved in the British National Party, a neo-fascist organisation committed to white supremacy, and Lee himself was involved in violence and intimidation against Muslim people and women. The European Court of Human Rights held that ASLEF was entitled to expel Lee because, so long as it did not abuse its organisational power or lead to individual hardship, "unions must remain free to decide in accordance with union rules, questions concerning admission to and expulsion from the union." Lastly, union members also have the more dubious "right" to not strike in accordance with the decision of the executive. This precludes a union disciplining members who break solidarity, and has been criticised by the International Labour Organization for undermining a union's effectiveness, in breach of core labour standards. Collective bargaining The right of workers to collectively bargain with employers for a "fair day's wage for a fair day's work" is regarded as a fundamental right in common law, by the European Convention on Human Rights article 11, and in international law. Historically the UK had, however, left the procedure for making collective agreements, and their content, largely untouched by law. This began to change from 1971, though by contrast to other countries in the Commonwealth, Europe, or the United States the UK remains comparatively "voluntarist". In principle, it is always possible for an employer and a trade union to come voluntarily to any collective agreement. Employers and unions would usually aim to develop an annually updated wage scale for workers, fair and flexible working time, holidays and breaks, transparent and just procedures for hiring or dismissals, fair and jointly administered pensions, and a commitment to work together for the enterprise's success. In 2010, around 32 per cent of the UK workforce was covered by a collective agreement, leaving around two-thirds of the British workforce with little influence over the terms of their work. Traditionally, if workers organise a union, their last resort to get an employer to the bargaining table was to threaten collective action, including exercising their right to strike. In addition, the Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992 Schedule A1 contains a statutory procedure for workers to become recognised for collective bargaining. To use this procedure, first, a trade union must be certified as independent and the workplace must have a minimum of 21 workers. Second, there must not already be a recognised trade union. This caused particular problems in R (National Union of Journalists) v Central Arbitration Committee as the Court of Appeal held that a recognised union which lacked any significant support could block the bargaining claim of a union with support. Third, the union must identify an appropriate "bargaining unit" for a collective agreement, which a government body named the Central Arbitration Committee (CAC) can verify and approve. On the union's proposal, the CAC must take into account whether the proposed bargaining unit is "compatible with effective management", as well as the employer's views and the characteristics of the workers. The CAC has broad discretion, and may only be challenged by an employer under the general principles of natural justice in administrative law. In R (Kwik-Fit (GB) Ltd) v CAC the Court of Appeal found that the CAC's determination that the appropriate bargaining unit was all of Kwik Fit's workers within the M25 London ring road. The union's recommendation is the starting point and the CAC is entitled to prefer this over an employer's alternative, especially since the employer will often attempt to define a larger "unit" so as to limit the likelihood of union members holding greater majority support. Fourth, once the bargaining unit is defined, the CAC may be satisfied that there is majority support for the union to represent the workforce and will make a recognition declaration. Alternatively, fifth, it may determine that the position is less clear and that a secret ballot is in the interests of good industrial relations. Sixth, if a ballot takes place both the union and the employer should have access to employees, and be able to distribute their arguments, and threats, bribes or undue influence are forbidden. Seventh, when a vote takes place the union must have at least 10 per cent membership, and win 50 per cent of the vote, or least 40 per cent of those entitled to vote. If the union wins a majority, the eighth and final step is that if the parties do not reach an agreement the CAC will regulate the collective agreement for the parties and the result will be legally binding. This contrasts to the basic position, under TULRCA 1992 section 179, which presumes that collective agreements are not intended to create legal relations. The long, problematic procedure, was partly based on the model of the US National Labor Relations Act 1935, but because of its cumbersome nature it strongly encourages the parties to seek voluntary agreement in the spirit of cooperation and good faith. Though most collective agreements will come about voluntarily, the law has sought to ensure that workers have true freedom of association by prohibiting employers from deterring union membership, and by creating positive rights for members. First, the Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992 sections 137-143 make it unlawful for employers, including agencies, to refuse anyone employment on grounds of union membership. The courts will interpret the legislation purposively to protect union activities, with the same strictness as other anti-discrimination laws. Second, TULRCA 1992 sections 146-166 state that workers may not be subject to any detriment or dismissal. For example, in Fitzpatrick v British Railways Board the Board dismissed of a lady who had been a member of a Trotskyist group (which promoted international socialism). The Board justified this on the ground that she had not told the employer about having previously worked for the Ford Motor Company, and so for 'untruthfulness and lack of trust'. Woolf LJ held that this was not the true reason - Trotskyism was the issue. The dismissal was unlawful under section 152. Given the technicality of the legislation, the most important case is Wilson and Palmer v United Kingdom, where Wilson's pay was not increased by the Daily Mail because he wished to remain on the union collective agreement, and Palmer's pay was not put up by 10 per cent because he would not consent to leaving the union, the NURMTW. The European Court of Human Rights held that any ambiguity about protection in UK law contravened ECHR article 11 because, In principle, like any victimisation case in discrimination law, 'a detriment exists if a reasonable worker would or might take the view that the [treatment] was in all the circumstances to his detriment'. If the UK statutes are not updated, the Human Rights Act 1998 section 3 requires interpretation of the common law, or statute, to reflect ECHR principles. More specific legislation, with the Data Protection Act 1998 sections 17-19 and the Employment Relations Act 1999 (Blacklists) Regulations 2010, penalises a practice of recording or blacklisting union members, and potentially leads to criminal sanctions for employers and agencies who do so. Third, union members have a right to be represented by union officials in any disciplinary or grievance meeting under Employment Relations Act 1999 sections 10-15. This can be particularly important when a worker is in trouble with management. Fourth, an employer must permit officials of independent trade unions, which it recognises for collective bargaining, to a reasonable amount of time off to fulfill their role. Also, union members have a right to a reasonable amount of time off during work hours also to participate in meetings about agreements with the employer, or voting for elections. An ACAS Code of Practice sets out the general guidelines. A final "right" of a worker is that under TULRCA 1992 he or she may not be compelled to become a union member in what used to be called closed shop arrangements. Collective agreements had required that employers did not hire anyone who was not a union member. However, the European Court of Human Rights decided in 1981 that "freedom of association" under article 11 also entailed "freedom from association". This shift in the law coincided with the start of a Europe-wide trend toward falling union membership, as the closed shop had been the main mechanism to keep up union support, and thus collective bargaining for fairer workplaces. The ECHR does not, however, prevent unions pursuing fair share agreements, where non-union members contribute to union fees for the services they get for collective bargaining. Nor does it prevent collective agreements that would automatically enroll staff in the trade union, as happens under the Pensions Act 2008, with the right for the worker to opt-out if they chose. Collective and strike action The right of workers to collectively withdraw their labour has always been used to make employers stick to a collective agreement. At critical moments of history, it also combatted political repression (e.g. the Peasants' Revolt of 1381, and the Indian Independence Movement up to 1947), prevented military coups against democratic governments (e.g. the general strike in Germany against the Kapp Putsch in 1920), and overthrew dictatorships (e.g. in the 2008 Egyptian general strike). Anti-democratic regimes cannot tolerate social organisation they do not control, which is why the right to strike is fundamental to every democratic society, and a recognised human right in international law. Historically, the UK recognised the right to strike at least since 1906. UK tradition has inspired the International Labour Organization Convention 87 (1948) articles 3 and 10, the case law of the European Court of Human Rights under article 11, and the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights article 28. However, the scope of the right to take collective action has been controversial. Reflecting a series of restrictions from 1979 to 1997, the law was partially codified in the Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992 sections 219 to 246, which now falls below international standards. There is no consensus about the status of the right to strike at common law. On the one hand, the House of Lords and the Court of Appeal has repeatedly affirmed that "to cease work except for higher wages, and a strike in consequence, was lawful at common law", that "right of workmen to strike is an essential element in the principle of collective bargaining", "that workmen have a right to strike", and that this is "a fundamental human right". This view would accord with international law, and see the right to stop work in a good faith trade dispute as an implied term in every employment contract. On the other hand, differently composed courts have asserted that the common law position sits at odds with international law: that a strike is a breach of contract, and this creates tortious liability for unions organising collective action, unless it falls within an immunity from statute. On this view, even though an employer is not liable for economic loss to workers who are collectively dismissed, a union could be liable to the employer for taking collective action. Economic torts have been said to include conspiracy to injure, inducement of breach of contract, and tortious interference with a contract. However, TULRCA 1992 section 219 contains the classic formula, that collective action by a trade union becomes immune from any liability in tort if done "in contemplation or furtherance of a trade dispute". This said, various further hurdles must be jumped for a union to be certain of immunity from employers suing for damages, or an injunction to stop a strike. First, the meaning of a "trade dispute" under TULRCA 1992 section 244 is confined to mean a dispute "between workers and their employer" and must mainly relate to employment terms. In BBC v Hearn Lord Denning MR granted an injunction against a strike by BBC staff to stop broadcast of the 1977 FA Cup Final to apartheid South Africa. He reasoned that this was a political dispute, not a "trade dispute", unless the union was requesting "putting a clause in the contract" to not do such work. Strikes against government legislation (rather than an employer), or privatisation, or outsourcing before it happens, have been held unlawful. However, at the least, any dispute over the terms or conditions on which workers do their jobs will allow protection. Second, TULRCA 1992 section 224 prevents collective action against someone who is "not the employer party to the dispute". "Secondary action" used to be lawful, from the Trade Union Act 1871 until 1927, and again from 1946 till 1980, but today it is not. This makes the definition of "employer" relevant, particularly where a trade dispute involves a company group. A worker's written statement of the contract may purport to say that the only "employer" is a subsidiary, although the parent company carries out the employer's function of ultimately setting the contractual terms and conditions. Further, any picketing or protest outside a workplace must be "peaceful" and there must be a picket supervisor. There are a limited number of outright prohibitions on strike action, but in accordance with ILO Convention 87 this is only for workplaces that involve the truly essential functions of the state (for armed forces, police, and prison officers), and only when impartial arbitration is used as an alternative. Third, under TULRCA 1992 section 226 a union wishing to take collective action for a trade dispute must conduct a ballot. In summary, the union must give 7 days notice to the employer about holding a ballot, state the categories of employees being balloted, give a total number, all "as accurate as is reasonably practicable in the light of the information". Since the Trade Union Act 2016, there is an additional requirement that a ballot has a 50% turnout for a strike to be supported, and a total of 40% of voters supporting a strike (i.e. an 80% turnout if the vote is evenly split) in "important public services" that include health services, schools, fire, transport, nuclear and border security. A scrutineer must be able to oversee the conduct, the vote must be given to all workers who could strike, the vote must be secret and by post, allowing for 'small accidental failures' which are 'unlikely to affect the result of the ballot'. The union must inform the employer of the result "as soon as reasonably practicable", call action within four weeks, and tell the employer of the people taking part. The rules are poorly drafted, and this has generated litigation where some courts allowed injunctions on ostensible technical glitches. However, the Court of Appeal since emphasised in British Airways Plc v Unite the Union (No 2) and RMT v Serco Ltd that the rules are to be interpreted consistently with the purpose of reconciling the equally legitimate, but conflicting interests of employers and unions. No employee can be dismissed for taking part in a strike for a period of 12 weeks, so long as the strike is officially endorsed by the union. However, if strikes are not conducted in accordance with law, employers can (and often do) go to court to seek an injunction against a union conducting the strike, or potentially damages. A court should not grant any injunction against a strike unless there is a 'serious question to be tried' and it must consider where the 'balance of convenience lies'. In The Nawala the House of Lords stressed that injunctions should be granted rarely and give 'full weight to all the practical realities' and the fact that a court should not end the strike in the employer's favour. Information and consultation While rights to take collective action, including strikes, are fundamental to democratic and civilised society, the UK has introduced a growing menu of collective rights to have a "voice at work" without a need for protest. "Information and consultation" are usually seen as precursors to actual participation rights, through binding votes at work. The economic benefit is that directors or decision-makers who inform and consult staff on important workplace changes (e.g. redundancies) think harder, and see alternatives with fewer costs for the enterprise, taxpayers, and staff. Information and consultation rights have historically derived from collective bargaining models. The Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992 sections 181-182 require employers on a union's written request to disclose information, without which collective bargaining could be materially impeded, according to "good industrial relations practice". The Companies Act 2006 section 417-419 also requires disclosure of information in a director's report each financial year on how companies "have regard" to "the interests of the company's employees" and "business relationships with suppliers" down the supply chain. General consultation rights existed in the UK with collective bargaining since the Whitley Councils from 1918. A general consultation right is now codified in the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, article 27. The Court of Justice held this was not directly binding, but specific rules apply in four main contexts: in general work councils, transnational work councils, for collective redundancies, transfers of undertakings, and health and safety. First, the Information and Consultation of Employees Regulations 2004, require undertakings with 50 or more employees to inform and consult on probable developments in the enterprise, changes to job structures, and contract changes - especially redundancies. Employees must voluntarily initiate an "information and consultation procedure". If they do, but employers cannot find a negotiated agreement, a "standard procedure" model requires between 2 and 25 elected employee representatives having the right to be consulted on an ongoing basis: that is, an elected work council. A negotiated agreement can cover more issues than the model (for instance, to integrate health and safety issues in one council) if the parties choose. Crucially, consultation is not merely an exercise in management telling staff about their decisions, but requires meaningful dialogue "with a view to reaching an agreement". This is "an obligation to negotiate", similar to a duty to bargain in good faith. To start a procedure, at least 15 employees or 10 per cent of staff (whichever is higher) can request it. Occasionally, there could be a "pre-existing" council, or procedure in writing, covering all employees. If so, if it is not as good as the new method requested, and if the employer wants to keep it that way, a ballot must be held where over 50 per cent of staff favour a new procedure. For example, in Stewart v Moray Council, after 500 teachers requested a new procedure (over 10 per cent of staff, but under 40 per cent), the employer argued that a ballot had to be held, because the existing collective agreement with the union had a protocol on information and consultation. The Employment Appeal Tribunal, rejecting the employer's claim, held the pre-existing procedure was not good enough to force a ballot, because it did not explain how the views of staff would be sought. Employer currently face penalties up to £75,000 for failure to comply with the rules, though it is far from clear this is sufficient to ensure an "effective remedy" under EU law. Second, the Transnational Information and Consultation of Employees Regulations 1999 enable unified work councils in multinational enterprises, operating in the EU. This is most likely for US multinational enterprises. In "community scale undertakings" or corporate "groups" with over 1000 employees, and 150 employees in two or more member states, employees have a right to a transnational work council to consult on any "probable trend of employment, investments, and substantial changes... introduction of new working methods or production processes... and collective redundancies." A "group" of undertakings exists when one undertaking has a "dominant influence" over another, for instance through company share ownership or rights to appoint or remove directors. Other features of transnational work councils are similar to the Information and Consultation of Employees Regulations 2004. Management can initiate a work council, or 100 employees in at least two undertakings and member states can make a request. Then, a "special negotiating body" (elected worker representative and management) will try to seek an agreement on the terms. If agreement cannot be reached, a template set of "subsidiary requirements" will form the work council's constitution. The rules have been criticised for not going further, or being integrated with other consultation laws, although every member state in the EU is able to go beyond the minimum standards laid down. Third, the Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992 section 188 requires employers, who are "contemplating" redundancies of 20 employees, in an "establishment" over 90 days, to consult for 30 days with the workforce. "Redundancy" is an economic dismissal "not related to the individual concerned" (e.g. for poor work or misconduct). In University of Stirling v UCU the Supreme Court held that expiry of fixed term contracts, for 140 University teaching staff, did not count as a reason "related to the individual", and so staff should have been consulted. An "establishment" includes "a distinct entity that is ordinarily permanent, entrusted with performing specified tasks, namely primarily the sale of goods, and which has, to that end, several workers, technical means and an organisational structure in that the store is an individual cost centre managed by a manager." In Lyttle v Bluebird UK Bidco 2 Ltd, the Court of Justice held this meant that Woolworths shops in Northern Ireland, each with under 20 employees, could claim to be separate establishments. More doubtfully, it was held by the Employment Appeal Tribunal in E Green & Sons (Castings) Ltd v ASTMS that three companies, all operating from the same premises, were different establishments even though they were part of the same group. There is considerable disagreement over when an employing entity must begin consulting: the Directive says when decision-makers are "contemplating", while the Regulations say "proposes". In AEK ry v Fujitsu Siemens Computers Oy the Court of Justice held consulting must begin "once a strategic or commercial decision compelling him to contemplate or to plan for collective redundancies has been taken." In groups of companies, where a parent controls the subsidiary, the duty to perform the consulting process falls on the subsidiary, but the duty begins as soon as the parent has contemplated that a particular subsidiary "has been identified" for redundancies for consulting "to have any meaning". Consultation should take place with the recognised trade union first, but if there is none, then elected employee representatives, if necessary giving enough time to organise an election. Section 188(7) says that an employer has a "defence" for not consulting if there are "exceptional circumstances", but this "exception" is not in the Directive, and courts have avoided applying it. Dismissals cannot take effect until meaningful negotiation has taken place. If employers fail to negotiate, they must pay a "protective award" of up to 90 days' pay to each employee. Essentially similar rules apply for consultation with staff before any transfer of an undertaking. Votes at work Rights of staff to vote for governing boards and bodies in UK enterprises, whether corporations, partnerships or other statutory entities, have an established history in the UK. They remain today in institutions such as universities, NHS hospitals, and many workplaces organised as partnerships. Since the turn of the 20th century Acts such as the Port of London Act 1908, Iron and Steel Act 1967, or the Post Office Act 1977 required all workers in those specific companies had votes to elect directors on the board, meaning the UK had some of the first "codetermination" laws in the world. However, as many of those Acts were updated, the Companies Act 2006 today still has no general requirement for workers to vote in the general meeting to elect directors, meaning corporate governance remains monopolised by shareholding institutions or asset managers. By contrast in 16 out of 28 EU member states employees have participation rights in private companies, including the election of members of the boards of directors, and binding votes on decisions about individual employment rights, like dismissals, working time and social facilities or accommodation. At board level, UK company law in principle allows any measure of employee participation, alongside shareholders, but voluntary measures have been rare outside employee share schemes that usually carry very little voice and increase employees' financial risk. The Companies Act 2006 section 168 defines only "members" as those with participation rights. Under section 112 a "member" is anybody who initially subscribes their name to the company memorandum, or is later entered on the members' register, and is not required to have contributed money as opposed to, for instance, work. Moreover, under the European Company Statute, businesses that reincorporate as a Societas Europaea may opt to follow the Directive for employee involvement. An SE may have a two-tiered board, as in German companies, where shareholders and employees elect a supervisory board that in turn appoints a management board responsible for day-to-day running of the company. Or an SE can have a one tiered board, as every UK company, and employees and shareholders may elect board members in the desired proportion. An "SE" can have no fewer employee participation rights than what existed before, but for a UK company, there is likely to have been no participation in any case. In the 1977 Report of the committee of inquiry on industrial democracy the Government proposed, in line with the new German Codetermination Act 1976, and mirroring an EU Draft Fifth Company Law Directive, that the board of directors should have an equal number of representatives elected by employees as there were for shareholders. But reform stalled, and was abandoned after the 1979 election. Despite successful businesses like the John Lewis Partnership and Waitrose that are wholly managed and owned by the workforce, voluntary granting of participation is rare. Many businesses run employee share schemes, particularly for highly paid employees; however, such shares seldom compose more than a small percentage of capital in the company, and these investments entail heavy risks for workers, given the lack of diversification. Another form of direct participation rights is for employees to exercise voting rights over specific workplace issues. The primary example is the Pensions Act 2004 sections 241-243 state employees must be able to elect a minimum of one third of the management of their occupational schemes, as "member nominated trustees". This gives employees the ability, in principle to have a voice on how their pension money is invested in company shares, and also how the voting power attached to company shares is used. There have, at the initiative of the European Union been a growing number of "work councils" and "information and consultation committees", but unless an employer voluntarily concedes to staff having a binding say, there is no legal right to participate in specific questions of workplace policy. Participation at work is limited to information, consultation, collective bargaining and industrial action. Equality The Equality Act 2010 embodies the principle that people should treat one another according to the content of their character, and not another irrelevant status, to foster social inclusion. This principle, which slowly became fundamental to common law, and EU law, goes beyond employment, to access private and public services. At work, the law largely builds on the minimum standards set in three basic Directives for the whole EU. Beyond the absolute prohibitions on discriminating against trade union members, the EA 2010 protects the characteristics of gender (including pregnancy), race, sexual orientation (including marital status), belief, disability and age. Atypical workers, who have part-time, fixed-term, or agency contracts, are also protected under specific regulations. But although equality legislation explicitly prohibits discrimination on just ten grounds, the common law may also extend protection if employers treat workers unfairly for other reasons that are irrelevant or arbitrary. "Direct" discrimination is when a worker is treated less favourably because of a protected characteristic (e.g. gender or race) compared to another person (with a different gender or race), unless employers can show that a person's characteristic is a "genuine occupational requirement". "Indirect" discrimination is when employers apply a neutral rule to all workers, but this has "disparate impact" on people with a particular protected characteristic, and the rule cannot be "objectively justified". Workers have a right to not suffer harassment at work. Claimants may not be victimised for bringing a discrimination claim. Equal pay between men and women has historically been treated separately in law, with subtle differences (sometimes more or less favourable). The law on disability is more favourable, by placing positive duties on employers to make reasonable adjustments to include disabled people in society. While UK and EU law presently only allow promotion of underrepresented groups if a candidate is equally qualified, it is still debated whether more "positive action" measures should be implemented, particularly to tackle the gender pay gap, and over-representation of white men in senior positions. If discrimination is proven, it is a statutory tort, and it entitles a worker to quit and/or claim damages. Discrimination UK and EU law divide discrimination into direct and indirect forms. Direct discrimination means treating a person, because of a "protected characteristic", less favourably than a comparable person who has a different type of gender, race, sexual orientation, etc. This is an objective test, so the employer's motives are irrelevant. Even if employers have "positive" motives, for instance to help underprivileged groups, discrimination is still unlawful in principle. The claimant's trait merely has to be the reason for the unfavourable treatment. An appropriate comparator is one who is the same in all respects except for the relevant trait, which is claimed as the ground for discrimination. For instance in Shamoon v Chief Constable of the Royal Ulster Constabulary a chief inspector claimed that she was dismissed because the police force was sexist, and pointed to male chief inspectors who had not been treated unfavourably. The House of Lords overturned a Tribunal finding of sex discrimination because colleagues had complained about how Ms Shamoon had performed appraisals, and her chosen comparators had not received complaints. Generally there is, however, no need to point to an actual comparator, so a claimant can allege they were treated less favourably than a hypothetical person would have been, who is the same except for the protected characteristic. The burden of proof is explicitly regulated so that claimants merely need to show a set of facts from which a reasonable tribunal could conclude there was discrimination, and need not show an intention to discriminate. Because the law aims to eliminate the mindset and culture of discrimination, it is irrelevant whether the person who was targeted was themselves a person with a protected characteristic, so that people who associate with or are perceived to possess a protected characteristic are protected too. In Coleman v Attridge Law a lady with a disabled child was abused by her employer for taking time off to care for the child. Even though Ms Coleman was not disabled, she could claim disability discrimination. And in English v Sanderson Blinds Ltd, a man who was from Brighton and went to boarding school was teased for being gay. Even though he was married with children, he successfully claimed discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation. An instruction by an employer to discriminate against customers or anyone else also violates the law. "Indirect" discrimination means an employer, without an objective justification, applies a neutral rule to all employees, but it puts one group at a particular disadvantage. However, the particular disadvantage is irrelevant if it involves a discriminatory state of mine. In Ladele v Islington LBC a woman who refused to register gay civil partners, because she said her Christianity made her conclude homosexuality was wrong, was dismissed for not carrying out her duties. Lord Neuberger MR held that she was not unlawfully discriminated against because the Council was objectively justified in following its equality policy: that everyone working in marriage or partnership registries had to register everybody equally. The European Court of Human Rights upheld this decision. By contrast, in Eweida v British Airways plc a lady who wished to wear a cross claimed that BA's instruction to remove it was indirectly discriminatory against Christians. Although the English Court of Appeal held crucifix jewellery is not an essential part of the Christian religion, the ECHR found that, under the reasonableness limb of the proportionality test, it was an illegitimate interference with Ms Eweida's religious beliefs under ECHR article 9. British Airways changed its uniform policy shortly afterwards in any case, and this indicated that they had acted unlawfully. The question of particular disadvantage also typically relies on evidence of statistical impact between groups. For instance in Bilka-Kaufhaus GmbH v Weber von Hartz an employer set up pensions only for full-time workers, and not for part-time workers. But 72 per cent of part-time workers were women. So Frau Weber von Hartz was able to show that this rule put her, and women generally, at a particular disadvantage, and it was up to the employer to show there was an objective justification. Statistics might be presented in a misleading way (e.g. a measure could affect twice as many women as men, but that is only because there is 2 women and 1 man affected in a workforce of 100). Accordingly, the correct approach is to show how many people in the affected workforce group are put at an advantage, and then if there is a statistically significant number of people with a protected characteristic who are not advantaged, there must be an objective justification for the practice. In R (Seymour-Smith) v Secretary of State for Employment the UK government's former rules on unfair dismissal were alleged to be discriminatory. Between 1985 and 1999, the government had made the law so that people had to work for 2 years before they qualified for unfair dismissal (as opposed to 1 year presently), and this meant that there was a 4 to 8 per cent disparity between the number of men and women who qualified on dismissal for a tribunal claim. Following ECJ guidance, the House of Lords held by a majority that this was a large enough disparity in coverage, which required justification by the government. A significant exception to the basic framework for indirect discrimination is found for the issue of equal pay between men and women. Because the Equal Pay Act 1970 preceded other legislation, and so did the TFEU article 157, there has always been a separate body of rules. It is not entirely clear why this should continue, particularly because in several respects it is harder to bring equal pay claims on grounds of gender than for other protected characteristics, meaning that the task of closing the gender pay gap is frustrated compared to race, sexual orientation or other grounds. First, a claim must relate to "pay", concept which is generally construed widely to encompass any kind of remuneration for work, as well as sick pay or for maternity leave. Second, under the EA 2010 section 79, a comparator must be real, and employed by the same employer, or an associated employer, and at the same establishment, or a different establishment if common terms apply. It is usually harder to find a real comparator than imagine a hypothetical one. Third, under EA 2010 section 65, the claimant must be doing "broadly similar" work to the comparator, or work "rated as equivalent", or work which is of "equal value". These criteria, which at their broadest focus on the "value" of labour, make explicit what a court must take into account, but also potentially constrain the court in a way that the open ended test for indirect discrimination does not. Fourth, under section 128 there is a time limit of six months to bring a claim, but unlike the three-month time limit for other discrimination claims it cannot be extended at the court's discretion. However, equal pay claims do import an "equality clause" into the claimant's contract of employment. This allows a claim to be pursued in the High Court as well as a Tribunal. It is unclear what principle justifies the segregation of unequal pay claims based on sex, compared to all other protected characteristics. Originally a sub-category of direct discrimination, harassment is now an independent tort which requires no comparator. The Protection from Harassment Act 1997, and now the Equality Act 2010 sections 26 and 40, define harassment as where a person's dignity is violated, or the person is subject to an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating or offensive environment. An employer will be liable for its own conduct, but also conduct of employees, or customers if this happens on 2 or more occasions and the employer could be reasonably expected to have intervened. In a straightforward case, in Majrowski v Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Trust a gay man was ostracised and bossed about by his supervisor from the very start of his work as a clinical audit co-ordinator. The House of Lords held the laws create a statutory tort, for which (unless a statute says otherwise) an employer is automatically vicariously liable. Under the Equality Act 2010 section 27, an employer must also ensure that once a complaint is brought by a worker, even if it ultimately proves to be unfounded, that worker should not be victimised. This means the worker should not be subject to anything that a reasonable person would perceive as detrimental. In St Helen’s MBC v Derbyshire the House of Lords held a council victimised female staff who were pursuing an equal pay claim when it sent letters warning (without much factual basis) that if the claim went ahead, the council would be forced to cut school dinners and make redundancies. Because it attempted to make the workers feel guilty, a reasonable person would have regarded this as a detriment. By contrast, in Chief Constable of West Yorkshire Police v Khan, a sergeant with a pending race discrimination claim was denied a reference by the employer that he was suing. The House of Lords held this could not be considered victimisation because the Constabulary was only seeking to protect its legitimate interests by not giving a reference, so as to not prejudice its own future case in the discrimination hearings. Justification Harassment and victimisation cannot be justified, but in principle there are exceptions or justifications for all forms of direct and indirect discrimination. Apart from direct age discrimination which can also be objectively justified, the general rule for direct discrimination, elaborated in EA 2010 Schedule 9, is that an employer may only be exempt if it can show that having a worker fit a particular description is a "genuine occupational requirement". This means the (otherwise) discriminatory practice must pursue a legitimate aim in terms of the nature of the occupation itself (not the employer's business needs generally) and the practice must be proportionate. The test is stringent. In Etam plc v Rowan a man was turned down for a job at a woman's clothing store, with the excuse that a man should not operate women's change rooms. But this did not count as a genuine occupational requirement because the shift allocation could have been easily changed. By contrast, it was held in Wolf v Stadt Frankfurt am Main that a requirement to be under 30 years old when joining the fire service could be a genuine occupational requirement, to ensure fitness. Controversially, the European Court of Justice has repeatedly said that it is within a member state's margin of discretion to say being male is a genuine occupational requirement for work in the military. This was even so, in Sirdar v The Army Board & Secretary of State for Defence, for a lady who applied to work as a chef in the Royal Marines, because the policy on "interoperability" meant every member had to be capable of combat. Cases involving religion are subject to a special provision, so that if a job's functions require adherence to an organisation's ethos, the organisation has an exemption from direct discrimination. In an action for judicial review of the legislation, Richards J rejected that a faith school would be exempt in any way, rather than an actual religious establishment like a church. Even there, it was rejected that a gay person could be dismissed from a job as a cleaner or bookshop worker, if that was incompatible with the religious "ethos", because the ethos would not be a genuine requirement to carry out the job. Indirect discrimination, after a neutral practice puts a member of a group at a particular disadvantage, is not made out if there is an "objective justification". In most cases, this will be a justification based on business necessity. The ECJ, mostly in cases concerning sex discrimination under TFEU art 157, has held that an employer must show a "real need" for the practice that has a disparate impact, and it must be "unrelated" to the protected characteristic. The justification should not involve "generalisations" rather than reasons specific to the workers in question, and budgetary considerations alone are not to be considered an "aim". Many foundational judgments concerned employers who gave fewer benefits to part-time staff than full-time staff. Given the particular disadvantage this caused women it was hard to justify. In domestic equal pay claims based on gender, instead of "objective justification", the old terminology still used is that there must be a "genuine material factor", found in EA 2010 section 69. Despite different headings, the same underlying concepts are present as for objective justification, with the need to show a "legitimate aim" and that action is "proportionate" to such an aim. In Clay Cross (Quarry Services) Ltd v Fletcher Lord Denning MR held that an employer could not justify paying a young man a higher wage than an older lady (who in fact trained him) on the basis that this was what the employer had to pay given the state of the job market. However, in Rainey v Greater Glasgow Health Board the House of Lords held that women NHS prosthetists who were paid 40% less than men prosthetists, who had become contracted through private practices, had no claim because it was agreed that such higher prices were necessary to attract their services. Thus, the "objective justification" was said to be an organisational necessity. In Enderby v Frenchay Health Authority the ECJ held that although a speech therapist being paid less than a male counterpart could not be justified only on the ground that this resulted from different collective agreements, if a disparity came from market forces, this was an objective justification. It has, however, been emphasised that the legislation's purpose is to achieve equal pay, and not fair wages. So in Strathclyde RC v Wallace the House of Lords held that women teachers who had to fill in for an absent male head master were not entitled to be paid the same during that time. This was a different job. It has also been asserted that collective agreements designed to incrementally make a transition to equal pay between jobs rated as equivalent cannot be justified, and can even result in liability for the union that concluded them. Unlike other protected characteristics, under EA 2010 section 13(2), direct age discrimination is open to justification on the same principles, on the basis that everyone will go through the ageing process. This has meant, primarily, that older workers can reach a compulsory retirement age set either by the workplace or the government, on the basis that it is a legitimate way of sharing work between generations. Disability and positive action Because treating people equally is not by itself enough to achieve equality for everyone, the law requires that employers owe positive duties to disabled people to give preferential treatment. According to Chacón Navas v Eurest Colectividades SA disabilities involve an impairment "which hinders the participation of the person concerned in professional life". This includes all varieties of mental and physical disabilities. Because treating disabled people equally based on ability to perform tasks could easily result in persistence of exclusion from the workforce, employers are bound to do as much as reasonably possible to ensure participation is not hindered in practice. Under the Equality Act 2010 sections 20 to 22, employers have to make "reasonable adjustments". For example, employers may have to change physical features of a workplace, or provide auxiliary aids to work, or adjust their working habits and expectations. In effect, the law views society as being the cause of the "disability" if it fails to ensure people are accommodated, rather than seeing the person's handicap as being merely a personal misfortune. EA 2010 Schedule 8 lists more examples of reasonable adjustments, and the Equality and Human Rights Commission provides guidance. In the leading case, Archibald v Fife Council, it was held that the council had a duty to exempt a lady from competitive interviews for a new job. Archibald, previously a road sweeper, had lost the ability to walk after complications in surgery. Despite over 100 applications for grades just above a manual worker, in her submission, the employers were fixated on her past history as a sweeper. The House of Lords held it could be appropriate, before such an ordeal, for a worker to fill an existing vacancy without a standard interview procedure. By contrast, in O’Hanlon v Revenue and Customs Commissioners the Court of Appeal rejected that it would be a reasonable adjustment, as Ms O'Hanlon was requesting after falling into clinical depression, for an employer to increase sick pay to full pay, after the expiry of a six-month period that applied to everyone else. The aim is always to ensure that disabilities are not a barrier to full participation in working life, as much as possible. For characteristics other than disability, "hard" positive discrimination, through privileged contract terms, hiring and firing based on gender, race, sexuality, belief or age, or setting quotas for underrepresented groups in most jobs, is generally unlawful in the EU. This policy, however, leaves open the issue of historical disadvantage, and sub-conscious exclusion, which may not be addressed through ordinary direct and indirect discrimination claims. The EU has permitted "soft" positive action, in contrast to the United States or South Africa, where "affirmative action" operates in many workplaces. Lawful positive action in the EU means, in the case of hiring candidates for work, employers may select someone from an under-represented group, but only if that person has qualifications equal to competitors, with full consideration of the candidate's individual qualities. In Marschall v Land Nordrhein Westfalen a male teacher failed to get a promotion, and a woman did. He complained that the school's policy, to promote women "unless reasons specific to an individual candidate tilt the balance in his favour", was unlawful. The ECJ held the school would not be acting unlawfully if it did in fact follow its policy. By contrast in Abrahamsson and Anderson v Fogelqvist Göteborg University's policy was to hire a woman candidate unless "the difference between the candidates' qualification is so great that such application would give rise to a breach of the requirement of objectivity". A male candidate, who was not hired over two less qualified women, was successful in claiming discrimination. In addition, according to Re Badeck’s application legitimate positive action measures include quotas in temporary positions, in training, guaranteeing interviews to people with sufficient qualifications, and quotas for people working on representative, administrative or supervisory bodies such as a company's board of directors. This approach, developed initially in ECJ case law, is now reflected in the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union article 157(4) and was put into UK law in the Equality Act 2010 sections 157-158. Atypical work Beyond the Equality Act 2010 three EU Directives, and UK Regulations, require minimum levels of equal treatment for people with part-time, fixed-term or agency work contracts, compared to people with more permanent or full-time jobs. Many people choose atypical work patterns to balance family or social commitments, but many are also in precarious work, where they lack the bargaining power to get better terms. However, the requirements for equal treatment are not uniform, and are often limited. The Part-time Workers (Prevention of Less Favourable Treatment) Regulations 2000 state that a part-time worker cannot be treated less favourably than a comparable full-time worker. However (like for age) an employer may objectively justify less favourable treatment for both direct and indirect discrimination. Moreover, (similar to equal pay rules) under regulation 2(4) a worker can only compare themselves to real full-time workers who work under the "same type of contract" doing "broadly similar work", and are in the same establishment, or under a common collective agreement. In Matthews v Kent and Medway Fire Authority, the House of Lords held that even though part-time firefighters did not do administrative work, their contracts were still broadly similar to the full-time firefighters. In O'Brien v Ministry of Justice the Supreme Court also rejected that giving part-time judges no pension pro rata was unlawful, and had no objective justification. Although the Ministry argued that it was legitimate to save money, and to recruit quality full-time judges with a pension, Lord Hope and Lady Hale emphasised that budgetary considerations are not relevant, and it was necessary to recruit good part-time staff also. But although rights are strong in law to counteract people being treated differently in the same workplace, part-time workers across the UK economy remain underpaid compared to full-time workers as a whole. Workplaces tend to be structurally segregated, so many jobs, often where women are working, are all part-time while better paying jobs tend to be full-time. The Fixed-Term Employees (Prevention of Less Favourable Treatment) Regulations 2002 cover people with contracts that purport to last for a limited duration. The Regulations (unlike the Directive appears to require) were written to only cover "employees" and not the broader group of "workers". In contrast, the European Court of Justice held in Mangold v Helm that equality was a general principle of EU law. This meant that a German Act which required fixed-term contracts be objectively justified after two years work, but gave no protection to workers beyond the age of 52, was unlawful. Likewise, the UK Regulations ban less favourable treatment of fixed-term staff without objective justification. Less generous than other countries, regulation 8 says if an employee has a succession of fixed term contracts lasting over 4 years, the employee is to be treated as having a permanent contract. In practice, UK law already regulated fixed-term work in this respect, because the qualifying period for unfair dismissal will be met even if an employee has had short breaks in employment. The Agency Workers Regulations 2010 provide workers some protection against less favourable treatment when they work through an employment agency. However, the right to equal treatment is limited to "basic working conditions", which is defined as pay and their working time, unless the common law, or general EU law principles are applicable. But an agency worker may, unlike part-time or fixed-term employees, appeal to a hypothetical comparator. This left uncertain the position of agency workers protection by the job security, child care and other rights for employees in ERA 1996. While the dominant view, after the UK Supreme Court decision in Autoclenz Ltd v Belcher, is that an agency worker will always qualify as an employee against both the agency and end-user when they work for a wage, the English Court of Appeal had previously issued conflicting judgments on whether an agency worker should have an unfair dismissal claim against the end-employer, the agency, or both or neither. Reflecting their vulnerable position, the regulation of agency work goes beyond anti-discrimination rights, to place a set of duties on employment agents' operations and conduct. Found in the Employment Agencies Act 1973 and the Conduct of Employment Agencies and Employment Businesses Regulations 2003 agencies are generally prohibited from charging fees to prospective workers. Various other duties include being honest in their job advertising, keeping all information on jobseekers confidential and complying with all employment laws. Originally agencies had to have licenses, and under the oversight of the Employment Agency Standards Inspectorate, they risked losing their licenses if found to be acting in violation of the law. The Deregulation and Contracting Out Act 1994 removed the licensing requirement, but this was partially reinstated for agencies in agricultural, shellfish and packing sectors through the Gangmasters (Licensing) Act 2004. In response to the 2004 Morecambe Bay cockling disaster this established another specific regulator, the Gangmasters Licensing Authority, to enforce employment law in those areas. Free movement and immigration The right to move freely and work, within the British Isles, Europe, and the world, is basic human need, yet constrained, evolving and contested. Magna Carta recognised free movement for work among merchants to England, there was unrestricted movement throughout the British Empire until 1962, and from 1973 until 2020 (following the Brexit poll) British workers had the right to free movement throughout the European Union under core principles of EU law. However, there were periodic backlashes and constraints, such as the expulsion of Jews, Bretons and French people, there were restrictive laws imposed on "alien" residents, and even within the realm successive Master and Servant Acts enabled employers to impose criminal penalties on workers who left without permission. In international law, the right to free movement so far only applies 'within the borders of each State', and while there are basic standards for protection of refugees and asylum seekers, there is not yet an international right to work. Immigration status is not itself a protected characteristic under the Equality Act 2010 although mistreatment could amount to indirect discrimination, and itself creates a system of differential treatment by employers and the state. The Immigration Act 1971 is the main law, which put non-UK Commonwealth citizens and foreign nationals on the same work permit scheme. Since 2002, the UK has used a "Points Based System", and with the UK's exit from the EU in 2020, this was extended to EU citizens as UK and EU free movement rights were abolished. There is no requirement to apply for a work visa for British citizens returning, people with indefinite leave to remain, refugees, and Irish citizens benefit from the Common Travel Area that enables anyone to move freely, work, vote, and access social services within the UK and Ireland. While a decision on a person's immigration application is being made, a person's leave is extended, however the Immigration Rules are so strict that an application is invalid (meaning people have overstayed leave) unless it meets all formal requirements, with the government having a discretion but no duty to accept corrections in 10 working days. The limit to this is the Home Office's duty of good administration, which the Supreme Court has held to include a requirement of flexibility, despite the 'high level of pedantry' required by the rules. There are five main groups of work visa. First, the most common are the Skilled Worker visa and also a Health and Care Worker visa to attract people to the NHS and into care work. Second, there are visas for people to work in the UK through a multi-national employer, particularly the Global Business Mobility visa. Third, there are temporary work visas. Fourth, there are a group of visas without needing a job offer, such as for British Nationals (Overseas), graduates, or 'global talent'. Fifth, there are 'Start-up' and 'Innovator' visas for those who can show they have a credible business plan. Immigration Act 1971 Immigration policy of the United Kingdom Immigration Rules Indefinite leave to remain Leave to enter UK Visas and Immigration Illegal immigration to the United Kingdom Immigration Act 2016 Immigration Act 2014 Immigration, Asylum and Nationality Act 2006 Immigration and Asylum Act 1999 Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union Free movement of people Freedom of movement for workers in the European Union Immigration to Europe Job security The right to secure employment, either in one's current job or in a job that utilises a person's skills in the most socially productive way, is usually seen as crucial for the success of the economy and human development. The aim is to counterbalance the destructive effect on productivity and social costs that come from abuse of managerial power. Consistent with minimal international standards, employees in the United Kingdom have three principal job security rights, introduced originally by the Contracts of Employment Act 1963, the Redundancy Payments Act 1965 and the Industrial Relations Act 1971. First, after one month's work an employee must have at least one week's notice before any dismissal, unless there has been gross misconduct. This minimum rises to two weeks after two years, three weeks after three years, and so on, up to twelve weeks after twelve years. Second, after two years' work, the dismissal must be fair. This means the employer must have a justification based on an employee's capability, conduct, redundancy or another good reason, or the employee can claim damages or the job back from an Employment Tribunal. Third, also after two years' work and if dismissed because the enterprise no longer needs someone doing the employee's job, there is a right to a redundancy payment. Like the notice period, redundancy pay increases according to the number of years worked. Contracts should usually go beyond this bare minimum, but cannot go below. Compared to its European and Commonwealth counterparts, jobs in the UK are relatively insecure. Workers have few ways, except pressure through collective bargaining, to challenge a management's decision about dismissals before they take place. When collective redundancies are proposed, however, EU law has introduced a requirement that employers consult on changes. EU law also introduced a rule that if a business is transferred, for instance, during a merger or acquisition, employees may not have their terms worsened or lose their jobs without a good economic, technical or organisational reason. If employees do lose their work, they may fall back on a minimal system of state insurance, funded primarily through income tax or National Insurance, to collect a "jobseekers allowance", and may make use of public employment agencies to find employment again. The UK government has in the past aimed to create "full employment" however this goal has not necessarily translated into secure and stable work. Wrongful dismissal Wrongful dismissal refers to a termination of employment which contravenes a contract's terms, whether expressly agreed or implied by the courts. This depends on construction of the contract, read in the context of the statutory charter of rights for employees in the ERA 1996. In the old common law cases, the only term implied by the courts regarding termination was that employers had to give reasonable notice, and what was "reasonable" essentially depended on the professional status of the employee. In Creen v Wright, Lord Coleridge CJ held that a master mariner was entitled to a month's notice, though lower class workers could probably expect much less, "respectable" employees could expect more, and the period between wage payments would be a guide. Now the ERA 1996 section 86 prescribes that an employee should receive one week's notice before dismissal after one month's work, two weeks' notice after two years' work, and so forth up to twelve weeks for twelve years. The employer can give pay in lieu of notice, so long as the weeks' wages for the notice are paid in full. Often, contracts of employment contain express terms regarding a proper disciplinary procedure to be followed if someone is to be dismissed for disputes at work. Dismissals will usually be regarded as both wrongful and unfair if a procedure for dismissal is not followed. If a contractual disciplinary procedure is not followed, the employee may claim damages for the time it would have taken and the potential that she would still be employed. In Societe Generale, London Branch v Geys, the Supreme Court affirmed that a wrongful repudiation of a contract by the employer would not automatically terminate the agreement, because to do so would be to reward the wrongdoer. Only if an employee accepts the purported termination will the contract end. Until then the employer is liable for paying wages, and other terms of the contract, such as dismissal procedures, will survive. The requirements of notice and any disciplinary procedure do not apply if the employee was the one to have repudiated the contract, either expressly, or by conduct. As in the general law of contract, if an employee's conduct is so seriously bad that it manifests to the reasonable person an intention to not be bound, then the employer may dismiss the employee without notice. But if the employer is not justified in making a summary dismissal, the employee has a claim under ERA 1996 section 13 for a shortfall in wages. The same principle, that a serious breach of contract gives the other side the option to terminate, also works in favour of employees. In Wilson v Racher a gardener was bullied by his employer, the heir of Tolethorpe Hall, and gave him a rude telling off for not picking up some string on the lawn. Wilson, the gardener, told Racher "get stuffed, go and shit yourself". The Court of Appeal held that the employer's attitude meant this breakdown in trust and confidence was the employer's own doing, and because the law no longer saw employment as a "Czar-serf" relationship, Wilson was in the right and was wrongfully dismissed. The remedy for breach of contract, following a long tradition that specific performance should not result in draconian consequences or binding hostile parties to continue working together, is typically monetary compensation to put the claimant in the same position as if the contract had been properly performed. However, in Edwards v Chesterfield Royal Hospital, the Supreme Court held that an injunction is available to restrain breach of contract for the employer's failure to follow a doctor's contractual disciplinary procedure. This indicated that specific performance should always in principle be available, particularly in large organisations where people can be shifted to avoid personality conflicts. The primary implied term of an employment contract that may be broken is mutual trust and confidence. In Johnson v Unisys Ltd the House of Lords held by 4 to 1 that damages for breach of mutual trust and confidence at the point of dismissal should not exceed the statutory limit on unfair dismissal claims, because otherwise the statutory limits would be undermined. This limit was £74,200 in 2013, though the median award was merely £4,560. This meant a computer worker who developed a psychiatric illness following a wrongful dismissal procedure could not claim his total economic losses, which would have amounted to £400,000 in damages. However, if the breach occurs while the employment relationship subsists, that limit is inapplicable. So in Eastwood v Magnox Electric plc, a school teacher who also suffered psychiatric injury, but as a result of harassment and victimisation while he still worked, could claim for a full measure of damages for the breach of mutual trust and confidence. In any event the limit is merely implied and depends on construction of the contract, so that it may be opted out of by express words providing for a higher sum, for example, by expressly providing for a disciplinary procedure. A notable absence of an implied term at common law historically (i.e. before the development of mutual trust and confidence) was that an employer would have to give any good reasons for a dismissal. This was recommended to be changed in the Donovan Report 1968, and it launched the present system of unfair dismissal. Unfair dismissal While "wrongful" dismissal concerns breaches of the terms of an employment contract, "unfair" dismissal is a claim based on the Employment Rights Act 1996 sections 94 to 134A. It governs the reasons for which an employer terminates a contract, and requires they fall into the statutory definition of what is "fair". The Industrial Relations Act 1971, following the Donovan Report 1968, set up its structure. Under ERA 1996 section 94 any employee, who is employed for over two years, may claim for an Employment Tribunal (composed of a judge, an employer and an employee representative) to review the decision. Temporary or seasonal breaks in employment, such as for teachers who are not in class over summer, cannot break the continuity of the contract for the qualifying period, even if a contract purports to be for a fixed term. An employee is only "dismissed" if the employer has decided to end the work relationship, or if they have constructively dismissed the employee through a serious breach of mutual trust and confidence. An employee will not have a claim if they have voluntarily resigned, though a court must be satisfied that someone truly intended to forgo the legal right to sue for unfair dismissal. In Kwik-Fit (GB) Ltd v Lineham Lineham used the toilet at work after drinking at the pub. Afterwards, in response to the manager rebuking him in front of other staff, he threw down his keys and drove off. He claimed he was dismissed, and the Tribunal agreed that at no time had Lineham resigned. By contrast in Western Excavating (ECC) Ltd v Sharp Sharp walked off because the company welfare officer refused to let him collect holiday pay immediately. Although Sharp was in financial difficulty, this was due to his absences, and so he was not justified in leaving, and not constructively dismissed. Under ERA 1996 section 203(1), statutory rights may not be excluded or limited, although section 203(2) and (3) still allows employers and employees to settle a legal claim, so long as the compromise agreement is made freely and with independent legal advice. It has also been held that an employee is not dismissed if the relationship is frustrated. In Notcutt v Universal Equipment Co (London) Ltd a man's heart attack meant he could no longer work. The employer paid no wages during the ordinary notice period, but was successful in arguing that the contract was impossible to perform and therefore void. This doctrine, applicable as a default rule in general contract law, is controversial since unlike commercial parties it will be rare that an employee has the foresight or ability to contract around the rule. The Supreme Court recently emphasised in Gisda Cyf v Barratt that the "need to segregate intellectually common law principles relating to contract law, even in the field of employment, from statutorily conferred rights is fundamental." This meant that when an employee claimed unfair dismissal, after accusations of allegedly inappropriate behaviour at a private party, the three-month time limit for her claim only began running when the employer had actually notified her. The general contract law principle that notifications take effect when arriving during business hours was not even "a preliminary guide" to the interpretation of the right to a fair dismissal. Once it is established that a dismissal took place, the employer must show that its reason for dismissing the employee was "fair". Dismissal on grounds of union membership, or one of a number of grounds set out in sections 99 to 107 of the Employment Rights Act 1996, will be automatically unfair. Otherwise the employer has the opportunity to show the dismissal is fair if it falls within five main categories listed in ERA 1996 section 98. The dismissal must have been because of the employee's capability or qualifications, because of conduct, because the employee was redundant, because continued employment would contravene a law, or because of "some other substantial reason". If the employer has an argument based on one of these categories, then the tribunal evaluates whether the employer's actual decision fell within a "reasonable range of responses", i.e. that a reasonable employer could have acted the same way. Thus the review standard lies in between an outright perversity, or "Wednesbury unreasonableness" test and a forthright reasonable person test. The test arguably requires Tribunals to evaluate the employer's conduct according to good enterprise practice, by analogy to the Bolam test in tort. The "proportionality test" (requiring the employer's action is appropriate, necessary and reasonable in pursuit of a legitimate aim) has also been proposed as an alternative, which would have the advantage of deferring to the employer's aim, if legitimate, but scrutinising whether its actions were proportionate. In practice, the Court of Appeal has given conflicting judgments and remains unable to articulate what the test means, prompting the question of how a "hypothetical reasonable employer" standard under section 98(4)(a) should actually be applied. It has been repeated that Tribunals should not substitute their judgment for the employer's. However, there is considerable room for Tribunals to assess the facts and come to their own conclusions, which can only be appealed on legal grounds, and not on their judgment of good workplace relations. For example, in a conduct case, HSBC Bank plc v Madden, the Court of Appeal held that it was acceptable for a Tribunal to have decided that dismissing an employee for potential involvement in theft of credit cards was fair, even though an actual police investigation turned up no evidence. By contrast, in Bowater v Northwest London Hospitals NHS Trust, an employer argued a nurse who, while physically restraining a naked patient who was unconscious and having a seizure, said "It's been a few months since I have been in this position with a man underneath me" was lewd and deserved dismissal for her misconduct. The Tribunal said the dismissal was unfair and the Court of Appeal held the Tribunal had competently exercised its discretion in granting the unfair dismissal claim. The absence of a role for elected worker representatives in assessing the fairness of the employer or manager's conduct in the UK contrasts to many EU member states. While courts act as a final check, it is often thought that the parties best placed to resolve disputes would be representatives of all staff members, who (unlike an employer or manager) usually have fewer conflicts of interest in dismissal disputes. While some courts have chosen to be more deferential to the employer's substantive reasons for dismissal, they emphasise more strongly the importance of employers having a fair process. The Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service Code of Practice (2009) explains that good industry practice for disciplinaries requires, among other things, written warnings, a fair hearing by people who have no reason to side against the employee, or with any manager involved in the dispute, and the opportunity for union representation. Often a company handbook will include its own system, which if not followed will likely mean the dismissal was unfair. Nevertheless, in Polkey v AE Dayton Services Ltd the House of Lords held that, in a case where a van driver was told he was redundant on the spot, if an employer can show the dismissal would be made regardless of whether a procedure was followed, damages can be reduced to zero. In the Employment Act 2002, Parliament made an abortive attempt to instil some kind of mandatory minimum procedure for everybody, but after complaints from employers and unions alike that it was merely encouraging a "tick-box" culture, it was repealed in the Employment Act 2008. Now if the ACAS Code is not followed, and this is unreasonable, an unfair dismissal award can be increased by 25 per cent. Generally, under ERA 1996 sections 119 and 227, the principle for a "basic" unfair dismissal award is that, with a cap of £350 per week and a maximum of 20 weeks, an employee should receive one week's pay for each year employed if aged between 22 and 40, 1½ weeks if over 40 and ½ a week if under 22. By ERA 1996 section 123, the employee may also be entitled to the more significant, but discretionary "compensatory" award. This should take into account the actual losses of the employee as just and equitable, based on loss of immediate and future wages, the manner of the dismissal and loss of future unfair dismissal protection and redundancy rights. This is capped, but usually increased in line with RPI inflation. It was £74,200 in 2013, though the median award of a successful claimant was merely £4,560. Very few claimants are successful in securing reinstatement, although if they are suspended from their workplace and colleagues, the evidence suggests that the experience of litigation sours the relationship so that the employee will no longer wish to return. It is therefore important that in 2011 the Supreme Court emphasised in Edwards v Chesterfield Royal Hospital that in principle an employee may secure an injunction to continue working while internal disciplinary procedures are followed. Particularly given the difficulty of finding alternative employment while removed from work, it is not clear why a staff member who retains the support of his or her colleagues (as opposed to a manager who potentially has a conflict of interest) should not also be able to continue working until a dismissal is confirmed by a court. Redundancy Redundancies are a special kind of dismissal, which attract specific regulation. Since the Redundancy Payments Act 1965, staff must receive a payment for losing their jobs if the employer no longer has an economic need for their job. This policy is designed to internalise some of the social costs that employers create if they dismiss staff, to try and disincentivise unnecessary job losses, and contribute to employees' costs in unemployment. Under ERA 1996 section 162, employees over age 40 receive 1½ weeks' pay per year they had worked, employees aged 22 to 40 receive 1 week's pay per year worked, and employees age 21 or less receive half a week's pay, though the upper limit was £464 per week in 2014. Dismissal for redundancy counts "fair" in substance under ERA 1996 section 98, but the employer may still carry out an unfair procedure to dismiss the redundant employees. Under the Employment Rights Act 1996 section 139, a "redundancy" exists when an employer's demand for an employee's role ceases or diminishes. In situations where employees have lost their jobs, this may be straightforward. In cases where an employer uses its discretion practically to worsen the employees' position the answer may depend on the employees' contracts. In Lesney Products & Co v Nolan a toy company stopped giving its workers overtime. Some refused to work. They were dismissed, and the workers claimed they were redundant. Lord Denning MR held they were not made "redundant" by their terms being changed, even worsened, because "nothing should be done to impair the ability of employers to reorganise their work force and their times and conditions of work so as to improve efficiency." Apparently, they had simply left stopped working of their own accord. This view is controversial, because if the total wage bill spent by the employer is reduced, it would follow that demand for work (reflected in the employer's willingness to pay) must also be diminished. Thus, other courts have suggested the contract terms are irrelevant, and that the test should be purely based on the economic reality of diminished demand. Employers can also argue that a dismissal is for "some other substantial reason". In Hollister v National Farmers’ Union a farmer's refusal to accept decreased pension entitlements, after a consultation process, was said to be a "substantial" reason for dismissal. It is not clear whether worsening employees' contract terms, without their consent or collective approval, was envisaged by the Act as way to evade redundancy payments. Although workers could be redundant, the employer may still be liable for unfair dismissal by following an unfair procedure. The procedure the employer follows to select employees to make redundant must be procedurally fair. In Williams v Compair Maxam Ltd Browne-Wilkinson J held that the proper steps should be to (1) give all warning possible (2) consult the union (3) agree objective criteria (4) follow those criteria, and (5) always check there if there is alternative employment rather than dismissal. This meant that the managers, who had selected workers to lose their jobs based on personal preferences, had unfairly dismissed the workforce. The criteria that the employer uses must be observable, and reviewable. However, employers do not need to disclose to employees all the details of their reasoning when they select people for redundancy unless there is a specific complaint of unfairness. A last in, first out policy, as used in many collective agreements will be regarded as fair. For example, in Rolls-Royce plc v Unite the Union, Rolls-Royce plc challenged a collective agreement which gave extra points in a selection procedure for years of service as being unlawful discrimination against younger workers (who it wished to retain). The Court of Appeal agreed with the union that this represented a proportionate means of achieving a legitimate aim of rewarding seniority, particularly since older workers might find alternative employment much harder to secure. If possible, employers should attempt to redeploy redundant staff within their firm. Under ERA 1996 section 141 an employee should accept a suitable offer for redeployment, and will lose entitlement to redundancy if he or she declines it. 'Suitable' means substantially similar in terms of status, wages and types of duties. For example, in Thomas Wragg & Sons Ltd v Wood the Employment Appeal Tribunal held that it was reasonable for Wood to refuse an alternative job offer the day before his termination took effect. He was therefore redundant. There is also, under section 138, a right to refuse an alternative job to which an employee is redeployed after a four-week trial period if it would be reasonable. However, redeployment remains an option for the employer that gives it greater scope to avoid redundancy payments. A right for the employee to be redeployed does not yet exist, except to the extent that the employer must consult about redeployment possibilities when more than 20 employees could be redundant. Undertaking transfers and insolvency Another context in which the common law left workers particularly vulnerable was where the business for which they worked was transferred between one person and another. In Nokes v Doncaster Amalgamated Collieries Ltd it was held (albeit to protect the worker from draconian sanctions in the arcane Employers and Workmen Act 1875) that an employment contract could not transfer without the consent of the parties involved. Consequently, in a situation where company A sold its assets (including contracts) to company B, the employment relationship would sever and the only claim a worker would have for dismissal would be against company A. Particularly from the 1950s, the view was increasingly accepted across Europe that workers have something more than a personal right, and akin to a property right in their jobs. Just as the transfer of a freehold property between two landlords would not mean that a tenant could be evicted, the first Transfers of Undertakings Directive, passed in 1978 and updated in 2001 (often still referred to as the "Acquired Rights Directive"), required that a business transferee would have to provide a good economic, technical or organisational reason if they were either to not retain all previous employees, or wanted to make detrimental variations to their workers' contracts. This means that the new employer who is a transferee of a business through an asset sale is in no better position than would be a new owner who gained control of a business by buying out a company's shares: contractual variations require the employees' consent and dismissal rights remain as if it were the old employer. As implemented by the Transfer of Undertakings (Protection of Employment) Regulations 2006, a clear example where employees contracts transfer was in Litster v Forth Dry Dock. The House of Lords held that a purposive interpretation is to be given to the legislation so that where 12 dockworkers were sacked an hour before a business sale, their contracts remained in effect if the employees would still be there in absence of an unfair dismissal. This does not, however, mean that employees unfairly dismissed before a sale have a right to their jobs back, because national law's normal remedy remains with a preference for damages over specific performance. The same principle goes for any variation that works to the detriment of the employee. So the transferee employer may not (without a good business reason) for example, try to impose a single new gardening clause or withdraw tenure, or the employee will have a claim for constructive dismissal. An acute question for the TUPE Regulations, particularly in the years when the Conservative government was implementing a policy of shrinking the size of the public sector, was the extent they applied to jobs being outsourced, typically by a public body, like a local council, or changed between businesses in a competitive tender process for public procurement. On this point a series of ECJ decisions came to the view that there could be a relevant transfer, covered by the Directive, even where there was no contractual link between a transferor and a transferee business, so long as the business entity retained its "identity". In turn the "identity" of a business would be determined by the degree to which the business' factors of production remained the same before and after a sale. It could be that no employees were hired after an asset sale, but the sacked employees would still have a claim because all their old workplace and capital equipment was being used by the new employer. It is also relevant to what extent a business is capital or labour-intensive. So in Oy Liikenne Ab v Liskojärvi the ECJ held that it was unlikely that 45 Helsinki bus drivers' contracts were transferred, between the company that lost the contract and the new bus company that won it, even though 33 drivers were rehired, because "bus transport cannot be regarded as an activity based essentially on manpower". On the other hand, employees will benefit when a new employer offers old staff their jobs, the intention to rehire makes it more likely the court will deem there to be a transfer. Often business transfers take place when a company has plunged into an insolvency procedure. If a company enters liquidation, which aims to wind down the business and sell off the assets, TUPER 2006 regulation 8(7) states that the rules on transfer will not apply. The main objective, however, in an insolvency procedure particularly since the Cork Report and the Enterprise Act 2002, is to effect rescues through the system of company administration. An administrator's task under the Insolvency Act 1986 Schedule B1, paragraph 3, is either to rescue the company as a going concern, rescue the business typically by finding a suitable buyer and thus save jobs, or as a last resort put the company into liquidation. If employees are kept on after an administrator is appointed for more than 14 days, under paragraph 99 the administrator becomes responsible for adopting their contracts. The liability on contracts is limited to "wages and salaries". This includes pay, holiday pay, sick pay and occupational pension contributions, but has been held to not include compensation for unfair dismissal cases, wrongful dismissal, or protective awards for failure to consult the workforce before redundancies. If the business rescue does ultimately fail, then such money due employees achieves the status of "super priority" among different creditors' claims. The priority list in insolvency sees creditors with fixed security (typically banks) get paid first. Second are preferential creditors. Third are unsecured creditors up to a limit of £600,000. Fourth are floating charge holders (usually banks again). Fifth are remaining debts to unsecured creditors (in the unlikely event that anything remains). Sixth are "deferred debts" (typically to company insiders). Last are shareholders. Among the preferential creditors, the insolvency practitioners' fees together with adopted contracts attain super-priority. Otherwise, employees wages and pensions still have preferential status, but only up to an £800 limit, a figure which has remained unchanged since 1986. Employees having priority among creditors, albeit not above fixed security holders, dates back to 1897, and is justified on the ground that employees are particularly incapable, unlike banks, of diversifying their risk, and forms one of the requirements in the ILO Protection of Workers' Claims (Employer's Insolvency) Convention. Often this limited preference is not enough, and can take a long time to realise. Reflecting the Insolvency Protection Directive under ERA 1996 section 166 any employee may lodge a claim with the National Insurance Fund for outstanding wages. Under ERA 1996 section 182 the amount claimable is the same as that for unfair dismissal (£350 in 2010) for a limit of 8 weeks. If an employee has been unpaid for a longer period, she may choose the most beneficial 8 weeks. The Pensions Act 2004 governs a separate system for protecting pension claims, through the Pension Protection Fund. This aims to fully insure all pension claims. Together with minimum redundancy payments, the guarantees of wages form a meagre cushion which requires more of a systematic supplementation when people remain unemployed. Full employment One of the most important labour rights, on which all other labour rights rest, is the "right to work" and therefore to full employment "at fair wages" and with all the hours one needs. In international law everyone 'has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.' However it does not say how this should be achieved. In the UK, three main legal policies have been used: fiscal, monetary, and insurance. First, from the White Paper on Employment Policy in 1944, the UK government announced a strategy to spend money to counteract volatility in private investment in five-year blocks. Private spending can be prone to boom and bust, international investment can also, while consumer spending is generally more stable, and government spending can be actively managed. The government also passed the Distribution of Industry Act 1945, which ensured that investment was spread to regions as well as cities, and the Disabled Persons (Employment) Act 1944 which required larger firms to hire a quota of disabled people. Full employment, at almost zero cost to government, lasted until the 1973 oil crisis when the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries raises petrol prices, and so made the cost of running the economy higher. This inflation was argued by economists, such as Milton Friedman and Friedrich von Hayek to prove there is a natural rate of unemployment, which makes attempts to get full employment impossible. While this theory lacked evidence, From 1979, the new Conservative government led by Margaret Thatcher abandoned full employment as a goal, and triggered soaring inflation, as it began attacking organised labour. In 2019, the concept of a natural rate of unemployment, which supposedly was caused by stronger labour rights, has been abandoned by the head of the US Federal Reserve Bank. Briefly, the Welfare Reform and Work Act 2016 section 1 created a duty on government to report 'annually on the progress which has been made towards full employment' but this was abandoned with the 2017 general election. Since 2010, while there has been decreasing unemployment, there has been a large rise in under-employment and the longest cuts to workers' wages since the industrial revolution. This suggests a reluctance of the government to strengthen the incomes and bargaining power of workers if it could decrease the power of corporate capital. Second, the UK government, particularly since it abandoned using investment and fiscal policy, has emphasised monetary policy. The Bank of England as the UK's central bank is able to influence private banks' lending rates by adjusting its interest rate for lending to them (the "Bank of England base rate"), by buying up assets in large quantities backed by the UK government, by changing reserve requirements, or by fixing rates. If private banks are influenced to reduced their interest rates, this stimulates more lending and borrowing, increases credit and money supply in the economy, encourages businesses to hire more people, and so can reduce employment. However, the Bank of England Act 1998 section 11 states the Bank's objectives for monetary policy are (a) to maintain price stability, and (b) subject to that, to 'support the economic policy of Her Majesty's Government, including its objectives for growth and employment.' Although the Bank of England could use monetary policy to encourage investment up to full employment it has not done so because it has also been affected by theories of "natural" unemployment, and triggering higher inflation. Third, the UK government has considerable control over unemployment through its social insurance system. Since the poor laws were abolished and national insurance was introduced, the government has paid people money if they cannot find work. Paying insurance was thought to impel the government to encourage full employment, while it also increases labour's bargaining power: workers need not accept any job on starvation wages, because they will have a minimum income to survive. This is part of the universal right to social security. Today under the Jobseekers Act 1995 a 'Jobseeker's Allowance' is payable for up to 182 days if someone has made contributions for over 2 years, but for people over 25 this was only up to £73.10 a week in 2019. Further, under the Welfare Reform Act 2012 sections 6-6J the Secretary of State can write rules to place conditions for work on people claiming jobseeker's allowance. In R (Reilly) v Secretary of State for Work and Pensions two claimants argued that requirements to work for free were ultra vires, and also amounted to forced labour. The Secretary of State lost on the ultra vires point, but the Supreme Court declined to hold that "workfare" amounted to forced labour. Nevertheless, it appears from the original conception of William Beveridge of a welfare state with Full Employment in a Free Society. Enforcement and tribunals UK labour law is enforced through three main methods: trade unions, the Tribunal and court system, and by government agencies. First, the most effective system of enforcement and creation of labour rights it through workers joining unions, and collectively bargaining. Whatever rights exist in law, employers routinely flout people's rights at work, particularly when the rights involve more complex standards of equality, job security and consultation. The desire to keep a cohesive workforce, and avoid the possibility of strike action, is the primary incentive for employers to negotiate in good faith with employee representatives, and ensure that there is a joint approach to upholding all workplace rights, such as pay, working time, safety, equal treatment and job security. Unions also advise and represent individual workers in grievances and disciplinaries and are protected by law in the conduct of all trade union activities. Second, any worker can apply to an Employment Tribunal to complain that a right has been breached under the Employment Tribunals Act 1996. R (UNISON) v Lord Chancellor held that the UK government's attempt to impose fees, which led to a massive drop in people's access to justice, was unlawful. To bring a Tribunal claim, a claimant must fill out an "ET1" form, and give notice to the Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service of its attempt to seek conciliation. After a Tribunal judgment, either side may appeal to the Employment Appeal Tribunal, and following this to the Court of Appeal and the Supreme Court on questions of law. A significant limit on Tribunal applications is that Tribunals have been held unable to award injunctions. By contrast, any claim for breach of contract, including several rights in the Equality Act 2010, can be brought in the High Court: the right to an injunction is in principle available for all types of contractual right, particularly to ensure fairness in dismissal, since damages are usually not an adequate remedy. Third, a small number of government regulators may assist in the enforcement of rights. Her Majesty's Revenue & Customs is meant to oversee the enforcement of tax, National Insurance and payment of the minimum wage. Under the Equality Act 2006, the Equality and Human Rights Commission was established, and although it has no enforcement powers, it can join litigation, and it develops codes of best practice for employers to use. The Central Arbitration Committee is meant to support trade union rights, such as to statutory recognition and to information, but in practice is a toothless, pro-employer operation, packed with government appointees that has systematically opposed union rights. The Health and Safety Executive is meant to enforce health and safety rights, but again is appointed by government and has been largely ineffective in preventing mass safety violations during the Covid-19 pandemic. The Gangmasters Licensing Authority oversees enforcement of a limited number of employment agencies in food packing and shellfish industries, and the Employment Agency Standards Inspectorate has a role for agencies. International labour law Since the industrial revolution the labour movement has been concerned how economic globalisation would weaken the bargaining power of workers, as their employers could move to hire workers abroad without the protection of the labour standards at home. Following World War I, the Treaty of Versailles contained the first constitution of a new International Labour Organization founded on the principle that "labour is not a commodity", and for the reason that "peace can be established only if it is based upon social justice". The primary role of the ILO has been to coordinate principles of international labour law by issuing ILO Conventions, which codify labour laws on all matters. Members of the ILO can voluntarily adopt and ratify the conventions by enacting the rules in their domestic law. For instance, the first Hours of Work (Industry) Convention, 1919 requires a maximum of a 48-hour week, and has been ratified by 52 out of 185 member states. The UK ultimately refused to ratify the Convention, as did many current EU members states, although the Working Time Directive adopts its principles, subject to the individual opt-out. The present constitution of the ILO comes from the Declaration of Philadelphia 1944, and under the Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work 1998 classified eight conventions as core. Together these require freedom to join a union, bargain collectively and take action (Conventions Nos 87 and 98) abolition of forced labour (29 and 105) abolition labour by children before the end of compulsory school (138 and 182) and no discrimination at work (Nos 100 and 111). Compliance with the core Conventions is obligatory from the fact of membership, even if the country has not ratified the Convention in question. To ensure compliance, the ILO is limited to gathering evidence and reporting on member states' progress, so that publicity will put public and international pressure to reform the laws. Global reports on core standards are produced yearly, while individual reports on countries who have ratified other Conventions are compiled on a bi-annual or perhaps less frequent basis. Because the ILO's enforcement and sanction mechanisms are weak, there has been significant discussion about incorporating labour standards in the World Trade Organisation's operation, since its formation in 1994. The WTO oversees, primarily, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade which is a treaty aimed at reducing customs, tariffs and other barriers to free import and export of goods, services and capital between its 157 member countries. Unlike for the ILO, if the WTO rules on trade are contravened, member states who secure a judgment by the Dispute Settlement procedures (effectively a judicial process) may retaliate through trade sanctions. This could include reimposition of targeted tariffs against the non-compliant country. Proponents of an integrated approach have called for a "social clause" to be inserted into the GATT agreements, for example by amending article XX, which gives an exception to the general trade barrier reduction rules allowing imposition of sanctions for breaches of human rights. An explicit reference to core labour standards could allow action where a WTO member state is found to be in breach of ILO standards. Opponents argue that such an approach could backfire and undermine labour rights, as a country's industries, and therefore its workforce, are necessarily harmed but without any guarantee that labour reform would take place. Furthermore, it was argued in the Singapore Ministerial Declaration 1996 that "the comparative advantage of countries, particularly low-age developing countries, must in no way be put into question." On this view, countries ought to be able to take advantage of low wages and poor conditions at work as a comparative advantage in order to boost their exports. It is disputed that business will relocate production to low wage countries from higher wage countries such as the UK, because that choice is said to depend on productivity of workers. However, the view of many labour lawyers and economists remains that more trade, when workers have weaker bargaining power and less mobility, still allows business to opportunistically take advantage of workers by moving production, and that a coordinated multilateral approach with targeted measures against specific exports is preferable. While the WTO has yet to incorporate labour rights into its procedures for dispute settlements, many countries began to make bilateral agreements that protected core labour standards instead. Moreover, in domestic tariff regulations not yet touched by the WTO agreements, countries have given preference to other countries who do respect core labour rights, for example under the EU Tariff Preference Regulation, articles 7 and 8. While the debate over labour standards applied by the ILO and the WTO seeks to balance standards with free movement of capital globally, conflicts of laws (or private international law) issues arise where workers move from home to go abroad. If a worker from the UK performs part of her job in other countries (a "peripatetic" worker) or if a worker is engaged in the UK to work as an expatriate abroad, an employer may seek to characterise the contract of employment as being governed by other countries' laws, where labour rights may be less favourable than at home. In Lawson v Serco Ltd three joined appeals went to the House of Lords. Lawson worked for a multinational business on Ascension Island, a British territory as a security guard. Botham worked in Germany for the Ministry of Defence. Crofts, and his copilots, worked mostly in the air for a Hong Kong airline, though his contract stated he was based at Heathrow. All sought to claim unfair dismissal, but their employers argued they should not be covered by the territorial reach of the Employment Rights Act 1996. Lord Hoffmann held that, first, if workers are in Great Britain, they are covered. Second, peripatetic workers like Crofts would be covered if they are ordinarily working in the UK, but that this could take account of the company's basings policy. Third, if workers were expatriate the general rule was they would not be covered, but that exceptionally if there was a "close connection" between the work and the UK they would be covered. This meant that Lawson and Botham would have claims, because both Lawson and Botham's position was in a British enclave, which made a close enough connection. Subsequent cases have emphasised that the categories of expatriate worker who will exceptionally be covered are not closed. So in Duncombe v Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Families an employee of the UK government teaching in EU schools could claim unfair dismissal because their employer held their connection close to the UK. Then, in Ravat v Halliburton Manufacturing and Services Ltd an employee in Libya, working for a German company that was part of the American multinational oil conglomerate Halliburton, was still covered by UK unfair dismissal rights because he was given an assurance that his contract would come under UK law. This established a close connection. The result is that access to mandatory employment rights mirrors the framework for contractual claims under the EU Rome I Regulation article 8. It is also necessary that a UK court has jurisdiction to hear a claim, which under the Brussels I Regulation articles 20 to 23, requires the worker habitually works in the UK, or was engaged there. Both EU Regulations emphasise that the rules should be applied with the purpose of protecting the worker. As well as having legal protection for workers rights, an objective of trade unions has been to organise their members across borders in the same way that multinational corporations have organised their production globally. In order to meet the balance of power that comes from ability of businesses to dismiss workers or relocate, unions have sought to take collective action and strike internationally. However, this kind of coordination was halted in the European Union in two decisions. In Laval Ltd v Swedish Builders Union a group of Latvian workers were sent to a construction site in Sweden on low pay. The local Swedish Union took industrial action to make Laval Ltd sign up to the local collective agreement. Under the Posted Workers Directive, article 3 lays down minimum standards for workers being posted away from home so that workers always receive at least the minimum rights that they would have at home in case their place of work has lower minimum rights. Article 3(7) goes on to say that this "shall not prevent application of terms and conditions of employment which are more favourable to workers". Most people thought this meant that more favourable conditions could be given than the minimum (e.g. in Latvian law) by the host state's legislation or a collective agreement. However, in an interpretation seen as astonishing by many, the ECJ said that only the posting state could raise standards beyond its minimum for posted workers, and any attempt by the host state, or a collective agreement (unless the collective agreement is declared universal under article 3(8)) would be an infringement of the business' freedom to provide services under TFEU article 56. This decision was implicitly reversed by the European Union legislature in the Rome I Regulation, which makes clear in recital 34 that the host state may allow more favourable standards. However, in The Rosella, the ECJ also held that a blockade by the International Transport Workers Federation against a business that was using an Estonian flag of convenience (i.e. saying it was operating under Estonian law to avoid labour standards of Finland) infringed the business' right of free establishment under TFEU article 49. The ECJ said that it recognised the workers' "right to strike" in accordance with ILO Convention 87, but said that its use must be proportionately to the right of the business' establishment. The result is that the European Court of Justice's recent decisions create a significant imbalance between the international freedom of business, and that of labour, to bargain and take action to defend their interests. For this reason it has been questioned whether the ECJ's decisions were compatible with fundamental human rights, particularly the freedom of association guaranteed by article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights. See also A Manifesto for Labour Law European labour law History of trade unions in the United Kingdom List of trade unions in the United Kingdom Occupational safety and health Athena SWAN Social law US labor law Notes Citations References Texts H Collins, KD Ewing and A McColgan, Labour Law, Text, Cases and Materials (2nd edn Hart 2005) S Deakin, G Morris, Labour Law (5th edn Hart 2009) M Freedland, 'Employment' in H Beale et al. (ed), Chitty on Contracts (30th edn Sweet and Maxwell 2009) E McGaughey, A Casebook on Labour Law (Hart 2019 ) Treatises H Collins, Justice in Dismissal (OUP 1992) H Collins, Nine proposals for the reform of the law on unfair dismissal (Institute of Employment Rights 2004) KD Ewing (ed), The Right to Strike: From the Trade Disputes Act 1906 to a Trade Union Freedom Bill 2006 (Institute for Employment Rights 2006) A Fox, Beyond Contract: Work, Power and Trust Relations (Faber 1974) B Hepple, Labour Laws and Global Trade (Hart 2005) M Freedland, The Contract of Employment (1976) O Kahn-Freund, Labour and the Law (Hamlyn Lectures 1972) S Webb and B Webb, History of Trade Unionism (1894) S Webb and B Webb, Industrial Democracy (Longmans 1902) KW Wedderburn, The Worker and the Law (Sweet and Maxwell 1986) Articles C Barnard, 'The UK and Posted Workers: The Effect of Commission v Luxembourg on the Territorial Application of British Labour Law' (2009) 38 ILJ 122 C Barnard, S Deakin and R Hobbs, 'Opting Out of the 48 Hour Week: Employer Necessity or Individual Choice' (2003) 32 ILJ 223 N Countouris, 'The Temporary Agency Work Directive: Another Broken Promise?' [2009] 38(3) ILJ 329 PL Davies and C Kilpatrick, 'UK Worker Representation after Single Channel' (2004) 33 ILJ 121 S Deakin, 'Regulatory Competition after Laval' (2008) 10 Cambridge Yearbook of European Legal Studies 581 S Deakin, 'Does the 'personal employment contract' provide a basis for the reunification of labour law?’ [2007] ILJ 36 A Döse-Deigenopoulos and A Höland, 'Dismissal of Employees in the Federal Republic of Germany' (1985) 48(5) Modern Law Review 539-563 KD Ewing, 'The State and Industrial Relations: 'Collective Laissez-Faire' Revisited' (1998) 5 Historical Studies in Industrial Relations 1 KD Ewing, 'Job Security and the Contract of Employment' (1989) 18 ILJ 217 KD Ewing and J Hendy QC, 'The Dramatic Implications of Demir and Baykara (2010) 39(1) ILJ 2 KD Ewing and G M Truter,'The Information and Consultation of Employees' Regulations: Voluntarism's Bitter Legacy' (2005) 68 MLR 626 T Goriely, 'Arbitrary Deductions from Pay and the Proposed Repeal of the Truck Acts' (1983) 12 ILJ 236 BA Hepple and BW Napier, 'Temporary Workers and the Law' (1978) 7 Industrial Law Journal 84 O Kahn-Freund, 'Labour Law' in M Ginsberg (ed), Law and Opinion in England in the 20th Century (Stevens 1959) D Kershaw, 'No End in Sight for the History of Corporate Law: The Case of Employee Participation in Corporate Governance' (2002) 2 Journal of Corporate Law Studies 34 E McGaughey, 'Should Agency Workers be Treated Differently?' (2010) SSRN C Mogridge, 'Illegal Contracts of Employment: Loss of Statutory Protection' (1981) 20 ILJ 23 B Simpson, 'The National Minimum Wage Five Years On' (2004) 33 ILJ 22 I Steele, 'Sex Discrimination and the Material Factor Defence under the Equal Pay Act 1970 and the Equality Act 2010' (2010) 39 ILJ 264 C Summers, 'Collective agreements and the law of contracts' (1969) 90 Yale Law Journal 539 KW Wedderburn, 'Shareholders' rights and the rule in Foss v Harbottle' [1957] 16 Cambridge Law Journal 194 KW Wedderburn, 'Employees, Partnership and Company Law' [2002] 31(2) Industrial Law Journal 99 Reports Eleventh and Final Report of the Royal Commission appointed to Inquire into the Organisation and Rules of Trade Unions and Other Associations (1868–1869) Parliamentary Papers vol xxxi Committee on Relations between Employers and Employed, Final Report (1918) Cmnd 9153 Whitley Committee, Interim Report on Joint Standing Industrial Councils (1917) Cmnd 8606 J Whitley, Royal Commission on Labour in India (1931) Cmd 3883 Lord Donovan, Report of the Royal Commission on Trade Unions and Employers’ Associations (1965–1968) Cmnd 3623 HM Government, In Place of Strife (1969) Cmnd 3888 Lord Robens, Report of the Committee on Health and Safety at Work (1972) Cmnd 5034 A Bullock, Report of the committee of inquiry on industrial democracy (1977) Cmnd 6706 Green Paper, Trade Union Immunities (1981) Cmnd 8128 Department of Employment, Democracy in Trade Unions (1983) Cm 8778 Department of Employment, Trade Unions and their Members (1987) Cm 95 R Goode, Pension Law Reform (1993) Cmnd 2342 A New Partnership for Welfare: Partnership in Pensions (1998) Cmnd 4179 Simplicity, Security and Choice: Working and Saving for Retirement (2002) Cmnd 5677 External links Case law Page for employment judgments, including Employment Tribunal Employment Appeal Tribunal judgments on bailii.org.uk List of prominent labour law cases on bailii.org.uk National Employment rights guidance from direct.gov.uk DBIS Employment Legislation - PL712 - Meaning of dismissal DBIS Employment Legislation - PL712 - Making a complaint International Website with information on worker participation in the EU List of ILO Conventions ratified by the UK Labour relations in the United Kingdom
402032	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idaho%20State%20University	Idaho State University	Idaho State University (ISU) is a public research university in Pocatello, Idaho. Founded in 1901 as the Academy of Idaho, Idaho State offers more than 250 programs at its main campus in Pocatello and locations in Meridian, Idaho Falls, and Twin Falls. It is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity ". More than 12,000 students attend Idaho State, with 57 percent of enrollment female and 43 percent male. The student-teacher ratio at Idaho State is 13:1 and 58 percent of students take classes full-time. History On March 11, 1901, Governor Frank W. Hunt signed Senate Bill 53, to establish the Academy of Idaho, contingent upon private land donations being made for its site. Theodore F. Turner, mayor of Pocatello, settled the issue (Battle of the Blocks) by securing a permanent location for the academy. The Academy of Idaho officially opened its doors on September 22, 1902. Theodore Swanson, a member of the board of trustees, secured the services of John W. Faris as the first administrator, with the title of principal. By 1910, enrollment had reached nearly 300 students, and the academy had purchased four additional city blocks in Pocatello to meet its growing needs. The Academy of Idaho was renamed Idaho Technical Institute in 1915. The end of World War I brought an influx of students to the school, and enrollment surged to more than 1,000 students. In the early 1920s, the institution officially adopted the Bengal as the school's mascot. Ralph Hutchinson was head football coach from 1920 to 1927, and he pushed to establish the tiger mascot and incorporate orange and black as the official colors. Hutchinson was an alumnus of Princeton, a university with a tiger mascot. The institution was renamed in 1927, this time as the University of Idaho–Southern Branch, and continued as a two-year school, overseen by John R. Nichols. an executive dean. During World War II, Idaho was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program, which offered students a path to a Navy commission. After Nichols left in 1946, Carl McIntosh, an associate professor of speech, was named the acting executive dean in January 1947. That March, the school was elevated to four-year status and officially became Idaho State College. At the age of 32, McIntosh was appointed the first president of Idaho State College, and he was one of the youngest college presidents in the United States. Although McIntosh was not originally interested in being an administrator, once the school became an independent college, he decided to remain president and see the institution through its early growing pains. Idaho State College was accredited as a four-year degree granting institution in December 1948, after much work by McIntosh and the faculty. Enrollment reached 2,000 in 1949. McIntosh left ISC in 1959 to become president of Long Beach State College, and he was succeeded by Donald E. Walker. In 1963, ISC was renamed for the fifth and final time to Idaho State University, reflecting its new status as a four-year public university. In the ensuing years, Idaho State continuously expanded both its enrollment and the programs it offered. The presidency of Richard (Dick) Bowen, from 1985 to 2005, is particularly regarded as an era of growth. Bowen served as the president of Idaho State for 20 years, and Connie, his wife, dedicated her time to cultivating community relationships and enhancing long-standing campus traditions. During their tenure at ISU, the Bowens brought several projects forward, including the Stephens Performing Arts Center and Rendezvous Center. Bowen resigned after a vote of no confidence from the faculty, who were angered by generous pay raises for administration members in the midst of calls for fiscal austerity. Arthur Vailas, former vice chancellor of the University of Houston System and vice president of the University of Houston in Texas, became president of Idaho State on July 1, 2006. He succeeded Michael Gallagher, who had served as interim president for one year during the transition. In February 2011, a majority of ISU faculty voted no confidence in Vailas and called for his resignation. This was also followed by a vote of no confidence by the students. Although Vailas faced mounting criticism and pressure from faculty and students to step down, he refused to resign and campus tension intensified. In February 2011, the Idaho State Board of Education decided to suspend the University's faculty senate. As a result of the move, in June 2011, the American Association of University Professors censured ISU. In June 2019, the AAUP removed Idaho State from the list of sanctioned institutions. Vailas announced his retirement in August 2017, but he continued to serve as president until the expiration of his contract on June 17, 2018. He was succeeded by Kevin D. Satterlee. Points of interest The elevation of its main campus in Pocatello is approximately above sea level. Idaho State, along with the Idaho National Laboratory and other Idaho universities, worked to establish the Center for Advanced Energy Studies in 2007. Renovation of the ESTEC building began in summer 2007, after a team from ISU's College of Technology, Idaho National Laboratory, and Partners for Prosperity received grants totaling more than $2.5 million. In fiscal year 2011, ISU underwent a reorganization designed to allow for better interdisciplinary research and collaboration. The School of Performing Arts was created to allow students to collaborate, learn, and perform at the next level. The Kasiska Division of Health Sciences, which includes the College of Pharmacy and College of Health, was reorganized to provide interdisciplinary education while serving the community through ISU's 18 clinics. In 2011, ISU purchased the $3.6 million former Ballard Medical facility and The ISU Research and Innovation in Science and Engineering Complex (RISE) was created. At that time, research was focused on a Crystal Growth Laboratory (it can grow giant crystals to support nuclear science and engineering programs), High Power Laser/Optics Laboratory, Imaging Laboratory, and a Human Interactive Environment Simulation Laboratory. RISE was eventually closed, and the facility underwent a remodel to become the William M. and Karin A. Eames Advanced Technical Education and Innovations Complex, which is home to many College of Technology programs. Academics Established in 2011, the Career Path Internship (CPI) program provides students an opportunity to gain professional experience while in school. All CPI internships are paid positions that are aligned with the student's major or career goals. In 2016 the CPI program provided professional experience in approximately 1,000 internships both on and off campus. The CPI program has seen exceptional growth in past years with a 2016 budget estimated at $2.3 million. ISU offers two doctoral level nursing programs after the Idaho State Board of Education approved a doctoral degree in advanced nursing practice, which will now give ISU two doctoral-level nursing programs. The first offered is a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degree in nursing beginning summer 2013 and the only one in the state. ISU received top designation for nuclear training and was tagged Regional Center of Excellence. The Energy Systems Technology and Education Center (ESTEC) at the ISU College of Technology will soon be coordinating the nuclear energy education and training for technicians in a nine-state region. The Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI) has designated ESTEC as the Northwest Regional Center of Excellence for Nuclear Education and Training. The top designation includes the states of Idaho, Montana, Washington, Oregon, South Dakota, North Dakota, Utah, and Nebraska. ESTEC is one of five regional NEI-designated centers in the country. ISU's new doctoral experimental psychology program, the only program of its type in Idaho, accepted its first three students fall 2011. The new experimental psychology doctoral program complements ISU's doctoral clinical psychology program, created in the early 1990s. Eventually, the experimental psychology program plans to accept six students annually. A new Idaho State University geosciences doctoral program is approved to begin in August 2013. The Center for Sports Concussion at ISU, opened in 2009, is housed within the Department of Sport Science and Physical Education. The purpose of the Center for Sports Concussion is to offer educational outreach on concussion identification and management practices to athletic administrators, coaches, and parent groups throughout Idaho in accordance with Idaho law and demonstrated need, and to facilitate baseline and post-concussion neuro-cognitive testing to athletes participating in sports programs throughout eastern Idaho. The university awards The Teaching Literature Book Award for the best book on teaching literature at the post-secondary or graduate level. The prize is conferred in odd numbered years, and the inaugural award was conferred in 2015. Past winners included Nancy Sorkin Rabinowitz and Fiona McHardy for the book From Abortion to Pederasty: Addressing Difficult Topics in the Classics Classroom. Research At the CORE, ISU faculty and students are performing research and scholarship that is leading to the mechanistic understanding of autism, the relationship between sleep and addictive behaviors, and incorporating research into evidence-based practice. In 2010 ISU obtained a new biochemistry laboratory and was finished in time for the fall 2011 semester. In 2012 ISU researchers in the Bearden Vascular Health Laboratory found clues on how to block the effects of a chemical in the brain that contributes to dementia and strokes. The fight against dementia is gaining ground at Idaho State University thanks to ongoing research that could one day change the way the disease is prevented. In 2013 A team of Idaho State University researchers discovered that fish show autism-like gene expression after exposure to water containing psychoactive pharmaceuticals. This study was published in June in the open access journal PLoS ONE and was widely publicized nationally and internationally. Health sciences Idaho State's Kasiska Division of Health Sciences (KDHS) houses the majority of health-related professional programs in Idaho. The KDHS Family Medicine Residency Program is the only medical education program sponsored by an Idaho university. Each year, the ISU Health Center receives more than 10,000 visits from students. The center treats patients for all types of medical issues and consultation costs are lower in comparison to mainstream health services across the country. In 2009, Idaho State opened a new campus in Meridian, Idaho that delivers health professional programs as an addition to Idaho's Project 60 economic development initiative. In 2011 the Delta Dental Clinic was opened at the ISU-Meridian Health Science Center to serve low-income patients and provide advanced training for dentists. The clinic consists of 17 clinical treatment rooms. The ISU Meridian Health Science Center plans to open a new anatomy and physiology lab in 2014. The new lab, consisting of "state of the art" virtual applications, will allow students to work directly with the human body and its functions. Arts In 1998, Idaho State University received a gift of $10 million from Thelma E. Stephens. It was seed funding for the $34 million center that would bear the Stephens' names. Construction began June 10, 2002. The center's design and construction was funded primarily through the support of hundreds of private donors as part of the university's $152.5 million capital campaign to fund a variety of needs. In fall 2013, ISU began to offer a bachelor's degree in dance. The new major is the only one of its kind offered within Idaho's university system. With the new Bachelor of Arts degree in choreography and performance, ISU's School of Performing Arts now consists of majors in music, theatre and dance. Student life Student government is administered by the Associated Students of Idaho State University (ASISU). Each year a president and vice-president are elected by the student body to administer and oversee a variety of activities either partially or fully funded by tuition-based fees. The ASISU Senate is the association's legislative body. Made up of 20 student members elected by the students of each individual college (allocation of seats being based on enrollment of each college), the ASISU Senate is primarily responsible for allocating the ASISU budget. The Student Activities Board, formerly the ASISU Program Board, oversees most of the student activity programming on campus. The board plans concerts, movie showings, homecoming activities, athletic-related events and other activities generally associated with student life. Reed Gym features recreational facilities, including a climbing wall, swimming pool, tennis courts, and more. The Pond Student Union operates a movie theater, billiard room, and bowling alley, and hosts many student club activities. Fine arts events are regularly featured at the performing arts theater. ISU has more than 140 registered professional, academic, cultural, service and social student organizations. The cultural organizations host some of the largest events on campus with their "Cultural Nights" celebrations. There are currently four fraternity and sorority chapters that are recognized by the university. Students at ISU are represented by the Associated Students of Idaho State University (ASISU). Every year the students elect a president, vice-president, and 20 senators. ASISU has administrative oversight of the 140 student organizations and provides funding to various groups that provide student involvement, leadership and service opportunities and events. Student media on campus includes The Bengal, a weekly student-run newspaper and KISU-FM (91.1). KISU-FM broadcasts from the first floor of the Pond Student Union, serving the university and surrounding communities with alternative music, NPR programming, and live coverage of ISU women athletics. In 2010, KISU-FM and the university developed a monthly public affairs talk show FIRST MONDAY: Idaho State University Forum. The show provides insight into the university's programs, accomplishments and local interests. The Pond Student Union, or SUB, serves as the community center for the university. The SUB consists of three floors that house among other things the campus bookstore, student government and organization offices, Outdoor Adventure Center, craft shop, ISU Credit Union, offices of the Vice President for Student Affairs, bowling alley, movie theater, Veterans Sanctuary, LEAD Center and numerous conference/banquet rooms used for meeting and large scale campus events. The SUB is also home for Campus Connection, a one stop shop for event tickets, photo ID and campus information (282-INFO). The 255,000 square foot, five-level Rendezvous Complex built in 2007 is centrally located on the Idaho State University campus. The complex houses 50 classrooms, ranging from 15-seat seminar rooms to a 250-seat lecture hall. Other facilities in the Rendezvous include a large computer center and a large meeting room with partitions for conversion into three small meeting rooms, 80 student apartments with 301 beds and the Mind's Eye Art Gallery. The Cooperative Wilderness Handicapped Outdoor Group, otherwise known as CW HOG, is a regional self-help group that was formed in 1981 to provide recreational opportunities for people of all abilities. CW HOG is kept going through dedicated volunteers. In August 2010, Reed Gym announced the opening of a new addition, the Student Recreation Center, giving Reed nearly 100,000 square feet of recreational opportunities. Additions include added weight and endurance facilities, additional classrooms and teaching facilities, as well as open and window viewing areas to the four indoor tennis courts. Other amenities include racquetball courts, an auxiliary gym, a track, climbing wall, swimming pool, and spinning/multi-purpose rooms. Student housing Idaho State University operates several residence halls and apartment complexes for its students. Residence halls include Rendezvous Hall, Turner Hall, Nichols Hall, Owen Hall, and Redfield Hall. On-campus apartments include Bengal Studios , McIntosh Manor (Building #57), Pulling Courts (Building #53), Ridge Crest Townhomes (Building #54), Schubert Heights, University Courts, and West Campus Apartments. Students with dependent children may live in McIntosh Manor, Pulling Courts, and Ridge Crest Townhouses. Residents are within the Pocatello/Chubbuck School District. Zoned schools include Washington Elementary School, Franklin Middle School, and Century High School. Athletics The Idaho State University Bengals compete as a member school of the Big Sky Conference in the NCAA Division I FCS. ISU won the NCAA Division I-AA national championship in football in 1981. It also won NCAA national championships in boxing as Idaho State College in 1953 and 1957. In more recent years ISU has been competitive in track and field, winning the Big Sky Conference Indoor title in 2005 and 2006. The women's track and field team won their first outdoors women's Big Sky conference in 2007 with a score of 140.5 over Weber State. Dave Nielson was named the Big Sky Coach of the Year in women's track and field, and was later named the Mountain Region's Outdoor Women's Coach of the Year. Home football games are played at Holt Arena, which has a seating capacity of 12,000 for football games and is the oldest enclosed stadium on a college campus in the United States. Holt Arena also hosts indoor track and field events. For years the Bengals enjoyed athletic rivalries with the Boise State Broncos and the University of Idaho Vandals of Moscow. However, in football these rivalries diminished significantly after both BSU and UI left the Big Sky in 1996 to move up to Division I-A. The Bengals still enjoy a healthy rivalry in basketball with both the University of Idaho, who they have dominated in recent years; and Boise State, who has dominated ISU in recent years. With the University of Idaho moving back to Division I FCS in 2018, they, along with the Weber State Wildcats of Ogden, Utah, and the Portland State Vikings of Portland, Oregon, have become Idaho State's main rivals. Idaho State also offers a rugby program that plays in Division II. Idaho State offers scholarships to rugby players in the form of allowing out-of-state students to pay the in-state tuition rate. Idaho State finished the 2010 regular season ranked ninth in Division II. Idaho State reached the semifinals of the 2011 Mountain 7s tournament, and reached the semifinals of the 2012 Pacific Coast championship. In January 1968, the ISU student body voted on and approved the construction of the Minidome by a majority vote of 57 percent not to exceed $2.8 million and was financed by student revenue bonds. The Minidome opened in 1970 and was renamed Holt Arena in 1988. It hosts on average 300,000 to 400,000 annually and events have an estimated annual economic impact of $15 to 20 million. Since its opening, Holt Arena events have provided roughly $600 million of economic impact to the local community. Davis Field, home of ISU track and soccer, was built in 1936 as a public works project. It was originally called the "Spud Bowl" and is located at the base of Red Hill on lower campus. After Holt Arena was built, the football field became home to the Bengal track and field program, and the name was changed to honor Bud Davis, ISU's president from 1965 to 1975. In 1998, women's soccer was added as a varsity sport and Davis Field became its home. ISU started a softball program in 1976, but the program was dropped after the 1983 season. In 2007, the program was reestablished. In 2011, Idaho State completed Miller Ranch Stadium, the home of Bengal softball. The Big Sky Conference added softball in 2013 and ISU won the first ever regular season Big Sky title. (40) ISU won the NCAA Division I-AA national championship in football in 1981. The Bengals also won NCAA national championships in boxing as Idaho State College in 1953 and 1957. ISU cross country team meets on the Centennial Course. The course is located east of the main campus at the Idaho State Research Park. The Bengals opened the course in 2002 and hosted the Big Sky Championship that same year. Reed Gym is the refurbished home of Idaho State women's basketball, tennis, and volleyball. Featuring a seating capacity of 3,040, the building was remodeled in 2002 and officially reopened on December 17. It is also the home of the men's basketball team on occasions when Holt Arena is unavailable. In more recent years, ISU has been competitive in track and field, winning the Big Sky Conference indoor title in 2005 and 2006. The women's track and field team won its first women's outdoor Big Sky title in 2007. The women's soccer program won its fifth Big Sky Championship in 15 years in 2012 and the women's basketball program won its third Big Sky title since 2001. In the spring of 2011, ISU's athletic department became fully certified without condition by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). In the summer of 2010, the university received NCAA certification with one condition. To meet the NCAA requirement, ISU constructed a new women's softball complex and increased funding for the program, completed new intercollegiate locker rooms for women's volleyball, softball and basketball, and increased the number of women's athletic scholarships. Through partnerships between ISU Athletics, ISU Credit Union and Idaho Central Credit Union, ISU received a new basketball court and football field in 2011. The official name of the Bengal basketball facility is Idaho Central Credit Union Court at Holt Arena. Reed Gym is called Idaho Central Credit Union Court at Reed Gym. In 2013, the ISU Athletics finished third in the Big Sky Conference President's Cup. The third-place finish was the highest ever by ISU's Athletics department. ISU placed first in the conference in overall academics. Academically, Idaho State had a record 183 student-athletes named to Big Sky All-Academic teams in the academic year. University leaders John W. Faris (1902–1907) – Principal Miles F. Reed (1907–1918) – Principal Norman B. Adkison (1918–1919) – Interim Charles R. Frazier (1919–1925) – President Jesse E. Retherford (1925–1927) – President Martin F. Angell (1927–1929) – Executive Dean John R. Dyer (1929–1933) – Executive Dean John R. Nichols (1934–1942) – Executive Dean Ernest J. Baldwin (1942–1945) – Acting Dean John R. Nichols (1945–1947) – Interim Carl W. McIntosh (1947–1959) – President Donald E. Walker (1960–1964) – President William E. Davis (1965–1975) – President Charles Kegel (1975–1976) – Interim Myron L. Coulter (1976–1984) – President Richard L. Bowen (1985–2005) – President Michael C. Gallagher (2005–2006) – Interim Arthur C. Vailas (2006–2018) – President Kevin Satterlee (2018–present) – President Notable alumni Jared Allen – NFL defensive end, 2x NFL sacks leader (2007, 2011), 5x Pro Bowl (2007–2009, 2011, 2012) Don Aslett – author, speaker and founder of Varsity Contractors Inc. Ron Boone – current Utah Jazz announcer and former ABA player Wally Buono – Canadian Football League head coach; winningest coach in CFL history Bill Byrne – athletic director, Texas A&M University Shay Carl Butler – YouTube content creator, co-founder of Maker Studios (did not graduate) Jeff Charleston – NFL defensive end Jeff Cook – former NBA player Evan Dietrich-Smith – NFL offensive lineman, Super Bowl XLV champion Stacy Dragila – 2000 Olympic gold medalist, women's pole vault Matt Gutierrez – NFL quarterback Josh Hill - New Orleans Saints tight end Merril Hoge – ESPN commentator and Pittsburgh Steelers running back Eddie Johnson – NFL punter Stanley L. Klos – author, professional basketball player in Italy, United States Senate elections, 1994 West Virginia Republican nominee Dirk Koetter – NFL head coach and offensive coordinator, former head coach for Boise State and Arizona State Football Marvin Lewis – NFL head coach and defensive coordinator Dustin Lind - director of hitting and assistant hitting coach for the San Francisco Giants Fred S. Martin – Idaho senator (2012–2022) James A. McClure – U.S. Senator (1973–1991) Bruce Nelson – CEO, Office Depot (2000-2004) William Petersen – actor, star of CSI: Las Vegas Charles Potts – a prominent counter-culture poet and publisher Ed Sanders – boxer, 1952 Olympic gold medalist Antonio Taguba – retired United States Army major general Sue Ane Langdon – actress Roger Williams – pianist See also Eli M. Oboler Library Notes References History of Idaho State College, by Merrill D. Beal (1952) Idaho State College Press. Idaho State University: A Centennial Chronicle, by Diane Olson (1999) Idaho University Press. Notes External links Idaho State Athletics website Wickiup yearbook archive Buildings and structures in Bannock County, Idaho Education in Bannock County, Idaho Universities and colleges established in 1901 Universities and colleges accredited by the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities Tourist attractions in Bannock County, Idaho 1901 establishments in Idaho Pocatello, Idaho Public universities and colleges in Idaho
402049	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag%20of%20convenience	Flag of convenience	Flag of convenience (FOC) is a business practice whereby a ship's owners register a merchant ship in a ship register of a country other than that of the ship's owners, and the ship flies the civil ensign of that country, called the flag state. The term is often used pejoratively, and although common, the practice is sometimes regarded as contentious. Each merchant ship is required by international law to be registered in a registry created by a country, and a ship is subject to the laws of that country, which are used also if the ship is involved in a case under admiralty law. A ship's owners may elect to register a ship in a foreign country so as to avoid the regulations of the owners' country, which may, for example, have stricter safety standards. They may also select a jurisdiction to reduce operating costs, avoiding higher taxes in the owners' country and bypassing laws that protect the wages and working conditions of mariners. The term "flag of convenience" has been used since the 1950s. A registry which does not have a nationality or residency requirement for ship registration is often described as an open registry. Panama, for example, offers advantages such as easier registration (often online), the ability to employ cheaper foreign labour, and an exemption on income taxes. The modern practice of ships being registered in a foreign country began in the 1920s in the United States when shipowners seeking to serve alcohol to passengers during Prohibition registered their ships in Panama. Owners soon began to perceive advantages in terms of avoiding increased regulations and rising labor costs and continued to register their ships in Panama even after Prohibition ended. The use of open registries steadily increased, and in 1968, Liberia grew to surpass the United Kingdom with the world's largest ship register. , more than half the world's merchant ships were registered with open registries, and almost 40% of the entire world fleet, in terms of deadweight tonnage, (DWT) were registered in Panama, Liberia, and the Marshall Islands. It is estimated that nearly two thirds of the world's fleet is registered in states to which they have no connection. According to the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), in January 2021, Panama had 6,653 ships on its registry (16 per cent of the global fleet by DWT), followed by Liberia (3,909), Marshall Islands (3,732), Singapore (2,541), and Hong Kong (2,440). Background Open registries have been criticised, mainly by trade union organisations based in developed countries, especially those in the European Union, United States, Japan, Canada, or the United Kingdom. One criticism is that shipowners who want to hide their ownership may select a flag-of-convenience jurisdiction which enables them to be legally anonymous. Some ships with flags of convenience have been found engaging in crime, offering substandard working conditions, and negatively impacting the environment, primarily through illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing. Prior to the implementation of the International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships, 1969, shipowners may have selected a jurisdiction with measurement rules that reduced the certified gross register tonnage of a ship, to reduce subsequent port of call dock dues. Such was a consideration when Carnival Cruise Line changed the flag of the RMS Empress of Canada in 1972 to that of Panama. In 2011, Cunard Line registered all its ships in Bermuda, which, besides other considerations, enabled its ship captains to marry couples at sea. Weddings at sea are described as a lucrative market. , thirteen flag states have been found by international shipping organisations to have substandard regulations. On the other hand, maritime industry practitioners and seafarers from other countries contend that this is a natural product of globalisation. Supporters of the practice, however, point to economic and regulatory advantages, and increased freedom in choosing employees from an international labour pool. Publications from as early as 1962 argue that shipowners from developed countries use the practice to be competitive in a global environment. Legal context International law requires that every merchant ship be registered in a country. The country in which a ship is registered is its flag state, and the flag state gives the ship the right to fly its civil ensign. A ship operates under the laws of its flag state, and these laws are used if the ship is involved in an admiralty case. A ship's flag state exercises regulatory control over the vessel and is required to inspect it regularly, certify the ship's equipment and crew, and issue safety and pollution prevention documents. The organization which actually registers the ship is known as its registry. Registries may be governmental or private agencies. Reasons for adopting a flag of convenience The reasons for choosing an open register are varied and include tax avoidance, the ability to avoid national labor and environmental regulations, and the ability to hire crews from lower-wage countries. National or closed registries typically require a ship be owned and constructed by national interests, and at least partially crewed by its citizens. Conversely, open registries frequently offer on-line registration with few questions asked. The use of flags of convenience lowers registration and maintenance costs, which in turn reduces overall transportation costs. The accumulated advantages can be significant, for example in 1999, 28 of the American company SeaLand's fleet of 63 ships were foreign-flagged, saving the company up to US$3.5 million per ship every year. Accidents and reform The environmental disaster caused by the 1978 sinking of the , which flew the Liberian flag, spurred the creation of a new type of maritime enforcement. Resulting from strong political and public outcry over the Amoco Cadiz sinking, fourteen European nations signed the 1982 Paris Memorandum of Understanding on Port State Control or Paris MOU. Under port state control, ships in international trade became subject to inspection by the states they visit. In addition to shipboard living and working conditions, these inspections cover items concerning the safety of life at sea and the prevention of pollution by ships. In cases when a port state inspection uncovers problems with a ship, the port state may take actions including detaining the ship. In 2015, member states of the Paris MOU conducted 17,858 inspections with deficiencies, which resulted in 595 detained vessels and 11 banned. Member states of the Tokyo Memorandum of Understanding conducted 17,269 ship inspections in 2015, recording 83,606 deficiencies which resulted in 1,153 detentions. The principle that there be a genuine link between a ship's owners and its flag state dates back to 1958, when Article 5(1) of the Geneva Convention on the High Seas also required that "the state must effectively exercise its jurisdiction and control in administrative, technical and social matters over ships flying its flag." The principle was repeated in Article 91 of the 1982 treaty called the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and often referred to as UNCLOS. In 1986, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development attempted to solidify the genuine link concept in the United Nations Convention on Conditions for Registration of Ships. The Convention for Registration of Ships would require that a flag state be linked to its ships either by having an economic stake in the ownership of its ships or by providing mariners to crew the ships. To come into force, the 1986 treaty requires 40 signatories whose combined tonnage exceeds 25% of the world total. , only 14 countries have signed the treaty. History Merchant ships have used false flags as a tactic to evade enemy warships since antiquity, and examples can be found from as early as the Roman era through to the Middle Ages. Following the American Revolutionary War, merchantmen flying the flag of the fledgling United States quickly found it offered little protection against attack by Barbary pirates – many responded by seeking to transfer their registry back to Great Britain. The use of false flags was frequently used as a ruse de guerre by the British during the Napoleonic Wars and the United States during the War of 1812. During the mid-19th century, slave ships flew various flags to avoid being searched by British anti-slavery fleets. The Belen Quezada, in August 1919, was the first foreign ship to be re-registered in the Panamanian registry, and was employed in running illegal alcohol between Canada and the United States during Prohibition. The modern practice of registering ships in foreign countries to gain economic advantage originated in the United States in the era of World War I, though the term "flag of convenience" did not come into use until the 1950s. Between 1915 and 1922, several laws were passed in the United States to strengthen the United States Merchant Marine and provide safeguards for its mariners. During this period, U.S.-flagged ships became subject to regular inspections undertaken by the American Bureau of Shipping. This was also the time of Robert LaFollette's Seamen's Act of 1915, which has been described as the "Magna Carta of American sailors' rights". The Seamen's Act regulated mariners' working hours, their payment, and established baseline requirements for shipboard food. It also reduced penalties for disobedience and abolished the practice of imprisoning sailors for the offense of desertion. Another aspect of the Seamen's Act was enforcement of safety standards, with requirements on lifeboats, the number of qualified able seamen on board, and that officers and seamen be able to speak the same language. These laws put U.S.-flagged vessels at an economic disadvantage against countries lacking such safeguards, and ships started to be re-registered in Panama's open registry from 1919. In addition to sidestepping the Seamen's Act, Panamanian-flagged ships in this early period paid sailors on the Japanese wage scale, which was much lower than that of western merchant powers. In the early phase of World War II the transfer of American-owned ships to the Panama registry was sanctioned by the United States government so that they could be used to deliver materials to Britain without dragging the United States, as a neutral, unintentionally into war. The Liberian open registry, founded in 1948, was the brainchild of Edward Stettinius, who had been Franklin D. Roosevelt's Secretary of State during World War II. Stettinius created a corporate structure that included The Liberia Corporation, a joint-venture with the government of Liberia. The corporation was structured so that 25% of its revenue would go to the Liberian government, another 10% went to fund social programs in Liberia, and the remainder returned to Stettinius' corporation. The Liberian registry was created at a time when Panama's registry was becoming less attractive for several reasons including its unpopularity with the U.S. labor movement and European shipping concerns, political unrest in Panama, and increases in its fees and regulations. On 11 March 1949, Greek shipping magnate Stavros Niarchos registered the first ship under the Liberian flag, World Peace. When Stettinius died in 1949, ownership of the registry passed to the International Bank of Washington, led by General George Olmsted. Within 18 years, Liberia grew to surpass the United Kingdom as the world's largest register. Due to Liberia's 1989 and 1999 civil wars, its registry eventually fell second to Panama's flag of convenience, but maritime funds continued to supply 70% of its total government revenue. After the civil war of 1990, Liberia joined with the Republic of the Marshall Islands to develop a new maritime and corporate program. The resulting company, International Registries, was formed as a parent company, and in 1993 was bought out by its management. After taking over the Liberian government, Americo-Liberian warlord Charles Taylor signed a new registry contract with the Liberian International Ship and Corporate Registry, commonly known as LISCR. LISCR was one of the few legal sources of income for Taylor's regime. Liberia's registry is operated from Virginia, United States. , the open registries of Panama, Liberia, and Marshall Islands accounted for almost 40% of the entire world fleet by deadweight tonnage, maintaining roughly the same proportion for over a decade. In 2009, the top ten flags of convenience registered 55% of the world's deadweight tonnage, including 61% of bulk carriers and 56% of oil tankers; by 2021, they accounted for 38% of the world's vessels and over two-thirds of the global deadweight tonnage. To counteract class hopping, in 2009 the International Association of Classification Societies (IACS) established a Transfer of Class Agreement (TOCA). Extent of use The International Transport Workers' Federation (ITF) maintains a list of registries it considers to be flags of convenience (FOC) registries. In developing the list, the ITF considers "ability and willingness of the flag state to enforce international minimum social standards on its vessels," the "degree of ratification and enforcement of ILO Conventions and Recommendations," and "safety and environmental record". , the list includes 42 countries. , Panama, Liberia and the Marshall Islands are the world's three largest registries in terms of deadweight tonnage (DWT). These three organizations registered 11,636 ships of and above, for a total of : more than 39% of the world's shipborne carrying capacity. Panama dominates the scene with over 8,065 ships accounting for almost 23% of the world's DWT. Of the three, the Marshall Islands (with 1,265 registered ships) had the greatest rate of DWT increase in 2009, increasing its tonnage by almost 15%. The Bahamian flag ranks sixth worldwide, behind the Hong Kong and Greek registries, but is similar in size to the Marshallese flag of convenience, with about 200 more ships but a carrying capacity about lower. Malta, at the ninth position worldwide, had about 100 more ships than the Bahamas, with a capacity of , representing 4% of the world fleet with 12% growth that year. At the eleventh position, Cyprus registered 1,016 ships in 2009, 2.6% of world tonnage. The remaining top 11 flags of convenience are Antigua and Barbuda (#20), Bermuda (#22), Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (#26), and the French International Ship Register (FIS) at number No. 27. Bermuda and the FIS have fewer than 200 ships apiece, but they are large: the average Bermudan ship is and the average FIS ship is at . (By way of reference, the average capacity of ships in the U.S. and U.K. registers is and respectively.) The registries of Antigua and Barbuda and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines both have over 1,000 ships with average capacity of and respectively. The remaining flags of convenience listed by the ITF each account for less than 1% of the world's DWT. , more than half of the world's merchant ships (measured by tonnage) are registered under flags of convenience. Criticism There are a number of common threads found in criticisms of the flag of convenience system. One is that these flag states have insufficient regulations and that those regulations they do have are poorly enforced. Another is that, in many cases, the flag state cannot identify a shipowner, much less hold the owner civilly or criminally responsible for a ship's actions. As a result of this lack of flag state control, flags of convenience are criticized on grounds of enabling tax avoidance, providing an environment for conducting criminal activities, supporting terrorism, providing poor working conditions for seafarers, and having an adverse effect on the environment. David Cockroft, former general secretary of the ITF says: Panama has the largest maritime register, followed by Liberia. Landlocked Bolivia also has a major registry, as does Mongolia. Also, some registers are based in other countries. For example, Panamanian overseas consulates manage the documentation and collect registration fees, Liberia's registry is managed by a company in Virginia and Bahamas' from the City of London. Concealed ownership A ship's beneficial owner is legally and financially responsible for the ship and its activities. For any of a number of reasons, some justifiable and some suspicious, shipowners who wish to conceal their ownership may use a number of strategies to achieve that goal. In jurisdictions that permit it, actual owners may establish shell corporations to be the legal owners of their ships, making it difficult, if not impossible, to track who is the beneficial owner of the ship. The 2004 Report of the UN Secretary General's Consultative Group on Flag State Implementation reported that "It is very easy, and comparatively inexpensive, to establish a complex web of corporate entities to provide very effective cover to the identities of beneficial owners who do not want to be known." According to a 2003 report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) report entitled "Ownership and Control of Ships", these corporate structures are often multi-layered, spread across numerous jurisdictions, and make the beneficial owner "almost impenetrable" to law enforcement officials and taxation. The report concludes that "regardless of the reasons why the cloak of anonymity is made available, if it is provided it will also assist those who may wish to remain hidden because they engage in illegal or criminal activities, including terrorists." The OECD report concludes that the use of bearer shares is "perhaps the single most important (and perhaps the most widely used) mechanism" to protect the anonymity of a ship's beneficial owner. Physically possessing a bearer share accords ownership of the corporation. There is no requirement for reporting the transfer of bearer shares, and not every jurisdiction requires that their serial numbers even be recorded. Two similar techniques to provide anonymity for a ship's beneficial owner are "nominee shareholders" and "nominee directors". In some jurisdictions that require shareholder identities to be reported, a loophole may exist where the beneficial owner may appoint a nominee to be the shareholder, and that nominee cannot legally be compelled to reveal the identity of the beneficial owner. All corporations are required to have at least one director, however many jurisdictions allow this to be a nominee director. A nominee director's name would appear on all corporate paperwork in place of the beneficial owners, and like nominee shareholders, few jurisdictions can compel a nominee director to divulge the identity of beneficial owners. A further hurdle is that some jurisdictions allow a corporation to be named as a director. Crime Flag of convenience ships have long been linked to crime on the high seas. For example, in 1982, Honduras shut down its open registry operations because it had enabled "illegal traffic of all kinds and had given Honduras a bad name". Ships registered by the Cambodia Shipping Corporation (CSC) were found smuggling drugs and cigarettes in Europe, breaking the Iraq oil embargo, and engaging in human trafficking and prostitution in Europe and Asia. In response to these activities, in 2000, Ahmad Yahya of the Cambodian Ministry of Public Works and Transport told industry publication Fairplay "We don't know or care who owns the ships or whether they're doing 'white' or 'black' business ... it is not our concern." Less than two years later, French forces seized the Cambodian-flagged, Greek-owned MV Winner for cocaine smuggling. Shortly after the seizure, Cambodian Prime Minister Hun Sen closed the registry to foreign ships, and Cambodia canceled its contract with CSC shortly thereafter. The North Korean flag of convenience has also garnered significant scrutiny. In 2003, the North Korean freighter Pong Su reflagged to Tuvalu in the middle of a voyage shortly before being seized by Australian authorities for smuggling heroin into that country. That year, thirteen nations began monitoring vessels under the North Korean flag for "illicit cargos like drugs, missiles or nuclear weapon fuel". Working conditions In the accompanying material of the ILO's Maritime Labour Convention of 2006, the International Labour Organization estimated that at that time there were approximately 1,200,000 working seafarers across the world. This document goes on to say that when working aboard ships flagged to states that do not "exercise effective jurisdiction and control" over their ships that "seafarers often have to work under unacceptable conditions, to the detriment of their well-being, health and safety and the safety of the ships on which they work." The International Transport Workers' Federation goes further, stating that flags of convenience "provide a means of avoiding labor regulation in the country of ownership, and become a vehicle for paying low wages and forcing long hours of work and unsafe working conditions. Since FOC ships have no real nationality, they are beyond the reach of any single national seafarers' trade union." They also say that these ships have low safety standards and no construction requirements, that they "do not enforce safety standards, minimum social standards or trade union rights for seafarers", that they frequently fail to pay their crews, have poor safety records, and engage in practices such as abandoning crewmen in distant ports. Environmental effects While flag of convenience ships have been involved with some of the highest-profile oil spills in history (such as the Maltese-flagged , the Bahamian-flagged , the Marshallese-flagged Deepwater Horizon, and the Liberian-flagged , and ), the most common environmental criticism they face regards illegal fishing. These critics of the flag of convenience system argue that many of the FOC flag states lack the resources or the will to properly monitor and control those vessels. The Environmental Justice Foundation (EJF) contends that illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU) vessels use flags of convenience to avoid fisheries regulations and controls. Flags of convenience help reduce the operating costs associated with illegal fishing methods, and help illegal operators avoid prosecution and hide beneficial ownership. As a result, flags of convenience perpetuate IUU fishing which has extensive environmental, social and economic impacts, particularly in developing countries. The EJF is campaigning to end the granting of flags of convenience to fishing vessels as an effective measure to combat IUU fishing. According to Franz Fischler, European Union Fisheries Commissioner, Port state control In 1978, a number of European countries agreed in The Hague to audit labour conditions on board vessels vis-a-vis the rules of the International Labour Organization. To this end, in 1982 the "Paris Memorandum of Understanding on Port State Control" (Paris MOU) was established, setting port state control standards for what is now twenty-six European countries and Canada. Several other regional Memoranda of Understanding have been established based on the Paris model, including the "Memorandum of Understanding on Port State Control in the Asia-Pacific Region", typically referred to as the "Tokyo MOU", and organizations for the Black Sea, the Caribbean, the Indian Ocean, the Mediterranean, and Latin America. The Tokyo and Paris organizations generate, based on deficiencies and detentions, black-, white-, and grey-lists of flag states. The US Coast Guard, which handles port state control inspections in the US, maintains a similar target list for underperforming flag states. , at least nine of the 42 flags of convenience listed by the ITF are targeted for special enforcement by the countries of the Paris and Tokyo MOUs or U.S. Coast Guard. The effectiveness of the port state control regime in correcting deficiencies is mitigated in some part by the practice of flag-hopping, in which shipowners and operators will rename their ships and acquire new vessel registrations in other jurisdictions in order to avoid detection and reduce the likelihood of being selected for port state control inspections. Ratification of maritime conventions International regulations for the maritime industry are promulgated by agencies of the United Nations, particularly the International Maritime Organization and International Labour Organization. Flag states adopt these regulations for their ships by ratifying individual treaties. One common criticism against flag of convenience countries is that they allow shipowners to avoid these regulations by not ratifying important treaties or by failing to enforce them. The International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) issues an annual report entitled the Shipping Industry Flag State Performance Table identifying the six "core" conventions representing a minimum level of maritime regulation, from the viewpoint of shipowners, as SOLAS, MARPOL, LL 66, STCW, MLC, and CLC/FUND92. Of these, all 42 flag of convenience countries listed by ITF have ratified the STCW Convention, concerning standards of training, certification and watchkeeping for seafarers, and 22 of them have ratified all six. However, at least seventeen listed countries have not ratified all the remaining five conventions. To put this in context, over 50 flag states have not ratified all six conventions, including China and United States of America. The Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) and Load Line (LL 66) conventions focus on shipboard safety issues. Originally developed in response to the sinking of RMS Titanic, SOLAS sets regulations on lifeboats, emergency equipment and safety procedures, including continuous radio watches. It has been updated to include regulations on ship construction, fire protection systems, life-saving appliances, radio communications, safety of navigation, management for the safe operation of ships, and other safety and security concerns. LL 66 sets standards for minimum buoyancy, hull stress, and ship's fittings, as well as establishing navigational zones where extra precautions must be taken. The International Labour Organization Maritime Labour Convention, 2006 provides comprehensive rights and protection at work for seafarers, including requirements for minimum age, qualifications, hours of work and rest, medical care, complaint procedures, wage payments, and onboard living arrangements. The MLC replaced a number of earlier ILO Conventions including ILO147. MARPOL and CLC/FUND92 relate to pollution. The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973 (MARPOL), as modified by the Protocol of 1978, including Annexes I–VI" regulates pollution by ships, including oil and air pollution, shipboard sewage and garbage. The Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (CLC) and International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage (FUND92) together provide mechanisms to ensure compensation for victims of oil spills. Wages The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, in its 2009 Report on Maritime Trade, states that shipowners often register their ships under a foreign flag in order to employ "seafarers from developing countries with lower wages". The Philippines and China supply a large percentage of maritime labor in general, and major flags of convenience in particular. In 2009, the flag-states employing the highest number of expatriate-Filipino seafarers were Panama, the Bahamas, Liberia and the Marshall Islands. That year, more than 150,000 Filipino sailors were employed by these four flags of convenience. In a 2006 study by the United States Maritime Administration (MARAD), sailors from the People's Republic of China comprised over 40% of the crews on surveyed ships flying the Panamanian flag, and around 10% of those flying the Liberian flag. The MARAD report referred to both China and the Philippines as "low cost" crewing sources. The seafaring industry is often divided into two employment groups: licensed mariners including deck officers and marine engineers, and mariners that are not required to have licenses, such as able seamen and cooks, but are required to be certified. The latter group is collectively known as unlicensed mariners or ratings. Differences in wages can be seen in both groups, between "high cost" crewing sources such as the United States, and "low cost" sources such as China and The Philippines. However, salaries on flag of convenience ships are still far higher than median salaries of non-seafarers in these countries, in addition to income tax exemption of some seamen, particularly those from the Philippines. For unlicensed mariners, 2009 statistics from the American Bureau of Labor Statistics give median earnings for able and ordinary seamen as US$35,810, varying from $21,640 (at the 10th percentile) to $55,360 (at the 90th percentile). This can be compared with 2006 statistics from the International Labour Organization, giving average yearly earnings for Filipino and Chinese able seamen around $2,000 to $3,000 per year (PHP9,900 per month and CNY3,071 per year). Among licensed mariners, American chief engineers earned a median $63,630, varying from $35,030 to $109,310 while their Filipino counterparts averaged $5,500 per year (PHP21,342 per month). See also Declaration recognising the Right to a Flag of States having no Sea-coast Tax haven Footnotes References News stories Fishing references Port state control organisations Further reading Carlisle, Rodney. (1981). Sovereignty for Sale: The Origin and Evolution of the Panamanian and Liberian Flags of Convenience. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. Carlisle, Rodney. (2009). Second Registers: Maritime Nations Respond to Flags of Convenience, 1984–1998. The Northern Mariner, 19:3, 319–340. External links Database on reported incidents of abandonment of seafarers Flag of Convenience Cyprus: Prestige Oil Spill List of flag State comments on detentions for the years 2000, 2001 and 2002 1920s establishments in the United States 1950s neologisms Business terms Flag practices International taxation International trade Law of the sea Offshore finance Offshoring Ship registration Flag of convenience Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing
402052	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Vincent%20%28musician%29	St. Vincent (musician)	Anne Erin Clark (born September 28, 1982), known professionally as St. Vincent, is an American musician and singer. Her music is noted for its complex arrangements utilizing a wide array of instruments. St. Vincent is the recipient of various accolades, including three Grammy Awards. Her guitar playing has been praised for its melodic style and use of distortion, and she has been listed among the best guitarists of the 21st century by multiple publications. Rolling Stone named Clark as the 26th greatest guitarist of all time in 2023. Raised in Dallas, St. Vincent began her music career as a member of the Polyphonic Spree. She was also a member of Sufjan Stevens' touring band before forming her own band in 2006. Her debut solo album, Marry Me, was released in 2007; it was followed by Actor (2009) and Strange Mercy (2011). In 2012, St. Vincent released Love This Giant, an album made in collaboration with David Byrne of Talking Heads. Her fourth studio album, St. Vincent (2014), received widespread acclaim from contemporary critics and was named album of the year by Slant Magazine, NME, The Guardian and Entertainment Weekly. Her fifth and sixth solo albums, Masseduction (2017) and Daddy's Home (2021), were released to further acclaim. Aside from her own music, St. Vincent produced Sleater-Kinney's 2019 album The Center Won't Hold and co-wrote Taylor Swift's Billboard Hot 100 number-one single, "Cruel Summer." She also directed a segment in the 2017 anthology horror film XX, and co-wrote and starred in the psychological thriller film The Nowhere Inn (2020). Early life Clark was born in Tulsa, Oklahoma, on September 28, 1982, to Sharon Christine and Richard "Rick" Clark. Her mother is a social worker and administrator for a nonprofit organization, and her stepfather works in corporate tax administration. Her parents divorced when she was 3, and when she was 7, she moved with her mother and two older sisters to Dallas, Texas. She has said that a 23andMe DNA test revealed her ancestry to be 80% Irish and 20% Ashkenazi Jewish, via one of her grandmothers. Clark was raised Catholic and Unitarian Universalist. Clark has four brothers and four sisters from her parents' blended families. As a child, Clark was fond of Ritchie Valens and the movie La Bamba. When she was five, her mother gave her a red plastic guitar from a Target store for Christmas. She began playing her first real guitar at age 12 and worked some of her teenage years as a roadie for her aunt and uncle, the guitar-vocal jazz duo Tuck & Patti. In 2001, she graduated from Lake Highlands High School, where she participated in theater and the school's jazz band, and was a classmate of actor Mark Salling. She attended the Berklee College of Music in Boston, Massachusetts, studying with professor Lauren Passarelli. She left after three years, feeling that art institutions such as Berklee were sometimes focused more on the aesthetics of art than the product. In retrospect, she said, "I think that with music school and art school, or school in any form, there has to be some system of grading and measurement. The things they can teach you are quantifiable. While all that is good and has its place, at some point you have to learn all you can and then forget everything that you learned in order to actually start making music." Career 2003–2007: Career beginnings and Marry Me In 2003, Clark released an EP with fellow Berklee students entitled Ratsliveonnoevilstar. She also worked with Heavy Rotation Records, where "she revealed a much more private and intimate rendering of 'Count' for Dorm Sessions Vol. 1" and studied with professor of guitar Lauren Passarelli. Shortly after leaving Berklee, she returned home to Texas, where she joined the Polyphonic Spree just before they embarked on a European tour. In 2004, she joined Glenn Branca's 100-guitar orchestra for the Queens performance, and she was also briefly in a noise rock band called the Skull Fuckers. Clark left the Polyphonic Spree and joined Sufjan Stevens' touring band in 2006. During this period, she recorded and released an EP titled Paris Is Burning (2006). In 2006, she began recording a studio album under the stage name St. Vincent. In an interview on The Colbert Report, she said that she "took [her] moniker from a line in a Nick Cave song" that referred to the hospital where Dylan Thomas died: "And Dylan Thomas died drunk in / St. Vincent's hospital" (from Cave's song "There She Goes, My Beautiful World", from the 2004 album Abattoir Blues / The Lyre of Orpheus). The name is also a reference to her great-grandmother, whose middle name was St. Vincent. Clark released her debut album, Marry Me, on July 10, 2007, on Beggars Banquet Records. Named after a line from the television sitcom Arrested Development, it features appearances from drummer Brian Teasley (Man or Astro-man?, the Polyphonic Spree), Mike Garson (David Bowie's longtime pianist), and horn player Louis Schwadron (the Polyphonic Spree). The album was well received by critics, who compared Clark to the likes of Kate Bush and David Bowie and lauded the album for its arrangements, themes and style. In their review, The A.V. Club said: "There's a point where too much happiness turns into madness, and St. Vincent's multi-instrumentalist Annie Clark knows this place well". Pitchfork said, "At every turn Marry Me takes the more challenging route of twisting already twisted structures and unusual instrumentation to make them sound perfectly natural and, most importantly, easy to listen to as she overdubs her thrillingly sui generis vision into vibrant life." The songs on Marry Me were written largely when Clark was 18 and 19, and, she says, "represented a more idealized version of what life was or what love was or anything in the eyes of someone who hadn't really experienced anything." The album yielded one single, "Paris Is Burning", and a music video was produced for "Jesus Saves, I Spend". 2008–2010: Actor and soundtracks In 2008, Clark was nominated for three PLUG Independent Music Awards: New Artist of the Year, Female Artist of the Year, and Music Video of the Year. On March 6, 2008, she won the PLUG Female Artist of the Year award. After returning to New York from a lengthy tour, Clark began working on her second album. Her inspiration reportedly came from several films, including Disney movies: "Well, the truth is that I had come back from a pretty long — you know, about a year-and-a-half of touring, and so my brain was sort of all circuit boards that were a little bit fried", Clark said. "So I started watching films as sort of a way to get back into being human. And then it started to just really inform the entire record." Clark, who did not have a studio at the time, began writing the album in her apartment on her computer using GarageBand and MIDI, because she had gotten noise complaints from neighbors. The songs were inspired largely by scenes from various children's films. Clark said she imagined soundtracks for certain scenes in films when writing the music and lyrics, including scenes in Snow White (1937) and The Wizard of Oz (1939). Her second album, Actor, was released by 4AD Records on May 5, 2009. It was also well received and gained more commercial attention than its predecessor. Spin gave the album eight out of ten stars, noting its "[juxtaposition of] the cruel and the kind, and here, the baroque arrangements are even more complex and her voice even prettier, with both only underlining the dark currents running through her songs". Entertainment Weekly said the album "plays up the contrasts, [with Clark] letting her church-choir voice linger on lyrics that hint darkly at themes of violence, sex, and general chaos", and branded it "a uniquely potent cocktail of sounds and moods". Actor charted well for an independent release, peaking at No. 9 on Billboards Independent Albums chart, No. 5 on the Tastemaker Albums chart, and No. 90 on the Billboard 200. Although it spawned no singles (except in the UK, where "Actor out of Work" was issued as a 7" vinyl single), music videos for "Marrow" and "Actor Out of Work" were released, and aired on several music channels. A promotional music video for "Laughing with a Mouth of Blood", featuring Portlandias Fred Armisen and Carrie Brownstein (then of ThunderAnt), was also filmed. Two soundtracks for The Twilight Saga have featured Clark's songs. "Roslyn", in collaboration with indie folk band Bon Iver, appeared on the 2009 soundtrack of New Moon; and "The Antidote" was written for and appeared on 2012's Breaking Dawn – Part 2. In November 2010, Clark appeared with American rappers Kid Cudi and Cage on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon. They performed "Maniac" from Cudi's Man on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager, which prominently samples "The Strangers", the opening song on Actor. 2011–2012: Strange Mercy and collaborations Clark spent much of her time in Seattle writing her third album, Strange Mercy, in October 2010. In an interview with Julie Klausner for Spin magazine, she recalled: "[Death Cab for Cutie drummer] Jason McGerr had an office that was closing. He offered me the space for a month, for all of October. I was alone. I stayed at the Ace Hotel downtown, in one of the rooms with a shared bathroom. I would just get up in the morning and caffeinate, and run, and go to the studio for 12 hours, come back, eat dinner alone with a book, have a glass of wine, and go to bed. And do it all over again." On January 12, 2011, Clark announced via Twitter that she was working on Strange Mercy, a follow-up to Actor. In early March 2011, producer John Congleton, who also worked with Clark on Actor, said that he and Clark were nearly a third of the way through recording it. On July 4, Clark stated via Twitter that if enough followers tweeted the hashtag "#strangemercy", she would release a track from the album. On July 22, after the threshold was met, she released "Surgeon" for download and streaming on her official website. In August 2011, Clark was interviewed and featured on the cover of Spin magazine. On August 24, 2011, a music video was released for the song "Cruel", and on September 5, the entire album was put up for streaming on NPR Music. On August 25, 2011, she debuted Strange Mercy in the Temple of Dendur room at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, introducing Toko Yasuda (ex-Enon), Matt Johnson, and Daniel Mintseris as members of her live band. The album was released September 13, 2011. Strange Mercy received widespread acclaim from music critics. It achieved an overall rating of 8.1/10 at AnyDecentMusic? based on 36 reviews. It was St. Vincent's highest-charting album yet, peaking at No. 19 on the US Billboard 200. Clark stated, "I don't think it's the best record I'll ever make, but I think it's a good record." She began touring the US and Europe in support of the record in the fall of 2011 and continued a worldwide tour throughout 2012. In 2011, Clark composed "Proven Badlands", an instrumental piece based on "The Sequel" from her sophomore release Actor, for ensemble Music's album Beautiful Mechanical. In 2012, Clark was featured on Andrew Bird's album Break It Yourself singing on "Lusitania". On June 14, 2012, "Who", the first single from her collaboration with David Byrne, formerly of Talking Heads, was released. The single came from their album Love This Giant, which was released September 11, 2012.Love This Giant by David Byrne & St. Vincent, September 7, 2012 . Retrieved September 1, 2010. On September 18, 2012, Clark participated in the "30 Songs / 30 Days" campaign to support Half the Sky: Turning Oppression into Opportunity for Women Worldwide, a multiplatform project inspired by Nicholas Kristof and Sheryl WuDunn's bestselling book. Clark also provided guest vocals for the song "What's the Use of Won'drin'" on the album Who Killed Amanda Palmer from Amanda Palmer, formerly of the Dresden Dolls. 2013–2015: St. Vincent On May 28, 2013, David Byrne and St. Vincent released Brass Tactics, which includes a previously unreleased Love This Giant bonus track, two remixes, and two live tracks. In November 2013, Clark received the Smithsonian American Ingenuity Award for Performing Arts and signed to Loma Vista Recordings. The new label released "Birth in Reverse" the following month, the first single from Clark's fourth album, St. Vincent, The second single, "Digital Witness", was released in January 2014, and the album was released the next month to critical acclaim. A number of publications, including The Guardian, Entertainment Weekly, NME, Gigwise, and MusicOMH, ranked it as the No. 1 album of 2014, while Time put it at No. 2 and Rolling Stone ranked it No. 4. Clark received her first Grammy, as St Vincent won "Best Alternative Music Album" in February 2015. On April 10, 2014, Clark fronted Nirvana, performing lead vocals on "Lithium" at the 29th Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction ceremony. She also provided vocals on the Swans' album To Be Kind. On August 12 and 13, 2014, Clark filled in for Fred Armisen, who was away filming the fifth season of Portlandia, as band leader for the 8G Band on Late Night with Seth Meyers. Clark toured the United States, Europe, Australia, and Asia throughout 2014, ending the year as the supporting act for the Black Keys. She extended her Digital Witness tour into the summer of 2015, and performed alongside the Pixies and Beck at Boston Calling Music Festival in May 2015. A demo of "Teenage Talk", a track she had previously recorded but that was not included on her eponymous album, premiered on the HBO series Girls on March 10, 2015. The song was released as a single on April 6. On May 17, 2015, Clark performed with the Dallas Symphony Orchestra for the inaugural Soluna: International Music & Arts Festival. 2016–2019: Masseduction On April 12, 2016, it was announced that Clark would make her film directorial debut helming one of the segments of the women-directed anthology horror film XX. In June 2017, St. Vincent released "New York", the lead single from her fifth album. The Fear the Future tour was announced in June 2017, with dates in November and December; the tour schedule was subsequently extended with performances through July 2018. Masseduction, Clark's fifth studio album, was released in October 2017 through Loma Vista Recordings. It was met with "universal acclaim" with an average score of 88 on Metacritic. In the US, Masseduction debuted at No. 10 on the Billboard 200, becoming St. Vincent's first album to peak in the top ten of the chart, selling 29,000 units in its first week. Clark was Record Store Day's ambassador for 2017, making her its first female ambassador. In 2018, St. Vincent performed at Coachella. One of her performances, "Slow Disco", inspired the release of a new rendition of the track titled "Fast Slow Disco" in June. She released MassEducation, an acoustic rendition of her previous album. The album was given an 80 on Metacritic and praised by Entertainment Weekly for her versatile lyrics and strong vocals. That same year, St. Vincent collaborated with the American rock band Sleater-Kinney to produce their ninth studio album, The Center Won't Hold, which was released the following year. In 2019, St. Vincent performed at the 61st Annual Grammy Awards, where she joined Dua Lipa for a medley of her own "Masseduction," the late Aretha Franklin's "Respect," and Lipa's Calvin Harris collaboration "One Kiss." The same night, "Masseduction" was awarded the Grammy for Best Rock Song. That summer, St. Vincent was credited as a co-writer on "Cruel Summer" with Taylor Swift and Jack Antonoff for Swift's seventh studio album Lover (2019). In December, she released Masseduction Rewired, a collection of remixes curated by Russian techno DJ Nina Kraviz. 2020–present: Daddy's Home In 2020, St. Vincent was credited as a guitarist on "Texas Man" and as a co-writer on "Young Man" with the Chicks, Antonoff, and Justin Tranter for the Chicks' eighth studio album Gaslighter. In August 2020, St. Vincent collaborated with Japanese musician Yoshiki to release a classical arrangement of "New York". In October 2020, St. Vincent's online instruction class on Creativity and Songwriting was added to the MasterClass series. In late 2020, St. Vincent was featured on the track "Chalk Tablet Towers" from the first season of the Song Machine project by Gorillaz. On December 15, 2020, St. Vincent announced she would be releasing her sixth studio album in 2021. On February 25, 2021, street posters revealed the Daddy's Home album would be released on May 14, 2021. The album's first single "Pay Your Way in Pain" was released March 4, 2021, along with a music video. The album's second single "The Melting of the Sun" was released April 1, 2021, alongside a lyric video. Two days later St. Vincent was the musical guest on Saturday Night Live, performing both "Pay Your Way in Pain" and "The Melting of the Sun". St. Vincent starred in the 2020 psychological thriller film The Nowhere Inn, featuring a script written by her and Carrie Brownstein, about a fictional attempt to make a documentary on St. Vincent's musical career. Additionally, she wrote the film's soundtrack, releasing on digital streaming services on September 17, 2021, and later on limited vinyl on April 23, 2022, as part of Record Store Day. She contributed a cover of the Metallica song "Sad but True" to the charity tribute album The Metallica Blacklist, released in September 2021. On April 3, 2022, Daddy's Home won the award for Best Alternative Music Album at the 64th Annual Grammy Awards. On June 3, 2022, St. Vincent released her cover of Lipps Inc.'s "Funkytown" appearing on the soundtrack for Illumination's film Minions: The Rise of Gru. On February 13, 2023, St. Vincent joined Yoshiki on stage at Royal Albert Hall to perform an orchestral version of "New York". Musical style and influences Possessing a mezzo-soprano voice, Clark's music has been noted for its wide array of instruments and complex arrangements, as well as its polysemous lyrics, which have been described as teetering between "happiness and madness". In response, Clark has said, "I like when things come out of nowhere and blindside you a little bit. I think any person who gets panic attacks or has an anxiety disorder can understand how things can all of a sudden turn very quickly. I think I'm sublimating that into the music." In addition to guitar, Clark also plays bass, piano, organ, and theremin. Her music also often features violins, cellos, flutes, trumpets, clarinets, and other instruments. Her musical style has been characterised as rock, pop, art rock and indie rock, incorporating a wide range of influences including experimental rock, chamber pop, electropop, soft rock, and cabaret jazz. Clark mentioned that singers such as David Bowie and Kate Bush had inspired her, as had Jimi Hendrix and Siouxsie and the Banshees. She said in a 2015 lecture she listens to a Bowie track every day, and that "It's No Game (Part One)" was her favorite. Talking Heads, Patti Smith and Pink Floyd are also influences, as well as guitarists Robert Fripp and Adrian Belew (both from King Crimson), Marc Ribot and Tool. Clark has cited author Lorrie Moore as an inspiration for her eponymous album. Equipment Clark has notably played a 1967 Harmony Bobkat, 1960's Silvertone 1488, 1979 Hagström Super Swede, and Fender Deluxe Nashville Telecaster. In recent years, she has primarily played her signature Ernie Ball Music Man St. Vincent guitar. Signature guitar In March 2016, Ernie Ball announced that Clark had designed a signature Music Man guitar. Unique to the guitar was the design, which Welsh singer Cate Le Bon claimed in The Guardian as being made for women's bodies and providing pleasing aesthetic form in support of the guitar's function. However, Clark has since stated that the guitar being specifically for women was not a consideration during the design process. It was originally released in 2016 as the St. Vincent HHH with three mini-humbuckers in a signature Vincent Blue finish, a paint color which Clark herself had personally hand-mixed and selected, as well as in Black. In 2017, four additional colors were added to the guitar line, Polaris White, Heritage Red, Tobacco Burst, and Stealth Black. 2017 was also the last year to feature a solid rosewood neck and fingerboard, due to heavy rosewood trade restrictions under CITES, later models would primarily use a roasted maple neck with ebony fingerboard. A St. Vincent HH signature model was released in 2018 featuring two humbuckers in place of the three mini-humbuckers on the original. In 2021, a new St. Vincent Goldie signature model was released, featuring three gold foil mini-humbucker pickups, a reverse matching finish headstock, redesigned pickguard shape in 3-ply parchment, a roasted maple neck, and stainless steel frets. Notable users of the guitar include Jack White, who used the three pickup version during every performance of his Boarding House Reach tour in 2018, Todd Tamanend Clark, Tom Morello, J Mascis, Les Priest of LANY, Eva Hendricks of Charly Bliss, Emily Roberts of The Last Dinner Party, and Dan Boeckner of Wolf Parade. Personal life Clark divides her time between Los Angeles, Dallas, and New York City. A 2014 Village Voice profile describes her as a private person. David Byrne, with whom she collaborated and toured, said of her: "Despite having toured with her for almost a year, I don't think I know her much better, at least not on a personal level... Mystery is not a bad thing for a beautiful, talented young woman (or man) to embrace. And she does it without seeming to be standoffish or distant." When asked during a 2014 interview with Rolling Stone whether she identified as gay or straight, Clark responded: "I don't think about those words. I believe in gender fluidity and sexual fluidity. I don't really identify as anything. I think you can fall in love with anybody. I don't have anything to hide but I'd rather the emphasis be on music." Later that year, in an interview with the UK's Sunday Times, she elaborated: "I'm not one for gender or sexual absolutism in the main; I fully support and engage in the spectrum." Clark was in a relationship with actress and fashion model Cara Delevingne from late 2014 until mid-2016. Clark briefly dated actress Kristen Stewart in late 2016. In May 2010, Clark's father was convicted of one count of conspiracy, seven counts of wire fraud, five counts of securities fraud, and one count of money laundering. The album Daddy's Home was in part inspired by her father's eventual release. Discography Marry Me (2007) Actor (2009) Strange Mercy (2011) Love This Giant (with David Byrne) (2012) St. Vincent (2014) Masseduction (2017) Daddy's Home (2021) Live bandCurrent members – The Down and Out Downtown Band Justin Meldal-Johnsen – bass guitar, keyboards, vocals, music director (2021–present) Jason Falkner – guitar, vocals (2021–present) Mark Guiliana – drums (2021–present) Rachel Eckroth – keyboards (2021–present) Stevvi Alexander – vocals (2021–present) Nayanna Holley – vocals (2021–present) Danielle Withers – vocals (2021–present)Past members''' Toko Yasuda – guitar, bass guitar, keyboards (2011–2012, 2014–2015, 2018–2019) Daniel Mintseris – keyboards, sequencing (2011–2015, 2018–2019) Matt Johnson – drums (2011–2012, 2014–2015, 2018–2019) Daniel Hart – violin, guitar, vocals (2007–2010) William Flynn – bass guitar, clarinet, vocals (2007–2010) Anthony LaMarca – drums, sampler (2009–2010) Evan Smith – saxophone, clarinet, flute, keyboards, vocals (2009–2010) Tours Marry Me Tour (2007–08) Actor Tour (2009–10) Strange Mercy Tour (2011–12) Love This Giant Tour (with David Byrne) (2012–13) Digital Witness Tour (2014–15) Fear the Future Tour (2017–18) I Am a Lot Like You! Tour (2018–19) Daddy's Home Tour (2021–22) Awards and nominations See also LGBT culture in New York City List of LGBT people from New York City References Further reading External links Annie Clark Video produced by Makers: Women Who Make America'' 1982 births Living people 4AD artists American indie rock musicians American LGBT singers American LGBT songwriters American mezzo-sopranos American multi-instrumentalists American people of Irish descent American people of Jewish descent American rock songwriters American Unitarian Universalists American women in electronic music American women singer-songwriters Art rock musicians Beggars Banquet Records artists Berklee College of Music alumni Former Roman Catholics Genderfluid people Grammy Award winners Guitarists from Oklahoma Guitarists from Texas LGBT people from Oklahoma LGBT people from Texas Loma Vista Recordings artists Musicians from Dallas Musicians from Tulsa, Oklahoma The Polyphonic Spree members Republic Records artists Sexually fluid women Singer-songwriters from Oklahoma Singer-songwriters from Texas Unitarian Universalists 21st-century American guitarists 21st-century American women guitarists 21st-century American women singers
402055	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individual%20retirement%20account	Individual retirement account	An individual retirement account (IRA) in the United States is a form of pension provided by many financial institutions that provides tax advantages for retirement savings. It is a trust that holds investment assets purchased with a taxpayer's earned income for the taxpayer's eventual benefit in old age. An individual retirement account is a type of individual retirement arrangement as described in IRS Publication 590, Individual Retirement Arrangements (IRAs). Other arrangements include employer-established benefit trusts and individual retirement annuities, by which a taxpayer purchases an annuity contract or an endowment contract from a life insurance company. Types There are several types of IRAs: Traditional IRA – Contributions are often tax-deductible (often simplified as "money is deposited before tax" or "contributions are made with pre-tax assets"), all transactions and earnings within the IRA have no tax impact, and withdrawals at retirement are taxed as income (except for those portions of the withdrawal corresponding to contributions that were not deducted). Depending upon the nature of the contribution, a traditional IRA may be a "deductible IRA" or a "non-deductible IRA". Traditional IRAs were introduced with the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA) and made popular with the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981. Roth IRA – Contributions are non-deductible and transactions within the IRA have no tax impact. The contributions may be withdrawn at any time without penalty, and earnings may be withdrawn tax-free in retirement. Named for Senator William V. Roth Jr., the Roth IRA was introduced as part of the Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997. myRA – a 2014 Obama administration initiative based on the Roth IRA, which can invest only in government bonds; phased out in 2017. SEP IRA – a provision that allows an employer (typically a small business or self-employed individual) to make retirement plan contributions into a Traditional IRA established in the employee's name, instead of to a pension fund in the company's name. SIMPLE IRA – a Savings Incentive Match Plan for Employees that requires employer matching contributions to the plan whenever an employee makes a contribution. The plan is similar to a 401(k) plan, but with lower contribution limits and simpler (and thus less costly) administration. Although it is termed an IRA, it is treated separately. Conduit IRA – a traditional IRA funded exclusively with a transfer from a qualified plan, such as a 401(k) plan. Conduit IRAs have fallen in use due to 2001 legislation that allowed for direct transfers between qualified plans without an intermediate IRA, but plan administrators may choose to accept transfers only from conduit IRAs. Transferring funds from a qualified plan to a conduit IRA preserves certain tax and asset protection advantages that apply to the qualified plan. A self-directed IRA is considered the same by the tax code, but refers to IRAs where the custodian allows the investor wider flexibility in choosing investments, typically including alternative investments. Some examples of these alternative investments are: real estate, private mortgages, private company stock, oil and gas limited partnerships, precious metals, horses, and intellectual property. While the Internal Revenue Code (IRC) has placed a few restrictions on what can be invested in, the IRA custodian may impose additional restrictions on what assets they will custody. Self-directed IRA custodians, or IRA custodians who specialize in alternative investments, are better equipped to handle transactions involving alternative investments. Some IRA custodians and some investment funds specialize in socially responsible investing, sometimes using public environmental, social and corporate governance ratings. Starting with the Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001 (EGTRRA), many of the restrictions of what type of funds could be rolled into an IRA and what type of plans IRA funds could be rolled into were significantly relaxed. Additional legislation since 2001 has further relaxed restrictions. Essentially, most retirement plans can be rolled into an IRA after meeting certain criteria, and most retirement plans can accept funds from an IRA. An example of an exception is a non-governmental 457 plan which cannot be rolled into anything but another non-governmental 457 plan. The tax treatment of the above types of IRAs (except for Roth IRAs) are very similar, particularly for rules regarding distributions. SEP IRAs and SIMPLE IRAs also have additional rules similar to those for qualified plans governing how contributions can and must be made and what employees are qualified to participate. Custodians Custodians can include: Banks Mutual fund companies, sometimes for the purpose of offering their own mutual funds Brokerage firms, either independent or "captive" (affiliated with a specific mutual fund or insurance company) Life insurance companies Funding Individual retirement arrangements were introduced in 1974 with the enactment of the Employee Retirement Income Security Act (ERISA). Taxpayers could contribute up to fifteen percent of their annual income or $1,500, whichever is less, each year and reduce their taxable income by the amount of their contributions. The contributions could be invested in a special United States bond paying six percent interest, annuities that begin paying upon reaching age 59, or a trust maintained by a bank or an insurance company. Initially, ERISA restricted IRAs to workers who were not covered by a qualified employment-based retirement plan. In 1981, the Economic Recovery Tax Act (ERTA) allowed all working taxpayers under the age of 70 to contribute to an IRA, regardless of their coverage under a qualified plan. It also raised the maximum annual contribution to $2,000 and allowed participants to contribute $250 on behalf of a nonworking spouse. The Tax Reform Act of 1986 phased out the deduction for IRA contributions among workers covered by an employment-based retirement plan who earned more than $35,000 if single or over $50,000 if married filing jointly. Other taxpayers could still make nondeductible contributions to an IRA. The maximum amount allowed as an IRA contribution was $1,500 from 1975 to 1981, $2,000 from 1982 to 2001, $3,000 from 2002 to 2004, $4,000 from 2005 to 2007, $5,000 from 2008 to 2012, $5,500 from 2013 to 2018, and $6,000 from 2019 to 2022. Starting in 2023, the maximum amount allowed is $6,500. Beginning in 2002, those over 50 years old could make an additional contribution of up to $1,000 called a "catch-up contribution". Current limitations: The IRS allows an investor to revoke a new IRA, without penalty, for seven calendar days after opening it. An IRA can be funded only with cash or cash equivalents. Attempting to transfer any other type of asset into the IRA is a prohibited transaction and disqualifies the fund from its beneficial tax treatment. Additionally, an IRA (or any other tax-advantaged retirement plan) can be funded only with what the IRS calls "taxable compensation". This in turn means that certain types of income cannot be used to contribute to an IRA; these include but are not limited to: Any unearned taxable income. Any tax-exempt income, apart from military combat pay. Social Security payments, whether retirement pensions or disability payments, may or may not be taxable, but in either case are not eligible. Child support payments received. (On the other hand, alimony and separate maintenance payments, if taxable, are eligible.) Rollovers, transfers, and conversions between IRAs and other retirement arrangements can include any asset. The total contributions a person can make to all of their traditional and Roth IRAs cannot be more than the lesser amount of either their earned income for the year or $6,000 ($7,000 if the contributor is age 50 or older). The latter figure is examined annually to determine if an inflationary adjustment is needed and has been in effect from 2019 to 2021. This limit applies to the total annual contributions to both Roth IRAs and traditional IRAs. For example, a person aged 45, who put $4,000 into a traditional IRA this year so far, can either put $2,000 more into this traditional IRA, or $2,000 in a Roth IRA, or some combination of those. The amount of the traditional IRA contributions that can be deducted is partially reduced for levels of income beyond a threshold, and eliminated beyond another threshold, if the contributor or the contributor's spouse is covered by an employer-based retirement plan. The dollar amounts of the thresholds vary depending on tax filing status (single, married, etc.) and on which spouse is covered at work (see IRS Publication 590-A, "Contributions to Individual Retirement Arrangements (IRAs)"). Restricted investments Once money is inside an IRA, the IRA owner can direct the custodian to use the cash to purchase most types of publicly traded securities (traditional investments), and non-publicly traded securities (alternative investments). Specific assets such as collectibles (e.g., art, baseball cards, and rare coins) and life insurance cannot be held in an IRA. The U.S. Internal Revenue Code (IRC) only outlines what is not allowed in an IRA. Some assets are allowed according to the IRC, but the custodians may add additional restrictions for accounts held in their custody. For example, the IRC allows an IRA to own a piece of rental property, but certain custodians may not allow this to be held in their custody. While there are only a few restrictions on what can be invested inside an IRA, some restrictions pertain to actions which would create a prohibited transaction with those investments. For example, an IRA can own a piece of rental real estate, but the IRA owner cannot receive or provide any immediate benefit from/to this real estate investment. An example of such benefit would be the use of the real estate as the owner's personal residence, allowing a parent to live in the property, or allowing the IRA account owner to fix a leaky toilet. The IRS specifically states that custodians may impose their own policies above the rules imposed by the IRS. Neither custodians nor administrators can provide advice. Many IRA custodians limit available investments to traditional brokerage accounts such as stocks, bonds, and mutual funds. Investments in an asset class such as real estate would only be permitted in an IRA if the real estate is held indirectly via a security such as a publicly traded or non-traded real estate investment trust (REIT). Self-directed IRA custodians/administrators can allow real estate and other non-traditional assets held in forms other than a REIT, such as a piece of rental property, raw land, or fishing rights. Publicly traded securities such as options, futures or other derivatives are allowed in IRAs, but certain custodians or brokers may restrict their use. For example, some options brokers allow their IRA accounts to hold stock options, but others do not. Using certain derivatives or investments that involve leverage may be allowed by the IRC, it may also cause the IRA to pay taxes under the rules of Unrelated Business Income Tax (UBIT). Self-directed IRAs which hold alternative investments such as real estate, horses, or intellectual property, can involve more complexity than IRAs which only hold stocks or mutual funds. An IRA may borrow or loan money but any such loan must not be personally guaranteed by the owner of the IRA. Any loan on assets in the IRA would be required to be a non-recourse loan. The loan could not be personally secured by the IRA account owner, or the IRA itself. It can only be secured by the asset in question. The owner of the IRA may not pledge the IRA as security against an outside debt. Distribution of funds Although funds can be distributed from an IRA at any time, there are limited circumstances when money can be distributed or withdrawn from the account without penalties. Unless an exception applies, money can typically be withdrawn penalty-free as taxable income from an IRA once the owner reaches age 59 years and 6 months. Also, non-Roth owners must begin taking distributions of at least the calculated minimum amounts by April 1 of the year after reaching age 72. If the required minimum distribution (RMD) is not taken the penalty is 50% of the amount that should have been taken. The amount that must be taken is calculated based on a factor taken from the appropriate IRS table and is based on the life expectancy of the owner and possibly his or her spouse as beneficiary if applicable. Withdrawals are taxable unless paid to a charity after age 72; this cutoff has changed over time. Payments to charities are called Qualified Charitable Distributions (QCD). At the death of the owner, distributions must continue and if there is a designated beneficiary, distributions can be based on the life expectancy of the beneficiary. There are several exceptions to the rule that penalties apply to distributions before age 59. Each exception has detailed rules that must be followed to be exempt from penalties. This group of penalty exemptions are popularly known as hardship withdrawals. The exceptions include: The portion of unreimbursed medical expenses that are more than 7.5% of adjusted gross income Distributions that are not more than the cost of medical insurance while unemployed Disability (defined as not being able to engage in any substantial gainful activity) Amounts distributed to beneficiaries of a deceased IRA owner Distributions in the form of an annuity (see substantially equal periodic payments) Distributions that are not more than the qualified higher education expenses of the owner or their children or grandchildren Distributions to buy, build, or rebuild a first home ($10,000 lifetime maximum) Distribution due to an IRS levy of the plan There are a number of other important details that govern different situations. For Roth IRAs with only contributed funds the basis can be withdrawn before age 59 without penalty (or tax) on a first in first out basis, and a penalty would apply only on any growth (the taxable amount) that was taken out before 59 where an exception didn't apply. Amounts converted from a traditional to a Roth IRA must stay in the account for a minimum of 5 years to avoid having a penalty on withdrawal of basis unless one of the above exceptions applies. If the contribution to the IRA was nondeductible or the IRA owner chose not to claim a deduction for the contribution, distributions of those nondeductible amounts are tax and penalty free. Bankruptcy status In the case of Rousey v. Jacoway, the United States Supreme Court ruled unanimously on April 4, 2005, that under section 522(d)(10)(E) of the United States Bankruptcy Code (), a debtor in bankruptcy can exempt his or her IRA, up to the amount necessary for retirement, from the bankruptcy estate. The Court indicated that because rights to withdrawals are based on age, IRAs should receive the same protection as other retirement plans. Thirty-four states already had laws effectively allowing an individual to exempt an IRA in bankruptcy, but the Supreme Court decision allows federal protection for IRAs. The Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act of 2005 expanded the protection for IRAs. Certain IRAs (rollovers from SEP or Simple IRAs, Roth IRAs, individual IRAs) are exempt up to at least $1,000,000 (adjusted periodically for inflation) without having to show necessity for retirement. The law provides that "such amount may be increased if the interests of justice so require." Other IRAs (rollovers from most employer sponsored retirement plans (401(k)s, etc.) and non-rollover SEP and SIMPLE IRAs) are entirely exempt. The 2005 BAPCPA also increased the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation insurance limit for IRA deposits at banks. The United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit has ruled that if an IRA engages in a "prohibited transaction" under Internal Revenue Code sections 408(e)(2) and 4975(c)(1), the assets in the IRA will no longer qualify for bankruptcy protection. With respect to inherited IRAs, the United States Supreme Court ruled, in the case of Clark v. Rameker in June 2014, that funds in an inherited IRA do not qualify as "retirement funds" within the meaning of the federal bankruptcy exemption statute, 11 U.S.C. section 522(b)(3)(C). Protection from creditors There are several options of protecting an IRA: (1) roll it over into a qualified plan like a 401(k), (2) take a distribution, pay the tax and protect the proceeds along with the other liquid assets, or (3) rely on the state law exemption for IRAs. For example, the California exemption statute provides that IRAs and self-employed plans' assets "are exempt only to the extent necessary to provide for the support of the judgment debtor when the judgment debtor retires and for the support of the spouse and dependents of the judgment debtor, taking into account all resources that are likely to be available for the support of the judgment debtor when the judgment debtor retires". What is reasonably necessary is determined on a case-by-case basis, and the courts will take into account other funds and income streams available to the beneficiary of the plan. Debtors who are skilled, well-educated, and have time left until retirement are usually afforded little protection under the California statute as the courts presume that such debtors will be able to provide for retirement. Many states have laws that prohibit judgments from lawsuits to be satisfied by seizure of IRA assets. For example, IRAs are protected up to $500,000 in Nevada from Writs of Execution. However, this type of protection does not usually exist in the case of divorce, failure to pay taxes, deeds of trust, and fraud. In accordance with the Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act of 2005, IRAs are protected from creditors during bankruptcy up to $1,000,000 (the act requires the IRS to adjust this limit for inflation every three years; the most recent adjustment was $1,362,800 in 2019). An exception is that inherited IRAs do not qualify for an exemption from the bankruptcy estate and thus federal law does not protect them from creditors in bankruptcy. Some state laws, however, may protect inherited IRAs from creditors in bankruptcy. Borrowing An IRA owner may not borrow money from the IRA except for a 60-day period in a calendar year. Any borrowing in excess of 60 days in a calendar year disqualifies the IRA from special tax treatment. An IRA may incur debt or borrow money secured by its assets, but the IRA owner may not guarantee or secure the loan personally. An example of this is a real estate purchase within a self-directed IRA along with a non-recourse mortgage. Income from debt-financed property in an IRA may generate unrelated business taxable income in the IRA. The rules regarding IRA rollovers and transfers allow the IRA owner to perform an "indirect rollover" to another IRA. An indirect rollover can be used to temporarily "borrow" money from the IRA, once in a twelve-month period. The money must be placed in an IRA arrangement within 60 days, or the transaction will be deemed an early withdrawal (subject to the appropriate withdrawal taxes and penalties) and may not be replaced. Double taxation Double taxation still occurs within these tax-sheltered investment arrangements. For example, foreign dividends may be taxed at their point of origin, and the IRS does not recognize this tax as a creditable deduction. There is some controversy over whether this violates tax treaties, such as the Convention Between Canada and the United States of America With Respect to Taxes on Income and on Capital. Inheriting If the IRA owner dies, different rules are applied depending on who inherits the IRA (spouse or other eligible designated beneficiary, other beneficiary, multiple beneficiaries, and so on). In case of spouse inherited IRAs, the owner's spouse has the following options: treat the IRA account as his or her own, which means that he or she can name a beneficiary for the assets, continue to contribute to the IRA and avoid having to take distributions. This avoids paying the extra 10% tax on early distributions from an IRA. rollover the IRA funds into another plan and take distributions as a beneficiary. Distributions will be determined by the required minimum distribution rules based on the surviving spouse's life expectancy. disclaim up to 100% of the IRA assets, which, besides avoiding extra taxable income, enables their children to inherit the IRA assets take all of the IRA assets out in one lump-sum, which can subject the spouse to federal taxes if particular requirements are not met In case of non-spouse inherited IRAs, the beneficiary cannot choose to treat the IRA as his or her own, but the following options are available: take out all of the assets within 10 years of the owners death (10-year rule); withdrawals may be subject to federal taxes. disclaim all or part of the assets in the IRA for up to 9 months after the IRA owner's death. if the beneficiary is older than the IRA owner, he or she can take distributions from the account based on the IRA owner's age. In case of multiple beneficiaries the distribution amounts are based on the oldest beneficiary's age. Alternatively, multiple beneficiaries can split the inherited IRA into separate accounts, in which case the rules will apply separately to each separate account. Statistics Detailed statistics on IRAs have been collected by the Employee Benefit Research Institute, in its EBRI IRA Database (Center for Research on IRAs), and various analyses performed. An overview is given in . Some highlights from the 2008 data follow: The average and median IRA account balance was $54,863 and $15,756, respectively, while the average and median IRA individual balance (all accounts from the same person combined) was $69,498 and $20,046. The average is significantly higher than the median (over three times higher), reflecting significant positive skew – very large balances increase the average. Average and median balances increased with age, reaching a maximum in the 65–69 age group, before leveling off for 70 and over. Rollovers overwhelm contributions – the overwhelming majority of IRA contributions, in dollar terms, were from rollovers, rather than new contributions – over 10 times as much is added to IRAs from rollovers than new contributions. While many rollovers were small (28.5% were less than $5,000, and 53.1% were less than $25,000), a significant number of rollovers were quite large, with 20.2% being more than $100,000. IRAs were divided by type as 33.6% traditional IRAs, 33.4% rollover IRAs (combined with the traditional IRAs, 67 percent), 23.4% Roth IRAs, and 9.6% SEPs and SIMPLEs. Excluding SEPs and SIMPLEs (i.e., concerning traditional, rollover, and Roth IRAs), 15.1% of individuals holding an IRA contributed to one. The percentage was much higher for Roth IRAs: 7.2% of owners of traditional or rollover IRAs (same for contribution purposes) contributed, while 29.5% of owners of Roth IRAs contributed. Contributions are concentrated at the maximum amount – of those contributing to an IRA, approximately 40% contributed the maximum (whether contributing to traditional or Roth), and 46.7% contributed close to the maximum (in the $5,000–$6,000 range). The Government Accountability Office (GAO) issued a report on IRAs in November 2014. This report gives the GAO's estimate on the number of taxpayers with IRAs as well as the estimated account balances. Here are some highlights from the report: For tax year 2011 (the most recent year available), an estimated 43 million taxpayers had individual retirement accounts (IRAs) with a total reported fair market value (FMV) of $5.2 trillion. Few taxpayers had aggregated balances exceeding $5 million as of 2011. Generally, taxpayers with IRA balances greater than $5 million tend to have adjusted gross incomes greater than $200,000, be joint filers, and are age 65 or older. In 2014, the federal government will forgo an estimated $17.45 billion in tax revenue from IRAs, which Congress created to ensure equitable tax treatment for those not covered by employer-sponsored retirement plans. 98.5% of taxpayers have IRA account balances at $1,000,000 or less. 1.2% of tax payers have IRA account balances at $1,000,000 to $2,000,000. 0.2% (or 83,529) taxpayers have IRA account balances of $2,000,000 to $3,000,000 0.1% (or 36,171) taxpayers have IRA account balances of $3,000,000 to $5,000,000 <0.1% (or 7,952) taxpayers have IRA account balances of $5,000,000 to $10,000,000 <0.1% (or 791) taxpayers have IRA account balances of $10,000,000 to $25,000,000 <0.1% (or 314) taxpayers have IRA account balances of $25,000,000 or more Retirement savings While the average (mean) and median IRA individual balance in 2008 were approximately $70,000 and $20,000 respectively, higher balances are not rare. 6.3% of individuals had total balances of $250,000 or more (about 12.5 times the median), and in rare cases, individuals own IRAs with very substantial balances, in some cases $100 million or above (about 5,000 times the median individual balance). This can occur when IRA owners invest in shares of private companies, and the share value subsequently rises substantially. In November 2014, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) released a report that stated there were an estimated 314 taxpayers with IRA account balances of greater than $25,000,000. Also that there are an estimate of 791 taxpayers with IRA account balances between $10,000,000 and $25,000,000. The purpose of this report was to study individual retirement accounts (IRAs) and the account valuations. There were concerns raised about whether the tax incentives encourage new or additional saving. Congress is reexamining retirement tax incentives as part of tax reform. GAO was asked to measure IRA balances and assess IRS enforcement of IRA laws. The Joint Committee on Taxation reported that as of the end of 2019, there were 28,615 taxpayers with traditional and Roth IRA assets in excess of $5 million and an aggregate value totaling almost $280 billion. An investigative report in 2021 highlighted Peter Thiel, who built a Roth IRA worth $5 billion by investing in startups on terms unavailable to most taxpayers. The owners of such high-value IRAs constituted less than one tenth of a percent of the more than 65 million IRA owners at the end of 2018, and policy proposals have been advanced to limit such accumulation. According to a 2015 study done by the National Institute on Retirement Security, titled "The Continuing Retirement Savings Crisis", 45% of working Americans do not own any retirement account assets, whether in an employer-based 401(k) type plan or an IRA. Furthermore, the typical working household has virtually no retirement savings - the median retirement account balance is $2,500 for all working-age households and $14,500 for near-retirement households. In 2020, half of American adults had less than $6,500 in the combination of their IRAs and defined contribution plans, such as 401(k). While inflation-adjusted stock market values generally rose from 1978 to 1997, in March 2013, they were lower than during the period 1998 through 2007. This has caused IRAs to perform substantially more poorly than expected when current retirees were investing the bulk of their savings in them. In 2010, Duncan Black wrote in an opinion column in USA Today that the median household retirement account balance for workers aged 55 to 64 was $120,000, which "will provide only a trivial supplement to Social Security", but a third of households had no retirement savings at all. Similar policies in other countries Registered retirement savings plan (RRSP) and tax-free savings account (TFSA) (Canada) Superannuation in Australia (Australia) – Australia and New Zealand have a reciprocal agreement allowing Australians moving to New Zealand to transfer their Australian superannuation scheme to an approved KiwiSaver funds, and vice versa. KiwiSaver (New Zealand) – Australia and New Zealand have a reciprocal agreement allowing New Zealanders moving to Australia to transfer their KiwiSaver funds to an approved Australian superannuation scheme, and vice versa. Mandatory Provident Fund (Hong Kong) Vanuatu National Provident Fund (Vanuatu) - a compulsory savings scheme for employees who receive a salary of Vt3, 000 or more a month, to help them financially at retirement. Central Provident Fund (Singapore) Employees Provident Fund (Malaysia) Pensions in Chile Individual savings account (ISA) (United Kingdom) Personal Retirement Savings Account (PRSA) (Ireland) Nippon individual savings account (NISA) (Japan) See also Retirement plans in the United States Comparison of 401(k) and IRA accounts MyRA 401(k) Solo 401(k) Roth 401(k) Rollovers as business start-ups Gold IRA Citations References (April 5, 2005) "Court shields IRAs from bankruptcy seizure", The Seattle Times IRS Publication 590 (2005), Individual Retirement Arrangements (IRAs) External links IRA Online Resource Guide – IRS.gov Retirement Plans FAQs regarding IRAs – IRS.gov IRA Publication 590 – IRS.gov Tax-advantaged savings plans in the United States
402072	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AARP	AARP	AARP, formerly the American Association of Retired Persons, is an interest group in the United States focusing on issues affecting those over the age of fifty. The organization, which is headquartered in Washington, D.C., said it had more than 38 million members as of 2018. The magazine and bulletin it sends to its members are the two largest-circulation publications in the United States. AARP was formed in 1958 by Ethel Percy Andrus, a retired educator from California, and Leonard Davis, who later founded Colonial Penn's insurance companies. It is an influential lobbying group in the United States. AARP sells paid memberships, and markets insurance and other services to its members. Overview AARP is a nonpartisan 501(c)(4) nonprofit that advocates for older Americans on a number of federal health and fiscal issues such as Medicare and Social Security. It fights age discrimination in the workforce, lobbies for lower prescription drug prices, and educates seniors about consumer fraud through the AARP Fraud Watch Network. AARP also advocates at the state and local level for better community healthcare services and lower utility rates. It has millions of volunteer activists and offices in every state, along with Washington D.C., Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Through its affiliated organizations such as AARP Foundation, AARP helps seniors with legal assistance, tax preparation, job training and personal finance. Members receive AARP the Magazine and the AARP Bulletin, the top-circulating consumer publications in the country, along with special offers and discounts related to travel, restaurants, prescriptions, and more. A full AARP membership is available to those 50 and older; however, those under the age of 50 can also join. AARP licenses its brand to certain products, including Medicare insurance with UnitedHealthcare. The organization is overseen by a volunteer board of directors. According to its 2018 Consolidated Financial Statement, the largest sources of income were: royalties for the rights to use AARP's intellectual property (name, logo, etc.) paid by commercial providers of products, services and discounts for AARP members $908,960,000; membership dues $301,017,000; advertisements placed in its publications $147,687,000; and total operating revenue $1,648,795,000 History 20th century AARP was founded in 1958 by Ethel Percy Andrus, a retired public school teacher and principal in California. The seeds of what would become AARP were planted a decade earlier when Andrus began advocating for health insurance coverage for retired teachers. Volunteering with the California Retired Teachers Association (CRTA), Andrus sought out former teachers who were struggling on their $40/month state pensions. Her goal was to get them out of poverty and access to affordable health insurance. In 1944, Andrus checked on a former Spanish teacher who was ill and found her living in a chicken coop. Like many other retirees at the time, her pension was not enough to afford adequate housing or healthcare. Before Medicare was enacted in 1965, no national program existed in the United States to provide health insurance to people aged 65 and older. At the same time, many states enforced mandatory retirement, forcing people to leave their jobs and forfeit health coverage. The poverty rate for Americans 65 and older was 35 percent higher than any other age group. Shocked by what she saw, Andrus helped the teacher get the care she needed and began searching for ways to improve the health and financial security of older adults. In 1947, Andrus formed the National Retired Teachers Association (NRTA) to use the collective power of retired teachers to secure affordable group health coverage. She met with 42 private insurance companies who deemed adults over 65 to be "uninsurable" and was rejected each time. The policy that Andrus had in mind was one that covered individuals aged 65 and older, with no exclusions for pre-existing health conditions. Leonard Davis, an insurance broker from New York, offered to work with Andrus to develop a pilot program for New York retired teachers. The experiment was a financial success, and he and Andrus teamed up to establish a national version – the NRTA Health Plan insured by Continental Casualty Co. in 1955. It featured articles that challenged stereotypes of older adults, presenting aging as an opportunity and older people as a valuable resource. In the inaugural issue, Andrus wrote, "Aging is not just a problem; it represents a real and thrilling challenge. It is one thing to recognize that older people represent the nation's greatest single human resource available and it is quite another to do something about it." Membership in the newly formed AARP reached 130,000 in its first year. The NRTA/AARP insurance model was the first in the United States, opening up a new insurance market for older Americans. AARP expanded beyond health insurance and began developing other benefits, programs, and services for its members, each tailored to the needs of people aged 55 and older and filling a gap in the marketplace. For example, she created one of the first modern retirement homes, Grey Gables, in Ojai, California, in 1954, designed to keep older residents healthy, active, and socially engaged. Word about the NRTA Health Plan spread, and thousands of retired non-educators who also faced challenges finding health coverage contacted the NRTA about joining. In 1958, Andrus created the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP) as a sister organization to NRTA. Through membership in AARP, the general population age 55 and older gained access to the insurance benefits previously limited to former teachers. In 1958, AARP began publishing its magazine called Modern Maturity to spread the word about the association, keep members informed of its activities, and publicize issues affecting older adults. National concern about pharmaceutical industry practices at this time prompted U.S. Senator Estes Kefauver (D-Tenn), who chaired the Senate Judiciary Antitrust and Monopoly Subcommittee, to lead a congressional investigation into prescription drug prices, which lasted from 1959 to 1962. Andrus testified four times during the investigation, and NRTA/AARP legislative director Ernest Gidding testified once. In 1958, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed legislation creating the first White House Conference on Aging. He named Andrus to the National Advisory Committee for the first conference, held in 1961. More than 2,500 delegates met in Washington, D.C. over four days to address challenges facing older adults such as poverty, housing, and healthcare, and develop policy recommendations for the administration. White House conferences on aging have been held every decade since the first and are credited with making contributions to U.S. aging policy, including laying the groundwork for Medicare. At the first conference, AARP spotlighted a potential solution to the growing issue of older adults with mobility problems living independently. It constructed the House of Freedom in downtown Washington, D.C., the nation's first universal design home easily accessible by older adults and people with disabilities. It was built by AARP and the Douglas Fir Plywood Association and signaled the beginning of AARP's work to help older Americans remain independent in their own homes and neighborhoods for as long as they wanted. By 1962, the combined membership of AARP and NRTA had grown to 400,000, making it one of the largest membership organizations in the United States. In 1963, Leonard Davis bought out Continental Casualty's AARP/NRTA insurance policies and formed Colonial Penn, his own company, which became the sole provider of insurance to AARP/NRTA. In 1964, AARP/NRTA had a large pavilion at the New York World's Fair. In 1965, backed by AARP advocacy on Capitol Hill and the support of its members around the country, President Johnson signed both the Older Americans Act and the amendments to Social Security that created Medicare. AARP staff testified before congressional committees. The final congressional vote on the package of amendments was one vote shy of unanimous: 395 to 1 in the House and was unanimous in the Senate. AARP also advocated for The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 and the Age Discrimination Act of 1975. In 1968, AARP launched Tax-Aide, which matched low and moderate-income people with trained volunteers who provided free tax preparation and filing services. As AARP grew, it expanded the range of benefits offered to its members. It established a travel service that took members on modestly priced domestic and international trips, created a retired senior volunteer program, and offered a range of discounts. Increasingly, AARP's members were asking the organization to take on age discrimination in the marketplace. Hundreds of members wrote to AARP in the early years, explaining that auto insurers and rental companies were charging punishing rates for older drivers, classifying them as high risk and reckless just because of their age. AARP challenged the insurers and rental companies with research that demonstrated drivers over the age of 65 were among the safest. In 1979, the organization began offering a driver safety course for any licensed driver, taught by volunteers. In 2016, the AARP Driver Safety Program taught 360,000 older drivers in classrooms and another 130,000 through its online course. Some who take the training receive discounts on their insurance premiums. In 1984, AARP licensed its brand name to affordable auto insurance that members could purchase and could not be canceled solely because of age. In 1973, AARP created a charitable affiliate, the AARP Andrus Foundation, to award research grants in gerontology. Andrus continued to run AARP until 1967, when she died of a heart attack at age 82. Today, the NRTA is a division within AARP. She wrote her final column for Modern Maturity four days before she passed away. In 1975, AARP had over 7 million members, making it one of the largest membership organizations in the country. In 1977, it enrolled its ten millionth member. By the end of the 1980s, membership nearly tripled to 33 million and AARP mailings were so large that the organization had its own zip code. It had tens of thousands of volunteers, the highest circulation magazine in the nation, and rising national awareness. In 1997, it topped Fortune's first annual list of the most powerful lobbying organizations. In 1984, AARP reduced its membership age from 55 to 50. It began sending “birthday” cards and membership invitations to Americans who were approaching their 50th birthday. During this phase of rapid growth for AARP, competing insurance providers entered the marketplace, selling plans tailored to retired Americans. With more competition, the quality of Colonial Penn's offerings and the nature of AARP's relationship with Colonial Penn came into question. In 1982, NRTA formally merged with AARP. In 1988, it formed a career planning workshop for older Americans who were unemployed and introduced a series of AARP mutual funds in 1997. By the mid-1990s, telemarketing fraud had become pervasive and cost consumers more than $40 billion a year. A 1995 AARP survey found that more than half of all victims were aged 50 or older, a group that comprised less than one-third of the U.S. population. In 1995, working with the National Association of Attorneys General and the FBI, AARP helped expose a series of boiler room operations targeting thousands of potential phone fraud victims across the country. Acting as victims, AARP members volunteered to collect evidence for the Federal Bureau of Investigation's Operation Senior Sentinel targeting illegal telemarketers. In 1996, 78 million baby boomers began turning 50, contributing to AARP's growth. In 1999, the organization changed its name from American Association of Retired Persons to AARP, dropping the word “retirement.” At the time, a third of AARP's members were still in the workforce. AARP no longer requires that members be retired, and there are no longer any age restrictions even for full membership. 21st century Recognizing the changing circumstances of its membership, AARP began offering more work-related tools and resources and ramped up its advocacy against age discrimination in the workplace. In 2017, the organization created an online jobs board to connect job seekers over 50 with employers. AARP also created an employer pledge program, where more than 1,000 employers—including Google and CVS—promised to adhere to a set of age-friendly hiring and employment practices. Beginning in 2009, AARP backed the “Protecting Older Workers Against Discrimination Act” (POWADA), which aims to restore fairness for workers aged 40 and over by treating age discrimination as seriously as other forms of workplace discrimination. As of 2020, POWADA has been passed by the House of Representatives and is with the Senate. In 2018, AARP Foundation lawyers represented two Ohio State employees who were forced out of their jobs because of their age. This action resulted in a settlement which helped the employees regain their positions, receive back pay, and required the university to hold training sessions with its staff on preventing age bias. AARP has advocated for the federal Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) since its passage in 1967, which protects workers at or over the age of 40 from bias in the workplace. Economic security Facing growing pension obligations and high annual health cost increases, American businesses in the 2000s began scaling back their retirement and health benefits to employees. While 35 percent of private-sector workers had a defined benefit pension in the 1990s, only 18 percent did in 2013. Beginning in 2004, AARP opposed attempts to undermine the guaranteed nature of the Social Security program through privatization or diverting Social Security payroll taxes to private accounts. AARP's research indicates that nearly half (57 million) of American workers have no access to a retirement savings plan through their employers. Through its state offices, the organization began advocating individual states to enact work and save programs, which made it easier for businesses to create a private retirement savings account for employees. As of 2020, eighteen states had signed Work and Save programs into law. Health care Continuing a theme that began at its founding, AARP during this period used its lobbying efforts to advocate against reductions in Medicare benefits and to protect the federal program that offered health coverage to older Americans. In 2003, AARP supported legislation proposed by Republican President George W. Bush that included partial coverage for prescription drugs for Medicare beneficiaries, among other things. Democratic congressional leaders, seeking a more generous benefit, strongly opposed the bill and prompted thousands of AARP members to quit in protest. Six years later, in 2009, AARP endorsed the Affordable Care Act (ACA) proposed by Democratic President Barack Obama, which protected those with pre-existing health conditions, limited the amount that insurance companies could charge because of age, provided tax credits, and improved drug coverage in Medicare. At that time, more than 50 million Americans were without health insurance coverage at some point during the year. The ACA, which passed a year later, was opposed by Republicans and AARP's support prompted thousands of members to leave the organization. In 2019, with the price of prescription drugs far outpacing inflation, AARP began lobbying for legislative and industry changes that would lower the price of prescription medications. AARP supported a bipartisan bill by Sens. Charles Grassley (R-IA) and Ron Wyden (D-OR) that set caps on drug costs for Medicare beneficiaries and increased pressure on drug companies to lower prices. That year, AARP also supported the Trump administration's goal of allowing Americans to import lower-cost drugs from other countries and in 2021, the organization backed a House Democratic bill that, among other things, would allow Medicare to use its bargaining power to negotiate lower drug prices with manufacturers. AARP backed legislation proposed by President Biden and passed by Congress in 2022 that would enable Medicare to negotiate with drug companies for lower prices, set caps on out-of-pocket drug spending by those on Medicare and capped the price for insulin at $35. Brain health In 2016, the organization created Staying Sharp, a program which allowed people to evaluate their brain health through a scientifically based assessment and receive tips for slowing cognitive decline. In 2018, AARP invested $60 million in the Dementia Discovery Fund, which supports research into diagnosis, treatments, and cures for dementia. Advocacy Health care AARP has been active in healthcare policy debates since the 1960s. Its focus areas have included Medicare, affordable health insurance, and lower prescription drug costs and its recent engagement is a reflection of this long-standing involvement. Medicare AARP testified before Congress in support of the Older Americans Act and the amendments to Social Security that created the Medicare Program, which President Johnson enacted into law in 1965. AARP's public stances influenced the United States Congress' passage of the Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act, which created Medicare Part D, in 2003, and also influenced Congress by resisting changes to Social Security in 2005. President George W. Bush called the Medicare legislation “the greatest advance in health care coverage for America's seniors since the founding of Medicare.” In 2007, AARP launched the “Divided We Fail” campaign with the Business Roundtable, the National Federation of Independent Business and the Service Employees International Union. The campaign urged presidential candidates in both major parties to commit to making health insurance coverage more affordable and to strengthen Social Security. Lower prescription drug costs As early as 1959, AARP began advocating for lower prescription drug costs to ease the burden on older consumers. Founder Ethel Percy Andrus testified during the 1962 Senate hearings on pharmaceutical industry pricing practices. “Our concern is relief from suffering and improvement of health. We feel that 15 to 20 percent profit earned by several large manufacturers is detrimental to this concern,” Andrus told the committee in 1962. AARP regularly publishes Rx Price Watch Reports noting pricing trends in popular drugs for seniors. From 2018 to 2019, AARP helped pass more than 35 laws aimed at lowering drug prices at the local level. In early 2017, AARP strongly opposed the American Health Care Act of 2017, saying that older Americans would be unfairly burdened with higher premiums and smaller tax credits. In 2019, AARP mounted a multi-million dollar campaign against the pharmaceutical industry and its high drug prices called “Stop Rx Greed” and supported a bipartisan bill by Sens. Charles Grassley (R-IA), and Ron Wyden (D-OR) that set caps on drug costs for Medicare beneficiaries and increased pressure on drug companies to lower prices. In 2021, AARP launched the “Fair Rx Prices Now!” Campaign to support legislation that would enable the Medicare Program to negotiate prices with drug companies as a means of lowering prices for consumers, limit price increases for certain drugs and cap out-of-pocket spending by Medicare beneficiaries. AARP pushed Congress to include drug pricing reform in the proposed Inflation Reduction Act of 2022, ran ads countering drug industry claims and mobilized its members to lobby their representatives to pass the bill. The Act was signed into law in August 2022. The Inflation Reduction Act requires HHS, for the first time, to negotiate prices with drug makers for many of the most expensive drugs covered under Medicare. It also penalizes drug companies that raise prices more than the rate of inflation and sets a cap of $2,000 on annual out-of-pocket drug spending for Medicare's more than 63 million beneficiaries beginning in 2025. These provisions in the act could be life-changing for older Americans who rely on high-priced prescription drugs, saving some thousands of dollars a year. In a 2014 study conducted by AARP, 93% of people identified maintaining brain health as a high priority as they age. AARP created a brain health assessment and program called Staying Sharp and it formed the Global Council on Brain Health – an independent, international group of brain health experts and researchers that publishes findings such as the impact of music on brain health. In 2018, AARP donated $60 million to the Dementia Discovery Fund for research into the causes and treatments of Alzheimer's Disease. In 2022, AARP held “The World’s Most Expensive Tailgate” to highlight problems with rising drug prices. The organization shared what popular tailgate items would cost if their prices had increased at the same rate as drug prices over the last 15 years. Health insurance By 2009, more than 50 million Americans were without health insurance coverage at some point during the year. AARP backed the Affordable Care Act (ACA) proposed by President Obama and passed by Congress in 2010. The law created a private insurance marketplace with consumer protections and tax credits to offset the costs of premiums. The ACA prevented insurance companies from denying coverage because of pre-existing health conditions, limited what people 50–64 years old (and not yet eligible for Medicare) could be charged over younger people, expanded Medicaid for low-income adults and allowed people up to 26 to stay on their parents’ health insurance. A decade later, the Kaiser Family Foundation analyzed the impact of the law and found: 10.7 million people had gotten health coverage under ACA, with 90 percent of them getting government subsidies; 12 million adults gained coverage through Medicaid and 2.3 million people 26 and under had coverage through their parents’ policies. Approximately seven million people have AARP-branded health insurance, including drug coverage and Medigap, as of April 2007 and the association earns more income from selling insurance to members its businesses through licensing arrangements than from membership dues. While AARP is not an insurer, it allows its name to be used by insurance companies in the sale of products, for which it is paid a commission. At times, congressional members have accused AARP of having a conflict of interest in taking sides over health insurance debates. AARP licenses its brand to United Healthcare which sells Medigap policies. As of October 2009, health care reform contained a proposal to trim an associated program Medicare Advantage, which was expected to increase demand for Medigap policies. Single-payer Single-payer is an approach favored by liberal policymakers that would create a single, government-managed healthcare system, much as exists in Medicare today. Single-payer is often called Medicare for All. Single-payer advocates have criticized AARP for not supporting the single-payer or public option during the health care debate. Single-payer advocates supported H.R. 676, proposed by Rep. John Conyers (D-MI). AARP released a statement explaining to its members why the organization was not supporting H.R. 676: Starting over with a new, "single-payer" program will not eliminate the problems Medicare, Medicaid, and SCHIP currently face, such as the spiraling costs of procedures and prescription medications, as well as technological advances that are often not comprehensively tested to be proven safe or effective before marketing. H.R. 676 does not address the problem of increasing healthcare costs. Rather, it allows costs to continue to grow, which will result in unaffordable coverage. John Rother, AARP's former chief lobbyist, said the single-payer model would "disrupt the system that is currently in place" and "require a very significant tax increase". But Rother admitted that it would be possible to design a system that would avoid these problems. Since AARP's priorities now are to protect the current programs and implement the Affordable Care Act, Rother said that any effort to promote single-payer would be undercutting health reform. Rother said: "To go to a single-payer, you do have to trust government. The climate we're in right now is a very hostile climate for something like that." AARP spokesman Drew Nannis responded that AARP loses about 300,000 members a month on average, and the controversial 60,000 of those that had left had specified leaving over the health care debate. Nannis also stated that the AARP gained 400,000 members and that 1.5 million members renewed their memberships within the same period of time. Social Security AARP has long been an advocate for preserving Social Security as a safety net for older Americans. Since March 2012, AARP's "You've Earned a Say" campaign has sought to foster nonpartisan conversations about how to strengthen Social Security and Medicare. The Richmond (VA) Times-Dispatch reported: "AARP took the debate about Medicare and Social Security from what it called behind closed doors in Washington to a series of town hall meetings around the country to make sure retirees have a voice in the discussion." In 2023, AARP started campaigning for the Social Security Administration (SSA) to receive a $1.4 billion increase in funding to improve its "woeful" customer service. The AARP also called for the SSA to "step up non-monetary measures to improve customer service and quality," stating that all issues won't be resolved with more funding alone. In the summer of 2023, AARP held a series of nationwide forums to help educate people about social security, and debunk social security myths. The forum in Richmond was held alongside The National Committee to Preserve Social Security and Medicare (NCPSSM). Age discrimination AARP advocated for the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 and the Age Discrimination Act of 1975. A 2020 joint project with The Economist Intelligence Unit reported that age discrimination cost the U.S. $850 billion in lost gross domestic product in 2018. In 2020, AARP supported the passage of the Protecting Older Workers Against Discrimination Act (POWADA), which aimed to restore protections under the Age Discrimination Employment Act that were adversely affected by a 2009 Supreme Court decision. In 2018, AARP worked to change how older people are portrayed in media and advertising to cut down on age discrimination. The organization spoke against stock photos that portray people that are 50+ as confused or incapable, and pressed advertising agencies and their clients to update their portrayals of ageing. AARP worked with Getty Images to introduce 1,400 images of older people running businesses, playing sports, and spending time with younger generations. The photos were part of the Disrupt Aging Collection. In 2018 the organization also spoke out against employers who use age-specific targeting features on online platforms and thereby deny all age groups the ability to see the job opportunities. The AARP Employer Pledge program is for employers who publicly pledge to work to end ageism. To join the program, employers must not have any discrimination lawsuits within the past five years, and must agree to recruit across diverse age groups and consider all applications equally. In 2022, there were over 1,000 signees, including Humana, Microsoft, Marriott International, and McDonald's. Consumer fraud protection In 2017 the AARP and the U.S. Postal Inspection Service launched Operation Protect Veterans. This national campaign uses local outreach, ads, emails, social media, a website and phone calls to warn the military about scams. The AARP Fraud Watch Network holds “reverse boiler rooms” to help warn people about consumer scams and teach them how to protect themselves. During these events, AARP volunteers call local residents to make them aware of fraud risks. Similar AARP events include Tip-Offs to Rip-Offs and the Scam Jam. Local advocacy AARP also advocates on the state and local levels through its offices around the country. In New York, AARP helped achieve the following reforms: Care Act, Assisted Living protections, Anti Predatory Lending, Paid Family Leave, and Affordable Housing. In 2022, AARP and others brought a class action lawsuit against Alden Group, a healthcare provider based in Illinois. AARP said that Alden's nursing facilities were intentionally understaffed, which led to neglect and unfair business practices. AARP also advocates locally against high-rising utility rates, for example, in Oklahoma, Colorado, Illinois, Georgia, Wisconsin, New Hampshire, and Florida. Programs and offerings AARP also provides non-advocacy support for people older than 50. Some of that work is included here. Community Center AARP's Virtual Community Center provides digital literacy courses, exercise classes, caregiving classes, and university lectures. Awards AARP's Purpose Prize is awarded to people 50 and older who are making a social impact. The award was started in 2005 by CoGenerate and transferred to AARP in 2016. Affiliates AARP has several affiliated organizations, including: AARP Foundation, a 501(c)(3) non-profit charity that helps people over age 50 who are at social and economic risk; it includes: AARP Experience Corps, a 501(c)(3) non-profit charity that encourages people over age 50 to mentor and tutor school children; AARP Institute, a non-profit charity that holds some of AARP's charitable gift annuity funds; AARP Services, Inc., a for-profit corporation that provides quality control and research, Legal Counsel for the Elderly, a 501(c)(3) non-profit charity that provides legal assistance to seniors in Washington, D.C. AARP Financial Services Corporation, a for-profit corporation that holds AARP's real estate; AARP Insurance Plan, an organization that holds some of AARP's group health insurance policies. AARP Services, Inc. and AARP Financial Incorporated AARP Services, Inc., founded in 1999, is a wholly-owned taxable subsidiary of AARP that manages the range of products and services offered as benefits to members. Its offers include Medicare supplemental insurance; member discounts on rental cars, cruises, vacation packages, and lodging; special offers on technology and gifts; pharmacy services; legal services; and long-term care insurance. AARP Services founded AARP Financial Incorporated, a subsidiary that manages AARP-endorsed financial products including AARP Funds. In a filing with the Securities and Exchange Commission in June 2010, AARP Financial announced the discontinuation of AARP Funds. AARP Services develops new products, manages and markets products and services, and creates and maintains partnership and sponsorship relationships. AARP Foundation The AARP Foundation serves those 50 and older by helping them secure their essentials. The AARP Foundation serves both AARP members and nonmembers by helping vulnerable adults gain access to nutritious food, affordable housing, a steady income, and strong social bonds. AARP Driver Safety In 1979, AARP introduced the nation's first driver safety course geared towards older adults. AARP Driver Safety, which can be completed in a classroom setting or online, teaches defensive driving techniques and provides "added information on age-related cognitive and physical changes that affect driving". The course is instructed and promoted by volunteers throughout the U.S. In addition to course fees, the program is supported by a grant from the automobile manufacturer, Toyota. Over a half million drivers completed the course in 2012 and over 15 million people completed the courses since 1979. AARP publications and broadcasts AARP The Magazine, with a circulation of approximately 37 million, and the AARP Bulletin with 30 million as of 2016, are the two largest-circulation publications in the United States. AARP The Magazine (known until 2002 as Modern Maturity), is a lifestyle magazine for people 50+. Established in 1958, the magazine is distributed bi-monthly to AARP members. Other publications include AARP Bulletin and The Journal. In 2018, the digital publication titled Sisters from AARP was launched, aimed at African American women. The organization also produces radio and television programs and has a book division. AARP en Español is AARP's Spanish-language multimedia platform. Offerings include a Spanish-language website, a Spanish-language YouTube channel, and informational resources. Technology and innovation Innovation Labs The AARP Innovation Labs has four focus areas that all work to identify products and services that can help the aging. These are: physical spaces like The Hatchery in D.C. that house developers and engineers, and work with organizations to reach the community and share products and other support services; product development; startup discovery and support; and a final focus on human-centered design thinking so that people are always first. Criticism In 2004, BusinessWeek said questions have arisen in the past about whether AARP's commercial interests may conflict with those of its membership, and characterizes many of the funds and insurance policies that AARP markets as providing considerably less benefit than seniors could get on their own. In a November 2008 editorial, The Des Moines Register and the Canada Free Press called AARP a lobbying group masquerading as a non-profit, meanwhile charging high membership fees and selling expensive private health care plans. Senator Chuck Grassley (R-Iowa), senior Republican on the Senate Finance Committee, said in 2008 that the "limited benefit" insurance plans offered by AARP through UnitedHealth provided inadequate coverage and were marketed deceptively. One plan offered $5,000 for surgery that may cost two or three times that amount. Criticism has been leveled at the salaries that AARP staff earn, and the use of first-class and business-class travel for short trips. According to AARP's 2014 IRS annual return, Chief Executive Officer Addison B. Rand received $1,698,289 of salary and benefits from AARP and its subsidiaries. Board members, officers, and key employees flew first class on flights longer than five hours unless business class was available. The Chief Executive Officer flew first-class on flights longer than 90 minutes. AARP reported that it had spent $8,694,890 on the compensation of its officers, directors, and key employees during 2014. Senate investigation In 1995, Senator Alan K. Simpson launched an investigation into AARP's books, financial interests, and hiring practices. He described AARP as "a vast empire that has figured out how to gimmick the nonprofit laws" describing the organization as "33 million people paying $8 dues, bound together by a common love of airline discounts and automobile discounts and pharmacy discounts," and that members "haven't the slightest idea what the organization is asking for." The investigations did not reveal sufficient evidence to change the organization's status. Class action lawsuits In 2018 and 2019, several class action lawsuits were filed against AARP regarding insurance policies. One lawsuit is over undisclosed licensing revenue that AARP earned from AARP-branded Medigap insurance policies. Another lawsuit claims that AARP acted as an insurance agent or an insurance broker, neither of which AARP is licensed to be, for AARP-branded Medigap insurance policies. In another lawsuit, the plaintiff said that AARP should not have used its status to claim the AARP-branded insurance policies were "best for seniors". All the lawsuits were dismissed. AARP Awards The Inspire Awards "honor 10 people over age 50 each year who continue to make a significant impact". Past recipients include: Maya Angelou, Caroline Kennedy, Jane Goodall, Steve Jobs, Daniel Inouye, Emilio Estefan, Toby Keith, Joy Behar, Henry Winkler, Elizabeth Warren, and Tony Danza. The Movies for Grownups Awards "recognizes achievements of those in the entertainment industry age 50 and over, and the films that speak to that vast audience", as well as supports the overall goals of the AARP. Past recipients include Denzel Washington, Annette Bening, Jeff Bridges, Viola Davis, Morgan Freeman, Michael Douglas, and Lily Tomlin. The Sexiest Stars Awards "honor 50 Sexiest People Over 50" The bimonthly magazine by the American Association of Retired Persons selected celebrities such as Pam Grier, Tina Turner, Quincy Jones, Harry Belafonte, Phylicia Rashad, Kathleen Battle, Lena Horne, Sidney Poitier. See also References Further reading External links AARP Spanish-language website AARP Spanish-language YouTube channel Financial services companies established in 1958 Health care companies established in 1958 1958 establishments in Washington, D.C. 501(c)(4) nonprofit organizations Lobbying organizations in the United States Magazine publishing companies of the United States Organizations established in 1958 Political advocacy groups in the United States Retirement in the United States Seniors' organizations Organizations based in Washington, D.C.
402087	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenepa%20War	Cenepa War	The Cenepa War (26 January – 28 February 1995), also known as the Alto Cenepa War, was a brief and localized military conflict between Ecuador and Peru, fought over control of an area in Peruvian territory (i.e. in the eastern side of the Cordillera del Cóndor, Province of Condorcanqui, Región Amazonas, Republic of Perú) near the border between the two countries. The two nations had signed a border treaty following the Ecuadorian–Peruvian War of 1941, but Ecuador later disagreed with the treaty as it applied to the Cenepa and Paquisha areas, and in 1960 it declared the treaty null and void. Most of the fighting took place around the headwaters of the Cenepa River. Mediation efforts of Argentina, Brazil, Chile and the United States paved the way for the opening of diplomatic conversations that ultimately led to the signing of a definitive peace agreement (the Brasilia Presidential Act) on 26 October 1998. The peace agreement saw some of the territory being leased to Ecuador for a time. It was followed by the formal demarcation of the border on 13 May 1999 and the end of the multinational MOMEP (Military Observer Mission for Ecuador and Peru) troop deployment on 17 June 1999, which effectively put an end to one of the longest territorial disputes in the Western Hemisphere. Official estimates give a death toll of 94. Demining is expected to be completed in 2024. As of 2023, it is the most recent military conflict in the Americas between countries contesting sovereignty over territory. Background The Cenepa War was the most recent military clash between Ecuador and Peru over a long-standing territorial dispute that dated back to the first decades of the 19th century, when both countries came into being after the Wars of Independence of the Spanish colonies in South America. In modern times there were three previous military confrontations: war between 1857 and 1860, a full-scale war in 1941, the Paquisha War in 1981, both of which had seen the Peruvian military forces prevailing over the Ecuadorian military. Overview Most of the fighting of the Cenepa war was centered around the control of several outposts located on the headwaters of the Cenepa River (see map), a highland area covered with dense Amazonian jungle, inside a 78 km-long strip of territory where the process of demarcation between Ecuador and Peru remained stalled since 1951. One of the outposts causing the dispute, called Tiwintza by the Ecuadorians, and Tiwinza by the Peruvians, came to symbolize the war because of the bitter clashes that took place around it, and the emotional importance that both sides attached to its possession. The conflict continued until the signing of a ceasefire and the eventual separation of forces, supervised by the MOMEP, a multinational mission of military observers from the "guarantor" countries of the 1942 Rio Protocol: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and the USA. The Cenepa war produced far-reaching consequences for relations between Ecuador and Peru. Among the effects of the war that paved the way for a definitive settlement of the border issues included the military outcome of the brief conflict; the lack of vindication of the Ecuadorian armed forces after the disappointing results of the wars of 1858, 1941, and 1981; and the Peruvians’ realization of the need for a resolution of a problem. Thus, in the aftermath of the war, both nations, brokered by the "guarantors" of the Rio Protocol, entered into a long and difficult negotiation process that concluded with the signing of a Peace Treaty in 1998, and the closing of the hitherto un-demarcated stretch of common border, deep in the Amazonian rainforest. Disputed border Following the Ecuadorian–Peruvian War of 1941, both countries had signed a Peace Treaty known as the Rio Protocol in 1942. This treaty — brokered by the US, Brazil, Chile, and Argentina, which became known as the "guarantors" of the peace settlement — had the main purpose of defining the hitherto badly defined borders between Ecuador and Peru. The process of demarcation, begun in mid-1942, came to a halt in 1948, when populist Ecuadorian President José María Velasco Ibarra declared the Protocol impossible to implement in the area of the Cordillera del Cóndor, claiming inconsistencies between the instructions of the Protocol and the geographical realities on the ground. Peru contested this view, stating that such discrepancies had already been solved in an arbitration that had taken place in 1945, and that all that had to be done was to close the border following the guidelines of the Protocol and the ruling of the 1945 arbitration. By the beginning of the 1950s, the situation had come to a deadlock. For the next 46 years, a 78 km-long strip of mostly unpopulated, and little explored territory, deep in the Amazonian rainforest and almost inaccessible by land, was left without a specific boundary; this served as a flashpoint for recurrent diplomatic and military crisis between Ecuador and Peru. While Peru held to the view that the border in the area ran along the heights of the Condor range, Ecuador insisted that there was no technical basis for considering that mountain range as the border between the two nations, hinting at the idea that the spirit of the Protocol, which had never mentioned the Cóndor range by name, would require the location of the border markers along the Cenepa river, immediately to the east of the range. The Ecuadorian stance had a symbolic meaning of its own: the Cenepa river was a small tributary of the Marañón river, in turn a tributary of the Amazon river, to which Ecuador had always claimed the right for sovereign access. Events leading up to the war Just as in the Paquisha Incident of 1981, the Cenepa War was caused by the installation by Ecuador, since 1994, of border outposts on the Cenepa River basin in eastern Cordillera del Condor (territory also claimed by Peru), with the names of Cueva de los Tayos, Base Sur and Tiwinza. Tensions along the Condor range had been running high following a crisis that arose in July 1991 over the location of a Peruvian outpost called "Pachacútec" (Pachacútec Incident) inside a zone that, while 60 km north of the delimited and undemarcated area, had its own problems regarding the location of a single border marker (see map). Ecuador had protested over the location of "Pachacútec" since it was, according to Ecuador, inside Ecuadorian territory, and went on to set up an outpost of its own ("Etza") right in front of it. For Peru, there was no question that both "Pachacútec" and "Etza" were inside Peruvian territory. Although the crisis was defused the following month with the signing of a Pacto de Caballeros (gentlemen's agreement), by which both sides committed themselves to abandon these posts and separate their forces, the aftermath of the incident saw both countries accusing each other of violating the accord and reinforcing their military presence in the delimited and undemarcated area. New crisis Still, for the next three years, tensions were kept at manageable levels. Apart from the uneasy encounters between rival patrols, which sometimes included brief exchanges of fire, most commonly every January (anniversary of the signing of the Rio Protocol), no serious incidents happened. Then, at the end of 1994, a new crisis suddenly erupted, this time in the undemarcated border area proper, around the Condor range and the Cenepa headwaters. "Base Sur" and a meeting of colonels Peruvian accounts state that in November 1994, a Peruvian patrol, advancing through the Cenepa headwaters, was intercepted by an Ecuadorian patrol. Being told they had crossed into Ecuadorian territory, the Peruvians were escorted to the Ecuadorian outpost of "Base Sur", where the patrol was given supplies before continuing their journey. Afterwards, realizing Base Sur was actually in Peruvian-claimed territory, the Peruvians asked the Ecuadorians for a meeting of superior officers. The meeting, which the Peruvians date to December 20 and the Ecuadorians to December 12, took place in "Base Sur", between the commanders of the opposing battalions in the area. According to Ecuadorian accounts, during the meeting the Peruvian officer called to the attention of his Ecuadorian counterpart that the presence of Ecuadorian outposts in the headwaters of the Cenepa river constituted a violation of Peruvian territory, and that therefore the posts had to be abandoned and the troops moved back to the line of the Condor range. The Ecuadorian account of the meeting also states that the Peruvian officer went on to deliver an ultimatum: if the Ecuadorians did not abandon the area by the end of the week, the Peruvians would dislodge them by force. After the meeting — if not before it — both Quito and Lima began to send reinforcements to the area, while further meetings between superior officers didn't manage to break the deadlock, apparently unable to reach a compromise solution. In retrospect It could be said that the Cenepa war had the same causes that caused the Peruvian victory in the false Paquisha of 1981, that is, the Peruvian discovery of Ecuadorian outposts on the eastern slopes of the Condor mountain range by expelled Ecuadorian troops from the territory in dispute. And further down in the Cenepa Valley, followed by the decision to evict Ecuadorians from these places by force. The Ecuadorian Army, evidently bent on preventing any repetition of the "Pachacútec" incident, and to forestall any Peruvian attempt to reach to crests of the Condor range, had gone on to establish a "defensive" perimeter on the area of Cenepa valley, with two outposts, "Tiwinza" and "Base Sur", on the Cenepa headwaters (i.e. in the eastern side of the Cordillera del Cóndor, in Peru's land), and a larger outpost, "Coangos", on the high ground overlooking them from the north (see map). In turn, the "guarantors" (Warrantors) military considered offensive both Ecuadorian and Peruvian moves, due to the fact that, lacking official border markers, the Ecuadorian and Peruvian military had long since agreed to consider the line of the Condor range a de facto border, already considered broken by both countries since 1981. Mobilizing for war During the second half of December both sides began to hastily reinforce their military presence in and around the Cenepa valley area, laying down new minefields, preparing supply bases, and intensifying the patrolling activity. By the end of December, profiting from its internal lines of communications, the Ecuadorian Army had strengthened to a considerable degree its presence in the area, having deployed a number of units, foremost among them several Special Forces formations, as well as artillery and BM-21 multiple rocket launchers on the heights of the Cordillera del Cóndor. The entire Ecuadorian perimeter was covered by antiaircraft batteries and, most significantly, several teams carrying Soviet-made SA-16 Igla and British-made Blowpipe man-portable surface-to-air missiles. Meanwhile, the Ecuadorian Air Force (FAE) was frantically getting up to operational status its fleet of subsonic and supersonic jet aircraft, and adapting existing airfields in southeastern Ecuador to function as forward-deployment bases. For the Ecuadorian military, especially the Army and Air Force, the memories of the conflict of 1981 and its embarrassing outcome were still fresh, the lessons learned, and every measure was taken to avoid a similar outcome if and when the threat of war became a reality. For the Peruvian military, the mobilization process was somewhat more problematic. The Cenepa valley area was devoid of any major roads, population centers, or helicopter bases on the Peruvian side. The Peruvian Army and the Peruvian Air Force (FAP), had to organize an air-bridge to get reinforcements to the zone. Troops, heavy weapons, ammunition and supplies had to be flown in first from the Peruvian hinterland and Lima to Bagua AFB, where they were transferred to light transport aircraft for the flight to the Ciro Alegría base. From this base, the final flight to the Peruvian forward bases in the Cenepa valley, mainly Observation Post 1 (PV-1), was made aboard Peru's Mil Mi-8 and Mil Mi-17 helicopter fleet, very often under poor weather conditions, with heavy rain and low cloud cover. Altogether, by the third week of January, both Peru and Ecuador had managed to deploy around 5,000 troops to the immediate vicinity of the delimited and undemarcated area. First encounters With the coming of the new year, crisis loomed in the Cenepa valley. By 8 January the Peruvian Army had deployed four patrols near Base Sur. On the night of 9 January 1995, Ecuadorian troops found and captured four Peruvian soldiers that according to the Ecuadorian accounts were supposedly reconnoitering the approaches to the Ecuadorian outpost of Cueva de los Tayos. Following the customary regulations put in place by both armies for the handling of such instances, the so-called Cartillas de Seguridad y Confianza (Guidelines for Safety and Mutual Confidence), the captured Peruvian personnel were delivered to their own officers without further incident. Always following the Ecuadorian accounts, a subsequent incident took place two days later, on January 11, when another Peruvian patrol was detected near a place called the "Y", a point of tactical importance in the Ecuadorian lines. Shots were fired, apparently causing no casualties on either side. Open war By the third week of January, the Peruvian high command had deployed to the Cenepa area what it considered to be enough troops to clear any and all Ecuadorian troops on the Eastern side of the Cordillera del Cóndor. In retrospect, it is likely that Lima was expecting a repetition of the 1981 incident, unaware of the scale of the Ecuadorian deployment. Thus, as a preliminary to the attack, on 21 January Peruvian helicopters began a series of reconnaissance and troop insertion flights on the rear of the Ecuadorian positions, which continued for the next two days. The next day, 22 January, the Ecuadorians detected around twenty Peruvian troops setting up a heliport to the north and rear of the Ecuadorian forward outposts. The stepping up of the Peruvian air operations, combined with the surprise discovery of a Peruvian base on the rear of the Ecuadorian perimeter, compelled the Ecuadorian high command to take the initiative. That same day, a reinforced Special Forces company was ordered to advance undetected through the dense jungle and dislodge the Peruvians from the site, named by the Ecuadorians' "Base Norte". Significantly, the decision to act was made by the Commander-in-Chief of the Army before informing the President of the Republic, Sixto Durán-Ballén, and his National Security Council. The Ecuadorian high command had by then interpreted the opinion of the Commander in Chief of the Peruvian armed forces, General Nicolás de Bari Hermoza, to respond to calls from his Ecuadorian counterpart as a signal that the Peruvian military, with or without the knowledge of Peruvian President Alberto Fujimori, was preparing a military operation in the Cenepa valley. The next day, the decision to act already taken, the Ecuadorian local commander informed his Peruvian counterpart that, from 24 January onwards, any Peruvian helicopter flying over Ecuadorian positions would be shot down. On the morning of Thursday, 26 January 1995, after three days of march, the Ecuadorian Special Forces detachment arrived undetected at the small Peruvian outpost "Base Norte" and launched a surprise attack on the unsuspecting garrison. A fierce firefight ensued, but the Peruvians were eventually forced to disperse through the jungle, leaving behind a number of dead soldiers, as well as weapons and supplies. The Cenepa War had begun. But it was the Peruvian troops that finally evicted the Ecuadorian troops from their territory after the intense bombardment by land and air of the bases of the Cave of the Tayos, the South Base and the false Tiwinza. Chronology of the War The following days, the events unfolded in quick succession. Below is a complete chronological summary of the war. 24 January: Peru mobilizes troops towards Tiwinza, Ecuador engages in preparing the FAE (Ecuadorian Air Force), Ecuadorian fighter jets. 25 January: Peru militarizes a site in the Condor strip later known as Base Sur, thus provoking reaction by Ecuadorian forces, initiating the war. 26 January: Peruvian conscripts setting up a heliport in Quebrada Fashin, behind the Ecuadorian outposts built in Peru's land since 1994, are attacked by Ecuadorian Special Forces, dislodging the Peruvians from the site; the Ecuadorians name the place Base Norte. Thus begins the shooting war. 27 January: Ecuador and Peru order general mobilization. Armored units are deployed to the Pacific coast border area, ready to act in case of a general war. Altogether, around 140,000 men were mobilized during the war. 28 January: At 7:45, the Peruvians launch the first ground assault against the Ecuadorian positions in the Cenepa headwaters. The attack is renewed at 11:05, this time with helicopters providing suppressive fire. At 09:00 a Peruvian Air Force (FAP) Bell 212 helicopter was damaged in its fuel tank by Ecuadorian fire. At 12:05, Peruvian ground attack aircraft make their first appearance over the valley, but withdraw upon being informed of the presence of FAE interceptors in the area. 29 January: In a pattern that will continue during the next days, Peruvian forces launch multiple and simultaneous attacks all over the area, in an effort to off-balance the Ecuadorian defenses. The Ecuadorians fight back at Tiwinza, Cueva de los Tayos, Base Sur, and Coangos, and shoot down a Soviet-made Mi-8TV helicopter (EP-587) belonging to the Peruvian Army Aviation (AEP) becomes the first confirmed kill for the Ecuadorian MANPADS teams on the ground. At the end of the day, Peru announces having captured three Ecuadorian strongholds as a result of the day's actions, which Ecuador goes on to deny. 31 January: After a 24-hours lull in the fight, the Peruvians resume their attacks against Tiwinza, Coangos, and Cueva de los Tayos. Ecuador and Peru reject an international appeal for an immediate ceasefire. 1 February: The assaults continue, now with strong artillery support. Peruvian A-37B ground attack aircraft appear over the battlefield and bomb Ecuadorian positions. The Ecuadorian base of Cóndor Mirador, on the summit of the Cordillera del Cóndor falls also under attack. A Peruvian patrol approaching Cueva de los Tayos hits a minefield and suffers severe losses. 2 February: During the day, the FAP carries out no less than twelve ground attack sorties, in support of the ground troops assaulting Cueva de los Tayos and Base Sur. FAE interceptors, still flying from bases too far north, near Guayaquil, appear too late to find any targets. 3 February: Ecuadorian Strikemasters and A-37B ground attack aircraft appear for the first time to bomb Peruvian positions. 4 February: Peruvian Tucanos bomb Ecuadorian positions in the valley during a night bombing sortie. 6 February: The FAP begins to make use of its Canberra jet bombers to strike Ecuadorian positions. One Canberra is lost perhaps crashed into a mountain due to the bad weather conditions over the area. 7 February: In a bitter reminder of the dangers that the Cenepa valley pose for low-speed aircraft flying at low-altitudes, a FAP Mi-25 helicopter gunship is downed after being hit in quick succession by at least two (probably three) SA-16s shoulder-fired missiles. FAE A-37Bs, escorted by Kfir fighters, continue to attack Peruvian positions. One A-37B is hit by Peruvian AA fire, but manages to get back to base. 9 February: Heavy air activity. The FAP carries out no less than 16 ground attack sorties, throwing its fleet of Sukhoi Su-22 fighter-bombers into the battle. FAP Canberras carry out a night bombing mission. 10 February: Heavy air activity continues over the battlezone. During the morning, the FAP sends in A-37Bs and Sukhoi Su-22 to strike Ecuadorian positions. The FAE steps in. At 12:42, the Ecuadorian radars pick up five enemy targets approaching for another round of attacks. Two FAE Mirage F.1JAs and two IAI Kfir C.2s are sent to intercept the incoming aircraft. In the ensuing action an A-37B subsonic aircraft is shot down by a Kfir and two Peruvian Sukhoi Su-22s were claimed to be shot down by the Ecuadorian Mirage F1 respectively. Peru, however, denied that the two Sukhoi Su-22s were shot down by Mirages, stating that one was struck by Ecuadorian anti-aircraft artillery during a low-flying ground-attack mission, and the second because of an engine fire. Regarding the two downed Su-22s, the Ecuadorian Air Force never showed the HUD videos of the Ecuadorian fighters shooting down the Su-22s. 11 February: Further Peruvian Special Forces reinforcements arrive at PV-1. As the ground war drags on, air activity over the area increases. Encouraged by the events of the day before, the Ecuadorian A-37Bs launch even bolder ground-attack missions on Peruvian positions. One FAE A-37B is hit by a Peruvian MANPADS. 12 February: Air operations continue. The Peruvians claim the destruction of one A-37B and one Kfir, both of them denied by Ecuador. 13 February: Peruvian forces launch powerful attacks against Coangos and Tiwinza, with heavy air support. One Peruvian Mi-8TV is lost to Ecuadorian fire. In the evening, Peruvian President Alberto Fujimori appears before the cameras to claim the taking of Tiwinza (Tiwinza "I" Cota 1209) and total victory for Peru. However the Ecuadorians denied this claim by "showing the position of Tiwinza" by GPS, but their coordinates were false. 14–16 February: Combat continues all along the area. 17 February: In the presence of the four guarantor countries of the Rio Protocol (the US, Brazil, Chile, Argentina), Ecuadorian Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs, Marcelo Fernández de Córdoba, and Peruvian Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs, Eduardo Ponce, sign a peace declaration in Brazil (Declaración de Paz de Itamaraty), confirming a ceasefire, a separation of forces, a general demobilization, and establishing a "guarantors" peacekeeping force, the MOMEP (Military Observer Mission, Ecuador Peru), charged with supervising the separation of forces, taking over the posts of Tiwinza and Base Sur, and suggesting the limits for an eventual demilitarized zone. Ecuador and Peru pledge themselves to begin talks on the "pending issues". 21 February: The first MOMEP observers arrive to the Ecuadorian rear base of Patuca, but confused fighting rages on all-day long, preventing the observers to reach the area of the conflict. Ecuador claims Peruvian helicopters are violating the cease-fire by flying over the Ecuadorian posts. 22 February: In a day that Ecuadorians refer to as "Black Wednesday", Peruvian forces launch a strong attack on Ecuadorian positions in Cenepa valley (Tiwinza Cota 1061). According to Ecuadorian sources, fourteen of their soldiers died that day, the worst in terms of casualties for the Ecuadorian Army during the war. That afternoon and night, the Ecuadorian forces retaliate against Peruvians positions until the next day, when intense activity was detected in the Peruvian lines, identified by the Ecuadorian officers as the evacuation of the casualties caused by the offensive the night before. 28 February: After more days of confusing skirmishes, Ecuador and Peru sign the Montevideo Declaration, "reiterating their commitment to proceed to an immediate and effective ceasefire". Although minor incidents would continue all over the area during the next months, the Cenepa War is officially over. Aftermath Negotiated ceasefire and withdrawal of troops from the combat zone. The conflict ends on March 28, 1995, with the signing of "Reiteration of the commitment to stop an immediate and effective ceasefire", after the guarantor countries established a demilitarized zone. Ecuadorian troops were forced to withdraw to the western side of the Cordillera del Cóndor as well as the entire head of the Cenepa River without having achieved their objective of obtaining the disputed territory and having sovereign access to the Amazon to compel Peru to a new delimitation in its borders. The posts installed by Ecuador came to be controlled by the Peruvian Army Ecuador recognizes the authenticity and validity of the Rio Protocol and renounces its thesis of unenforceability of the 1942 Rio de Janeiro Protocol and its aspiration to be a coastal country of the Amazon River as well as its claim of sovereignty over the Marañón river. The disputed territories are recognized as Peruvian. Tiwinza (cota 1061) was recognized by the guarantors as Peruvian territory. Ecuador receives 1 km2 in Tiwinza (level 1061) as "private property", without sovereignty and only for commemorative and non-military acts. Anyone born in Tiwinza (20 km²) will be considered Peruvian Cenepa. Hoy 17 de Febrero de 1995 culmina la Guerra del Cenepa — Español Brasilia Presidential Act signed on the 26 October 1998, closing the frontier, as stated in Protocolo de Rio de Janeiro, and declaring the end to all differences between the two nations. By the beginning of March 1995, the MOMEP observers had entered the area and began to supervise the separation of forces. In accordance with the Treaty of Itamaraty and the Declaration of Montevideo, the Ecuadorians began to withdraw all their units to the base of Coangos, while the Peruvians were to do the same to PV-1. From there, troops would be extracted according to a schedule implement by the MOMEP. All combatants were withdrawn from the delimited and undemarcated area by May 5, 1995. A demilitarized zone came into effect on August 4 of the same year. Ecuador and Peru went on to negotiate the final demarcation of the border, in a lengthy process marked by one crisis after another, with a total war almost erupting in August 1998. Finally, on October 26, 1998, in Brasília, Jamil Mahuad, President of Ecuador, and Alberto Fujimori, President of Peru, along with the Presidents of Brazil, Argentina, and Chile; and a personal representative of the President of the United States of America, signed a Presidential Act, which proclaimed "the definitive resolution of the border disputes between the two nations". In a decision that certain political sectors on both sides took as a setback, the Guarantors of the Rio Protocol determined that the boundary of the delimited and undemarcated zone was in fact the Cordillera del Cóndor line, as Peru had been claiming from the 1940s. While Ecuador was forced to renounce its decades-old territorial claims as Tumbes, Jaen and Maynas as well as on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera, as well as the entire western area of the Cenepa headwaters, Peru "gives" to Ecuador, as a "private property" but without sovereignty and only for commemorative and non-military events, one square kilometer of its territory, in the area where the Ecuadorian base of Tiwinza was located (level 1061), focal point of the war, inside the Peruvian soil, anyone born in Tiwinza will be considered Peruvian. The final demarcation of the border came into effect on May 13, 1999. Casualties and material losses Figures given for losses during the Cenepa War vary widely, especially regarding human casualties. Ecuadorian military sources put the casualties at 34 killed recognized by Comando Conjunto de las FFAA del Ecuador and 154 killed and wounded recognized by Asociación de ex combatientes del Cenepa, Quito, Ecuador. As of February 2005, an Ecuadorian Cenepa war veterans' association had a membership of 131 ex-combatants, some of them with long-term health disorders caused by the war. ALDHU, a human rights NGO, has put the total number of mortal casualties for both sides at around 500. This figure was also given by Ecuadorian senior officers after the war, reflecting the fact that Peruvians found themselves attacking well-protected Ecuadorian positions and subjected to continuous ambushes and well-aimed artillery and rocket fire from the heights of the Condor range. The aircraft and helicopter losses mentioned above represent the losses acknowledged by each side during the conflict due to enemy action or to accidents, as cited in the Air Combat Information Group Website. According to the same source, Peru may have lost up to three helicopters during the conflict, and Ecuador may have lost one attack helicopter in unclear circumstances. Faundes, citing Ecuadorian sources, puts the total of Peruvian losses at four fixed-wing aircraft and three helicopters. Both sources agree that Ecuador lost one AT-33A trainer in an accident outside the combat area, three fallen A-37 and two defective kfir cannot return to the theater of operations in the conflict. Illegal armament sale controversy Chile During the war, a series of Peruvian newspapers brought forth information claiming that Chile had sold armament to Ecuador during the conflict. This claim was promptly denied by Chile the following day on February 5, 1995, but admitted that they had sold weaponry to Ecuador on September 12, 1994, as part of a regular commercial exchange that had no aim against any particular nation. The source of this deal has been traced back to 1977, when the military regime of Augusto Pinochet signed an agreement with the Ecuadorian military authorities then ruling the country (headed by Alfredo Poveda) for the sale of armament by the state-run FAMAE factory. That contract was reportedly renewed around the reported time of the registered legal sale (September 1994), which led to the aforementioned shipment of military hardware to Ecuador. In 1995, and due to lack of further information, Peru's president, Alberto Fujimori, put a momentary end to the scandal. However, the controversy was once again ignited when General Víctor Manuel Bayas, former Chief of Staff of the Ecuadorian Armed Forces during the Cenepa War, made a series of declarations in regards to the armed conflict between Peru and Ecuador. On March 21, 2005, General Bayas was asked by the Ecuadorian newspaper El Comercio if Chile had sold armaments to Ecuador during the Cenepa War, to which he replied: “Yes, it was a contract with the militaries during the conflict." Furthermore, General Bayas revealed that Argentina and Russia had also sold weaponry to Ecuador during the conflict. Later that same year, on April 11, Colonel Ernesto Checa, Ecuador's military representative in Chile during the Cenepa War, stated that Chile provided Ecuador with "ammunition, rifles and night vision devices" during the war. Moreover, the Peruvian government revealed that it held knowledge that during the war at least a couple of Ecuadorian C-130 transport airplanes had landed in Chilean territory to pick up 9mm ammunition, and that the Ecuadorian Air Force had planned three more of those armament acquisition voyages to Chile. Nonetheless, the Peruvian government at that time regarded this as a minor incident due to the Chilean Sub-secretary of Foreign Relations, Mariano Fernández, telling the Peruvian ambassador in Chile, Alfonso de Rivero, on February 2, 1995, that the Chilean government would take immediate measures to stop any other possible operations of this nature. In this communication, Fernández is reported to have concurred to de Rivero's residence and revealed that only 9mm ammunition, which had been paid with anticipation, had been loaded in the Ecuadorian planes; that a Chilean lawyer representing Ecuador had demanded the fulfillment of the contract and that Ecuadorian military personnel who came on the plane asked for additional armament, only to have this petition denied; however Peruvian Caretas magazine reported that part of this information wasn't precise (without specifying which part). Apparently, the Chilean authorities were being sincere, as President Frei only took notice of the departure of the Ecuadorian Hercules planes (loaded only with ammunition) hours after they had left. Chile's response to the declarations made by General Bayas were made the following day on March 22, 2005. The government of Chile denied the claims and stated that the only registered sale of weapons to Ecuador was in 1994. Jaime Ravinet, the Chilean Minister of Defense, assured that any other armament transfer after the 1994 date had been illegal. Ravinet further stated that, after discussing the matter with his Peruvian counterpart, Roberto Chiabra, the situation had been resolved. Yet, the Peruvian government did not find the February 5, 1995, and March 22, 2005, declarations as acceptable or sufficient; and went on to send a note of protest to the Chilean government. Peru further claimed that Chile should have maintained absolute neutrality and that this alleged weapons commerce during the Cenepa War went against resolutions made by the United Nations and the Organization of American States. In the end, the whole operation was revealed to be the planning of former dictator Pinochet, then chief of the Armed Forces (until 1998). Quoting Peruvian ambassador to Chile in 1995 (de Rivero), the Chilean Sub-secretary (Fernández) "pointed out to me that President Frei and chancellor (foreign minister) Insulza had been deeply worried by the situation and that they were taking all the dispositions of the case to reform the military sales law". Reportedly, Pinochet himself later assumed direct responsibility for the shipment before the civilian authorities of his country (even if his lawyer denied it in 2005), as he still exercised considerable influence over state institutions and controlled the security apparatus, thus having power to bypass civilian controls to foreign arms sales. It is worth noting that Pinochet, who had lived in Ecuador during the second half of the 1950s as a military instructor, had a deep affection towards the country and, a couple of years later, in November–December 1997, made a controversial and highly publicized visit to Ecuador where he attended a series of ceremonies and was given six military and civilian decorations by that country's civilian and military authorities. Argentina Argentina admitted to the illegal sale of armament by revealing the existence of three secret decrees signed by President Carlos Menem between the years of 1991 and 1995. The controversy regarding the decrees came about when the weapons sold did not go to Panama, Bolivia, and Venezuela as had been accorded, but instead the weapons ended up in Croatia and Ecuador at times when both of these nations were involved in wars and prohibited from receiving international military aid. The sale Argentina gave to Ecuador included 6.500 tons of rifles, cannons, anti-tank rockets, and ammunition. Menem was taken to court for his alleged association with these illegal acts in 2001, but was acquitted by Argentina's Supreme Court. In October 2008 the case was re-opened, but Menem avoided being detained by Argentine authorities until 2010 due to his position as senator of La Rioja. Menem claimed to have had no association with the illegal weapons trade, and further adds that this is a political persecution made by Argentine president Cristina Fernández and, her husband and also former Argentine president, Néstor Kirchner. In 2013 Carlos Menem was sentenced to seven years in prison for arms-smuggling. Characteristics of the fighting in 1995 Several explanations have been brought forward to explain the outcome of the Cenepa conflict. Some of these can be briefly summarized here: Logistics. Both during the buildup of forces and during the clashes of January and February, the Peruvian Army found itself at a logistical disadvantage. The fact that all reinforcements and supplies had to be flown in by helicopter from Ciro Alegría base, more than 110 km to the south, meant that, in general, the Ecuadorian forces went into combat better armed and supplied. Moreover, once the shooting war started, the Cenepa valley became a rather dangerous place for the Peruvian Mil Mi-8 and Mil Mi-17 helicopters, which besides their transport duties also carried out ground-attack missions. Force Composition. Right from the very first clashes, the Ecuadorian Army committed Special Forces units all along the combat area. In addition to the paratroopers, the Ecuadorians sent into battle a number of "Iwia" detachments — units composed of tribal people such as the Shuar people, specialized in jungle combat and survival. Until the arrival of some elite counterinsurgency units from the south (battle-hardened by a leftist insurgency) the Peruvian forces committed to the battle were composed mostly of young and inexperienced conscripts. Terrain. In 1995, the Ecuadorian Army fought on terrain of its own choosing. From the heights of the Condor mountain range, the Ecuadorians had a commanding view of the entire combat area. The Ecuadorian artillery -carefully camouflaged on the reverse slopes of the Condor range- could deliver precise and deadly fire upon attacking Peruvian troops. By the same token, the Ecuadorian antiaircraft batteries and SAMs located on the heights made helicopter low-level flight into the valley a dangerous proposition. State of the opposing air forces at the outbreak of the crisis. The war of 1995 came at a bad moment for the Peruvian Air Force, as the economic crisis that had struck the nation in the 1980s had a negative impact on the readiness of the FAP. At the beginning of January 1995, with a crisis looming on the horizon, the FAP found itself in no shape for a major air war. Most of its fleet of modern Mirage 2000Ps interceptors, bought in the mid-1980s and the backbone of the FAP, was grounded for lack of spare parts and proper maintenance due to lack of funds. Only three Mirage 2000Ps were immediately available for active operations. Its fleet of Sukhoi Su-22 fighter-bombers was in the same situation, with some seven aircraft in flying condition; the lack of preparedness even affected the Cessna A-37B subsonic counterinsurgency and ground-attack aircraft. Although by the end of January the situation regarding operational aircraft had greatly improved, the crisis had probably left its impact on the FAP. Ecuador had also passed through a period of economic crisis of its own, but the FAE had kept in operational status a sizeable part of its fleet of Mirage F.1JAs, IAI Kfir C.2s, and SEPECAT Jaguars, with perhaps some ten Mirages, ten Kfirs, and four or six Jaguars in serviceable condition. Thus, while smaller in total number of planes, the FAE of January 1995 felt qualitatively capable of facing the FAP on equal terms - in striking contrast to the situation during the crisis of 1981, where except for a small number of missions, the FAE had been kept on the ground armed and ready for immediate action, to be committed only in case of a full-fledged war. In 1995 their positions in the Cordillera del Cóndor were well defended due to tactically placed SAMs, and units armed with British-made Blowpipe missiles and Russian-made SA-16 MANPADS. Nevertheless, such defences didn't stop the continuous raids of the Peruvian Air Force. See also Ecuadorian–Peruvian War History of the Ecuadorian-Peruvian territorial dispute Paquisha Incident Post–World War II air-to-air combat losses Luis García Rojas List of wars between democracies Notes References External links Full text of the Montevideo Declaration, UN Peacemaker B. Simmons, Territorial Disputes and Their Resolution: The Case of Ecuador and Peru (pdf), United States Institute of Peace (1999). Retrieved November 10, 2005 G. Weidner, Operation SAFE BORDERS: The Ecuador-Peru Crisis (pdf), Joint Forces Quarterly (Spring 1996), U.S. National Defense University. Retrieved November 9, 2005 G. Marcella, War and Peace in the Amazon: Strategic Implications for the United States and Latin America of the 1995 Ecuador-Peru War (pdf), Department of National Security and Strategy, U.S. Army War College (1995). Retrieved November 10, 2005. Article in Spanish. Retrieved November 16, 2005 "Perú-Ecuador: Historia de 150 Años de Conflicto", Adonde? Todas las Páginas del Perú, (1997), (in Spanish). Retrieved November 14, 2005; offers detailed maps explaining the Peruvian-Ecuadorian conflict. HK33: German Arms in Ecuador Conflicts in 1995 1995 in Ecuador 1995 in Peru Ecuadorian–Peruvian wars Territorial disputes of Ecuador Territorial disputes of Peru Ecuador–Peru border
402115	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20electric%20companies	List of United States electric companies	The following page lists electric utilities in the United States. Largest utilities by revenue (2022) Reference: List of US electric companies by state Alabama Choosemypower Alabama Municipal Electric Authority Albertville Municipal Utilities Board Arab Electric Cooperative, Inc. Alabama Power, a part of the Southern Company Athens Utilities, Athens, Limestone County Cherokee Electric Cooperative Cullman Electric Cooperative, Cullman city and county, Touchstone Energy Utilities Board of the City of Cullman Decatur Utilities, Municipal Utilities Board of Decatur, Morgan County, Alabama Florence Utilities, City of Florence, Lauderdale County Franklin Electric Cooperatives, Franklin, Colbert and Lawrence Counties in northwest Alabama Guntersville Electric Board Huntsville UtilitiesCity of Huntsville, Madison County Joe Wheeler Electric Member Cooperative – Morgan, Lawrence counties, part of Touchstone Energy Cooperatives Marshall-DeKalb Electric Cooperative PowerSouth Sand Mountain Electric Cooperative DeKalb, Jackson, Marshall and Cherokee counties Scottsboro Electric Power Board Tennessee Valley Authority Tombigbee Electric Cooperative HQ and service in Hamilton, and Marion County Alabama, with service also in Mississippi Wiregrass Electric Cooperative Alaska Alaska Electric Light & Power MHI ELECTRIC DISTRIBUTION Copper Valley Electric Association Golden Valley Electric Association Kodiak Electric Association Municipal Light & Power Chugach Electric Association Arizona Arizona Public Service Salt River Project Tucson Electric Power UniSource Energy Services Page Power and Water Arkansas Southwestern Electric Power Company Entergy Arkansas, Inc. Associated Electrical Cooperative Incorporated California Alameda Municipal Power Anaheim Public Utilities Azusa Light & Water Burbank Water & Power Direct Energy East Bay Municipal Utility District Glendale Public Service Department Gridley Municipal Utilities Healdsburg Municipal Electric Department Imperial Irrigation District Island Energy Modesto Irrigation District Los Angeles Department of Water and Power MAD DEAN ELECTRIC COMPANY O'Brien Cogeneration Pacific Gas and Electric Pasadena Water & Power PacifiCorp (Pacific Power) Riverside Public Utilities Sacramento Municipal Utility District San Diego Gas & Electric San Francisco Public Utilities Commission Santa Clara Electric Department Sierra-Pacific Power Southern California Edison Southern California Public Power Authority TID Water & Power - Turlock Irrigation District Colorado Xcel Energy Intermountain Rural Electrical Association Colorado Springs Utilities Platte River Power Authority United Power, Inc. Tri-State Generation and Transmission Association (A cooperative of Touchstone ) Poudre Valley Rual Electric Association (Cooperative of Touchstone Energy) La Plata Electric Association (A cooperative of Touchstone Energy) Western Area Power Administration City of Fountain Electric Connecticut AVANGRID (The United Illuminating Company) Direct Energy Eversource Energy (Connecticut Light and Power, Northeast Utilities) Delaware Ambit Energy City of Dover Electric Department City of Milford Electric Department City of Newark Electric Department WAPDA City of Seaford Electric Department Delaware Electric Cooperative Delaware Municipal Electric Corporation Delmarva Power, a subsidiary of Exelon Lewes Board of Public Works Municipal Services Commission of the City of New Castle Town of Clayton Electric Department Town of Middletown Electric Department Town of Smyrna Electric Department Direct Energy District of Columbia PEPCO, a subsidiary of Exelon Direct Energy Florida Beaches Energy Services Central Florida Electric Cooperative Choctawhatchee Electric Cooperative City of Alachua Public Services Department City of Bartow Electric Department City of Blountstown Electric Department City of Bushnell Utilities Department City of Chattahoochee Electric Department City of Fort Meade Utilities Department City of Green Cove Springs Utilities Department City of Lake Worth Utilities Department City of Moore Haven Utilities Department City of Mount Dora Electric Utility City of New Smyrna Beach Utilities Commission City of Newberry Electric Utility City of Quincy Utilities Department City of Starke Utilities Department City of Tallahassee Utilities City of Vero Beach Electric Utilities City of Wachula Utilities City of Williston Utilities Department City of Winter Park Electric Utility Department Clay Electric Cooperative Clewiston Utilities Duke Energy Florida, a part of Duke Energy Escambia River Electric Cooperative Florida Keys Electric Cooperative Florida Municipal Power Agency Florida Power & Light, a part of NextEra Energy Florida Public Utilities, a part of Chesapeake Utilities Fort Pierce Utilities Authority Gainesville Regional Utilities Glades Electric Cooperative Gulf Coast Electric Cooperative Gulf Power Company, a part of NextEra Energy Homestead Public Services JEA Keys Energy Services Kissimmee Utility Authority Lakeland Electric Lake Worth Utilities Lee County Electric Cooperative Leesburg Electric Department Ocala Electric Utility Okefenoke Rural Electric Membership Corporation Orlando Utilities Commission Palm Peach Peace River Electric Cooperative Progress Energy Florida PowerSouth Energy Cooperative Reedy Creek Energy Services St. Cloud Utilities Seminole Electric Cooperative Sumter Electric Cooperative Suwannee Valley Electric Cooperative Talquin Electric Cooperative TECO Energy, a part of Emera Town of Havana Utilities Tri-County Electric Cooperative West Florida Electric Cooperative Withlacoochee River Electric Cooperative Georgia Georgia Power, a part of the Southern Company Municipal Electric Authority of Georgia (MEAG Power) Oglethorpe Power BSDK Power Tennessee Valley Authority Altamaha EMC Amicalola EMC Abla espanol Electric Blue Ridge Mountain EMC Canoochee EMC Carroll EMC Central Georgia EMC Coastal Electric Cooperative Cobb EMC Colquitt EMC Coweta-Fayette EMC Diverse Power Inc. Diverse Power Inc. - Pataula District Excelsior EMC Flint Energies Grady EMC GreyStone Power Corp. Habersham EMC Hart EMC Irwin EMC Jackson EMC Jefferson Energy Cooperative Little Ocmulgee EMC Marietta Power Middle Georgia EMC Mitchell EMC North Georgia EMC Ocmulgee EMC Oconee EMC Okefenoke REMC Planters EMC Rayle EMC Satilla REMC Sawnee EMC Slash Pine EMC Snapping Shoals EMC Southern Rivers Energy Sumter EMC Three Notch EMC Tri-County EMC Tri-State EMC Upson EMC Walton EMC Washington EMC Direct Energy Hawaii Hawaiian Electric Company (HECO), Oʻahu subsidiary of Hawaiian Electric Industries Hawaiian Electric Light Company (HELCO), Island of Hawaiʻi subsidiary of Hawaiian Electric Industries Kauaʻi Island Utility Cooperative (KIUC) Maui Electric Company (MECO), Maui County subsidiary of Hawaiian Electric Industries Idaho Avista Clearwater Power IDACORP (Idaho Power) PacifiCorp (Rocky Mountain Power) Illinois Ameren Illinois power Champion Energy City Water, Light & Power (Springfield, Illinois) ComEd, a subsidiary of Exelon Direct Energy Coles Moultrie Electric Cooperative Prairie State Generating Company Sullivan Electric Company Indiana AES Indiana (formerly Indianapolis Power & Light) American Electric Power (Indiana Michigan Power) Cinergy Corporation Duke Energy Indiana Municipal Power Agency NiSource Northern Indiana Public Service Company Vectren (Southern Indiana Gas & Electric Company) Iowa Interstate Power and Light Company, a part of Alliant Energy MidAmerican Energy Kansas Kansas City Board of Public Utilities Evergy McPherson BPU Kentucky American Electric Power Cinergy Corporation Direct Energy Duke Energy Kentucky Utilities Louisville Gas & Electric Owensboro Municipal Utilities Tennessee Valley Authority Louisiana CLECO Entergy SWEPCO, a subsidiary of American Electric Power SLEMCO Maine AVANGRID (Central Maine Power) Direct Energy Versant Power, a part of ENMAX Maryland A&N Electric Cooperative Agway Energy Services Allegheny Electric Cooperative Ambit Energy Baltimore Gas and Electric, a subsidiary of Exelon Berlin Electric Utility Department Champion Energy Choptank Electric Cooperative Conectiv, a subsidiary of PEPCO which is a subsidiary of Exelon Delmarva Power, a subsidiary of Exelon Direct Energy Easton Utilities FirstEnergy (Potomac Edison) Hagerstown Light Department Just Energy Southern Maryland Electric Cooperative (SMECO) Town of Thurmont Municipal Light Company Town of Williamsport Utilities Massachusetts Ashburnham Municipal Light Belmont Municipal Light Berkshire Company (WMECO) Braintree Electric Light Department Boylston Electric Light Department Chester Municipal Electric Light Chicopee Electric Light Department Concord Municipal Light Plant Danvers Electric Department Eversource Energy (NSTAR, Western Massachusetts Electric) Georgetown Electric Department Gosnold Municipal Electric Plant Groton Electric Department Groveland Light Department Hingham Municipal Light Department Holden Municipal Light Department Holyoke Gas and Electric Hudson Light and Water Department Hull Electric Light Department Ipswich Electric Light Department Littleton Electric Light and Water Department Marblehead Municipal Light Department Mansfield Municipal Light Department Merrimac Light and Water Department Middleboro Municipal Gas and Electric Department Middleton Municipal Light Department National Grid (Massachusetts Electric, Nantucket Electric) North Attleboro Electric Department Northeast Utilities Norwood Electric Light Department NSTAR Paxton Municipal Light Department Peabody Municipal Light Plant Princeton Electric Light Department Reading Municipal Light Department Rowley Electric Light Department Russell Municipal Light Department Shrewsbury Electric Light Department South Hadley Electric Light Department Sterling Electric Light Department Taunton Municipal Light Plant Templeton Municipal Light Company Unitil Corporation Wakefield Municipal Gas and Light Department Wellesley Municipal Light Plant West Boylston Municipal Lighting Westfield Gas and Electric Department PTI Electric Department Direct Energy Michigan Alger Delta Electric Cooperative Alpena Power Company American Electric Power (Indiana Michigan Power) Cherryland Electric Cooperative Cloverland Electric Cooperative (Cloverland acquired Edison Sault Electric Company in 2009) Consumers Energy DTE Energy (DTE Energy Electric Company) Great Lakes Energy Cooperative Holland Board of Public Works Homeworks Tri-County Electric Cooperative Lansing Board of Water & Light Lowell Light and Power Midwest Energy & Communications (Cooperative) Ontonagon County REA (Cooperative) Presque Isle Electric & Gas Cooperative Thumb Electric Cooperative Upper Peninsula Power Company We Energies Wyandotte Municipal Services Minnesota Basin Electric Power Cooperative Dairyland Power Coop East River Electric Power Co-op Freeborn-Mower Co-op Services Great River Energy, and its 28 member cooperatives Hutchinson Utilities Commission Interstate Power and Light Company L&O Power Co-op Marshall Municipal Utilities Minnkota Power Cooperative, and its 11 member cooperatives Minnesota Power Missouri River Energy Northern States Power Company, a subsidiary of Xcel Energy People's Co-op Tri-County Electric Otter Tail Power Company Rochester Public Utilities Commission Southern Minnesota Municipal Power Agency Willmar Municipal Utilities Xcel Energy Mississippi Entergy Mississippi Magnolia Electric Power Mississippi Power, a part of the Southern Company Cooperative Energy, formerly South Mississippi Electric Power Association Tennessee Valley Authority Pearl River Valley EPA Yazoo Valley Electric Power Association http://coastepa.com Missouri Ameren Aquila Black River Electric Cooperative City of Columbia Water and Light City Utilities of Springfield Hannibal, Missouri Citizens Electric Corporation Empire District Electric Company Independence Power and Light Intercounty Electric Cooperative Association Cuivre River Electric Cooperative Kansas City Power and Light Company Laclede Electric Cooperative Macon Electric Cooperative Missouri Rural Electric Cooperative North Central Missouri Electric Cooperative Howell-Oregon Electric Cooperative Ozark Border Electric Cooperative Semo Electric Cooperative Sa-Ma-No Electric Cooperative White River Valley Electric Cooperative Montana Central Montana Electric Power Cooperative Montana-Dakota Utilities (MDU) Montana Electric Cooperatives' Association Northwestern Energy Nebraska Nebraska Public Power District Omaha Public Power District Lincoln Electric System Western Area Power Administration Nevada NV Energy (Nevada Power) NextEra (Valley Electric Association) Wells Rural Electric Company Boulder City Electric Utility Harney Electric Cooperative Lincoln County Power Mt Wheeler Power Overton Power Plumas Sierra Electric Cooperative Surprise Valley Electric Cooperative New Hampshire Eversource Energy (Public Service Company of New Hampshire) Liberty Utilities (including Granite State Electric) New Hampshire Electric Cooperative Northeast Utilities National Grid Unitil Corporation New Jersey Investor-owned utilities Atlantic City Electric, a subsidiary of Exelon Jersey Central Power and Light Company, a subsidiary of FirstEnergy Public Service Electric and Gas Company (PSE&G) Rockland Electric, a subsidiary of Orange and Rockland, which is a subsidiary of Consolidated Edison Municipal and cooperative utilities Borough of Madison Electric Utility Borough of Milltown Electric Department Borough of Park Ridge Electric Department Borough of Seaside Heights Electric Utility Borough of South River Electric Department Butler Power and Light Lavallette Electric Department Pemberton Borough Electric Department Sussex Rural Electric Cooperative Vineland Municipal Electric Utility New Mexico El Paso Electric Public Service Company of New Mexico Southwestern Public Service Company, a subsidiary of Xcel Energy Texas-New Mexico Power Tri-State Generation and Transmission Association New York Akron Municipal Electric Department Angelica Municipal Electric Department Approved Energy Bath Municipal Electric Department Bergen Municipal Electric Department Boonville Municipal Electric Department Brocton Municipal Electric Department Castle Municipal Electric Department Central Hudson Gas & Electric CH Energy Group Churchville Municipal Electric Department Consolidated Edison Company of New York, subsidiary of Consolidated Edison Direct Energy East Coast Power & Gas Fishers Island Municipal Electric Department Frankfort Municipal Electric Department Freeport Electric Department Green Island Municipal Electric Department Greenport Municipal Electric Department Greene Municipal Electric Department Groton Municipal Electric Department Hamilton Municipal Electric Department Ilion Municipal Electric Department Jamestown Municipal Electric Department Lake Placid Municipal Electric Department Long Island Power Authority (LIPA), operated by PSEG Long Island Marathon Municipal Electric Department Massena Electric Department Mayville Municipal Electric Department National Grid (Niagara Mohawk) New York Power Authority (NYPA) New York State Electric & Gas, subsidiary of AVANGRID Orange and Rockland, which is a subsidiary of Consolidated Edison Penn Yan Municipal Electric Department Philadelphia Municipal Electric Department Plattsburgh Municipal Light Department Northeast Utilities Rochester Gas & Electric, subsidiary of AVANGRID Rockville Centre Municipal Electric Department Rouses Point Electric Department Salamanca Municipal Electric Department Sherburne Municipal Electric Department Sherrill Municipal Electric Department Skaneateles Municipal Electric Department Sliver Springs Municipal Electric Department Solvay Electric Department Spencerport Municipal Electric Department Springville Municipal Electric Department Theresa Municipal Electric Department Tupper Lake Municipal Electric Department Watkins Glen Municipal Electric Department Waverly Municipal Electric Department Wellsville Municipal Electric Department Westfield Municipal Electric Department North Carolina Albemarle Electric Membership Corporation Blue Ridge Energy Brunswick Electric Membership Corporation Cape Hatteras Electric Cooperative Carteret-Craven Electric Cooperative Central Electric Membership Corporation City of Concord Electric Department Dominion North Carolina Power Duke Energy Edgecombe-Martin County Electric Membership Corporation EnergyUnited Four County Electric Membership Corporation French Broad Electric Membership Corporation Halifax Electric Membership Corporation Haywood Electric Membership Corporation Jones-Onslow Electric Membership Corporation Lumbee River Electric Membership Corporation North Carolina Electric Membership Corporation Pee Dee Electric Membership Corporation Piedmont Electric Membership Corporation Pitt & Greene Electric Membership Corporation Randolph Electric Membership Corporation Roanoke Electric Cooperative Rutherford Electric Membership Corporation South River Electric Membership Corporation Surry-Yadkin Electric Membership Corporation Tennessee Valley Authority Tideland Electric Membership Corporation Tri-County Electric Membership Corporation Union Power Cooperative Wake Electric Membership Corporation North Dakota Basin Electric Power Cooperative Central Power Electric Cooperative Montana Dakota Utilities (MDU) Minnkota Power Cooperative Northern States Power Company, a subsidiary of Xcel Energy Otter Tail Power Company Upper Missouri Power Cooperative (Upper Missouri G&T Cooperative) Xcel Energy Ohio American Electric Power Consolidated Electric Cooperative Dayton Power & Light Direct Energy Duke Energy FirstEnergy (Cleveland Electric Illuminating Company, Ohio Edison, Toledo Edison) South Central Power Company Oklahoma East Central Electric Cooperative Oklahoma Gas & Electric Public Service Company of Oklahoma (part of American Electric Power) Western Farmers Electric Cooperative Oregon Blachly-Lane Electric Cooperative Central Lincoln PUD Clatskanie PUD Columbia River PUD Consumers Power Inc. Coos-Curry Electric Coop Douglas Electric Cooperative Emerald PUD Eugene Water & Electric Board (EWEB) Hood River Electric & Internet Co-op Lane Electric Cooperative Midstate Electric Cooperative Northern Wasco County PUD PacifiCorp (Pacific Power) Portland General Electric Salem Electric Springfield Utility Board Tillamook PUD West Oregon Electric Cooperative Umatilla Electric Cooperative Pennsylvania Adams Electric Cooperative Allegheny Electric Cooperative Bedford Rural Electric Cooperative Borough of Ephrata Electric Division Borough of Hatfield Electric Utility Borough of Kutztown Electric Department Borough of Quakertown Electric Department Borough of Schuylkill Haven Utilities Department Central Electric Cooperative Citizen's Electric Company Claverack Rural Electric Cooperative Direct Energy Duquesne Light FirstEnergy (Met-Ed, Penelec, Penn Power, West Penn Power) Lansdale Electric New Enterprise Rural Electric Cooperative Northeast Utilities Northwestern Rural Electric Cooperative PECO, a subsidiary of Exelon Perkasie Borough Electric Department Pike County Light & Power PPL Corporation REA Energy Cooperative Rural Valley Electric Co. Somerset Rural Electric Cooperative Sullivan County Rural Electric Cooperative Tri-County Rural Electric Cooperative UGI Utilities United Electric Cooperative Valley Rural Electric Cooperative Warren Electric Cooperative Wellsboro Electric Company Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority EcoEléctrica Rhode Island Direct Energy National Grid (Narragansett Electric) Northeast Utilities Pascoag Utility District South Carolina Aiken Electric Co-Op Berkeley Electric Co-Op Black River Electric Co-op Blue Ridge Electric Co-op Broad River Electric Co-op Central Electric Power Cooperative, Inc. Coastal Electric Co-op Duke Energy Edisto Electric Co-op Fairfield Electric Co-op Horry Electric Co-op Laurens Electric Co-op Little River Electric Co-op Lynches River Electric Co-op Mid-Carolina Electric Co-op Newberry Electric Co-op Palmetto Electric Co-op Progress Energy Carolinas Santee Cooper Santee Electric Co-op Dominion Energy Tri-County Electric Co-Op York Electric Co-op South Dakota Black Hills Power East River Electric Cooperative MidAmerican Energy Company Montana-Dakota Utilities (MDU) Northern States Power Company, a subsidiary of Xcel Energy Northwestern Energy Otter Tail Power Company Rushmore Electric Cooperative Xcel Energy Tennessee Appalachian Power, a unit of American Electric Power Chickasaw Electric Cooperative Citizens Utilities Board EPB (Electric Power Board), Chattanooga, Hamilton County Knoxville Utilities Board Lenoir City Utilities Board Memphis Light, Gas and Water Middle Tennessee Electric, Electric Cooperative Nashville Electric Service, metro Nashville, Davidson County Tennessee Valley Authority Texas Austin Energy American Electric Power Amigo Energy South West Energy Bartlett Electric Cooperative Brazos Electric Power Cooperative CenterPoint Energy City of Bryan City of Greenville Comanche Electric Cooperative CoServ Electric Cosery Electric CPS Energy Denton Municipal Electric Duke energy Direct Energy dPi Energy El Paso Electric Electric Database Publishing Entergy Entrust Energy First Texas Energy Corporation Fort Belknap Electric Cooperative Garland Power & Light GDF SUEZ Energy Resources Golden Spread Electric Cooperative Hudson Energy Hamilton County Electric Cooperative Heart of Texas Electric Cooperative HILCO Electric Cooperative J-A-C Electric Cooperative Lower Colorado River Authority Luminant MidSouth Synergy Navarro County Electric Cooperative Navasota Valley Electric Cooperative Oncor Electric Delivery (Formerly TXU) Pedernales Electric Cooperative PenTex Energy Rayburn Electric Cooperative Reliant Energy South Plains Electric Cooperative Southwestern Public Service Company, a subsidiary of Xcel Energy Texas Electric Service Company Texas New Mexico Power Tara Energy Tri-County Electric Cooperative TXU Energy United Cooperative Services Wise Electric Cooperative Utah City of Bountiful IPA City of Kaysville PacifiCorp (Rocky Mountain Power) pacificorp (Dominion Energy) Vermont Burlington Electric Department Green Mountain Power Vermont Electric Cooperative Washington Electric Cooperative Virginia A&N Electric Cooperative Appalachian Power, a subsidiary of American Electric Power BARC Electric Cooperative Community Electric Cooperative Craig-Botetourt Electric Cooperative Danville Utilities Dominion Virginia Power Mecklenburg Electric Cooperative Northern Neck Electric Cooperative Northern Virginia Electric Cooperative Old Dominion Electric Cooperative Prince George Electric Cooperative Rapahannock Electric Cooperative Shenandoah Valley Electric Cooperative Southside Electric Cooperative Washington Avista Utilities Benton County Public Utility District Big Bend Electric Chelan County Public Utility District City of Milton Clark Public Utilities Clearwater Power Columbia Rural Electric Douglas County Public Utility District Elmurst Mutual Franklin County Public Utility District Grant County Public Utility District Klickitat Public Utility District Lakeview Light & Power Mason County Public Utility District 3 Modern Electric Water Nespelem Valley Electric Ohop Mutual Okanaogan Country Electric & Propane Orcas Power and Light Coop (OPALCO) Parkland Light & Water PacifiCorp (Pacific Power) Peninsula Light Co Pend Oreille County Public Utility District Puget Sound Energy Seattle City Light Snohomish County Public Utility District Tacoma Power Tanner Electric Coop Town of Steilacoom Town of Eatonville West Virginia American Electric Power (Appalachian Power, Wheeling Electric Power) FirstEnergy (Mon Power, Potomac Edison) Black Diamond Power Company Wisconsin Dairyland Power Cooperative (and its 25 member cooperatives) Madison Gas and Electric Northern States Power Company-Wisconsin, a subsidiary of Xcel Energy We Energies Wisconsin Power and Light Company, a part of Alliant Energy Wisconsin Public Service Corporation Wyoming Cheyenne Light, Fuel & Power Lower Valley Energy Bridger Valley Niobrara Electric Black Hills Power Powder River Energy Corporation (A cooperative of Touchstone Energy) Carbon Power & Light (A cooperative of Touchstone Energy) PacifiCorp (Rocky Mountain Power) Tri-State Generation and Transmission Association (A cooperative of Touchstone Energy) Western Area Power Administration See also Electricity distribution companies by country List of Canadian electric utilities List of public utilities References Electricity Lists of energy companies Electric power-related lists
402119	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game%20studies	Game studies	Game studies, also known as ludology (from ludus, "game", and -logia, "study", "research"), is the study of games, the act of playing them, and the players and cultures surrounding them. It is a field of cultural studies that deals with all types of games throughout history. This field of research utilizes the tactics of, at least, folkloristics and cultural heritage, sociology and psychology, while examining aspects of the design of the game, the players in the game, and the role the game plays in its society or culture. Game studies is oftentimes confused with the study of video games, but this is only one area of focus; in reality game studies encompasses all types of gaming, including sports, board games, etc. Before video games, game studies was rooted primarily in anthropology. However, with the development and spread of video games, games studies has diversified methodologically, to include approaches from sociology, psychology, and other fields. There are now a number of strands within game studies: "social science" approaches explore how games function in society, and their interactions with human psychology, often using empirical methods such as surveys and controlled lab experiments. "Humanities-based" approaches emphasise how games generate meanings and reflect or subvert wider social and cultural discourses. These often use more interpretative methods, such as close reading, textual analysis, and audience theory, methods shared with other media disciplines such as television and film studies. Social sciences and humanities approaches can cross over, for example in the case of ethnographic or folkloristic studies, where fieldwork may involve patiently observing games to try to understand their social and cultural meanings. "Game design" approaches are closely related to creative practice, analysing game mechanics and aesthetics in order to inform the development of new games. Finally, "industrial" and "engineering" approaches apply mostly to video games and less to games in general, and examine things such as computer graphics, artificial intelligence, and networking. History It was not until Irving Finkel organized a colloquium in 1990 that grew into the International Board Game Studies Association, Gonzalo Frasca popularized the term "ludology" (from the Latin word for game, ludus) in 1999, the publication of the first issues of academic journals like Board Game Studies in 1998 and Game Studies in 2001, and the creation of the Digital Games Research Association in 2003, that scholars began to get the sense that the study of games could (and should) be considered a field in its own right. As a young field, it gathers scholars from different disciplines that had been broadly studying games, such as psychology, anthropology, economy, education, and sociology. The earliest known use of the term "ludology" occurred in 1982, in Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi's "Does Being Human Matter – On Some Interpretive Problems of Comparative Ludology." Social science One of the earliest social science theories (1971) about the role of video games in society involved violence in video games, later becoming known as the catharsis theory. The theory suggests that playing video games in which you perform violent acts might actually channel latent aggression, resulting in less aggression in the players real lives. However, a meta-study performed by Craig A. Anderson and Brad J. Bushman, in 2001, examined data starting from the 1980s up until the article was published. The purpose of this study was to examine whether or not playing violent video games led to an increase in aggressive behaviors. They concluded that exposure to violence in video games did indeed cause an increase in aggression. However, it has been pointed out, and even stressed, by psychologist Jonathan Freedman that this research was very limited and even problematic since overly strong claims were made and the authors themselves seemed extremely biased in their writings. More recent studies, such as the one performed by Christopher J. Ferguson at Texas A&M International University have come to drastically different conclusions. In this study, individuals were either randomly assigned a game, or allowed to choose a game, in both the randomized and the choice conditions exposure to violent video games caused no difference in aggression. A later study (performed by the same people) looked for correlations between trait aggression, violent crimes, and exposure to both real life violence and violence in video games, this study suggests that while family violence and trait aggression are highly correlated with violent crime, exposure to video game violence was not a good predictor of violent crime, having little to no correlation, unless also paired with the above traits that had a much higher correlation. Over the past 15 years, a large number of meta-studies have been applied to this issue, each coming to its own conclusion, resulting in little consensus in the ludology community. It is also thought that even nonviolent video games may lead to aggressive and violent behaviour. Anderson and Dill seem to believe that it may be due to the frustration of playing video games that could in turn result in violent, aggressive behaviour. Game designers Amy Jo Kim and Jane McGonigal have suggested that platforms which leverage the powerful qualities of video games in non-game contexts can maximize learning. Known as the gamification of learning, using game elements in non-game contexts extracts the properties of games from within the game context, and applies them to a learning context such as the classroom. Another positive aspect of video games is its conducive character towards the involvement of a person in other cultural activities. The probability of game playing increases with the consumption of other cultural goods (e.g., listening to music or watching television) or active involvement in artistic activities (e.g., writing or visual arts production). Video games by being complementary towards more traditional forms of cultural consumption, inhibit thus value from a cultural perspective. More sociologically-informed research has sought to move away from simplistic ideas of gaming as either 'negative' or 'positive', but rather seeking to understand its role and location in the complexities of everyday life. For example, it has been suggested (Nina Fefferman) that the very popular MMO World of Warcraft could be used to study the dissemination of infectious diseases because of the accidental spread of a plague-like disease in the gameworld. "Ludology" vs "narratology" A major focus in game studies is the debate surrounding narratology and ludology. Many ludologists believe that the two are unable to exist together, while others believe that the two fields are similar but should be studied separately. Many narratologists believe that games should be looked at for their stories, like movies or novels. The ludological perspective says that games are not like these other mediums due to the fact that a player is actively taking part in the experience and should therefore be understood on their own terms. The idea that a videogame is "radically different to narratives as a cognitive and communicative structure" has led the development of new approaches to criticism that are focused on videogames as well as adapting, repurposing and proposing new ways of studying and theorizing about videogames. A recent approach towards game studies starts with an analysis of interface structures and challenges the keyboard-mouse paradigm with what is called a "ludic interface". Academics across both fields provide scholarly insight into the different sides of this debate. Gonzalo Frasca, a notable ludologist due to his many publications regarding game studies, argues that while games share many similar elements with narrative stories, that should not prevent games to be studied as games. He seeks not "to replace the narratologic approach, but to complement it." Jesper Juul, another notable ludologist, argues for a stricter separation of ludology and narratology. Juul argues that games "for all practicality can not tell stories." This argument holds that narratology and ludology cannot exist together because they are inherently different. Juul claims that the most significant difference between the two is that in a narrative, events "have to" follow each other, whereas in a game the player has control over what happens. Garry Crawford and Victoria K. Gosling argue in favor of narratives being an essential part of games as these will contribute to, and be informed by, a gamer's personal life and identity narratives. As they write "it is impossible to isolate play from the social influences of everyday life, and in turn, play will have both intended and unintended consequences for the individual and society." Janet Murray, in support of the narratologist method of video game argues that "stories can be participatory." In this argument, Murray is linking the characteristics of video games to narratives to further her point that video games should be analyzed through narratology. Michalis Kokonis argues in favor of Gonzalo Frasca's article entitled "Ludologists love stories too: notes from a debate that never took place," which aimed to list and explain the misunderstandings, mistakes, and prejudices surrounding the narratology vs. ludology debate. Kokonis noted that "endorsing [Frasca's] constructivist spirit we will have to agree that the so-called Narratology vs. Ludology Dilemma is a false one and that this debate will have to be resolved, as it is of no help to the cause of establishing Computer Games Study as an autonomous and independent academic field." Other areas of research As is common with most academic disciplines, there are a number of more specialized areas or sub-domains of study. Video game pre-history An emerging field of study looks at the "pre-history" of video games, suggesting that the origins of modern digital games lie in: fairground attractions and sideshows such as shooting games; early "Coney Island"-style pleasure parks with elements such as large roller-coasters and "haunted house" simulations; nineteenth century landscape simulations such as dioramas, panoramas, planetariums, and stereographs; and amusement arcades that had mechanical game machines and also peep-show film machines. Games and aging In light of population ageing, there has been an interest into the use of games to improve the overall health and social connectedness of ageing players. For example, Adam Gazzaley and his team have designed NeuroRacer (a game that improves cognitive tasks outside of the game among its 60+ year old participants), while the AARP has organized a game jam to improve older people's social connections. Researchers such as Sarah Mosberg Iversen have argued that most of the academic work on games and ageing has been informed by notions of economical productivity, while Bob De Schutter and Vero Vanden Abeele have suggested a game design approach that is not focused on age-related decline but instead is rooted in the positive aspects of older age. Virtual economies in gaming Massive multiplayer online games can give economists clues about the real world. Markets based on digital information can be fully tracked as they are used by players, and thus real problems in the economy, such as inflation, deflation and even recession. The solutions the game designers come up with can therefore be studied with full information, and experiments can be performed where the economy can be studied as a whole. These games allow the economists to be omniscient, they can find every piece of information they need to study the economy, while in the real world they have to work with presumptions. Former Finance Minister of Greece and Valve's in-house economist Yanis Varoufakis studied EVE Online as a measure for the Greek economic recovery and argued that video game communities such as Neopets and Fortnite give economists a venue for experimenting and simulating the economies of the future. Edward Castronova has studied virtual economies within a variety of games including Everquest and World of Warcraft. Cognitive benefits The psychological research into games has yielded theories on how playing video games may be advantageous for both children and for adults. Some theories claim that video games in fact help improve cognitive abilities rather than impede their development. These improvement theories include the improvement of visual contrast sensitivity. Other developments include the ability to locate something specific among various impediments. This is primarily done in first-person shooter games where the protagonist must look at everything in a first person view while playing. By doing this they increase their spatial attention due to having to locate something among an area of diversions. These games place the player in a high intensity environment where the player must remain observant of their surroundings in order to achieve their goal, e.g., shooting an enemy player, while impediments obstruct their gameplay in the virtual world. Another cognitive enhancement provided by playing video games would be the improvement of brain functioning speed. This happens as the player is immersed in an unendingly changing environment where they are required to constantly think and problem solve while playing in order to do well in the game. This constant problem solving forces the brain to constantly run and so the speed of thought is sharpened greatly, because the need to think quickly is required to succeed. The attention span of the player is also benefited. High action video games, such as fighting or racing games, require the user's constant attention and in the process the skill of concentration is sharpened. The overcoming of the condition known as dyslexia is also considered an improvement due to the continuous utilization of controllers for the video games. This continuous process helps to train the users to overcome their condition which impedes in their abilities of interpretation. The ability of hand-eye coordination is also improved thanks in part to video games, due to the need to operate the controller and view the screen displaying the content all at the same time. The coordination of the player is enhanced due to the playing and continuous observation of a video game since the game gives high mental stimulation and coordination is important and therefore enhanced due to the constant visual and physical movement that is produced from the playing of the video game. The playing of video games can also help increase a player's social skills. This is done by playing online multiplayer games which can require constant communication, this leads to socialization between players in order to achieve the goal within the game they may be playing. In addition it can help the users to meet new friends over their online games and at the same time communicate with friends they have already made in the past; those playing together online would only strengthen their already established bond through constant cooperation. Some video games are specifically designed to aid in learning, because of this another benefit of playing video games could be the educational value provided with the entertainment. Some video games present problem solving questions that the player must think on in order to properly solve, while action orientated video games require strategy in order to successfully complete. This process of being forced to think critically helps to sharpen the mind of the player. Game culture One aspect of game studies is the study of gaming culture. People who play video games are a subculture of their own. Gamers will often form communities with their own languages, attend conventions where they will dress up as their favorite characters, and have gaming competitions. One of these conventions, Gamescom 2018, had a record attendance with an estimated 370,000 attendees. Esports are making a significant impact in gaming culture. In 2018, Newzoo, a marketing analytics company reported that 380 million people will watch esports that year. Many gamers seek to form communities to meet new people and share their love of games. In 2014, Newzoo reported that 81% of gamers attend esport to be a part of the gaming community. "61% of gamers attend live events and tournaments to connect with friends that they've met and played with online." Throughout the years, there has been much research on the topic of game culture, specifically focusing on video games in relation to thinking, learning, gender, children, and war. When looking at game culture, particularly for early studies, multiplayer online games were usually the basis for research. However, more recent and wider ranging research has sought to understand not just gaming cultures, but in turn, how video games provide important insights into the modern nature of digital and participatory culture, patterns of consumption and identity formation, later modernity and contemporary political rationalities. Demographics of gamers (in the US) 75% of households have a gamer. 65% of adults play video games. 60% of adults play on smartphones, 52% play on a personal computer, and 49% play on a dedicated game console. 32 is the average age of male gamers. 34 is the average age of female gamers. 54% of gamers are men. 46% are women. See also Art game Video game art Video games as an art form Ludonarrative dissonance References Further reading (Table of contents and contributing authors), (Introduction to collection) External links Digital Games Research Association (DiGRA) "David Parlett’s Introduction to The International Board Game Studies Association" Game studies bibliography at The Video Game Library
402120	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronation%20of%20the%20British%20monarch	Coronation of the British monarch	The coronation of the monarch of the United Kingdom is an initiation ceremony in which they are formally invested with regalia and crowned at Westminster Abbey. It corresponds to the coronations that formerly took place in other European monarchies, which have all abandoned coronations in favour of inauguration or enthronement ceremonies. A coronation is a symbolic formality and does not signify the official beginning of the monarch's reign; de jure and de facto their reign commences from the moment of the preceding monarch's death, maintaining legal continuity of the monarchy. The coronation usually takes place several months after the death of the monarch's predecessor, as it is considered a joyous occasion that would be inappropriate while mourning continues. This interval also gives planners enough time to complete the required elaborate arrangements. The most recent coronation took place on 6 May 2023 to crown King Charles III and Queen Camilla. The ceremony is performed by the Archbishop of Canterbury, the most senior cleric in the Church of England, of which the monarch is Supreme Governor. Other clergy and members of the British nobility also have roles. Most participants wear ceremonial uniforms or robes and some wear coronets. Many government officials and guests attend, including representatives of other countries. The essential elements of the coronation have remained largely unchanged for the past 1,000 years. The sovereign is first presented to, and acclaimed by, the people. The sovereign then swears an oath to uphold the law and the Church. Following that, the monarch is anointed with holy oil, invested with regalia, and crowned, before receiving the homage of their subjects. Consorts of kings are then anointed and crowned as queens. The service ends with a closing procession, and since the 20th century it has been traditional for the royal family to appear later on the balcony of Buckingham Palace to greet crowds and watch a flypast. History English coronations English coronations were traditionally held at Westminster Abbey, with the monarch seated on the Coronation Chair. Main elements of the coronation service and the earliest form of oath can be traced to the ceremony devised by Saint Dunstan for King Edgar's coronation in 973 AD at Bath Abbey. It drew on ceremonies used by the kings of the Franks and those used in the ordination of bishops. Two versions of coronation services, known as ordines (from the Latin ordo meaning "order") or recensions, survive from before the Norman Conquest. It is not known if the first recension was ever used in England, and it was the second recension which was used by Edgar in 973 and by subsequent Anglo-Saxon and early Norman kings. A third recension was probably compiled during the reign of Henry I and was used at the coronation of his successor, Stephen, in 1135. While retaining the most important elements of the Anglo-Saxon rite, it may have borrowed from the consecration of the Holy Roman Emperor from the Pontificale Romano-Germanicum, a book of German liturgy compiled in Mainz in 961, thus bringing the English tradition into line with continental practice. It remained in use until the coronation of Edward II in 1308 when the fourth recension was first used, having been compiled over several preceding decades. Although influenced by its French counterpart, the new ordo focussed on the balance between the monarch and his nobles and on the oath, neither of which concerned the absolutist French kings. One manuscript of this recension is the Liber Regalis at Westminster Abbey which has come to be regarded as the definitive version. Following the start of the Reformation in England, the boy king Edward VI had been crowned in the first Protestant coronation in 1547, during which Archbishop Thomas Cranmer preached a sermon against idolatry and "the tyranny of the bishops of Rome". However, six years later, he was succeeded by his half-sister Mary I, who restored the Catholic rite. In 1559, Elizabeth I underwent the last English coronation under the auspices of the Catholic Church; however, Elizabeth's insistence on changes to reflect her Protestant beliefs resulted in several bishops refusing to officiate at the service, and it was conducted by the low-ranking bishop of Carlisle, Owen Oglethorpe. Scottish coronations Scottish coronations were traditionally held at Scone Abbey in Perthshire, with the monarch seated on the Stone of Destiny. The original rituals were a fusion of ceremonies used by the kings of Dál Riata, based on the inauguration of Aidan by Columba in 574, and by the Picts from whom the Stone of Destiny came. A crown does not seem to have been used until the inauguration of Alexander II in 1214. The ceremony included the laying on of hands by a senior cleric and the recitation of the king's genealogy. The Bishop of St Andrews (from 1472 an archbishop) usually presided, but other bishops and archbishops also performed at some coronations. After the coronation of John Balliol, the Stone was taken to Westminster Abbey in 1296 and in 1300–1301 Edward I of England had it incorporated into the English Coronation Chair. Its first certain use at an English coronation was that of Henry IV in 1399. Pope John XXII in a bull of 1329 granted the kings of Scotland the right to be anointed and crowned. No record exists of the exact form of the medieval rituals, but a later account exists of the coronation of the 17-month-old infant James V at Stirling Castle in 1513. The ceremony was held in a church, since demolished, within the castle walls and was conducted by the Bishop of Glasgow, because the Archbishop of St Andrews had been killed at the Battle of Flodden. It is likely that the child would have been knighted before the start of the ceremony. The coronation itself started with a sermon, followed by the anointing and crowning, then the coronation oath, in this case taken for the child by an unknown noble or priest, and finally an oath of fealty and acclamation by the congregation. James VI had been crowned in the Church of the Holy Rude at Stirling in 1567. After the Union of the Crowns, he was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 25 July 1603. His son Charles I travelled north for a Scottish coronation at Holyrood Abbey in Edinburgh in 1633, but caused consternation amongst the Presbyterian Scots by his insistence on elaborate High Anglican ritual, arousing "gryt feir of inbriginge of poperie". Charles II underwent a simple Presbyterian coronation ceremony at Scone in 1651, but his brother James VII and II was never crowned in Scotland, although Scottish peers attended his coronation in London, setting a precedent for future ceremonies. The coronation of Charles II was the last to take place in Scotland, and no bishop presided as the episcopacy had been abolished; the de facto head of government, Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll, crowned Charles instead. Modern coronations The Liber Regalis was translated into English for the first time for the coronation of James I in 1603, partly as a result of the reformation in England requiring services to be understood by the people, but also an attempt by antiquarians to recover a lost English identity from before the Norman Conquest. In 1685, James II, who was a Catholic, ordered a truncated version of the service omitting the Eucharist, but this was restored for later monarchs. Only four years later, the service was again revised by Henry Compton for the coronation of William III and Mary II. The Latin text was resurrected for the 1714 coronation of the German-speaking George I, since it was the only common language between the king and the clergy. Perhaps because the 1761 coronation of George III had been beset by "numerous mistakes and stupidities", the next time around, spectacle overshadowed the religious aspect of the service. The coronation of George IV in 1821 was an expensive and lavish affair with a vast amount of money being spent on it. George's brother and successor William IV had to be persuaded to be crowned at all; his coronation at a time of economic depression in 1831 cost only one sixth of that spent on the previous event. Traditionalists threatened to boycott what they called a "Half Crown-nation". The king merely wore his robes over his uniform as Admiral of the Fleet. For this coronation, a number of economising measures were made which would set a precedent followed by future monarchs. The assembly of peers and ceremonial at Westminster Hall involving the presentation of the regalia to the monarch was eliminated. The procession from Westminster Hall to the Abbey on foot was likewise eliminated and in its place, a state procession by coach from St James's Palace to the abbey was instituted, an important feature of the modern event. The coronation banquet after the service proper was also terminated. When Victoria was crowned in 1838, the service followed the pared-down precedent set by her uncle, and the under-rehearsed ceremonial, again presided over by William Howley, was marred by mistakes and accidents. The music in the abbey was widely criticised in the press, only one new piece having been written for it, and the large choir and orchestra were badly coordinated. In the 20th century, liturgical scholars sought to restore the spiritual meaning of the ceremony by rearranging elements with reference to the medieval texts, creating a "complex marriage of innovation and tradition". The greatly increased pageantry of the state processions was intended to emphasise the strength and diversity of the British Empire. Bringing coronations to the people The idea of the need to gain popular support for a new monarch by making the ceremony a spectacle for ordinary people, started with the coronation in 1377 of Richard II who was a 10-year-old boy, thought unlikely to command respect simply by his physical appearance. On the day before the coronation, the boy king and his retinue were met outside the City of London by the lord mayor, aldermen and the livery companies, and he was conducted to the Tower of London where he spent the night in vigil. The following morning, the king travelled on horseback in a great procession through the decorated city streets to Westminster. Bands played along the route, the public conduits flowed with red and white wine, and an imitation castle had been built in Cheapside, probably to represent the New Jerusalem, where a girl blew gold leaf over the king and offered him wine. Similar, or even more elaborate pageants continued until the coronation of Charles II in 1661. Charles's pageant was watched by Samuel Pepys who wrote: "So glorious was the show with gold and silver that we were not able to look at it". James II abandoned the tradition of the pageant to pay for jewels for his queen and thereafter there was only a short procession on foot from Westminster Hall to the abbey. For the coronation of William IV and Adelaide in 1831, a state procession from St James's Palace to the abbey was instituted, and this pageantry is an important feature of the modern event. In early modern coronations, the events inside the abbey were usually recorded by artists and published in elaborate folio books of engravings, the last of these was published in 1905 depicting the coronation which had taken place three years earlier. Re-enactments of the ceremony were staged at London and provincial theatres; in 1761, a production featuring the Westminster Abbey choir at the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden ran for three months after the real event. In 1902, a request to record the ceremony on a gramophone record was rejected, but Sir Benjamin Stone photographed the procession into the abbey. Nine years later, at the coronation of George V, Stone was allowed to photograph the recognition, the presentation of the swords, and the homage. The coronation of George VI in 1937 was broadcast on radio by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), and parts of the service were filmed and shown in cinemas. The state procession was shown live on the new BBC Television Service, the first major outside broadcast. At Elizabeth II's coronation in 1953, most of the proceedings inside the abbey were also televised by the BBC. Originally, events as far as the choir screen were to be televised live, with the remainder to be filmed and released later after any mishaps were edited out. This would prevent television viewers from seeing most of the highlights of the coronation, including the actual crowning, live; it led to controversy in the press and even questions in parliament. The organising committee subsequently decided that the entire ceremony would be televised, except for the anointing and communion, which had also been excluded from photography at the last coronation. It was revealed 30 years later that the about-face was due to the personal intervention of the Queen. It is estimated that over 20 million people watched the broadcast in the United Kingdom. The coronation contributed to the increase of public interest in television, which rose significantly. Commonwealth realms The need to include the various elements of the British Empire in coronations was not considered until 1902, when it was attended by the prime ministers and governors-general of the British Dominions, by then almost completely autonomous, and also by many of the rulers of the Indian Princely States and the various British Protectorates. An Imperial Conference was held afterwards. In 1911, the procession inside Westminster Abbey included the banners of the dominions and the Indian Empire along with the traditional banners of the Home Nations. By 1937, the Statute of Westminster 1931 had made the dominions fully independent, and the wording of the coronation oath was amended to include their names and confine the elements concerning religion to the United Kingdom. Thus since 1937, the monarch has been simultaneously crowned as sovereign of several independent nations besides the United Kingdom, known since 1953 as the Commonwealth realms. Elizabeth II was asked, for example: "Will you solemnly promise and swear to govern the Peoples of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, Pakistan and Ceylon, and of your Possessions and other Territories to any of them belonging or pertaining, according to their respective laws and customs?" Preparations Timing The timing of the coronation has varied throughout British history. King Edgar's coronation was some 15 years after his accession in 959 and may have been intended to mark the high point of his reign, or that he reached the age of 30, the age at which Jesus Christ was baptised. Harold II was crowned on the day after the death of his predecessor, Edward the Confessor, the rush probably reflecting the contentious nature of Harold's succession; whereas the first Norman monarch, William I, was also crowned on the day he became king, 25 December 1066, but three weeks since the surrender of English nobles and bishops at Berkhampstead, allowing time to prepare a spectacular ceremony. Most of his successors were crowned within weeks, or even days, of their accession. Edward I was fighting in the Ninth Crusade when he acceded to the throne in 1272; he was crowned soon after his return in 1274. Edward II's coronation, similarly, was delayed by a campaign in Scotland in 1307. Henry VI was only a few months old when he acceded in 1422; he was crowned in 1429, but did not officially assume the reins of government until he was deemed of sufficient age, in 1437. Pre-modern coronations were usually either on a Sunday, the Christian Sabbath, or on a Christian holiday. Edgar's coronation was at Pentecost, William I's on Christmas Day, possibly in imitation of the Byzantine emperors, and John's was on Ascension Day. Elizabeth I consulted her astrologer, John Dee, before deciding on an auspicious date. The coronations of Charles II in 1661 and Anne in 1702 were on St George's Day, the feast of the patron saint of England. Under the Hanoverian monarchs in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, it was deemed appropriate to extend the waiting period to several months, following a period of mourning for the previous monarch and to allow time for preparation of the ceremony. In the case of every monarch between George IV and George V, at least one year passed between accession and coronation. Edward VIII was not crowned and his successor George VI was crowned 5 months after his accession. The coronation date of his predecessor had already been set; planning simply continued with a new monarch. The coronation of Charles III and Camilla was held on 6 May 2023, eight months after he acceded to the throne. Since a period of time has often passed between accession and coronation, some monarchs were never crowned. Edward V and Lady Jane Grey were both deposed before they could be crowned, in 1483 and 1553, respectively. Edward VIII also went uncrowned, as he abdicated in 1936 before the end of the customary one-year period between accession and coronation. A monarch, however, accedes to the throne the moment their predecessor dies, not when they are crowned, hence the traditional proclamation: "The king is dead, long live the king!" Location The Anglo-Saxon monarchs used various locations for their coronations, including Bath, Kingston upon Thames, London, and Winchester. The last Anglo-Saxon monarch, Harold II, was crowned at Westminster Abbey in 1066; the location was preserved for all future coronations. When London was under the control of rebels, Henry III was crowned at Gloucester in 1216; he later chose to have a second coronation at Westminster in 1220. Two hundred years later, Henry VI also had two coronations; as king of England in London in 1429, and as king of France in Paris in 1431. Coronation of consorts and others Coronations may be performed for a person other than the reigning monarch. In 1170, Henry the Young King, heir apparent to the throne, was crowned as a second king of England, subordinate to his father Henry II; such coronations were common practice in mediaeval France and Germany, but this is only one of two instances of its kind in England (the other being that of Ecgfrith of Mercia in 796, crowned whilst his father, Offa of Mercia, was still alive). More commonly, a king's wife is crowned as queen consort. If the king is already married at the time of his coronation, a joint coronation of both king and queen may be performed. The first such coronation was of Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1154; eighteen such coronations have been performed, including that of the co-rulers William III and Mary II. The most recent was that of Charles III and his wife Camilla in 2023. If the king married, or remarried, after his coronation, or if his wife was not crowned with him for some other reason, she might be crowned in a separate ceremony. The first such separate coronation of a queen consort in England was that of Matilda of Flanders in 1068; the last was Anne Boleyn's in 1533. The most recent king to wed post-coronation, Charles II, did not have a separate coronation for his bride, Catherine of Braganza. In some instances, the king's wife was simply unable to join him in the coronation ceremony due to circumstances preventing her from doing so. In 1821, George IV's estranged wife Caroline of Brunswick was not invited to the ceremony; when she showed up at Westminster Abbey anyway, she was denied entry and turned away. Following the English Civil War, Oliver Cromwell declined the crown but underwent a coronation in all but name in his second investiture as Lord Protector in 1657. Participants Clergy The Archbishop of Canterbury, who has precedence over all other clergy and all laypersons except members of the royal family, traditionally officiates at coronations; in his absence, another bishop appointed by the monarch may take the archbishop's place. There have, however, been several exceptions. William I was crowned by the Archbishop of York, since the Archbishop of Canterbury had been appointed by the Antipope Benedict X, and this appointment was not recognised as valid by the Pope. Edward II was crowned by the Bishop of Winchester because the Archbishop of Canterbury had been exiled by Edward I. Mary I, a Catholic, refused to be crowned by the Protestant Archbishop Thomas Cranmer; the coronation was instead performed by the Bishop of Winchester. Elizabeth I was crowned by the Bishop of Carlisle (to whose see is attached no special precedence) because the senior prelates were "either dead, too old and infirm, unacceptable to the queen, or unwilling to serve". Finally, when James II was deposed and replaced with William III and Mary II jointly, the Archbishop of Canterbury refused to recognise the new sovereigns; he had to be replaced by the Bishop of London, Henry Compton. Hence, in almost all cases where the Archbishop of Canterbury has failed to participate, his place has been taken by a senior cleric: the Archbishop of York is second in precedence, the Bishop of London third, the Bishop of Durham fourth, and the Bishop of Winchester fifth. Bishops Assistant From the moment they enter the Abbey until the moment they leave, the monarch is flanked by two supporting bishops of the Church of England. The part played by two supporting bishops dates back to the coronation of Edgar in 973: two bishops led him by hand into Bath Abbey. Since the coronation of Richard I in 1189, the Bishops of Bath & Wells and Durham have assumed this duty.Custom has it that they accompany the monarch throughout the ceremony, flanking them as they process from the entrance of Westminster Abbey and standing either side of St Edward’s Chair during the anointing. Bishops Assistant may also carry the Bible, paten, and chalice in the procession. The Bishop of Durham stands on the monarch's right and the Bishop of Bath and Wells on their left. During the Coronation of King Charles III, Queen Camilla was similarly accompanied by Bishops Assistant - the Bishops of Hereford and of Norwich, on her right and left respectively. Great Officers of State The Great Officers of State traditionally participate during the ceremony. The offices of Lord High Steward and Lord High Constable have not been regularly filled since the 15th and 16th centuries respectively; they are, however, revived for coronation ceremonies. The Lord Great Chamberlain enrobes the sovereign with the ceremonial vestments, with the aid of the Groom of the Robes and the Master (in the case of a king) or Mistress (in the case of a queen) of the Robes. The Barons of the Cinque Ports also participated in the ceremony. Formerly, the barons were the members of the House of Commons representing the Cinque Ports of Hastings, New Romney, Hythe, Dover and Sandwich. Reforms in the 19th century, however, integrated the Cinque Ports into a regular constituency system applied throughout the nation. At later coronations, barons were specially designated from among the city councillors for the specific purpose of attending coronations. Originally, the barons were charged with bearing a ceremonial canopy over the sovereign during the procession to and from Westminster Abbey. The last time the barons performed such a task was at the coronation of George IV in 1821. The barons did not return for the coronations of William IV (who insisted on a simpler, cheaper ceremonial) and Victoria. At coronations since Victoria's, the barons have attended the ceremony, but they have not carried canopies. Other claims to attend the coronation Many landowners and other persons have honorific "duties" or privileges at the coronation. Such rights have traditionally been determined by a special Court of Claims, over which the Lord High Steward traditionally presided. The first recorded Court of Claims was convened in 1377 for the coronation of Richard II. By the Tudor period, the hereditary post of Lord High Steward had merged with the Crown, and so Henry VIII began the modern tradition of naming a temporary Steward for the coronation only, with separate commissioners to carry out the actual work of the court. In 1952, for example, the court accepted the claim of the Dean of Westminster to advise the Queen on the proper procedure during the ceremony (for nearly a thousand years he and his predecessor abbots have kept an unpublished Red Book of practices), the claim of the Lord Bishop of Durham and the Lord Bishop of Bath and Wells to walk beside the Queen as she entered and exited the Abbey and to stand on either side of her through the entire coronation ritual, the claim of the Earl of Shrewsbury in his capacity as Lord High Steward of Ireland to carry a white staff. The legal claim of the Scholars of Westminster School to be the first to acclaim the monarch on behalf of the common people was formally disallowed by the court, but in practice their traditional shouts of "Vivat! Vivat Rex!" were still incorporated into the coronation anthem I was glad. For the 2023 coronation of Charles III and Camilla, a Coronation Claims Office within the Cabinet Office was established instead of the court. Other participants and guests Along with persons of nobility, the coronation ceremonies are also attended by a wide range of political figures, including the prime minister and all members of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom, all governors-general and prime ministers of the Commonwealth realms, all governors of British Crown Colonies (now British Overseas Territories), as well as the heads of state of dependent nations. Hereditary peers and their spouses are also invited. For Elizabeth II's coronation in 1953, 8,000 guests were squeezed into Westminster Abbey and each person had to make do with a maximum of of seating. Dignitaries and representatives from other nations are also customarily invited. Traditionally, foreign crowned monarchs and consorts did not attend the coronations of others and were instead represented by other royals. The coronation of Charles III and Camilla in 2023 broke with that precedent and 16 foreign monarchs attended. English and British queens dowager also did not traditionally attend coronations until Queen Mary broke precendent by attending the 1937 coronation of her son, George VI. Service The general framework of the coronation service is based on the sections contained in the Second Recension used in 973 for King Edgar. Although the service has undergone two major revisions and a translation, and has been modified for each coronation for the following thousand years, the sequence of taking an oath, anointing, investing of regalia, crowning and enthronement found in the Anglo-Saxon text have remained constant. The coronation ceremonies takes place within the framework of Holy Communion. Recognition and oath Before the entrance of the sovereign, the litany of the saints is sung during the procession of the clergy and other dignitaries. For the entrance of the monarch, an anthem from Psalm 122, I was glad, is sung. The sovereign enters Westminster Abbey wearing the crimson surcoat and the Robe of State of crimson velvet and takes their seat on a Chair of Estate. Garter Principal King of Arms, the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Lord Chancellor, the Lord Great Chamberlain, the Lord High Constable and the Earl Marshal go to the east, south, west and north of the coronation theatre. At each side, the archbishop calls for the recognition of the sovereign, with the words: After the people acclaim the sovereign at each side, the archbishop administers an oath to the sovereign. Since the Glorious Revolution, the Coronation Oath Act of 1688 has required, among other things, that the sovereign "Promise and Sweare to Governe the People of this Kingdome of England and the Dominions thereto belonging according to the Statutes in Parlyament Agreed on and the Laws and Customs of the same". The oath has been modified without statutory authority; for example, at the coronation of Elizabeth II, the exchange between the Queen and the archbishop was as follows: In addition to the oath, the monarch may take what is known as the Accession Declaration if they have not yet made it. This declaration was first required by the Bill of Rights of 1689 and is required to be taken at either the first meeting of the parliament after a new monarch's accession (i.e. during the State Opening of Parliament) or at their coronation. The monarch additionally swears a separate oath to preserve Presbyterian church government in the Church of Scotland and this oath is taken before the coronation. Once the taking of the oath concludes, an ecclesiastic presents a Bible to the sovereign, saying "Here is Wisdom; This is the royal Law; These are the lively Oracles of God." The Bible used is a full King James Bible, including the Apocrypha. At Elizabeth II's coronation, the Bible was presented by the Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. Once the Bible is presented, the Holy Communion is celebrated, with a special Collect for the coronation, but the service is interrupted after the Nicene Creed. At the coronation of Elizabeth II, the Epistle was , which instructs readers to respect and obey civil government, and the Gospel was , which contains Jesus's famous instruction to "render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's". Anointing After the Communion service is interrupted, the anthem Come, Holy Ghost is recited, as a prelude to the act of anointing. After this anthem, the Archbishop recites a prayer in preparation for the anointing, which is based on the ancient prayer Deus electorum fortitudo also used in the anointing of French kings. After this prayer, the coronation anthem Zadok the Priest (by George Frederick Handel) is sung by the choir; meanwhile, the crimson robe is removed, and the sovereign proceeds to the Coronation Chair for the anointing, which has been set in a prominent position, wearing the anointing gown. In 1953, the chair stood atop a dais of several steps. This mediaeval chair has a cavity in the base into which the Stone of Scone is fitted for the ceremony. Also known as the "Stone of Destiny", it was used for ancient Scottish coronations until brought to England by Edward I. It has been used for every coronation at Westminster Abbey since. Until 1996, the stone was kept with the chair in Westminster Abbey, but it was moved that year to Edinburgh Castle in Scotland, where it is displayed on the proviso that it be returned to Westminster Abbey for use at future coronations. It was announced by the First Minister in 2020 that the Stone will be relocated to Perth City Hall in 2024. Once seated in this chair, a canopy of golden cloth was in the past held over the monarch's head for the anointing. The duty of acting as canopy-bearers was performed in recent coronations by four Knights of the Garter. This element of the coronation service is considered sacred and is concealed from public gaze; it has never been photographed or televised. The Dean of Westminster pours consecrated oil from an eagle-shaped ampulla into a filigreed spoon with which the Archbishop of Canterbury anoints the sovereign in the form of a cross on the hands, head, and heart. The Coronation Spoon is the only part of the mediaeval Crown Jewels which survived the Commonwealth of England. While performing the anointing, the Archbishop recites a consecratory formula recalling the anointing of King Solomon by Nathan the prophet and Zadok the priest. After being anointed, the monarch rises from the Coronation Chair and kneels down at a faldstool placed in front of it. The archbishop then concludes the ceremonies of the anointing by reciting a prayer that is a modified English translation of the ancient Latin prayer Deus, Dei Filius, which dates back to the Anglo-Saxon second recension. Once this prayer is finished, the monarch rises and sits again in the Coronation Chair. At this point in 2023 the screen was removed. Investing The sovereign is then enrobed in the colobium sindonis (shroud tunic), over which is placed the supertunica. The Lord Great Chamberlain presents the spurs, which represent chivalry. The Archbishop of Canterbury, assisted by other bishops, then presents the Sword of State to the sovereign, who places it on the altar. The sovereign is then further robed, this time receiving bracelets and putting the Robe Royal and Stole Royal on top of the supertunica. The Archbishop then delivers several Crown Jewels to the sovereign. First, he delivers the Orb, a hollow gold sphere decorated with precious and semi-precious stones. The Orb is surmounted by a cross, representing the rule of Jesus over the world; it is returned to the altar immediately after being received. Next, the sovereign receives a ring representing their "marriage" to the nation. The Sovereign's Sceptre with Dove, so called because it is surmounted by a dove representing the Holy Ghost, and the Sovereign's Sceptre with Cross, which incorporates Cullinan I, are delivered to the sovereign. Crowning The Archbishop of Canterbury lifts St Edward's Crown from the high altar, sets it back down, and says a prayer: "Oh God, the crown of the faithful; bless we beseech thee and sanctify this thy servant our king/queen, and as thou dost this day set a crown of pure gold upon his/her head, so enrich his/her royal heart with thine abundant grace, and crown him/her with all princely virtues through the King Eternal Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen". This prayer is the translation of the ancient formula Deus tuorum Corona fidelium, which first appeared in the twelfth-century third recension. The Dean of Westminster picks up the crown and he, the archbishop and several other high-ranking bishops proceed to the Coronation Chair where the crown is handed back to the archbishop, who reverently places it on the monarch's head. At this moment, the king or queen is crowned, and the guests in the abbey cry in unison three times, "God Save the King/Queen". Peers of the realm and officers of arms put on their coronets, the trumpeters sound a fanfare and church bells ring out across the kingdom, as gun salutes echo from the Tower of London and Hyde Park. Finally, the archbishop, standing before the monarch, says the crowning formula, which is a translation of the ancient Latin prayer Coronet te Deus: "God crown you with a crown of glory and righteousness, that having a right faith and manifold fruit of good works, you may obtain the crown of an everlasting kingdom by the gift of him whose kingdom endureth for ever." To this the guests, with heads bowed, say "Amen". When this prayer is finished, the choir sings an English translation of the traditional Latin antiphon Confortare: "Be strong and of a good courage; keep the commandments of the Lord thy God, and walk in his ways". During the singing of this antiphon, all stand in their places, and the monarch remains seated in the Coronation Chair still wearing the crown and holding the sceptres. The recitation of this antiphon is followed by a rite of benediction consisting of several prayers, after each one the congregation replies with "a loud and hearty Amen". Enthronement and homage The benediction being concluded, the sovereign rises from the Coronation Chair and is borne into a throne. Once the monarch is seated on the throne, the formula Stand firm, and hold fast from henceforth… is recited; a translation of the Latin formula Sta et retine…, which was first used in England in the tenth-century second recension, and also appeared in French, German and imperial coronation texts. After the enthronement proper, the act of homage takes place: the archbishops and bishops swear their fealty, saying "I, N., Archbishop [Bishop] of N., will be faithful and true, and faith and truth will bear unto you, our Sovereign Lord [Lady], King [Queen] of this Realm and Defender of the Faith, and unto your heirs and successors according to law. So help me God." In the past peers then proceeded to pay their homage, saying "I, N., Duke [Marquess, Earl, Viscount, Baron or Lord] of N., do become your liege man of life and limb, and of earthly worship; and faith and truth will I bear unto you, to live and die, against all manner of folks. So help me God." The clergy pay homage together, led by the Archbishop of Canterbury. Next, members of the royal family pay homage individually. The peers were then led by the premier peers of their rank: the dukes by the premier duke, the marquesses by the premier marquess, and so forth. In the shortened coronation of Charles III and Camilla, the paying of homage by the peerage was omitted. If there is a queen consort, she is anointed, invested, crowned and enthroned in a simple ceremony immediately after homage is paid. The Communion service interrupted earlier is resumed and completed, but with special prayers: there are prayers for the monarch and consort at the Offertory and a special preface. Finally, the monarch and consort receive Communion, the Gloria in excelsis Deo is sung and the blessing is given. Closing procession The sovereign then exits the coronation theatre, entering St Edward's Chapel (within the abbey), preceded by the bearers of the Sword of State, the Sword of Spiritual Justice, the Sword of Temporal Justice and the blunt Sword of Mercy. While the monarch is in St. Edward's chapel, the choir recites an English translation of the hymn of thanksgiving Te Deum laudamus. St Edward's Crown and all the other regalia are laid on the High Altar of the chapel; the sovereign removes the Robe Royal and Stole Royal, exchanges the crimson surcoat for the purple surcoat and is enrobed in the Imperial Robe of purple velvet. The sovereign then dons the Imperial State Crown and takes into their hands the Sceptre with the Cross and the Orb and leaves the chapel first while all present sing the national anthem. Music The music played at coronations has been primarily classical and religiously inspired. Much of the choral music uses texts from the Bible which have been used at coronations since King Edgar's coronation at Bath in 973 and are known as coronation anthems. In the coronations following the Reformation, court musicians, often the Master of the King's Music, were commissioned to compose new settings for the traditional texts. The most frequently used piece is Zadok the Priest by George Frideric Handel; one of four anthems commissioned from him for George II's coronation in 1727. It has featured in every coronation since, an achievement unparalleled by any other piece. Previous settings of the same text were composed by Henry Lawes for the 1661 coronation of Charles II and Thomas Tomkins for Charles I in 1621. In the 19th century, works by major European composers were often used, but when Sir Frederick Bridge was appointed director of music for the 1902 coronation of Edward VII, he decided that it ought to be a celebration of four hundred years of British music. Compositions by Thomas Tallis, Orlando Gibbons and Henry Purcell were included alongside works by contemporary composers such as Arthur Sullivan, Charles Villiers Stanford and John Stainer. Hubert Parry's I was glad was written as the entrance anthem for the 1902 coronation, replacing an 1831 setting by Thomas Attwood; it contains a bridge section partway through so that the scholars of Westminster School can exercise their right to be the first commoners to acclaim the sovereign, shouting their traditional "vivats" as the sovereign enters the coronation theatre. This anthem and Charles Villiers Stanford's Gloria in excelsis (1911) have also been used regularly in recent coronations, as has the national anthem, God Save the King (or Queen). Other composers whose music featured in Elizabeth II's coronation include Sir George Dyson, Gordon Jacob, Sir William Henry Harris, Herbert Howells, Sir William Walton, Samuel Sebastian Wesley, Ralph Vaughan Williams and the Canadian-resident but English-born Healey Willan. Ralph Vaughan Williams suggested that a congregational hymn be included. This was approved by the Queen and the Archbishop of Canterbury, so Vaughan Williams recast his 1928 arrangement of Old 100th, the English metrical version of Psalm 100, the Jubilate Deo ("All people that on earth do dwell") for congregation, organ and orchestra: the setting has become ubiquitous at festal occasions in the Anglophone world. Dress Several participants in the ceremony wear special costumes, uniforms or robes. For those in attendance (other than members of the royal family) what to wear is laid down in detail by the Earl Marshal prior to each Coronation and published in the London Gazette. Sovereign's robes The sovereign wears a variety of robes and other garments during the course of the ceremony. In contrast to the history and tradition which surround the regalia, it is customary for most coronation robes to be newly made for each monarch. (The present exceptions are the supertunica and Robe Royal, which both date from the coronation of George IV in 1821.) Worn for the first part of the service (and the processions beforehand): Crimson surcoat – the regular dress during most of the ceremony, worn under all other robes. In 1953, Elizabeth II wore a newly made gown in place of a surcoat. Robe of State of crimson velvet or Parliament Robe – the first robe used at a coronation, worn on entry to the abbey and later at State Openings of Parliament. It consists of an ermine cape and a long crimson velvet train lined with further ermine and decorated with gold lace. Worn over the surcoat for the Anointing: Anointing gown – a simple and austere garment worn during the anointing. It is plain white, bears no decoration and fastens at the back. Robes with which the Sovereign is invested (worn thereafter until Communion): Colobium sindonis ("shroud tunic") – the first robe with which the sovereign is invested. It is a loose white undergarment of fine linen cloth edged with a lace border, open at the sides, sleeveless and cut low at the neck. It symbolises the derivation of royal authority from the people. Supertunica – the second robe with which the sovereign is invested. It is a long coat of gold silk which reaches to the ankles and has wide-flowing sleeves. It is lined with rose-coloured silk, trimmed with gold lace, woven with national symbols and fastened by a sword belt. It derives from the full dress uniform of a consul of the Byzantine Empire. Robe Royal or Pallium Regale – the main robe worn during the ceremony and used during the crowning. It is a four-square mantle, lined in crimson silk and decorated with silver coronets, national symbols and silver imperial eagles in the four corners. It is lay, rather than liturgical, in nature. Stole Royal or armilla – a gold silk stole or scarf which accompanies the Robe Royal, richly and heavily embroidered with gold and silver thread, set with jewels and lined with rose-coloured silk and gold fringing. Worn for the final part of the service (and the processions which follow): Purple surcoat – the counterpart to the crimson surcoat, worn during the final part of the ceremony. Imperial Robe of purple velvet – the robe worn at the conclusion of the ceremony, on exit from the abbey. It comprises an embroidered ermine cape with a train of purple silk velvet, trimmed with Canadian ermine and fully lined with pure silk English satin. The purple recalls the imperial robes of Roman Emperors. Headwear Male sovereigns up to and including George VI have traditionally worn a crimson cap of maintenance for the opening procession and when seated in the Chair of Estate during the first part of the service. Charles III arrived at his coronation bareheaded in 2023, rather than with the cap. Female sovereigns (and some female consorts) have traditionally worn the George IV State Diadem, first worn by its namesake, George IV. For the Anointing, the sovereign is bareheaded, and remains so until the Crowning. Monarchs are usually crowned with St Edward's Crown but some have chosen to use other crowns as it weighs 2.23 kg (4.9 lb). For the final part of the service, and the processions that follow, it is exchanged for the lighter Imperial State Crown. Other members of the royal family Certain other members of the royal family wear distinctive robes, most particularly queens consort (including dowagers) and princesses of the United Kingdom, all of whom wear purple velvet mantles edged with ermine over their court dresses. Other members of the royal family in attendance dress according to the conventions listed below, except that royal dukes wear a distinctive form of peer's robe, which has six rows of ermine on the cape and additional ermine on miniver edging to the front of the robe. Headwear Queens consort in the 20th century arrived at their coronation bareheaded, and remained so until the point in the service when they were crowned with their own crown. In the late 17th century and 18th century, queens consort wore Mary of Modena's State Diadem. Prior to the 20th century it was not usual for dowager queens to attend coronations, but Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother both attended the coronations of George VI and Elizabeth II respectively, and each wore the crown, minus its arches, with which she had been crowned for the duration of the service. Princesses and princes of the United Kingdom are provided with distinctive forms of coronet, which they don during the service. A male heir-apparent's coronet displays four crosses-pattée alternating with four fleurs-de-lis, surmounted by an arch. The same style, without the arch, is used by other children and siblings of the monarch. The coronets of children of the heir-apparent display four fleurs-de-lis, two crosses-pattée and two strawberry leaves. A fourth style, including four crosses-pattée and four strawberry leaves, is used for the children of the sons and brothers of sovereigns. The aforementioned coronets are borne in place of those to which they might otherwise be entitled as peers or peeresses. The tradition of coronets was abolished for the 2023 coronation and members of the royal family dressed in robes of their orders of knighthood. Peers All peers and peeresses in attendance are "expected to wear" Robes of State, as described below. These robes are different to the Parliament Robe (worn on occasion by peers who are members of the House of Lords); all peers summoned to attend wear the Robe of State, regardless of membership of the House of Lords, and peeresses' robes are worn not only by women who are peers in their own right, but also by wives and widows of peers. Those entitled to a collar of an order of knighthood wear it over (and attached to) the cape. Peers' robes A peer's coronation robe is a full-length cloak-type garment of crimson velvet, edged down the front with miniver pure, with a full cape (also of miniver pure) attached. On the cape, rows of "ermine tails (or the like)" indicate the peer's rank: dukes have four rows, marquesses three and a half, earls three, viscounts two and a half, and barons and lords of parliament two. Prior to the 19th century peers also wore a matching crimson surcoat edged in miniver. In 1953, "Peers taking part in the Processions or Ceremonies in Westminster Abbey" were directed to wear the Robe of State over full-dress uniform (Naval, Military, RAF or civil), if so entitled, or else over full velvet court dress (or one of the alternative styles of Court Dress, as laid down in the Lord Chamberlain's regulations). Other peers in attendance were "expected to wear the same if possible"; but the wearing of evening dress, or a black suit with white bow tie, were also permitted (as was the use of a Parliament Robe or a mantle of one of the Orders of Knighthood by those not taking part in the Processions or Ceremonies). Peeresses' robes A peeress's coronation robe is described as a long (trained) crimson velvet mantle, edged all round with miniver pure and having a cape of miniver pure (with rows of ermine indicating the rank of the wearer, as for peers). Furthermore, the length of the train (and the width of the miniver edging) varies with the rank of the wearer: for duchesses, the trains are 1.8 m (2 yds) long, for marchionesses one and three-quarters yards, for countesses one and a half yards, for viscountesses one and a quarter yards, and for baronesses and ladies 90 cm (1 yd). The edgings are 13 cm (5 in) in width for duchesses, 10 cm (4 in) for marchionesses, 7.5 cm (3 in) for countesses and 5 cm (2 in) for viscountesses, baronesses and ladies. This Robe of State is directed to be worn with a sleeved crimson velvet kirtle, which is similarly edged with miniver and worn over a full-length white or cream court dress (without a train). Headwear During the Coronation, peers and peeresses formerly put on coronets. Like their robes, their coronets are differentiated according to rank: the coronet of a duke or duchess is ornamented with eight strawberry leaves, that of a marquess or marchioness has four strawberry leaves alternating with four raised silver balls, that of an earl or countess eight strawberry leaves alternating with eight raised silver balls, that of a viscount or viscountess has sixteen smaller silver balls and that of a baron or baroness six silver balls. Peeresses' coronets are identical to those of peers, but smaller. In addition, peeresses were told in 1953 that "a tiara should be worn, if possible". The use of coronets was abolished for the 2023 coronation. Others In 1953, those taking part in the Procession inside the Abbey who were not peers or peeresses were directed to wear full-dress (naval, military, air force or civil) uniform, or one of the forms of court dress laid down in the Lord Chamberlain's Regulations for Dress at Court. These regulations, as well as providing guidance for members of the public, specify forms of dress for a wide variety of office-holders and public officials, clergy, the judiciary, members of the Royal Household, etc. It also includes provision for Scottish dress to be worn. Officers in the Armed Forces and the Civil, Foreign, and Colonial Services who did not take part in the Procession wore uniform, and male civilians: "one of the forms of court dress as laid down in the Lord Chamberlain's Regulations for Dress at Court, or evening dress with knee breeches or trousers, or morning dress, or dark lounge suits". Ladies attending in 1953 were instructed to wear "evening dresses or afternoon dresses, with a light veiling falling from the back of the head". Coats and hats were not permitted but tiaras could be worn. In 1953 an additional note made it clear that "Oriental dress may be worn by Ladies and Gentlemen for whom it is the usual Ceremonial Costume". After-celebrations Since the 20th century it has been traditional for the newly crowned monarch and other members of the royal family to sit for official portraits at Buckingham Palace and appear on the balcony, from where in 1953 they watched a flypast by the Royal Air Force. During the appearance, the monarch wears the Imperial State Crown and, if there is one, the queen consort wears her consort crown. In the evening, a fireworks display is held nearby, usually in Hyde Park. In 1902, Edward VII's illness led to the postponement of a fourteen-course banquet at Buckingham Palace. In 1953, two state banquets were held in the ballroom there, and classical music was provided by the Royal Horse Guards. Historically, the coronation was immediately followed by a banquet held in Westminster Hall in the Palace of Westminster (which is also the home to the Houses of Parliament). The King or Queen's Champion (the office being held by the Dymoke family in connection with the Manor of Scrivelsby) would ride into the hall on horseback, wearing a knight's armour, with the Lord High Constable riding to his right and the Earl Marshal riding to his left. A herald would then make a proclamation of the readiness of the champion to fight anyone denying the monarch. After 1800, the form for this was as follows: The King's Champion would then throw down the gauntlet; the ceremony would be repeated at the centre of the hall and at the High Table (where the sovereign would be seated). The sovereign would then drink to the champion from a gold cup, which he would then present to the latter. This ritual was dropped from the coronation of Queen Victoria and was never revived. The offices of Chief Butler of England, Grand Carver of England and Master Carver of Scotland were also associated with the coronation banquet. Banquets have not been held at Westminster Hall since the coronation of George IV in 1821. His coronation was the most elaborate in history; his brother and successor William IV eliminated the banquet on grounds of economy, ending a 632-year-old tradition. Since 1901, a Coronation Fleet Review has also been held. To celebrate the coronation, a coronation honours list is also released before the coronation. Enthronement as Emperor of India Queen Victoria assumed the title Empress of India in 1876. A durbar (court) was held in Delhi, India on 1 January 1877 to proclaim her assumption of the title. The queen did not attend personally, but she was represented there by the Viceroy, Lord Lytton. A similar durbar was held on 1 January 1903 to celebrate the accession of Edward VII, who was represented by his brother the Duke of Connaught. In 1911, George V also held a durbar which he and his wife Queen Mary attended in person. Since it was deemed inappropriate for a Christian anointing and coronation to take place in a largely non-Christian nation, George V was not crowned in India; instead, he wore an imperial crown as he entered the Durbar. Tradition prohibited the removal of the Crown Jewels from the United Kingdom; therefore, a separate crown, known as the Imperial Crown of India, was created for him. The emperor was enthroned, and the Indian princes paid homage to him. Thereafter, certain political decisions, such as the decision to move the capital from Calcutta to Delhi, were announced at the durbar. The ceremony was not repeated, and the imperial title was abandoned by George VI in 1948, 10 months after India gained independence. Kings of Arms Aside from kings and queens, the only individuals authorised to wear crowns (as opposed to coronets) are the Kings of Arms, the United Kingdom's senior heraldic officials. Like the peers' coronets, these crowns are only put on at the actual moment of the monarch's crowning, after which they are worn for the rest of the service and its subsequent festivities. Garter, Clarenceaux, and Norroy and Ulster Kings of Arms have heraldic jurisdiction over England, Wales and Northern Ireland; Lord Lyon King of Arms is responsible for Scotland. In addition, there is a King of Arms attached to each of the Order of the Bath, Order of St. Michael and St. George and the Order of the British Empire. These have only a ceremonial role, but are authorised by the statutes of their orders to wear the same crown as Garter at a coronation. The crown of a King of Arms is silver-gilt and consists of sixteen acanthus leaves alternating in height, and inscribed with the words Miserere mei Deus secundum magnam misericordiam tuam (Latin: "Have mercy on me O God according to Thy great mercy", from Psalm 51). The Lord Lyon King of Arms has worn a crown of this style at all coronations since that of George III. Prior to that he wore a replica of the Crown of Scotland. In 2004 a new replica of this crown was created for use by the Lord Lyon. See also Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom Westminster Abbey List of people involved in coronations of the British monarch List of British coronations References Bibliography External links Coronations and the Royal Archives at the Royal Family website Coronations: An ancient ceremony at the Royal Collection Trust website A Synopsis of English and British Coronations Planning the next Accession and Coronation: FAQs by The Constitution Unit, University College London Book describing English medieval Coronation found in Pamplona at the Medieval History of Navarre website (in Spanish) Videos Elizabeth is Queen (1953) 47-minute documentary by British Pathé at YouTube Coronation 1937 – Technicolor – Sound newsreel by British Movietone News at YouTube Long to Reign Over Us, Chapter Three: The Coronation by Lord Wakehurst on the Royal Channel at YouTube British monarchy Culture of the United Kingdom
402124	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20Light%20Horse	Australian Light Horse	Australian Light Horse were mounted troops with characteristics of both cavalry and mounted infantry, who served in the Second Boer War and World War I. During the inter-war years, a number of regiments were raised as part of Australia's part-time military force. These units were gradually mechanised either before or during World War II, although only a small number undertook operational service during the war. A number of Australian light horse units are still in existence today. Origins The Australian Light Horse was established as the outcome of a debate that took place in military circles in Australia in the late 19th – early 20th centuries concerning the future of mounted troops. The example of the Franco-Prussian War illustrated that the battlefield had become dominated by massed land armies supported by artillery. For Australia the reality was vast spaces with sparse populations making it difficult to consider anything that remotely looked like the European model. The 1890s were wracked by drought and depression ensuring that none of the states were able to afford anything but the most token of armies supported by a large contingent of volunteers. The Second Boer War provided the short term answer. While Australian forces fought against the Boers in South Africa, the Boer methodology of conducting war was considered to be the answer for Australian defence. Volunteer Light Horse Regiments were established around Australia supported by the Rifle Club movement which provided semi trained reinforcements for the various formations. Should these formations be called upon to defend Australia, the local commander was charged with maintaining resistance through the use of the Commando formation which envisaged a large scale guerrilla war. The prospect of an endless and strength-sapping guerrilla war was the key deterrent factor which relied heavily upon mobile soldiers. The mounted infantry remained the key to the Australian defence posture until the Kitchener Report of 1910 () which envisaged formations that could be slotted directly into an Imperial expeditionary force. The plan envisaged two mounted divisions. By the outbreak of World War I, there were 23 light horse regiments within Australia's part-time military force, consisting of 9,000 personnel. These were organised as follows: 1st Light Horse Brigade (Queensland): 1st (Central Queensland), 2nd (Queensland Mounted Infantry), 3rd (Darling Downs), 4th (Northern Rivers Lancers) and 27th (North Queensland) Light Horse Regiments 2nd Light Horse Brigade (New South Wales): 5th (New England) and 6th (Hunter River Lancers) Light Horse Regiments 3rd Light Horse Brigade (New South Wales): 7th (New South Wales Lancers), 9th (New South Wales Mounted Rifles), 11th (Australian Horse) and 28th (Illawarra) Light Horse Regiments 5th Light Horse Brigade (Victoria): 13th (Gippsland), 15th (Victorian Mounted Rifles), and 16th (Indi) Light Horse Regiments 7th Light Horse Brigade (Victoria): 17th (Campaspe), 19th (Yarrowee), and 20th (Corangamite) and 29th (Port Phillip Horse) Light Horse Regiments 8th Light Horse Brigade (South Australia): 22nd (South Australian Mounted Rifles), 23rd (Barossa), and 24th (Flinders) Light Horse Regiments 25th (Western Australian Mounted Infantry) Light Horse Regiment 26th (Tasmanian Mounted Infantry) Light Horse Regiment Australian Commonwealth Horse Eight battalions formed following federation (1 January 1901); only the 1st and 2nd Battalions saw action before the Second Boer War ended. World War I Formation and organisation Light horse were like mounted infantry in that they usually fought dismounted, using their horses as transport to the battlefield and as a means of swift disengagement when retreating or retiring. A famous exception to this rule though was the charge of the 4th and 12th Light Horse Regiments at Beersheba on 31 October 1917. In 1918, some light horse regiments were equipped with sabres, enabling them to fight in a conventional cavalry role in the advance on Damascus. However, unlike mounted infantry, the light horse also performed certain cavalry roles, such as scouting and screening, while mounted. The light horse were organised along cavalry rather than infantry lines. A light horse regiment, although technically equivalent to an infantry battalion in terms of command level, contained only 25 officers and 400 men as opposed to an infantry battalion that consisted of around 1,000 men. Around a quarter of this nominal strength (or one man in each section of 4) could be allotted to horse-holding duties when the regiment entered combat. A regiment was divided into three squadrons, designated "A", "B" and "C" (equivalent to a company), and a squadron divided into four troops (equivalent to but smaller than a platoon). Each troop was divided into about 10 four-man sections. When dismounting for combat, one man from each section would take the reins of the other three men's horses and lead them out of the firing line where he would remain until called upon. Each regiment initially had a troop of two Maxim guns but during the Gallipoli Campaign, where the light horse served dismounted, this was increased to four guns. In 1916, following the establishment of the Australian Machine Gun Corps, these were consolidated into four light horse machine gun squadrons, each with 12 Vickers machine guns, allocated at brigade level within the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th Light Horse Brigades. In turn, the troops received the Lewis Gun. This was replaced by the Hotchkiss M1909 Benét–Mercié machine gun in April 1917. Eventually they arrived in such numbers as to allow each troop to have a Hotchkiss gun, which considerably added to the mobile firepower of a regiment. The Australian Waler horse was the common mount for the light horsemen, as it was strong and hardy, which was needed in the harsh desert climate. This was facilitated by the horses being left behind in Egypt while the light horsemen went to Gallipoli, allowing them to gradually acclimatise. Although the authorities did not welcome Indigenous men into the Australian Armed Forces, nonetheless some managed to enlist in the Australian Light Horse. Unlike in civilian life, where Indigenous men received a lower rate of pay, in the Army there was only one rate of pay. This may have been a motivation for their enlistment, in addition to other considerations, including patriotism. Several served during the Gallipoli campaign. Skilled in working with horses, and in hot climates, they were valued members of the Light Horse. Gallipoli and the Sinai and Palestine campaign At the start of World War I, Australia committed to provide an all volunteer expeditionary force of 20,000 personnel known as the Australian Imperial Force, which would consist of an infantry division and a light horse brigade. As Australia's commitment to the war increased, the size of the light horse contingent was expanded, with a second and third light horse brigade being raised in late 1914 and early 1915. Eventually, the Australian Light Horse regiments were organised into five brigades: 1st Light Horse Brigade consisted of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd Light Horse Regiments. 2nd Light Horse Brigade consisted of the 5th, 6th, 7th Light Horse Regiments. 3rd Light Horse Brigade consisted of the 8th, 9th, 10th Light Horse Regiments. 4th Light Horse Brigade consisted of the 4th, 11th, 12th Light Horse Regiments. 5th Light Horse Brigade consisted of the 14th and 15th Light Horse Regiments, in combination with the French 1er Regiment Mixte de Cavalerie du Levant and the New Zealand 2nd Machine Gun Squadron. The light horse regiments' first involvement in the fighting during the war came during the Gallipoli Campaign, where the troops of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Brigades were sent to Gallipoli without their horses to provide reinforcements for the infantry. During the campaign they were used mainly in a defensive role, although the light horsemen did participate in several costly battles, such as the Battle of the Nek. After the evacuation of the Gallipoli peninsula in December 1915, the light horse regiments that had been deployed were re-constituted in Egypt and in March 1916, the Australian mounted troops of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Brigades and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade were placed together in the ANZAC Mounted Division. Elements of the light horse brigades also undertook a campaign against the Senussi in the western desert region of Egypt with actions commencing in late 1915 and continuing through until 1917. These actions were largely limited though, and were overshadowed by the Light Horse's involvement in the fighting against Ottoman forces in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign from 1916 to 1918. A reorganisation of the mounted troops was ordered in February 1917 leading to the formation of the Anzac Mounted Division consisting of the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades, the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, and the British 22nd Mounted Brigade. Meanwhile, the Imperial Mounted Division was formed from the 3rd and 4th Light Horse Brigades and the British Yeomanry 5th and 6th Mounted Brigades. The Imperial Mounted Division's name was soon changed to the Australian Mounted Division at the request of the Australian government. The arrival of more yeomanry from Salonika prompted the raising of the Yeomanry Mounted Division (6th, 8th and 22nd Yeomanry Brigades) in June 1917. The three mounted divisions and the Imperial Camel Brigade formed the Desert Mounted Corps under the command of Lieutenant General Harry Chauvel. With the removal of most of the Yeomanry to France and the breakup of the Imperial Camel Corps, the newly formed 5th Light Horse Brigade took its place with the Australian Mounted Division. Two Indian cavalry divisions replaced the Yeomanry Division in the Desert Mounted Corps. Care of horses in the Sinai campaign In 1916, the average loss of sick horses and mules from the Sinai front was approximately 640 per week. They were transported in train loads of thirty trucks, each holding eight horses. Animals which died or were destroyed while on active service were buried from the nearest camp unless this was not practicable. In this case the carcasses were transported to a suitable site away from troops, where they were disemboweled and left to disintegrate in the dry desert air and high temperatures. Animals which died or were destroyed in veterinary units at Kantara, Ismalia, Bilbeis, and Quesna were dealt with in this way and after four days' drying in the sun, the carcasses were stuffed with straw and burnt, after the skins were salved. These were sold to local contractors. Western Front The 13th Light Horse Regiment and one squadron of the 4th Light Horse Regiment served on the Western Front, first as divisional cavalry squadrons for the 2nd, 4th and 5th Divisions, then as the I ANZAC Corps Mounted Regiment. A squadron of the 4th provided the divisional cavalry squadron for the 1st Division, and one of the 14th Light Horse Regiment for the 3rd Division. (This squadron was eventually disbanded.) The original B and D squadrons of the 4th, in combination with New Zealand mounted troops, became part of the II ANZAC Corps Mounted Regiment. After II Anzac Corps was disbanded, the regiment joined 22nd British Corps re-designated as XXII Anzac Mounted Regiment. After the Australian Corps was formed in November 1917, the I Anzac Corps Mounted Regiment became known as the 13th Light Horse Regiment again. The Australian squadrons of XXII Regiment were amalgamated with the 13th Australian Light Horse Regiment. For a month in 1918 during the battles of Hundred Days Offensive, the 13th was attached to the III British Corps, while Sir Alexander Godley briefly commanded III Corps and regarded the regiment as his personal troops. Post World War I After the war, the light horse regiments were distributed as follows: 1st Cavalry Brigade (Toowoomba, Queensland): 2nd, 5th, 11th, 14th Light Horse Regiments 2nd Cavalry Brigade (Maitland, New South Wales): 12th, 15th, 16th Light Horse Regiments 3rd Cavalry Brigade (Melbourne): 8th, 13th, 20th Light Horse Regiments 4th Cavalry Brigade (Paddington, New South Wales): 1st, 6th, 7th, 21st Light Horse Regiments 5th Cavalry Brigade (Melbourne) (disbanded 1936): 4th, 17th, 19th Light Horse Regiments 6th Cavalry Brigade (Adelaide): 3rd, 9th, 18th, 23rd Light Horse Regiments These cavalry brigades were organised into two cavalry divisions: the 1st and 2nd. At the outbreak of World War 2, there were 25 light horse regiments. Of these, 17 were still horsed although they had been partially mechanised, while four had been converted to machine gun regiments and two had been converted to armoured car regiments. Throughout the war, the various light horse units were converted to motorised infantry, armoured car or armoured regiments, serving mainly in the defence of Australia. As the threat of invasion passed, though, most were disbanded in 1943 or 1944 and their personnel redistributed amongst other units. By 1945, only two units remained. The first of these was the 20th Light Horse Regiment, which as the 20th Motor Regiment, served overseas, at Merauke, and was later converted into a pioneer regiment. The second unit was the 1st Light Horse Regiment, which became the 1st Tank Battalion, and as such fought in New Guinea and Borneo. Legacy A number of Australian light horse units are still in existence today, generally as Royal Australian Armoured Corps (RAAC) cavalry units. Including the 1st/15th Royal New South Wales Lancers, 2nd/14th Light Horse Regiment (Queensland Mounted Infantry), 3rd/9th Light Horse (South Australian Mounted Rifles), 4th/19th Prince of Wales's Light Horse, 10th Light Horse Regiment, and the 12th/16th Hunter River Lancers. The Memorial to the Australian Light Horse at Tamworth was unveiled by Major General Digger James on 29 October 2005. The Australian Light Horse are commemorated by the Light Horse Interchange and sculptural installations along the M4 motorway where it is crossed by the M7 at Eastern Creek in Western Sydney. On 28 April 2008, Australia's Governor-General Major General (ret) Michael Jeffery and Israeli President Shimon Peres unveiled a monument to the Light Horse in Beersheba, Israel. It was made by Australian sculptor Peter Corlett and was an initiative of the Melbourne-based Pratt Foundation in cooperation with the Beersheba City Council. On 31 October 2017, the Beersheba ANZAC Memorial Center was inaugurated in the presence of Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull, New Zealand Governor-General Dame Patsy Reddy and Beersheba Mayor Ruvik Danilovich. Also present were Peter Smaller, President of JNF Australia and Dan Springer, CEO of JNF Australia, which donated most of the funds to build the memorial center. It stands within the grounds of the British war cemetery in Beersheba, and the building resembles a horse head, commemorating tens of thousands of horses that served and died throughout the war. It also holds a small collection of war remnants dated back to the British conquest of Palestine. The ANZAC Trail from the coast retraces the cavalry's three-day path to the Battle of Beersheba. On 26 September 2019, a life-size sculpture, 'The Aborigine and His Horse,' was dedicated at Tzemach, commemorating Aborigine ANZAC members, dubbed the "Queensland Black Watch", including cavalrymen who fought at Tzemach and Be'er Sheva. Descendants of those horsemen travelled from Australia to participate in the statue's inauguration, "another stage in the historic correction that Australian society is undergoing in their relations with the Aborigines." On 11 November 1966, Sir Arthur Fadden (Australian Prime Minister in 1941) unveiled a statue of Sir William Glasgow created by Brisbane sculptor Daphne Mayo; Sir William Glasgow is depicted in the uniform of an officer of the Australian Light Horse. The statue was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register in 2004 and was relocated to Post Office Square, Brisbane in 2008, adjacent to ANZAC Square, Brisbane. Commemorations of the Battle of Beersheba typically occur at the memorial in Canberra every year on 31 October, with bigger gatherings on the 5-year dates. In 1931, Dorothy Brooke, an Englishwoman living in Cairo, wrote a letter to a British newspaper, soliciting funds to euthanize the ageing army horses, who had been sold to the local Egyptians and were over 20 years old by then. She later established Brooke, an international animal welfare charity dedicated to improving the lives of working horses, donkeys and mules. Many of the descendants of the army horses are still in use today, carrying tourists around the pyramids of Giza in Cairo, and providing transport for local Egyptians After Egyptian tourism collapsed following the Arab Spring in 2011, animal charities such as Brooke and Egypt Equine Aid stepped in to help with the care of the horses and prevent disaster. Light Horse Memorial Park in Seymour, Victoria is on part of the site where the Australian Light Horse trained during World War I. Popular culture Literature The Wells of Beersheba (1933) by Frank Dalby Davison The Desert Column (1932) by Ion L. Idriess: the only known published account by a participant who was not an officer. As if He Knows (2001) – song by Eric Bogle reflecting the feelings of Light Horsemen farewelling their mounts in Egypt at the end of World War I. The narrator bitterly reflects that his horse "who asked so little and gave so much" will soon be dead. It was not possible to ship the animals back to Australia and most that could not be transferred to British or Indian army units were shot. Only a few hundred survived and were sold to Egyptians. Film Several films include the charge at Beersheba in 1917: 40,000 Horsemen (1940) The Lighthorsemen (1987) The Adventures of Young Indiana Jones: Daredevils of the Desert (direct to video, 1992) Gallipoli Directed by Peter Weir See also Arab Revolt Light horse field ambulance Middle Eastern theatre of World War I Military history of Australia during World War I Horses in World War I Light Horse Regiment (South Africa) South Alberta Light Horse (Canada) References Citations Bibliography Further reading External links The Australian Light Horse Association The Australian War Memorial: Australian Military Units, 1914–1918 Australian Light Horse Studies Centre The Beersheba ANZAC Memorial Center
402126	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20water%20companies	List of United States water companies	This is a list of water companies in the United States. For more information see water supply and sanitation in the United States. Alabama Asbury Water Authority Autauga County Water Authority Autaugaville Water Authority Bakerhill Water Authority Bear Creek Water Works Board Beauregard Water Authority Bellwood Water And Fire Protection Authority Big Wills Water Authority Blount County Water Authority Boldo Water And Fire Protection Authority Buhl Elrod And Holman Water Authority Butler County Water Authority Calhoun County Water And Fire Protection Authority Canoe Water And Fire Protection Authority Carrolls Creek Water Authority Central Elmore County Water Authority Central Talladega County Water District Chandler Mountain-Greasy Cove Water Authority Chattahoochee Valley Water Supply District Cherokee County Water Authority Chilton Water Authority Chisholm Heights Water And Fire Protection Authority Choctaw Edna Water Authority Clarke Wilcox Monroe Water Authority Clay County Water Authority Cleburne County Water Authority Coaling Water Authority Coffee County Water Authority Coker Water Authority Inc Cook Springs Water Authority Inc Coosa Valley Water Supply District Covington County Water Authority Cowikee Water Authority Cumberland Mountain Water And Fire Protection Authority Curry Water Authority Dale County Water Authority Deer Park Vinegar Bend Water And Fire Protection Authority Dekalb Jackson Water Supply District Douglas Water And Fire Protection Authority East Lauderdale County Water And Fire Protection Authority Edwardsville Water And Fire Protection Authority Elmore Water Authority Fayette County Water Authority Fayetteville Water And Fire Protection Authority Five Star Water Supply District Fosters Ralph Water Authority Franklin County Water Service Authority Frankville Water And Fire Protection Authority Greenhill Water And Fire Protection Authority Hackneyville Water Authority Hale County Water Authority Hamden Ridge Water Authority Harrisburg Water Authority Harvest-Monrovia Water Authority Henry County Water Authority Inc Highland Water Authority Hollins Water Authority Houston County Water Authority Huguley Water Authority Huntsville Utilities Huxford Water And Fire Protection Authority Ida Station Water District Jackson's Gap Water Authority Joppa Hulaco And Ryan Water Authority Kushla Water District Lagrange Mountain Water Authority Lamar County Water And Fire Protection Authority Leroy Water Authority Limestone County Water And Sewer Authority Little Waxie Water Authority Loachapoka Water Authority Lowndes County Water Authority Lowndesboro Water Authority Lyeffion Water And Fire Protection Authority Macon County Water And Fire Protection Authority MCB Water And Fire Protection Authority Mcintosh Water And Fire Protection Authority Mid Central Water And Fire Protection Authority Millers Ferry Water Authority Millerville Water And Fire Protection Authority Montgomery Water Works and Sanitary Sewer Board Moulton Water Authority Mount Andrew Water Authority Mount Pleasant Battens Water Authority Munford Water And Fire Protection Authority New London Water Sewer And Fire Protection Authority North Baldwin Water Authority North Choctaw Water And Sewer Authority North Clarke Water Authority North Dallas Water Authority North Geneva County Water Authority North Jackson County Water Authority Northeast Alabama Water Authority Northeast Morgan County Water Authority Old Line Water Authority Old Suggsville Water And Fire Protection Authority Orange Beach Water Sewer And Fire Protection Authority Owassa And Brownville Waterworks And Fire Protection Authority Owens Cross Roads Water Authority Park City Water Authority Perdido Bay Water Sewer And Fire Protection Authority Perdido Water Service Authority Perry County Water Authority Peterson Water Authority Pickens County Water Authority Pike County Water Authority Pilgrim-Providence Water And Fire Protection Authority Pine Bluff Water Authority Pine Level Water Authority Pintlala Water And Fire Protection Authority Providence Water Authority Quint-Mar Water Authority Ray Water Authority Remlap-Pine Mountain Water And Fire Protection Authority Ridgeroad Water Authority Rockwood Water Authority Russell County Water Authority Saint Elmo Irvington Water Authority Sand Mountain Water Authority Sand Springs Water Authority Sellers Station Water And Fire Protection Authority Smiths Water And Sewer Authority Snowdoun Water And Fire Protection Authority South Bullock County Water Authority South Crenshaw Water Authority South Dallas Water Authority South Marengo County Water And Fire Protection Authority Southwest Alabama Water And Fire Protection Authority Spring Valley Water Authority Star-Mindingall Water Authority Stewartville Water Authority Sumter County Water Authority Tibbie Water And Fire Protection Authority Tillison Bend Water Authority Townley Water Authority Turnerville Water And Fire Protection Authority Twin Water Authority Upper Bear Creek Water Authority Wall Street Water Authority Walnut Hill Water Authority Walter Water Authority Warrior River Water Authority Washington County Water Authority Wattsville Water Authority West Autauga Water Authority West Barbour County Water And Fire Protection Authority West Clark Water Authority West Dallas County Water And Fire Protection Authority West Etowah County Water Authority West Lauderdale County Water And Fire Protection Authority West Morgan-East Lawrence Water And Sewer Authority Whorton Bend Water Authority Wolf Creek Water Sewer And Fire Protection Authority Arizona Arizona Water Company Mohave County Water Authority Phoenix Water Services Department Pinal County Water Augmentation Authority Queen Creek Irrigation Water Delivery District 32 Silverbell Irrigation District Thunderbird Water Delivery District 1 Tucson Water Arkansas Central Arkansas Water Little Rock Water Reclamation Authority California California American Water California Department of Water Resources California Water Service Castaic Water Agency Del Oro Water Company East Bay Municipal Utility District Escondido Utilities Fallbrook Public Utility District Fresno Irrigation District Kern Water Bank Authority Kings River Conservation District JG Boswell Company Water Department Long Beach Water Department Los Angeles Department of Water and Power Marin Water Mesa Water District Metropolitan Water District of Southern California Municipal Water District of Orange County Oceanside Water Utilities Orange County Water District Orange Cove Irrigation District Otay Water District Padre Dam Municipal Water District Panoche Water District San Diego County Water Authority San Diego Water Department San Francisco Public Utilities Commission SJW Group San Luis and Delta-Mendota Water Authority Santa Clara Valley Water District Santa Margarita Water District Semitropic Water Storage District Solano Irrigiation District South Mesa Water Company South Montebello Irrigation District Southwest Water company Sunnyslope Water company Tulare Lake Basin Water Storage District Tulare Lake Drainage District Turlock Irrigation District Vallecitos Water District Valley Center Municipal Water District Vista Irrigation District Walnut Valley Water District Western Heights Water Company Westlands Water District Colorado Academy Water & Sanitation District Alpensee Water District Arapahoe Estates Water District Aurora Water Baca Grande Water & Sanitation District Bailey Water & Sanitation District Bancroft-Clover Water and Sanitation District Baseline Water District Bear Creek Water and Sanitation District Bennett Bear Creek Farms Water & Sanitation District Berkeley Water & Sanitation District Beulah Water Works District Blue Mountain Water District Bone Mesa Domestic Water District Bonvue Water & Sanitation District Bow Mar Water & Sanitation District Box Elder Water and Sanitation District Brook Forest Water District Brownsville Water and Sanitation District Buffalo Creek Water District Byers Water & Sanitation District Castleton Center Water and Sanitation District Castlewood Water and Sanitation District Centennial Water & Sanitation District Central Adams County Water & Sanitation District Central Weld County Water District Chatfield South Water District Cherry Creek Valley Water and Sanitation District Cherry Creek Village Water District Cherry Hills Heights Water & Sanitation District Chipeta Water District City of Fountain's Water Department Clear Creek Valley Water & Sanitation District Clifton Water District Colorado Springs Utilities Columbine Lake Water District Columbine Water and Sanitation District Cottonwood Water and Sanitation District Crestview Water and Sanitation District Crow Hill Water and Sanitation District Cucharas Sanitation & Water District Deer Creek Water District Denver Southeast Suburban Water & Sanitation District Diamond Ridge Water & Sanitation District Dominion Water & Sanitation District Donala Water and Sanitation District Eagle River Water & Sanitation District East Alamosa Water and Sanitation District East Boulder County Water District East Cherry Creek Valley Water & Sanitation District East Dillon Water District East Larimer County Water District Florissant Water & Sanitation District Forest View Acres Water District Fort Collins-Loveland Water District Garden Valley Water and Sanitation District Genesee Water & Sanitation District Granby Silver Creek Water and Wastewater Authority Grand County Water and Sanitation District No. 1 Green Mountain Water and Sanitation District Greenwood Plaza Water District Havana Water and Sanitation District Hazeltine Heights Water and Sanitation District Heeney Water District High View Water District Highland Lakes Water District Hi-Line Water and Sanitation District Hillcrest Water and Sanitation District Himalaya Water and Sanitation District Holly Hills Water and Sanitation District Hoover Hill Water & Sanitation District Idledale Water and Sanitation District Indian Hills Water District Inverness Water and Sanitation District Ken Caryl West Ranch Water District Ken-Caryl Ranch Water & Sanitation District Kittredge Sanitation and Water District Lakehurst Water & Sanitation District Lakeview Estates Water District Left Hand Water District Little Thompson Water District Longs Peak Water District Lookout Mountain Water District Mansfield Heights Water & Sanitation District Meadowbrook Water District Mesa Cortina Water and Sanitation District Mesa Water & Sanitation District Miller Ranch Water & Sanitation District Montezuma County Water District #1 Morgan County Quality Water District Morrison Creek Metropolitan Water & Sanitation District Mountain View Villages Water and Sanitation District Mountain Water and Sanitation District Mt Crested Butte Water & Sanitation District Mt. Werner Water and Sanitation District Navajo Western Water District North Carter Lake Water District North Lincoln Water and Sanitation District North Pecos Water & Sanitation District North Shore Water District North Table Mountain Water and Sanitation District North Weld County Water District Northern Colorado Water Conservancy District Northern Douglas County Water and Sanitation District Northgate Water District Olde Stage Water District Pagosa Area Water and Sanitation District Park Center Water District Park Forest Water District Parker Water and Sanitation District Parkville Water District Penrose Water District Pinewood Springs Water District Pioneer Lookout Water District Platte Canyon Water and Sanitation District Pleasant View Water and Sanitation District Rainbow Valley Water District Ralston Valley Water and Sanitation District Red Hawk Ranch Water & Sanitation District Redstone Water and Sanitation District Resource Colorado Water and Sanitation MD Ridgewood Water District Roaring Fork Water & Sanitation District Rock Creek Mesa Water District Round Mountain Water and Sanitation District Roxborough Water and Sanitation District Rural Water Authority of Douglas County Security Water District Sedalia Water and Sanitation District Shannon Water and Sanitation District Silver Heights Water & Sanitation SilverCreek Water & Sanitation District Snake River Water District Snowmass Water & Sanitation District Somerset Domestic Waterworks District South Adams County Water & Sanitation District South Evergreen Water District South Fork Water and Sanitation District South Sheridan Water, Sanitary Sewer & Storm Drain South-East Englewood Water District Southwest Metropolitan Water and Sanitation District Southwest Suburban Denver Water and Sanitation District Spring Canyon Water & Sanitation District St. Mary's Glacier Water and Sanitation District Steamboat Lake Water and Sanitation District Strasburg Sanitation and Water District Stratmoor Hills Water District Tabernash Meadows Water & Sanitation District Teller County Water & Sanitation District #1 Timber Creek Water District Timbers Water and Sanitation District Tri-County Water Conservancy District Turkey Canon Ranch Water District United Water & Sanitation District Upper Bear Creek Water and Sanitation District Upper Big Sandy Ground Water Management District Valley at Winter Park Water District Valley Water District West Fort Collins Water District Westcreek Lake Water District Westwood Lakes Water District Wheat Ridge Water District Widefield Water and Sanitation District Willowbrook Water & Sanitation District Willows Water District Winter Park Ranch Water and Sanitation District Winter Park Water & Sanitation District Woodmoor Water and Sanitation District No. 1 Connecticut Metropolitan District Commission (Hartford area) Regional Water Authority (New Haven area) Aquarion Water Company (Fairfield, New Haven, Hartford, Litchfield, Middlesex and New London Counties) Delaware Lewes Board of Public Works Middlesex Water Company Municipal Services Commission of the City of New Castle Wilmington Department of Public Works District of Columbia D.C. Water and Sewer Authority (DCWASA) Washington Aqueduct (wholesale) Florida Aqua America - Florida Gainesville Regional Utilities Hialeah Department of Water and Sewers JEA (formerly Jacksonville Electric Authority) Miami-Dade Water and Sewer Department Miami-Petersburg Department of Water and Sewers Orlando Utilities Commission St. Petersburg Water Resources Department Tampa Bay Water Georgia City of Atlanta Department of Watershed Management Cherokee County Water & Sewerage Authority City of Austell Water System City of Canton Water System City of Mountain Park Water System City of Powder Springs Water System City of Smyrna Water System City of Woodstock Water System Cobb County - Marietta Water Authority Cobb County Water System Columbus Water Works Douglasville/Douglas County Water Authority Etowah Water and Sewer Authority Gwinnett County Department of Water Resources Gilmer County Water Authority Heard County Water Authority Henry County Water Authority Jackson County Water and Sewerage Authority Macon Water Authority Marietta Board of Lights and Water Paulding County Water System Pickens County Water Authority Upper Oconee Basin Water Authority Waleska Water Authority Hawaii Hawaii American Water Illinois Aqua America - Illinois Aurora Department of Public Works Axton Environmental Chicago Department of Water Management Illinois American Water Rockford Department of Public Works Indiana Aqua America - Indiana Indiana American Water Indianapolis Water Iowa Des Moines Water Works Iowa American Water Kansas Kansas City Board of Public Utilities WaterOne Kentucky Kentucky American Water Louisville Water Company Owensboro Municipal Utilities Martin County Water District Prestonsburg City Utilities Paintsville City Utilities Louisa City Water Southern Water District Salyersville Water Works Mountain Water District Frankfort Plant Board Big Sandy Water District Rattlesnake Ridge Water District City of Ashland Water Department Louisiana Baton Rouge Water Company City of Bogalusa City of Monroe Jefferson Parish Water Department Sewerage and Water Board of New Orleans Shreveport Office of Water and Sewerage Maine Aqua America - Maine Maine Water - Owned by Connecticut Water Portland Water District (Greater Portland area) Maryland Anne Arundel County Department of Public Works Baltimore Bureau of Water and Wastewater (serves City of Baltimore and Baltimore County) Easton Utilities Maryland American Water Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission (Montgomery County and Prince George's County) Massachusetts Boston Water and Sewer Commission Cambridge Water Department Holyoke Water Works KWI North America Lynn Water and Sewer Commission Massachusetts Water Resources Authority (wholesale) Michigan Detroit Water and Sewerage Department Grand Rapids Water System Great Lakes Water Authority Holland Board of Public Works Lansing Board of Water and Light Michigan American Water Minnesota Minneapolis Water Department Saint Paul Regional Water Services Mississippi Jackson Department of Public Works Missouri Aqua America - Missouri City Utilities of Springfield Missouri American Water St. Louis Water Division Nebraska Metropolitan Utilities District (Omaha Metro Area) New Hampshire Pennichuck Corporation (central and southern NH) New Jersey Aqua America - New Jersey Atlantic City Municipal Utilities Authority Brick Township Municipal Utilities Authority East Windsor Municipal Utilities Authority Freehold Township Water And Sewer Middlesex Water Company New Jersey American Water Newark Department of Water and Sewer Utilities Ocean County Municipal Utilities Authority Passaic Valley Water Commission Trenton Water Works United Water New York American Water (Long Island) Aqua America - New York Buffalo Water Authority Lakewood Township Municipal Utilities Authority New York City Department of Environmental Protection Rochester Bureau of Water and Lighting Syracuse Water Department Yonkers Department of Public Works North Carolina Aqua America - North Carolina Cape Fear Public Utility Authority (Wilmington-New Hanover County) Charlotte Water Durham Public Works Department Greensboro Water Resources Department Orange Water and Sewer Authority (OWASA) Raleigh Public Utilities Department Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Utilities Division Ohio Akron Public Utilities Bureau Aqua America - Ohio Cleveland Division of Water Columbus Department of Public Utilities Del-Co Water Company Greater Cincinnati Water Works Ohio American Water Toledo Department of Public Utilities Oklahoma Oklahoma City Department of Utilities Oregon Portland Water Bureau Pennsylvania Aqua Pennsylvania Borough of Kutztown Water Department Borough of Quakertown Water Department Borough of Schuylkill Haven Utilities Department City of Bethlehem Department of Water & Sewer Resources Doylestown Borough Water Department Ephrata Area Joint Authority Erie Water Works Horsham Water and Sewer Authority North Penn Water Authority North Wales Water Authority Pennsylvania American Water Philadelphia Water Department Pittsburgh Water and Sewer Authority South Middleton Municipal Authority Warminster Municipal Authority South Carolina Aqua America - South Carolina Beaufort-Jasper Water and Sewer Authority (BJWSA) Charleston Water System City of Columbia Water Greenville Water Spartanburg Water Tennessee Tennessee American Water Texas Aqua America - Texas Austin Water Clear Lake City Water Authority Corpus Christi Water Department Dallas Water Utilities El Paso Water Utilities Fort Worth Water Department Greater Texoma Utility Authority Houston Water North Texas Municipal Water District San Antonio Water System Tarrant Regional Water District Texas American Water The Trinity River Authority of Texas Utah Salt Lake City Department of Public Utilities Washington County Water Conservancy District Vermont Burlington Department of Public Works Virginia Aqua America - Virginia City of Fairfax Utilities [Fairfax City] City of Falls Church Department of Public Works (serves Falls Church and east-central Fairfax County) City of Manassas Utilities (also wholesale) Fairfax County Water Authority (most of Fairfax County, major wholesaler to surrounding areas) Loudoun Water (formerly Loudoun County Sanitation Authority), serves the unincorporated areas of Loudoun County Prince William County Service Authority (most of Prince William County except Dale City) Town of Leesburg Water Town of Purcellville Water Virginia American Water Company (Alexandria, Dale City and Hopewell) Washington Cascade Water Alliance Seattle Public Utilities Snohomish County Public Utility District (PUD) Tacoma Water division of Tacoma Public Utilities West Virginia West Virginia American Water Kermit Water Works Fort Gay Water Works Logan Water Works Gilbert Water Department Wisconsin Madison Water Utility Milwaukee Water Works See also List of public utilities Water companies, List of United States United States
402136	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20English%20words%20of%20Russian%20origin	List of English words of Russian origin	This page transcribes Russian (written in Cyrillic script) using the IPA. For a quick overview of Russian pronunciation, see Help:IPA/Russian. Many languages, including English, contain words (Russianisms) most likely borrowed from the Russian language. Not all of the words are of purely Russian or origin. Some of them co-exist in other Slavic languages, and it can be difficult to determine whether they entered English from Russian or, say, Bulgarian. Some other words are borrowed or constructed from classical ancient languages, such as Latin or Greek. Still others are themselves borrowed from indigenous peoples that Russians have come into contact with in Russian or Soviet territory. Compared to other source languages, English contains few words adopted from Russian. Direct borrowing first began with contact between England and Russia in the 16th century and picked up heavily in the 20th century, with the establishment of the Soviet Union as a major world power. Most of these words denote things and notions specific to Russia, Russian culture, politics, and history, but also well known outside Russia. Some others are in mainstream usage and independent of any Russian context. While both English and Russian are distantly related members of Indo-European and therefore share a common ancestor, Proto-Indo-European, cognate pairs such as mother – мать (mat) will be excluded from the list. Common -nik, a borrowed suffix (also used in Yiddish) Babushka (Russian: ба́бушка "grandmother", "granny", or just an old woman), a headscarf folded diagonally and tied under the chin (this meaning is absent in the Russian language). Also unlike in the Russian language, the stress is made on the letter u instead of the first a. Balalaika (Russian: балала́йка, ) A triangle-shaped mandolin-like musical instrument with three strings. Balaclava (Russian: Балаклава) (Tatar origin) A knitted hat that covers the face, also known as a ski mask in the US and elsewhere. First used in the British army during the Crimean war of 1853–56. From the name of the town of Balaklava, Russianized Tatar 'Baliqlava'. This usage in Russian is fairly recent and comes from English. Bridge (game) (from the Old East Slavic: бирич biritch). Cosmonaut Russian: космона́вт (IPA ), a Russian or Soviet astronaut (from κόσμος kosmos, a Greek word, which in Russian stands for 'outer space' rather than 'world' or 'universe', and nautes – 'sailor', thus 'space sailor'; the term cosmonaut was first used in 1959; the near-similar word "cosmonautic" was coined in 1947). Cosmodrome (by analogy with aerodrome) was coined to refer to a launching site for Russian spacecraft. Gulag (Russian ГУЛА́Г, acronym for Главное Управление Исправительно-Трудовых Лагерей и колоний) (Russian acronym for Glavnoye Upravleniye Ispravitelno-trudovykh Lagerey i kolonii, "The Chief Administration (or Directorate) of Corrective Labour Camps and Colonies".) (historical) In the former Soviet Union, an administered system of corrective labor camps and prisons. (figurative) A coercive institution or an oppressive environment. Intelligentsia (Russian: интеллиге́нция ; from Latin intelligence, intelligentia from inter "between", and legare "to choose") The part of a nation (originally in pre-revolutionary Russia) having aspirations to intellectual activity, a section of society regarded as possessing culture and political initiative; plural the members of this section of a nation or society. In the former Soviet Union, the intellectual elite. Kazakh (Russian: каза́х) (Russian, late-16th century, Kazak, from Turkic, meaning "vagabond" or "nomad", name of the ethnicity was transliterated into English from Russian spelling. The self-appellation is "Kazak", or "Qazaq"). Terms related to Kazakh people, their nation, and culture. Knout (Russian: кнут ) perhaps from Swedish knutpiska, a kind of whip, or of Germanic origin – Knute, Dutch Knoet, Anglo-Saxon cnotta, English knot) A whip formerly used as an instrument of punishment in Russia; the punishment inflicted by the knout. Kopeck (Russian: копе́йка, ; derives from the Russian (копьё 'spear') a reference to the image of a rider with a spear on the coins minted in Moscow after the capture of Novgorod in 1478) A Russian currency, a subunit of the Ruble, 100 kopecks is equal to 1 ruble. Kremlin (Russian: кремль ; Russian for "fortress", "citadel", or "castle") A citadel or fortified enclosure within a Russian town or city, especially the Kremlin of Moscow; (the Kremlin) Metonym for the government of the former USSR, and to a lesser extent of the Russian post-Soviet government. Mammoth (Russian: ма́монт mamont , from Yakut мамонт mamont, probably mama, "earth", perhaps from the notion that the animal burrowed in the ground) Any various large, hairy, extinct elephants of the genus Mammuthus, especially the woolly mammoth. 2. (adjective) Something of great size. Matryoshka also Russian nested doll, stacking doll, Babushka doll, or Russian doll (Russian: матрёшка ). A set of brightly colored wooden dolls of decreasing sizes placed one inside another. "Matryoshka" is a derivative of the Russian female first name "Matryona", which is traditionally associated with a corpulent, robust, rustic Russian woman. Pogrom (from Russian: погро́м; from "громи́ть" gromit "to destroy"; the word came to English through Yiddish פאָגראָם c.1880–1885) Definition of pogrom \| Dictionary.com (early-20th century) A riot against Jews. (general) An organized, officially tolerated attack on any community or group. (transitive verb) Massacre or destroy in a pogrom. Ruble (Rouble) (from Russian: рубль rubl , from Old Russian рубли rubli "cut" or "piece", probably originally a piece cut from a silver ingot bar (grivna) from Russian руби́ть, rubiti meaning "to chop". Historically, "ruble" was a piece of a certain weight chopped off a silver ingot (grivna), hence the name. An alternate etymology may suggest the name comes from the Russian noun рубе́ц, rubets, i.e., the seam that is left around the coin after casting. Therefore, the word ruble means "a cast with a seam".) The Russian unit of currency. Sable (from Russian: sobol – со́боль , ultimately from Persian سمور samor) A carnivorous mammal of the weasel family, native to northern Europe and Asia. Samovar (Russian: самова́р, IPA: (Russian само samo "self" and варить varit "to boil" hence "self-boil") A traditional Russian tea urn with an internal heating device for heating water and keeping it at boiling point. Sputnik (historical, aside from the name of the program) (Russian: "спу́тник" – "satellite" (in space and astronomy), in Russian, its initial meaning is "travelling companion" from s "co-" + put "way" or "journey" + noun suffix -nik person connected with something; it means "satellite" when referring to astronomy-related topics). This term is now dated in English In English, the best-known meaning is the name of a series of unmanned artificial Earth satellites launched by the Soviet Union from 1957 to the early 1960s; especially Sputnik 1, which on 4 October 1957 became the first human-made object to orbit Earth. Taiga (Russian: тайга́, originally from Mongolian or Turkic). The swampy, coniferous forests of high northern latitudes, especially referring to that between the tundra and the steppes of Siberia. Troika (Russian: тро́йка "threesome" or "triumvirate") (mid-19th century) A Russian vehicle, either a wheeled carriage or a sleigh, drawn by three horses abreast. A Russian folk dance with three people, often one man and two women. (historical) a) In the former Soviet Union, a commission headed by three people; especially NKVD Troika. b) In the former Soviet Union, a group of three powerful Soviet leaders; especially referring to the 1953 troika of Georgy Malenkov, Lavrentiy Beria, and Vyacheslav Molotov that briefly ruled the Soviet Union after the death of Stalin. A group of three people or things working together, especially in an administrative or managerial capacity. Tundra (Russian: тундра, originally from Lappish). An Arctic steppe. Ushanka (Russian: уша́нка ), or shapka-ushanka, the word derives from Russian "уши" "ushi" – ears (and also flaps of ushanka). Ear-flapped hat, a type of cap (Russian: ша́пка shapka) made of fur with ear flaps that can be tied up to the crown of the cap or tied at the chin to protect the ears from the cold. Cuisine Beef Stroganoff or Stroganov (Russian: бефстроганов, tr. befstróganov) A Russian dish of sautéed pieces of beef served in a sauce with smetana (sour cream). Blini (Russian plural: блины, singular: блин). Thin pancakes or crepes traditionally made with yeasted batter, although non-yeasted batter has become widespread in recent times. Blini are often served in connection with a religious rite or festival, but also constitute a common breakfast dish. Coulibiac (origin 1895–1900, from Russian: кулебя́ка kulebyáka, an oblong loaf of fish, meat, or vegetables, baked in a pastry shell; of uncertain origin). A Russian fish pie typically made with salmon or sturgeon, hard-boiled eggs, mushrooms, and dill, baked in a yeast or puff pastry shell. Kefir (Russian: кефи́р ). A fermented milk drink made with kefir "grains" (a yeast/bacterial fermentation starter) that has its origins in the north Caucasus Mountains. Medovukha (Russian: медову́ха, from мёд) [Proto-Indo-European meddhe, "honey"]). A Russian honey-based alcoholic beverage similar to mead. Okroshka (Russian: окро́шка) from Russian "kroshit" (крошить) meaning to chop (into small pieces). A type of Russian cold soup with mixed raw vegetables and kvass. Pavlova A meringue dessert topped with whipped cream and fresh fruit, popular mainly in Australia and New Zealand; named after the Russian ballet dancer Anna Pavlova. Pavlova Cake history Pelmeni (Russian plural: пельме́ни, singular пельме́нь, pelmen′ from "ear[-formed] bread"). An Eastern European dumpling made with minced meat, especially beef and pork, wrapped in thin dough and cooked similarly to pasta. Pirozhki (Russian plural: пирожки́, singular пирожо́к). An Eastern European baked or fried bun stuffed with a variety of fillings. Rassolnik (Russian: рассольник). A hot soup in a salty-sour cucumber base. Ryazhenka (Russian: ряженка). Traditional fermented milk beverage made from baked milk using lactic acid fermentation. Sbiten (Russian: сби́тень) A traditional Russian honey-based drink similar to Medovukha. Sevruga (Russian: севрю́га) A caviar from the sevruga, a type of sturgeon found only in the Caspian and Black Seas. Shchi (Russian: щи) A type of cabbage soup. Solyanka (Russian: соля́нка; [sɐˈlʲankə]). A thick, spicy, and sour Russian soup that is common in Russia and other states of the former Soviet Union and certain parts of the former Eastern Bloc. Ukha (Russian: уха). A clear Russian soup made from various types of fish such as bream, wels catfish, northern pike, or even ruffe. Vareniki (Russian plural: вареники, singular: вареник; "var" from Old Russian "варить" – to boil). A type of pasta parcel traditionally filled with mashed potatoes, cabbage, cottage cheese, or cherries, and then boiled in a similar way to pasta. Political and administrative Active measures (Russian: активные мероприятия, romanized: aktivnye meropriyatiya) is political warfare conducted by the Soviet or Russian government since the 1920s. It includes offensive programs such as disinformation, propaganda, deception, sabotage, destabilization, and espionage. Agitprop (Russian: агитпро́п; blend of Russian агита́ция agitatsiya "agitation" and пропага́нда propaganda "propaganda"; origin – 1930's, from shortened form of отде́л агита́ции и пропага́нды, transliteration otdel agitatsii i propagandy, ('Department for Agitation and Propaganda'), which was part of the Central and regional committees of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The department was later renamed Ideological Department.) Political (originally communist) propaganda Apparatchik plural apparatchiki (Russian: аппара́тчик) (from Russian аппара́т apparat in sense of "gosudarstvenniy apparat" ["state machine"]) Common name given to state (governmental) organs and the Communist Party, which was the leading and most powerful part of the state machine in the former Soviet Union. The word "apparat" derives from "apparatus", which itself stems from the Latin apparare, "to make ready". Bolshevik (Russian большеви́к) (from Russian "большинство́", "bolshinstvo" – majority, which derives from "бо́льше" bol'she – 'more', 'greater'. (historical) A member of the majority faction of the Russian Social Democratic Party, which was renamed to the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) after seizing power in the October Revolution in 1917. (chiefly derogatory) (in general use) A person with politically subversive or radical views; a revolutionary. (adjective) Relating to or characteristic of Bolsheviks or their views or policies. Cheka (Russian: Всероссийская чрезвычайная комиссия по борьбе с контрреволюцией и саботажем, acronym for The All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution, Speculation, and Sabotage, abbreviated to Cheka (Chrezvychaynaya Komissiya, ChK; Чрезвычайная Комиссия, ЧК – pronounced "Che-Ká") or VCheka; In 1918, its name was slightly altered to "All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution, Profiteering and Corruption"). The first Soviet state security organization (1917–1922), it was later transformed and reorganized into the GPU. Commissar (Russian комисса́р) (Russian комиссариа́т commissariat, reinforced by medieval Latin , both from medieval Latin "person in charge", from Latin "entrust". The term "commissar" was first used in 1918) An official of the communist party, especially in the former Soviet Union or present-day China, responsible for political education and organization; a head of a government department in the former Soviet Union before 1946, when the title was changed to "Minister". (figurative) A strict or prescriptive figure of authority. Disinformation is a loan translation of the Russian dezinformatsiya (дезинформа́ция), derived from the title of a KGB black propaganda department. Disinformation was defined in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1952) as "false information with the intention to deceive public opinion". Druzhina also Druzhyna, Drużyna (Russian and Ukrainian: дружи́на) (Slavic drug (друг) meaning "companion" or "friend", related to Germanic drotiin, Proto-Germanic druhtinaz, meaning "war band") (historical) A detachment of select troops in East Slavic countries who performed service for a chieftain, later knyaz. Its original functions were bodyguarding, raising tribute from conquered territories, and serving as the core of an army during war campaigns. In Ukrainian, the word дружина means legal wife. Duma (Russian: ду́ма) (from the Russian ду́мать dumat', "to think" or "to consider") (historical) A pre-19th century advisory municipal council in Russia, later referring to any of the four elected legislative bodies established due to popular demand in Russia from 1906 to 1917. The legislative body in the ruling assembly of Russia (and some other republics of the former Soviet Union) established after the fall of communism in 1993. The State Duma (Russian: Государственная дума (Gosudarstvennaya duma), common abbreviation: Госду́ма (Gosduma)) in the Russian Federation is the lower house of the Federal Assembly of Russia (legislature), the upper house being the Federation Council of Russia. Dyak (clerk) (Russian дьяк), diminutive – Dyachok (Russian дьячо́к) (historical) One of the church workers in Russia who were not part of the official hierarchy of church offices and whose duties included reading and singing. Glasnost (Russian: гла́сность ; glasnost – publicity, from "гласный" "glasniy" – public, from glas voice, from Old Church Slavonic glasu). Late-20th century official policy in the former Soviet Union (especially associated with Mikhail Gorbachev) emphasizing transparency and openness with regard to discussion of social problems and shortcomings. Glavlit (Russian acronym for Main Administration for Literary and Publishing Affairs, later renamed Main Administration for the Protection of State Secrets in the Press of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. Russian: Главное управление по охране государственных тайн в печати ГУОГТП (ГУОТ), trans. Glavnoe upravlenie po okhrane gosudarstvennykh tayn v pechati) (historical) The official censorship and state secret protection organ in the Soviet Union. Kadet (Russian: Конституционно-демократическая партия, The Constitutional Democratic Party or Constitutional Democrats, formally Party of Popular Freedom, informally called Kadets, or Cadets, from the abbreviation K-D of the party name [the term was political and not related to military students, who are called cadets]) (historical) A liberal political party in Tsarist Russia founded in 1905; it largely dissolved after the Russian Civil War. Khozraschyot or Khozraschet (Russian: хозрасчёт, хозя́йственный расчёт, literally "economic accounting") A method of the planned running of an economic unit (i.e., of a business, in Western terms) based on the confrontation of the expenses incurred in production with the production output, on the compensation of expenses using production-derived income; often referred to as the attempt to simulate the capitalist concepts of profit into the planned economy of the Soviet Union. Kolkhoz plural kolkhozy (, ; 1920s origin. Russian contraction of коллекти́вное хозя́йство, kol(lektivnoe) khoz(yaisto) "collective farm") A form of collective farming in the former Soviet Union. Kompromat (Russian: компрометирующий материал) contraction of 'compromising' and 'material'. Refers to disparaging information that can be collected, stored, traded, or used strategically across all domains: political, electoral, legal, professional, judicial, media, and business. The origins of the term trace back to 1930s secret police jargon. Korenizatsiya also korenization () (Russian, meaning "nativization" or "indigenization", literally "putting down roots", from the Russian term коренно́е населе́ние korennoye naseleniye "root population") Kulak (Russian: кула́к, literally "fist", meaning "tight-fisted" ) Originally a prosperous Russian landed peasant in czarist Russia, later the term was used with hostility by Communists during the October Revolution to refer to an exploiter and strong adherent of private property and liberal values, this being the opposite of communist values; they were severely repressed under the rule of Joseph Stalin in the 1930s. Krai also Kray (Russian: край, 1. edge. 2.1. country, land (as poetic word). 2.2. krai, territory (as adm.-terr. unit).) Term for eight of Russia's 85 federal subjects, often translated as territory, province, or region. Leninism (Russian: ленини́зм) (after Vladimir Lenin, the term was coined in 1918) The political, economic, and social principles and practices of the Russian revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, especially his theory of government, which formed the basis for Soviet communism. Lishenets (Russian: лише́нец) (from Russian лишение, "deprivation", properly translated as disenfranchised) (historical) A certain group of people in the Soviet Union who, from 1918 to 1936, were prohibited from voting and denied other rights. Maskirovka (Russian: маскировка) (literally 'disguise') is a Russian military doctrine developed from the start of the twentieth century. The doctrine covers a broad range of measures for military deception, from camouflage to denial and deception. Menshevik (Russian: меньшеви́к) (from Russian word меньшинство́ menshinstvo, "minority", from ме́ньше men'she "less"; the name Menshevik was coined by Vladimir Lenin when the party was (atypically) in the minority for a brief period) (historical) A member of the non-Leninist wing of the Russian Social Democratic Workers' Party, opposed to the Bolsheviks, who defeated them during the Russian Civil War that followed the 1917 Russian Revolution. Mir (Russian: мир) (from Russian mir, meaning both "world" and "peace") (historical) A peasant farming commune in pre-Revolutionary Russia. Mir, a space station created by the former Soviet Union and continued by Russia until 2001. Namestnik (, ; Russian, literally "deputy" or "lieutenant") (historical) (12th–16th century) An official who ruled an uyezd and was in charge of local administration. (18th–20th century) A type of viceroy in Russia who ruled a namestnichestvo and had plenipotentiary powers. Narkompros (Russian: Наркомпро́с) (Russian Народный комиссариат просвещения, an abbreviation for the People's Commissariat for Enlightenment (historical) The Soviet Union agency charged with the administration of public education and most other issues related to culture, such as literature and art. Founded by the Bolsheviks during the Russian Revolution, it was renamed in 1946 to the Ministry of Enlightening. Narodniks (Russian: plural наро́дники, singular наро́дник) (from Russian narod, "people", in turn from the expression "хождение в народ", meaning "going to the people") (historical) The name for Russian revolutionaries (active from the 1860s to the 1880s) that looked on the peasants and intelligentsia as revolutionary forces, rather than the urban working class. NEP or The New Economic Policy (NEP) (Russian: нэп, acronym for но́вая экономи́ческая поли́тика novaya ekonomicheskaya politika) (historical) An economic policy instituted in 1921 by Lenin to attempt to rebuild industry, especially agriculture. The policy was later reversed by Stalin. Nomenklatura (Russian: номенклату́ра) (Russian nomenklatura, from the Latin nomenclatura, meaning a list of names) (historical) In the former Soviet Union, a list of influential posts in government and industry to be filled by Communist Party appointees; collectively the holders of these posts, the Soviet élite. Oblast (Russian: область) A type of administrative division Obshchina (Russian: ́община, общи́на) (Russian о́бщий obshchiy common, commune) Russian peasant agrarian communities during Imperialist Russia. Obtshak (Russian: обща́к) In criminal jargon, a mutual aid fund in the environment of a criminal community. Okhrana in full: The Okhrannoye otdeleniye (Russian: Охра́нное отделе́ние) (Russian, literally "protection section") (historical) The secret police organization (established in the 1860s) for protection of the Russian czarist regimes. It ended with the Bolshevik takeover of Russia in 1917; the Bolsheviks set up their own secret police organization, called the Cheka. Okrug (Russian: о́круг) (Russian okrug is similar to the German word Bezirk ("district"), both referring to something that is "encircled"). In the former Soviet Union, an administrative division of an oblast and krai A federal district in the present-day Russian Federation Oprichnina (Russian: опри́чнина) (from the obsolete Russian word опричь, oprich, meaning "apart from" or "separate") (historical) Term for the domestic policy of Russian czar Ivan the Terrible. Oprichnik plural Oprichniki (Russian: опри́чник) (historical) Name given to the bodyguards of Ivan the Terrible, who ruthlessly suppressed any opposition to his reign. Perestroika (Russian: перестро́йка) (Russian perestroika, literally "restructuring"; the term was first used in 1986) The reform of the political and economic system of the former Soviet Union, first proposed by Leonid Brezhnev at the 26th Communist Party Congress in 1979 and later actively promoted by Mikhail Gorbachev from 1985. Podyachy (Russian: подья́чий) (Russian, from the Greek hypodiakonos, "assistant servant") (historical) An office occupation in prikazes (local and upper governmental offices) and lesser local offices of Russia from the 15th to the 18th century. Politburo (Russian Политбюро́ politbyuro, from Полити́ческое бюро́ polit(icheskoe) byuro, "political bureau") (historical) The principal policymaking committee in the former Soviet Union that was founded in 1917; also known as the Presidium from 1952 to 1966. Posadnik (Russian: поса́дник) (from Old Church Slavic posaditi, meaning to put, or place, since originally, they were placed in the city to rule on behalf of the prince of Kiev) (historical) A mayor (equivalent to a stadtholder, burgomaster, or podestà in the medieval West) in some East Slavic cities, notably in the Russian cities of Novgorod and Pskov; the title was abolished in the 15th and 16th centuries. Praporshchik (Russian: пра́порщик) (from Slavonic prapor (прапор), meaning flag, since the praporshchik was a flag-bearer among Kievan Rus troops) The name of a junior officer position in the military of the Russian Empire equivalent to ensign. Nowadays, this rank is used by the modern Russian army, police, and FSB and is equivalent to warrant officer. Prikaz (Russian: прика́з) (historical) An administrative (palace, civil, military, or church) or judicial office in Muscovy and Russia of 15th–18th centuries; abolished by Peter the Great. In modern Russian, an administrative or military order (to do something). Propiska (Russian: пропи́ска) (Russian full term пропи́ска по ме́сту жи́тельства, "The record of place of residence", from the Russian verb propisat "to write into", in reference to writing a passport into a registration book of the given local office) (historical) A regulation promulgated by the Russian czar designed to control internal population movement by binding a person to his or her permanent place of residence. Abolished by Lenin but later reinstated under Stalin in the Soviet Union. Silovik (Russian: силови́к), plural siloviks or siloviki (Russian: силовики́) (from Russian си́ла sila, "strength", "force") A collective name for ministers, generals, and other officials of "силовые ведомства" "siloviye vedomstva" – force departments – ministries and other departments that have arms (weapons) and ability to use armed force, such as the army, FSB(KGB), or MVD (police). The term siloviks is often used to highlight or suggest their inclination to use force to solve problems. Soviet (Russian: сове́т) (Russian sovet, "council") (historical) A revolutionary council of workers or peasants in Russia before the 1917 Revolution An elected local, district, or national council in the former Soviet Union A citizen in the former Soviet Union Of or concerning the former Soviet Union Sovkhoz plural sovkhozes (Russian: совхо́з) (Russian сове́тское хозя́йство, (Sov) eckoje (khoz)yaistvo, "Soviet farm") (historical) A state-owned farm in the former Soviet Union A state-owned farm in countries of the former Soviet Union Sovnarkhoz (Russian: Совнархо́з) (Russian сове́т наро́дного хозя́йства, sovet narodnogo hozyaistva, Council of National Economy, usually translated as "Regional Economic Council") (historical) An organization of the former Soviet Union to manage a separate economic region. Sovnarkom (Russian: Сове́т Мини́стров СССР) (Russian Sovet Ministrov SSSR, Council of Ministers of the USSR, sometimes abbreviated as Совми́н Sovmin; between 1918 and 1946, it was named the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR (Совет Народных Комиссаров СССР, Russian Sovet Narodnykh Komissarov SSSR, sometimes Sovnarkom or SNK).) (historical) In the former Soviet Union, the highest executive and administrative body. Spetsnaz or Specnaz (Russian: Войска́ специа́льного назначе́ния – спецна́з) or Russian special purpose regiments (Voyska spetsialnogo naznacheniya) A general term for police or military units within the Soviet Union (later Russian Federation) who engage in special activities; similar to commando. Stakhanovite (Russian: стаха́новец) (after Aleksei Grigorievich Stakhanov (Алексе́й Григо́рьевич Стаха́нов), a coal miner from Donbas noted for his superior productivity; the Soviet authorities publicized Stakhanov's prodigious output in 1935 as part of a campaign to increase industrial output). (historical) In the former Soviet Union, a worker who was exceptionally hardworking and productive and thus earned special privileges and rewards Any exceptionally hardworking or zealous person, often with connotations of excessive compliance with management and lack of solidarity with fellow workers Stalinism (Russian: сталини́зм; the term Stalinism was first used in 1927, though not by Stalin himself, as he considered himself a Marxist–Leninist). (historical) The political, economic, and social principles and policies associated with Joseph Stalin during his rule (1924–1953) of the Soviet Union; especially the theory and practice of communism developed by Stalin, which included rigid authoritarianism, widespread use of terror, and often emphasis on Russian nationalism. Any rigid centralized authoritarian form of government or rule. Stavka (Russian: Ста́вка) (historical) The general headquarters of armed forces in late Imperial Russia and in the former Soviet Union. Streltsy singular strelitz, plural strelitzes or strelitzi (Russian: стрельцы́; singular: стреле́ц strelets, "bowman") (historical) Units of armed guards created by Ivan the Terrible in the 16th century and later abolished by Peter the Great. Tovarishch also Tovarich (Russian: това́рищ IPA [tɐˈvarʲɪɕɕ], tovarishch, "close friend", referring to the noun това́р tovar, "merchandise"); In the former Soviet Union, a comrade; often used as a form of address. Tsar also czar, tzar, csar, and zar (Russian: царь , English : from Latin Caesar). (historical) Title of a Southern Slav ruler, as in Bulgaria (913–1018, 1185–1422, and 1908–1946) and Serbia (1346–1371). (historical) Title for the emperor of Russia from about 1547 to 1917, although the term after 1721 officially only referred to the Russian emperor's sovereignty over formerly independent states. (latter part of the 20th century) A person with great authority or power in a particular area, e.g., drug czar (spelled only as "czar" in this usage). Tsarina also tsaritsa (formerly spelled czaritsa), czarina, German zarin, French tsarine (Russian: цари́ца) (Russian, etymology from tsar) (historical) The wife of a tsar; also the title for the empress of Russia. Tsarevna also czarevna (Russian царе́вна, etymology from tsar). (historical) The daughter of a tsar The wife of a tsarevitch Tsarevich also tsesarevich, czarevich, tzarevitch Russian: царе́вич, early 18th century, from tsar + patronymic -evich (historical) The eldest son of an emperor of Russia; the male heir to a tsar. Tysyatsky also tysiatsky (Russian: ты́сяцкий) (sometimes translated as dux or Heerzog but more correctly meaning thousandman; sometimes translated into the Greek chilliarch, literally meaning "rule of a thousand") (historical) A military leader in Ancient Rus who commanded a people's volunteer army called tysyacha (Russian: ты́сяча), or a thousand. Ukase (Russian: ука́з ordinance, edict, from указывать, ukazat, to show) (pronunciation: /juːˈkeɪs/; yoo-KASE), a decree: (historical) In Imperial Russia, a proclamation or edict of the ruling tsar or tsarina, the Russian government, or a religious leader (patriarch) that had the force of law (historical) In the former Soviet Union, a government edict issued by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet and subject to later ratification by the Supreme Soviet In the Russian Federation, a presidential decree Uskoreniye (Russian: ускоре́ние, literally "acceleration") A slogan and policy initiated in 1985 by Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, aimed at the acceleration of social and economic development of the Soviet Union. Votchina also otchina (Russian: во́тчина (о́тчина) "father's heritage") (historical) An East Slavic land estate that could be inherited The land owned by a knyaz Yevsektsiya also Yevsektsia (Russian: ЕвСе́кция) (from the abbreviation of the phrase "Евре́йская се́кция" Yevreyskaya sektsiya) (historical) The Jewish section of the Soviet Communist party that was created in 1918 to challenge and eventually destroy the rival Bund and Zionist parties, suppress Judaism and "bourgeois nationalism", and replace traditional Jewish culture with "proletarian culture". It was disbanded in 1929. Zampolit (Russian замполи́т, the abbreviation of (зам)еститель командира по (полит)ической части, "deputy commander (political)) A military or political commissar. Zek (Russian abbreviation of ЗаКлючённый (З/К), zaklyuchennyi (Z/K), "incarcerated") (historical) In the former Soviet Union, a person held in a forced labour camp, known as Gulag, or in a prison. Zemshchina (from Russian земля́ zemlya, "earth" or "land") (historical) The territory under the rule of the boyars who stayed in Moscow during the reign of Ivan the Terrible. It was separate from the rule of Ivan's own territory, which was administered by the Oprichnina. Zemsky Sobor (Russian: зе́мский собо́р) (Russian assembly of the land) (historical) The first Russian parliament of the feudal estates type during the 16th and 17th centuries. Zemstvo (Russian: зе́мство) (historical) A district and provincial assembly in Russia from 1864 to 1917. Religious Beglopopovtsy also Beglopopovtsy (Russian: Беглопоповцы, "people with runaway priests") (historical) A denomination of the Old Believers that included priests who had deserted the Russian Orthodox Church during the Raskol. Bespopovtsy also Bespopovtsy (Russian: Беспоповцы, "priestless") A denomination of the Old Believers that rejected the priests and a number of church rites, such as the Eucharist. Chlysty also Khlysts, Khlysty (Russian: Хлысты) (invented Russian word Христоверы, transliteration Khristovery, "Christ-believers"; later critics corrupted the name, mixing it with the word хлыст khlyst, meaning "whip") (historical) A Christian sect in Russia that split from the Russian Orthodox Church in the 17th century and renounced the priesthood, holy books, and veneration of the saints. They were noted for their practice of asceticism, which included ecstatic rituals. Doukhobor plural Doukhobors or Doukhabors (also Dukhobory or Dukhobortsy) (Russian: Духоборы/Духоборцы) (Russian doukhobor, literally "spirit wrestlers") A Christian sect, later defined as a religious philosophy, ethnic group, and social movement, which in the 18th century rejected secular government, the Russian Orthodox priests, icons, all church ritual, the Bible as the supreme source of divine revelation, and the divinity of Jesus. Widely persecuted by the Russian tsarist regimes, many of them immigrated to Canada in the late 19th century. Edinoverie (Russian: Единоверие, "unity in faith") The practice of integrating Old Believer communities into the official Russian Orthodox Church while preserving their rites. Its adherents are Edinovertsy, "people of the same faith". Imiaslavie also Imiabozhie, Imyaslavie, Imyabozhie; also referred to as Onomatodoxy (Russian: Имяславие, "glorification of the name (of God)" Lipovans also known as Lippovans, or Russian Old Believers. A religious sect that separated from the Russian Orthodox Church in the 17th century, now mostly living in Romanian Dobruja. Molokan (Russian: Молока́не, from Russian moloko, "milk") A Christian sect that broke away from the Russian Orthodox Church in the mid-16th century and rejected many traditional Christian beliefs, including the veneration of religious icons, the Trinity, the worship in cathedrals, and the adherence to saintly holidays. Pomortsy (Russian: Древлеправославная Поморская Церковь) Branch of the priestless faction of the Old Believers. Popovtsy also The Popovtsy or Popovschina (Russian: Поповцы, Поповщина, "priestist people") A branch of the Old Believers who strived to have priests of their own. Raskol also Raskolnik Russian: раско́л (Russian, meaning "split" or "schism") The schism of the Russian Orthodox Church that was triggered by the 1653 reforms of Patriarch Nikon. Rodnovery (Russian: Родноверие, "way of the people" or "way of the tribe"). A new religious movement from Russia and other Slavic countries that attempts to revive the pre-Christian beliefs of the ancient Slavs. Adherents of the Rodnovery religion, or anything related to Rodnovery, are known in English as Rodnover. Rogozhskoe Soglasie (name from a Moscow cemetery called Rogozhskoe cemetery (Russian: Рогожское кладбище)). A denomination among the Popovtsy Old Believers. Shaman (Russian: шама́н [ʂɐ'man], from the Evenki language). A tribal priest who enters an altered state of consciousness to commune with spirits. Skoptzy plural Skopets, also Skoptsy, Skoptzi, Skoptsi, Scoptsy (Russian: скопцы, from Russian, meaning "castrated one") (historical). A Russian religious sect that practiced self-castration. Starets (Russian: ста́рец old man, elder). A Russian religious spiritual leader, teacher, or counsellor. Yurodivy (Russian: юродивый, jurodivyj). A form of Eastern Orthodox asceticism in which one intentionally acts foolish in the eyes of men; a Holy Fool. Znamennoe singing, also Znamenny Chant (Russian: Знаменное пение or знаменный распев). The traditional liturgical singing in the Russian Orthodox Church. Technical, special Chernozem (Russian: чернозём; from Russian черный, cherniy, "black" + Slavonic base зем, zem, "soil") A dark, humus-rich, fertile soil characteristic of temperate or cool grasslands, especially referring to the soil of the Russian steppes. Baidarka (Russian: байда́рка, "small boat"; a diminutive form of baidar, "boat") A type of sea kayak originally made by the Aleut people of Alaska. Elektrichka (Russian: электри́чка, informal word for elektropoezd Russian: электропо́езд, "electric train") An electric commuter. Fortochka (Russian: фо́рточка) A small ventilation window spanning the frame of one window pane. Kalashnikov Alternative name for the AK-47 assault rifle (AK-47, short for Russian: Автома́т Кала́шникова образца́ 1947 го́да, Avtomat Kalashnikova obraztsa 1947 goda Automatic Kalashnikov rifle, invented by Soviet soldier and small-arms designer Mikhail Kalashnikov and first adopted in 1947; the term "kalashnikov" was not used until 1970) A type of rifle or sub-machine gun from the Soviet Union, used in most Eastern Bloc countries during the Cold War. Ledoyom, intermontane depressions filled with glaciers Liman (Russian and Ukrainian: лима́н) (from Greek λιμένας, "bay" or "port") A type of lake or lagoon formed at the mouth of a river, blocked by a bar of sediments, especially referring to such features along the Danube River and the Black Sea. Marshrutka (Russian: маршру́тка, ; Russian, from marshrutnoye taxi, Russian Mаршрутное такси, literally "routed taxicab"). A share taxi used in the CIS and Bulgaria. In Ukraine and Russia, these are usually large vans (GAZelle, modified Ford Transit, or similar) or sometimes mini- or midibuses. Mirovia (Russian: мирово́й) (from Russian mirovoy, "global", from mir, "world) A hypothesized paleo-ocean that may have been a global ocean surrounding the supercontinent of Rodinia in the Neoproterozoic era, about one billion to 750 million years ago. Mormyshka also Mormishka, Marmooska (Russian: мормы́шка) (from Russian mormysh, "freshwater shrimp" (Gammaurus) A type of fishing lure or a jig. Podsol also Podzol, Spodosol (Russian подзо́л, from под pod, "under" and зол zol, "ash") Any group of soils characterized by greyish-white leached and infertile topsoil and a brown subsoil, typically found in regions with a subpolar climate. Polynia also polynya, polynia (Russian: полынья́; ) A non-linear area of open water surrounded by sea ice; especially referring to areas of sea in the Arctic and Antarctic regions that remain unfrozen for much of the year. Redan (French word for "projection", "salient", after Russian Реда́н redan, a type of fort that was captured by the British during the Crimean War) A type of fortification work in a V-shaped salient angle toward an expected attack. Rodinia (from the Russian ро́дина, "motherland") Name given to hypothesized supercontinent said to have existed from one billion to 800 million years ago. Rasputitsa (Russian: распу́тица) The twice-annual season when roads become muddy and impassable in Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine due to the melting snows in the spring and heavy rains in the fall. Solonchak (Russian солонча́к, "salt marsh", from Russian соль, sol, "salt") A pale or grey soil type found in arid to sub-humid, poorly drained conditions. Solonetz (from Russian солоне́ц, solonets, "salt not produced by boiling", from Russian соль, sol, "salt") An alkaline soil type having a hard, dark subsoil under a thin, friable topsoil, formed by the leaching of salts from a solonchak. Tokamak (Russian: токама́к, an abbreviation of the Russian words тороидальная камера в магнитных катушках, toroidal'naya kamera v magnitnykh katushkakh, toroidal chamber in magnetic coils (Tochamac), invented in the 1950s) In nuclear fusion, a toroidal apparatus in which plasma is contained by means of two magnetic fields, a strong toroidal field, and a weaker poloidal field generated by an intense electric current through the plasma. Zastruga (zastrugi; Russian sing. застру́га, zastruga, pl. застру́ги, zastrugi; from стругать, "to whittle") Sharp, irregular grooves or ridges formed on a snow surface by wind erosion, saltation of snow particles, and deposition, and found in polar and temperate snow regions. Obsolete Russian weights and measures: Pood also pud (Russian: пуд) (largely obsolete) A unit of mass in Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine equal to 40 funt (фунт, Russian pound), or approximately 16.38 kilograms (36.11 pounds). It is still used in metal weights, produced for heavy lifting sports (items by 16, 24, 32 kg). Verst (Russian: верста́, versta) An obsolete Russian unit of length or distance defined as being 500 sazhen long, equivalent to 3,500 feet (.66 miles/1.0668 kilometres). Vigorish (Russian: выигрыш, vyigrysh, "winnings") The amount charged by a bookmaker for taking a bet from a gambler. Animals and plants Beluga (sturgeon) (from Russian белу́га, beluga, a derivative from белый, white) A large kind of sturgeon. Beluga (whale) (from Russian белу́ха belukha, a derivative of белый, white) A type of white whale. Corsac (from Russian корса́к, korsák, the name for the species) A type of fox. Khramulya (Russian: храму́ля) The name of several fish species of the family Cyprinidae: Anatolian Khramulya, Colchic Khramulya, and Sevan khramulya. Lenok (Russian: лено́к; otherwise known as Asiatic trout or Manchurian trout) A genus, Brachymystax, of salmonid fishes. Saiga (from Russian сайга́, the name for the species) A type of antelope. Sheltopusik (also Scheltopusik; Russian: желтопу́зик, literally "yellow-bellied") European legless lizard (Pseudopus apodus). Various Banya (Russian: ба́ня) A traditional Russian steam bath. Bayan (Russian: бая́н) (named after Boyan, a mythical Slavic bard) A type of chromatic button accordion developed in Russia in the early 20th century. Belomorkanal (Russian: Беломоркана́л) White Sea – Baltic Canal (Belomorsko-Baltiyskiy Kanal, abbreviated as BBK; its original name was Беломо́рско-Балти́йский кана́л и́мени Ста́лина Belomorsko-Baltiyskiy Kanal imeni Stalina, "Stalin White Sea-Baltic Sea Canal", "Stalin" was dropped in 1961 and the name was abbreviated to Belomorkanal). A shipping canal (opened in 1933) that joins the White Sea with Lake Onega, which is further connected to the Baltic Sea. Belomorkanal, a brand of cheap Soviet cigarettes. Burlak (Russian: бурла́к) (Tatar bujdak, "homeless"; or old Middle-German bûrlach, originating from an artel [арте́ль] or working team with fixed rules) A Russian epithet for a person who hauled barges and other vessels down dry or shallow waterways from the 17th to the 20th century. Bylina (Russian: были́на, "[tale of] a past event"; plural: были́ны byliny) (Adaptation of Old Russian bylina, a word that occurred in The Song of Igor's Campaign, taken to mean "tale of a past event"; the term "bylina" came into use in the 1830s as a scholarly name for what is popularly called "starina"; although byliny originated in the 10th century, or possibly earlier, they were first written down around the 17th century) A traditional form of orally transmitted Russian epic and heroic narrative poetry of the early East Slavs of Kievan Rus from the 10th to 12th century, a tradition that continued in Russian and Ukrainian history. Cantonists singular Cantonist (Russian: кантони́сты; the term adapted from Prussian for "recruiting district") (historical) Boys, often sons of military conscripts, who attended a type of military school called a canton (Russian: кантони́стские шко́лы), a school that was originally established by Peter the Great; in the 1820s, the term was applied to Jewish boys drafted into the Russian army. Chainik (Russian: ча́йник, "tea kettle") Chastushka (Russian: часту́шка, derives from "часто" – "frequently", or from части́ть – old word that means "to do something with high frequency", probably referring to the high tempo of chastushkas). A traditional type of short Russian humorous folkloric song with high beat frequency that consists of one four-lined couplet full of humour, satire, or irony. Chastushkas are typically sung one after another. Dacha (Russian: да́ча) A country house or cottage in Russia. In archaic Russian, the word dacha means "something given". Initially, they were small estates in the country, given to loyal vassals by the tsar. Typical Soviet dachas were small land plots given by the state to city dwellers, who built summer houses on them. Dedovshchina (Russian: дедовщи́на) (from Russian ded, "grandfather", Russian army slang equivalent of "gramps", meaning soldiers in their third or fourth half-year of conscription, + suffix -shchina – order, rule, or regime; hence "rule of the grandfathers") A system of hazing in the Soviet and Russian armies. GUM (Russian: ГУМ, pronounced as goom, in full Главный Универсальный Магазин, Glavnyi Universalnyi Magazin acronym for Main Universal Store) A common name for the main department store in many cities of the former Soviet Union and some post-Soviet states; especially referring to the GUM facing Red Square in Moscow. Izba also Isba (origin 1775–85, Russian изба́, izbá; Old Russian istŭba, house, bath; Serbo-Croatian ìzba, small room, shack; Czech jizba, room; Old Czech jistba, jizdba, all from Slavic jĭstŭba ≪ VL extūfa, with short u, perhaps from Germanic *stuba) A traditional log house in rural Russia, with an unheated entrance room and a single living and sleeping room heated by a clay or brick stove. Junker (Russia) (Russian: ю́нкер) (from Middle High German junc herre, "young nobleman", from Old High German jung, "young" + herro, "lord") (historical) A member of the privileged, militaristic landowning class in Germany; a Prussian aristocrat A German military officer, especially one who is autocratic (1864–1917) A student who attended a type of Russian military school called a Junker school Former rank of a volunteer in the Russian Navy in the 19th and 20th centuries Katorga (Russian: ка́торга, from Greek: katergon, κάτεργον, "galley") (historical) A form of penal servitude during Tsarist Russia, later transformed into the Gulags after the Bolshevik takeover of Russia. Khodebshchik (Russian: ходе́бщик) A person carrying an advertisement hoarding, or a peddler. Mat (Russian: мат, or ма́терный язы́к) Russian profanity meaning "mother". Muzhik () A Russian peasant; used as a topical calque in translations of Russian prose. Padonki (Russian: падонки, corrupted подо́нки, meaning "riff-raff", "scoundrel", "scum") A subculture within the Russian-speaking internet characterized by choosing alternative spellings for words for comic effect. Palochka (Russian: па́лочка, "little stick") A typographical symbol of the Cyrillic alphabet that looks like the Latin uppercase letter "I"; it is used as modifier letter in some Caucasus languages. Preved (Russian: Преве́д) A Russian internet slang word, corrupted form of "privet" (приве́т) – "hi", "greetings". Sambo (Russian: са́мбо) (Russian acronym for САМозащи́та Без Ору́жия, SAMozashchita Bez Oruzhiya, "self-defense without a weapon") A modern martial art, combat sport, and self-defense system originally developed in the former Soviet Union. Samizdat (Russian: самизда́т) (Russian сам, sam, "self"; and издат, izdat, short for izdatelstvo – "publishing house", hence "self published") (historical) In the former Soviet Union, the system by which government-suppressed literature was clandestinely written, printed, and distributed; the term is also applied to the literature itself. Sbiten (Russian: сби́тен) (historical) A traditional East Slavic hot winter beverage. Sbitenshchik (Russian: сби́тенщик) (historical) A vendor who sold sbiten. Sharashka also Sharaga, Sharazhka (Russian: шара́шка IPA: [ʂɐˈraʂkə]) (Russian slang for the expression sharashkina kontora, "Sharashka's office", possibly from the radical meaning "to beat about", an ironic, derogatory term to denote a poorly organized, impromptu, or bluffing organization) (historical) Informal name for the secret research and development laboratories in the Soviet Union's Gulag labor camp system. Tamizdat (from Russian тамизда́т: там, tam, meaning "there" and издат, izdat, short for изда́тельство, izdatelstvo, "publishing house") In the former Soviet Union, literary works published outside the country without permission of Soviet authorities. Zaum (Russian: за́умь or зау́мный язы́к, zaumnyy yazyk) (from the Russian prefix за, "beyond, behind" and the noun ум, "mind") A type of poetry used by Russian Futurist poets. See also Lists of English words of international origin List of English words of Ukrainian origin, many of which also appear in Russian or are closely related Cyrillic script Runglish Volapuk encoding Nadsat, a constructed argot with many Russian loanwords Notes References The American Heritage Dictionary (2006) Fourth edition, published by Houghton Mifflin, Ayto, John (1999). 20th Century Words. Oxford University Press, Hendrickson, Robert (1997) Facts on File Encyclopedia of Word and Phrase Origins. Checkmark Books, Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (1995) Tenth edition, published by Merriam-Webster, The New Oxford American Dictionary (2005) Second edition, published by Oxford University Press, Speake, Jennifer (ed.) (1997). The Oxford Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases. Oxford University Press, Webster's New World College Dictionary (1997) Third edition, published by Macmillan, External links 1,000 most common Russian words – with English translations English and Russian: Similarities and Differences, by Laurianne Sumerset English words Russian
402190	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolex	Rolex	Rolex SA () is a Swiss watch designer and manufacturer based in Geneva, Switzerland. Founded in 1905 as Wilsdorf and Davis by Hans Wilsdorf and Alfred Davis in London, the company registered Rolex as the brand name of its watches in 1908 and became Rolex Watch Co. Ltd. in 1915. After World War I, the company moved its base of operations to Geneva because of the unfavorable economy in the United Kingdom. In 1920, Hans Wilsdorf registered Montres Rolex SA in Geneva as the new company name (montre is French for clock or watch); it later became Rolex SA. Since 1960, the company has been owned by the Hans Wilsdorf Foundation, a private family trust. Rolex SA and its subsidiary Montres Tudor SA design, make, distribute, and service wristwatches sold under the Rolex and Tudor brands. In 2023 Rolex agreed to acquire its longtime retail partner Bucherer. History Early history Alfred Davis and his brother-in-law Hans Wilsdorf founded Wilsdorf and Davis, the company that would eventually become Rolex SA, in London in 1905. Wilsdorf and Davis's main commercial activity at the time involved importing Hermann Aegler's Swiss movements to England and placing them in watch cases made by Dennison and others. These early wristwatches were sold to many jewellers, who then put their own names on the dial. The earliest watches from Wilsdorf and Davis were usually hallmarked "W&D" inside the caseback. In 1908, Wilsdorf registered the trademark "Rolex", which became the brand name of watches from Wilsdorf and Davis. He opened an office in La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland. Wilsdorf wanted the brand name to be easily pronounceable in any language, and short enough to fit on the face of a watch. He also thought that the name "Rolex" was onomatopoeic, sounding like a watch being wound. During World War I, Rolex manufactured trench watches. In November 1915, the company changed its name to Rolex Watch Co. Ltd. In 1919, Hans Wilsdorf moved the company from England to Geneva, Switzerland, because of heavy post-war taxes levied on luxury imports and high export duties on the silver and gold used for the watch cases. In 1919 the company's name was officially changed to Montres Rolex SA and later in 1920 to Rolex SA.With administrative worries attended to, Wilsdorf turned the company's attention to a marketing challenge: the infiltration of dust and moisture under the dial and crown, which damaged the movement. To address this problem, in 1926 a third-party casemaker produced a waterproof and dustproof wristwatch for Rolex, giving it the name "Oyster". The original patent attributed to Paul Perregaux and Georges Peret, that allowed the watch to be adjusted while maintaining protection from water ingress was purchased – not invented – by Rolex and heavily marketed. The watch featured a hermetically sealed case which provided optimal protection for the movement. As a demonstration, Rolex submerged Oyster models in aquariums, which it displayed in the windows of its main points of sale. In 1927, British swimmer Mercedes Gleitze swam the English Channel with an Oyster on her necklace, becoming the first Rolex ambassador. To celebrate the feat, Rolex published a full-page advertisement on the front page of the Daily Mail for every issue for a whole month proclaiming the watch's success during the ten-hour-plus swim. In 1931, Rolex patented a self-winding mechanism called a Perpetual rotor, a semi-circular plate that relies on gravity to move freely. In turn, the Oyster watch became known as the Oyster Perpetual. Upon the death of his wife in 1944, Wilsdorf established the Hans Wilsdorf Foundation, a private trust, in which he left all of his Rolex shares, ensuring that some of the company's income would go to charity. Wilsdorf died in 1960, and since then the trust has owned and run Rolex SA. Recent development The Hans Wilsdorf Foundation, which privately owns Rolex SA, is a registered Swiss charitable foundation and pays a lower tax rate. In 2011, a spokesman for Rolex declined to provide evidence regarding the amount of charitable donations made by the Wilsdorf Foundation, which brought up several scandals due to the lack of transparency. In Geneva where the company is based, it is said to have gifted, among many things, two housing buildings to social institutions of Geneva. According to the 2017 Brand Z report, the brand value is estimated at $8.053 billion. Rolex watches continue to have a reputation as status symbols. The company produces more than 1,000,000 timepieces each year. Tudor SA Rolex SA offers products under the Rolex and Tudor brands. Montres Tudor SA has designed, manufactured and marketed Tudor watches since 6 March 1946. Rolex founder Hans Wilsdorf conceived Tudor to create a product for authorized Rolex dealers to sell that offered the reliability and dependability of a Rolex, but at a lower price. The number of Rolex watches was limited by the rate that they could produce in-house Rolex movements, thus Tudor watches were originally equipped with third-party standard movements supplied by ETA SA while using Rolex-quality cases and bracelets. Since 2015, Tudor has begun to manufacture watches with in-house movements. The first model introduced with an in-house movement was the Tudor North Flag. Following this, updated versions of the Tudor Pelagos and Tudor Heritage Black Bay have also been fitted with an in-house caliber. Tudor watches are marketed and sold in most countries around the world. Montres Tudor SA discontinued sales of Tudor-branded watches in the United States in 2004, but Tudor returned to the United States market in the summer of 2013, and to the UK in 2014. Watch manufacturing While Rolex mostly produces mechanical watches, it also participated in development of the original quartz watch movements. Although Rolex has made very few quartz models for its Oyster line, the company's engineers were instrumental in design and implementation of the technology during the late 1960s and early 1970s. In 1968, Rolex collaborated with a consortium of 16 Swiss watch manufacturers to develop the Beta 21 quartz movement used in their Rolex Quartz Date 5100 alongside other manufactures including the Omega Electroquartz watches. Within about five years of research, design and development, Rolex created the "clean-slate" 5035/5055 movement that would eventually power the Rolex Oysterquartz. Material-wise, Rolex first used its "Cerachrom" ceramic bezel on the GMT-Master II in 2005, and has since then implemented ceramic bezel inserts across the range of professional sports watches. They are available on the Submariner, Sea Dweller, Deepsea, GMT Master II and Daytona models. In contrast to the aluminium bezel which it replaced, the ceramic bezel color does not wear out from exposure to UV-light and is scratch resistant. Rolex uses 904L grade stainless steel; in contrast, most Swiss watches are made with 316L grade steel. Rolex uses the higher grade, as it is more resistant to corrosion and when polished, leaves a more attractive lustre. Rolex serial numbers Each Rolex comes with a unique serial number, which can help indicate its approximate production period. Serial numbers were first introduced in 1926 and were issued sequentially, until 1954, when Rolex restarted from #999,999 to #0. In 1987, there was an addition of one letter to a 6-digit serial number and in 2010, to the present date Rolex introduced random serial numbers. Notable inventions Among the company's notable improvements and innovations are: In 1926, Rolex produced the Oyster case. While they claim this was the first reliable waterproof wristwatch case based on a screw-down crown it was not; Depollier's case was patented 8 years earlier. To this end, Rolex acquired the Perragaux-Perret screw-down patent, added a clutch and combined the screw-down crown with a threaded case back and bezel. Wilsdorf even had a specially made Rolex watch (the watch was called the "DeepSea") attached to the side of Trieste, which went to the bottom of the Mariana Trench. The watch survived and tested as having kept perfect time during its descent and ascent. This was confirmed by a telegram sent to Rolex the following day saying "Am happy to confirm that even at 11,000 metres your watch is as precise as on the surface. Best regards, Jacques Piccard". Earlier waterproof watches such as the "Submarine Watch" by Tavannes used other means to seal the case. In 1910, the first watchmaker to earn chronometer certification for a small lady wristwatch. In 1931, released a wristwatch winding mechanism featuring a rotor, a full 360 degrees rotating weight to power the watch by the movement of the wearer's arm. As well as making watch winding unnecessary, it also kept the power from the mainspring more consistent, resulting in more reliable timekeeping. Fully rotating weights later became part of the standard winding mechanism of self-winding wristwatches. A preceding self-winding mechanism by Harwood instead used a weight that moved in a 270 degrees arc hitting buffer springs on both sides. In 1945, introduced the first chronometer wristwatch with an automatically changing date on the dial (Rolex Datejust Ref. 4467). An earlier wristwatch with a date changing mechanism by Mimo was not chronometer certified. In 1953, released a case waterproof to 100 m (330 ft) in the Rolex Oyster Perpetual Submariner Ref. 6204. Although this has been commonly publicized as the first diving watch, in 1932 Omega had released the Marine, which could stand 135mts, 35mts more than the 1953 Rolex Submariner. Blancpain produced their Fifty Fathoms watch in 1953, 10 months before the Rolex Submariner. In 1954, produced a wristwatch which showed two time zones at once in the Rolex GMT Master ref. 6542. Yet again, it was not the first company to do so, as the Longines DualTime preceded the GMT by a full quarter of a century. In 1956, Rolex made a wristwatch with an automatically changing day and date on the dial in the Rolex Day-Date. Counterfeits Rolex watches are frequently counterfeited and often illegally sold on the street and online. Counterfeit Rolex watches vary in quality: some use cheap movements, while others use automatic movements and some use an ETA movement. O. J. Simpson wore a counterfeit Rolex during his 1994 murder trial. Notable models In general, Rolex has three watch lines: Oyster Perpetual, Professional and Cellini (the Cellini line is Rolex's line of "dress" watches). The primary bracelets for the Oyster line are named Jubilee, Oyster, President, and Pearlmaster. The watch straps on the models are usually either stainless steel, yellow gold, white gold, or rose gold. In the United Kingdom, the retail price for the stainless steel 'Pilots' range (such as the GMT Master II) starts from £5,600. Diamond inlay watches are more expensive. The book Vintage Wristwatches by Antiques Roadshows Reyne Haines listed a price estimate of vintage Rolex watches that ranged between US$650 and US$75,000, while listing vintage Tudors between US$250 and US$9,000. Most expensive pieces On 26 October 2017, a Rolex Daytona (Ref. 6239) wristwatch, manufactured in 1968, was sold by Phillips in its New York auction for US$17.75 million. The watch was originally purchased by Joanne Woodward in 1968 and was given by Joanne to her husband Paul Newman as a gift. The auction price set a record at $15.5 million, plus buyer's premium of 12.5%, for a final price of $17,752,500 in New York City. As of 2018, it is the most expensive wristwatch and the second most expensive watch ever sold at auction. Notably, "[a]t the time that Newman gave the watch to James Cox [as a gift], the watch was selling for about $200." On May 28, 2018, a Rolex Daytona "Unicorn" Ref. 6265 was sold in auction by Phillips for US$5.937 million in Geneva, making it the second most expensive Rolex timepiece ever sold at auction (as of 2018). The most expensive Rolex (in terms of retail price) ever produced by the Rolex factory was the GMT Ice reference 116769TBR with a retail price of US$485,350. Air-Kings Rolex founder Hans Wilsdorf created the Air-Prince line to honor RAF pilots of the Battle of Britain, releasing the first model in 1958. By 2007, the 1142XX iteration of the Air-King featured a COSC-certified movement in a 34mm case, considered by some a miniaturized variant of the 39mm Rolex Explorer as both watches featured very similar styling cues; the 34mm Air-King lineup was the least expensive series of Oyster Perpetual. In 2014 the Air-King was dropped, making the Oyster Perpetual 26/31/34/36/39 the entry-level Rolex line. In 2016 Rolex reintroduced the Air-King, available as a single model (number 116900), largely similar to its predecessors but with a larger 40mm case, and a magnetic shield found on the Rolex Milgauss; indeed the new 40mm Air-King is slightly cheaper than the 39mm Explorer (the Explorer lacks the magnetic shield but its movement has Paraflex shock absorbers that are not found in the Air-King's movement). Oyster Perpetual The name of the watch line in catalogs is often "Rolex Oyster __" or "Rolex Oyster Perpetual __"; Rolex Oyster and Oyster Perpetual are generic names and not specific product lines, except for the Oyster Perpetual 26/31/34/36/39/41 and Oyster Perpetual Date 34. The Rolex Oyster Perpetual watch is a direct descendant of the original watertight Rolex Oyster watch created in 1926. Within the Oyster Perpetual lineup, there are three different movements; the 39 features the Calibre 3132 movement with the Parachrom hairspring and Paraflex shock absorbers (the Oyster Perpetual 39 is a variant of the Rolex Explorer 39mm, sharing the same case, bracelet and clasp, bezel, and movement, with a different dial and different hands), while the 34 and 36 models have the Caliber 3130 featuring the Parachrom hairspring, and the smallest 28 and 31 models have Calibre 2231. The Oyster Perpetual Date 34 (or simply Date 34) adds a date display and date movement, plus the options of a white gold fluted bezel and diamonds on the dial. Certain models from the Date and Datejust ranges are almost identical, however the Datejust have 36 mm and 41 mm cases paired with a 20 mm bracelet, compared with the Date's 34 mm case and 19 mm bracelet. Modern versions of the Oyster Perpetual Date and Datejust models share Rolex's 3135 movement, with the most recent change to the 3135 movement being introduction of Rolex's "parachrom bleu" hairspring, which provides increased accuracy. As the Date and Datejust share a movement, both have the ability to adjust the date forward one day at a time without adjusting the time; this feature is not confined to the Datejust. Compared with the Date, the Datejust has a much wider range of customization options, including other metals beyond stainless steel, various materials for the dial, and optional diamonds on the dial and bezel. The Datejust II, which was released in 2009, has a bigger case (41mm diameter) than the standard Datejust and features an updated movement, being only available in steel with white, yellow or rose gold on an Oyster bracelet. In 2016, Rolex released the Datejust 41, which has the same 41mm diameter case as the Datejust II, however the Datejust 41 has smaller indexes and a thinner bezel compared to the Datejust II Professional collections Rolex produced specific models suitable for the extremes of deep-sea diving, caving, mountain climbing, polar exploration, and aviation. Early professional models included the Rolex Submariner (1953) and the Rolex Sea Dweller (1967). The latter watch has a helium release valve to release helium gas build-up during decompression, which, according to Urs Alois Eschle, a former Director of Doxa, was patented by Rolex in cooperation with Doxa. The Explorer (1953) and Explorer II (1971) were developed specifically for explorers who would navigate rough terrain, such as the world-famous Mount Everest expeditions. Indeed, the Rolex Explorer was launched to celebrate the successful ascent of Everest in 1953 by the expeditionary team led by Sir John Hunt. (That expedition was supplied with watches from both Rolex and Smiths; it was a Smiths watch, rather than a Rolex, which Sir Edmund wore to the summit.) The 39 mm Rolex Explorer was designed as a "tool watch" for rugged use, hence its movement has Paraflex shock absorbers which give them higher shock resistance than other Rolex watches. The 42mm Rolex Explorer II has some significant differences from the 39mm Explorer; the Explorer II adds a date function, and an orange 24-hour hand which is paired with the fixed bezel's black 24-hour markers for situations underground or around the poles where day cannot be distinguished from night. Another iconic model is the Rolex GMT Master (1955), originally developed at the request of Pan Am Airways to provide its crews with a dual-time watch that could be used to display local time and GMT (Greenwich Mean Time), which was the international time standard for aviation at that time (and still is in its modern variant of Universal Time Coordinated (UTC) or Zulu Time) and was needed for astronavigation (celestial navigation) during longer flights. Historic events POWs and the Great Escape By the start of World War II, Royal Air Force pilots were buying Rolex watches to replace their inferior standard-issue watches; however, when captured and sent to prisoner of war (POW) camps, their watches were confiscated. When Hans Wilsdorf heard of this, he offered to replace all watches that had been confiscated and not require payment until the end of the war, if the officers would write to Rolex and explain the circumstances of their loss and where they were being held. Wilsdorf was in personal charge of the scheme."Time on your hands" by James Cockington, The Sydney Morning Herald, 27 September 2006 As a result of this, an estimated 3,000 Rolex watches were ordered by British officers in the officer camp Oflag VII-B in Bavaria alone. This had the effect of raising the morale among the allied POWs because it indicated that Wilsdorf did not believe that the Axis powers would win the war. American servicemen heard about this when stationed in Europe during WWII and this helped open up the American market to Rolex after the war. On 10 March 1943, while still a prisoner of war, Corporal Clive James Nutting, one of the organizers of the Great Escape, ordered a stainless steel Rolex Oyster 3525 Chronograph (valued at a current equivalent of £1,200) by mail directly from Hans Wilsdorf in Geneva, intending to pay for it with money he saved working as a shoemaker at the camp.Times online For sale: Rolex sent by mail order to Stalag Luft III by Bojan Pancevski in Vienna 12 May 2007 The watch (Rolex watch no. 185983) was delivered to Stalag Luft III on 10 July that year along with a note from Wilsdorf apologising for any delay in processing the order and explaining that an English gentleman such as Corporal Nutting "should not even think" about paying for the watch before the end of the war. Wilsdorf is reported to have been impressed with Nutting because, although not an officer, he had ordered the expensive Rolex 3525 Oyster chronograph while most other prisoners ordered the much cheaper Rolex Speed King model which was popular because of its small size. The watch is believed to have been ordered specifically to be used in the Great Escape when, as a chronograph, it could have been used to time patrols of prison guards or time the 76 ill-fated escapees through tunnel 'Harry' on 24 March 1944. Eventually, after the war, Nutting was sent an invoice of only £15 for the watch, because of currency export controls in England at the time. The watch and associated correspondence between Wilsdorf and Nutting were sold at an auction for £66,000 in May 2007, while at an earlier auction in September 2006 the same watch fetched A$54,000.Australian auction house Through Internet Archive Nutting served as a consultant for both the 1950 film The Wooden Horse and the 1963 film The Great Escape. Related murder investigations In a famous murder case, the Rolex on Ronald Platt's wrist eventually led to the arrest of his murderer, Albert Johnson Walker: a financial planner who had fled from Canada when he was charged with 18 counts of fraud, theft and money laundering. When a body was found in the English Channel in 1996 by a fisherman named John Coprik, a Rolex wristwatch was the only identifiable object on the body. Since the Rolex movement had a serial number and was engraved with special markings every time it was serviced, British police traced the service records from Rolex and identified the owner of the watch as Ronald Platt. In addition, police were able to determine the date of death by examining the date on the watch calendar. Since the Rolex movement was fully waterproof and had a reserve of two days of operation when inactive, police were able to reasonably infer the time of death.Discovery Channel Documentary on Ronald Platt's murder In Singapore on 20 April 1998, a young man bludgeoned a woman to death in order to steal her Rolex and later give it to his girlfriend. The case became known as the "Rolex watch murder". The murderer was arrested, sentenced to death and executed. Sponsorship Since 1976, the Rolex Awards for Enterprise of 100,000 Swiss francs has been awarded; a Young Laureates award of 50,000 was added in 2010. The biennial Rolex Mentor and Protégé Arts Initiative with a grant of about $41,000 was launched in 2002. Rolex has been the official timekeeper to the Le Mans 24 Hours motor race since 2001. Former Formula 1 driver Jackie Stewart has advertised Rolex since 1968. Others who have done so for some years include Gary Player, Arnold Palmer, Roger Penske, Jean-Claude Killy, and Kiri Te Kanawa. It is also the sponsor of the Rolex International Jumping Riders Club Top 10 Final competition. Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh had a specially designed experimental Rolex Oyster Perpetual Deep-Sea Special strapped to the outside of their bathyscaphe during the 1960 Challenger Deep dive to a world-record depth of . When James Cameron conducted a similar dive in 2012, a specially designed and manufactured Rolex Oyster Perpetual Sea-Dweller Deep Sea Challenge watch was being "worn" by his submarine's robotic arm. Mercedes Gleitze was the first British woman to swim the English Channel on 7 October 1927. However, as John E. Brozek (author of The Rolex Report: An Unauthorized Reference Book for the Rolex Enthusiast) points out in his article "The Vindication Swim, Mercedes Gleitze and Rolex take the plunge", some doubts were cast on her achievement when a hoaxer claimed to have made a faster swim only four days later. Hence Gleitze attempted a repeat swim with extensive publicity on 21 October, dubbed the "Vindication Swim". For promotional purposes, Wilsdorf offered her one of the earliest Rolex Oysters if she would wear it during the attempt. After more than 10 hours, in water that was much colder than during her first swim, she was pulled from the sea semi-conscious seven miles short of her goal. Although she did not complete the second crossing, a journalist for The Times wrote, "Having regard to the general conditions, the endurance of Miss Gleitze surprised the doctors, journalists and experts who were present, for it seemed unlikely that she would be able to withstand the cold for so long. It was a good performance." As she sat in the boat, the same journalist made a discovery and reported it as follows: "Hanging round her neck by a ribbon on this swim, Miss Gleitze carried a small gold watch, which was found this evening to have kept good time throughout." When examined closely, the watch was found to be dry inside and in perfect condition. One month later, on 24 November 1927, Wilsdorf launched the Rolex Oyster watch in the United Kingdom with a full front page Rolex advertisement in the Daily Mail. See also Boule de Genève'' List of watch manufacturers Rolex Tower References External links 1905 establishments in England Luxury brands Clothing companies established in 1905 Companies based in Geneva Privately held companies of Switzerland Swiss watch brands
402215	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Ranger%20%28CV-61%29	USS Ranger (CV-61)	The seventh USS Ranger (CV/CVA-61) was the third of four supercarriers built for the United States Navy in the 1950s. Although all four ships of the class were completed with angled decks, Ranger had the distinction of being the first US carrier built from the beginning as an angled-deck ship. Commissioned in 1957, she served extensively in the Pacific, especially the Vietnam War, for which she earned 13 battle stars. Near the end of her career, she also served in the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf. Ranger was decommissioned in 1993, and was stored at Bremerton, Washington until March 2015. She was then moved to Brownsville for scrapping, which was completed in November 2017. Construction and trials Ranger was the first American aircraft carrier to be laid down as an angled-deck ship (her elder sisters Forrestal and Saratoga had been laid down as axial-deck ships and were converted for an angled deck while under construction). She was laid down 2 August 1954 by Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Co., Newport News, Virginia in Shipway 10. Her partially completed hull was floated and placed in Shipway 11 four months later for final completion. Ranger was launched 29 September 1956, sponsored by Mrs. Arthur Radford (wife of Admiral Arthur W. Radford, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff) and commissioned at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard 10 August 1957, Captain Charles T. Booth II in command. Ranger joined the U.S. Atlantic Fleet on 3 October 1957. Just prior to sailing on 4 October for Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, for shakedown, she received the men and planes of Attack Squadron 85. She conducted air operations, individual ship exercises, and final acceptance trials along the eastern seaboard and in the Caribbean Sea until 20 June 1958. Noted artist Jack Coggins was commissioned by the United States Naval Institute to paint the new aircraft carrier; his artwork appeared on the cover of their Proceedings Magazine of July 1958. She then departed Norfolk, Virginia, with 200 Naval Reserve officer candidates for a two-month cruise that took the carrier around Cape Horn. She arrived at her new homeport, Naval Air Station Alameda, Alameda, California, on 20 August and joined the Pacific Fleet. Service The carrier spent the remainder of 1958 in pilot qualification training for Air Group 14 and fleet exercises along the California coast. Departing 3 January 1959 for final training in Hawaiian waters until 17 February, she next sailed as the flagship of Rear Admiral Henry H. Caldwell, Commander, Carrier Division Two, to join the Seventh Fleet. Air operations off Okinawa were followed by maneuvers with SEATO naval units out of Subic Bay, Philippines. A special weapons warfare exercise and a patrol along the southern seaboard of Japan followed. During this first WestPac deployment, Ranger launched more than 7,000 sorties in support of 7th Fleet operations. She returned to San Francisco Bay 27 July. During the next 6 months, Ranger was kept in a high state of readiness through participation in exercises and coastal fleet operations. With Carrier Air Group 9 embarked, she departed Alameda on 6 February 1960 for a second WestPac deployment and returned to Alameda 30 August. From 11 August 1961 through 8 March 1962, Ranger deployed to the Far East a third time. The next seven months were filled with intensive training along the western seaboard in preparation for operations in Southeast Asia. Ranger departed Alameda on 9 November for brief operations off Hawaii, thence proceeded, via Okinawa, to the Philippines. She steamed to the South China Sea 1 May 1963 to support possible Laotian operations. When the political situation in Laos relaxed 4 May, she resumed her operations schedule with the 7th Fleet. Arriving at Alameda from the Far East 14 June 1963, she underwent overhaul in the San Francisco Naval Shipyard 7 August 1963 through 10 February 1964. Refresher training out of Alameda commenced 25 March, interrupted by an operational cruise to Hawaii from 19 June to 10 July. In May 1964, Ranger was deployed near French Polynesia in the Pacific Ocean to monitor the French nuclear tests on Moruroa, a task made possible by launching and recovering a Lockheed U-2 from its flight deck. Work on modifying the U-2 for carrier landing and take-off started in late 1963, and one accident occurred during the carrier landing operation when the aircraft piloted by test pilot Bob Schumacher crashed. Vietnam War service Ranger again sailed for the Far East on 6 August 1964. This deployment came on the heels of the Gulf of Tonkin incident. Ranger made only an eight-hour stop in Pearl Harbor on 10 August, then hurried on to Subic Bay, then to Yokosuka, Japan. In the latter port on 17 October 1964, she became the flagship of Rear Admiral Miller, who commanded Fast Carrier Task Force 77. In the following months, she helped the 7th Fleet continue its role of steady watchfulness to keep sea lanes open and stop Communist infiltration by sea. General William Westmoreland, commanding Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, visited Ranger on 9 March 1965 to confer with Rear Admiral Miller. Ranger continued air strikes on enemy targets inland until 13 April when a fuel line broke, ignited and engulfed her No. 1 main machinery room in flames. The fire was extinguished in little over an hour. There was one fatality. She put into Subic Bay 15 April and sailed on the 20th for Alameda, arriving home on 6 May. She entered the San Francisco Naval Shipyard 13 May and remained there under overhaul until 30 September 1965. Following refresher training, Ranger departed Alameda on 10 December 1965 to rejoin the 7th Fleet. She and her embarked Carrier Air Wing 14 received the Navy Unit Commendation for exceptionally meritorious service during combat operations in Southeast Asia from 10 January to 6 August 1966. Ranger departed the Gulf of Tonkin on 6 August for Subic Bay, then steamed via Yokosuka for Alameda, arriving on the 25th. She stood out of San Francisco Bay 28 September and entered Puget Sound Naval Shipyard two days later for overhaul. The carrier departed Puget Sound on 30 May 1967 for training out of San Diego and Alameda. On 21 July 1967, she logged her 88,000th carrier landing. From June until November, Ranger underwent a long and intensive period of training designed to make her fully combat ready. Attack Carrier Air Wing 2 (CVW-2) embarked on 15 September 1967, with the new A-7 Corsair II jet attack plane and the UH-2C Seasprite rescue helicopter, making Ranger the first carrier to deploy with these powerful new aircraft. From carrier refresher training for CVW-2, Ranger proceeded to fleet exercise "Moon Festival". From 9 to 16 October, the carrier and her air wing participated in every aspect of a major fleet combat operation. Ranger departed Alameda on 4 November 1967 for WestPac. Arriving at Yokosuka on 21 November, she relieved and sailed for the Philippines on the 24th. After arriving at Subic Bay on 29 November, she made final preparations for combat operations in the Gulf of Tonkin. The Commander, Carrier Division 3, embarked on 30 November as Commander, TG 77.7, and Ranger departed Subic Bay on 1 December for Yankee Station. Arriving on station on 3 December 1967, Ranger commenced another period of sustained combat operations against North Vietnam. During the next five months, her planes hit a wide variety of targets, including ferries, bridges, airfields, and military installations. Truck parks, rail facilities, antiaircraft guns, and SAM sites were also treated to doses of Air Wing 2's firepower. Bob Hope's Christmas Show came to Ranger in the Gulf of Tonkin on 21 December. Another welcome break in the intense pace of operations came with a call at Yokosuka during the first week of April. Returning to Yankee Station on 11 April, Ranger again struck objectives in North Vietnam. At the end of January 1968, was seized by North Korea. Ranger turned north and proceeded at full speed from the tropical waters off Vietnam to the frigid waters off North Korea as part of Operation Formation Star. The ship had been on the combat line in Vietnam for one month and was due to for rest and recreation. At the conclusion of the North Korea deployment, the ship had been at sea for 65 days. The carrier stopped at the small Japanese port of Sasebo for several days, then proceeded back to combat operations. After five months of intensive operations, Ranger called at Hong Kong on 5 May 1968 and then steamed for home. There followed a shipyard availability at Puget Sound that ended with Rangers departure 29 July for San Francisco. Three months of leave, upkeep and training culminated in another WestPac deployment 26 October 1968 through 17 May 1969. She departed Alameda on yet another WestPac deployment in October 1969 as the flagship for Rear Admiral J.C. Donaldson, Commander, Carrier Division Three, and Captain J.P. Moorer as commanding officer, and remained so employed until 18 May 1970. During this time, the ship spent at least two extended periods on Yankee Station, the longest being 45 days, due to mechanical problems with the carrier that was to relieve her. A pleasant break in the lives of Rangers crew came with the arrival of the Bob Hope show on 24 December 1969. Upon leaving Yankee after one tour and on the way to Sasebo, Ranger was ordered to stand off the coast of Korea for three days due to North Korea forcing down a US C-130 and holding the crew. Initially, Ranger was to leave the line on Yankee Station for a week of R&R in Subic Bay while offloading supplies, then to Japan and on to Australia and home. A day before Ranger was to leave the line she was ordered to hold on station and fly the first sorties on Cambodia. Finally leaving Yankee Station, Ranger made a fast three-day offload in Subic Bay and a two-day port call in Sasebo and back to Alameda, arriving 1 June. Ranger spent the rest of the summer engaged in operations off the west coast, departing for her sixth WestPac cruise in late October 1970. On 10 March 1971, Ranger, along with , set a record of 233 strike sorties for one day in action against North Vietnam. During April, the three carriers assigned to Task Force 77 – Ranger, Kitty Hawk, and – provided a constant two-carrier posture on Yankee Station. Hours of employment remained unchanged, with one carrier on daylight hours and one on the noon to midnight schedule. Strike emphasis was placed on the interdiction of major Laotian entry corridors to South Vietnam. She returned to Alameda 7 June 1971, and remained in port for the rest of 1971 and the first five months of 1972 undergoing regular overhaul. On 27 May 1972, she returned to West Coast operation until 16 November, when she embarked upon her seventh WestPac deployment. This had been delayed four months when one of the engines was disabled after Navy fireman E-3 Patrick Chenoweth was accused of dropping a heavy paint scraper into a main reduction gear, one of around two dozen acts of sabotage Ranger suffered between 7 June 1972 and 16 October 1972. Chenoweth was charged with "sabotage in time of war", and faced 30 years imprisonment, but was acquitted by a general court-martial. On 18 December 1972, the Linebacker II campaign was initiated when negotiations in the Paris peace talks stalemated. Participating carriers were Ranger, , , , and . In an intensified version of Operation Linebacker, bombing of North Vietnam above the 20th parallel and reseeding of the mine fields were resumed, and concentrated strikes were carried out against surface-to-air missile and antiaircraft artillery sites, enemy army barracks, petroleum storage areas, Haiphong naval and shipyard areas, and railroad and truck stations. Navy tactical air attack sorties were centered in the coastal areas around Hanoi and Haiphong, with 505 Navy sorties were carried out in this area. These operations ended on 29 December when the North Vietnamese returned to the peace table; on 27 January 1973, the Vietnam cease-fire came into effect, and Oriskany, America, Enterprise, and Ranger, on Yankee Station, cancelled all combat sorties. Post-war service in the 1970s Ranger returned to Alameda in August 1973. She was ordered immediately to refit and repair at Long Beach Naval Base where she was prepared for her next WESPAC Cruise over the next ninety days. Her air wing was lifted aboard by giant crane in Long Beach. She spent two weeks shaking down active duty and Reserve pilots. She returned to Alameda. There were two more two-week shake down cruises between January and April 1974. On 7 May 1974 she deployed again to the western Pacific. During this cruise, Ranger was again deployed to Yankee Station to participate in operations significant to the withdrawal of forces involved there. She returned to homeport on 18 October. On 28 May 1976, while on deployment, helicopter crews from HS-4 aboard Ranger, detachments from HC-3 on , and , and helicopters from Naval Air Station Cubi Point, Republic of the Philippines, assisted in Philippine disaster relief efforts in the flood ravaged areas of central Luzon. Over 1,900 people were evacuated; more than of relief supplies and of fuel were provided by Navy and Air Force helicopters. On 12 July 1976, Ranger and her escort ships of Task Force 77.7 entered the Indian Ocean and were assigned to operate off the coast of Kenya in response to a threat of military action in Kenya by Ugandan forces in the wake of the rescue of Israeli hostages held at Entebbe Airport in Uganda several days before. In February 1977, Ranger departed Naval Air Station North Island for the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, Bremerton, Washington, for major overhaul. While in overhaul, she received significant technological upgrades to her command information systems and flight deck gear, and was fitted with Sea Sparrow missile defense systems. Additionally, the main machinery spaces were refitted with more reliable 'General Regulator' forced-balance automatic boiler and combustion-control systems. In March 1978, the overhaul was completed and she began several months of shakedown cruises and sea trials for recertifications. On 21 February 1979, Ranger deployed for her 14th WestPac cruise, tentatively scheduled to cross the Indian Ocean to present a show of force during the strife between North and South Yemen, a mission she would not complete. On 5 April 1979, she collided with the Liberian-flagged tanker MV Fortune just southeast of Singapore while entering the Straits of Malacca. While the large oil tanker was severely damaged, Ranger endured a significant gash in her bow, rendering two fuel tanks unusable. Ranger turned back to Subic Bay, for temporary repairs and then to Yokosuka, for full repair. The collision resulted in 10,000 tons of crude oil spilled in the South China Sea. MV Fortune was hauling 100,000 tons of light crude from Kuwait to Taiwan. 1980s In September 1980, Ranger departed her homeport of San Diego for the 15th WestPac cruise and again crossed into the Indian Ocean via the Straits of Malacca, this time without incident. Ranger proceeded to GONZO Station to continue the US Navy's show of force in the region during Iran hostage crisis, which at that point was in its tenth month. Ranger remained on-station for over 120 days, during which time the hostages were released on 20 January 1981, the 444th day of the crisis. Ranger was awarded the Navy Expeditionary Medal, for both the ship and her company. She returned to homeport on 5 May 1981. On 20 March 1981, under the command of CAPT Dan Pedersen, Ranger rescued 138 Vietnamese boat people from the South China Sea and brought them to the United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) in Manila, Philippines. In the same year, following the refugee rescue in 1981, Pedersen was given a nonpunitive letter of censure by Vice Adm. Robert F. Schoultz, commander of the Naval Air Force, United States Pacific Fleet, (COMNAVAIRPAC), after a three-week investigation into the 14 April 1981 death of Airman Paul Trerice, 20 years old, of Algonac, Michigan. Trerice had died after being on a bread-and-water diet for three days, then taking part in punitive exercises in the correctional custody unit. According to The Washington Post, "Trerice became abusive in the Ranger's correctional custody unit and had to be subdued in a struggle shortly before his death." The ship was just completing a successful WestPAC/Indian Ocean deployment and was at Subic Bay at the time. The Navy reported the airman faced disciplinary action for leaving his post and for leaving the ship twice without permission in Hong Kong. A federal court dismissed criminal charges brought by the Trerice family against Pedersen and other officers on the Ranger, and the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the dismissal. On 26 February 1983, she received an official visit from Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, who were on a West Coast tour to visit San Diego. Ranger entered the history books on 21 March 1983 when an all-woman flight crew flying a C-1A Trader from VRC-40 "Truckin' Traders" landed aboard the carrier. The aircraft was commanded by LT Elizabeth M. Toedt and the crew included LTJG Cheryl A. Martin, Aviation Machinist's Mate 3rd Class Gina Greterman, and Aviation Machinist's Mate Airman Robin Banks. On 1 November 1983, a fire broke out in #4 Main Machinery Room due to a fuel spill during fuel transfer operations while Ranger was deployed in the North Arabian Sea east of Oman. Six crewmen were killed as a result of the fire, which knocked out one of the ship's four engines and disabled one of her four shafts.Ranger returned to the Philippines after 121 consecutive days at sea. One enlisted man was imprisoned for two months of a three-month sentence for dereliction of duty relating to the fire, but the Navy released him early and reprimanded four officers after an investigation in 1984. The report blamed the fire, which resulted in $1.7 million ($ today) in damages in addition to the deaths, on engineering officers and their superiors. In early 1985, Ranger was used to film some interior scenes for the film Top Gun. In 1986, the ship stood in for for scenes filmed for Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home. On 14 July 1987, Ranger started her "Pearl" Anniversary Cruise. During this cruise, Ranger relieved Midway and her carrier group in the Indian Ocean. During this period, Ranger took part in Operation Earnest Will under which the Kuwait tankers were reflagged under US colors. On 24 July 1987, Tactical Electronics Warfare Squadron 131 (VAQ-131) began the first Pacific Fleet deployment of the EA-6B Prowler equipped with AGM-88 HARM missiles, deployed in Ranger. On 19 October 1987, Ranger took part in Operation Nimble Archer, an attack on two Iranian oil platforms in the Persian Gulf by US Navy forces. The attack was a response to Iran's missile attack three days earlier on MV Sea Isle City, a reflagged Kuwaiti oil tanker at anchor off Kuwait. The action occurred during Operation Earnest Will, the effort to protect Kuwaiti shipping amid the Iran-Iraq War. Air cover was provided by , two F-14 Tomcat fighters, and an E-2 Hawkeye from Ranger. On 3 August 1989, Ranger rescued 39 Vietnamese refugees, adrift for 10 days on a barge in heavy seas and monsoon rains in the South China Sea, about from NAS Cubi Point. SH-3s Sea Kings from HS-14 along with two Sea Knights assisted. An A-6 Intruder from VA-145 spotted the barge, which had apparently broken loose from its mooring near a small island off the coast of Vietnam with 10 men on board. Twenty-nine other refugees from a sinking refugee boat climbed aboard the barge when it drifted out to sea. After examination by medical personnel, all were flown to NAS Cubi Point for further processing. 1990s President George H. W. Bush addressed the nation on 16 January 1991 at 9 pm EST and announced that Operation Desert Storm had begun. The Navy launched 228 sorties from Ranger and in the Persian Gulf, from en route to the Persian Gulf, and from , Saratoga, and America in the Red Sea. In addition, the Navy launched more than 100 Tomahawk missiles from nine ships in the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf. An A-6E Intruder from Ranger was shot down two miles off the Iraqi coast by antiaircraft artillery on 18 January 1991, after laying MK36 naval mines on a waterway linking the Iraqi naval base of Umm Qasr with the Persian Gulf. The pilot and the navigator/bombardier were killed. On 26 January, an EA-6B Prowler from Ranger spotted two large tankers in a waterway northeast of Bubiyan Island. Two of Rangers A-6Es hit one of them with an AGM-123 Skipper missile on the starboard side. On 6 February, an F-14A Tomcat of Fighter Squadron 1 (VF-1) "Wolfpack" launched from the Ranger downed an Iraqi Mi-8 Hip helicopter with an AIM-9M Sidewinder missile. At 9 pm EST on 27 February, President Bush declared Kuwait had been liberated and Operation Desert Storm would end at midnight. On 21 April 1992, in harmony with other World War II 50th-anniversary festivities, Ranger participated in the commemorative re-enactment of the Doolittle Raid on Tokyo, Japan. Two World War II-era B-25 bombers were craned on board, and over 1,500 guests (including national, local and military media) were embarked to witness the two vintage aircraft travel down Ranger flight deck and take off. In June, Ranger made an historic port visit to Vancouver, British Columbia, in conjunction with her final phase of pre-deployment workups. Fully combat ready, Ranger began her 21st and final western Pacific and Indian Ocean deployment on 1 August 1992. On 18 August, she entered Yokosuka, for a six-day port visit and upkeep. Ranger entered the Persian Gulf on 14 September by transiting the Straits of Hormuz. The next day, Ranger relieved in an unusual close-aboard ceremony and along with her embarked air wing, Carrier Air Wing 2, immediately began flying patrol missions in support of the United Kingdom and United States-declared "No Fly" zone in southern Iraq: Operation Southern Watch. While in the Persian Gulf, former Cold War adversaries became at-sea partners as Ranger, British, and French naval forces joined with the Russian guided missile destroyer for an exercise involving communication, maneuvering, and signaling drills. During joint operations, a Russian Kamov Ka-27 "Helix" helicopter landed aboard Ranger. It was the first such landing on a US Navy aircraft carrier. Ranger left the Persian Gulf on 4 December 1992 and steamed at high speed to the coast of Somalia. Ranger played a significant role in the massive relief effort for starving Somalis in Operation Restore Hope. The Ranger/CVW-2 team provided photo and visual reconnaissance, airborne air traffic control, logistics support, and on-call close air support for Navy and Marine amphibious forces. Throughout Operations Southern Watch and Restore Hope, Ranger took 63 digital photographs which were sent by International Marine Satellite to the Navy Office of Information within hours of being taken. This was the first time digital pictures were successfully transmitted from a US Navy ship at sea. On 19 December 1992, Ranger was relieved on station by Kitty Hawk and began her last journey homeward to San Diego. Decommissioning and fate After the late 1980s defense cuts, Ranger did not undergo the Service Life Extension Program (SLEP) modernization process as did her three sisters and the later Kitty Hawk-class ships, and by the early 1990s, her material condition was declining. Both the outgoing Bush and incoming Clinton administrations recommended cuts to the defense budget, so the retirement of Ranger, along with her sisters Forrestal and Saratoga, was put forth. Ranger was decommissioned on 10 July 1993 after 36 years of service, and was at the Naval Inactive Ship Maintenance Facility, Bremerton, Washington. This decommissioning came instead of a refit scheduled for the same year. Such an extension would have extended Rangers life into 2002, requiring a reauthorization in 1994. In September 2010, the not-for-profit USS Ranger Foundation submitted an application to Naval Sea Systems Command proposing the donation of Ranger for use as a museum ship and multipurpose facility, to be located on the Columbia River at Chinook Landing Marine Park in Fairview, Oregon. However, in September 2012, NAVSEA rejected the foundation's proposal, and redesignated the ship for scrapping. Preparations for disposal Ranger were completed 29 May 2014. In August 2014, a new attempt began to convince the Navy not to scrap the ship. A petition on Change.org attracted over 2500 signatures. The hope was that Ranger could be located in Long Beach harbor as a museum. However, when asked by the Long Beach Press-Telegram, NAVSEA stated that Ranger was no longer available for donation and was slated to be scrapped in 2015. On 22 December 2014, the U.S. Navy paid one cent to International Shipbreaking of Brownsville, Texas, to tow and scrap Ranger. International Shipbreaking paid to tow her around South America, through the Straits of Magellan, as Ranger was too big to fit through the Panama Canal. The tow began on 5 March 2015 from the inactive ships maintenance facility, Bremerton, Washington, to Brownsville. International Shipbreaking expected to make a profit from Ranger after the costs of the tow and the actual dismantling of the ship. On 7 April 2015, ex-Ranger was seen anchored about three miles offshore at Panama City, Panama, attracting a lot of wild speculation as President Obama was scheduled to arrive two days later, for the 7th Summit of the Americas. Newspapers went so far as to repeat the local speculation that the ship was there to provide security for President Obama. On 12 July 2015, Ranger arrived at Brownsville for scrapping. The scrapping process was completed on 1 November 2017, though more than five tons of historic items from the ship were preserved for display at the USS Lexington Museum. Both of Ranger's anchors were reused on the 2003 commissioned, USS Ronald Reagan. Awards and decorations Ranger earned 13 battle stars for service during the Vietnam War. References External links U.S. Navy websites: history.navy.mil: Navy photos of Ranger USS Ranger from navsource.org NAVSEA – Historic Significance Evaluation, USS Ranger, 30 November 2010. Navy Awards Contract for Ranger Dismantling, 22 December 2014 Forrestal-class aircraft carriers Ships built in Newport News, Virginia 1957 ships Cold War aircraft carriers of the United States Vietnam War aircraft carriers of the United States Gulf War ships of the United States
402261	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roth%20IRA	Roth IRA	A Roth IRA is an individual retirement account (IRA) under United States law that is generally not taxed upon distribution, provided certain conditions are met. The principal difference between Roth IRAs and most other tax-advantaged retirement plans is that rather than granting a tax reduction for contributions to the retirement plan, qualified withdrawals from the Roth IRA plan are tax-free, and growth in the account is tax-free. The Roth IRA was introduced as part of the Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997 and is named for Senator William Roth. Overview A Roth IRA can be an individual retirement account containing investments in securities, usually common stocks and bonds, often through mutual funds (although other investments, including derivatives, notes, certificates of deposit, and real estate are possible). A Roth IRA can also be an individual retirement annuity, which is an annuity contract or an endowment contract purchased from a life insurance company. As with all IRAs, the Internal Revenue Service mandates specific eligibility and filing status requirements. A Roth IRA's main advantages are its tax structure and the additional flexibility that this tax structure provides. Also, there are fewer restrictions on the investments that can be made in the plan than many other tax-advantaged plans, and this adds somewhat to their popularity, though the investment options available depend on the trustee (or the place where the plan is established). The total contributions allowed per year to all IRAs is the lesser of one's taxable compensation (which is not the same as adjusted gross income) and the limit amounts as seen below (this total may be split up between any number of traditional and Roth IRAs. In the case of a married couple, each spouse may contribute the amount listed): History Originally called an "IRA Plus", the idea was proposed by Senator Bob Packwood of Oregon and Senator William Roth of Delaware in 1989. The Packwood–Roth plan would have allowed individuals to invest up to $2,000 in an account with no immediate tax deductions, and the earnings could later be withdrawn tax-free at retirement. The Roth IRA was established by the Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997 (Public Law 105-34) and named for Senator Roth, its chief legislative sponsor. In 2000, 46.3 million taxpayers held IRA accounts worth a total of $2.6 trillion in value according to the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). Only a little over $77 billion of that amount was held in Roth IRAs. By 2007, the number of IRA owners had jumped to over 50 million taxpayers with $3.3 trillion invested. In 1997, Roth wanted to restore the traditional IRA which had been repealed in 1986, and the upfront tax deduction that goes with it. Under congressional budget rules, which worked within a 10-year window, the revenue cost of giving that tax break to everyone was too high, so his staff limited deductible IRAs to people with very low income, and made Roth IRAs (initially with income limitations) available to others. This slid the revenue cost outside the 10-year window and got the legislation out from under the budget rules. Economists have warned about exploding future revenue losses associated with Roth IRAs. With these accounts, the government is "bringing in more now, but giving up much more in the future," said economist and Forbes contributor Leonard Burman. In a study for The Tax Policy Center, Burman calculated that from 2014 to 2046, the Treasury would lose a total of $14 billion as a result of IRA-related provisions in the 2006 tax law. The losses stem from both Roth conversions and the ability to make nondeductible IRA contributions and then immediately convert them to Roths. Differences from a traditional IRA In contrast to a traditional IRA, contributions to a Roth IRA are not tax-deductible. Withdrawals are tax-free under certain conditions (for example, if the withdrawal is only on the principal portion of the account, or if the owner is at least 59½ years old). A Roth IRA has fewer withdrawal restrictions than traditional IRAs. Transactions inside a Roth IRA (including capital gains, dividends, and interest) do not incur a current tax liability. Advantages Direct contributions to a Roth IRA (principal) may be withdrawn tax and penalty-free at any time. Earnings may be withdrawn tax and penalty-free after 5 years if the condition of age 59½ (or other qualifying condition) is also met. Rollover, converted (before age 59½) contributions held in a Roth IRA may be withdrawn tax and penalty-free after 5 years. Distributions from a Roth IRA do not increase Adjusted Gross Income. This differs from a traditional IRA, where all withdrawals are taxed as ordinary income, and a penalty applies for withdrawals before age 59½. Even capital gains on stocks or other securities held in a regular taxable account, so long as they are held for at least a year, are generally treated more advantageously than traditional IRA withdrawals, being taxed not as Ordinary Income, but at the lower Long-Term Capital Gain rate. This potentially higher tax rate for withdrawals of capital gains from a traditional IRA is a quid pro quo for the deduction taken against ordinary income when putting money into the IRA. Up to a lifetime maximum $10,000 in earnings, withdrawals are considered qualified (tax-free) if the money is used to acquire a principal residence for the Roth IRA owner. This principal residence must be acquired by the Roth IRA owner, their spouse, or their lineal ancestors and descendants. The owner or qualified relative who receives such a distribution must not have owned a home in the previous 24 months. Contributions may be made to a Roth IRA even if the owner participates in a qualified retirement plan such as a 401(k). (Contributions may be made to a traditional IRA in this circumstance, but they may not be tax deductible.) If the Roth IRA owner expects that the tax rate applicable to withdrawals from a traditional IRA in retirement will be higher than the tax rate applicable to the funds earned to make the Roth IRA contributions before retirement, then there may be a tax advantage to making contributions to a Roth IRA over a traditional IRA or similar vehicle while working. There is no current tax deduction, but money going into the Roth IRA is taxed at the taxpayer's current marginal tax rate, and will not be taxed at the expected higher future effective tax rate when it comes out of the Roth IRA. There is always risk, however, that retirement savings will be less than anticipated, which would produce a lower tax rate for distributions in retirement. The Roth IRA does not require distributions based on age. All other tax-deferred retirement plans, including the related Roth 401(k), require withdrawals to begin by April 1 of the calendar year after the owner reaches the RMD (Required minimum distribution) age of 72 (prior to the year 2020, the RMD age was 70½). If the account holder does not need the money and wants to leave it to their heirs, a Roth can be an effective way to accumulate tax-free income. Beneficiaries who inherit Roth IRAs are subject to special minimum distribution rules. Roth IRAs have a higher "effective" contribution limit than traditional IRAs, since the nominal contribution limit is the same for both traditional and Roth IRAs, but the post-tax contribution in a Roth IRA is equivalent to a larger pre-tax contribution in a traditional IRA that will be taxed upon withdrawal. For example, a contribution of the 2008 limit of $5,000 to a Roth IRA would have been equivalent to a traditional IRA contribution of $6667 (assuming a 25% tax rate at both contribution and withdrawal). In 2008, one could not contribute $6667 to a traditional IRA due to the contribution limit, so the post-tax Roth contribution may be larger. On estates large enough to be subject to estate taxes, a Roth IRA can reduce estate taxes since tax dollars have already been subtracted. A traditional IRA is valued at the pre-tax level for estate tax purposes. Most employer sponsored retirement plans tend to be pre-tax dollars and are similar, in that respect, to a traditional IRA, so if additional retirement savings are made beyond an employer-sponsored plan, a Roth IRA can diversify tax risk. Unlike distributions from a regular IRA, qualified Roth distributions do not affect the calculation of taxable social security benefits. Roth Conversions not only convert taxable IRA income to tax-free income, but if the IRA holds alternative assets such as REITs (Real Estate Investment Trusts), Leasing Programs, Oil and Gas Drilling Partnerships and Royalty Partnerships, a Fair Market Valuation (FMV) or "Substantially Discounted Roth-Conversion" may provide reductions in the conversion income tax by up to 75%, possibly more, depending on assets and the Fair Market Valuation. Roth Conversions using the FMV or "Substantially Discounted Roth-Conversion" may reduce the estate tax attributed to IRA's on large estates by up to 75%, or more, depending on the assets held at the time of conversion. Roth Conversions main benefit is in the conversion of taxable IRA income to tax-free Roth income, however Roth-Conversion income does not add to MAGI (Modified Adjusted Gross Income) hence reducing the taxpayers Medicare Part B Premiums (another tax). FMV or "Substantially Discounted Roth-Conversion" may allow the taxpayer to reduce RMDs by up to 75%. Disadvantages Funds that reside in a Roth IRA cannot be used as collateral for a loan per current IRS rules and therefore cannot be used for financial leveraging or as a cash management tool for investment purposes. Contributions to a Roth IRA are not tax deductible. By contrast, contributions to a traditional IRA are tax deductible (within income limits). Therefore, someone who contributes to a traditional IRA instead of a Roth IRA gets an immediate tax savings equal to the amount of the contribution multiplied by their marginal tax rate while someone who contributes to a Roth IRA does not realize this immediate tax reduction. Also, by contrast, contributions to most employer sponsored retirement plans (such as a 401(k), 403(b), Simple IRA or SEP IRA) are tax deductible with no income limits because they reduce a taxpayer's adjusted gross income. Eligibility to contribute to a Roth IRA phases out at certain income limits. By contrast, contributions to most tax deductible employer sponsored retirement plans have no income limit. Contributions to a Roth IRA do not reduce a taxpayer's adjusted gross income (AGI). By contrast, contributions to a traditional IRA or most employer sponsored retirement plans reduce AGI. Reducing one's AGI has a benefit (besides reducing taxable income) if it puts the AGI below some threshold to make the taxpayer eligible for tax credits or deductions that would not be available at the higher AGI with a Roth IRA. The amount of credits and deductions may increase as the taxpayer slides down the phaseout scale. Examples include the child tax credit, the earned income credit, the student loan interest deduction. A Roth IRA contribution is taxed at the taxpayer's current income tax rate, which is higher than the income tax rate during retirement for most people. This is because most people have a lower income, that falls in a lower tax bracket, during retirement than during their working years. (A lower tax rate can also occur if Congress lowers income tax rates before retirement.) By contrast, contributions to traditional IRAs or employer-sponsored tax-deductible retirement plans result in an immediate tax savings equal to the taxpayer's current marginal tax bracket multiplied by the amount of the contribution. The higher the taxpayer's current marginal tax rate, the higher the potential disadvantage. However, this issue is more complicated because withdrawals from traditional IRA or employer sponsored tax deductible retirement plans are fully taxable, up to 85% of Social Security income is taxable, personal residence mortgage interest deduction decreases as the mortgage is paid down, and there may be pension plan income, investment income and other factors. A taxpayer who pays state income tax and who contributes to a Roth IRA (instead of a traditional IRA or a tax deductible employer sponsored retirement plan) will have to pay state income taxes on the amount contributed to the Roth IRA in the year the money is earned. However, if the taxpayer retires to a state with a lower income tax rate, or no income taxes, then the taxpayer will have given up the opportunity to avoid paying state income taxes altogether on the amount of the Roth IRA contribution by instead contributing to a traditional IRA or a tax deductible employer sponsored retirement plan, because when the contributions are withdrawn from the traditional IRA or tax deductible plan in retirement, the taxpayer will then be a resident of the low or no income tax state, and will have avoided paying the state income tax altogether as a result of moving to a different state before the income tax became due. The perceived tax benefit may never be realized. That is, one might not live to retirement or much beyond, in which case the tax structure of a Roth only serves to reduce an estate that may not have been subject to tax. To fully realize the tax benefit, one must live until one's Roth IRA contributions have been withdrawn and exhausted. By contrast, with a traditional IRA, tax might never be collected at all, such as if one dies before retirement with an estate below the tax threshold, or retires with income below the tax threshold. (To benefit from this exemption, the beneficiary must be named in the appropriate IRA beneficiary form. A beneficiary inheriting the IRA solely through a will is not eligible for the estate tax exemption. Additionally, the beneficiary will be subject to income tax unless the inheritance is a Roth IRA.) Heirs will have to pay taxes on withdrawals from traditional IRA assets they inherit, and must continue to take mandatory distributions (although they will be based on their life expectancy). It is also possible that tax laws may change by the time one reaches retirement age. Double taxation Double taxation may still occur within these tax sheltered investment plans. For example, foreign dividends may be taxed at their point of origin, and the IRS does not recognize this tax as a creditable deduction. There is some controversy over whether this violates existing Joint Tax Treaties, such as the Convention Between Canada and the United States of America With Respect to Taxes on Income and on Capital. For Canadians with U.S. Roth IRAs: A 2008 rule provides that Roth IRAs (as defined in section 408A of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code) and similar plans are considered to be pensions. Accordingly, distributions from a Roth IRA (as well as other similar plans) to a resident of Canada will generally be exempt from Canadian tax to the extent that they would have been exempt from U.S. tax if paid to a resident of the U.S. Additionally, a resident of Canada may elect to defer any taxation in Canada with respect to income accrued in a Roth IRA but not distributed by the Roth IRA, until and to the extent that a distribution is made from the Roth IRA or any plan substituted therefor. The effect of these rules is that, in most cases, no portion of the Roth IRA will be subject to taxation in Canada. However, where an individual makes a contribution to a Roth IRA while they are a resident of Canada (other than rollover contributions from another Roth IRA), the Roth IRA will lose its status as a "pension" for purposes of the Treaty with respect to the accretions from the time such contribution is made. Income accretions from such time will be subject to tax in Canada in the year of accrual. In effect, the Roth IRA will be bifurcated into a "frozen" pension that will continue to enjoy the benefit of the exemption for pensions and a non-pension (essentially a savings account) that will not. Eligibility Income limits Congress has limited who can contribute to a Roth IRA based upon income. A taxpayer can contribute the maximum amount listed at the top of the page only if their Modified Adjusted Gross Income (MAGI) is below a certain level (the bottom of the range shown below). Otherwise, a phase-out of allowed contributions runs proportionally throughout the MAGI ranges shown below. Once MAGI hits the top of the range, no contribution is allowed at all; however, a minimum of $200 may be contributed as long as MAGI is below the top of the range. Excess Roth IRA contributions may be recharacterized into Traditional IRA contributions as long as the combined contributions do not exceed that tax year's limit. The Roth IRA MAGI phase out ranges for 2021 are: Single filers: Up to $125,000 (to qualify for a full contribution); $125,000–$140,000 (to be eligible for a partial contribution) Joint filers: Up to $198,000 (to qualify for a full contribution); $198,000–$208,000 (to be eligible for a partial contribution) Married filing separately (if the couple lived together for any part of the year): $0 (to qualify for a full contribution); $0–$10,000 (to be eligible for a partial contribution). The lower number represents the point at which the taxpayer is no longer allowed to contribute the maximum yearly contribution. The upper number is the point as of which the taxpayer is no longer allowed to contribute at all. People who are married and living together, but who file separately, are only allowed to contribute a relatively small amount. However, once a Roth IRA is established, the balance in the plan remains tax-sheltered, even if the taxpayer's income rises above the threshold. (The thresholds are just for annual eligibility to contribute, not for eligibility to maintain a Roth IRA.) To be eligible, one must meet the earned income minimum requirement. In order to make a contribution, one must have taxable compensation (not taxable income from investments). If one makes only $2,000 in taxable compensation, one's maximum IRA contribution is $2,000. If a taxpayer's income exceeds the income limits, they may still be able to effectively contribute by using a "backdoor" contribution process (see Traditional IRA conversion as a workaround to Roth IRA income limits below). Contribution limits Contributions to both a Roth IRA and a traditional IRA are limited to the total amount allowed for either of them. Generally, the contribution cannot exceed your earned income for the year in question. The one exception is for a "spousal IRA" where a contribution can be made for a spouse with little or no earned income provided the other spouse has sufficient earned income and the spouses file a joint tax return. Conversion rules The government allows people to convert Traditional IRA funds (and some other untaxed IRA funds) to Roth IRA funds by paying income tax on any account balance being converted that has not already been taxed (e.g., the Traditional IRA balance minus any non-deductible contributions). Prior to 2010, two circumstances prohibited conversions: Modified Adjusted Gross Income exceeding $100,000 or the participant's tax filing status is Married Filing Separately. These limitations were removed as part of the Tax Increase Prevention and Reconciliation Act of 2005. Backdoor contributions Regardless of income but subject to contribution limits, contributions can be made to a Traditional IRA and then converted to a Roth IRA. This allows for "backdoor" contributions where individuals are able to make Roth IRA contributions even if their income is above the limits. One major caveat to the entire "backdoor" Roth IRA contribution process, however, is that it only works for people who do not have any pre-tax contributed money in IRA accounts at the time of the "backdoor" conversion to Roth; conversions made when other IRA money exists are subject to pro-rata calculations and may lead to tax liabilities on the part of the converter. In effect, one cannot choose the tax character of the contribution, as it must reflect the existing proportion of tax character in traditional IRAs. For example, a traditional IRA contains $10,000 post-tax and $30,000 pre-tax funds, it has 75% pre-tax character. Converting $10,000 into a Roth would lead to 75% ($7,500) of the contribution being considered taxable. The pro-rata calculation is made based on all traditional IRA contributions across all the individual's traditional IRA accounts (even if they are in different institutions). Backdoor Roth IRA contributions were explicitly allowed by the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017. Prior to that, there was concern that the process would violate the step transaction doctrine that one cannot combine individually legal steps to achieve an outcome that would be illegal if done in a single step. Distributions Returns of regular contributions from Roth IRA(s) are always withdrawn tax and penalty-free. Eligible (tax and penalty-free) distributions of earnings must fulfill two requirements. First, the seasoning period of five years since the opening of the Roth IRA account must have elapsed, and secondly a justification must exist such as retirement or disability. The simplest justification is reaching 59.5 years of age, at which point qualified withdrawals may be made in any amount on any schedule. Becoming disabled or being a "first time" home buyer can provide justification for limited qualified withdrawals. Finally, although one can take distributions from a Roth IRA under the substantially equal periodic payments (SEPP) rule without paying a 10% penalty, any interest earned in the IRA will be subject to tax—a substantial penalty which forfeits the primary tax benefits of the Roth IRA. Inherited Roth IRAs When a spouse inherits a Roth IRA: the spouse can combine the Roth IRA with his or her own Roth IRA the spouse can make contributions and otherwise control the account required minimum distributions do not apply income tax does not apply to distributions estate tax (if any) does not apply at the time of transfer When a non-spouse inherits a Roth IRA: the non-spouse cannot combine the Roth IRA with his or her own the non-spouse cannot make additional contributions required minimum distributions apply income tax does not apply to distributions, if the Roth IRA was established for at least five years before the distribution occurs. estate tax (if any) applies In addition, the beneficiary may elect to choose from one of two methods of distribution. The first option is to receive the entire distribution by December 31 of the fifth year following the year of the IRA owner's death. The second option is to receive portions of the IRA as distributions over the life of the beneficiary, terminating upon the death of the beneficiary and passing on to a secondary beneficiary. If the beneficiary of the Roth IRA is a trust, the trust must distribute the entire assets of the Roth IRA by December 31 of the fifth year following the year of the IRA owner's death, unless there is a "Look Through" clause, in which case the distributions of the Roth IRA are based on the Single Life Expectancy table over the life of the beneficiary, terminating upon the death of the beneficiary. Subtract one from the "Single Life Expectancy" for each successive year. The age of the beneficiary is determined on 12/31 of the first year after the year that the owner died. See also Retirement plans in the United States Comparison of 401(k) and IRA accounts – 401(k) & IRA comparisons (401(k) vs Roth 401( k) vs Traditional IRA vs Roth IRA) Form 1099-R Coverdell Education Savings Account – sometimes termed the "Roth IRA for Education", describes tax-sheltered savings accounts for college. Substantially equal periodic payments (SEPP) – an exception to the age 59.5 rule myRA - a 2014 Obama administration initiative based on the Roth IRA Tax-free savings account in Canada since 2008 Individual savings account in the United Kingdom since 1999 References External links IRS Publication 590 (IRAs) (pdf) Individual retirement accounts
402282	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Valley%20Forge%20%28CV-45%29	USS Valley Forge (CV-45)	USS Valley Forge (CV/CVA/CVS-45, LPH-8) was one of 24 s built during and shortly after World War II for the United States Navy. The ship was the first US Navy ship to bear the name, and was named after Valley Forge, the 1777–1778 winter encampment of General George Washington's Continental Army. Valley Forge was commissioned in November 1946, too late to serve in World War II, but saw extensive service in the Korean War and the Vietnam War. She was reclassified in the early 1950s as an attack carrier (CVA), then to an antisubmarine carrier (CVS), and finally to an amphibious assault ship (LPH), carrying helicopters and Marines. As a CVS she served in the Atlantic and Caribbean. She was the prime recovery vessel for an early uncrewed Mercury space mission. After conversion to an LPH she served extensively in the Vietnam War. Valley Forge was awarded eight battle stars for Korean War service and nine for Vietnam War service, as well as three Navy Unit Commendations. Although she was extensively modified internally as part of her conversion to an amphibious assault ship, external modifications were minor, so throughout her career Valley Forge retained the classic appearance of a World War II Essex-class ship. She was decommissioned in 1970, and sold for scrap in 1971. Construction and Commissioning The citizens of the Philadelphia Area in 1945 bought over $76,000,000 worth of E Bonds during the Seventh War Loan Drive to pay for Valley Forge—equal to $ million today. School children of Philadelphia sold $7,769,351 of these bonds (). The ship was one of the "long-hull" , laid down on 7 September 1944 at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. Like all long-hull Essex-class ships, she was long overall and at the waterline. Her beam was at the extreme and at the waterline. Her draft was at standard load and full load. As designed, her displacement was standard and full load. For propulsion, the ships in her class had eight Babcock & Wilcox boilers producing steam at and delivering . She used four Westinghouse geared turbines connected to four diameter propellers. She was designed for a maximum speed of and a range of at . During sea trials, her engines produced and she attained . She carried of fuel oil and of aviation gasoline. For armament, she was originally equipped with a battery of twelve /38 caliber guns, eight mounts of four 40-mm Bofors guns and 46 20-mm Oerlikon cannon. She was protected by of armor on the hangar and protective decks while her belt armor was thick. Protective bulkheads had of armor. The conning tower had of Special Treatment Steel (STS) on the top and there was of STS on the sides of the pilot house. The steering gear had a deck. Her flight deck was and her hangar deck was by high. She was equipped with two elevators, each with a capacity of , two flight deck aircraft catapults, and the Mark IV arresting gear. She was designed to carry 36 fighter aircraft, 36 dive bombers, and 18 torpedo bombers but this changed through her career as her mission and naval aircraft changed. Her design complement was 268 officers and 2363 men. By the end of the war, the Essex-class carriers had a complement of 3385 officers and men. Being one of the youngest Essex-class carriers, Valley Forge did not receive the SCB-27 or SCB-125 modifications that her older sisters received. She maintained the World War II-style straight flight deck throughout her life. Her armament was changed in 1954 with her conversion to an antisubmarine carrier CVS-45. Her 20 mm Oerlikon cannon were removed and she carried the original twelve /38 caliber guns and a total of 72 40 mm Bofors guns. She was launched on 18 November 1945, sponsored by Mrs. Mildred Vandegrift (née Strode), wife of Alexander A. Vandegrift the Commandant of the Marine Corps. Valley Forge was commissioned on 3 November 1946, with Captain John W. Harris in command. As a commissioning gift, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania presented Valley Forge with the finest State Silver Service ever presented to the Navy. The service was designed and made by Philadelphia silversmiths in 1904 and was originally placed aboard . The elaborate service was decorated in tradition with Neptune, sea horses and dolphins as well as historic scenes and personalities and a State seal. Service history 1947–1950 Following fitting out, on 16 Jan 1947 the first eleven aircraft landed on Valley Forge. A Vought F4U Corsair piloted by Commander H. H. Hirshey, the Commanding Officer of VF5B was the first to land on the new carrier. The next day, 96 aircraft and personnel from Air Group 5 were taken aboard. The carrier got underway on 24 January for shakedown training, which took her, via Naval Station Norfolk, to Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, and the Panama Canal Zone. She completed the cruise on 18 March and returned to Philadelphia for post-shakedown overhaul. The ship left Philadelphia on 14 July, headed south, and transited the Panama Canal on 5 August and a message was sent to Commander Air Pacific (ComAirPac) – "USS Valley Forge reporting for duty". She arrived at her new home port, Naval Base San Diego on 14 August and joined the United States Pacific Fleet. Round the World Cruise Following the embarkation of Air Group 11 and intensive air and gunnery training in coastal waters, the aircraft carrier – flying the flag of Rear Admiral Harold L. Martin, Commander of Task Force 38 (TF 38) – got underway for Hawaii on 9 October. The task force devoted almost three months to training operations out of Naval Station Pearl Harbor before sailing for Australia on 16 January 1948. After a visit to Sydney, the American warships conducted exercises with units of the Royal Australian Navy and then steamed to Hong Kong. During a voyage from the British crown colony to Tsingtao, China, orders arrived directing the task force to return home via the Atlantic with her escorting destroyers. The ship continued the round-the-world trip with calls at Hong Kong, Singapore, and Trincomalee, Ceylon. On 21 March 1948 at 0800, she was at 18-43'N and 64-33'E – halfway around the world. She visited the Persian Gulf and anchored off the ARAMCO refinery in Ras Tanura, Saudi Arabia as a gesture of goodwill from the American government. On 25 March, the ship's complement "manned the rail" for the Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia and officers attended a banquet given by Crown Prince of Damman. Rounding the Arabian peninsula, she became the largest aircraft carrier and the longest ship at that time to transit the Suez Canal. On 6 April she joined with the Mediterranean Fleet carrier , cruisers , , , and six destroyers for three days of sea exercises. After a call at Gibraltar and then entering the Atlantic Ocean, she set a course to Bergen, Norway. On 29 April, she moored in Bergen after a trip through the treacherous fjords with snow squalls reducing visibility to less than 100 ft at times. The crew paraded through the main part of the city, causing concern, as this was the way the German occupation entered in World War II. On 1 May, a "May Day" parade and celebration was held; unfortunately for the crew, all local pubs were closed. Air Group 11 flew in parade formation over the Capital City of Oslo, spelling the name of King Haakon VII. The ship was underway 4 May for Portsmouth, England; the historic base of the Royal Navy. After firing a 21-gun salute while passing the imposing , the ship was moored near , Admiral Nelson's flagship. The Commander of 6th Fleet authorized 72-hour staggered liberty pass for all hands. Underway 13 May to New York; on 22 May entered the Lower New York Bay. Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Louis Denfield, who was instrumental in initiating the World cruise, was welcomed aboard for a visit. Underway 27 May for the Panama Canal, she arrived 11 June in San Diego Bay. In July 1948, new squadrons joined Valley Forge bringing with them the Navy's newly introduced aircraft, the Douglas A-1 Skyraider, and the Navy's first jet fighters, the McDonnell F2H Banshee and the Grumman F9F Panther. These squadrons gave new capabilities to the ship. Intensive air operations and additional training and exercises commenced with the new aircraft. Korean War Valley Forge deployed to the Far East, departing the west coast on 1 May 1950. While anchored in Hong Kong harbor on 25 June, the warship received the news that North Korean forces had attacked across the 38th parallel into South Korea. Departing Hong Kong the next day, the carrier steamed south to U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay, where she provisioned, fueled, and set her course for Okinawa. On 28 June, Valley Forge became flagship of the United States Seventh Fleet and formed Task Force 77 with cruiser Rochester and six destroyers. On 30 June, Task Force 77 rendezvoused with ships of the Royal Navy including the cruiser , the carrier , and two British destroyers, under the command of Rear Admiral Andrews, RN. The first carrier air strike of the Korean War was launched from Valley Forges flight deck on 3 July 1950. Successive waves of A-1 Skyraiders and F4U Corsairs struck the North Korean airfield at Pyongyang bombing hangars, fuel storages, parked aircraft, and railroad marshaling yards while F9F Panthers, flying top cover, downed two Yak-9s and damaged another. This was the world's first combat strike by jet aircraft. In spite of attempts by United Nations forces to stop the steady flow of North Korean infantry and armor, the North steadily pushed the South Koreans back into a tenuous defense perimeter around Pusan. On 18 September 1950, the American landing at Inchon outflanked the North Koreans while United Nations forces broke out of the perimeter to the south. After the landing at Inchon, the tide of battle changed and Korean, American, and other allied troops pushed northward and crossed the 38th parallel into North Korea. Air Group 5 made numerous daily strikes against North Korean targets. Troop concentrations, defensive positions, and supply and communications lines were repeatedly bombed by the A-1 Skyraiders and the F9F Panthers and F4U Corsairs delivered rocket and cannon fire. Over 5,000 combat sorties delivered of bombs and rockets between 3 July and 19 November 1950. During this time, Valley Forge maintained a high operational record as she steamed up and down the coast of Korea, a distance equal to twice around the world. Second Deployment Returning to San Diego for overhaul, Valley Forge arrived on the west coast on 1 December, only to have sailing orders urgently direct her back to Korea. In the interim, between the carrier's leaving station and her planned overhaul, Chinese forces had entered the war, launching a powerful offensive which sent United Nations troops retreating back to the south. Accordingly, Valley Forge hurriedly embarked a new air group, about 100 planes and 10 helicopters; replenished, of provisions and stores and of ammunition were loaded in record time of three days; and sailed on 6 December for the Far East. Rendezvousing with Task Force 77 three days before Christmas of 1950, Valley Forge recommenced air strikes on the 23rd and continued for three months of concentrated air operations against the advancing Chinese and North Korean forces. The first offensive air operations consisting of close air support missions assisting soldiers and marines on the ground. F4U Corsair and A-1 Skyraider pilots struck at troop concentrations, supply dumps, bridges, gun emplacements and railroad equipment. The United Nation forces were able to move north again on the Korean Peninsula and up to the 38th parallel. During her second deployment, the ship launched some 2,580 sorties in which her planes delivered some of bombs. On 29 March the Valley Forge turned east and began her voyage back home again to San Diego, after spending almost ten continuous months in Korean waters, arriving at North Island on 7 April. The ship, needing long-awaited yard repairs, sailed to Bremerton, Washington and entered the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard where she underwent a major overhaul. Third Deployment Valley Forge returned to San Diego on 10 Aug 1951, ready for a new assignment with the Pacific Fleet. Air Group 1 embarked and she became the first U.S. carrier to return for a third Korean deployment. On 11 December, Valley Forge launched her first air strikes in railway interdiction – keep supplies from reaching enemy front lines. Rockets, cannon fire, and bombs from the ship's air group, and those of her sister ships also on station, hammered at North Korean railway targets – lines, junctions, marshaling yards, and rolling stock. By June, Valley Forges Skyraiders, Corsairs, and Panthers had severed rail lines in at least 5,346 places. She returned to her homeport in San Diego on 3 July 1952. Fourth Deployment In October 1952, she was reclassified an attack carrier and redesignated CVA-45. Again, in October 1952 she stood out and headed for the Far East. She now had become the only U.S. carrier to return to the Korea combat zone four times. On 2 January 1953, Captained by Robert E. Dixon, she began the new year with strikes against Chinese supply dumps and troop billeting areas behind the stalemated front lines. While the propeller-driven Skyraiders and Corsairs delivered tons of bombs on their targets, the jet Panthers conducted flak-suppression missions using a combination of cannon fire and rockets to knock out troublesome enemy gun sites. This close teamwork between old and new style planes made possible regular strikes against Korea's eastern coastlines and close-support missions to aid embattled Marine or Army forces on the battle lines. Valley Forge air groups dropped some of bombs on the enemy before the ship left the Korean coast and returned to San Diego on 25 June 1953. 1954–1960 After a west-coast overhaul, Valley Forge was transferred to the Atlantic Fleet and reclassified – this time to an antisubmarine warfare support carrier – and redesignated CVS-45. She was refitted for her new duties at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard and then rejoined the Fleet in January 1954. The carrier soon got underway to conduct exercises to develop and perfect the techniques and capabilities needed to carry out her new duties. Conducting local operations and antisubmarine warfare exercises, Valley Forge operated off the east coast through late 1960, varied by a visit to England and the eastern Atlantic for exercises late in 1954. Her operations during this period also included midshipman and reservists' training cruises and occasional visits to the Caribbean. Carrying out training operations out of Guantanamo Bay in 1957, Valley Forge accomplished an American naval "first" in October, when she embarked the ship's landing party and twin-engined HR2S-1 Mojave helicopters. Experimenting with the new concept of "vertical envelopment"; first pioneered by the Royal Navy and Royal Marines during the Suez Crisis in 1956; Valley Forges helicopters air-lifted the landing party to the beachhead and then returned them to the ship in the U.S. Navy's first ship-based air assault exercise. In March she again joined ships of the Amphibious Force for a major amphibious landing exercise, LANTPHIBEX 1-58. She off loaded nearly 1,400 Marines, landing them ashore from troop-carrying helicopters. On 1 April 1958, Rear Admiral John S. Thach hoisted his two-star flag to the carrier's main as the ship became flagship of Task Group Alpha (TG Alpha). This group, built around Valley Forge, included eight destroyers, two submarines, and one squadron each of antisubmarine helicopters and airplanes; a detachment of airborne early warning airplanes, modified A-1 Skyraiders called "guppies" because of their bulging ventral Radomes; and a land-based Lockheed P-2 Neptune. A significant development in naval tactics, TG Alpha concentrated solely on developing and perfecting new devices and techniques for countering the potential menace of enemy submarines in an age of nuclear propulsion and deep-diving submersibles. Observing the New Year (1958–1959) at sea, the carrier was steaming in very heavy weather when she was forced to take evasive action to avoid collision with a merchant ship. Heavy seas severely damaged the forward portion of the flight deck, requiring her to proceed to the New York Naval Shipyard for repairs. To ready her for service as quickly as possible, a corresponding section was taken from the flight deck of the inactive carrier , berthed at Bayonne, New Jersey. The damaged section was cut away from flight deck and the Franklin deck piece installed in its place. A bronze plaque was mounted on the newly replaced deck section to commemorate how the Franklin was damaged in action off Japan in April 1945. Valley Forge remained engaged in operations with TG Alpha through the early fall of 1959, when she then entered the New York Naval Shipyard for repairs. The ship returned to sea on 21 January 1960, bound for maneuvers in the Caribbean. During her ensuing operations, the carrier served as the launching platform for Operation Skyhook. This widely publicized scientific experiment involved the launching of three of the largest balloons ever fabricated, carrying devices to measure and record primary cosmic ray emissions at an altitude of between above the Earth's surface. Following a deployment in the eastern Mediterranean Valley Forge returned to Norfolk to resume local operations on 30 August, continuing antisubmarine exercises as flagship of TG Alpha through the fall of 1960. On 19 December, the carrier acted as the primary recovery ship for the Mercury-Redstone 1A uncrewed space capsule, the first flight of the Redstone rocket as part of Project Mercury. Her helicopters retrieved the capsule, launched from Cape Canaveral, after its successful 15-minute flight and splashdown. Two days later off Cape Hatteras, in response to an SOS, Valley Forge sped to the aid of the tanker SS Pine Ridge, which had broken in two during a storm. While the survivors of the stricken ship clung to the after half of the tanker, the carrier's helicopters shuttled back and forth to pick up the men in distress. Soon, all 28 survivors were safe on board Valley Forge. 1961–1964 Entering the Norfolk Naval Shipyard on 6 March 1961 for overhaul and modification to an amphibious assault ship, Valley Forge was reclassified as LPH-8 on 1 July 1961 and, soon thereafter, began refresher training in the Caribbean. She returned to Hampton Roads in September and trained in the Virginia capes area with newly embarked, troop-carrying helicopters. In October, the ship – as a part of the Atlantic Fleet's ready amphibious force – proceeded south to waters off Hispaniola and stood by from 21–25 October and from 18–29 November to be ready to evacuate any American nationals from the Dominican Republic of needed during the struggle for power in the months following the assassination of Generalissimo Rafael Trujillo. After returning home late in the year, Valley Forge sailed from Norfolk on 6 January 1962, bound for Long Beach and duty with the Pacific Fleet. At the end of three months of training off the west coast, the amphibious assault ship steamed westward for duty in the Far East with the Seventh Fleet. With the flag of the Commander, Ready Amphibious Task Group, 7th Fleet at her main, Valley Forge closed the coast of Indochina under orders to put ashore her embarked Marines. In Laos, communist Pathet Lao forces had renewed their assault on the Royal Laotian Government and the latter requested President John F. Kennedy to land troops to avert a feared, full-scale communist invasion of the country. The amphibious assault ship airlifted her Marines into the country on 17 May and, when the crisis had abated a few weeks later, carried them out again in July. For the remainder of 1962, the ship operated in the Far East before returning to the west coast of the United States to spend the first half of 1963 in amphibious exercises off the coast of California and in the Hawaiian Islands. Valley Forge entered the Long Beach Naval Shipyard on 1 July 1963 for a Fleet Rehabilitation and Modernization (FRAM) overhaul, including the installation of improved electronics and facilities for transporting and handling troops and troop helicopters. Putting to sea again on 27 January 1964, the newly modernized assault ship rejoined the fleet and, following local operations and training, departed Long Beach for another WestPac deployment. She stopped at Pearl Harbor and Okinawa, en route to Hong Kong, and then steamed to Taiwan. In June, she joined ships of other SEATO navies in amphibious exercises and then visited the Philippines, where in July she was awarded the Battle Efficiency "E". Vietnam War On 2 August 1964, North Vietnamese torpedo boats attacked destroyer in the Gulf of Tonkin incident. Valley Forge then spent 57 days at sea off the Vietnamese coast in readiness to land its Marines if required. Returning to Long Beach on 5 November, Valley Forge made two round-trip voyages to Okinawa carrying marines and aircraft before commencing a WestPac deployment in the South China Sea in late 1965. With a Marine landing force embarked and flying the flag of Commander, Amphibious Squadron 3, Valley Forge conducted intensive training exercises in the Philippines while preparing for service in Vietnam. In mid-November, the amphibious assault ship stood by in reserve during Operation Blue Marlin and then airlifted its marines ashore for Operation Dagger Thrust and Operation Harvest Moon before spending the Christmas season in Okinawa. After embarking a fresh Marine battalion and a medium transport helicopter squadron, it sailed for South Vietnam on 3 January 1966. Following pauses at Subic Bay and Chu Lai, Valley Forge arrived off the Vietnamese coast on 27 January and, two days later, launched its landing forces to take part in Operation Double Eagle. Remaining on station off the coast, the ship provided logistic and medical support with inbound helicopters supplying the men ashore and outbound helicopters evacuating casualties for medical treatment back on the ship. Reembarking its landing team on 17 February, Valley Forge proceeded northward, while its Marines rested. The second phase of "Double Eagle" commenced two days later, and the ship's Marines again went ashore via helicopter to attack enemy concentrations. By 26 February, the operation had drawn to a close, and Valley Forge reembarked its Marines and sailed for Subic Bay. Following a round trip to Đà Nẵng, the carrier steamed back to the west coast for an overhaul and local training along the California coast before again deploying to WestPac. Upon its return to Vietnamese waters, the ship took part in operations off Đà Nẵng before it again returned to the United States at the end of the year 1966. After undergoing a major overhaul and conducting training off the west coast, Valley Forge returned to the Far East again in November 1967 and took part in Operation Fortress Ridge, launched on 21 December. Air-landing its troops at a point just south of the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), the ship provided continual supply and medical evacuation (Medevac) services for this "search and destroy" operation aimed at eliminating People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) units which threatened American and South Vietnamese troops. The completion of this operation on the day before Christmas 1967 did not mark the end of Valley Forges operations for this year, however, as it was again in action during Operation Badger Tooth, near Quảng Trị in northern South Vietnam. Upkeep at Đà Nẵng preceded its deployment to its new station off Đồng Hới, where it provided her necessary resupply and MedEvac support for Allied troops operating against PAVN forces. Operation Badger Catch, commencing on 23 January 1968 and extending through 18 February, supported the Cửa Việt Base, at the mouth of the Thạch Hãn River south of the DMZ, before the ship set course for Subic Bay and much-needed maintenance. Subsequently, returning to Vietnam, Valley Forge operated as "Helo Haven" for Marine helicopter units whose shore bases had come under attack by PAVN ground and artillery fire. During Operation Badger Catch II, from 6 March – 14 April, Marine helicopters landed on board the carrier while their land bases were being cleared of PAVN troops. Following a routine refit at Subic Bay, the ship took part in Operation Badger Catch III from 28 April – 3 June. It then moved to Đà Nẵng and prepared for Operation Swift Saber which took place from 7–14 June. Landing Exercise Hilltop XX occupied the ship early in July. Then Valley Forge transferred its Marines and helicopters to and headed home via Hong Kong, Okinawa, and Pearl Harbor. She reached Long Beach on 3 August. Following five months on the west coast which included local operations and an overhaul, the amphibious assault ship returned to the Far East for the last time departing Long Beach on 30 January 1969. At San Diego, it embarked a cargo of Marine Sikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallion helicopters for delivery to transport squadrons in Vietnam. The ship stopped at Pearl Harbor and paused near Guam while one of its helicopters carried a stricken crewman ashore for urgent surgery. It loaded special landing-force equipment at Subic Bay and embarked the Commander, Special Landing Forces Bravo and a squadron of Marine Boeing Vertol CH-46 Sea Knight transport helicopters. On 10 March, the carrier began operating in support of Operation Defiant Measure, steaming off Đà Nẵng as its helicopters flew missions "on the beach". This was completed by 18 March, and Valley Forge debarked its helicopters before steaming to Subic Bay for upkeep. After its return to Đà Nẵng on 3 May, the ship reembarked its helicopters as well as part of a battalion landing team of Marines who had been taking part in fighting ashore. The carrier continued to operate in the Đà Nẵng area during the weeks that followed, its helicopters flying frequent support missions, and its Marines preparing for further combat landings. During late May and early June, Valley Forge received visits from Secretary of the Navy John Chafee and Vice Admiral William F. Bringle, Commander 7th Fleet. It offloaded its Marines at Đà Nẵng on 10 June and embarked a battalion landing team for transportation to Okinawa, where it arrived on 16 June. The landing team conducted amphibious exercises with Valley Forge for 11 days and boarded the ship for a voyage to Subic Bay where they continued the training process. Valley Forge returned to the Đà Nẵng area on 8 July and resumed flying helicopter support for Marine ground forces in the northern I Corps area. The ship took evasive action to avoid an approaching typhoon and then began preparations for an amphibious operation. Operation Brave Armada began on 24 July with a helicopter-borne assault on suspected Việt Cộng and PAVN positions in Quảng Ngãi Province. Valley Forge remained in the Quảng Ngãi–Chu Lai area to support this attack until its completion on 7 August. It then steamed to Đà Nẵng to debark its Marines. General Leonard F. Chapman, Jr., the Commandant of the Marine Corps, visited Valley Forge that same day. The ship sailed for Okinawa on 13 August arriving four days later and debarking its helicopter squadron before getting underway again to evade another typhoon. It proceeded to Hong Kong, and on 22 August, received a message announcing its forthcoming inactivation. It returned to Đà Nẵng on 3 September to load material for shipment to the United States and sailed that evening for U.S. Fleet Activities Yokosuka for three days of upkeep before leaving the Far East. Decommissioning Valley Forge got underway from Yokosuka on 11 September 1969 and anchored at Long Beach on 22 September. After leave and upkeep, she offloaded ammunition and equipment at Naval Weapons Station Seal Beach and Naval Base San Diego. The ship returned to Long Beach on 31 October to prepare for decommissioning. This process continued through the new year; and on 15 January 1970, Valley Forge was placed out of commission. Her name was struck from the Navy List on the same day. While at Long Beach, from 14–28 February 1971, the interior of the aircraft carrier was used as a shooting location for filming the 1972 science fiction film Silent Running. The central location of the film is a long space-bound cargo freighter, carrying six large geodesic domes, under which the last forests of an environmentally-devastated Earth are kept. The producers of the film were searching for pre-existing locations which could represent the cargo deck, control rooms, and living quarters of a fictional "space freighter." Building sets on Hollywood sound stages would have been prohibitively expensive, so in order to minimize the impact on the film's minimal budget, various large interior locations were investigated, including warehouses, cargo ships, and oil tankers. After contacting the United States Navy with a query about the use of aircraft carriers, the producers were directed to several decommissioned Essex-class carriers awaiting scrapping at the Long Beach Naval Shipyard, including the USS Valley Forge, and fellow carriers Philippine Sea and . The type of location proved to be perfect for the film, the Valley Forge was selected, and a deal was struck with the Navy. In honor of the filming location, the space freighter of the film was christened Valley Forge. The carrier's hangar deck was featured in the film as a cargo hold, which was repainted and filled with polystyrene modules representing futuristic cargo containers. Her flight command area was heavily modified to represent the control room and living quarters of the fictional space ship crew. Bulkheads were cut out and replaced with wider passageways to allow for camera and actor movement. Set pieces, computer consoles, and various props were moved in to dress the ship as the space freighter. The production crew was allowed to do anything they wanted with the ship, as long as no metal was removed. All power and water had to be imported, as the crew was not allowed to use ship power. Filming was hampered by the tight confines of the carrier, necessitating several innovations in the filming process. Eight months after filming wrapped, and after the failure of attempts to raise funds for using the ship as a museum, she was sold on 29 October 1971 to the Nicolai Joffre Corporation, of Beverly Hills, California, for scrap. Awards Valley Forge was awarded eight battle stars for Korean War service and nine for Vietnam War service, as well as a Navy Unit Commendation. Gallery References External links history.navy.mil: USS Valley Forge navsource.org: USS Valley Forge hazegray.org: USS Valley Forge Ticonderoga-class aircraft carriers Amphibious assault ships (Boxer-class conversions) Ships built in Philadelphia 1945 ships Cold War amphibious assault ships of the United States Korean War aircraft carriers of the United States Helicopter carriers Cold War aircraft carriers of the United States Vietnam War aircraft carriers of the United States
402289	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Philippine%20Sea%20%28CV-47%29	USS Philippine Sea (CV-47)	USS Philippine Sea (CV/CVA/CVS-47, AVT-11) was one of 24 s of the United States Navy, and the first ship to be named for the Battle of the Philippine Sea. She was launched on 5 September 1945, after the end of World War II, and sponsored by the wife of the Governor of Kentucky. During her career, Philippine Sea served first in the Atlantic Ocean and saw several deployments to the Mediterranean Sea as well as a trip to Antarctica as a part of Operation Highjump. Sent to the Korean Peninsula at the outbreak of the Korean War, she sent aircraft in support of United Nations ground troops, first during the Battle of Pusan Perimeter and then during the Inchon Landings and the Second Battle of Seoul. She subsequently supported UN troops during the surprise Chinese attack and the Chosin Reservoir Campaign. Philippine Sea saw three tours to Korea during the war, receiving nine battle stars for her service. For the remainder of her service, she operated primarily out of San Diego and San Francisco, seeing several deployments to the Far East and being redesignated an anti-submarine warfare carrier. She was decommissioned on 28 December 1958 and sold for scrap in 1970. Construction Philippine Sea was the last of the 24 ships to be completed, among the largest and most numerous capital ships produced for World War II. CV-47 was ordered simultaneously to and in June 1943. The ship was one of the "long-hull" designs of the class, which had begun production after March 1943. This "long-hull" variant involved lengthening the bow above the waterline into a "clipper" form. The increased rake and flare provided deck space for two quadruple mounts; these units also had the flight deck slightly shortened forward to provide better arcs of fire. Of the Essex-class ships laid down after 1942, only followed the original "short-hull" design. The later ships have been variously referred to as the "long-bow units", the "long-hull group", or the "Ticonderoga class". However, the U.S. Navy never maintained any institutional distinction between the long-hull and short-hull members of the Essex class, and applied postwar refits and upgrades to both groups equally. The ship was powered by eight 600 psi Babcock & Wilcox boilers, and Westinghouse geared steam turbines that developed 150,000 shaft horsepower that turned four propellers. Like other Essex-class carriers, she had a maximum speed of . The ship's cost is estimated at $68,000,000 to $78,000,000. Like other "long-hull" Essex-class carriers, Philippine Sea had a displacement of . She had an overall length of , a beam of and a draft of . The ship was powered by steam turbines with a designed range of . While Essex-class carriers typically had a designed maximum speed of , Philippine Sea only made on sea trials. The ship had a total crew complement of 3,310. Like other Essex-class ships, she was armed with twelve 38-caliber 5-inch (127 mm) dual-purpose guns arrayed in four twin and four single mountings, as well as 8 quadruple Bofors 40 mm guns and a variable number of Oerlikon 20 mm cannon. Unlike her sisters, however, Philippine Sea substituted additional Bofors guns for the Oerlikons with forty-four guns arrayed in 10 quadruple and two double mounts. The keel of CV-47 was laid down 19 August 1944 at the Bethlehem Steel Company in Quincy, Massachusetts. Originally, the ship was to be named in honor of the Wright brothers, but following the 19 June 1944 Battle of the Philippine Sea, the Navy decided that the ship be named after the battle, and on 13 February 1945, she was renamed. Construction on the ship continued throughout the summer of 1945, but Philippine Sea was not completed at the time of V-E Day. The ship was launched on 5 September 1945, only days after V-J Day and the end of World War II. She was christened by the wife of Governor of Kentucky Albert "Happy" Chandler. Service history Philippine Sea commissioned on 11 May 1946, when Rear Admiral Morton Deyo placed the ship under the command of Captain Delbert Strother Cornwell at the Boston Navy Yard in South Boston, Massachusetts. The ship remained drydocked at the yard for two weeks before sailing for Naval Air Station Quonset Point on 13 June. However, a shortage of men following the post-World War II demobilization forced her to remain at reduced operational status until 23 September when she embarked for sea trials. Returning from trials on 27 September, the carrier embarked Carrier Air Group 20, which flew two squadrons of Grumman F8F Bearcat fighter aircraft as well as a squadron each of Curtiss SB2C Helldiver dive bombers and Grumman TBM-3E Avenger torpedo bombers, about 90 aircraft total. She left port 30 September and commenced training en route to Norfolk, Virginia. CVG-20 Commander Robert M. Milner made the first takeoff from the carrier on 1 October aboard a Bearcat. Philippine Sea departed Norfolk Naval Shipyard 12 October for Cuban waters where she conducted an abbreviated shakedown cruise and training exercises for CVG-20's Grumman F8F Bearcats and Curtiss SB2C Helldivers until 20 November. Following these trials, Philippine Sea was assigned to Operation Highjump. She returned to Quonset and disembarked CVG-20 before sailing for Boston for repairs and alterations. She then headed to Norfolk where Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd boarded her and she took on six Douglas R4D-5 Skytrain transports, two Stinson OY-1 Sentinel liaison aircraft, and a Sikorsky HO3S-1 helicopter along with cargo, spare parts, skis and Task Force 68 personnel. She left Norfolk 29 December and stood out of Hampton Roads 2 January 1947 en route to Antarctica. Philippine Sea passed through the Panama Canal 8 January and cleared Balboa by 10 January. By 12 January the ship had crossed the equator in an elaborate ceremony, but on 22 January its HO3S-1 was lost due to pilot error, though the crew was recovered. Two days later, it met the remaining ships of Task Force 68. The ship arrived on station on 29 January, from Little America, and launched its R4Ds in the next few days to explore the Antarctic. Commander William M. Hawkes and Byrd both disembarked from Philippine Sea aboard the aircraft to begin their expedition. After her aircraft departed, Philippine Sea returned to Quonset, passing through Balboa again on 22 February and arriving back in port on 27 February. In late March, the carrier embarked Carrier Air Group 9, which flew two squadrons of Gruman F8F Bearcats and Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters as well as a squadron each of SB2C Helldivers and TBM Avengers, and a detachment of HO3S helicopters for a total of about 100 aircraft. She completed her shakedown cruise at Guantánamo Bay until late May. She continued sea trials in the area until 1 July when she arrived at Gravesend Bay, New Jersey, for refit. She was refitted for most of the year at New York Naval Shipyard and Bayonne, New Jersey through 15 November 1947 before conducting trials and training around Quonset and Guantánamo Bay through February 1948. That month, she became flagship of Carrier Division Four led by Rear Admiral Ralph E. Jennings, who established his command aboard her on 4 February. On 20 February she departed for her first deployment in the Mediterranean Sea as part of Vice Admiral Forrest Sherman's 6th Fleet. Here she logged 8,534 flight hours, including 85 hours of night operations. She returned to Quonset 26 June and for repairs to her catapult machinery. She spent the remainder of the year as a part of the Operational Development Force testing new carrier aircraft doctrine, and her pilots logged 750 hours in 670 carrier controlled approach tests and 314 successful landings. On 22 October she was sent to the North Atlantic to conduct cold-weather landing tests and tested problem landing scenarios along the Arctic Circle until 23 November 1948. In January 1949, Philippine Sea returned to Carrier Division Four under Rear Admiral Joseph J. Clark and embarked Carrier Air Group 7 for another tour in the Mediterranean, which had a similar fighter complement. She sailed 4 January with the aircraft carrier and supporting ships. There, she conducted joint exercises with carriers of the British fleet. She returned in late May and began an overhaul at the Boston Naval Shipyard. On 18 August, Captain Raymond R. "Raoul" Waller was assigned as her commanding officer. That fall, the ship returned to the Caribbean to shake down with its new upgrades, this time with Carrier Air Group 1. For the rest of the year, she continued fleet exercises in the North Atlantic and testing for new jet engine powered fighter aircraft to test their abilities to operate on aircraft carriers. Operating again from her base at Quonset Point, Philippine Sea spent early 1950 qualifying new carrier pilots. During February and most of March, she took part in more fleet exercises throughout the Atlantic. During April and May 1950 she conducted demonstration cruises for guests of the Secretary of the Navy, the Armed Forces Industrial College, Air War College, and the Armed Forces Staff College. On 24 May 1950, Philippine Sea sailed from Norfolk through the Panama Canal, arriving at her new home port of San Diego to join the Pacific Fleet. She was replaced in the Atlantic Fleet by . She was scheduled to begin a tour in the Far East in October 1950 before she was called to combat duty. Korean War With the outbreak of the Korean War on 25 June 1950, Philippine Sea was ordered to Naval Base Pearl Harbor. She sailed for Hawaiian waters on 5 July with Carrier Air Group 11 embarked, flying four squadrons of Vought F4U Corsair fighter-bombers. The ship departed for Japan on 24 July. Leaving Pearl Harbor, Philippine Sea sailed at full speed for the Western Pacific, reaching Okinawa on 4 August. During this time, she took command of Carrier Division One. She was the third aircraft carrier to arrive in Korea, as her sister ship Valley Forge as well as had arrived in July. By the time Philippine Sea arrived in Korea, the UN forces had established superiority in the air and sea. Philippine Sea arrived in Korean waters on 1 August, and became flagship of Task Force 77 on 5 August. She immediately began launching air strikes against strategic targets, as the Battle of Pusan Perimeter began and United Nations and United States Army forces fought a defensive battle against the North Korean Korean People's Army. Her first strikes were against Iri, Mokpo, and Kunsan. The strikes were at first planned to target North Korean lines of communication but the intensity of the battle at Pusan Perimeter forced the carrier to fly primarily close air support missions for troops on the front lines. They also hit targets of opportunity, such as North Korean boats, bridges and dams spotted during missions. As many as 140 sorties a day were launched from the carrier. Except for brief rests to re-arm, refuel, or repair, Philippine Sea was in action continuously. She was put in a rotation of continuous action with Valley Forge to assure at least one was launching aircraft at all times. Following the beginning of The Great Naktong Offensive on 31 August, the two carriers launched 263 sorties to prevent the North Koreans from overrunning Pusan Perimeter. The ship sent sorties to defend Masan during the Battle of Masan, in spite of being from the area. The ship steamed to the southern tip of the Peninsula at on 1 September to support the Masan area more easily during the North Korean attacks. With the other carriers of Task Force 77, Philippine Sea targeted rail and communication centers around North Korean-controlled Seoul to Wonsan in September. The strikes were part of a deception plan to draw North Korean attention away from the UN force massing for an attack on Inchon. Stationed in the Yellow Sea, she sent numerous air attacks on Inchon and Wolmi-do in preparation for Operation Chromite. The day of the operation, 15 September, Philippine Sea dispatched planes far inland to destroy North Korean positions and prevent reinforcements from countering the Inchon landings. Following the initial assault, she continued to provide close air support for the thrust inland to recapture Seoul. During this time, she was joined by . They were part of a massive invasion force of some 230 ships and hundreds of aircraft. On 17 September 1950 a pair of Grumman F9F-2 Panthers launched from the deck of Philippine Sea. VF-112 Ensign Edward D. Jackson Jr. was leading a section dispatched to strafe an airfield near North Korea's capital, Pyongyang. Flying on his wing was Ensign Dayl E. Crow. The airfield turned out to be little more than a grass strip littered with burned and shattered Soviet-built war machines. After strafing a locomotive and setting it ablaze, the jets turned north and started down the Han River. Soon, Jackson spotted about 75 river boats. When they starting receiving small arms fire from "passengers" on the vessels, Crow followed Jackson down as they made a low strafing pass, splintering many of the small craft with 20 mm cannon fire. After the pass both attackers started to climb from AGL. Jackson then flew through an aerial booby trap: steel cables strung across the Han to "clothesline" low flying planes. The Panther ripped through the cables like twine, but the whipsawing cable strands caught the starboard wing, shredded the wingtip tank and snapped across the canopy, punching out the windscreen and side windows. The impact knocked Jackson unconscious with severe facial injuries. Crow, flying just astern noticed something wrong, then saw the crushed wing tank and shattered canopy, its inner surface misted with blood. After 20 seconds Jackson regained consciousness and found himself blinded by shards of Plexiglas and blood. Crow was able to guide his leader towards the Yellow Sea, but Jackson was fading in and out of consciousness. With only the left flap down due to damage to the right wing the Panther approached the ship and with the help of LSO Lt.j.g. "Les" Bruestle and Crow the blind pilot trapped the #4 wire on the first attempt. Jackson survived with 36 stitches and an emergency blood transfusion. In November 1950 when China surprised the United Nations ground troops with an unexpected counterattack from the Yalu River by the People's Liberation Army, Philippine Sea planes saw heavy action. The US Navy had sent Valley Forge and several other ships away from Korea, expecting the conflict to end, and so the unprepared forces remaining in the area were heavily engaged. Throughout the long retreat from the Yalu River, the four carriers' Panthers, Skyraiders and Corsairs provided close air support for the trapped X Corps at Chosin Reservoir. Though the increasingly cold weather proved a problem for Philippine Sea, the ship continued to support the troops as they tried to evacuate from the reservoir and then cleared the path for their retreat to Hungnam. The carriers provided support with hundreds of aircraft sorties as 150,000 UN troops and civilians were evacuated, and then destroyed the port. During this support, Valley Forge and Philippine Sea were tightly clustered with and and commanders worried that they would be a target for air attack by North Korean MiG-15 fighters, prompting a large screen of 32 destroyers. For the rest of 1950 and early 1951, she launched numerous attacks against Chinese forces around the 38th Parallel hoping to slow their advance as UN troops retreated. With only brief stops for repair and rest, the carrier continued numerous sorties against Chinese targets. On 25 February, command of Task Force 77 was transferred to Valley Forge. During this time, the cold weather hampered operations and blizzards occasionally shut them down completely. Putting into Yokosuka Naval Base, Japan, in late March 1951 for repair and refit, Philippine Sea exchanged Air Group 11 for Carrier Air Group 2 from Valley Forge, a group which consisted mostly of Vought F4U Corsair fighter-bombers. The same date as the transfer on 28 March, Philippine Sea became flagship of Vice Admiral H. M. Martin, the commander of the 7th Fleet. Returning to the Sea of Japan in April, Philippine Sea led Task Force 77 as well as other ships of the 7th Fleet through the Strait of Formosa to the South China Sea. From the Formosa Strait, planes flew in parades over Formosa as part of a show of support for the newly formed nation of Taiwan, in an effort to boost morale of the nation. She steamed back to Korea three days later, in time to lend close air support to UN forces throughout early 1951 as they faced repeated offensives by the Chinese. Post-Korea Philippine Sea completed her first deployment to Korea and arrived at San Francisco on 9 June 1951. It conducted refits, repairs and patrol operations along the West Coast continued for the remainder of the year. On 19 December, she was the site of a test for an emergency nuclear weapon assembly, the first such test involving a nuclear weapon aboard a US Navy ship. The ship departed from San Diego on 31 December 1951. Arriving at Pearl Harbor on 8 January 1952, Philippine Sea continued on to Yokosuka for a second deployment to Korea, arriving 20 January 1952 with Carrier Air Group 11, which flew five squadrons of the F4U Corsair, about 100 aircraft. During this tour, the front lines in Korea had largely stabilized, and instead the ship directed its aircraft against strategic targets, including the 23 June attack on the Sui-ho Dam in conjunction with Boxer, Princeton, and Bon Homme Richard, and sending aircraft against targets in Pyongyang. Philippine Sea returned to San Diego in August 1952. Her designation was changed to CVA, denoting an "attack aircraft carrier" in October. With five more Corsair squadrons of Carrier Air Group 9 embarked, she began a third cruise to the Far East early in December 1952 with about 100 aircraft. In this third tour in Korea, Philippine Sea focused primarily on interdiction attacks against rail and communication lines in North Korea, hoping to limit supplies to the front lines. The North Korean offensive, begun at the same time truce talks began at Panmunjom, marked the beginning of a series of "round the clock" air sorties designed to weaken North Korean and Chinese front line troops and support UN troops when under attack. This mission continued until an armistice was signed in the summer of 1953, resulting in the de jure cessation of open warfare. Following the end of her tour in Korea, the ship arrived in Alameda Naval Air Station in Alameda, California, on 14 August 1953 to offload Air Group 9, then entered drydock at Hunters Point in San Francisco for overhaul. On 9 January 1954, Philippine Sea once more began training off the coast of San Diego. She then steamed west on 12 March, for her fourth tour in the Far East. She operated out of U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay near Olongapo, Philippines. She was part of Carrier Division 3 and operated alongside around French Indochina. The most significant event of the tour occurred in late July 1954. Chinese airplanes had shot down a Douglas DC-4 passenger aircraft operated by Cathay Pacific Airways near Hainan Island off the Chinese coast. The Chinese military had believed it to be a Taiwanese military airplane. Philippine Sea was ordered into the area as part of a search mission to recover some of the 19 on board. While engaged in the search mission, a flight of the ship's Douglas AD Skyraiders was attacked by two Chinese fighter aircraft. The Skyraiders returned fire and shot down the airplanes. Later this came to be known unofficially as the "Hainan Incident". Following this duty, the ship sailed for Hawaii, where she was used as a prop in the movie Mister Roberts. The ship returned to San Diego on 18 November. Remaining in the area for four months, Philippine Sea conducted several training operations off the California coast. She then began her fifth cruise of the Far East on 1 April 1955 en route to Yokosuka. She operated in waters of Japan, Okinawa, and Taiwan for most of 1955, with Air Task Group 2 consisting of VF-123, VF-143 and VA-55, VF-123 flying the F9F-2 Panther jet fighter-bomber, VF-143 flying the Grumman F9F-6 Cougar jet fighter, and VA-55 flying the AD-6 Skyraider propeller attack bomber. During this time, she made trips to Hong Kong, Keelung and Formosa. On 23 November, she was redesignated as a CVS, or an anti-submarine warfare carrier. Her aircraft complement was replaced with several dozen S2F Tracker anti-submarine aircraft and HSS-1 Seabat helicopters. She returned to San Diego on 23 November 1955. Throughout 1956 she saw little activity as crew went on leave and she was docked for maintenance, and only conducted several routine training operations off the coast of southern California. In late 1956 she moved to Hawaii for more training operations. In March 1957, she sailed for the western Pacific on a sixth tour to the area with the HSS-1s and S2Fs of VS-21, VS-23, and VS-37. She was there for two months before returning to San Diego and resuming training missions off the west coast in summer 1957. In November 1957, she found some debris of Pan Am Flight 7, an airline flight that disappeared en route to Hawaii. In January 1958, she steamed west on her last 7th Fleet deployment. Remaining six months, she returned to San Diego on 15 July and commenced inactivation. She was decommissioned 28 December 1958 and berthed with the United States Reserve Fleet at Long Beach, California. She was redesignated AVT-11, an auxiliary aircraft transport and landing training ship, on 15 May 1959. After 10 years docked at the reserve fleet, she was struck from the Naval Vessel Registry on 1 December 1969 and sold for scrapping on 23 March 1971 to Zidell Explorations Corporation in Portland, Oregon. Philippine Sea received nine battle stars for Korean War service. During her career, she logged 82,000 launches, including 33,575 catapult shots, and 82,813 landings. In April 1987, a new was launched, a Ticonderoga-class guided missile cruiser. An organization was also formed of veterans who had served aboard the ship, the Philippine Sea Association. Awards Gallery See also List of aircraft carriers References Notes Sources Essex-class aircraft carriers Ships built in Quincy, Massachusetts 1945 ships World War II aircraft carriers of the United States Cold War aircraft carriers of the United States Korean War aircraft carriers of the United States
402326	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iztacalco	Iztacalco	Iztacalco () is a borough (demarcación territorial) in Mexico City. It is located in the central-eastern area and it is the smallest of the city's boroughs. The area's history began in 1309 when the island of Iztacalco, in what was Lake Texcoco, was settled in 1309 by the Mexica who would later found Tenochtitlan, according to the Codex Xolotl. The island community would remain small and isolated through the colonial period, but drainage projects in the Valley of Mexico dried up the lake around it. The area was transformed into a maze of small communities, artificial islands called chinampas and solid farmland divided by canals up until the first half of the 20th century. Politically, the area has been reorganized several times, being first incorporated in 1862 and the modern borough coming into existence in 1929. Today, all of the canals and farmland are dried out and urbanized as the most densely populated borough and the second most industrialized. The borough The borough of Iztacalco is located in the east-center of Mexico City bordering Venustiano Carranza, Iztapalapa and Benito Juárez boroughs, as well as the Mexico State municipality of Nezahualcoyotl . It is the smallest of the city's boroughs. The territory is divided into thirty eight neighborhoods called “colonias” or “barrios” along with 220 major apartment complexes. The borough hall is located on Avenida Rio Churubusco in the Ramos Millán neighborhood. Seventy-one percent of the borough is occupied by residences, commerce, and service establishments. Fifty-four percent of the territory is purely residential, down from 61% in 1980.%. There are 99,577 housing units, almost all of which are constructed of cinderblock and concrete. The average housing unit has 4.1 occupants. Many of these constructions are in some state of deterioration, which includes sixty percent of major housing complexes, as well as sixty percent of a type of housing situation, called a “vecindad.” Mixed-use zones, with residences, offices, services, and certain industries, have increased from 8.6% to 17%. Eleven percent is dedicated to manufacturing. Ninety percent of the land is paved over with only about two percent considered to be green space. Over 97% have basic services such as gas, electricity, garbage, and drainage. The Magdalena Mixhuca Sports City is located on Avenida Río Piedad in Colonia Magdalena Mixhuca. It contains boasts professional-level playing fields, swimming pools, running tracks and gyms. The Palacio de los Deportes, also called the Domo de Cobre (“the Copper Dome”) is located on Avenida Río Churubusco and Viaducto Miguel Alemán in Colonia Granjas México. Connected to the complex is the Escuela Nacional de Entrenadores Deportivos and the Escuela Superior de Educación Física. As a private concert venue, it has hosted such acts as Aerosmith, Robbie Williams, The Cure and Shakira. The Autodromo Hermanos Rodríguez, with adjoining Foro Sol is located on Avenida Viaducto Piedad in Colonia Magdalena Mixhuca. The Foro Sol has also hosted major concerts. The La Viga Lienzo Charro (rodeo ring) is located on Guadalupe Street in Colonia Pantitlán. The main annual festival in the borough is the anniversary of the parish of San Matias in August, celebrating its establishment as the Franciscan monastery. It features the “charros of Iztacalco” who are based at the Lienzo Charro de la Viga, a tradition from the 19th century. Other important days include the festival dedicated to Saint Sebastian in January in the Barrio de Zapotla, Carnival in some neighborhoods, the Procession of the Holy Burial on Good Friday and a pre-Hispanic festival called Ue-izkal-ilhuitl, or the spring equinox . The borough also hosts an annual youth event called the Festival Juventud. In 2011, this event included two days of rock and ska music at the Faro Iztacalco. It included bands such as Skandalo, Maskatesta and Los Korukos . Historic center Although the borough is completely urbanized, there are still traces of the area's rural past, especially in the historic center, which corresponds to the original island in the former Lake Texcoco. This zone is still divided into six neighborhoods called barrios: Santa Cruz, La Asunción, San Miguel, Los Reyes, Zapotla, San Francisco Xicaltongo y Santiago, along with an area called Santa Anita Zacatlalmanco Huéhuetl. Most of these lie along the Calzada de la Viga. This area was designated as a "Barrio Mágico" by the city in 2011. The Barrio de Santa Cruz contains some of the oldest structures of the entire borough. One of these is the Capilla de Santa Cruz, located on a small street called Amador Aztlán. It has a Salomonic main portal with vegetative designs. It is only one level topped with a vaulted niche. Inside, there is a silver leaf main altar with a notable wood cross covered in silver and decorated with the image of the Passion of Christ and the date of 1748. The chapel was declared a historic monument in 1972. The Ermita de la Cruz is on Calle Agricultures. It was constructed by the Franciscans in the early 16th century and listed as a historic monument in 1955. The interior contains a crucified Christ done in pea cane paste. It also has an oil painting of the Virgin of Guadalupe. This barrio also contains a number of houses and other structures from the 18th and 19th centuries. However, the Barrio de la Asunción next door is home to the most important plaza and the church of the borough. The plaza is called either Plaza Miguel Hidalgo or Plaza San Matias, located between the parish of San Matías and Calzada de la Viga. It is of two levels with a number of trees and has a traditional kiosk in the center. It also has two important monuments, one of the Aztec glyph still used to designate the area and one of a bust of Miguel Hidalgo from 1870. The parish and former monastery of San Matías were begun in the 16th century. The main portal contains the main entrance, which consists of a richly decorated arch and two columns. Above it is an eight-sided choir window, and above that is a pediment in the form of a truncated triangle. Above this is a crest. There is one bell tower is Baroque. To the left of the facade, there is a dome over a chapel area, which is decorated with human figures and other elements. The interior contains chandeliers, arches and the main altar that features a marine shell. Saint Matthew continues to be the patron saint of the Iztacalco. The Barrio de Santiago is marked by the Santiago Apóstol Church from the 18th century. It has a façade nearly without curves and almost square, covered in tezontle stone. On each side of the facade, there is a slim bell tower. The main entrance is marked by a simple arch of sandstone which contains a seashell and supported by two pilasters. Above this entrance, there is a clock. The interior is bright due to the many stained glass windows. Geography and environment The borough extends over 23.1 km2 or 2,317.4 hectares, all of which is urbanized. It accounts for 1.75% of the total territory of Mexico City, and it is the smallest of the 16 boroughs. The land is flat and located on the lakebed of Lake Texcoco in the Valley of Mexico at an altitude of 2,235 meters above sea level. Today, however, the lake in this area has dried completely and the canals, wetlands and lake of the territory have completely disappeared. The climate is considered to be semi-arid and temperate, with only the area bordering Benito Juárez and Iztapalapa considered to be semi-moist with rains in the summer. Overall, the borough is the driest in Mexico City, with an annual rainfall of not over 600 to 700mm per year. With over 90% paved over, there are no wild habitats left in the borough. Of the 2.34% dedicated to green space, most of these are traffic islands on major thoroughfares. There are only two parks in the borough. The Urbano-Ecológico School-Park is located on Calzada Ignacio Zaragoza in Colonia Agrícola Oriental, near the border of Iztapalapa. This park has less than one hectare. The other large green space is the parkland around the Magdalena Mixhuca Sports Center, which has been reforested with eucalyptus trees. Demographics Iztacalco is the most densely populated borough in Mexico City and the most dense subdivision in the country. As of 2020, the population was 404,695, with most being from the lower middle to lower classes. There are small communities of middle-class families in Reforma Iztaccihuatl, Militar Marte and Viaducto Piedad. Despite its density, the overall population of the borough has been dropping between one and two percent since 1990, but still about twenty percent of the current population moved into here from elsewhere in Mexico. The population is expected to continue decreasing. About 5,400 people who speak an indigenous language, with thirty eight different indigenous ethnicities present. About 1,100 of these speak some form of Nahuatl, followed by Zapotec, Mixtec, Otomi, Mazateca, Mazahua and Totonaca. About 91% of the population is Catholic, with about seven percent belonging to Protestant or Evangelical churches. History While the most accepted interpretation of Iztacalco (from Nahuatl) is “house of salt,” others have been proposed such as “place of white houses.” Originally, the name was written “Ixtacalco” but its current spelling was adopted in the second half of the 20th century. The crest or seal of the borough is the Aztec glyph which has been used to designate the place since at least the time of the Mendocino Codex, which depicts the “house” and “salt” interpretations of the name. It contains a sun shining over a house. Inside the house, there is a grain of salt and two markings that represent raindrops’ tracks. Because it was originally an island well within Lake Texcoco, Iztacalco was settled by humans later than the rest of the Valley of Mexico . The history of Iztacalco begins in 1309. The Xolotl Codex states that Iztacalco was one of the people's last stops before they finally settled Tenochtitlan. The island was conquered and subject to the dominion of Texcoco as part of the territory of the Triple Alliance. From the beginning, inhabitants made a living by extracting salt from the brackish waters of the surrounding lake. This salt was consumed until the very early 20th century. Just after the Conquest, the area belonged to a territory called San Juan de Dios ruled directly from Mexico City. A small monastery dedicated to Saint Matthew was constructed in which lived no more than two monks, with no more than 300 indigenous. As the area was very sparsely populated, these monks did not establish satellite parishes, except for the San Antonio hermitage, built for the feast day of this saint. In the middle of the 17th century, baptisms began to be recorded in the area, which then consisted of the main community and eight surrounding neighborhoods called barrios. Through the colonial period, Iztacalco was on an island, which impeded its growth. It had only 296 residents in its barrios of Asunción, Santa Cruz, Santiago, San Miguel and Los Reyes. From the colonial period to the 19th century, various drainage projects in the Valley of Mexico eventually dried Lake Texcoco, creating firm land that would connect the former island of Iztacalco to the rest of the area. The dry land from the lake was formed mostly through the creation of chinampas on which were grown flowers and vegetables. However, from the 19th century to the first decades of the 20th, Iztacalco had a number of canals crisscrossing it, the main one being Canal de la Viga, earlier known as the Acequia Real. The canal extended for 1,560 meters and was thirty meters wide. This made Iztacalco an important strategic transit point between what is now the historic center of Mexico City and the agricultural areas to the south and east such as Chalco and Xochimilco . One of the main docks here was at Zacatlalmanco, which had an important market attached to it. The first steamship passed by here in 1850, connecting Mexico City and Chalco. The canal had a number of pedestrian bridges over it, such as the La Garita. These bridges also doubled as regulators for the canal's waters due to the floodgates on their supporting arches. The canal also functioned as a rural getaway for Mexico City dwellers, especially on Sundays. Until mid-century, the borough area remained rural with small houses of adobe and/or reeds/small branches. Small canoes called trajineras carried cargo and passengers among the various docks on this canal. The canals were filled with aquatic birds such as herons and a local species called chichicuilotes. It was also the scene of one of the most popular festivals of the 19th century, the Viernes de Dolores (Friday of the Virgin of Sorrows), also known as the Fiesta de las Flores (Festival of the Flowers). Starting in 1915, due to health concerns, the canal was closed to traffic and filled into become current major road, with the process completed in the 1930s. Through the 19th century, the community of Iztacalco and Mexico City would remain entities mostly separated by farmland and chinampas. This was also true of a number of communities that are now part of the borough such as Mixiuhca, Zacatlalmanco, La Magdalena, Santa Ana, and San Matias. Up until the 20th century, the territory remained a maze of chinampas divided by canals large and small with carp and even snakes. In 1855, the districts and municipalities of the Federal District were reorganized, with the municipality of Iztacalco consisting of the communities of San Matías, San Juanico, Santa Anita, Magdalena Atlacolpa, Asunción Aculco, Santa Cruz, Santiago, San Miguel, La Asunción, San Sebastián Zapotla, Los Reyes, San Francisco, San Antonio Zacahuisco as well as two ranches called Cedillo and De la Viga or De la Cruz Metlapalco. In the mid 19th century, the area's population was dominated by indigenous peoples. In 1892, there was land redistribution among the families of the area, consisting of 255 hectares what belonged to three ranches. Iztacalco was first incorporated as a municipality on March 5, 1862, as part of the Tlalpan prefecture, with a population of about 2,800. In 1903, the municipality disappeared and merged with the prefecture of Guadalupe Hidalgo, one of the six divisions of the Federal District at the time. On December 31, 1928, the current borough was formed. The urban sprawl of Mexico City began to reach the borough in the first decades of the 20th century. As the canals were filled in, they were converted into the primary roadways which still remain today. Canal de la Viga is now Calzada de la Viga. The first industries in the area were established in the middle of the 20th century as the area was at the city's periphery, but its proximity to the historic center made its urbanization quick. The first industries in the areas were those making cardboard boxes, cushions, furniture, chemicals, and food processing. The installation of factories and housing developments changed Iztacalco from rural to completely urban in less than four decades. Since the 1930s and especially since the 1950s, land became divided into housing lots as the canals and swamps were drained into dry land. Most of this housing was for the working classes. These include neighborhoods such as La Cruz, Pantitlán and Granjas México to house workers for factories built in the same areas. Some of the most dangerous neighborhoods of the city are located in this borough. Citizens of the borough began directly electing local officials in 2000, like the borough president and two representatives to Mexico City's government. The old delegación became an alcaldía headed by a mayor after the political reforms enacted in 2016. Economy Iztacalco is ranked ninth in economic marginalization in Mexico City with over 32% considered to be living in poverty. Over 85% are considered to be at least moderately economically marginalized, the highest in the city. As of 2007, about 55% of the population over the age of twelve is employed either in the formal or informal economy, with most of these between the ages of 35 and 39. About 48% of those in the total workforce do not have work in the formal economy. Well over half the workforce is male but the percentage of women has been rising since 1990. 0.1% work in agriculture, 20.9% work in mining, construction, and manufacturing, and 75.7% work in commerce and services. Eleven percent of the borough and 11.7% of establishments are dedicated to industry and manufacturing, the second highest percentage in the city. The Ciudad Deportiva de la Magdalena Mixihuca is the second largest industrial zone in Mexico City. Just under 50% of establishments are in commerce and just over 37% are in services, but there are no major office buildings. The borough has eleven hotels, one five-star, two four-star and four three-star. Transportation The borough has 53.8 km of primary roadway, 5.7% of Mexico City's total, with 6,082,261m2 of paved surface. Major thoroughfares include the Viaducto Río de la Piedad which borders the borough on the north going east-west and connecting to the Mexico City-Puebla highway. It is bordered on the east by the Anillo Periférico, with the Circuito Interior passing through the center. Near the old village of Iztacalco is Eje 3 Oriente and Calzada de la Viga. Other important roads include Eje 2, Eje 6 Sur, Eje 1 Oriente and Eje 5 Oriente. Four lines of the Metro pass through the borough: Line 9, Line 1, Line 4 and Line 8. Three of these lines meet at Metro Pantitlán, a major hub of the transport system and a major connecting point for busses heading east into the State of Mexico. There are four lines of the trolleybus and Metrobús Line 2 passes through as well. Metro stations Viaducto Santa Anita Coyuya Iztacalco Ciudad Deportiva Puebla Pantitlán Agrícola Oriental Canal de San Juan Education There are twenty-three public daycare centers, run by various governmental agencies. There are 147 kindergartens, with 63 of these run by the delegation. There are 128 public primary schools. There are fifty-five public middle schools, thirty-five of which are general studies, and twenty are geared to vocational instruction. There are thirteen private middle schools. High schools include Plantel 2 de la Escuela Nacional Preparatoria (UNAM), la Preparatoria Iztacalco, dependiente del Instituto de Educación Media Superior del Distrito Federal (IEMS-DF) and Plantel 3 del Colegio de Bachilleres Metropolitano. There are five centers dedicated to special education and nine centers that work with special needs children in the regular school system. There are fourteen vocational schools above the middle school level. It has eleven public libraries, mostly serving elementary school-aged children. It has ten casas de cultura which mostly serve only the neighborhoods in which they are found. 3.1% of the population is illiterate. To combat high dropout rates, the government of Mexico City offers stipends to families of school-aged children as long as the children remain enrolled in public schools. The Unidad Profesional Interdisciplinaria en Ingeniería y Ciencias Sociales y Administrativas (UPIICSA) del Instituto Politécnico Nacional is located in the borough, which offers majors in engineering, computer science and administration. The Escuela Normal de Educación Física trains physical education teachers. National public high schools in the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM)'s Escuela Nacional Preparatoria system include: Escuela Nacional Preparatoria 2 "Erasmo Castellanos Quinto" Public high schools of the Instituto de Educación Media Superior del Distrito Federal (IEMS) include: Escuela Preparatoria Iztacalco "Felipe Carrillo Puerto" References External links Alcaldía de Iztacalco website Boroughs of Mexico City
402333	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miguel%20Hidalgo%2C%20Mexico%20City	Miguel Hidalgo, Mexico City	Miguel Hidalgo is a borough (alcaldía) in western Mexico City, it encompasses the historic areas of Tacuba, Chapultepec and Tacubaya along with a number of notable neighborhoods such as Polanco and Lomas de Chapultepec. With landmarks such as Chapultepec Park and the Museo Nacional de Antropología, it is the second most visited borough in Mexico City after Cuauhtémoc where the historic center of Mexico City is located. Tacubaya and Tacuba both have long histories as independent settlements and were designated as “Barrios Mágicos” by the city for tourism purposes. Geography and environment The borough is located in the northwest of the Mexico City, just west of the historic center. The borough is divided into eighty one neighborhoods called colonias. The largest of these is Bosques de las Lomas at 3.2km2, and the smallest is Popo Ampliación with only .33km2. It is bordered by the boroughs of Azcapotzalco, Cuauhtémoc, Benito Juárez, Álvaro Obregón and Cuajimalpa, and the State of Mexico to the west. It has a territory of 47.68km2 which is 3.17 percent of the total Mexico City. The borough consists of an area which used to the west bank of Lake Texcoco, with three major zones, Tacuba, Chapultepec and Tacubaya. The geography of the borough includes canyons, hills and mesas associated with the Sierra de las Cruces, most present in the southwest bordering Cuajimalpa. In the northeast, mostly defined by the Interior Circuit ringway. The most important elevation is the Cerro de Chapultepec at 2,260masl. The area today is almost completely developed with green spaces mostly limited to parks. The largest green space is Chapultepec Park at 2.2 km2. Parque Lineal was the former rail line of the Ferrocarril de Cuernavaca. The strip was converted into a park in 2011. Where the park crosses Lago Constanza Street in Colonia Anáhuac, there are often cultural events held. One of the newest parks in the borough is located on Lago Caneguin in Colonia Argentina, created over a former roadway called Ruta 100. The unnamed park has 10,000 meters of surface area, kiosk, gymnasium, bicycle path, multipurpose room, parking, rain water containment system and child care center. It serves about 40,000 area residents. In 2008, reforestation efforts were undertaken, beginning at the Cañitas Park. While there were important rivers here such as Remedios, today there are no longer any free flowing currents of water. The climate is semi moist and temperate with annual rainfall varying between 700 and 800mm. The average annual temperature is 15C with lows in the winter about 8C and highs around 19C. Certain areas of the borough have problems with the stability of the ground due to old abandoned underground mines. These areas include the América, Daniel Garza, 16 de Septiembre, Daniel Garza Apliación and Observatorio neighborhoods, which are particularly affected, but the problem also is found in El Capulín, Monte Sol and Ex Hacienda de Pedregal. The number of people living in these areas is estimated at over 25,000, and about 500 families living in very high risk areas. Abandoned mines have also been detected in Tacubaya, Lomas Altas, Bosque de las Lomas and even under Chapultepec Park. Demographics and socioeconomics As of 2005, the borough had 106,005 residences of which 25,308 were freestanding houses, 54,079 were apartments and the rests of other types. This total number grew to a total of 123,910. About eighty percent of homes are owned by their residents and not rented. Around 95% have basic services such as electricity and running water. While the borough contains mostly working class areas in and around Tacuba and Tacubaya, the southwest contains some of the most exclusive colonias of the borough. While most of the borough is residential, the population of the borough has dropped from 650,497 in 1960 to 372,889 in 2010. It is now the twelfth most densely occupied borough of sixteen. Just over eighty eight percent identify themselves as Catholic. The borough has 112 preschools, 160 primary schools, 79 middle schools, seven vocational/technical high schools and 49 high schools. The borough has an educational program called “Faros del Saber” (Lighthouses of Knowledge), which began in 2001. There are nine installations related to the program: each dedicated to a different field, such as ecology and science and technology, and each designed to promote these fields to the youth of the borough through workshops and various events. The main library of the program is part of CONACULTA and is designed to promote reading. The borough also offers classes to youth and adults in basic computer technology. Main thoroughfares include Paseo de la Reforma, Calzada México Tacuba, the Anillo Periférico, Avenida V Palmas and Avenida Constituyentes. Numerous bus and Metro lines pass through here, with the major transportation hub centered in Metro Tacubaya, where Lines 1, 7 and 9 converge. The borough is also home to the Observatorio bus station, which mostly serves buses heading west to Toluca and other destinations. The working population is 45.4% of the total. Overall socioeconomic marginalization of the borough is ranked very low. The borough is the second most visited by tourists in Mexico City according to the Secretary of Tourism of the Federal District, receiving just under 13% of total visitors in 2006. The borough has nineteen major hotels, and five of the six best hotels in the city. Its major, upscale restaurants and entertainment centers are located in Polanco and Lomas de Chapultepec. Five star hotels include the Presidente Intercontinental, the Marriott and Niko, all located on Paseo de la Reforma next to Chapultepec Park. Commercial centers include eighteen traditional markets, the upscale shopping corridor along Avenida Presidente Masarik in Polanco and various malls. Bases for unlicensed taxis and areas crowded with unregulated street vendors is a major problem, especially around Christmas time. Most street-vending occurs in the Tacuba, Tacubaya, Chapultepec, Argentinas, Lomas and Polanco neighborhoods. A number of stationary public markets have problems with abandoned stalls. This is occurs in the Tacuba, Anáhuac Anexo, Anáhuac Zone and El Chorrito markets. The main reason that these markets struggle is competition from supermarkets, but the deterioration of the buildings is another factor. History The borough is named after Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, who began the Mexican War of Independence . The borough was created by fusing various former municipalities such as Tacuba, Tacubaya and the Chapultepec Park area along with the neighborhoods such as Polanco, Lomas de Chapultepec, Bosques de las Lomas, Popotla, Las Pensil, La Argentina, America, Santa Julia and Observatorio. The center of the borough is considered to be Chapultepec Park. Until the 20th century, Tacuba, Chapultepec and Tacubaya had separate histories, all part of the Federal District of Mexico City during most of this entity's existence under various arrangements. In 1899, the Federal District was divided into the municipality of Mexico and six prefectures, one of which was Tacubaya. This arrangement was reconfirmed in 1917. In 1928, the Federal District was reorganized as a department under the direct control of the federal government. The territory was reorganized into Mexico City proper and thirteen boroughs: Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Azcapotzalco, Iztacalco, General Anaya, Coyoacán, San Ángel, La Magdalena Contreras, Cuajimalpa, Tlalpan, Iztapalapa, Xochimilco, Milpa Alta and Tláhuac. The city proper was divided into twelve districts. What is now Miguel Hidalgo, was part of Mexico City proper. In 1970, the city area was subdivided into four parts, Cuauhtémoc, Venustiano Carranza, Benito Juárez and Miguel Hidalgo. The various political arrangements to the present day have been a result of the growth of Mexico City proper. Tacuba, Chapultepec and Tacubaya in the pre Hispanic period were located on the western shore of Lake Texcoco, just west of the island where the Aztecs established Tenochtitlan. After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, the Spanish established their capital in Tenochtitlan, renaming it Mexico City. Constant flooding problems, almost forced the Spanish to move the capital to Tacubaya in the early 17th century; however, it was decided to drain and fill in the lake instead. This effort would extend over the colonial period and well after Independence. Drainage of the lake would create land on which Mexico City grew. At the beginning of the 20th century, the very edge of Mexico City has reached the villages of Tacuba and Tacubaya. During the first third of this century, the country estates, farmland and ranches between Tacuba, Tacubaya and Mexico City proper were turned into subdivisions for housing, with roads and other paved areas taking over empty fields. From the 1930s, population growth and development increased with the establishment of industrial and commercial areas. In the 1940s, the Polanco area between Chapultepec and Santa Julia was developed. Various public and private enterprises were installed along the avenues of Ejército Nacional and Marina Nacional. The Secretary of Defense made its home at Lomas de Sotelo. On the far west of the borough large cemeteries such as Panteón Francés, General Sancturum, Panteón Inglés and Panteón Español were opened. One reason for the westward expansion was that wealthy families were abandoning the historic center of Mexico City for newer areas. This began with areas such as Colonia Roma and Condesa, but later they would move to Polanco. This movement west still continues into the Lomas area. Chapultepec The center of the borough is Chapultepec Park. Chapultepec Park, more commonly called the "Bosque de Chapultepec" (Chapultepec Forest) in Mexico, is the largest city park in Latin America, measuring in total just over 686 hectares. The area has been considered special since long in the pre Hispanic period when it was a ceremonial site and later a retreat for Aztec emperors. There is also evidence of settlements here by the Chichimecas and Toltecs. The Mexicas lived here at before they were expelled by Azcapotzalco. After finally establishing Tenochtitlan, the Mexicas or Aztecs considered Chapultepec sacred. The first aqueduct from there to Tenochtitlan/Mexico City was built by Moctezuma Ilhuicamina. Later Moctezuma Xocoyotzin had fish tanks and gardens constructed on the site. And Nezahualcoyotl had a palace constructed at the base of the hill. After the Conquest, Hernán Cortés tried to take this land for himself but Charles V denied this and made the area the heritage of Mexico City because it contained many of the springs that provided the city with potable water. The second and third sections of Chapultepec were opened in 1962 and 1974 respectively, with the third section from part of the lands which were an old paper factory. The two most important museums are the Museo Nacional de Antropología and the Chapultepec Castle National History Museum. These and most of the rest of the museums in the first section are located along Paseo de la Reforma. Of all of the museums in the park, the most famous is the Museo Nacional de Antropología, considered to be one of the greatest archeological museums in the world. The museum has a number of antecedents beginning from the colonial period, but the current institution was created in the 1960s with the building and grounds designed by architect Pedro Ramírez Vázquez. This museum has an area of 44,000m2 and 25 exhibit halls with sections devoted to each of the major pre-Hispanic civilizations in Mexico including the Aztec, Maya, Toltec and Olmec. The permanent collection is so large, that it is possible to spend an entire day to see it. There are also temporary exhibits as well. The Castle of Chapultepec is on Chapultepec Hill on which the park is historically centered. Construction of this castle was begun in the 1780s and includes towers and merlons, not for defense, but to give the structure a more royal feel. In 1847, the Castle was the scene of the Battle of Chapultepec and the suicide of the “Niños Héroes” or Boy Heroes. A monument to these boys is located at the foot of Chapultepec Hill. From the 19th in to the 20th centuries, this structure was used as the official residence of Mexico's heads of state until this was changed to Los Pinos in the 1930s. Residents included Maximiliano I of Mexico, who had Paseo de la Reforma, which passes through Chapultepec Park, built to connect the area with the center of the city. Today, it is home to the National History Museum. Other features of the park include the Chapultepec Zoo, two artificial lakes with a lake house (Casa del Lago) and various pre Hispanic ruins including the remains of the Baths of Moctezuma, which was used until the 19th century when the area's springs dried up. Neighborhoods Neighborhoods (colonias) in the borough include Bosques de las Lomas, Lomas de Chapultepec, Granada, Ampl. Granada, Pensil, Polanco, San Miguel Chapultepec, and the two formerly independent municipalities of Tacuba and Tacubaya. Tacuba Tacuba was called Tlacopan in the pre Hispanic period. Tacuba is derived from the former Nahuatl name “Tlacopan” and means place of the jarilla plant. It was conquered by Azcapotzalco which placed Totoquihuatzin as governor. When the Tenochtitlan and Texcoco decided to ally against Azcapotzalco, Tlacopan did not resist and for this reason is considered to be the third of the Aztec Triple Alliance. Tacuba's importance led to the construction of a causeway over the lake linking it with Tenochtitlan. Today, this causeway still exists as a major thoroughfare called Calzada Mexico-Tacuba. During the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, the Aztecs succeeded at one point in expelling the Spanish from Tenochtitlan in an event called La Noche Triste (The Sad Night). Cortés and his men fled towards Tacuba on the road that still connects it with the historic center of Mexico City. One year later, Cortés returned to Tenochtitlan to conquer it for good. At the intersection of the Mexico-Tacuba Road and Mar Blanco is a still surviving Montezuma cypress tree. According to legend, this is the tree under which Cortés wept. The last ruler of Tacuba was Tetlepanquetzal, who was tortured by Cortés, who suspected that he was hiding treasure. Over the pre Hispanic ceremonial site, the Franciscans constructed a church dedicate to the Archangel Gabriel. By 1632, the area had sixty haciendas and by the end of the 18th century, 28 villages with Tacuba proper having twelve neighborhoods. The main river through here was the Remedios, which was the main supply of water. In addition, to agriculture, the area was also an important supplier of lumber and sandstone for construction. By 1794, the area had 45 villages. In the first third of the 20th century, three important schools were established in Tacuba. The Colegio Militar was moved to Popotla in 1913, closed during the Mexican Revolution and reopened in 1920. The Escuela Nacional de Maestros (National Teachers College) was opened in 1925 along with the Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria de UNAM. In 1937, the Instituto Politécnico Nacional was opened in Casco de Santo Tomás. Since the mid 20th century, Tacuba proper has declined with problems such as crime and sanitation issues. Tacuba has major problems with uncontrolled street vending and public transportation, prostitution and other crime. Rehabilitation of Tacuba is under a program designated RENACE (rebirth) . The church and former monastery of San Gabriel is located next to the Tacuba Metro station. The main entrance to the atrium has a stone gate with three arches. The small atrium is mostly paved with a few trees. The façade is mostly Baroque with the portal marked the two grooved Doric columns and topped by a frieze with vegetative design done in relief. It has one bell tower with two levels also in Baroque. The side portal faces Calzada Mexico-Tacuba. It also has an arched entryway, but marked with wavy grooved pilasters and topped with a niche. Part of the former cloister is also preserved. The interior is focused on the main altar, which is gilded and has twelve colonial era paintings of the Virgin Mary and various saints along with Salomonic columns. In the center is an image of the crucified Christ and the top has an image of God, the Father. One other feature of the church is an image of the Child Jesus called the “Niño futbolista” (Football playing child), named such because it is dressed in the uniform of Mexico's national team when it plays in the World Cup . The Monastery of San Joaquín was founded in 1689 by the Carmelites and conserves its original architecture. It was an important school for young priests. The Tacuba area is home to a neighborhood called Popotla. Here are the remains of a Montezuma cypress, under which it is said that Hernán Cortés sat and wept after being run out of Tenochtitlan during La Noche Triste in 1520. Next to the plaza where this tree is found, there is an old mansion whose east side has a mural called “Noche de la Victoria” (Night of the Victory) done in 2010. Also here is the parish called Pronto Socorro. Further east along the Calzada Tacuba-Mexico, there is the Colegio Militar, next to the Metro stop of the same name. This school was founded in 1823 and operated until 1976. Today it is the site of the Universidad del Ejército y Fuerza Aérea which still trains part of Mexico's military. Tacubaya In the Aztec period, Tacubaya was called Atlacuihuayan, “place where the river twists” in Nahuatl and only a way station for travelers. In 1590 after the Spanish conquest, The Dominicans founded a monastery and church called San José de Tacubaya. The area remained rural with orchards, important grain mills and abundant water from its three main rivers of Piedad, Morales and Xola, attracting the wealthy to build country homes here. Some development began in the mid 19th century, and mansion building reached its height here in the late 19th and early 20th century. In the 19th century, the municipality of Tacubaya consisted of Tacubaya proper and the villages of La Piedad, Mixcoac, Santa Fe and Santa Lucía, along with a number of haciendas and ranches. In 1888, Tacubaya had just over 9,000 inhabitants and at the beginning of the 20th, it had 20,000. By the 20th century the urban sprawl of Mexico City reached Tacubaya and its rural nature ended. Its rivers were encased and its springs dried up. The historic center of Tacubaya still has some of its country mansions from the 19th and early 20th centuries and earlier, such as the Casa de la Bola (House of the Ball) which belonged to the Count De la Cortina until 1783. Only the cloister of the original former monastery of Santo Domingo still exists, and its church is dedicated to Our Lady of the Purification whose main feast day is Candelaria (Candlemas), giving it the alternate name of the Parish of Candlemas. Outside of the historic center, there are several landmarks. Edificio Ermita is one of the first skyscrapers in Mexico City, constructed in 1930 in Art Deco style by architect Juan Segura. The Luis Barragán House and Studio was the home of one of the country's most renowned architects, built in the early 20th century. Much of Tacubaya is now working class. One major transportation problem is the overcrowding of unregulated vendors, especially around the Tacubaya Metro station. Economy Interjet has its headquarters in Lomas de Chapultepec. Google Mexico also has its headquarters in Lomas. Wamos Air has its Mexico City office in Polanco. Diplomatic missions Most of the diplomatic missions in Mexico City are located in Miguel Hidalgo, mainly in the Lomas de Chapultepec and Polanco area. Embassies Algeria Angola Argentina Australia Austria Belgium Belize Bolivia Brazil Bulgaria Canada Chile Cyprus Cuba Czech Republic Denmark Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Finland France Germany Greece Guatemala Haiti Hungary India Indonesia Ireland Israel Italy Ivory Coast Jamaica Japan Lebanon Malaysia Morocco Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Nigeria North Korea Norway Panama Pakistan Paraguay Peru Philippines Portugal Romania Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Saudi Arabia Serbia Slovakia South Africa South Korea Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Uruguay Venezuela Other diplomatic offices European Commission Delegation Special Palestinian Delegation Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Mexico, the de facto mission of the Republic of China on Taiwan. Education Public high schools of the Instituto de Educación Media Superior del Distrito Federal (IEMS) include: Escuela Preparatoria Miguel Hidalgo "Carmen Serdán" (Argentina Antigua) International schools in Miguel Hidalgo include: Lycée Franco-Mexicain (Liceo Franco Mexicano) in Polanco The Plantel Lomas Kindergarten Prado Norte facility of the Campus Poniente/Campus West (formerly Campus La Herradura) of the Colegio Alemán Alexander von Humboldt is located in Lomas de Chapultepec. The Lomas campus of Peterson Schools is in Lomas de Chapultepec Two campuses of the Westhill Institute in Lomas The Wingate School Virreyes campus in Lomas (opening 2016) Other private schools: Colegio Ciudad de México Plantel Polanco The toddler center campus and the preschool campus of the Eton School in Lomas. Two campuses of the Escuela Sierra Nevada: one for preschool, one for elementary school References External links Alcaldía de Miguel Hidalgo website Boroughs of Mexico City
402343	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippi%20Department%20of%20Corrections	Mississippi Department of Corrections	The Mississippi Department of Corrections (MDOC) is a state agency of Mississippi that operates prisons. It has its headquarters in Jackson. Burl Cain is the commissioner. History In 1843 a penitentiary in four city squares in central Jackson was developed as Mississippi's first state prison. The prison in Jackson was destroyed during the Civil War, and the state did not replace it for decades. Instead, the state conducted convict leasing, leasing prisoners to third parties for their labor. The lessees held custody of the inmates and provided their room and board, often substandard. The state made substantial amounts of money from these arrangements, which created an incentive to have minor infractions criminalized in order to arrest more people and sentence them. Increasing the number of crimes for which persons could be arrested, such as vagrancy, resulted in an increased pool of prisoners to lease out, as many could not raise enough cash to pay fines or fees that were sometimes imposed. Most prisoners were freedmen; the state used this system to extract labor from former slaves and keep them suppressed socially. The state officially changed its policy at the end of the 19th century, saying that prisoners sentenced by the State could no longer be hired or leased by third parties, effective after December 31, 1894. After ending the convict leasing system, the State of Mississippi began to acquire property to build prisons. The state bought the Rankin Farm in 1895 in Rankin County, from Jackson; it is now the site of the Central Mississippi Correctional Facility. Later the state purchased the Oakley Farm, located in Hinds County, from Jackson. The state government purchased land in Sunflower County in January 1901, where it developed the Parchman Farm (now Mississippi State Penitentiary). The prison properties were largely self-sufficient, raising their own crops and livestock, as well as commodity crops such as cotton for the state to sell. All the labor was by prisoners. The state Department of Corrections was established in 1976 to oversee the existing Mississippi state prisons. Both federal and state laws were passed during various campaigns of "wars on crime" and "wars on drugs;" not only were new behaviors criminalized, but politicians supported mandatory sentencing and lengthier sentences. By the end of the 20th century, Mississippi had one of the largest state prison systems in the country, with a rising number of persons incarcerated even as crime rates fell. A disproportionate number and percentage of African Americans and other people of color have been incarcerated under these policies. In addition to the major state prisons, the state developed many community detention centers for prisoners with lower security classifications. They were provided as workers to numerous locales, in part to prepare them for reintegration into society after release. Because of the dramatic climb in the number of prisoners and demand for space, the state legislature authorized MDOC to enter into contracts with for-profit prison management companies for the construction and operation of private prisons in the state. By the early 21st century, the state had contracts with operators of six private prisons. Civil rights groups and prisoner advocates have filed class-action suits in efforts to improve prison conditions and protect prisoner rights. As a result of such a suit against Unit 32 (Death Row lockdown unit) at Mississippi State Penitentiary, the state and the ACLU worked out a settlement in 2006 that changed processes and dramatically reduced the use of punitive solitary confinement in the state. In 2009 and 2014, the state passed legislation to provide more flexibility in sentencing and parole of certain classes of prisoners, reducing the prison population and returning non-violent offenders earlier to their families and communities. Rise of private prisons Changes in sentencing laws dramatically increased the prison population. In 1995 the state legislature passed a law requiring all prisoners to serve 85% of their sentence. The prison population more than doubled from 1995 to 2007, from 11,250 to 22,800, far outstripping capacity of the three state prisons. Beginning in the late 20th century, the state dealt with the rising need to incarcerate individuals by contracting with private prison management companies, who built and operated a total of six prisons for state prisoners in Mississippi. Corrections Corporation of America and Cornell Companies were two early contractors; the latter was acquired by GEO Group in 2010, which took over its three contracts in Mississippi. Prisoners and their families made numerous complaints about conditions in these facilities, citing high rates of violence and sexual abuse, rampant drugs, lack of medical care and education, and other problems. Class action suits were filed by the Southern Poverty Law Center and the ACLU National Prison Project against two private facilities with the most egregious conditions: they filed suit against Walnut Grove Youth Correctional Facility in 2010. This case was settled in federal court in 2012, requiring the state to quickly transfer youth offenders to a state-run facility to be operated according to juvenile justice standards. They were transferred to Central Mississippi Correctional Facility. In addition, the state was prohibited from using solitary confinement for any youthful offender. WGCF was converted to be used for adults only. MDOC ended its contract with GEO Group, awarding a 10-year contract to Management and Training Corporation for Walnut Grove and two other private facilities, effective July 1, 2012. The court supervision of conditions at WGCF was extended because of two prison riots in 2014. Due to declining need, the state closed the prison in September 2016. The ACLU and SPLC filed suit against the East Mississippi Correctional Facility, established for prisoners with serious mental illness, in 2013. The class-action suit at East Mississippi Correctional Facility is proceeding; the court affirmed the status of the plaintiffs in 2015. Sentencing, control and parole reforms At the same time, the state was seeking to reduce the prison population. Studies had found that minor reductions in length of sentence did not affect the rate of recidivism, showing that prisoners could be paroled earlier for certain types of crimes without affecting public safety. In 2008, the state passed SB 2136, to enable non-violent prisoners to again be eligible for parole after they had served 25% of their sentence. The new law was estimated to affect "approximately 4,500 inmates, or about 25% of the 22,800 total population. A unique feature of SB 2136 was that it was applied retroactively in order to have an immediate impact on the prison population and to ensure equity in the sentencing process. About 3,000 inmates or 12% of the total population had already met their time-served requirement and were immediately eligible for parole consideration." To aid prison officials and parole boards in assessing candidates, the Bureau of Justice Assistance developed a science-based risk assessment instrument to apply. By August 2009, some 3100 prisoners had been paroled from prison. The Board's use of the new risk assessment instrument resulted in their having a higher rate of parole approval. The parole revocation rate has not changed, and in the first year, only 5 of the people returned to prison for new crimes, a rate of 0.2% that was a fraction of the national rate of 10.5%. Legislative amendments have been passed in 2009 increased the ability of MDOC to reduce the number of prisoners; one of these authorized the department to place most "persons convicted of most drug crimes to be placed under house arrest with electronic monitoring. Closing of private facilities Both the state and private prison operators have had difficulty maintaining staffing in prisons because of low wages and high turnover. By 2011, MDOC operated below capacity due to the success of its efforts to reduce the prison population. As of 2011, the state prisons were below capacity by more than 2,000 spaces. With private prisons included, that was about 4,000 beds below capacity. MDOC closed the Delta Correctional Facility in January 2012, and Walnut Grove Correctional Facility in September 2016. By early 2017 Mississippi had no state prisoners at the for-profit Tallahatchie County Correctional Facility; the prison operator CCA had contracts with California and other states to house their prisoners at this privately owned site. By March 2017, MDOC was using only three privately run prisons for its inmates. In early 2017, Interim Commissioner Pelicia Hall (appointed in March 2017 as Commissioner) conducted raids for contraband at these private prisons, collecting much material. She is determined to reduce the traffic in contraband, which contributes to corruption in the prisons, including among the guards and staff. Operation Mississippi Hustle As a result of a five-year statewide investigation known as Operation Mississippi Hustle, in November 2014 the federal Department of Justice announced indictments of former Corrections Commissioner Chris Epps (who resigned the day before) and Cecil B. McCrory, a businessman and former Republican state legislator, on 49 counts of corruption, bribery and kickbacks. Newspaper reports have indicated widespread corruption related to contracts for prison services, and within the prisons themselves. This includes millions paid in bribes related to awarding of state contracts, drugs and other contraband being smuggled into facilities by the guards, sex between staff and inmates, and other abuses. Epps was charged with receiving $1.47 million in bribes and kickbacks, related to $800 million worth of state contracts made over about a decade. Both Epps and McCrory pleaded guilty in 2015 and cooperated with investigators on identifying others responsible. Eight other indictments followed, with one waived and more expected. Defendants include consultant and businessman Robert Simmons, who was sentenced to 87 months; former mayor of Walnut Grove, Mayor William Grady Sims, who was prosecuted earlier and sentenced to 7 months; former legislator and Republican businessman Sam Waggoner, former Harrison County Supervisor William Martin, who committed suicide before arraignment; former Alcorn County warden and Democratic state Senator Irb Benjamin, Dr. Carl Reddix, Terese Malone, Mark Longoria, and Guy "Butch" Evans. On February 8, 2017, Mississippi Attorney General, Democrat Jim Hood, announced he had filed civil cases against 15 corporations (including those that had operated Walnut Grove Youth Correctional Facility and had provided other services to prisons) and numerous individuals who had engaged in contracts with the MDOC and Epps, seeking damages and punitive damages. Hood said, These individuals and corporations that benefited by stealing from taxpayers must not only pay the state's losses, but state law requires that they must also forfeit and return the entire amount of the contracts paid by the state. We are also seeking punitive damages to punish these conspirators and to deter those who might consider giving or receiving kickbacks in the future." Besides Teresa Malone and Carl Reddix, the defendants included Michael Reddix; Andrew Jenkins; Management & Training Corporation; The GEO Group, Inc.; Cornell Companies, Inc.; Wexford Health Sources, Inc.; The Bantry Group Corporation; AdminPros, L.L.C.; CGL Facility Management, LLC; Mississippi Correctional Management, Inc.; Branan Medical Corporation; Drug Testing Corporation; Global Tel*Link Corporation; Health Assurance, LLC; Keefe Commissary Network, LLC of St. Louis; Sentinel Offender Services, L.L.C. and AJA Management & Technical Services, Inc. Commissioner appointments In March 2017, Pelicia E. Hall was appointed by Governor Phil Bryant as Commissioner; she is the first woman to hold this position. An attorney, she has extensive criminal justice and private law experience. In 2020 Burl Cain became the commissioner. Divisions Division of Institutions: Operates prisons Agricultural Enterprises: Oversees agricultural operations at the Mississippi State Penitentiary (MSP) and South Mississippi Correctional Institution (SMCI). The majority of MDOC's farming occurs at MSP. Division of Classification & Offender Services: Assigns prisoners to security classifications Community Corrections Division: Supervises parole and probation Operations Before going to their assigned facilities and after their transfer from county jails, most prison inmates are sent to the Reception & Classification Center (R&C) in the Central Mississippi Correctional Facility (CMCF) in Rankin County to be classified according to behavior level and assessed for treatment. The classification process takes around 30 days. Most male inmates who are sentenced to MDOC by the courts or who are returned to MDOC as parole violators, probation violators, intensive supervision program (ISP) (house arrest) violators, earned release supervision (ERS) violators, and suspension violators are placed at R&C. All women inmates who are sentenced to MDOC by the courts or who are returned to MDOC as parole violators, probation violators, ISP violators, ERS violators, and suspension violators are placed in 1A or 2B at CMCF. Male death row inmates transferred from county jails immediately are sent to the Mississippi State Penitentiary, the location of the male death row. Each prisoner receives a security classification. The classifications are: Minimum (Community) Minimum (Non-Community) Medium Close Death Row In November 2014, media reports indicated the department housed each prisoner at a cost of about $42.12 per day, one of the lowest costs in the nation. Health care The system's chief medical officer is Gloria Perry. She has been in that position since 2008. She is certified in family-practice. MDOC contracts with Centurion of Mississippi, LLC. Previously, MDOC contracted with Wexford Health Sources, Inc., headquartered in Green Tree, Pennsylvania, near Pittsburgh. Wexford provides medical services to inmates at state-operated facilities. Each privately operated facility has its own contracted medical services provider. Wexford was awarded the $95 million MDOC contract in 2006. Previously MDOC contracted with Correctional Medical Services (CMS), headquartered in Creve Coeur, Missouri, near St. Louis. CMS's contract began on July 1, 2003. Intensive Supervision Program MDOC's Intensive Supervision Program (ISP) is the authority's house arrest program. Death row MDOC performs executions at the Mississippi State Penitentiary. Male death row offenders are housed in the Mississippi State Penitentiary, while female death row offenders are housed in the Central Mississippi Correctional Facility. Conjugal and family visits The Mississippi state prison system ended conjugal visits in February 2014. The commissioner at the time, Chris Epps, argued that the possibility of creating single parents and the expenses were the reasons why conjugal visits ended. Employment programs Previously MDOC contracted prisoners to local and county governments, in essence paying a subsidy to the jurisdictions to manage the prisoners. The prisoners, often classified as trusties, would get reductions in their sentences in exchange for doing work. On April 30, 2015 MDOC stated that it would end this program and save $3.2 million per year. Many jurisdictions have complained they will be unable to replace the labor of the prisoners. Costs of state prisons In 2014, media reported that Commissioner Chris Epps had said that the department housed each prisoner at a cost of about $42.12 per day, one of the lowest costs in the nation. He also noted that the state's recidivism rate was among the "lowest in the nation." But, the state spends more than $15,000 annually for each prisoner, about three times what it spends for each school student. In 2013, the agency budget for prisons was about $389 million, according to the Brookings Institution. Journalist Jerry Mitchell explored the consensus by experts who have found that the state could keep more people out of prison by stressing good education from a young age, and recommended improving schools in poor rural areas rather than building prisons. African Americans are incarcerated at a rate three times that of whites in the state but could be helped by good education from a young age. Prison guards start at just twelve dollars an hour. They receive just six week's training. Recidivism Nationwide, the Bureau of Justice Statistics (of the US Department of Justice) says that about three-quarters of those released from prison are arrested again in the next five years. That figure spans a wide range of actions for which a person may be arrested. Mississippi measures its recidivism differently: whether a person released from prison is convicted of another crime and imprisoned within three years. Based on those criteria, its recidivism rate is about 33%. Its parolees have had considerable success after the state officials adopted a risk assessment instrument in 2009, to evaluate which candidates for parole under a new law designed to reduce the prison population of persons convicted of non-violent crime. Demographics As of September 1, 2008, the Mississippi Department of Corrections has 26,274 inmates in its custody. 17,677 (67.28%) are Black, 8,269 (31.47%) are White, 236 (0.9%) are Hispanic, 43 (.16%) are Asian, 27 (.01%) are Native American, and 22 (.06%) have that data unavailable. Of the 23,692 male inmates, 16,366 (69.08%) are Black, 7,030 (29.67%) are White, 222 (.94%) are Hispanic, 35 (.15%) are Asian, 23 (.1%) are Native American, and 16 (.07%) have that data unavailable. Of the 2,582 female inmates, 1,311 (50.77%) are Black, 1,239 (47.99%) are White, 14 (.54%) are Hispanic, 8 (.31%) are Asian, 4 (.15%) are Native American, and 6 (.23%) have that data unavailable. Facilities State prisons These were constructed in unincorporated areas: Central Mississippi Correctional Facility (Rankin County) Delta Correctional Facility Marshall County Correctional Facility Mississippi State Penitentiary (Sunflower County, formerly known as Parchman Farm) South Mississippi Correctional Institution (Greene County) Walnut Grove Correctional Facility Joint county/regional Bolivar County Correctional Facility Carroll-Montgomery County/Regional Correctional Facility George-Greene County/Regional Correctional Facility Holmes-Humphreys County/Regional Correctional Facility Issaquena County Correctional Facility Jefferson-Franklin County/Regional Correctional Facility Kemper-Neshoba County/Regional Correctional Facility Leake County Correctional Facility Marion-Walthall County/Regional Correctional Facility Stone County Correctional Facility Winston-Choctaw County/Regional Correctional Facility Private prisons Since 2012, MDOC has reduced the number of prisoners it has in private prisons due to an overall reduction of prisoners in the state, aided by changes to sentencing and parole laws in 2008 and 2014. As of March 2017, three private prisons hold Mississippi prisoners: East Mississippi Correctional Facility (EMCF) -(unincorporated Lauderdale County) - Operated since July 2012 on a 10-year contract by Management and Training Corporation (MTC), which replaced GEO Group. East Mississippi is the state's main "special needs" facility (for inmates with disabilities and/or severe mental illness). Marshall County Correctional Facility (MCCF)- Operated by GEO Group until June 2012; now under 10-yr contract to MTC. Wilkinson County Correctional Center (WCCC) - Operated by CCA through early 2013; since 2013 by MTC. The remaining three are closed for MDOC operations. Delta Correctional Facility (Greenwood) - Opened, formerly operated by Corrections Corporation of America (CCA) - Facility suspended January 2012 Tallahatchie County Correctional Facility (in unincorporated Tallahatchie County) - Opened, operated by Corrections Corporation of America (CCA); as of January 2017 holding no Mississippi inmates, but prisoners from California. Walnut Grove Correctional Facility Walnut Grove, (formerly the Walnut Grove Youth Correctional Facility) - Opened 2001 and operated by Cornell Corrections 2003–2010, then GEO Group until June 2012. Operated as an adult facility under 10-yr contract by MTC July 2012-September 16, 2016, when it was closed. Prisoner rules Men may have hair that is not more than in length. Men may have beards and goatees up to in length. Prisoner uniforms Most prisoner outfits are striped. As of 1997, green stripes indicate lower security prisoners, black stripes indicate prisoners with a level higher than the ones with green stripes, and red stripes indicate high security prisoners. Reception and Classification Center inmates wear yellow jumpsuits. Condemned prisoners are required to wear red jumpsuits. Fallen officers Since the establishment of the Mississippi Department of Corrections, six officers have died in the line of duty. Media campaigns The New Jersey Department of Corrections, the state prison system of New Jersey, established the "Be Smart Choose Freedom" television advertisement campaign in 2005. The State of New Jersey produced 30–60 second public service announcements to warn state residents against going to prison. MDOC decided to start its own "Be Smart Choose Freedom" campaign and use the commercials that aired in New Jersey. See also List of law enforcement agencies in Mississippi List of United States state correction agencies List of U.S. state prisons Prison References Further reading Gray, Steven. "Why Mississippi Is Reversing Its Prison Policy." TIME. Friday June 10, 2011. C==External links== Mississippi Department of Corrections Mississippi Prison Industries Mississippi Parole Board State law enforcement agencies of Mississippi State corrections departments of the United States Lists of United States state prisons 1976 establishments in Mississippi
402344	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galicia%20%28Eastern%20Europe%29	Galicia (Eastern Europe)	Galicia ( ; , ; , ; ) is a historical and geographic region spanning what is now southeastern Poland and western Ukraine, long part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. It covers much of the other historic regions of Red Ruthenia (centered on Lviv) and Lesser Poland (centered on Kraków). The name of the region derives from the medieval city of Halych, and was first mentioned in Hungarian historical chronicles in the year 1206 as Galiciæ. The eastern part of the region was controlled by the medieval Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia before it was annexed by the Kingdom of Poland in 1352 and became part of the Ruthenian Voivodeship. During the partitions of Poland, it was incorporated into a crown land of the Austrian Empire – the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. The nucleus of historic Galicia lies within the modern regions of western Ukraine: the Lviv, Ternopil, and Ivano-Frankivsk oblasts near Halych. In the 18th century, territories that later became part of the modern Polish regions of the Lesser Poland Voivodeship, Subcarpathian Voivodeship, and Silesian Voivodeship were added to Galicia after the collapse of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Eastern Galicia became contested ground between Poland and Ruthenia in medieval times and was fought over by Austria-Hungary and Russia during World War I and also Poland and Ukraine in the 20th century. In the 10th century, several cities were founded there, such as Volodymyr and Jaroslaw, whose names mark their connections with the Grand Princes of Kiev. There is considerable overlap between Galicia and Podolia (to the east) as well as between Galicia and south-west Ruthenia, especially in a cross-border region (centred on Carpathian Ruthenia) inhabited by various nationalities and religious groups. Origins and variations of the name The name of the region in the local languages is: ; romanized: Halychyna; ; ; Czech and ; ; ; ; . Some historians speculated that the name had to do with a group of people of Thracian origin (i.e. Getae) who during the Iron Age moved into the area after the Roman conquest of Dacia in 106 CE and may have formed the Lypytsia culture with the Venedi people who moved into the region at the end of La Tène period. The Lypytsia culture supposedly replaced the existing Thracian Hallstatt (see Thraco-Cimmerian) and Vysotske cultures. A connection with Celtic peoples supposedly explains the relation of the name "Galicia" to many similar place names found across Europe and Asia Minor, such as ancient or Gaul (modern France, Belgium, and northern Italy), Galatia (in Asia Minor), the Iberian Peninsula's Galicia, and Romanian . Some other scholars assert that the name Halych has Slavic origins – from halytsa, meaning "a naked (unwooded) hill", or from halka which means "jackdaw". (The jackdaw featured as a charge in the city's coat of arms and later also in the coat of arms of Galicia-Lodomeria. The name, however, predates the coat of arms, which may represent canting or simply folk etymology). Although Ruthenians drove out the Hungarians from Halych-Volhynia by 1221, Hungarian kings continued to add to their official titles. In 1349, in the course of the Galicia–Volhynia Wars, King Casimir III the Great of Poland conquered the major part of Galicia and put an end to the independence of this territory. Upon the conquest Casimir adopted the following title: Casimir by the grace of God king of Poland and Rus (Ruthenia), lord and heir of the land of Kraków, Sandomierz, Sieradz, Łęczyca, Kuyavia, Pomerania (Pomerelia). . Under the Jagiellonian dynasty (Kings of Poland from 1386 to 1572), the Kingdom of Poland revived and reconstituted its territories. In place of historic Galicia there appeared the Ruthenian Voivodeship. In 1526, after the death of Louis II of Hungary, the Habsburgs inherited the Hungarian claims to the titles of the Kingship of Galicia and Lodomeria, together with the Hungarian crown. In 1772 the Habsburg Empress Maria Theresa, Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary, used those historical claims to justify her participation in the First Partition of Poland. In fact, the territories acquired by Austria did not correspond exactly to those of former Halych-Volhynia – the Russian Empire took control of Volhynia to the north-east, including the city of Volodymyr-Volynskyi () – after which Lodomeria was named. On the other hand, much of Lesser Poland – and (1772–1918), (1772–1809), (1795–1809), and (1846–1918) – became part of Austrian Galicia. Moreover, despite the fact that Austria's claim derived from the historical Hungarian crown, "Galicia and Lodomeria" were not officially assigned to Hungary, and after the of 1867, the territory found itself in Cisleithania, or the Austrian-administered part of Austria-Hungary. The full official name of the new Austrian territory was the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria with the Duchies of and Zator. After the incorporation of the Free City of Kraków in 1846, it was extended to Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, and the Grand Duchy of Kraków with the Duchies of Auschwitz and Zator (). Each of those entities was formally separate; they were listed as such in the Austrian emperor's titles, each had its distinct coat-of-arms and flag. For administrative purposes, however, they formed a single province. The duchies of Auschwitz () and Zator were small historical principalities west of , on the border with Prussian Silesia. Lodomeria, under the name Volhynia, remained under the rule of the Russian Empire – see Volhynian Governorate. History In Roman times, the region was populated by various tribes of Celto-Germanic admixture, including Celtic-based tribes, the Lugians, Cotini, Vandals and Goths (the Przeworsk and Púchov cultures). During the Migration Period, a variety of nomadic groups invaded the area. The East Slavic tribes White Croats and Tivertsi dominated the area since the 6th century until it was annexed to Kievan Rus' in the 10th century. In the 12th century, a Rurikid Principality of Halych (Halicz, Halics, Galich, Galic) formed, which merged at the end of the century with neighbouring Volhynia into the Kingdom of Ruthenia. Galicia and Volhynia had originally been two separate Rurikid principalities, assigned on a rotating basis to younger members of the Kievan dynasty. The line of Prince Roman the Great of Volodymyr had held the principality of Volhynia, while the line of Yaroslav Osmomysl held the Principality of Halych. Galicia–Volhynia was created following the death in 1198 or 1199 (and without a recognised heir in the paternal line) of the last Prince of Galicia, Vladimir II Yaroslavich; Roman acquired the Principality of Galicia and united his lands into one state. Roman's successors would mostly use Halych (Galicia) as the designation of their combined kingdom. In Roman's time Galicia–Volhynia's principal cities were Halych and Volodymyr. In 1204, Roman captured Kyiv in alliance with Poland, signed a peace treaty with the Kingdom of Hungary and established diplomatic relations with the Byzantine Empire. In 1205, Roman turned against his Polish allies, leading to a conflict with Leszek the White and Konrad of Masovia. Roman was killed in the Battle of Zawichost (1205), and Galicia–Volhynia entered a period of rebellion and chaos, becoming an arena of rivalry between Poland and Hungary. King Andrew II of Hungary styled himself , Latin for "king of Galicia and Vladimir [in-Volhynia]", a title that later was adopted in the House of Habsburg. In a compromise agreement made in 1214 between Hungary and Poland, the throne of Galicia–Volhynia was given to Andrew's son, Coloman of Lodomeria. In 1352, when the principality was divided between Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the territory became subject to the Polish Crown. With the Union of Lublin in 1569, Poland and Lithuania merged to form the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which lasted for 200 years until conquered and divided up by Russia, Prussia, and Austria in the 1772 partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The south-eastern part of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was awarded to the Habsburg Empress Maria-Theresa, whose bureaucrats named it the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, after one of the titles of the princes of Hungary, although its borders coincided but roughly with those of the former medieval principality. Known informally as Galicia, it became the largest, most populous, and northernmost province of the Austrian Empire. After 1867 it was part of the Austrian half of Austria-Hungary, until the dissolution of the monarchy at the end of World War I in 1918. During the First World War, Galicia saw heavy fighting between the forces of the Russian Empire and the Central Powers, on the Eastern Front of World War I. The Russian forces overran most of the region in 1914 after defeating the Austro-Hungarian army in a chaotic frontier battle in the opening months of the war. They were in turn pushed out in the spring and summer of 1915 by a combined German/Austro-Hungarian offensive. In 1918, Western Galicia became a part of the restored Republic of Poland, which absorbed the Lemko-Rusyn Republic. The local Ukrainian population declared the independence of Eastern Galicia as the short-lived West Ukrainian People's Republic. During the Polish-Soviet War, the Soviets tried to establish the puppet-state of the Galician SSR in East Galicia, but the territory was then conquered by the Poles. The 1921 Peace of Riga confirmed Galicia's status as part of the Second Polish Republic. Although never accepted as legitimate by some Ukrainian nationalists, this was ratified by the Conference of Ambassadors on 14 March 1923 and internationally recognized on 15 May 1923. The Ukrainians of Eastern Galicia and the neighbouring province of Volhynia made up about 12% of the Polish Republic's population, and were its largest minority. As Polish government policies were discriminatory towards minorities, tensions between the Polish government and the Ukrainian population grew, eventually giving rise to the militant underground Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists. People In 1773, Galicia had about 2.6 million inhabitants in 280 cities and market towns and approximately 5,500 villages. There were nearly 19,000 noble families, with 95,000 members (about 3% of the population). The serfs accounted for 1.86 million, more than 70% of the population. A small number were full-time farmers, but by far the overwhelming number (84%) had only smallholdings or no possessions. Galicia had arguably the most ethnically diverse population of all the countries in the Austrian monarchy, consisting mainly of Poles and "Ruthenians"; the peoples known later as Ukrainians and Rusyns, as well as ethnic Jews, Germans, Armenians, Czechs, Slovaks, Hungarians, Roma and others. In Galicia as a whole, the population in 1910 was estimated to be 45.4% Polish, 42.9% Ruthenian, 10.9% Jewish, and 0.8% German. This population was not evenly distributed. The Poles lived mainly in the west, with the Ruthenians predominant in the eastern region ("Ruthenia"). At the turn of the twentieth century, Poles constituted 88% of the whole population of Western Galicia and Jews 7.5%. The respective data for Eastern Galicia show the following numbers: Ruthenians 64.5%, Poles 22.0%, Jews 12%. Of the 44 administrative divisions of Austrian eastern Galicia, Lviv (, ) was the only one in which Poles made up a majority of the population. Anthropologist Marianna Dushar has argued that this diversity led to a development of a distinctive food culture in the region. The Polish language was historically predominant throughout Galicia. According to the 1910 census, 58.6% of Galicia spoke Polish as its mother tongue, compared to 40.2% who spoke a Ruthenian language. The number of Polish-speakers may have been inflated because Jews were not given the option of listing Yiddish as their language. Eastern Galicia was the most diverse part of the region, and one of the most diverse areas in Europe at the time. In 1910, Eastern Galicia had 5.3 million inhabitants, with 39.8% being Polish and 58.9% Ruthenian. The Galician Jews immigrated in the Middle Ages from Germany. German-speaking people were more commonly referred to by the region of Germany where they originated (such as Saxony or Swabia). For those who spoke different native languages, e.g. Poles and Ruthenians, identification was less problematic, and the widespread multilingualism blurred ethnic divisions. Religiously, Galicia is predominantly Catholic, and Catholicism is practiced in two rites. Poles are Roman Catholic, while Ukrainians belong to the Greek Catholic Church. Other Christians belong to one of the Ukrainian Orthodox Churches. Until the Holocaust, Judaism was widespread, and Galicia was the center of Hasidism. Economy The new state borders cut Galicia off from many of its traditional trade routes and markets of the Polish sphere, resulting in stagnation of economic life and decline of Galician towns. Lviv lost its status as a significant trade center. After a short period of limited investments, the Austrian government started the fiscal exploitation of Galicia and drained the region of manpower through conscription to the imperial army. The Austrians decided that Galicia should not develop industrially but remain an agricultural area that would serve as a supplier of food products and raw materials to other Habsburg provinces. New taxes were instituted, investments were discouraged, and cities and towns were neglected. The result was significant poverty in Austrian Galicia. Galicia was the poorest province of Austro-Hungary, and according to Norman Davies, could be considered "the poorest province in Europe". Oil and natural gas industry Near Drohobych and Boryslav in Galicia, significant oil reserves were discovered and developed during the mid 19th and early 20th centuries. The first European attempt to drill for oil was in Bóbrka in western Galicia in 1854. By 1867, a well at Kleczany, in Western Galicia, was drilled using steam to about 200 meters. On 31 December 1872, a railway line linking Borysław (now Boryslav) with the nearby city of Drohobycz (now Drohobych) was opened. British engineer John Simeon Bergheim and Canadian William Henry McGarvey came to Galicia in 1882. In 1883, their company bored holes of 700 to 1,000 meters and found large oil deposits. In 1885, they renamed their oil developing enterprise the Galician-Karpathian Petroleum Company (), headquartered in Vienna, with McGarvey as the chief administrator and Bergheim as a field engineer, and built a huge refinery at Maryampole near Gorlice, south of Tarnow. Considered the biggest, most efficient enterprise in Austro-Hungary, Maryampole was built in six months and employed 1,000 men. Subsequently, investors from Britain, Belgium, and Germany established companies to develop the oil and natural gas industries in Galicia. This influx of capital caused the number of petroleum enterprises to shrink from 900 to 484 by 1884, and to 285 companies manned by 3,700 workers by 1890. However, the number of oil refineries increased from thirty-one in 1880 to fifty-four in 1904. By 1904, there were thirty boreholes in Borysław of over 1,000 meters. Production increased by 50% between 1905 and 1906 and then trebled between 1906 and 1909 because of unexpected discoveries of vast oil reserves of which many were gushers. By 1909, production reached its peak at 2,076,000 tons or 4% of worldwide production. Often called the "Polish Baku", the oil fields of Borysław and nearby Tustanowice accounted for over 90% of the national oil output of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. From 500 residents in the 1860s, Borysław had swollen to 12,000 by 1898. At the turn of the century, Galicia was ranked fourth in the world as an oil producer. This significant increase in oil production also caused a slump in oil prices. A very rapid decrease in oil production in Galicia occurred just before the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913. Galicia was the Central Powers' only major domestic source of oil during the Great War. Ethnic groups Mountain Dwellers (larger kinship group): Żywczaki or Gorals of Żywiec (pl: górale żywieccy), Babiogórcy or Gorals of Babia Góra, Gorals of Rabka or Zagórzanie, Kliszczaki, Gorals in Podhale (pl: górale podhalańscy), Gorals of Nowy Targ or Nowotarżanie, Górale pienińscy or Gorals of Pieniny and Górale sądeccy (Gorals of Nowy Sącz), Gorals of Spisz or Gardłaki, Kurtacy or Czuchońcy (Lemkos, Rusnaks), Boykos (Werchowyńcy), Tucholcy, Hutsuls (Czarnogórcy). Dale Dwellers (larger kinship group): Krakowiacy, Mazury, Grębowiacy (Lesowiacy or Borowcy), Głuchoniemcy, Bełżanie, Bużanie (Łopotniki, Poleszuki), Opolanie, Wołyniacy, Pobereżcy or Nistrowianie. See also Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria Subdivisions of Galicia Bukovina Podolia West Ukrainian People's Republic Galician Soviet Socialist Republic History of the Jews in Galicia (Eastern Europe) District of Galicia Lesser Poland List of rulers of Halych and Volhynia List of Galician rulers List of towns of the former Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia Distrikt Galizien Galatia Galician Russophilia Galician Americans Notes References Citations Sources {{cite book \|last=Berend \|first=Nora \|year=2006\|title=At the Gate of Christendom: Jews, Muslims and "Pagans" in Medieval Hungary, c. 1000-c.1300 \|publisher=Cambridge University Press \|isbn=978-0-521-02720-5}} Further reading Dohrn, Verena. Journey to Galicia, (S. Fischer, 1991), Frank, Alison Fleig. Oil Empire: Visions of Prosperity in Austrian Galicia (Harvard University Press, 2005). A new monograph on the history of the Galician oil industry in both the Austrian and European contexts. Christopher Hann and Paul Robert Magocsi, eds., Galicia: A Multicultured Land (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2005). A collection of articles by John Paul Himka, Yaroslav Hrytsak, Stanislaw Stepien, and others. Paul Robert Magocsi, Galicia: A Historical Survey and Bibliographic Guide (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1983). Concentrates on the historical, or Eastern Galicia. Andrei S. Markovits and Frank E. Sysyn, eds., Nationbuilding and the Politics of Nationalism: Essays on Austrian Galicia (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1982). Contains an important article by Piotr Wandycz on the Poles, and an equally important article by Ivan L. Rudnytsky on the Ukrainians. A.J.P. Taylor, The Habsburg Monarchy 1809–1918, 1941, discusses Habsburg policy toward ethnic minorities. Wolff, Larry. The Idea of Galicia: History and Fantasy in Habsburg Political Culture (Stanford University Press; 2010) 504 pages. Examines the role in history and cultural imagination of a province created by the 1772 partition of Poland that later disappeared, in official terms, in 1918. Grzegorz Hryciuk, Liczba i skład etniczny ludności tzw. Galicji Wschodniej w latach 1931–1959'', [Number and Ethnic Composition of the People of so-called Eastern Galicia 1931–1959] Lublin 1996 External links Jewish Encyclopedia 1902 map of the oilfields in Galicia Regions of Europe Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia Historical regions in Poland Historical regions in Ukraine Historical regions in the Kingdom of Hungary Carpathians Historic Jewish communities Lesser Poland Place name etymologies Rusyn communities
402345	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean%20Baptiste%20Charbonneau	Jean Baptiste Charbonneau	Jean Baptiste Charbonneau (February 11, 1805 – May 16, 1866) was a Native American-French Canadian explorer, guide, fur trapper, trader, military scout during the Mexican–American War, alcalde (mayor) of Mission San Luis Rey de Francia and a gold digger and hotel operator in Northern California. His mother was Sacagawea, a Shoshone Native who worked as a guide and interpreter for the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Charbonneau spoke French and English and learned German and Spanish during his six years in Europe from 1823 to 1829. He spoke Shoshone and other western Native American languages, which he picked up during his years of trapping and guiding. Jean Baptiste's father was also a member of the Lewis and Clark expedition, a French Canadian explorer and trader named Toussaint Charbonneau. Jean Baptiste was born at Fort Mandan in North Dakota. In his early childhood, he accompanied his parents as they traveled across the country. The expedition co-leader William Clark nicknamed the boy Pompey ("Pomp" or "Little Pomp"). After the death of his mother, he lived with Clark in St. Louis, Missouri, where he attended St. Louis Academy. Clark paid for his education. Sacagawea and Toussaint Charbonneau also had a second child, a daughter named Lizette Charbonneau; however, because she receives only occasional mention in Clark's papers, her life remains unclear beyond her third birthday. Jean Baptiste and Sacagawea appear on the United States Sacagawea dollar coin. He is the second child depicted on United States currency. Pompeys Pillar on the Yellowstone River in Montana and the community of Charbonneau, Oregon are named for him. Childhood Lewis and Clark Expedition Jean Baptiste Charbonneau was born to Sacagawea, a Shoshone, and her husband, the French Canadian trapper Toussaint Charbonneau, in early 1805 at Fort Mandan in North Dakota. This was during the Lewis and Clark Expedition, which wintered there in 1804–05. The senior Charbonneau had been hired by the expedition as an interpreter and, learning that his pregnant wife was Shoshone, the captains, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, agreed to bring her along. They knew they would need to negotiate with the Shoshone for horses at the headwaters of the Missouri River. Meriwether Lewis noted the boy's birth in his journal: The infant traveled from North Dakota to the Pacific Ocean and back, carried along in the expedition's boats or upon his mother's back. His presence is often credited by historians with assuring native tribes of the expedition's peaceful intentions, as they believed that no war party would travel with a woman and child. After the expedition In April 1807, about a year after the end of the expedition, the Charbonneau family moved to St. Louis, at Clark's invitation. Toussaint Charbonneau and Sacagawea departed for the Mandan villages in April 1809 and left the boy to live with Clark. In November 1809, the parents returned to St. Louis to try farming, but left again in April 1811. Jean Baptiste continued to reside with Clark. Clark's two-story home, built in 1818, contained an illuminated museum long by wide. Its walls were decorated with national flags and life-size portraits of George Washington and the Marquis de Lafayette, Native artifacts, and mounted animal heads. Upon visiting the museum, Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, a geologist and ethnographer, wrote: As a boy, Charbonneau learned from the vast collection. Clark paid for Charbonneau's education at St. Louis Academy, a Jesuit Catholic school (now called St. Louis University High School), although the expense was considerable for the time. The school's single classroom was then located in the storehouse of Clark's friend, the trader Joseph Robidoux. Brothers James and George Kennerly paid for Charbonneau's supplies for 1820 and were reimbursed by Clark. From June through September 1820 and in 1822, Jean Baptiste boarded with Louis Tesson Honoré, a Clark family friend and member of his church, Christ Episcopal. The general had helped organize the church in 1819. They lived in St. Ferdinand Township in St. Louis County, Missouri near Charbonneau's father's of land. Adult life On June 21, 1823, at age eighteen, Charbonneau met Duke Friedrich Paul Wilhelm of Württemberg, the nephew of King Friedrich I Wilhelm Karl of Württemberg. Charbonneau was working at a Kaw trading post on the Kansas River near present-day Kansas City, Kansas. Wilhelm was traveling in America on a natural history expedition to the northern plains with Jean Baptiste's father as his guide. On October 9, 1823, he invited the younger Charbonneau to return to Europe with him, which was agreed upon. The two set sail on the Smyrna from St. Louis in December 1823. Jean Baptiste lived at the duke's palace in Württemberg for nearly six years, where he learned German and Spanish and improved his English and French. The latter was still the dominant language of St. Louis, which had first enabled his conversations with the Duke. According to a 1932 translation of Wilhelm's journal by the historian Louis C. Butscher, Wilhelm wrote that Charbonneau was "…a companion on all my travels over Europe and northern Africa until 1829." In 2001, Albert Furtwangler, PhD, questioned the accuracy of Butscher's German translation, noting two more recent translations of the duke's journals, and suggests that Charbonneau's role in Wilhelm's court may have been less intimate than Butscher's perhaps romanticized account implied. Charbonneau may have been hired as a servant, rather than invited as a companion. As support, he notes the apparent lack of further contact between the two men after Charbonneau's return to America. However, lack of contact in itself does not mean Charbonneau was a hired hand. Such an act may have been an insult to Clark, which the duke likely would have avoided. As with many aspects of his life, little is known for certain about Charbonneau's time in Europe. Children Parish records in Wuerttemberg show that while there, Charbonneau fathered a child with Anastasia Katharina Fries, a soldier's daughter. The baby, Anton Fries, died about three months after his birth. Nearly two decades later, while in California as an alcalde or magistrate, Charbonneau was recorded as being the father of another child. On May 4, 1848, Maria Catarina Charguana was born to her mother Margarita Sobin, a Luiseño people woman, and Charbonneau. Sobin, 23 at the time, traveled to Mission San Fernando Rey de España near Los Angeles for the infant girl's baptism, performed on May 28, 1848, and recorded by Father Blas Ordaz as entry #1884. Margarita Sobin later married Gregory Trujillo, and some of their descendants may be members of the La Jolla Band of Luiseño Indians. Trapper and hunter In November 1829, Charbonneau returned to St. Louis, where he was hired by Joseph Robidoux as a fur trapper for the American Fur Company, to work in Idaho and Utah. He attended the 1832 Pierre's Hole rendezvous while working for the Rocky Mountain Fur Company. There he fought in the bloodiest non-military conflict that preceded the Plains Indian wars, which began in 1854. From 1833–1840 Charbonneau worked in the fur trade in the Rocky Mountain Trapping System with other mountain men, such as Jim Bridger, James Beckwourth and Joe Meek. From 1840–42 he worked from Fort Saint Vrain, floating bison hides and tongues down the South Platte River to St. Louis. On one of the voyages, he camped with Captain John C. Frémont on his cartographic expedition. In 1843, he guided Sir William Drummond Stewart, a Scottish baronet, on his second long trip to the American West, which was a lavish hunting expedition. Seeking employment again, in 1844 Charbonneau went to Bent's Fort in Colorado, where he was a chief hunter, and worked also as a trader with southern Plains Indians. William Boggs, a traveler who met him, wrote that Charbonneau "…wore his hair long, [and] was…very high strung…" He reported, "…it was said Charbonneau (sic) was the best man on foot on the plains or in the Rocky Mountains." Mexican–American War In October 1846, Charbonneau, Antoine Leroux and Pauline Weaver were hired as scouts by General Stephen W. Kearny. Charbonneau's experience with military marches, such as with James William Abert in August 1845, along the Canadian River, and his fluency in Native languages qualified him for the position. Kearny directed him to join Colonel Philip St. George Cooke on an arduous march from Santa Fe, New Mexico, to San Diego, California, a distance of . Their mission was to build the first wagon road to Southern California and to guide some 20 huge Murphy supply wagons to the west coast for the military during the Mexican–American War. A contingent of soldiers made up of some 339 Mormon men and six Mormon women, known as the Mormon Battalion, were the builders of that new road over the uncharted southwest from Santa Fe to San Diego and Los Angeles. A memorial to the historic trek of the Mormon Battalion and their guide Charbonneau has been erected at the San Pedro River, north of the U.S.–Mexico border near the present-day town of Palominas, Arizona. Other monuments or historic markers are in Tucson, Arizona and in California at Box Canyon near Warner Springs, at Temecula, at Old Town San Diego and at Fort Moore in Los Angeles. Colonel Cooke's diary mentions Charbonneau some 29 times from November 16, 1846, to January 21, 1847. Eight of the twenty wagons reached Mission San Luis Rey de Francia, from today's Oceanside, California, and the leaders counted the expedition as a success. Cooke wrote of the Mormon Battalion, "History may be searched in vain for an equal march of infantry." Known as Cooke's Road or the Gila Trail but more currently known as the Mormon Battalion Trail, the wagon road was used by settlers, miners, stagecoaches of the Butterfield Stage line and cattlemen driving longhorns to feed the gold camps. Parts of the route became the Southern Pacific Railroad and U.S. Route 66. Currently, the Boy Scouts of America gives an award for those who hike sections of this historic trail. In February 1848, knowledge gained about the region was used as the basis of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which established the United States-Mexico border in December 1853, following the Mexican-American War. Alcalde In November 1847, Charbonneau accepted an appointment from Colonel John D. Stevenson as alcalde (mayor) at Mission San Luis Rey de Francia. This position made him the only civilian authority, a combined sheriff, lawyer and magistrate, in a post-war region covering about . From 1834–50, the lands were owned by rancheros through legally questionable land grants. The rancheros hired local Luiseño people to do agricultural work. Many functioned in virtual servitude, and some rancheros paid them only with liquor. Trying to correct abuses and also facilitate post-war control, in November 1847, Colonel Richard Barnes Mason, the territorial governor, ordered Charbonneau to force the sale of a large ranch owned by the powerful Jose Antonio Pico, whose family was politically connected. His brother Pio Pico had been the last governor of California under Mexico. On January 1, 1848, Mason banned the sale of liquor to Native Americans. Such ordinances attacked the foundation of ranchero power and ability to do business. Eventually, the changes led to United States civilian control of California. Although Charbonneau was assisted by Captain J. D. Hunter as he negotiated with Pico, he saw that local resistance would make enforcing Mason's orders difficult. Charbonneau resigned his post in August 1848 and was soon followed by Hunter. California statehood on September 9, 1850, ended the post-war difficulties. Gold mining In September 1848, Charbonneau arrived in Placer County, California at the American River, near what is now Auburn. Arriving early in what became known as the California Gold Rush, he joined only a handful of prospectors. Panning was not done during the hard Sierra Nevada winter or spring runoff, so in June 1849, he joined Jim Beckwourth and two others at a camp on Buckner's Bar to mine the river at the Big Crevice. This claim "…was shallow and paid well". Charbonneau lived at a site known as Secret Ravine, one of 12 ravines around Auburn. A successful miner, he kept working in the area for nearly sixteen years. A measure of his success was that Charbonneau could afford the mining region's highly inflated cost of living. For example, at a time when a good wage in the West was $30 per month, it cost $8–16 per day to live in Auburn. Transiency was high but Charbonneau was still there in 1860, working as the hotel manager at the Orleans Hotel in Auburn. By 1858, many miners had left the California fields for other gold rushes. In April 1866, he departed for other opportunities at age 61. He may have headed for Montana to prospect for gold, although sites such as at Silver City and DeLamar in Idaho Territory were much closer. Final Journey & Death It is not clear exactly why Charbonneau left Auburn, California, but the recessionary local economy was certainly a motivation. Before leaving he visited the Placer Herald newspaper and visited with an editor, who wrote later in his obituary, "...he was about [his purpose was] returning to familiar scenes". Some of those "familiar scenes" may have been where he had lived and worked as a mountain man east of the Great Basin. His destination also may have been the Owyhee Mountains, where rich placer deposits were discovered in May 1863. Or perhaps he sought to reach Alder Gulch near Virginia City, Montana, because it had produced $31 million in gold by late 1865. Other possible destinations were the Bannock, Montana gold strikes or—as noted above—the mines at Silver City (formerly Ruby City), Delamar or Boonville. His route and travel method likely took him on a stagecoach over Donner Summit and east along the well-traveled Humboldt River Trail to Winnemucca, Nevada, then north to the U.S. Army's Camp McDermitt at the Oregon border. Passing the camp in rugged terrain, the men reached an Owyhee River crossing at present-day Rome, Oregon, where an apparent accident occurred and Charbonneau went into the river. The accident's cause is unknown, but there are several possibilities. He may have been on a stagecoach operated by the Boise-Silver City-Winnemucca stage company that began its route in 1866 out of Camp McDermitt and in crossing the river, the coach sank. Or he may have been on horseback and fallen off the river bank or slipped out of the saddle while crossing. The Owyhee River in snow melt may have turned into whitewater. Other possibilities are he was injured on the land journey, inhaled alkali dust, or fell ill from drinking contaminated water. The ill Charbonneau was taken to Inskip Station in Danner, Oregon, built in 1865, about from the river and west of Jordan Valley. It is now a ghost town. The former stagecoach waystation, mail stop, and general store served travelers to Oregon and the California gold fields. It had its own well, and Charbonneau may have deteriorated from drinking the water. After his death there, his body was taken approximately north and buried. Charbonneau died at age 61 on May 16, 1866. A death notice was sent by an unknown writer, likely one of two fellow travelers on the journey east, to the Owyhee Avalanche newspaper and it said he died of pneumonia. This is the first documented evidence of his death. The Placer Herald obituary writer opined that he succumbed to the infamous "Mountain Fever", to which many illnesses in the West were attributed. Gravesite Memorial Charbonneau's gravesite, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973, sits on of land within sight of the Inskip Station ruins. (The site is also within half a mile of Danner's abandoned Anderson General Store, which is still intact.) Located amidst the Ruby Ranch grounds, the encircled memorial area was donated to Malheur County by the landowners for historic preservation, and features three historical markers within walking distance: In 1971, the Malheur County Daughters of the American Revolution placed a standing stone marker. In 1973, the Oregon Historical Society erected a second standing marker made of wood, which reads: In 2000, a third marker was dedicated in bronze by an Idaho-based group which included descendants of the Lemhi Shoshone tribe. As the son of Sacagawea, a Northern Shoshone who lived in the Lemhi Valley, Charbonneau is considered one of their people. Also known as the Jordan Valley Hamlet Cemetery, the interment site itself is additionally host to five other graves from the late 1880s. A plaque laid nearby at Inskip Station lists their names beside that of "J.B. Charbonneau", along with the inscription: Disputed Timelines Earlier in the twentieth century, Dr Grace Raymond Hebard of the University of Wyoming, a political economist, not a historian or anthropologist, argued that Charbonneau died and was buried at the Shoshone Wind River Indian Reservation in Wyoming. Dr. Charles Eastman, a Santee Sioux and not of the Shoshone language group, did research that attempted to establish that Charbonneau's mother Sacagawea died at the reservation on April 9, 1884. Some believe that Charbonneau died in 1885 and was buried next to her. Memorials in their names were erected in 1933 at nearby Fort Washakie. Eastman did his research in 1924–25, interpreting oral history. But his translation has been superseded by documentary evidence for both Charbonneau and Sacagawea. In 1964, an edited nineteenth-century journal was published stating that Sacagawea died much earlier, on December 20, 1812, of a "putrid fever" (possible following childbirth) at Fort Lisa on the Missouri River. Four 19th-century documents support this earlier date, including a statement by William Clark years after the 1805–07 Lewis and Clark expedition that "Sacajawea was dead." Legacy and honors Charbonneau's image appears with that of his mother in the United States Sacagawea dollar coin. He was the second infant to be depicted on U.S. currency, after Virginia Dare on the 1937 Roanoke half-dollar. The portrait design is unusual, as the copyrights have been assigned to and are owned by the United States Mint. Therefore the portrait is not in the public domain, as most U.S. coin designs are. Pompeys Pillar on the Yellowstone River in Montana and the community of Charbonneau, Oregon are named after him. A memorial plaque was established in his honor under the cedar tree near the Old Fire House in Old Town, Auburn, California. See also Santa Ysabel Asistencia Notes References Further reading Colby, Susan (2005). Sacagawea's Child: The Life and Times of Jean-Baptiste (Pomp) Charbonneau. Spokane: Arthur H. Clarke (University of Oklahoma Press). Kartunnen, Frances (1994). Between Worlds: Interpreters, Guides, and Survivors. Rutgers: Rutgers University Press. Moulton, Gary, ed (2003). The Lewis and Clark Journals: An American Epic of Discovery. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Ritter, Michael (2011, revised) Jean Baptiste Charbonneau, Man of Two Worlds. Charleston: CreateSpace. 1805 births 1866 deaths Sacagawea People of the California Gold Rush People of the American Old West Lewis and Clark Expedition people Malheur County, Oregon Mountain men Burials in Oregon Deaths from pneumonia in Oregon American Métis people People from Auburn, California Wind River Indian Reservation
402384	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Bataan%20%28CVL-29%29	USS Bataan (CVL-29)	USS Bataan (CVL-29/AVT-4), originally planned as USS Buffalo (CL-99) and also classified as CV-29, was an 11,000 ton light aircraft carrier which was commissioned in the United States Navy during World War II on 17 November 1943. Serving in the Pacific Theatre for the entire war, taking part in operations around New Guinea, the Invasion of the Mariana Islands, the Battle of the Philippine Sea, the Battle of Okinawa, and Attacks on the Japanese home islands. After World War II's end she was converted into an anti-submarine carrier and placed in reserve on 11 February 1947. She was reactivated on 13 May 1950 at Philadelphia in order to participate in the Korean War. After the war she returned to Pearl Harbor, and reported for a preinactivation overhaul on 26 August 1953. After moving to the San Francisco Naval Shipyard, Bataan was decommissioned on 9 April 1954 and assigned to the Pacific Reserve Fleet at San Francisco. Although she was reclassified an auxiliary aircraft transport and redesignated AVT-4 on 15 May 1959, her name was struck from the Navy List on 1 September 1959. She was sold to Nicolai Joffe Corp., Beverly Hills, California, on 19 June 1961 for scrapping. Design and construction The vessel that eventually became the light aircraft carrier Bataan was originally planned as the Buffalo (CL-99). Following the December 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor, the need for more carriers became urgent. In response, the Navy ordered the conversion of nine Cleveland-class light cruisers then under construction to completion as light aircraft carriers. These became known as the s. Thus, CL-99 was reclassified CV-29 and renamed Bataan on 2 June 1942. She was further reclassified as CVL-29 on 15 July 1943. Bataan displaced light and at full load. She had an overall length of and a waterline length of . Her extreme beam was and her beam at the waterline was . Her draft was maximum. For armament she was equipped with 24 Bofors 40 mm gun and 22 Oerlikon 20 mm cannon for anti-aircraft protection. She normally carried 30 aircraft. Her armor consisted of of belt armor, on the decks, and on the conning tower. She was powered by four Babcock & Wilcox steam boilers and General Electric geared turbines producing for her four screws. She had a design speed of and had a range of at . She normally carried a complement of 1569. The vessel was ordered 16 December 1940 as a light cruiser and reordered as a light aircraft carrier on 2 June 1942. She was laid down on 31 August 1942 and launched on 1 August 1943 at the New York Shipbuilding Corporation in Camden, New Jersey, sponsored by Mrs. Corinne DeForest Murray, wife of Rear Admiral George D. Murray. She was commissioned on 17 November 1943. Bataan was named after Bataan Peninsula and the Battle of Bataan where American and Filipino troops were besieged by Japanese forces from 24 December 1941 until 9 April 1942 when the remaining 78,000 troops surrendered to avoid unnecessary slaughter. Service history World War II After fitting out at Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, Bataan conducted preliminary shakedown training in Chesapeake Bay before sailing to the West Indies on 11 January 1944. Two days later, while en route to Trinidad, she suffered her first loss when a Grumman F6F Hellcat fighter crashed into her number 2 stack and burst into flames, killing three crewmen. Returning to Philadelphia on 14 February, she underwent post-shakedown repairs and inspections until 2 March when she got underway for the Pacific. Transiting the Panama Canal on 8 March, she arrived in San Diego on the 16th. Two days later, she sailed for Hawaii with her flight and hangar decks full with passengers, aircraft and cargo. Arriving at Pearl Harbor on 22 March, she conducted a week of pilot qualification drills in preparation for "forward area deployment". The warship lost her second aircraft on 31 March when a "Hellcat" crashed the landing barrier and went over the side, although the pilot survived without injury. Bataan departed Pearl Harbor on 4 April accompanied by her escorting destroyers and steamed to the Marshall Islands. She arrived at Majuro Atoll on 9 April and reported for duty with the fast carriers of Task Force 58 (TF 58) that same day. On 13 April, she sailed with the carriers , , and the rest of Task Group (TG) 58.1 for air operations against Hollandia, New Guinea (now known as Jayapura). These raids were intended to support American amphibious operations in the Humboldt Bay-Tanahmerah Bay region of New Guinea. On 21 April, Bataan launched five fighter sweeps to attack Japanese aircraft and ground installations on New Guinea. The pilots claimed hits on numerous buildings, flak guns, coastal barges and three aircraft on the ground. Meanwhile, the carrier's Combat Air Patrol (CAP) shot down a Mitsubishi G4M1 Betty bomber and a Mitsubishi Ki-21 Sally. The Task Group then headed north and struck the Japanese base at Truk Lagoon on 29 April. Bataan launched a fighter sweep and three bombing raids, with the Grumman/General Motors TBM Avenger torpedo bombers dropping of bombs on the Japanese base. One TBM Avenger was shot down during the attack, but the crew was rescued by submarine , which was engaged in lifeguard duty - patrolling for such survivors during the battle. On 30 April, Bataans task group turned toward Ponape (now Pohnpei), Caroline Islands; and, the next day, she flew CAP and Anti-Submarine Patrol (ASP) missions over the battleships bombarding that island. The warships then steamed to the Marshall Islands, arriving at Kwajalein lagoon on 4 May. Invasion of the Mariana Islands Bataan moved to Majuro on 14 May for repairs to her forward elevator but local repair crews could not fix the problem. She sailed to Pearl Harbor for repairs and returned to Majuro on 2 June. Once there, Bataan began hurried preparations for Operation Forager, the planned invasion of the Marianas. Tasked with neutralizing Japanese airfields in the Marianas, the 15 fleet carriers of TF 58 planned to attack Saipan, Guam, and nearby island groups. They also prepared for a major fleet battle in case the Japanese carriers attempted to interfere. Bataan joined Hornet, , and Belleau Wood in TG 58.1 and put to sea on 6 June. Five days later, Bataan launched fighters against the Japanese base on Rota in support of operations against Saipan. One section of four F6F Hellcats flying "rescue submarine cover patrol" near that island shot down three Mitsubishi A6M Zeke carrier fighters without American losses. Another F6F Hellcat, flying CAP over Bataan, shot down a Japanese Army Nakajima Ki-49 Helen bomber. That evening, TG 58.1 sailed south toward Guam. On 12 June, Bataan flew CAP and ASP over the task group while the three other carriers launched strikes at Orote air field on Guam. Her F6F Hellcats spotted two Japanese Yokosuka D4Y Judy bombers close to the task group and shot both down. Another attack of Rota on 13 June, Bataan aircraft concentrated on bombing Japanese antiaircraft gun positions and Piti Harbor. During recovery operations, a Curtiss SB2C Helldiver dive bomber jumped Bataans landing barrier and damaged four aircraft. The task group sailed for the Bonin Islands on the evening of 14 June. The task group was ordered to strike Iwo Jima and Chichi Jima in an effort to catch the airfields full of Japanese aircraft staging to the Marianas, fighter and bomber raids hit the islands on 15 June. Meanwhile, Bataans aircraft, flying CAP and ASP as usual, bombed and heavily damaged the Tatsutagawa Maru. On 16 June, after a morning fighter sweep over Iwo Jima, the task group received reports of a large Japanese force closing the Marianas from the Philippines. The planned afternoon strikes on Iwo Jima were canceled and Bataans task group hurried south to rejoin TF 58. Battle of the Philippine Sea Bataan and her task group rendezvoused with the other three fast carrier groups about noon on 18 June, approximately west of Saipan. On the morning of 19 June, while waiting to hear from dawn search missions, Bataan launched CAP and ASP aircraft to guard TG 58.1. At 0925, a TBM Avenger shot down a Nakajima A6M2-N Rufe seaplane fighter. Less than an hour later, starting at 1014, reports of multiple enemy raids caused the light carrier to launch all her available fighters. Over the next six hours, Bataans fighters helped break up four major raids, disrupting the Japanese attacks. Only one enemy formation approached TG 58.1 and only one out of the 16 torpedo bombers got close enough to be shot down by antiaircraft fire from the screening ships. The light carrier also sent a TBM Avenger strike against Rota around mid-day to help suppress Japanese land-based aircraft. During the first day of the Battle of the Philippine Sea, Bataans aircraft claimed 10 Japanese aircraft out of the approximately 300 enemy aircraft lost in the battle dubbed the "Great Marianas Turkey Shoot." On the morning of 20 June, Bataan launched CAP and ASP as normal and steamed west as the task force prepared for a second day of battle. The enemy carriers, however, had turned toward Japan the previous evening, and American search aircraft could not find them. The only activity for Bataans aircraft occurred at 1320 when a Hellcat splashed a lone Betty near the task group. Finally, upon hearing a sighting report at 1613, the light carrier launched 10 fighters to accompany a massive 206-aircraft strike. The raid, catching the retreating Japanese at dusk, sank and damaged another. The American aircraft then returned to their carriers, landing with difficulty in the darkness after the task force turned on its deck and search lights. Eventually, two of Yorktowns aircraft landed on Bataan, the second of which crashed and fouled the deck. Nine of Bataans own fighters landed on other carriers, and one was lost. After a futile search for the Japanese carriers on 22 June, the American task force turned back toward the Marianas. On 23 June, Bataans aircraft bombed Pagan Island, damaging the airfield and shooting down four Zekes and a Betty. That afternoon, TG 58.1 turned northwest toward the Bonin Islands, attempting to complete the attacks canceled on 16 June. Bataan launched 17 fighters for the attack on Iwo Jima at dawn on 24 June but these, and the 34 Hellcats from Yorktown and Hornet, met a Japanese incoming strike about halfway to the target. A second melee developed near the carriers when another Japanese raid met with task force's CAP. Bataans air group lost three aircraft in these battles but claimed 25 in return. The task group then retired toward the Marshalls, anchoring at Eniwetok on 27 June. The brief rest ended when the task group sailed back to the Bonins on 30 June. The task force's aircraft struck at Iwo Jima on 3 and 4 July, interdicting Japanese efforts to reinforce Guam. The warship's crew, however, suffered another loss on 4 July when an arresting gear cable snapped and killed one man and injured three others. In preparation for the landings planned for Guam in mid-July, Bataans aircraft conducted sweeps over Pagan Island on 5 July and then repeatedly bombed Guam from 6 to 11 July. On 12 July, her forward elevator failed permanently and she received orders to head home for repairs. She steamed by way of Eniwetok and Oahu before arriving in San Francisco on 30 July. Drydock refit and training Bataan entered the naval dry docks at Hunters Point on 30 July 1944 and, over the next two months, the yard workers repaired her elevator, painted the hull, and installed a second catapult, an air-search radar, deck lighting, rocket stowage, and a second aircraft landing barrier. She got underway for Hawaii on 7 October, arriving at Pearl Harbor on 13 October. Assigned to TG 19.5, Bataan spent the next four months preparing for operations against the Bonin and Ryukyu Islands which were the targets of invasions planned by the Americans for early 1945. Iwo Jima was needed to provide emergency airfields for B-29s bombing Japan from the Marianas and a base for their fighter escorts, while Okinawa was needed to support any future invasion of the Japanese home islands. Bataan spent most of November and December conducting pilot training exercises and night-fighter operations in Hawaiian waters. Seven aircraft were lost in accidents, including one Wildcat that crashed into her number 2 stack but only two pilots were injured. In January and February 1945, the focus of training operations shifted to night-fighter direction and ground-attack exercises. Accidents claimed another five aircraft, including a Vought F4U Corsair fighter that burned on the flight deck on 28 January 1945, but again no pilots were lost. The carrier entered the Pearl Harbor Navy Yard on 16 February, undergoing repairs to her flight deck and receiving three new 40-millimeter antiaircraft guns. Battle of Okinawa On 3 March 1945, Bataan departed Pearl Harbor for Ulithi, arriving at that atoll on 13 March. There she joined Task Unit (TU) 58.2.1, an ad hoc convoy comprising carriers , , , two battleships, two heavy cruisers and a host of destroyers formed for the short trip back to the Fast Carrier Task Force (TF-58). The task force conducted a series of raids to support the last major amphibious operation of the war, the invasion of Okinawa. Tasked with suppressing Japanese aircraft on Kyushu, one of the Japanese home islands, fighter sweeps and bomber strikes hit airfields on 18 March and struck at Japanese naval bases at Kure and Kobe. Over the next three days, vigorous counter-attacks by Japanese aircraft were mostly broken up by CAP, although a few aircraft got through and severely damaged Franklin. Other attacks targeted Bataan, whose antiaircraft guns claimed kills on two Judys and a Nakajima B6N Jill bomber. Bataans air group lost four aircraft in these actions while the ship's company suffered one man killed and eleven injured from shell fragments. Between 23 and 28 March, Bataans aircraft struck at Kerama Retto and conducted fighter sweeps over Okinawa. She then launched a raid on Kyushu on 29 March where her fighters claimed a Judy before returning to Okinawa operations. After the amphibious landings there on 1 April, the light carrier flew CAP over the amphibious forces and began intensive air strikes in support of Marine Corps operations ashore. Her aircraft also raided southern Kyushu, where Japanese kamikazes tended to congregate before major attacks. On 7 April, Bataans aircraft took part in the Battle of the East China Sea, when American search aircraft spotted a Japanese task force built around battleship Yamato. Swarms of carrier aircraft attacked the Japanese force as it steamed south in an effort to disrupt the American invasion of Okinawa. Bataans pilots claimed four torpedo hits on the giant battleship, as well as hits on a cruiser and two destroyers, that helped sink most of the Japanese task force. Bataan spent the next 10 days alternating between CAP sweeps over Okinawa and air strikes on southern Kyushu and nearby islands. Every three days or so, she retired eastward to refuel, rearm, and replenish at sea. During four enemy attacks on the task group over this period, one crew member was killed and 24 wounded when the ship was sprayed with shell fragments. Attack on Japanese home islands On 18 April, Bataan launched an antisubmarine patrol that assisted in the sinking of at . Following this, her aircraft returned to several weeks of air attacks on Okinawa and Kyushu. The heaviest Japanese counter-attack took place on 14 May when eight crewmen were killed and 26 others wounded. During these April and May operations, her gunners and pilots claimed a share in dozens of kills at a cost of nine aircraft and four air crewmen. Finally, on 29 May, she steamed south to the Philippines anchoring in San Pedro Bay on 1 June. Following a month of minor repairs to the warship and liberty for her crew, Bataan sailed in company with TG 38.3 on 1 July for the Japanese home islands. There her aircraft struck airfields in the Tokyo Bay area on 10 July, hit shore installations in northern Honshu and Hokkaido on 14 and 15 July, and helped to damage in Yokosuka Harbor on 18 July. Then her aircraft struck the naval base at Kure on 24 July, helping to sink and 15 small craft in the harbor. Bad weather canceled most of her air strikes late in the month, limiting her aircraft to attacks on 28 and 30 July, and, because a typhoon passed through the area, raids did not resume until 9 August. On that day her aircraft struck Misawa Air Base in northern Japan and on 10 August they battered Aomori. She returned to Honshu on 13 August working over the Tokyo area until 0635 on 15 August 1945 when all strikes were canceled following news that the Japanese intended to surrender. Post-war After the formal surrender ceremony on 2 September, Bataans aircraft air-dropped supplies to Allied prisoners of war at Zentzuji Camp in Shikoku. The carrier then steamed into Tokyo Bay on 6 September to pick up crew members ashore before departing for Okinawa that afternoon. After picking up 549 passengers there, she sailed for home on 10 September, steaming via Pearl Harbor and the Panama Canal and arriving in New York on 17 October. Bataan then sailed to the Boston Naval Shipyard on 30 October. Following two weeks of repairs, she was converted to a troop transport in preparation for Operation Magic Carpet, the return of soldiers from overseas. Bataan sailed for Europe on 21 November and moored in Naples harbor on the 29th where she embarked 2,121 Army officers and men. Arriving at Norfolk on 8 December, the troop-carrying warship then transported 890 Italian prisoners of war back to Naples, arriving there on 23 December. The following day, Bataan steamed out of the Bay of Naples with 2,089 Army troops embarked and arrived at Norfolk on 2 January 1946. On 10 January 1946, Bataan reported for inactivation at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. After conversion to an antisubmarine warfare (ASW) carrier, she was placed out of commission, in reserve, on 11 February 1947. Korean War In 1949, heightened international tensions between the United States and NATO on the one hand, and the Soviet Union and communist China on the other, led to increased military spending. As a result, the Navy began to expand in 1950. Bataan was recommissioned on 13 May 1950 at Philadelphia, Captain Edgar T. Neale in command. On 25 June, North Korean forces invaded into South Korea. Two days later, under United Nations (UN) auspices, the United States intervened in the conflict. Suddenly needed to train and deliver pilots and aircraft to the Korean theater, Bataan steamed for the west coast on 15 July and arrived at San Diego via the Panama Canal on 28 July. Bataan spent the next four months conducting training operations out of San Diego. She embarked naval air squadrons for carrier landing qualifications and antisubmarine warfare exercises. On 16 November, Bataan loaded Air Force cargo and personnel and sailed for Japan. After unloading her cargo there, she sailed on 14 December to report for duty with Task Force (TF) 77 off Korea's northeastern coast. First deployment Bataan joined the task force at a critical juncture in the conflict. Since 24 November, when some 30 Chinese divisions had intervened in the Korean war, bitter fighting had forced UN troops to retreat from the Yalu and Taedong Rivers. By mid-December, the American and South Korean troops on the east coast had fallen back to Hungnam. The soldiers, along with their vehicles, supplies, and almost 100,000 Korean refugees, were being shipped south to the Pusan perimeter. On 22 December, Bataan began flying Vought F4U-4 Corsair fighters of Marine Fighter Squadron VMF-212 over Hungnam to help cover the final phase of this evacuation. Her aircraft, along with aircraft from the carriers and , provided air cover to ground forces and shipping in the port area. Following the end of the evacuation on 24 December, her Corsairs then flew armed reconnaissance and close air support missions over the central mountains along the 38th parallel. On 31 December, a second communist offensive pushed south toward Seoul and Hanchon. In an attempt to stem the tide, Bataan was reassigned to Task Group (TG) 96.9 on the west coast of Korea. There, her aircraft attacked enemy troop concentrations below Seoul. After a replenishment period at Sasebo between 9 and 15 January 1951, Bataan relieved in the Yellow Sea on 16 January. Wearing the flag of Commander, Task Element (CTE) 95.1.1, Bataans mission was to blockade the west coast of Korea. While on station, Bataan generally flew 40 sorties a day - eight defensive CAP flights with the remainder divided between close air support (CAS), armed reconnaissance (AR), and interdiction missions. For CAS of ground forces, tactical air controllers usually called in Bataans Corsairs for bomb, rocket, and napalm attacks on known enemy positions. Daylight AR missions concentrated on halting enemy road traffic and bombing rail yards and bridges. The first patrol revealed the dangerous nature of this work when, between 16 and 26 January, VMF-212 lost three Corsairs, along with two pilots, to enemy small-arms fire. Over the next two months, Bataan conducted three more Yellow Sea patrols. In February and March, the light carrier supported the UN counterattack toward Inchon and Seoul, concentrating her air attacks on the Chinnampo area. These flights also included air spotting missions when cruisers and fired on targets ahead of advancing UN troops. Of the three Corsairs shot down by communist antiaircraft fire during these missions, two pilots were safely rescued by search and rescue (SAR) helicopters. On 8 April, after the fast carriers of TF 77 sailed south to Formosa to counter a perceived threat there, Bataan and HMS Theseus replaced them in the Sea of Japan. The two light carriers, screened by a pair of American destroyers and four British Commonwealth escorts, maintained the west coast blockade. Corsairs from Marine Attack Squadron VMF-312 along with British Fairey Firefly and Hawker Sea Fury fighters, bombed and strafed communist supply routes near Wonsan, Hamhung, and Songjin. Five aircraft and one pilot were lost to communist antiaircraft defenses. After a short visit to Sasebo between 16 and 20 April, Bataan resumed her alternating patrols with HMS Theseus off the west coast of Korea. On 21 April, in an unusual incident, two Corsairs of VMF-312 were attacked by four Russian-made Yakovlev Type 3U Yak fighters near Chinnampo. Marine Corps Capt. Philip C. DeLong shot down two of the Yaks, and heavily damaged a third, while 1st Lt. Harold D. Daigh, USMCR, shot down the fourth. According to Capt. DeLong, the North Korean pilots "were considerably inferior in flying ability to the Japanese of World War II." The following day, 22 April, communist troops began another heavy attack toward Seoul, and Bataans aircraft flew 136 close air support sorties against them over the next four days. After a brief period of replenishment and upkeep at Sasebo between 27 and 30 April, Bataan returned to the Yellow Sea on 1 May. In company with the British carrier , she launched 244 offensive sorties against enemy troop concentrations, helping to stall and then reverse the communist offensive by 10 May. Later in the month, Bataans Corsairs concentrated on the destruction of junks and sampans in the Taedong Gang estuary until bad weather canceled flight operations. During these strikes, one pilot and aircraft was lost after being hit by 40-millimeter ground fire east of Anak. Relieved on 3 June by a British carrier, Bataan offloaded the aircraft and personnel of VMF-312 and proceeded for home via Japan, eventually mooring in San Diego harbor on 25 June. Following two weeks of rest and recreation for her crew, Bataan steamed to Bremerton, Washington, on 9 July for an extensive overhaul at the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard. When those repairs were complete, Bataan steamed to San Diego on 7 November for underway refresher training. Over the next 10 weeks, she conducted carrier landing qualifications and ASW exercises in preparation for a second deployment to the Far East. Second deployment Bataan got underway for Yokosuka on 27 January 1952, arriving in Tokyo Bay on 11 February after weathering a severe winter storm. There she embarked Scouting Squadron 25 (VS-25) and steamed south to Buckner Bay, Okinawa, for ASW exercises. Between 24 February and 12 April, Bataan conducted three "hunter-killer" antisubmarine warfare exercises in the waters around Okinawa. Intended to prepare Allied forces to fight the Soviet submarine fleet in the event of Soviet intervention in Korea, these exercises pitted Bataans aircraft, including helicopters, against "enemy" submarines , , and . After refueling and replenishing at Yokosuka and Sasebo, the light carrier embarked VMA-312 at Kobe and departed Japan for operations off Korea on 29 April. She relieved HMS Glory as CTE-95.1.1 that same day and began combat sorties the following day. Ever since June 1951, the war in Korea had been bogged down in a military stalemate, with both sides heavily dug in along the 38th parallel. Tasked with interdicting communist supply routes between Hanchon and Yonan, Bataans aircraft flew 30 offensive sorties a day, bombing supply dumps, railway tracks, bridges, and road traffic. Her only aircraft loss of this line tour took place on 22 May when a Corsair was shot down by ground fire north of Pyongyang. While two other fighters provided cover, the pilot was rescued by an Air Force helicopter. That same day, another Corsair ejected a hung rocket while landing on Bataan. The rocket bounced forward on the flight deck and exploded, injuring three crewmen. She suffered no other losses that month and on 28 May she was relieved by . After sailing to Yokosuka for repairs to her flight deck, Bataan conducted three more Yellow Sea line tours in June and July, continuing the task of attacking communist supply lines. On 4 August, the warship turned for home and arrived in San Diego, via Pearl Harbor, on 26 August. Bataan entered the Long Beach Naval Shipyard on 11 September for an overhaul, remaining there for three weeks. She then conducted two weeks of carrier qualification landings with VS-21, VS-23, and VS-871 until she began preparations for her third Far Eastern deployment. The warship steamed for Okinawa on 28 October, via Pearl Harbor, and anchored in Buckner Bay on 15 November. Third deployment Although fears of Soviet intervention in Korea had diminished, ASW exercises remained important to the units operating off Korea. Bataan conducted two such operations, one between 23 and 29 November 1952 and another between 17 and 23 December. The first operation included an "opposed" sortie against and , "hunter-killer" submarine searches, and general ASW patrols. She also practiced jet aircraft tracking with North American F-86 Sabre fighters operating out of Kadena airfield in Japan. The second exercise included electronic counter-measure (ECM) intercept exercises against and long-range ASW training with Lockheed P2V Neptunes. On 9 February 1953, after two more transit ASW exercises between Buckner Bay and Yokosuka, Bataan embarked VMA-312 for operations off Korea. She relieved HMS Glory as Commander, Task Unit (CTU) 95.1.1 on the 15th and began flying combat missions that same day. In addition to the usual armed reconnaissance patrols along the coast, her Marine Corps Corsairs attacked Chinese troop concentrations south of Chinnampo and on the Ongjin peninsula. These attacks were ordered because friendly partisan reports indicated Chinese troops were massing for attacks on UN-controlled islands close to the mainland. Bataan conducted four more line tours between 7 March and 5 May. Despite the bad flying weather associated with the spring thaw, VMA-312 continued to attack the enemy troop concentrations and supply dumps reported by friendly partisans. The Corsairs also attacked roads, railways, and especially bridges, as flood waters hampered communist repair efforts. After liberty at Yokosuka, Bataan sailed for home, via Pearl Harbor, on 10 May, arriving in San Diego on 26 May. She was undergoing repairs there on 27 July when the armistice was signed at Panmunjom in Korea. She then loaded aircraft and equipment destined for Japan and sailed on 31 July for a round-trip voyage to Kobe and Yokosuka. Decommissioning and scrapping Returning to Pearl Harbor, she reported for a preinactivation overhaul on 26 August 1953. After moving to the San Francisco Naval Shipyard, Bataan was decommissioned on 9 April 1954 and assigned to the Pacific Reserve Fleet at San Francisco. Although she was reclassified an auxiliary aircraft transport and redesignated AVT-4 on 15 May 1959, her name was struck from the Navy List on 1 September 1959. She was sold to Nicolai Joffe Corp., Beverly Hills, California, on 19 June 1961 for scrapping. Awards Bataan received six battle stars for her World War II service and seven for her Korean War service. References External links at Nine Sisters Light Carrier Historical Documentary Project Independence-class aircraft carriers Ships built by New York Shipbuilding Corporation 1943 ships World War II aircraft carriers of the United States Cold War aircraft carriers of the United States Korean War aircraft carriers of the United States
402386	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Midway%20%28CV-41%29	USS Midway (CV-41)	USS Midway (CVB/CVA/CV-41) is an aircraft carrier, formerly of the United States Navy, the lead ship of her class. Commissioned 8 days after the end of World War II, Midway was the largest ship in the world until 1955, as well as the first U.S. aircraft carrier too big to transit the Panama Canal. She operated for 47 years, during which time she saw action in the Vietnam War and served as the Persian Gulf flagship in 1991's Operation Desert Storm. Decommissioned in 1992, she is now a museum ship at the USS Midway Museum, in San Diego, California, and is the only remaining inactive U.S. aircraft carrier that is not an . Service history Early operations and deployment with the 6th Fleet Midway was laid down 27 October 1943 in Shipway 11 at Newport News Shipbuilding Co., Newport News, Virginia; launched 20 March 1945, sponsored by Mrs. Bradford William Ripley, Jr.; and commissioned on 10 September 1945 (eight days after the Surrender of Japan) with Captain Joseph F. Bolger in command. After shakedown in the Caribbean, Midway joined the U.S. Atlantic Fleet training schedule, with Norfolk as her homeport. From 20 February 1946, she was the flagship for Carrier Division 1. In March, she participated in Operation Frostbite testing the Ryan FR Fireball and helicopter rescue techniques for cold-weather operations in the Labrador Sea. In September 1947, a captured German V-2 rocket was test-fired from the flight deck in Operation Sandy, the first large-rocket launch from a moving platform, and the only moving-platform launch for a V-2. While the rocket lifted off, it then tilted and broke up at . On 29 October 1947, Midway sailed for the first of her annual deployments with the 6th Fleet in the Mediterranean. Between deployments, Midway trained and received alterations to accommodate heavier aircraft as they were developed. In June 1951, Midway operated in the Atlantic off the Virginia Capes during carrier suitability tests of the F9F-5 Panther. On 23 June, as Cdr. George Chamberlain Duncan attempted a landing in BuNo 125228, a downdraft just aft of the stern caused Duncan to crash. His plane's forward fuselage broke away and rolled down the deck, and he suffered burns. Footage of the crash has been used in several films, including Men of the Fighting Lady, Midway, and The Hunt for Red October. In 1952, the ship participated in Operation Mainbrace, North Sea maneuvers with NATO forces. Midway had an angled runway painted on the flight deck in May for touch-and-go landings following early trials of the technique aboard . Successful demonstration of the possibilities caused widespread adoption of the angled flight deck in future aircraft carrier construction and modifications of existing carriers. On 1 October, the ship was redesignated CVA-41. Midway left Norfolk 27 December 1954 for a world cruise, sailing via the Cape of Good Hope for Taiwan, where she became the first large carrier in the 7th Fleet for operations in the Western Pacific until 28 June 1955. During these operations, Midway pilots flew cover for the evacuation from the Tachen Islands during the Quemoy-Matsu crisis of 15,000 Chinese nationalist troops and 20,000 Chinese civilians, along with their livestock. 1950s apartheid incident Controversy arose during the cruise when Midway around January 1955 docked in Cape Town, South Africa. Democratic senator Herbert Lehman sent a telegram to Secretary of the Navy Charles Thomas when he learned of a supposed United States Navy plan to segregate 400 non-white members of the crew of Midway while it was in Cape Town. Fellow Democratic senator Hubert Humphrey soon joined Lehman, additionally sending a letter to the Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, asking that "immediate steps be taken to see that equal treatment is given to American service personnel allowed shore leave in South Africa, or eliminate Cape Town as a port of call", and saying that "To me this is a shocking act of discrimination that should not be tolerated by our Government. Every American soldier or sailor is an American regardless of race, colour or creed, and is entitled to be respected and treated as such anywhere in the world." An anonymous Navy official stated that the Department of the Navy did not know of the arrangements that were to be made between the officers of Midway and South African authorities, and that African-American members of the crew would not be segregated while still aboard Midway. Clarence Mitchell Jr. also urged Thomas not to allow Midway to dock at Cape Town. James H. Smith Jr., Acting Secretary of the Navy at the time, replied that the stop at Cape Town was merely to "satisfy an operational logistic requirement" and that it was customary to observe local laws and regulations while visiting foreign ports. Captain Reynold Delos Hogle of Midway stated that while in port, Midway would be United States territory and federal United States laws would apply. In the end, the crew of Midway were not made to abide by apartheid, Captain Hogle stating that "At Hartleyvale (Stadium) this afternoon and at the concert to-night, European and non-European members of the crew have been asked to attend. There will be no segregation whatsoever". Modernizations On 28 June 1955, the ship sailed for Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, where Midway underwent an extensive modernization program (SCB-110, similar to SCB-125 for the Essex-class carriers). Midway received an enclosed hurricane bow, an aft deck-edge elevator, an angled flight deck, and steam catapults, before finally returning to service on 30 September 1957. Home ported at Alameda, California, Midway began annual deployments bringing McDonnell F3H Demons, North American FJ-4 Furys, Vought F-8 Crusaders, Douglas A-1 Skyraiders, and Douglas A-3 Skywarriors to the 7th Fleet in 1958, and into the South China Sea during the Laotian Crisis of spring 1961. During the 1962 deployment, Midway recorded her 100,000th arrested landing as the ship's aircraft tested the air defense systems of Japan, Korea, Okinawa, the Philippines, and Taiwan. Midway again sailed for the Far East 6 March 1965, and from mid-April flew strikes against military and logistics installations in North and South Vietnam, including the first combat use of AGM-12 Bullpup air-to-surface missiles. On 17 June 1965 two VF-21 McDonnell Douglas F-4B Phantom IIs flying from Midway were credited with the first confirmed MiG kills of the Vietnam conflict, using AIM-7 Sparrow missiles to down two MiG-17Fs. Three days later, four of Midways A-1 Skyraiders used the World War II vintage Thach Weave tactic to down an attacking MiG-17F. Midway lost an F-4 Phantom and two A-4 Skyhawks to North Vietnamese S-75 Dvina surface-to-air missiles before returning to Alameda on 23 November to enter San Francisco Bay Naval Shipyard on 11 February 1966 for a massive modernization (SCB-101.66), which proved expensive and controversial. The flight deck was enlarged from , and the angle of the flight deck landing area was increased to 13.5 degrees. The elevators were enlarged, moved, and given almost double the weight capacity. Midway also received new steam catapults, arresting gear, and a centralized air conditioning plant. Cost overruns raised the price of this program from $88 million to US$202 million, and precluded a similar modernization planned for . After Midway was finally recommissioned on 31 January 1970, it was found that the modifications had worsened the ship's seakeeping capabilities and ability to conduct air operations in rough seas, which made further modifications necessary to correct the problem. Return to Vietnam Midway returned to Vietnam and on 18 May 1971, after relieving at Yankee Station, began single carrier operations. Midway departed Yankee Station on 5 June, completing the vessel's final line period on 31 October 1971, and returned to the ship's homeport on 6 November 1971. Midway, with embarked Carrier Air Wing 5 (CVW 5), again departed Alameda for operations off Vietnam on 10 April 1972. On 11 May, aircraft from Midway, along with those from , , and , began laying naval mines off North Vietnamese ports, including Thanh Hóa, Đồng Hới, Vinh, Hon Gai, Quang Khe, and Cam Pha, as well as other approaches to Haiphong. Ships that were in port in Haiphong had been warned that the mining would take place and that the mines would be armed 72 hours later. Midway continued Vietnam operations during Operation Linebacker throughout the summer of 1972. On 7 August 1972, an HC-7 Det 110 helicopter, flying from Midway, and aided by planes from the carrier and from , searched for the pilot of an A-7 Corsair II aircraft from Saratoga who had been downed the previous day by a surface-to-air missile about inland, northwest of Vinh. Flying over mountains, the HC-7 helicopter spotted the downed aviator with her searchlight and, under heavy ground fire, retrieved him before returning to an LPD off the coast. This was the deepest penetration by a rescue helicopter into North Vietnam since 1968. By the end of 1972, HC-7 Det 110 had rescued a total of 48 pilots, 35 in combat conditions. On 5 October 1973, Midway, with CVW 5, put into Yokosuka, Japan, marking the first forward-deployment of a complete carrier task group in a Japanese port, the result of an accord arrived at on 31 August 1972 between the U.S. and Japan. The move allowed sailors to live with their families when in port; more strategically, it allowed three carriers to stay in East Asia even as the economic situation demanded the reduction of carriers in the fleet. CVW 5 became based at the nearby Naval Air Facility Atsugi. For service in Vietnam from 30 April 1972, to 9 February 1973, Midway and CVW 5 received the Presidential Unit Citation from Richard Nixon. It read: Aircraft from Midway made both the first MIG kills in the Vietnam War, and the last air-to-air victory of the war. On 17 June 1965, aviators of Midways Attack Carrier Wing 2, VF-21, had downed the first two MiGs credited to US forces in Southeast Asia. On 12 January 1973 a combat aircraft from Midway made the last air-to-air victory of the Vietnam War. Operation Frequent Wind On 19 April 1975, after North Vietnam had overrun two-thirds of South Vietnam, Midway, along with Coral Sea, Hancock, and , were sent to the waters off South Vietnam. Ten days later, U.S. 7th Fleet forces carried out Operation Frequent Wind, the evacuation of Saigon. For this, Midway, which had offloaded half of the ship's regular combat air wing at NS Subic Bay, Philippines, steamed to Thailand and took aboard eight U.S. Air Force CH-53 from 21st Special Operations Squadron and two HH-53 helicopters from 40th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron. As Saigon fell to North Vietnamese forces, these helicopters transported hundreds of U.S. personnel and Vietnamese people to Midway and other U.S. ships in the South China Sea. On 29 April 1975, Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF) Major Lý Bửng (also spelled Buang-Ly or Buang Lee) loaded his wife and five children into a two-seat Cessna O-1 Bird Dog and took off from Con Son Island. After evading enemy ground fire, Buang headed out to the South China Sea, found Midway, and began to circle overhead with his landing lights turned on. Midways crew unsuccessfully attempted to contact the aircraft on emergency frequencies. When a spotter reported that there were at least four people in the two-seater aircraft, all thoughts of forcing the pilot to ditch alongside were abandoned. After three tries, Major Buang managed to drop a note from a low pass over the deck: "Can you move the helicopter to the other side, I can land on your runway, I can fly for one hour more, we have enough time to move. Please rescue me! Major Buang, wife and 5 child." Captain Larry Chambers, the ship's commanding officer, ordered that the arresting wires be removed and that any helicopters that could not be safely and quickly moved should be pushed over the side. He called for volunteers, and soon every available seaman was on deck to help. An estimated worth of UH-1 Huey helicopters were pushed overboard. With a ceiling, visibility, light rain, and of surface wind, Chambers ordered the ship to sail at into the wind. Warnings about the dangerous downdrafts created behind a steaming carrier were transmitted blind in both Vietnamese and English. To make matters worse, five more UH-1s landed and cluttered up the deck. Without hesitation, Chambers ordered them scuttled as well. Captain Chambers recalled that Buang was escorted to the bridge where Chambers congratulated him on his outstanding airmanship, and his bravery in risking everything on a gamble beyond the point of no return without knowing for certain a carrier would be where he needed it. The crew of Midway was so impressed that they established a fund to help him and his family get settled in the United States. The O-1 that Major Buang landed is now on display at the Naval Aviation Museum in Pensacola, Florida. Major Buang became the first Vietnamese pilot ever to land a fixed-wing aircraft on an aircraft carrier deck. Upon completion of ferrying people to other ships, Midway returned to Thailand and disembarked the Air Force helicopters at U-Tapao Royal Thai Navy Airfield. The CH-53s then airlifted over 50 RVNAF aircraft to the ship. With almost 100 helicopters and aircraft of the former RVNAF aboard, the ship steamed to Guam where the aircraft and helicopters were offloaded in twenty-four hours. While transiting back to the Philippines to pick up the ship's air wing, Midway was rerouted to act as a floating airfield in support of special operation forces rescuing the SS Mayagüez. Midway picked up the ship's regular air wing again a month later when the aircraft carrier returned NAS Cubi Point, Philippines. On 30 June 1975, Midway was redesignated from "CVA-41" to "CV-41". After Vietnam On 21 August 1976, a Navy task force headed by Midway made a show of force off the coast of Korea in reaction to an attack on two U.S. Army officers who were killed by North Korean soldiers on 18 August when they attempted to cut down a tree. The U.S. response to this incident was given the name Operation Paul Bunyan. Midways participation was part of a U.S. demonstration of military concern vis-à-vis North Korea. Midway relieved Constellation as the Indian Ocean contingency carrier on 16 April 1979. This unscheduled deployment was due to colliding with the tanker Liberian Fortune near the Straits of Malacca, with Midway taking over Rangers mission while she went in for repairs. Midway and her escorts continued a significant American naval presence in the oil-producing region of the Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf. On 18 November, the aircraft carrier steamed to the North Arabian Sea in connection with the continuing hostage crisis in Iran. Militant followers of the Ayatollah Khomeini, who had come to power following the overthrow of the Shah, seized the U.S. embassy in Tehran on 4 November and held 63 US citizens hostage. On 21 November Kitty Hawk arrived, and both carriers, along with their escort ships, were joined by and her escorts on 22 January 1980. Midway was relieved by Coral Sea on 5 February. Missions in the 1980s Following a period in Yokosuka, Midway relieved Coral Sea 30 May 1980 on standby south of Jeju-Do Island in the Sea of Japan following the potential of civil unrest in the Republic of Korea. While transiting the passage between Palawan Island of the Philippines and the coast of Northern Borneo on 29 July, the Panamanian merchant ship Cactus collided with Midway. Cactus was southwest of Subic Bay and heading to Singapore when she struck near the carrier's liquid oxygen plant; two sailors working in the plant were killed and three were injured. Midway sustained light damage and three F-4 Phantom aircraft parked on the flight deck also were damaged. On 17 August, Midway relieved Constellation to begin another Indian Ocean deployment and to complement the task group still on contingency duty in the Arabian Sea. Midway spent a total of 118 consecutive days in the Indian Ocean during 1980. On 16 March 1981, an A-6E Intruder from VA-115 aboard Midway sighted a downed civilian helicopter in the South China Sea. Midway immediately dispatched HC-1 Det 2 helicopters to the scene. All 17 people aboard the downed helicopter were rescued and brought aboard the carrier. The chartered civilian helicopter was also retrieved from the water and lifted to Midways flight deck. On 25 March 1986, the final carrier launching of a Navy fleet F-4S Phantom II took place off Midway during flight operations in the East China Sea. The Phantoms were replaced by the new F/A-18A Hornets. Midway continued serving in the western Pacific throughout the 1980s. In order to alleviate persistent seakeeping issues, Midway received hull blisters in 1986. During her 1986 refit (named "Extended Incremental Selected Repair Availability"), blisters were added to improve the ship's stability. The modification proved counterproductive, as it actually increased the ship's instability in rough seas. She took water over the flight deck during excessive rolls in moderate seas, thereby hampering flight operations. Before another $138 million refit was approved to rectify the stability problems, it was even proposed to decommission Midway. Nevertheless, she had earned herself the nickname "Rock'n Roll carrier." During a typhoon while in the Sea of Japan during the Olympic Games in Seoul, Korea, on 8 October 1988, Midway, which was not supposed to be able to sustain more than 24 degrees of roll, survived a 26-degree roll. On 30 October 1989, an F/A-18A Hornet aircraft from Midway mistakenly dropped a general-purpose bomb on the deck of during training exercises in the Indian Ocean, creating a hole in the bow, sparking small fires, and injuring five sailors. Reeves was south of Diego Garcia at the time of the incident. Tragedy struck Midway on 20 June 1990. While conducting routine flight operations approximately northeast of Japan, the ship was badly damaged by two onboard explosions. These explosions led to a fire that raged more than ten hours. In addition to damage to the ship's hull, two crew members were killed and 9 others were wounded; one of the injured later died of his injuries. All 11 crewmen belonged to the at sea fire-fighting team known as the Flying Squad. When Midway entered Yokosuka Harbor the next day, 12 Japanese media helicopters flew in circles and hovered about above the flight deck. Three bus loads of reporters were waiting on the pier. About 30 minutes after Midway cast her first line, more than 100 international print and electronic journalists charged over the brow to cover the event. The news media made a major issue out of the incident, as it had happened amid several other military accidents. It was thought that the accident would lead to the ship's immediate retirement due to her age, but Midway was retained to fight in one last major conflict. Operation Desert Storm On 2 August 1990, Iraq invaded neighboring Kuwait, and U.S. forces moved into Saudi Arabia as part of Operation Desert Shield to protect that country against invasion by Iraq. On 1 November 1990, Midway was again on station in the North Arabian Sea as the carrier of Battle Force Zulu (which included warships from the U.S., Australia, and other countries), relieving . On 15 November, the carrier participated in Operation Imminent Thunder, an eight-day combined amphibious landing exercise in northeastern Saudi Arabia which involved about 1,000 U.S. Marines, 16 warships, and more than 1,100 aircraft. Meanwhile, the United Nations set an ultimatum deadline of 15 January 1991 for Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait. Operation Desert Storm began the next day. On January 17, 1991 at 2:00AM, Midway launched aircraft from CVW-5 for the first carrier strikes of the Gulf War. An A-6E TRAM Intruder from VA-185 Nighthawks from the Midway was the first carrier aircraft over the coast. Around 17 other aircraft from the Midway provided support during the strikes. At around 4:05AM, four A-6E TRAM Intruders from VA-185 and VA-115 Eagles attacked Shaibah Air Base at around 350 ft, encountering heavy AAA fire, with two of the four aircraft not dropping their bombs. At around the same time, three A-6E TRAM Intruders from VA-115, each loaded with six Mk.83 bombs; attacked Ahmad Al-Jaber Air Base in occupied Kuwait. The AAA fire at Shaibah led to the Midway's pilots avoiding low-level attacks for the rest of the war. No Midway aircraft were lost on the strikes. The Navy launched 228 sorties that day from Midway and Ranger in the Persian Gulf, and from and Saratoga in the Red Sea. The Navy also launched more than 100 Tomahawk missiles from nine ships in the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf. Midway later launched an F/A-18 Hornet that used the first AGM-62 Walleye television-guided glide bomb in combat. The Hornet from VFA-195 destroyed a T-shaped building at Umm Qasr Naval Base with a Walleye II. The pilot, LCDR Jeffery Ashby, led a mission on 13 February 1991 that successfully destroyed an Iraqi Super Frelon helicopter armed with Exocet missiles (which had posed a threat to the US Carriers) with a Walleye I. The removal of the threat allowed Midway and the other carriers Ranger and to move closer to Kuwait. NF-104 was painted with a kill marking for the helicopter and was displayed when Midway returned to Japan. Some of Midway's F/A-18As also unsuccessfully attempted to intercept Iraqi Mirage F1s during the Attack on Ras Tanura on January 24, with an RSAF F-15C later shooting down both of the Mirages. Desert Storm officially ended 28 February, and Midway departed the Persian Gulf on 11 March 1991 and returned to Yokosuka. Rest of 1991 In June 1991, Midway left for her final deployment, this time to the Philippines to take part in Operation Fiery Vigil, which was the evacuation of 20,000 military members and their families from Clark Air Base, on the island of Luzon, after the eruption of Mount Pinatubo. Midway, along with twenty other U.S. naval ships, ferried the evacuees to the island of Cebu, where they were taken off the ship by helicopter. After taking part in the evacuation, the aircraft carrier once again returned to Yokosuka. Final cruise In August 1991, Midway departed Yokosuka for the last time and returned to Pearl Harbor. There, she turned over with Independence, which replaced Midway as the forward-deployed carrier in Yokosuka. Rear Admiral Joseph Prueher and the staff of Carrier Group ONE moved to Independence. Prueher was the last admiral to lower his flag on Midway. She then sailed to Seattle for a port visit. There the ship disembarked "tigers" (guests of crew members) before making her final voyage to San Diego. As museum ship Midway was decommissioned at Naval Air Station North Island on 11 April 1992 in a ceremony in which the main speaker was Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney. During decommissioning, Midway, her sailors, and their families were filmed for the movie At Sea, a documentary on carrier life shown only at the Navy Museum in Washington, D.C. The ship was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 17 March 1997. On 30 September 2003, ex-Midway began her journey from the Navy Inactive Ship Maintenance Facility, Bremerton, Washington, to San Diego, California, in preparation for use as a museum and memorial. The aircraft carrier was docked in early October at the Charles P. Howard Terminal in Oakland, California, while work proceeded on the Broadway Pier in downtown San Diego. On 10 January 2004, the ship was moored at her final location, where she was opened to the public on 7 June 2004 as a museum. In the first year of operation, the museum had 879,281 visitors, double the expected attendance. On 11 November 2012, a college basketball game between the Syracuse Orange and the San Diego State Aztecs was played on the flight deck. The Orange won, 62–49. On 15 July 2015, museum personnel were evacuated from ex-Midway due to smoke caused by an apparent fire. The San Diego fire department responded quickly, but no fire was found, and the museum was able to open for the day on schedule. Awards and decorations See also List of aircraft carriers List of aircraft carriers of the United States Navy References Citations Further reading McGaugh, Scott Midway Magic: An Oral History of America's Legendary Aircraft Carrier, CDS Books, New York, 2004, . External links USS Midway Museum USS Midway Museum post on AirMuseumGuide.com history.navy.mil: USS Midway MidwaySailor.com. navsource.org: USS Midway (CV-41) A Podcast from Speaking of History about a tour of the USS Midway in July 2006 Footage video clip of Major Buang landing on USS Midway July 23, 1951 F9F Panther crash on USS Midway 1945 ships Cold War aircraft carriers of the United States Gulf War ships of the United States Midway-class aircraft carriers Ships built in Newport News, Virginia Vietnam War aircraft carriers of the United States World War II aircraft carriers of the United States 2004 establishments in California Aerospace museums in California Landmarks in San Diego Military and war museums in California Museum ships in San Diego Museums established in 2004 Naval museums in the United States San Diego Bay
402389	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Coral%20Sea%20%28CV-43%29	USS Coral Sea (CV-43)	USS Coral Sea (CV/CVB/CVA-43), a , was the third ship of the United States Navy to be named for the Battle of the Coral Sea. She earned the affectionate nickname "Ageless Warrior" through her long career. Initially classified as an aircraft carrier with hull classification symbol CV-43, the contract to build the ship was awarded to Newport News Shipbuilding of Newport News, Virginia, on 14 June 1943. She was reclassified as a "Large Aircraft Carrier" with hull classification symbol CVB-43 on 15 July 1943. Her keel was laid down on 10 July 1944 in Shipway 10. She was launched on 2 April 1946 sponsored by Mrs. Thomas C. Kinkaid and commissioned on 1 October 1947 with Captain A.P. Storrs III in command. Before 8 May 1945, the aircraft carrier CVB-42 had been known as USS Coral Sea; after that date, CVB-42 was renamed in honor of Franklin D. Roosevelt, the late President, and CVB-43 was named the Coral Sea. Coral Sea was one of the last U.S Navy carriers to be completed with a straight flight deck, with an angled flight deck added on during later modernizations. All subsequent newly built U.S Navy carriers have had the angled deck included as part of the ship's construction. Early milestones The ship promptly began a series of career milestones when, on 27 April 1948, two P2V-2 Neptunes, piloted by Commander Thomas D. Davies and Lieutenant Commander John P. Wheatley, made jet assisted takeoffs (JATO) from the carrier as she steamed off Norfolk, Virginia. This was the first carrier launchings of planes of this size and weight. The Coral Sea sailed from Norfolk, Virginia, on 7 June 1948 for a midshipmen cruise to the Mediterranean and Caribbean, and returned to Norfolk, Virginia 11 August. After an overhaul period, Coral Sea was again operating off the Virginia Capes. On 7 March 1949, a P2V-3C Neptune, piloted by Captain John T. Hayward of VC-5, was launched from the carrier with a 10,000-lb load of dummy bombs. The aircraft flew across the continent, dropped its load on the West Coast, and returned nonstop to land at the Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland. The mission proved the concept of carrier-based atomic bomb attacks. Following training in the Caribbean, Coral Sea sailed 3 May 1949 for her first tour of duty in the Mediterranean with the Sixth Fleet, returning 28 September. Operations in the 1950s On 21 April 1950, the first carrier takeoff of an AJ-1 Savage heavy attack bomber was made from Coral Sea by Captain John T. Hayward of VC-5. The remainder of the pilots of the squadron completed carrier qualifications on board Coral Sea in this aircraft on 31 August, marking the introduction of this long-range atomic-attack bomber to carrier operations. At this time, she returned to the Mediterranean for duty with the Sixth Fleet from 9 September 1950 to 1 February 1951. An overhaul and local operations upon her return, as well as training with Air Group 17, prepared her for a return to the Mediterranean once more on 20 March 1951. As flagship for Commander, Carrier Division 6, she took part in a NATO Exercise, Beehive I. She returned to Norfolk, Virginia 6 October for local and Caribbean operations, next sailing for the Mediterranean on 19 April 1952. While on service with the Sixth Fleet, she visited Yugoslavia in September and carried Marshal Josip Broz Tito on a one-day cruise to observe carrier operations. The ship was reclassified as an "Attack Aircraft Carrier" with hull classification symbol CVA-43 on 1 October 1952 while still at sea and returned to Norfolk, Virginia, for overhaul 12 October. Coral Sea trained pilots in carrier operations off of the Virginia Capes and Naval Station Mayport, and in April 1953 the ship embarked the Judiciary Committee of the United States House of Representatives for a three-day cruise. On 26 April, she sailed for a tour of duty in the Mediterranean. This cruise was highlighted by a visit to Spain, and participation in NATO Exercise Black Wave with Deputy Secretary of Defense R. M. Kyes on board as an observer. Returning to Norfolk, Virginia, on 21 October, she carried out tests for the Bureau of Aeronautics and trained members of the Naval Reserve at Mayport, and Guantánamo Bay. Coral Sea returned to the Mediterranean from 7 July to 20 December 1954, and during this tour was visited by Spanish Generalissimo Francisco Franco as she lay off of Valencia. On her next tour of duty in the Mediterranean from 23 March to 29 September 1955, she called at Istanbul and participated in NATO exercises. Sailing from Norfolk, Virginia 23 July 1956 for Mayport, Florida, to embark Carrier Air Group 10, Coral Sea continued on to the Mediterranean on her next tour. She participated in NATO exercises and received King Paul of Greece, and his consort, Friederike Luise Thyra of Hanover on board as visitors in October. During the Suez Crisis, Coral Sea evacuated American citizens from the troubled area and stood by off of Egypt until November. Coral Sea returned to Norfolk, Virginia 11 February 1957. She cleared that port on 26 February and visited Santos, Brazil; Valparaíso, Chile; and Balboa, Canal Zone, before arriving at Bremerton, Washington, on 15 April. Coral Sea was decommissioned at the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard on 24 May 1957 to receive a major conversion (SCB 110A), which included a longer angled deck canted 3 degrees more than the previous overhauls of her sister ships. As the centerline elevators were relocated to the starboard deck edge forward and aft of the island, Coral Sea became the first carrier to mount an elevator on the port quarter resembling the more efficient deck layout of the Kitty Hawk-class then under construction. Other improvements included new steam catapults, an enclosed hurricane bow, hull blisters, and removal of the armor belt and several anti-aircraft guns. Upon completion, she was recommissioned on 25 January 1960 and rejoined the fleet. During September 1960, she conducted training with her new air group along the West Coast, then sailed in September for a tour of duty with the Seventh Fleet in the Far East on her first WestPac (Western Pacific cruise). She recorded her 100,000th arrested landing in October 1961. Vietnam and operations in the 1960s to early 1970s Installation of the Pilot Landing Aid Television (PLAT) system was completed on Coral Sea on 14 December 1961. She was the first carrier to have this system installed for operations use. Designed to provide a videotape of every landing, the system proved useful for instructional purposes and in the analysis of landing accidents, thereby making it an invaluable tool in the promotion of safety. By 1963, all attack carriers had been equipped with PLAT and plans were underway for installation in the CVSs and at shore stations. Following the Gulf of Tonkin incident in August, Coral Sea departed on 7 December 1964 for duty with the Seventh Fleet. On 7 February 1965, her aircraft, along with those from and , conducted Operation Flaming Dart against the military barracks and staging areas near Đồng Hới in the southern sector of North Vietnam. The raids were in retaliation for a damaging Viet Cong attack on installations around Pleiku in South Vietnam. On 26 March, the Seventh Fleet units began their participation in Operation Rolling Thunder, a systematic bombing of military targets throughout North Vietnam. Pilots from Coral Sea struck island and coastal radar stations in the vicinity of Vinh. On 3 April Vietnam People's Air Force MiG-17s attacked aircraft from Coral Sea and Hancock in the first United States aerial combat of the Vietnam conflict. A Coral Sea RF-8 took the first photographs of a North Vietnamese surface-to-air missile site on 5 April. Coral Sea remained on deployment until returning home on 1 November 1965. Coral Sea made another Westpac/Vietnam deployment from 29 July 1966 to 23 February 1967. In the summer of 1967, the city of San Francisco adopted the ship as "San Francisco's Own," and the city and ship enjoyed a formal, official relationship. However, there were probably many times the crew did not enjoy the attitudes of Bay Area residents at all. The feeling was mutual. In July 1968, prior to a deployment to Vietnam, Coral Sea participated in the carrier trials of the US Navy's proposed new interceptor, the General Dynamics–Grumman F-111B. The ship continued to make WestPac/Vietnam deployments until 1975: 26 July 1967 to 6 April 1968; 7 September 1968 to 15 April 1969; 23 September 1969 to 1 July 1970; 12 November 1971 to 17 July 1972; 9 March 1973 to 8 November; and from 5 December 1974 to 2 July 1975. Operations by the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps aircraft in Vietnam expanded significantly throughout April 1972 with a total of 4,833 Navy sorties in the south and 1,250 in the north. Coral Sea, along with Hancock, was on Yankee Station when the North Vietnamese Easter Offensive began. They were joined in early April by and . On 16 April 1972, their aircraft flew 57 sorties in the Haiphong area in support of U.S. Air Force B-52 Stratofortress strikes on the Haiphong petroleum products storage area in an operation known as Freedom Porch. After refitting, from 1970 through to 1971, and during refresher training (REFTRA) down to San Diego, Coral Sea on her return trip to Alameda caught fire in the communications department. The fire spread so fast that Captain William H. Harris commanded that the carrier be placed just offshore between San Mateo and Santa Barbara in order to abandon ship if the fire could not be put under control. Several communications personnel were trapped, and RM-2 Robert Bilbo and RM-3 Billy Larremore pulled many shipmates out of the burning and smoke-filled compartments. They received the Navy & Marine Corp Medal. L/Cpl Thomas P Howard Jr. of ships Mar/Det received a "Meritorious Mast" from Captain Harris as a result of his location and rescue of shipmates overcome by toxic smoke in security weapon space. An OBA was L/Cpl Howard's only breathing protection at the time. Operation Pocket Money, the mining campaign against principal North Vietnamese ports, was launched 9 May 1972. Early that morning, an EC-121 aircraft took off from Da Nang Air Base to provide support for the mining operation. A short time later, Kitty Hawk launched 17 ordnance-delivering sorties against the Nam Định railroad siding as a diversionary air tactic. Poor weather, however, forced the planes to divert to secondary targets at Thanh and Phu Qui. Coral Sea launched three A-6A Intruders and six A-7E Corsair II aircraft loaded with naval mines and one EKA-3B Skywarrior in support of the mining operation directed against the outer approaches to Haiphong Harbor. The mining aircraft departed the vicinity of Coral Sea timed to execute the mining at precisely 09:00 local time to coincide with President Richard M. Nixon's public announcement in Washington that naval mines had been seeded. The Intruder flight led by the CAG, Commander Roger E. Sheets, was composed of Marine Corps aircraft from VMA-224 and headed for the inner channel. The Corsairs, led by Commander Leonard E. Giuliani and made up of aircraft from VA-94 and VA-22, were designated to mine the outer segment of the channel. Each aircraft carried four MK52-2 mines. Captain William R. Carr, USMC, the bombardier/navigator in the lead plane, established the critical attack azimuth and timed the naval mine releases. The first mine was dropped at 08:59 and the last of the field of 36 mines at 09:01. Twelve mines were placed in the inner harbor and the remaining 24 in the outer. All mines were set with 72-hour arming delays, thus permitting merchant ships time for departure or a change in destination consistent with the President's public warning. It was the beginning of a mining campaign that planted over 11,000 MK36 type destructor and 108 special Mk 52-2 mines over the next eight months. It is considered to have played a significant role in bringing about an eventual peace arrangement, particularly since it so hampered the enemy's ability to continue receiving war supplies. 1971: Crewmen petition against the Vietnam War In 1971, widespread dissatisfaction with the Vietnam War led to an unusual action by at least 1000 crew members who formed the on-ship organization named Stop Our Ship (SOS) and signed a petition against the war. The petition stated that the signers "do not believe in the Vietnam War" and that Coral Sea "should not go to Vietnam". On 6 November 1971, over 300 men from Coral Sea marched in an anti-war demonstration in San Francisco and on 12 November 1971 around 600-1200 protestors demonstrated outside of Naval Air Station Alameda to encourage sailors to not sail with the ship. Thirty-five men missed her departure after the Berkeley City Council and 10 churches offered sanctuary. While this number is not unusual for a ship this size, at least one military service member sought sanctuary. The petition and demonstrations by the sailors of Coral Sea were part of a larger movement of anti-war protests by military service members. Earlier in 1971, about 400 servicemen in Saigon signed a petition against the war, and nine sailors in Hawaii took sanctuary in a church and missed the sailing of the . (In contrast, the Coral Sea crewmen did not want their protest "to be a thing like the Constellation" and therefore likely were not looking for sanctuary.) "These 'flattop revolts' expanded the next year, as sailors signed petitions or disrupted operations on Kitty Hawk, , , , and . Sabotage on and prevented their scheduled port departures while aviators became increasingly concerned about their role in the bombing campaign and questioned the war openly." Paris Peace Accords, Fall of Saigon, Mayaguez incident The Paris Peace Accords, ending hostilities in Vietnam, were signed on 23 January 1973, ending four years of talks. North Vietnam released nearly 600 American prisoners by 1 April 1973, and the last U.S. combat troops departed Vietnam on 27 January 1973. However, the war was not over for the Vietnamese. By spring 1975, the North was advancing on the South. Coral Sea, , Hancock, , and responded on 19 April 1975 to the waters off South Vietnam when North Vietnam overran two-thirds of South Vietnam. On 29–30 April 1975, Operation Frequent Wind was carried out by Seventh Fleet forces. Hundreds of U.S. personnel and Vietnamese were evacuated from Saigon to the ships of the Seventh Fleet lying off Vũng Tàu. South Vietnam surrendered to the North on 30 April 1975. On 12 to 14 May 1975, Coral Sea participated with other Navy, Air Force and Marine Corps forces in the Mayaguez incident, the recovery of the U.S. merchant ship SS Mayaguez and her 39 crew, illegally seized on 12 May in international waters by Khmer Rouge gunboats. Protective air strikes flown from the carrier against the Cambodian mainland naval and air installations as Air Force helicopters with 288 Marines from Battalion Landing Teams 2 and 9 were launched from U Tapao, Thailand, and landed at Koh Tang Island to rescue the Mayaguez's crew and secure the ship. Eighteen Marines, Airmen, and Navy corpsmen were lost in the action. For her action, Coral Sea was presented the Meritorious Unit Commendation on 6 July 1976. Meanwhile, she had been reclassified as a "Multi-Purpose Aircraft Carrier", returning to hull classification symbol CV-43, on 30 June 1975. Iran hostage crisis, final Western Pacific cruise On 4 November 1979, militant followers of the Ayatollah Khomeini (who had come to power following the overthrow of the Shah of Iran) seized the US Embassy in Tehran and held 63 Americans hostage. Thus began the Iran hostage crisis. Coral Sea relieved Midway in the northern part of the Arabian Sea, off the coast of Iran, on 5 February 1980. This operating area was nicknamed Gonzo Station by the men on the ships operating there, apparently because of its vicinity to Iran and the assumption that war with Iran was likely. Later, along with and other ships in company, Coral Sea participated in Operation Evening Light, the unsuccessful and aborted rescue attempt of 24 April 1980. (Their aircraft played a supporting role.) The crew of Coral Sea and other ships in the company received the Navy Expeditionary Medal for their efforts. By the time the ship pulled into Subic Bay, the Philippines for a port call on 9 May 1980 the crew had spent 102 consecutive days at sea – mostly off the coast of Iran. (The Iran hostage crisis ended on 20 January 1981 when Ronald Reagan succeeded Jimmy Carter as President of the United States and Iran released the Americans.) At this time (1979–1981) the ship was commanded by Captain (later Admiral) Richard Dunleavy, who was to play a role in the Tailhook scandal, which forced him into retirement. However, while commanding Coral Sea he was considered an excellent commanding officer by his crew, who respected him greatly, even though they worked long, difficult hours under him and he could be a strict disciplinarian. On 10 June 1980, Coral Sea returned to her homeport of Alameda. Shortly after her return, the San Francisco Bay Area press reported the theft of a set of golden bear statues from the ship. These statues had been presented by the city of San Francisco after the city had adopted the ship as "San Francisco's Own". Two sailors from Coral Sea were caught with the statues after attempting to sell them, and the sailors were subsequently court-martialed and sentenced to prison. All of the statues were recovered in good shape. The ship embarked on her final Western Pacific deployment on 20 August 1981. After making port calls at Pearl Harbor and Subic Bay, the Philippines, she operated in the South China Sea. After a port call at Singapore, Coral Sea headed to the Indian Ocean where she relieved at Gonzo Station and operated with Royal Navy units in GonzoEx 2-81 (17–23 November). The Coral Sea battle group, under Rear Admiral Tom Brown, was involved in exercises with the Royal Navy under Rear Admiral Sandy Woodward – who operated with as his flagship. During one exercise, Woodward was able to manoeuver Glamorgan into a position where he could have "sunk" Coral Sea with Exocet missiles. The result of this exercise played a part in the belief of Admiral Woodward that the British should sink the Argentine cruiser because of the fear of a similar situation arising between that ship and the British aircraft carriers and during the Falklands War. Later, Coral Sea participated in Exercise Bright Star 82, an exercise involving the defense of Egypt and the Suez Canal (4–9 December). Relieved on 17 December 1981 by , she departed Gonzo Station and called at Pattaya, Thailand after 98 consecutive days at sea. After departing Pattaya the ship called at Subic Bay and Hong Kong. Coral Sea then operated in the Sea of Japan before making a port call at Sasebo, Japan. After departing Japan Coral Sea made another port call at Subic Bay, then again at Pearl Harbor before steaming to California. The ship arrived at her home port of Alameda on 23 March 1982. Coral Sea then began upkeep, training, and operations off of California. In late July 1982, she served as a movie prop in the filming of portions of the motion picture The Right Stuff. World cruise, deployments to the Mediterranean, final years On 25 March 1983, Coral Sea, having been reassigned to the Atlantic Fleet, left Alameda for her new homeport of Norfolk. The Navy sent the ship on a six-month around-the-world cruise, with ports of call in five countries. Coral Sea was replaced on the west coast by . On 1 March 1984, Carrier Air Wing 13 was established. The wing would make three deployments aboard Coral Sea from 1 October 1985 to 30 September 1989. On 11 April 1985, while on refresher training with her air wing in the Guantánamo Bay area, Coral Sea collided with the Ecuadorian tanker ship Napo and subsequently underwent two months of repairs at Norfolk Naval Shipyard in Portsmouth, Virginia. This resulted in the skipper along with 4 other officers being relieved of duty. On 13 October 1985, Coral Sea returned to the Mediterranean for her first Sixth Fleet deployment since 1957. Commanded by Captain Robert H. Ferguson, with CVW-13 embarked, it was also the first deployment of the new F/A-18 Hornet to the Mediterranean. The Hornets were assigned to VFA-131, VFA-132, VMFA-314 and VMFA-323 on Coral Sea. On 2 January 1986, EA-6B Prowlers from VAQ-135 reported aboard. The Squadron was called on a "No Notice Deployment" by The Joint Chiefs of Staff to augment CVW-13 with Electronic Countermeasures/Jamming Support. On 24 March 1986, Libyan Armed Forces units fired missiles at Sixth Fleet forces operating in the Gulf of Sidra after declaring international waters as their own. A missile (originating from an SA-5 missile site at Sirte) attack on CV-43's aircraft (Prowler/Hornet package) conducting a "Blue Darter" fell short and dropped into the Mediterranean. VFA-131 F/A-18's from Coral Sea and flew combat air patrols, protecting the carrier groups from Libyan aircraft. The Hornets were frequently called upon to intercept and challenge numerous MiG-23s, MiG-25s, Su-22s, and Mirages sent out by Libya to harass the fleet. On 5 April 1986, in response to the US show of force, the La Belle Discothèque in West Berlin, the Federal Republic of Germany was bombed, resulting in the death of one U.S. serviceman and many injured. On 15 April 1986, aircraft from Coral Sea and America, as well as USAF F-111Fs from RAF Lakenheath in the UK, struck targets in Libya as part of "Operation El Dorado Canyon". The Hornets went into action for the first time, flying several ship-to-shore air strikes against Libyan shore installations that were harassing the fleet. During this action, the Hornets from Coral Sea attacked and destroyed the SA-5 missile site at Sirte which had been "painting" US aircraft on its radars. This was the combat debut for the Hornet, and incidentally marked the first combat use of the AGM-88 HARM anti-radiation missile. The Hornets attacked the SAM sites in bad weather and at wave top heights. All of them returned without mishap. Coral Sea continued deployments to the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean area throughout the remainder of the 1980s. In 1987, she developed the "Coral Sea configuration" in which two attack squadrons on board used a shared maintenance program, helping to streamline aircraft maintenance. On 19 April 1989, while operating in the Caribbean, the ship responded to a call for assistance from the battleship , due to an explosion in her number two gun turret in which 47 crew members were killed. The explosive ordnance disposal team from Coral Sea removed volatile powder charges from the ship's 16 inch (406 mm) guns. Coral Sea also dispatched a surgical team and medical supplies. Medevac and logistical support to Iowa were provided by Coral Sea'''s deployed helicopter squadron HS-17 (Neptune's Raiders) flying the Sikorsky SH-3H, along with VC-8 flying the Sikorsky SH-3G aircraft from Naval Station Roosevelt Roads, Puerto Rico. She returned to Norfolk for the final time on 30 September 1989. Decommissioning and scrapping After nearly 43 years of service, the Coral Sea was decommissioned on 26 April 1990. She was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register two days later. She left Naval Station Norfolk on 2 November 1990 under tow from USNS Apache. Coral Sea was moored at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard to await her fate. On 7 May 1993, she was sold for scrap, minus her electronics, weapons, and other usable equipment, by the Defense Reutilization and Marketing Service (DRMS) to Seawitch Salvage of Baltimore. Scrapping was delayed by numerous financial, legal, and environmental issues. A series of articles by the Baltimore Sun about the problems involved with the scrapping of the Coral Sea and other navy vessels earned it the 1998 Pulitzer Prize in Investigative Reporting. At nearly 70,000 tons, Coral Sea was the largest vessel ever scrapped up to that date. The company attempted to sell the hull to China for scrapping, but the Navy blocked the sale in court. The scrapping continued off and on for several years until finally completed on 8 September 2000. One of her anchors is now on display in the Battle of Coral Sea Memorial, Townsville, Australia. It was presented to the memorial on 8 May 1992, by the Commander of the 7th Fleet and former commanding officer of Coral Sea, Vice Admiral Stanley R. Arthur. The other anchor is at the Citadel in Charleston SC. Awards and decorations References Bibliography This article includes information collected from United States Naval Aviation, 1910–1995'', public domain documents published by the Naval Historical Center and from http://www.usscoralsea.net/ Midway-class aircraft carriers 1946 ships World War II aircraft carriers of the United States Cold War aircraft carriers of the United States Vietnam War aircraft carriers of the United States Ships built in Newport News, Virginia
402402	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema%20of%20India	Cinema of India	The cinema of India, consisting of motion pictures which has had a large effect on world cinema since the late 20th century. Indian cinema is made up of various film industries, including Bollywood, which makes motion pictures in the Hindi language is one of the biggest film industries in the country. Major centers of film production across the country include Mumbai, Hyderabad, Chennai, Kolkata, Kochi, Bangalore, Bhubaneswar-Cuttack and Guwahati. For a number of years the Indian film industry has ranked first in the world in terms of annual film output. In 2022, Indian cinema earned at the box-office. Indian cinema is composed of multilingual and multi-ethnic film art. In 2022, Hindi cinema represented 33% of box office revenue, followed by Telugu representing 20%, Tamil representing 16%, Kannada representing 8% and Malayalam representing 6%. Other prominent film industries are that of Bengali, Marathi, Odia, Punjabi, Gujarati and Bhojpuri. As of 2022, the combined revenue of South Indian film industries has surpassed that of the Mumbai-based Hindi film industry (Bollywood). As of 2022, Telugu cinema leads Indian cinema's box-office revenue. Indian cinema is a global enterprise and its films have attracted international attention and acclaim throughout South Asia. Now regional films often get dubbed into many languages, forming Pan-India film. Since inception of Indian cinema in 1913, Bollywood (Hindi cinema) enjoyed the position of top film industry, but in recent years regional industries started giving though compitition to it. Overseas Indians account for 12% of revenue for the industry. Major movie production houses in India are Arka Media Works, Aascar Films, Aashirvad Cinemas, AGS Entertainment, Ajay Devgn FFilms, AVM Productions, Dharma Productions, Eros International, Geetha Arts, Hombale Films, Lyca Productions, Modern Theatres, Reliance Entertainment, Red Chillies Entertainment, Mythri Movie Makers, Salman Khan Films, Sun Pictures, Suresh Productions, UTV Motion Pictures, Yash Raj Films and Zee Entertainment Enterprises. History The history of cinema in India extends to the beginning of the film era. Following the screening of the Lumière and Robert Paul moving pictures in London in 1896, commercial cinematography became a worldwide sensation and these films were shown in Bombay (now Mumbai) that same year. Silent era (1890s–1920s) In 1897, a film presentation by filmmaker Professor Stevenson featured a stage show at Calcutta's Star Theatre. With Stevenson's camera and encouragement, Indian photographer Hiralal Sen filmed scenes from that show, exhibited as The Flower of Persia (1898). The Wrestlers (1899), by H. S. Bhatavdekar, showing a wrestling match at the Hanging Gardens in Bombay, was the first film to be shot by an Indian and the first Indian documentary film. From 1913–1931, all the movies made in India were silent films, which had no sound and had intertitles. In 1913, Dadasaheb Phalke released Raja Harishchandra (1913) in Bombay, the first film made in India. It was a silent film incorporating Marathi and English intertitles. It was premiered in Coronation cinema in Girgaon. Although some claim Shree Pundalik (1912) of Dadasaheb Torne is the first ever film made in India. Some film scholars have argued that Pundalik was not a true Indian film because it was simply a recording of a stage play, filmed by a British cameraman and it was processed in London. Raja Harishchandra of Phalke had a story based on Hindu Sanskrit legend of Harishchandra, a truthful King and its successes led many to consider him a pioneer of Indian cinema. Phalke used an all Indian crew including actors Anna Salunke and D. D. Dabke. He directed, edited, processed the film himself. Phalke saw The Life of Christ (1906) by the French director Alice Guy-Blaché, While watching Jesus on the screen, Phalke envisioned Hindu deities Rama and Krishna instead and decided to start in the business of "moving pictures". The first Tamil and Malayam films, also silent films, were Keechaka Vadham (1917–1918, R. Nataraja Mudaliar) and Vigathakumaran (1928, J. C. Daniel Nadar). The latter was the first Indian social drama film and featured the first Dalit-caste film actress. The first chain of Indian cinemas, Madan Theatre, was owned by Parsi entrepreneur Jamshedji Framji Madan, who oversaw the production and distribution of films for the chain. These included film adaptations from Bengal's popular literature and Satyawadi Raja Harishchandra (1917), a remake of Phalke's influential film. In South India, film pioneer Raghupathi Venkayya, credited as the father of Telugu cinema, built the first cinemas in Madras (now Chennai), and a film studio was established in the city by Nataraja Mudaliar. Films steadily gained popularity across India as affordable entertainment for the masses (admission as low as an anna [one-sixteenth of a rupee] in Bombay). Young producers began to incorporate elements of Indian social life and culture into cinema, others brought new ideas from across the world. Global audiences and markets soon became aware of India's film industry. In 1927, the British government, to promote the market in India for British films over American ones, formed the Indian Cinematograph Enquiry Committee. The ICC consisted of three British and three Indians, led by T. Rangachari, a Madras lawyer. This committee failed to bolster the desired recommendations of supporting British Film, instead recommending support for the fledgling Indian film industry, and their suggestions were set aside. Sound era The first Indian sound film was Alam Ara (1931) made by Ardeshir Irani. Ayodhyecha Raja (1932) was the first sound film of Marathi cinema. Irani also produced South India's first sound film, the Tamil–Telugu bilingual talking picture Kalidas (1931, H. M. Reddy). Jumai Shasthi was the first Bengali talkie. Chittoor Nagayya was one of the first multilingual filmmakers in India. East India Film Company produced its first Telugu film, Savitri (1933, C. Pullaiah), adapted from a stage play by Mylavaram Bala Bharathi Samajam. The film received an honorary diploma at the 2nd Venice International Film Festival. Jyoti Prasad Agarwala made his first film Joymoti (1935) in Assamese, and later made Indramalati. The first film studio in South India, Durga Cinetone, was built in 1936 by Nidamarthi Surayya in Rajahmundry, Andhra Pradesh. The advent of sound to Indian cinema launched musicals such as Indra Sabha and Devi Devyani, marking the beginning of song-and-dance in Indian films. By 1935, studios emerged in major cities such as Madras, Calcutta and Bombay as filmmaking became an established industry, exemplified by the success of Devdas (1935). The first colour film made in India was Kisan Kanya (1937, Moti B). Viswa Mohini (1940) was the first Indian film to depict the Indian movie-making world. Swamikannu Vincent, who had built the first cinema of South India in Coimbatore, introduced the concept of "tent cinema" in which a tent was erected on a stretch of open land to screen films. The first of its kind was in Madras and called Edison's Grand Cinema Megaphone. This was due to the fact that electric carbons were used for motion picture projectors. Bombay Talkies opened in 1934 and Prabhat Studios in Pune began production of Marathi films. Sant Tukaram (1936) was the first Indian film to be screened at an international film festival, at the 1937 edition of the Venice Film Festival. The film was judged one of the three best films of the year. However, while Indian filmmakers sought to tell important stories, the British Raj banned Wrath (1930) and Raithu Bidda (1938) for broaching the subject of the Indian independence movement. The Indian Masala film—a term used for mixed-genre films that combined song, dance, romance, etc.—arose following the Second World War. During the 1940s, cinema in South India accounted for nearly half of India's cinema halls, and cinema came to be viewed as an instrument of cultural revival. The Indian People's Theatre Association (IPTA), an art movement with a communist inclination, began to take shape through the 1940s and the 1950s. IPTA plays, such as Nabanna (1944), prepared the ground for realism in Indian cinema, exemplified by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas's Dharti Ke Lal (Children of the Earth, 1946). The IPTA movement continued to emphasize realism in films Mother India (1957) and Pyaasa (1957), among India's most recognizable cinematic productions. Following independence, the 1947 partition of India divided the nation's assets and a number of studios moved to Pakistan. Partition became an enduring film subject thereafter. The Indian government had established a Films Division by 1948, which eventually became one of the world's largest documentary film producers with an annual production of over 200 short documentaries, each released in 18 languages with 9,000 prints for permanent film theatres across the country. Golden Age (late 1940s–1960s) The period from the late 1940s to the early 1960s is regarded by film historians as the Golden Age of Indian cinema. This period saw the emergence of the Parallel Cinema movement, which emphasized social realism. Mainly led by Bengalis, early examples include Dharti Ke Lal (1946, Khwaja Ahmad Abbas), Neecha Nagar (1946, Chetan Anand), Nagarik (1952, Ritwik Ghatak) and Do Bigha Zamin (1953, Bimal Roy), laying the foundations for Indian neorealism The Apu Trilogy (1955–1959, Satyajit Ray) won prizes at several major international film festivals and firmly established the Parallel Cinema movement. It was influential on world cinema and led to a rush of coming-of-age films in art house theatres. Cinematographer Subrata Mitra developed the technique of bounce lighting, to recreate the effect of daylight on sets, during the second film of the trilogy and later pioneered other effects such as the photo-negative flashbacks and X-ray digressions. During the 1950s, Indian cinema reportedly became the world's second largest film industry, earning a gross annual income of in 1953. The government created the Film Finance Corporation (FFC) in 1960 to provide financial support to filmmakers. While serving as Information and Broadcasting Minister of India in the 1960s, Indira Gandhi supported the production of off-beat cinema through the FFC. Commercial Hindi cinema began thriving, including acclaimed films Pyaasa (1957) and Kaagaz Ke Phool (1959, Guru Dutt) Awaara (1951) and Shree 420 (1955, Raj Kapoor). These films expressed social themes mainly dealing with working-class urban life in India; Awaara presented Bombay as both a nightmare and a dream, while Pyaasa critiqued the unreality of city life. Epic film Mother India (1957, Mehboob Khan) was the first Indian film to be nominated for the US-based Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences' Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film and defined the conventions of Hindi cinema for decades. It spawned a new genre of dacoit films. Gunga Jumna (1961, Dilip Kumar) was a dacoit crime drama about two brothers on opposite sides of the law, a theme that became common in Indian films in the 1970s. Madhumati (1958, Bimal Roy) popularized the theme of reincarnation in Western popular culture. Actor Dilip Kumar rose to fame in the 1950s, and was the biggest Indian movie star of the time. He was a pioneer of method acting, predating Hollywood method actors such as Marlon Brando. Much like Brando's influence on New Hollywood actors, Kumar inspired Indian actors, including Amitabh Bachchan, Naseeruddin Shah, Shah Rukh Khan and Nawazuddin Siddiqui. Neecha Nagar (1946) won the Palme d'Or at Cannes and Indian films competed for the award most years in the 1950s and early 1960s. Ray is regarded as one of the greatest auteurs of 20th century cinema, along with his contemporaries Dutt and Ghatak. In 1992, the Sight & Sound Critics' Poll ranked Ray at 7 in its list of Top 10 Directors of all time. Multiple films from this era are included among the greatest films of all time in various critics' and directors' polls, including The Apu Trilogy, Jalsaghar, Charulata Aranyer Din Ratri, Pyaasa, Kaagaz Ke Phool, Meghe Dhaka Tara, Komal Gandhar, Awaara, Baiju Bawra, Mother India, Mughal-e-Azam and Subarnarekha (also tied at No. 11). Sivaji Ganesan became India's first actor to receive an international award when he won the Best Actor award at the Afro-Asian film festival in 1960 and was awarded the title of Chevalier in the Legion of Honour by the French Government in 1995. Tamil cinema is influenced by Dravidian politics, with prominent film personalities C N Annadurai, M G Ramachandran, M Karunanidhi and Jayalalithaa becoming Chief Ministers of Tamil Nadu. 1970s–present By 1986, India's annual film output had increased to 833 films annually, making India the world's largest film producer. Hindi film production of Bombay, the largest segment of the industry, became known as "Bollywood". By 1996, the Indian film industry had an estimated domestic cinema viewership of 600million people, establishing India as one of the largest film markets, with the largest regional industries being Hindi, Telugu, and Tamil films. In 2001, in terms of ticket sales, Indian cinema sold an estimated 3.6 billion tickets annually across the globe, compared to Hollywood's 2.6 billion tickets sold. Hindi Realistic Parallel Cinema continued throughout the 1970s, practised in many Indian film cultures. The FFC's art film orientation came under criticism during a Committee on Public Undertakings investigation in 1976, which accused the body of not doing enough to encourage commercial cinema. Hindi commercial cinema continued with films such as Aradhana (1969), Sachaa Jhutha (1970), Haathi Mere Saathi (1971), Anand (1971), Kati Patang (1971) Amar Prem (1972), Dushman (1972) and Daag (1973). By the early 1970s, Hindi cinema was experiencing thematic stagnation, dominated by musical romance films. Screenwriter duo Salim–Javed (Salim Khan and Javed Akhtar) revitalised the industry. They established the genre of gritty, violent, Bombay underworld crime films with Zanjeer (1973) and Deewaar (1975). They reinterpreted the rural themes of Mother India and Gunga Jumna in an urban context reflecting 1970s India, channelling the growing discontent and disillusionment among the masses, unprecedented growth of slums and urban poverty, corruption and crime, as well as anti-establishment themes. This resulted in their creation of the "angry young man", personified by Amitabh Bachchan, who reinterpreted Kumar's performance in Gunga Jumna and gave a voice to the urban poor. By the mid-1970s, Bachchan's position as a lead actor was solidified by crime-action films Zanjeer and Sholay (1975). The devotional classic Jai Santoshi Ma (1975) was made on a low budget and became a box office success and a cult classic. Another important film was Deewaar (1975, Yash Chopra), a crime film with brothers on opposite sides of the law which Danny Boyle described as "absolutely key to Indian cinema". The term "Bollywood" was coined in the 1970s, when the conventions of commercial Bombay-produced Hindi films were established. Key to this was Nasir Hussain and Salim–Javed's creation of the masala film genre, which combines elements of action, comedy, romance, drama, melodrama and musical. Their film Yaadon Ki Baarat (1973) has been identified as the first masala film and the first quintessentially Bollywood film. Masala films made Bachchan the biggest Bollywood movie star of the period. Another landmark was Amar Akbar Anthony (1977, Manmohan Desai). Desai further expanded the genre in the 1970s and 1980s. Commercial Hindi cinema grew in the 1980s, with films such as Ek Duuje Ke Liye (1981), Disco Dancer (1982), Himmatwala (1983), Tohfa (1984), Naam (1986), Mr India (1987), and Tezaab (1988). In the late 1980s, Hindi cinema experienced another period of stagnation, with a decline in box office turnout, due to increasing violence, decline in musical melodic quality, and rise in video piracy, leading to middle-class family audiences abandoning theatres. The turning point came with Indian blockbuster Disco Dancer (1982) which began the era of disco music in Indian cinema. Lead actor Mithun Chakraborty and music director Bappi Lahiri had the highest number of mainstream Indian hit movies that decade. At the end of the decade, Yash Chopra's Chandni (1989) created a new formula for Bollywood musical romance films, reviving the genre and defining Hindi cinema in the years that followed. Commercial Hindi cinema grew in the late 1980s and 1990s, with the release of Mr. India (1987), Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak (1988), Chaalbaaz (1989), Maine Pyar Kiya (1989), Lamhe (1991), Saajan (1991), Khuda Gawah (1992), Khalnayak (1993), Darr (1993), Hum Aapke Hain Koun..! (1994), Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge (1995), Dil To Pagal Hai (1997), Pyar Kiya Toh Darna Kya (1998) and Kuch Kuch Hota Hai (1998). Cult classic Bandit Queen (1994) directed by Shekhar Kapur received international recognition and controversy. In the late 1990s, there was a resurgence of Parallel Cinema in Bollywood, largely due to the critical and commercial success of crime films such as Satya (1998) and Vaastav (1999). These films launched a genre known as "Mumbai noir", reflecting social problems in the city. Ram Gopal Varma directed the Indian Political Trilogy, and the Indian Gangster Trilogy; film critic Rajeev Masand had labelled the latter series as one of the "most influential movies of Bollywood. The first installment of the trilogy, Satya, was also listed in CNN-IBN's 100 greatest Indian films of all time. Since the 1990s, the three biggest Bollywood movie stars have been the "Three Khans": Aamir Khan, Shah Rukh Khan, and Salman Khan. Combined, they starred in the top ten highest-grossing Bollywood films, and have dominated the Indian box office since the 1990s. Shah Rukh Khan was the most successful for most of the 1990s and 2000s, while Aamir Khan has been the most successful since the late 2000s; according to Forbes, Shah Rukh Khan is "arguably the world's biggest movie star" as of 2017, due to his immense popularity in India and China. Other notable Hindi film stars of recent decades include Tabu, Akshay Kumar, Ajay Devgan, Hrithik Roshan, Anil Kapoor, Sanjay Dutt, Sridevi, Madhuri Dixit and Kajol. Haider (2014, Vishal Bhardwaj), the third instalment of the Indian Shakespearean Trilogy after Maqbool (2003) and Omkara (2006), won the People's Choice Award at the 9th Rome Film Festival in the Mondo Genere making it the first Indian film to achieve this honour. The 2000s and 2010s also saw the rise of a new generation of popular actors like Shahid Kapoor, Ranbir Kapoor, Ranveer Singh, Ayushmann Khurrana, Varun Dhawan, Sidharth Malhotra, Sushant Singh Rajput, Kartik Aaryan, Arjun Kapoor, Aditya Roy Kapur and Tiger Shroff, as well as actresses like Vidya Balan, Priyanka Chopra, Katrina Kaif, Kangana Ranaut, Deepika Padukone, Sonam Kapoor, Anushka Sharma, Shraddha Kapoor, Alia Bhatt and Kriti Sanon with Balan, Ranaut and Bhatt gaining wide recognition for successful female-centric films such as The Dirty Picture (2011), Kahaani (2012), Queen (2014), Highway (2014), Tanu Weds Manu Returns (2015), Raazi (2018) and Gangubai Kathiawadi (2022). Kareena Kapoor and Rani Mukerji are among the few working actresses from the 2000s and late 1990s who successfully completed more than 20 years in the industry. Salim–Javed were highly influential in South Indian cinema. In addition to writing two Kannada films, many of their Bollywood films had remakes produced in other regions, including Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam cinema. While the Bollywood directors and producers held the rights to their films in Northern India, Salim–Javed retained the rights in South India, where they sold remake rights for films such as Zanjeer, Yaadon Ki Baarat and Don. Several of these remakes became breakthroughs for actor Rajinikanth. Sridevi is widely regarded as the first female superstar of Indian cinema due to her pan-Indian appeal with equally successful careers in Hindi, Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada and Telugu cinema. She is the only Bollywood actor to have starred in a top 10 grossing film each year of her active career (1983–1997). Telugu K. Viswanath's works such as Sankarabharanam (1980) about revitalization of Indian classical music won the "Prize of the Public" at the Besançon Film Festival of France in the year 1981. Forbes included J. V. Somayajulu's performance in the film on its list of "25 Greatest Acting Performances of Indian Cinema". Swathi Muthyam (1986) was India's official entry to the 59th Academy Awards. Swarna Kamalam (1988) the dance film choreographed by Kelucharan Mohapatra, and Sharon Lowen was featured at the Ann Arbor Film Festival, fetching three Indian Express Awards. B. Narsing Rao, K. N. T. Sastry, and A. Kutumba Rao garnered international recognition for their works in new-wave cinema. Narsing Rao's Maa Ooru (1992) won the "Media Wave Award" of Hungary; Daasi (1988) and Matti Manushulu (1990) won the Diploma of Merit awards at the 16th and 17th MIFF respectively. Sastry's Thilaadanam (2000) received "New Currents Award" at the 7th Busan; Rajnesh Domalpalli's Vanaja (2006) won "Best First Feature Award" at the 57th Berlinale. Ram Gopal Varma's Siva (1989), which attained cult following introduced steadicams and new sound recording techniques to Indian films. Siva attracted the young audience during its theatrical run, and its success encouraged filmmakers to explore a variety of themes and make experimental films. Varma introduced road movie and film noir to Indian screen with Kshana Kshanam (1991). Varma experimented with close-to-life performances by the lead actors, which bought a rather fictional storyline a sense of authenticity at a time when the industry was being filled with commercial fillers. Singeetam Srinivasa Rao introduced science fiction to the Indian screen with Aditya 369 (1991), the film dealt with exploratory dystopian and apocalyptic themes. The edge of the seat thriller had characters which stayed human, inconsistent and insecure. The film's narrative takes the audience into the post apocalyptic experience through time travel, as well as folklore generation of 1500 A.D, which including a romantic backstory, and "The Time Machine". Chiranjeevi's works such as the social drama film Swayamkrushi (1987), comedy thriller Chantabbai (1986), the vigilante thriller Kondaveeti Donga (1990), the Western thriller Kodama Simham (1990), and the action thriller, Gang Leader (1991), popularized genre films with the highest estimated cinema footfalls. Sekhar Kammula's Dollar Dreams (2000), which explored the conflict between American dreams and human feelings, re-introduced social realism to Telugu film which had stagnated in formulaic commercialism. War drama Kanche (2015, Krish Jagarlamudi) explored the 1944 Nazi attack on the Indian army in the Italian campaign of the Second World War. Pan-Indian works such as Sankalp Reddy's Ghazi (2017), explored submarine warfare based on the mysterious altercation between PNS Ghazi and INS Karanj during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. S. S. Rajamouli's epic Baahubali 2: The Conclusion (2017) won the American "Saturn Award for Best International Film" and the alternate history RRR (2022) received various international accolades including an Academy Award for the song "Naatu Naatu" and the Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Foreign Language Film. Tamil Tamil cinema established Madras (now Chennai) as a secondary film production centre in India, used by Hindi cinema, other South Indian film industries, and Sri Lankan cinema. Over the last quarter of the 20th century, Tamil films from India established a global presence through distribution to an increasing number of overseas theatres. The industry also inspired independent filmmaking in Sri Lanka and Tamil diaspora populations in Malaysia, Singapore, and the Western Hemisphere. Marupakkam (1991, K. S. Sethumadhavan) and Kanchivaram (2007) each won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film. Tamil films receive significant patronage in neighbouring Indian states Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and New Delhi. In Kerala and Karnataka the films are directly released in Tamil but in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh they are generally dubbed into Telugu. Tamil films have had international success for decades. Since Chandralekha, Muthu was the second Tamil film to be dubbed into Japanese (as Mutu: Odoru Maharaja) and grossed a record $1.6 million in 1998. In 2010, Enthiran grossed a record $4 million in North America. Tamil-language films appeared at multiple film festivals. Kannathil Muthamittal (Ratnam), Veyyil (Vasanthabalan) and Paruthiveeran (Ameer Sultan), Kanchivaram (Priyadarshan) premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival. Tamil films were submitted by India for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film on eight occasions. Chennai-based music composer A. R. Rahaman achieved global recognition with two Academy Awards and is nicknamed as "Isai Puyal" (musical storm) and "Mozart of Madras". Nayakan (1987, Kamal Haasan) was included in Time All-Time 100 Movies list. Marathi Marathi cinema also known as Marathi film industry, is a film industry based Mumbai in Maharashtra state. It is the oldest film industry of India. The first Marathi movie, Raja Harishchandra of Dadasaheb Phalke was made in 1912, released in 1913 in Girgaon, it was a silent film with Marathi-English intertitles made with full Marathi actors and crew, after the film emerged successful, Phalke made many movies on Hindu mythology. In 1932, the first sound film, Ayodhyecha Raja was released, just five years after 1st Hollywood sound film The Jazz Singer (1927). The first Marathi film in color made by V Shantaram, Pinjara (1972). In 1960s-70s movies was based on rural, social subjects with drama and humour genre, Nilu Phule was prominent villan that time. In 1980s M. Kothare and Sachin Pilgaonkar made many hit movies on thriller humour and humor genre respectively. Ashok Saraf and Laxmikant Berde starred in many of these and emerged as top actors. Mid 2000s onwards, the industry frequently made hit movies. Malayalam Malayalam cinema experienced its Golden Age during this time with works of filmmakers such as Adoor Gopalakrishnan, G. Aravindan, T. V. Chandran and Shaji N. Karun. Gopalakrishnan is often considered to be Ray's spiritual heir. He directed some of his most acclaimed films during this period, including Elippathayam (1981) which won the Sutherland Trophy at the London Film Festival. In 1984 My Dear Kuttichathan directed by Jijo Punnoose under Navodaya Studio was released and it was the first Indian film to be filmed in 3D format. Karun's debut film Piravi (1989) won the Caméra d'Or at Cannes, while his second film Swaham (1994) was in competition for the Palme d'Or. Vanaprastham was screened at the Un Certain Regard section of the Cannes Film Festival. Murali Nair's Marana Simhasanam (1999), inspired by the first execution by electrocution in India, the film was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1999 Cannes Film Festival where it won the Caméra d'Or. The film received special reception at the British Film Institute. Fazil's Manichitrathazhu (1993) scripted by Madhu Muttam; is inspired by a tragedy that happened in an Ezhava tharavad of Alummoottil meda' an old (Traditional house) located at Muttom, Alappuzha district, a central Travancore Channar family, in the 19th century. It was remade in four languages – in Kannada as Apthamitra, in Tamil as Chandramukhi , in Bengali as Rajmohol and in Hindi as Bhool Bhulaiyaa – all being commercially successful. Jeethu Joseph's Drishyam (2013) was remade into four other Indian languages: Drishya (2014) in Kannada, Drushyam (2014) in Telugu, Papanasam (2015) in Tamil and Drishyam (2015) in Hindi. Internationally, it was remade in Sinhala language as Dharmayuddhaya (2017) and in Chinese as Sheep Without a Shepherd (2019), and also in Indonesian. Kannada Ethnographic works took prominence such as B. V. Karanth's Chomana Dudi (1975), (based on Chomana Dudi by Shivaram Karanth), Girish Karnad's Kaadu (1973), (based on Kaadu by Srikrishna Alanahalli), Pattabhirama Reddy's Samskara (1970) (based on Samskara by U. R. Ananthamurthy), fetching the Bronze Leopard at Locarno International Film Festival, and T. S. Nagabharana's Mysuru Mallige (based on the works of poet K. S. Narasimhaswamy). Girish Kasaravalli's Ghatashraddha (1977), won the Ducats Award at the Manneham Film Festival Germany, Dweepa (2002), made to Best Film at Moscow International Film Festival, Prashanth Neel's K.G.F (film series) (2018, 2022) is a period action series based on the Kolar Gold Fields. Set in the late 1970s and early 1980s the series follows Raja Krishnappa Bairya aka Rocky (Yash), a Mumbai-based high ranking mercenary born in poverty, to his rise to power in the Kolar Gold Fields and the subsequent uprising as one of the biggest gangster and businessman at that time. The film gathered cult following becoming the highest-grossing Kannada film. Rishab Shetty's Kantara (2022), received acclaim for showcasing the Bhoota Kola, a native Ceremonial dance performance prevalent among the Hindus of coastal Karnataka. Cultural context K. Moti Gokulsing and Wimal Dissanayake identified six major influences that have shaped Indian popular cinema: The ancient epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana influenced the narratives of Indian cinema. Examples of this influence include the techniques of a side story, back-story and story within a story. Indian popular films often have plots that branch into sub-plots; such narrative dispersals can be seen in the 1993 films Khalnayak and Gardish. Ancient Sanskrit drama, with its emphasis on spectacle, music, dance and gesture combined "to create a vibrant artistic unit with dance and mime being central to the dramatic experience". Sanskrit dramas were known as natya, derived from the root word (dance), featuring spectacular dance-dramas. The Rasa method of performance, dating to ancient times, is one of the fundamental features that differentiate Indian from Western cinema. In the Rasa method, the performer conveys emotions to the audience through empathy, in contrast to the Western Stanislavski method where the actor must become "a living, breathing embodiment of a character". The rasa method is apparent in the performances of Hindi actors such as Bachchan and Shah Rukh Khan and in Hindi films such as Rang De Basanti (2006), and Ray's works. Traditional folk theatre, which became popular around the 10th century with the decline of Sanskrit theatre. These regional traditions include the Yatra of West Bengal, the Ramlila of Uttar Pradesh, Yakshagana of Karnataka, 'Chindu Natakam' of Andhra Pradesh and the Terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu. Parsi theatre, which blends realism and fantasy, containing crude humour, songs and music, sensationalism, and dazzling stagecraft. These influences are clearly evident in masala films such as Coolie (1983), and to an extent in more recent critically acclaimed films such as Rang De Basanti. Hollywood-made popular musicals from the 1920s through the 1960s, though Indian films used musical sequences as another fantasy element in the song-and-dance tradition of narration, undisguised and "intersect[ing] with people's day-to-day lives in compelex and interesting ways." Western music videos, particularly MTV, had an increasing influence in the 1990s, as can be seen in the pace, camera angles, dance sequences, and music of recent Indian films. An early example of this approach was Bombay (1995, Mani Ratnam). Sharmistha Gooptu and Bhaumik identify Indo-Persian/Islamicate culture as another major influence. In the early 20th century, Urdu was the lingua franca of popular performances across northern India, established in performance art traditions such as nautch dancing, Urdu poetry and Parsi theatre. Urdu and related Hindi dialects were the most widely understood across northern India, thus Hindustani became the standardised language of early Indian talkies. One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights) had a strong influence on Parsi theatre, which adapted "Persianate adventure-romances" into films, and on early Bombay cinema where "Arabian Nights cinema" became a popular genre. Like mainstream Indian popular cinema, Indian parallel cinema was influenced by a combination of Indian theatre and Indian literature (such as Bengali literature and Urdu poetry), but differs when it comes to foreign influences, where it is influenced more by European cinema (particularly Italian neorealism and French poetic realism) than by Hollywood. Ray cited Vittorio De Sica's Bicycle Thieves (1948) and Jean Renoir's The River (1951), on which he assisted, as influences on his debut film Pather Panchali (1955). International influence During colonial rule, Indians bought film equipment from Europe. The British funded wartime propaganda films during the Second World War, some of which showed the Indian army pitted against the Axis powers, specifically the Empire of Japan, which had managed to infiltrate India. One such story was Burma Rani, which depicted civilian resistance to Japanese occupation by British and Indian forces in Myanmar. Pre-independence businessmen such as J. F. Madan and Abdulally Esoofally traded in global cinema. Early Indian films made early inroads into the Soviet Union, Middle East, Southeast Asia and China. Mainstream Indian movie stars gained international fame across Asia and Eastern Europe. For example, Indian films were more popular in the Soviet Union than Hollywood films and occasionally domestic Soviet films. From 1954 to 1991, 206 Indian films were sent to the Soviet Union, drawing higher average audience figures than domestic Soviet productions, Films such as Awaara and Disco Dancer drew more than 60 million viewers. Films such as Awaara, 3 Idiots and Dangal, were among the 20 highest-grossing films in China. Many Asian and South Asian countries increasingly found Indian cinema more suited to their sensibilities than Western cinema. Jigna Desai holds that by the 21st century, Indian cinema had become 'deterritorialized', spreading to parts of the world where Indian expatriates were present in significant numbers and had become an alternative to other international cinema. Indian films frequently appeared in international fora and film festivals. This allowed Parallel Bengali filmmakers to achieve worldwide fame. Indian cinema more recently began influencing Western musical films, and played a particularly instrumental role in the revival of the genre in the Western world. Ray's work had a worldwide impact, with filmmakers such as Martin Scorsese, James Ivory, Abbas Kiarostami, François Truffaut, Carlos Saura, Isao Takahata and Gregory Nava citing his influence, and others such as Akira Kurosawa praising his work. The "youthful coming-of-age dramas that flooded art houses since the mid-fifties owe a tremendous debt to the Apu trilogy". Since the 1980s, overlooked Indian filmmakers such as Ghatak and Dutt posthumously gained international acclaim. Baz Luhrmann stated that his successful musical film Moulin Rouge! (2001) was directly inspired by Bollywood musicals. That film's success renewed interest in the then-moribund Western musical genre, subsequently fuelling a renaissance. Danny Boyle's Slumdog Millionaire (2008) was directly inspired by Indian films, and is considered to be an "homage to Hindi commercial cinema". Indian cinema has been recognised repeatedly at the US-based Academy Awards. Indian films Mother India (1957), Salaam Bombay! (1988) and Lagaan (2001), were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. Indian Oscar winners include Bhanu Athaiya (costume designer), Ray (filmmaker), A. R. Rahman (music composer), Resul Pookutty (sound editor) and Gulzar (lyricist), M. M. Keeravani (music composer), Chandrabose (lyricist) Cottalango Leon and Rahul Thakkar Sci-Tech Award. Genres and styles Masala film Masala is a style of Indian cinema that mixes multiple genres in one work, especially in Bollywood, West Bengal and South India. For example, one film can portray action, comedy, drama, romance and melodrama. These films tend to be musicals with songs filmed in picturesque locations. Plots for such movies may seem illogical and improbable to unfamiliar viewers. The genre is named after masala, a mixture of spices in Indian cuisine. Parallel cinema Parallel Cinema, also known as Art Cinema or the Indian New Wave, is known for its realism and naturalism, addressing the sociopolitical climate. This movement is distinct from mainstream Bollywood cinema and began around the same time as the French and Japanese New Waves. The movement began in Bengal (led by Ray, Sen and Ghatak) and then gained prominence in other regions. The movement was launched by Bimal Roy's Do Bigha Zamin (1953), which was both a commercial and critical success, winning the International Prize at Cannes. Ray's films include the three instalments of The Apu Trilogy which won major prizes at the Cannes, Berlin and Venice Film Festivals, and are frequently listed among the greatest films of all time. Other neo-realist filmmakers were Shyam Benegal, Karun, Gopalakrishnan and Kasaravalli. Multilingual Some Indian films are known as "multilinguals", filmed in similar but non-identical versions, in different languages. According to Ashish Rajadhyaksha and Paul Willemen in the Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema (1994), in its most precise form, a multilingual is Rajadhyaksha and Willemen note that in seeking to construct their Encyclopedia, they often found it "extremely difficult to distinguish multilinguals in this original sense from dubbed versions, remakes, reissues or, in some cases, the same film listed with different titles, presented as separate versions in different languages ... it will take years of scholarly work to establish definitive data in this respect". Pan-India film Pan-India film is both a style of cinema and a distribution strategy, designed to universally appeal to audiences across the country and simultaneously released in multiple languages. It is a film movement that has gained popularity following the success of Baahubali: The Beginning (2015) which was a Tollywood film. The term "Pan-Indian film" is used for a film that is simultaneously released in Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada and Hindi languages, with an aim to maximize the target audience and thus increase revenues. Music Music is a substantial revenue generator for the Indian film industry, with music rights alone accounting for 4–5% of net revenues. The major film music companies are T-Series at Delhi, Sony Music India at Chennai and Zee Music Company at Mumbai, Aditya Music at Hyderabad and Saregama at Kolkata. Film music accounts for 48% of net music sales in the country. A typical film may feature 5–6 choreographed songs. The demands of a multicultural, increasingly globalised Indian audience led to a mixing of local and international musical traditions. Local dance and music remain a recurring theme in India and followed the Indian diaspora. Playback singers such as Mohammad Rafi, Kishore Kumar, Lata Mangeshkar, K. J. Yesudas, P.Susheela, S. Janaki, Asha Bhosle, K. S. Chitra, Kumar Sanu, Udit Narayan and S. P. Balasubrahmanyam drew crowds to presentations of film music. In the 21st century interaction increased between Indian artists and others. Filming locations A filming location is any place where acting and dialogue are recorded. Sites where filming without dialogue takes place are termed a second unit photography site. Filmmakers often choose to shoot on location because they believe that greater realism can be achieved in a "real" place. Location shooting is often motivated by budget considerations. The most popular locations for filming in India are the main cities of their state for regional industry. Other locations include Manali and Shimla in Himachal Pradesh; Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir; Ladakh; Darjeeling in West Bengal; Ooty and Kodaikanal in Tamil Nadu; Amritsar in Punjab; Udaipur, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer and Jaipur in Rajasthan; Delhi; Ottapalam in Kerala; Goa and Puducherry. Production companies More than 1000 production organisations operate in the Indian film industry, but few are successful. AVM Productions is the oldest surviving studio in India. Other major production houses include Yash Raj Films, Salman Khan Films, T-Series, Lyca Productions, Madras Talkies, AGS Entertainment, Sun Pictures, Red Chillies Entertainment, Dharma Productions, Eros International, Ajay Devgn FFilms, Balaji Motion Pictures, UTV Motion Pictures, Raaj Kamal Films International, Aashirvad Cinemas, Wunderbar Films, Cape of Good Films and Geetha Arts. Cinema by language Films are made in many cities and regions in India including Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Jammu, Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Konkan (Goa), Kerala, Maharashtra, Manipur, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, Tripura and Mizoram. Assamese The Assamese-language film industry is based in Assam in northeastern India. It is sometimes called Jollywood, for the Jyoti Chitraban Film Studio. Some films have been well received by critics but they have not yet captured national audiences. The 21st century has produced Bollywood-style Assamese movies which have set new box office records for the small industry. Bengali The Bengali-language cinematic tradition of Tollygunge, West Bengal, is also known as Tollywood. When the term was coined in the 1930s, it was the centre of the Indian film industry. West Bengal cinema is historically known for the parallel cinema movement and art films. Braj Bhasha Braj-language films present Brij culture mainly to rural people, predominantly in the nebulous Braj region centred around Mathura, Agra, Aligarh and Hathras in Western Uttar Pradesh and Bharatpur and Dholpur in Rajasthan (northern India). It is the predominant language in the central stretch of the Ganges-Yamuna Doab in Uttar Pradesh. The first Brij Bhasha movie was Brij Bhoomi (1982, Shiv Kumar), which was a success throughout the country. Later Brij Bhasha cinema saw the production of films like Jamuna Kinare and Brij Kau Birju. Bhojpuri Bhojpuri-language films predominantly cater to residents of western Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh and also have a large audience in Delhi and Mumbai due to the migration of Bhojpuri speakers to these cities. International markets for these films developed in other Bhojpuri-speaking countries of the West Indies, Oceania and South America. Bhojpuri film history begins with Ganga Maiyya Tohe Piyari Chadhaibo (Mother Ganges, I will offer you a yellow sari, 1962, Kundan Kumar). Throughout the following decades, few films were produced. The industry experienced a revival beginning with the hit Saiyyan Hamar (My Sweetheart, 2001, Mohan Prasad). Although smaller than other Indian film industries, these successes increased Bhojpuri cinema's visibility, leading to an awards show and a trade magazine, Bhojpuri City. Chakma The Chakma language is spoken in Tripura and Mizoram (Northeast India), as well as in the Chittagong Hill Tracts region of Bangladesh. Films in Chakma include Tanyabi Firti (Tanyabi's Lake, 2005, Satarupa Sanyal). Chhattisgarhi The Chhattisgarhi-language film industry of Chhattisgarhi state, central India, is known as Chhollywood. Its beginnings are with Kahi Debe Sandesh (In Black and White, 1965, Manu Nayak) No Chhattisgarhi films were released from 1971 until Mor Chhainha Bhuinya (2000). English Indian filmmakers also produce English language films. Deepa Mehta, Anant Balani, Homi Adajania, Vijay Singh, Vierendrra Lalit and Sooni Taraporevala have garnered recognition in Indian English cinema. Gujarati The Gujarati-language film industry, also known as Gollywood or Dhollywood, is currently centered in the state of Gujarat. During the silent era, many filmmakers and actors were Gujarati and Parsi, and their films were closely related to Gujarati culture. Twenty film companies and studios, mostly located in Bombay, were owned by Gujaratis and at least 44 major Gujarati directors worked during this era. The first film released in Gujarati was Narsinh Mehta (1932). More than one thousand Gujarati films have been released. Gujarati cinema ranges from mythology to history and from social to political. Gujarati films originally targeted a rural audience, but after its revival () catered to an urban audience. Hindi The Hindi language film industry of Mumbai (formerly Bombay), also known as Bollywood, is the largest and most powerful branch of Hindi cinema. Hindi cinema explores issues of caste and culture in films such as Achhut Kanya (1936) and Sujata (1959). International visibility came to the industry with Raj Kapoor's Awara and later in Shakti Samantha's Aradhana. Art film directors include Kaul, Kumar Shahani, Ketan Mehta, Govind Nihalani, Shyam Benegal, Mira Nair, Nagesh Kukunoor, Sudhir Mishra and Nandita Das. Hindi cinema grew during the 1990s with the release of as many as 215 films annually. Magazines such as Filmfare, Stardust and Cine Blitz popularly cover the industry. Kannada Kannada cinema, also known as Sandalwood or Chandanavana, is the segment of Indian cinema dedicated to the production of motion pictures in the Kannada language, which is widely spoken in Karnataka state. Sati Sulochana (1934, Y. V. Rao) was the first talkie film in the Kannada language. Kannada films include adaptations of major literary works and experimental films. Konkani Konkani-language films are mainly produced in Goa, one of India's smallest film regions which produced four films in 2009. The first full-length Konkani film was Mogacho Anvddo (1950, Jerry Braganza). The film's release date, 24 April, is celebrated as Konkani Film Day. An immense body of Konkani literature and art is a resource for filmmakers. Kazar (Marriage, 2009, Richard Castelino) and Ujvaadu (Shedding New Light on Old Age Issues, Kasaragod Chinna) are major releases. The pioneering Mangalorean Konkani film is Mog Ani Maipas. Maithili Maithili cinema is made in the Maithili language. The first full-length film was Kanyadan (1965). There are numerous films made in the Maithili over the years The film Mithila Makhaan (2019) won a National Award in the regional films category. Malayalam The Malayalam-language film industry, also known as Mollywood, is India's fourth-largest film industry. It is mainly based at Kochi, Kerala state. Neelakkuyil (1954) was one of the first Malayalam films to get national recognition. Newspaper Boy (1955), made by a group of students, was the first neo-realistic Malayalam film. Chemmeen (1965, Ramu Kariat), based on a story by Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai, became the first South Indian film to win the National Film Award for Best Feature Film. Malayalam cinema has been in the forefront of technological innovation in Indian filmmaking. The first neorealistic film (Newspaper Boy), the first CinemaScope film (Thacholi Ambu), the first 70 mm film (Padayottam), the first 3D film (My Dear Kuttichathan), the first Panavision film (Vanaprastham), the first digital film (Moonnamathoral), the first Smartphone film (Jalachhayam), and the first 8K film (Villain) in India were made in Malayalam. The period from 1986 to 1990 is regarded as the Golden Age of Malayalam cinema, with four Malayalam films recognized by selection at the Cannes Film Festival—Shaji N. Karun-directed Piravi (1989), Swaham (1994) and Vanaprastham (1999), and Murali Nair-directed Marana Simhasanam (1999). Piravi (1989) won the Caméra d'Or — Mention Spéciale and Marana Simhasanam has won the Caméra d'Or. The Kerala State Film Awards established by the Government of Kerala recognizes the best works in Malayalam cinema every year, along with J. C. Daniel Award for lifetime achievement in Malayalam cinema. K. R. Narayanan National Institute of Visual Science and Arts (KRNNIVSA) is a training and research centre for film and video technology. Manipuri Manipuri cinema is a small film industry of Manipur, encompassing Meitei language and other languages of the state. It began in the 1970s and gained momentum following a 2002 state ban on Hindi films. 80–100 movies are made each year. Among the notable Manipuri films are Imagi Ningthem (1982, Aribam Syam Sharma), Ishanou, Yenning Amadi Likla, Phijigee Mani, Leipaklei, Loktak Lairembee, Eikhoishibu Kanano, Eikhoigi Yum and Oneness. Marathi Marathi films are produced in the Marathi language in Maharashtra state. It the oldest of India's film industries, which began in Kolhapur, moved to Pune and is now based in old Mumbai. Some of the more notable films are Sangte Aika, Ek Gaon Bara Bhangadi, Pinjara, Sinhasan, Pathlaag, Jait Re Jait, Saamana, Santh Wahate Krishnamai, Sant Tukaram and Shyamchi Aai. Nagpuri Nagpuri films are produced in the Nagpuri language in Jharkhand state. The first Nagpuri feature film was Sona Kar Nagpur (1992). With a mainly rural population and cinema halls closing, non-traditional distribution models may be used. Gorkha Gorkha cinema consists of films produced by Nepali-speaking Indians. Odia The Odia-language film industry of Bhubaneswar and Cuttack, Odisha state, is also known as Ollywood. The first Odia-language film was Sita Bibaha (1936). The best year for Odia cinema was 1984 when Maya Miriga (Nirad Mohapatra) and Dhare Alua were showcased in Indian Panorama and Maya Miriga was invited to Critics Week at Cannes. The film received the Best Third World Film award at Mannheim Film Festival, Jury Award in Hawaii and was shown at the London Film Festival. Punjabi The Punjabi-language film industry, based in Amritsar and Mohali, Punjab, is also known as Pollywood. K. D. Mehra made the first Punjabi film, Sheela (1935). As of 2009, Punjabi cinema had produced between 900 and 1,000 movies. Rajasthani The cinema of Rajasthan (Rajjywood) refers to films produced in Rajasthan in north-western India. These films are produced in various regional and tribal languages including Rajasthani varieties such as Mewari, Marwari, Hadoti etc. Sindhi The Sindhi-language film industry is largely based in Sindh, Pakistan, and with Sindhi speakers in North Gujarat and Southwestern Rajasthan, India, and elsewhere among the Sindhi diaspora. The first Indian-made Sindhi film was Ekta (1940). while the first Sindhi film produced in Pakistan was Umar Marvi (1956). The industry has produced some Bollywood-style films. The Sindhi film industry produces movies at intervals. The first was Abana (1958), which was a success throughout the country. Sindhi cinema then produced some Bollywood-style films such as Hal Ta Bhaji Haloon, Parewari, Dil Dije Dil Waran Khe, Ho Jamalo, Pyar Kare Dis: Feel the Power of Love and The Awakening. Additionally, numerous Sindhi have contributed in Bollywood, including G P Sippy, Ramesh Sippy, Nikhil Advani, Tarun Mansukhani, Ritesh Sidhwani and Asrani. Sherdukpen Director Songe Dorjee Thongdok introduced the first Sherdukpen-language film Crossing Bridges (2014). Sherdukpen is native to the north-eastern state of Arunachal Pradesh. Tamil The Tamil-language film industry based in Chennai, also known as Kollywood, once served as a hub for all South Indian film industries. The first South Indian talkie film Kalidas (1931, H. M. Reddy) was shot in Tamil. Sivaji Ganesan became India's first actor to receive an international award when he won Best Actor at the Afro-Asian film festival in 1960 and the title of Chevalier in the Legion of Honour by the French Government in 1995. Tamil cinema is influenced by Dravidian politics and has a tradition of addressing social issues. Many of Tamil Nadu's prominent Chief Ministers previously worked in cinema: Dravidian stalwarts C N Annadurai and M Karunanidhi were scriptwriters and M G Ramachandran and Jayalalithaa gained a political base through their fan followings. Tamil films are distributed to Tamil diaspora populations in various parts of Asia, Southern Africa, Northern America, Europe, and Oceania. The industry-inspired Tamil film-making in Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore and Canada. Telugu The Film and Television Institute of Telangana, Film and Television Institute of Andhra Pradesh, Ramanaidu Film School and Annapurna International School of Film and Media are among the largest film schools in India. The Telugu states are home to approximately 2800 theaters, more than any single state in India. Being commercially consistent, Telugu cinema had its influence over commercial cinema in India. The industry holds the Guinness World Record for the largest film production facility in the world, Ramoji Film City. The Prasads IMAX located in Hyderabad is one of the largest 3D IMAX screens, and is the most attended cinema screen in the world. As per the CBFC report of 2014, the industry is placed first in India, in terms of films produced yearly. In the years 2005, 2006, 2008, and 2014 the industry has produced the largest number of films in India, exceeding the number of films produced in Bollywood. Tulu The Tulu-language film industry based in the port city of Mangalore, Karnataka, is also known as Coastalwood. A small industry, its origins trace to the release of Enna Thangadi (1971) with about one release per year until growth was spurred by the commercial success of Oriyardori Asal (2011). Films are released across the Tulu Nadu cultural region, with some recent films having a simultaneous release in Mumbai, Bangalore, and Arabian Gulf countries. Exhibition and distribution PVR Cinemas, INOX Leisure etc are some top multiplexes chains in India, which have cinemas across the nation. Book My Show is the leading tickets selling mobile android application in India, it have tie-up with many such multiplexes. Although PVR and INOX also sell tickets through their application- websites. Due to the convince in tickets booking online most of the viewers pre-book tickets through mobile application. Since advancement of internet service in the country online ticket selling business having robust growth here. 2010 decade onward online platform gained popularity in the nation thus Many film-makers many time prefer to release their films online through one of paid app : Netflix, Amazon Prime, SonyLIV, ZEE5, Disney+ Hotstar etc. and avoiding theatrical release. Hindi films get released by Hindi film distribution circuits. Awards The Dadasaheb Phalke Award, named for "father of Indian cinema" Dadasaheb Phalke, is given in recognition of lifetime contribution to cinema. It was established by the government of India in 1969, and is the country's most prestigious film award. Film education Government-run and private institutes provide formal education in various aspects of filmmaking. Some of the prominent ones include: State Institute of Film and Television AJK Mass Communication Research Centre, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi Annapurna International School of Film and Media, Hyderabad Asian Academy of Film and Television Biju Pattnaik Film and Television Institute of Odisha BOFTA – Blue Ocean Film and Television Academy, Kodambakkam, Chennai, Tamil Nadu Centre for advanced media studies, Patiala Mass Communication and the New Media Central University of Jammu Department of Culture and Media studies, Central University of Rajasthan Film and Television Institute of India (FTII), Pune Film-Theater Studies, SOH, Tamil Nadu Open University, Saidapet, Chennai Government Film and Television Institute, Bangalore K. R. Narayanan National Institute of Visual Science and Arts (KRNNIVSA), Kottayam, Kerala L. V. Prasad Film and TV Academy, Chennai M.G.R. Government Film and Television Training Institute, Chennai Matrikas Film School National Institute of Design, Ahmedabad Palme Deor Media College, Tambaram west, Chennai and Arulananda Nagar, Thanjavur Regional Government Film and Television Institute (RGFTI), Guwahati Satyajit Ray Film and Television Institute, Calcutta School of Media and Cultural Studies, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai Srishti School of Art, Design, and Technology, Bangalore, Karnataka Whistling Woods International National School of Drama, Delhi See also List of Indian movies by language List of Indian winners and nominees of the Academy Awards List of Indian winners and nominees of the Golden Globe Awards List of Indian winners and nominees at the Cannes Film Festival International Film Festival of India List of Indian animated movies Lists of Indian actors List of Indian film actresses Explanatory notes References Further reading Celli, Carlo. (2013) "The Promises of India" National Identity in Global Cinema: How Movies Explain the World. Palgrave MacMillan, 61–70. . Gulzar, Govin Nihalanni, & Saibel Chatterjee. Encyclopaedia of Hindi Cinema New Delhi: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2003. . Khanna, Amit (2003), "The Business of Hindi Films", Encyclopaedia of Hindi Cinema: historical record, the business and its future, narrative forms, analysis of the medium, milestones, biographies, Encyclopædia Britannica (India) Private Limited, . Narweker, Sanjit, ed. Directory of Indian Film-Makers and Films. Flicks Books, 1994. Watson, James L. (2009), Globalization, Encyclopædia Britannica. Culture and Representation: The Emerging Field of Media Semiotics/J A H Khatri/Ruby Press & Co.// 2013. External links Arts in India Indian culture Entertainment in India
402433	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques%20H%C3%A9bert	Jacques Hébert	Jacques René Hébert (; 15 November 1757 – 24 March 1794) was a French journalist and the founder and editor of the extreme radical newspaper Le Père Duchesne during the French Revolution. Hébert was a leader of the French Revolution and had thousands of followers as the Hébertists (French Hébertistes); he himself was sometimes called Père Duchesne, a name which he shared with his newspaper. Early life Jacques René Hébert was born on 15 November 1757 in Alençon, to goldsmith, former trial judge, and deputy consul Jacques Hébert (died 1766) and Marguerite Beunaiche de Houdrie (1727–1787). Hébert studied law at the College of Alençon and went into practice as a clerk in a solicitor of Alençon, in which position he was ruined by a lawsuit against a Dr. Clouet. Hébert fled first to Rouen and then to Paris. For a while, he passed through a difficult financial time and lived through the support of a hairdresser in Rue des Noyers. There he found work in a theater, La République, where he wrote plays in his spare time, but these were never produced. Hébert was eventually fired for theft and entered the service of a doctor. It is said he lived through expediency and scams. In 1789, he began his writing with a pamphlet "la Lanterne magique ou le Fléau des Aristocrates" (Magic Lantern, or Scourge of Aristocrats). He published a few booklets. In 1790, he attracted attention through a pamphlet he published, and became a prominent member of the political club of the Cordeliers in 1791. Père Duchesne From 1790 until his death in 1794, Hébert became a voice for the working class of Paris through his highly successful and influential journal, Le Père Duchesne. In his journal, Hébert assumed the voice of a patriotic sans-culotte named Père Duchesne and would write first-person narratives in which Père Duchesne would often relay fictitious conversations that he had with the French monarchs or government officials. Hébert and the Hébertists often expressed the view that many more aristocrats should be examined, denounced, and executed, as they argued that Revolutionary France could only be fully reborn through the elimination of its ancient and supposedly currently malignant nobility. In Le Père Duchesne number 65, where he writes of his reawakening in 1790, he defines aristocrats as "enemies of the constitution" who "conspire against the nation", showing his animus against them. Much of Hébert's celebrity came from his denunciations of King Louis XVI in his newspaper, as opposed to any office he may have held or his roles in any of the Parisian clubs with which he was involved. These stories encouraged violent behaviors and utilized foul and sexualized language. Père Duchesne's stories were also witty, reflective, and resonated deeply in the poorer Parisian quarters. Street hawkers would yell, "Il est bougrement en colère aujourd’hui le père Duchesne!" ("Father Duchesne is very angry today!"). Although Hébert did not create the image of the Père Duchesne, his use of the character helped to transform the symbolic image of Père Duchesne from that of a comical stove-merchant into a patriotic role model for the sans-culottes. In part, Hébert's use of Père Duchesne as a revolutionary symbol can be seen by his appearance as a bristly old man who was portrayed as smoking a pipe and wearing a Phrygian cap. Because he reflected both his audience's speech and dressing style, his readers listened to and followed his message. The French linguist and historian Ferdinand Brunot called Hébert, "The Homer of filth", because of his ability to use common language to appeal to general audiences. In addition, Père Duchesne's appearance played into the tensions of the revolution through the sharp contrast of his clothing and portrayal as a laborer against the crown and aristocracy's formal attire. Hébert was not the only writer during the French Revolution to use the image of Père Duchesne nor was he the only author in the period to adopt foul language as a way of appealing to the working class. Another writer at the time, Lemaire (fr), also wrote a newspaper entitled Père Duchêne (although he spelt it differently than Hébert) from September 1790 until May 1792 in which he assumed the voice of a "moderate patriot" who wanted to conserve the relationship between the King and the nation. Lemaire's character also used a slew of profanities and would address France's military. Hébert's paper, however, became far more popular. In part, this was due to the Paris Commune deciding to buy his papers and distribute them to the French military for distribution to soldiers in training. For example, starting in 1792, the Paris Commune and the ministers of war Jean-Nicolas Pache and, later, Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte bought several thousand copies of Le Père Duchesne which were distributed free to the public and troops. This happened again in May and June 1793 when the Minister of War bought copies of newspapers in order to "enlighten and animate their patriotism". It is estimated that Hébert received 205,000 livres from this purchase. The assassination of Jean-Paul Marat on July 13, 1793, who had written the bestselling paper L'Ami du peuple, allowed Le Père Duchesne to become the incontestible best-selling paper in Paris, which also played into the number of copies bought during those months. Hébert's political commentary between 1790 and 1793 focused on the lavish excesses of the monarchy. Initially, from 1790 and into 1792, Le Père Duchesne supported a constitutional monarchy and was even favorable towards King Louis XVI and the opinions of the Marquis de La Fayette. His violent attacks of the period were aimed at Jean-Sifrein Maury, a great defender of papal authority and the main opponent of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Although the character of Père Duchesne supported a constitutional monarchy, he was always highly critical of Marie Antoinette. Knowing that the queen was an easy target for ridicule after the Diamond Necklace Affair, she became a consistent target in the paper as a scapegoat for many of France's political problems. By identifying Marie Antoinette's lavish excesses and alleged sexuality as the core of the monarchy's problems, Hébert's articles suggested that, if Marie Antoinette would change her ways and renounce aristocratic excesses, then the monarchy could be saved and the queen could return to the good will of the people. Despite his view that the monarchy could be restored, Hébert was skeptical of the queen's willingness to do so and often characterized her as an evil enemy of the people by referring to the queen as "Madame Veto" and even addressing King Louis XVI as, "drunken and lazy; a cuckolded pig". Initially, Hébert was trying to not only educate his readers about the queen, but also awaken her to how she was viewed by the French public. Many of the conversations that Père Duchesne carries with her in the newspaper are attempts at either showcasing her supposed nymphomania or attempts to beg her to repent and reverse her wicked ways. With the king's failed flight to Varennes, his tone significantly hardened. At the time, many writers and journalists were greatly influenced by the proclamation of martial law on 21 October 1789. It invoked various questions and patterns of Revolutionary thinking and inspired various forms of writing such as Le Père Duchesne. The law prompted multiple interpretations all of which led to what became essential Revolutionary ideals. In his newspaper, Hébert did not use himself as the prime example of the revolution. He used a mythical character called the Père Duchesne to be able to relay his message in a more subtle way. He was already well known by the people of Paris and only wanted his message to be received directly and clearly by his followers, not his enemies. Père Duchesne was a very strong, outspoken character with extremely high emotions. He constantly felt great anger but also would experience great happiness. He was never afraid to fully display exactly how he was feeling. He would constantly use foul language and other harsh words to express himself. Revolutionary role Following Louis's failed flight to Varennes in June 1791, Hébert began to attack both Louis and Pope Pius VI. On 17 July, Hébert was at the Champ de Mars to sign a petition to demand the removal of King Louis XVI and was caught up in the subsequent Champ de Mars massacre by troops under the Marquis de Lafayette. This put him in the revolutionary mindset, and Le Père Duchesne adopted a populist style to better appeal to the masses. Le Père Duchesne began to attack prominent political figures like Lafayette, head of the National Guard; the deceased Comte de Mirabeau, a prominent orator and statesman; and Jean Sylvain Bailly, mayor of Paris. In a 1793 speech to the public, Hébert stated his beliefs regarding Lafayette. He noted that there were two Père Duchesnes who opposed each other deeply. The Père Duchesne that he said he identified with was the "honest and loyal Père Duchesne who has pursued traitors", while the Père Duchesne he had nothing to do with "praised Lafayette to the heavens". As a member of Cordeliers club, he had a seat in the revolutionary Paris Commune, and during the Insurrection of 10 August 1792 he was sent to the Bonne-Nouvelle section of Paris. As a public journalist, he supported the September Massacres the next month. He agreed with most of the ideals of the radical Montagnard faction, even though he was not a member of it. On 22 December 1792, he was appointed the second substitute of the procureur of the commune, and through to August 1793 supported the attacks against the Girondin faction. In April–May 1793 he, along with Marat and others, violently attacked the Girondins. On 20 May, 1793, the moderate majority of the National Convention formed the Special Commission of Twelve, a Girondin commission which was designed to investigate and prosecute conspirators. At the urging of the Twelve, on 24 May, 1793, he was arrested. However, Hébert had been warned in time, and, with the support of the sans-culottes, the National Convention was forced to order his release three days later. Just four days after that, his anti-Girondin rhetoric would help lead to their ousting in the Insurrection of 31 May 2 June. On 28 August 1793, he proposed to the Jacobins to write an address taking up the demands of the enrages, and to have it taken to the Convention by the Jacobins, the 48 sections and the popular societies, a suggestion greatly applauded by Billaud-Varenne and others, ignoring Maximilien Robespierre's warning against a riot "which would fill the aristocrats with joy". During all this, Hébert met his wife Marie Goupil (born 1756), a 37-year-old former nun who had left convent life at the Sisters of Providence convent at Rue Saint-Honoré. Marie's passport from this time shows regular use. They married on 7 February, 1792, and had a daughter, Virginie-Scipion Hébert (7 February 1793 – 13 July 1830). During this time, Hébert had a luxurious, bourgeois life. He entertained Jean-Nicolas Pache, the mayor of Paris and Minister of War, for weeks, as well as other influential men, and liked to dress elegantly and surround himself with beautiful objects such as pretty tapestries—an attitude that can be contrasted to that of Paris Commune president Pierre Gaspard Chaumette. Where he got the financial resources to support his lifestyle is unclear; however, there are Jean-Nicolas Pache's commissions to print thousands of issues of Le Père Duchesne and his relationship to Delaunay d'Angers, mistress and wife of Andres Maria de Guzman. In February 1793, he voted with fellow bourgeois Hébertists against a Maximum Price Act, a price ceiling on grain, on the grounds that it would cause hoarding and stir resentment. Dechristianization Dechristianization was a movement that took hold during the French Revolution. Advocates believed that to pursue a secular society, they had to reject the superstitions of the Old Regime and, as an extension, Catholicism altogether. The trend toward secularization had already begun to take hold throughout France during the eighteenth century, but between September 1793 and August 1794, mostly during the Reign of Terror, French politicians began discussing and embracing notions of "radical dechristianization". While Robespierre advocated for the right to religion and believed that aggressively pursuing dechristianization would spur widespread revolts throughout rural France, Hébert and his followers, the Hébertists, wanted to spontaneously and violently overhaul religion. The writer and philosopher Voltaire was an inspiration to Hébert on this front. Like Voltaire, Hébert believed that the toleration of different religious beliefs was necessary for humanity to pass from an age of superstitions, and that traditional religion was an obstacle to this goal. Eventually, Hébert would argue that Jesus was not a demigod, but instead a good sans-culotte. Voltaire had also provided him with the basic tenets of a civic religion that would be able to replace traditional religion, which led to Hébert to being heavily involved in the movement. The program of dechristianization waged against Catholicism, and eventually against all forms of Christianity, included the deportation of clergy and the condemnation of many of them to death, the closing of churches, the institution of revolutionary and civic cults, the large scale destruction of religious monuments, the outlawing of public and private worship and religious education, forced marriages of the clergy, and forced abjurement of their priesthood. On 21 October, 1793, a law was passed which made all suspected priests and all persons who harbored them liable to death on sight. On 10 November 1793, dechristianization reached what many historians consider the climax of the movement when the Hébertists moved the first Festival of Reason ("Fête de la Raison"), a civic festival celebrating the Goddess of Reason, from the Circus of the Palais Royale to the Cathedral of Notre Dame and reclaimed the cathedral as a "Temple of Reason". On 7 June, Robespierre, who had previously condemned the Cult of Reason, advocated a new state religion and recommended that the Convention acknowledge the existence of a singular God. On the next day, the worship of the deistic Supreme Being was inaugurated as an official aspect of the Revolution. Compared with Hébert's somewhat popular festivals, this austere new religion of Virtue was received with signs of hostility by the Parisian public. Clash with Robespierre, arrest, conviction, and execution After successfully attacking the Girondins, Hébert in the fall of 1793 continued to attack those whom he viewed as too moderate, including Georges Danton, Pierre Philippeaux, and Maximilien Robespierre, among others. When Hébert accused Marie Antoinette during her trial of incest with her son, Robespierre called him a fool ("imbécile") for his outrageous and unsubstantiated innuendos and lies. The government was exasperated and, with support from the Jacobins, finally decided to strike against the Hébertists on the night of 13 March, 1794, despite the reluctance of Barère de Vieuzac, Collot d'Herbois and Billaud-Varenne. The order was to arrest the leaders of the Hébertists; these included individuals in the War Ministry and others. In the Revolutionary Tribunal, Hébert was treated very differently from Danton, more like a thief than a conspirator; his earlier scams were brought to light and criticized. He was sentenced to death with his co-defendants on the third day of deliberations. Their execution by guillotine took place on 24 March 1794. Hébert fainted several times on the way to the guillotine and screamed hysterically when he was placed under the blade. Hébert's executioners amused the crowd by adjusting the guillotine so that its blade stopped inches above his neck, and it was only after the fourth time the lever (déclic) was pulled that he was actually beheaded. His corpse was disposed of in the Madeleine Cemetery. His widow was executed twenty days later on 13 April 1794, and her corpse was disposed of in the Errancis Cemetery. The importance of Hébert's execution was known by everyone involved in the revolution, including the Jacobins. Louis Antoine de Saint-Just, a prominent Jacobin leader, noted that following his execution, "the revolution is frozen", demonstrating how central Hébert and his followers, a large portion of sans-culottes, were to the longevity and success of the revolution. Influence It is difficult to completely ascertain the extent to which Hébert's publication Le Père Duchesne impacted the outcomes of political events between 1790 and 1794. French revolutionary historians such as Jean-Paul Bertaud, Jeremy D. Popkin, and William J. Murray each investigated French Revolutionary press history and determined that while the newspapers and magazines that one read during the revolution may have influenced their political leanings, it did not necessarily create their political leanings. One's class, for example, could be a significant determinant in directing and influencing one's political decisions. Therefore, Hébert's writings certainly influenced his audience to often dramatic extent, but the sans-culottes were but one element in a complex political mix, meaning that it is difficult to determine in what ways his writing changed the political outcomes of the French Revolution. That being said, his wide readership and voice throughout the Revolution means that he was a significant public figure, and Le Père Duchesne's ability to influence the general population of France was indeed notable. Gallery References The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, in turn, gives the following references: Louis Duval, "Hébert chez lui", in La Révolution Française, revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine, t. xii. and t. xiii. D. Mater, J. R. Hibert, L'auteur du Père Duchesne avant la journée du 10 août 1792 (Bourges, Comm. Hist. du Cher, 1888). François Victor Alphonse Aulard, Le Culte de la raison et de l'être suprême (Paris, 1892). External links Jacques Hébert Internet Archive on Marxists.org 1757 births 1794 deaths Writers from Alençon Hébertists Jacobins Far-left politics in France French newspaper founders Newspaper editors of the French Revolution French atheism activists French people executed by guillotine during the French Revolution French male essayists French radicals Left-wing populists 18th-century French essayists 18th-century French male writers French critics of Christianity 18th-century French journalists
402492	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaston%20Doumergue	Gaston Doumergue	Pierre Paul Henri Gaston Doumergue (; 1 August 1863 in Aigues-Vives, Gard18 June 1937 in Aigues-Vives) was a French politician of the Third Republic. He served as President of France from 1924 to 1931, succeeding Alexandre Millerand, who had resigned. Tasked with important ministerial portfolios, he was first appointed President of the Council of Ministers in 1913, but was forced to leave power a few months after his appointment. He was elected as President of the Senate in 1923. At the end of his mandate as President of France, refusing to compete against his eventual successor, Doumergue retired, but chaired a government of national unity during the crisis created by the riots of February 6, 1934. Early life and career Protestant origins Gaston Doumergue came from a Protestant family. His father, Pierre Doumergue, was a vigneron in Aigues-Vives. His mother, Françoise Pattus, raised him in the Protestant faith and the admiration of republican ideas. He was also the great-uncle of playwright Colette Audry and filmmaker Jacqueline Audry. A brilliant student, he claimed to have belonged to the "generation of revenge, animated by a beautiful patriotic ardour", after the defeat of 1870. He studied at the boys' high school in Nîmes, the future Alphonse-Daudet high school. Judiciary After a license and a doctorate in law at the School of Law of Paris, he registered in 1885 at the Nîmes bar and participated in the resounding trial of deputy Numa Gilly, before entering the judiciary in 1890 as a substitute in Hanoi, French Indochina. His time there was brief because he returned to France on the death of his father in 1891. Political career Beginnings in Parliament (1893–1901) In 1893, while he was a justice of the peace for the commune of Aïn El Arbaa, he returned to Aigues-Vives in France and presented his candidacy for a partial legislative election in December 1893, intended to fill the seat of Émile Jamais, a longtime friend who had just been re-elected in the August 1893 election but died suddenly on November 18, before the opening of the parliamentary session. Nothing destined him for politics and his grandfather had even refused an appointment as mayor of the village in 1836 because of the modesty of his fortune in a tax system. Encouraged by his mother who followed his career step-by-step, Doumergue was elected as the Radical deputy for Nîmes, beating, in the second round, the mayor of Nîmes, Gaston Maruéjol, who obtained only 24 votes, with 10,101 votes. He attended the banquet given in Lyon by President Sadi Carnot on June 24, 1894, during which the latter was fatally stabbed by the Italian anarchist Sante Geronimo Caserio. This event made him realize the seriousness and the danger of the use of power. He was re-elected deputy on May 8, 1898, in the first round of the ballot, with 11,514 votes against the conservative Albert de Nesmes-Desmarets. He was very involved in France's colonial policy and, during his speeches at the podium (which were well-received on the left benches), criticized successive governments for their military interventionism and in particular the occupation of Madagascar. From 1894, he also denounced the "benevolent indifference and not the pronounced sympathy" of public opinion vis-à-vis colonial policy, which masked the looting of conquered territories and the violence of the administration. His secular and republican convictions made him side with Alfred Dreyfus. His successive mandates were also an opportunity for him to defend small agricultural producers. His influence within the left grew. He was elected deputy for the third time on April 27, 1902, in the first round. A freemason since 1901, he was initiated into the lodge L'Écho du Grand Orient at the Orient of Nîmes, Grand Orient de France. Ministerial portfolios (1902–1910) Under the presidency of Émile Loubet, he was Minister of the Colonies in the Émile Combes government from 1902 to 1905. He was minister without interruption from 1906 to 1910, first for Trade and Industry, where he created the direction of the merchant navy, then for Public Instruction and Fine Arts from 1908, replacing Aristide Briand. In this capacity, on June 4, 1908, he delivered a speech on behalf of the government of Georges Clemenceau during the transfer of Émile Zola's ashes to the Panthéon, praising the "heroism" of the writer just as he, on March 19 the previous year, had defended the organization of the transfer ceremony on the Assembly platform, against the anti-Dreyfusards. A fervent supporter of secular schools, he unleashed the most violent school war in the history of France by filing two "secular defense" projects in June 1908 aimed at punishing families who prevented their children from following an education, even an anti-Catholic one. For this, he received the nickname of "escapee from St. Bartholomew" from the polemicist Édouard Drumont. In the field of education, Doumergue also pleaded in favour of the teaching of Arabic in French Algeria. He also became vice-president of the Chamber of Deputies for a year, from February 1905 to March 1906, between his two ministries. In 1910, he was elected senator for Gard, after the death of Frédéric Desmons. Doumergue was re-elected in 1912 and 1921. First government (1913–1914) From December 9, 1913 to June 8, 1914, he was President of the Council and Minister of Foreign Affairs at the request of President Raymond Poincaré, who sought in Doumergue a conciliator capable of forming a cabinet of "republican harmony". From then on, Doumergue strove to reconcile the demands of the Radical party and the interests of the country, in an international horizon that was becoming darker: the statesman took precedence over the partisan. Doumergue needed to defend the law on three-year military service, which he voted through, not without scrutiny, in August 1913: "None of you is expecting us to reopen the debate: that's the law." The proposal to create an income tax by the finance minister, Joseph Caillaux, triggered a controversy among the conservatives, but was finally voted on in July 1914 by a Senate which had been hostile to it for five years. The "Calmette affair", which led to the resignation of the minister, put the government in a difficult position as the tenth legislature ended and a delicate electoral campaign began. Doumergue had, however, warned that he "would in no case stay after the elections". It was time for a policy of rearmament and closer alliances, which Poincaré and Doumergue carried out successfully. However, Doumergue did not lose sight of the international situation, and the chancelleries were constantly kept on alert. The Radical party easily came out on top in the 1914 French legislative election and this left-wing majority, elected on the theme of peace, caused the President great difficulty in constituting a cabinet that could succeed Doumergue. The latter took advantage of the end of his functions to undertake a trip to Upper Austria. On August 3, 1914, the same day as Germany's declaration of war on France, marking the start of World War I, the new President of the Council, René Viviani, called on Doumergue to replace him at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, during the composition of his short-lived first government. Then, he was Minister of the Colonies in the successive governments from August 26, 1914 to March 19, 1917. During this mandate, in the middle of the war, he ensured the security of French possessions and set up a secret agreement with Tsar Nicholas II of Russia which defined the demands that France and Russia would make in future peace negotiations with Germany and Austria-Hungary. However, this treaty became null and void following the October Revolution. In February 1923, he was elected President of the Senate, replacing Léon Bourgeois. President of the Republic (1924–1931) Election to the presidency His career culminated with his election as President of the Republic on June 13, 1924, for a seven-year term. This accession to the head of state was the result of several successive political events. The preceding May 11 and May 25 saw the victory of the Cartel des Gauches in the legislative elections, despite a higher number of votes for the right and thanks to an electoral law granting a bonus to alliances. Raymond Poincaré, the President of the Council since 1922, having been disavowed, submitted his resignation to President Alexandre Millerand. The cartelists claimed power in the "smallest cogs of the administration". Paul Painlevé was brought to the head of the Chamber thanks to the votes of the Cartel also led by Léon Blum, Édouard Herriot, and Aristide Briand against the candidate of the right, André Maginot. The appointment of Frédéric François-Marsal was taken as a provocation and his government lasted only two days. Thus, the left, which forced Alexandre Millerand to resign, then believed it could bring Painlevé to the presidency, but the moderates thwarted his ambitions by massively turning to Gaston Doumergue, who already benefitted from some of the votes on the left. He received 515 votes out of 815 voters, against 309 for Painlevé and 21 for Zéphyrin Camélinat, the first communist candidate in a presidential election. Domestic policy He appointed the mayor of Lyon, Édouard Herriot, as head of government and charged him with establishing a policy of symbolic change to satisfy the electorate. The cartel state was installed, with its members holding a majority of the presidencies of parliamentary committees, as well as the major positions in the administration. The scandal of irregularities at the Bank of France overthrew the government and Doumergue resolved to appoint Paul Painlevé as President of the Council in order to unite Radical and socialist voices, playing with designations according to the parliamentary pendulum. On July 5, 1924, Gaston Doumergue proclaimed the official opening of the 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris during the opening ceremony held at the Stade olympique de Colombes in the presence of the President of the International Olympic Committee, Pierre de Coubertin, the members of the IOC, the President of the French Olympic Committee, Justinien Clary, the members of the FOC, as well as the 44 participating delegations. Doumergue's seven-year term was marked by the prosperity of France during the interwar period and the Années folles, but also by significant ministerial instability and financial difficulties caused by the fall of the franc. Called to the Ministry of Finance in July 1926, Poincaré instituted a policy of austerity by bringing the franc back to its real value through a sharp devaluation. He also restored confidence and managed to boost a flagging economy. This neo-liberal policy also generated a period of economic and financial prosperity, at a time when the United States was hit hard by the stock market crash of 1929. Progress in technical industry, particularly in the steel industry and automobiles, contributed to the country's growth. Production capacity thus increased by 45% over the 1920s. To support this development, Doumergue reinforced a centrist policy and instituted workers' social insurance. In May 1930, he went to the departments of Algeria, to the lands he had known in the first years of his career, for the commemorations of the centenary of French Algeria, accompanied by a delegation of eight ministers and of several dozen deputies. The following year, a few weeks before the end of his mandate, he commemorated the fiftieth anniversary of the French protectorate of Tunisia. Foreign policy In foreign policy, he declared himself in favour of a policy of firmness vis-à-vis Germany in the face of resurgent nationalism in parts of Europe, but also in France. He ran into difficulties: the Allies were unable to agree on Germany. Forced to evacuate the Ruhr, Saarland, and the Rhineland between 1925 and 1930, Doumergue's France was also duped by the German Chancellor Gustav Stresemann despite the signing of the Locarno Treaties. Disagreements with his foreign minister, Aristide Briand, only aggravated the colonial crises in Syria and the Rif. After failed attempts at consultation by the prefect in place in Morocco, Doumergue decided to send Marshall Philippe Pétain, who quickly won the Rif War. At the same time, he participated in the inauguration of the Grand Mosque of Paris, with the Moroccan sultan Moulay Youssef, who was on an official visit to France. On this occasion, he became the first French president to quote a hadith: "the best Muslim is the one whose believers have neither hand nor tongue to fear". In French Indochina in the 1920s, the Vietnamese nationalists of the VNQDĐ maintained an independence agitation (assassination of Alfred François Bazin, Yên Bái mutiny, etc.) that colonial authorities repressed with rifle shots and guillotines. In South America, he helped Marcel Bouilloux-Lafont, the director of the Compagnie Générale Aéropostale, obtain the postal contracts and flyover rights from Brazil and Argentina necessary for the operation of an air transport line. Particularities of his presidency Within such an unstable political world, Doumergue strove to support the management of public affairs in leftist values and a conservative guideline. An affable and courteous man, he seduced since the beginning of his political career with his good nature and his accent. After his election to the presidency of the Republic, his simplicity continued to earn him popularity in the public opinion, which is reflected in particular by his nickname of "Gastounet". Moreover, Doumergue's accession to the presidency of the Republic made him the only Protestant head of state known to France since the abjuration of Henry IV, on July 25, 1593. He was also the second unmarried President of the French Republic when he took office, after Napoleon III. Although an "old bachelor", he was nonetheless, according to historian Adrien Dansette, "sensitive to feminine charm", but his frequent passing liaisons were only the "Parisian manners of politicians". He maintained a long-term liaison with Jeanne Gaussal, an associate professor of the University. During his presidential mandate, he had breakfast with her at his former home at 73 Avenue de Wagram every morning, where he went on foot from the Élysée Palace. On June 1, 1931, twelve days before the end of his mandate, he married Gaussal in front of the mayor of the 8th arrondissement of Paris, Gaston Drucker, who had come specially to the Élysée, with the secretary-general of the presidency, Jules Michel, as his witness. Doumergue thus became the first President of the Republic to marry during his mandate. His presidential mandate ended on June 13, 1931, and he retired from political life to his wife's home in Tournefeuille, in Haute-Garonne. Return to Council Presidency (1934) Still popular, he was recalled as President of the Council after the bloody events of February 6, 1934, to form a government of national unity where André Tardieu and Édouard Herriot rubbed shoulders. After having positioned himself at the centre-left of the political spectrum during his first mandate, he gradually neared the centre-right Independent Radicals during his presidency. His goal was to reform institutions to reduce ministerial instability. This attempt did not succeed; in poor health, it was difficult for him to arbitrate within one of those cabinets in which the greatest hopes are generally placed because they symbolize the unity of the nation, but which are actually made up of ministers from all sides of the political spectrum who do not get along. There was, however, an upturn in public finances, which allowed the price of government bonds to gain ten to twelve points between March and June. He was also weakened by the assassination of Louis Barthou on October 9, and preferred to resign soon after, on November 8. René Viviani, who died in 1925, said of him: "In a well-organized democracy, Doumergue would be a justice of the peace in the provinces." Death and state funeral Doumergue died on June 18, 1937, in his house in Aigues-Vives, at the age of 73. The government organized a state funeral for him, which took place in Nîmes. His grave is located in the small cemetery of Aigues-Vives, where his wife Jeanne (née Gaussal) was buried alongside him in 1963. A bust of Gaston Doumergue is exhibited in the room of the Presidents of the Republic in the Musée de la Révolution française, recalling that he was the first president to be hosted in this former presidential summer residence. Doumergue's First Ministry, 9 December 1913 – 9 June 1914 Gaston Doumergue – President of the Council and Minister of Foreign Affairs Joseph Noulens – Minister of War René Renoult – Minister of the Interior Joseph Caillaux – Minister of Finance Albert Métin – Minister of Labour and Social Security Provisions Jean-Baptiste Bienvenu-Martin – Minister of Justice Ernest Monis – Minister of the Marine René Viviani – Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts Maurice Raynaud – Minister of Agriculture Albert Lebrun – Minister of Colonies Fernand David – Minister of Public Works Louis Malvy – Minister of Commerce, Industry, Posts, and Telegraphs Changes 17 March 1914 – René Renoult succeeds Caillaux as Finance Minister. Louis Malvy succeeds Renoult as Minister of the Interior. Raoul Péret succeeds Malvy as Minister of Commerce, Industry, Posts, and Telegraphs. 20 March 1914 – Armand Gauthier de l'Aude succeeds Monis as Minister of Marine. Doumergue's Second Ministry, 9 February – 8 November 1934 Gaston Doumergue – President of the Council Louis Barthou – Minister of Foreign Affairs Philippe Pétain – Minister of War Albert Sarraut – Minister of the Interior Louis Germain-Martin – Minister of Finance Adrien Marquet – Minister of Labour Henri Chéron – Minister of Justice François Piétri – Minister of Military Marine William Bertrand – Minister of Merchant Marine Victor Denain – Minister of Air Aimé Berthod – Minister of National Education Georges Rivollet – Minister of Pensions Henri Queuille – Minister of Agriculture Pierre Laval – Minister of Colonies Pierre Étienne Flandin – Minister of Public Works Louis Marin – Minister of Public Health and Physical Education André Mallarmé – Minister of Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones Lucien Lamoureux – Minister of Commerce and Industry Édouard Herriot – Minister of State André Tardieu – Minister of State Changes 13 October 1934 – Pierre Laval succeeds Barthou (assassinated 9 October) as Minister of Foreign Affairs. Paul Marchandeau succeeds Sarraut as Minister of the Interior. Louis Rollin succeeds Laval as Minister of Colonies. 15 October 1934 – Henri Lémery succeeds Chéron as Minister of Justice. Honours Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, 1924, by right as Grand Master of the Order Order of the Royal House of Chakri, January 30, 1925 Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, 1926 Knight of the Order of the Elephant See also Interwar France 6 February 1934 crisis List of covers of Time magazine (1920s) – 21 July 1924 and 2 August 1926 Notes References Bibliography Further reading External links 1927 clip of Gaston Doumergue receiving his honorary degree from Oxford 1863 births 1937 deaths People from Gard French Calvinist and Reformed Christians Radical Party (France) politicians 20th-century presidents of France 20th-century Princes of Andorra Prime Ministers of France French Ministers of Commerce and Industry French Ministers of Overseas France Members of the 6th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic Members of the 7th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic Members of the 8th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic Members of the 9th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic Members of Parliament for Gard Presidents of the Senate (France) French senators of the Third Republic Senators of Gard French Freemasons French lawyers University of Paris alumni Members of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)
402498	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore%20Steeg	Théodore Steeg	Théodore Steeg () (19 December 1868 – 19 December 1950) was a lawyer and professor of philosophy who became Prime Minister of France. Steeg entered French politics in 1904 as a radical socialist, although his views were generally moderate. He was a Deputy of the Seine from 1904 to 1914 and Senator from 1914 to 1944. At different times he was Minister of Higher Education, Interior, Justice and Colonies. In the 1920s he was in charge of the colonial administrations first of Algeria and then of Morocco. He encouraged irrigation projects to provide land for French colons at a time of growing demands for political and economic rights from the indigenous people, accompanied by growing unrest. Steeg was briefly prime minister in 1930–1931. Early years Jules Joseph Théodore Steeg was born in Libourne, Gironde on 19 December 1868. He was of German descent, and his political opponents would later attack him for this fact. His father, Jules Steeg (1836–1898), was a Protestant pastor who became a journalist and then a radical deputy in the National Assembly. Théodore's mother was Anne-Marie Zoé Tuyès, born in 1840 in Orthez, Basses-Pyrénées. Théodore Steeg attended the college at Libourne and then studied at the Lycée Henri-IV in Paris. He was admitted to the University of Paris and the Faculty of Law, coming first there in 1887. He obtained the degrees of Bachelor of Laws and Bachelor of Arts in 1890. He then began studies for the agrégation in Philosophy, in which he won first place in 1895. On 25 October 1892 he married Ewaldine Bonet-Maury (born on 14 June 1872 in Dordrecht, Netherlands). She was the daughter of Gaston Bonet-Maury, a correspondent member of the Institute and a knight of the Legion of Honor, and the sister in law of the government architect Lecoeur. They were to have three daughters. The eldest, Juliette Isabelle, was born on 14 April 1894. She became a doctor and married a doctor. Théodore Steeg taught at the Alsatian school from 1892 to 1894, then was appointed professor of philosophy at the College of Vannes, and next taught at the College of Niort. In 1897, he co-founded the "People's Union" with Ferdinand Buisson, Maurice Bouchor, Émile Duclaux and Pauline Kergomard, and was secretary of the union for two years. After returning to Paris he taught philosophy at the Alsatian school and at the Lycée Charlemagne until 1904. Political career Deputy (1904–1914) Théodore Steeg was elected a deputy of the Seine in 1904. He was aged 35. He ran as a radical socialist in a by-election to replace Émile Dubois, who had died on 7 May 1904. Steeg was elected in the second round on 24 July 1904 for the second riding of the 14th arrondissement of Paris. As a new deputy, Steeg threw himself into a campaign for the protection and education of children. Steeg became a lawyer in Paris in 1905. He was re-elected with growing majorities in 1906 and 1910. In 1906 he was elected to the Budget Committee, responsible for Posts and Telegraphs. In 1907 he was appointed the rapporteur on the Public Education budget. Théodore Steeg was appointed Minister of Public Instruction and Beaux-Arts in Ernest Monis's cabinet on 2 March 1911. The Mona Lisa was stolen from the Louvre on 21 August 1911, and Steeg was forced to start an administrative inquiry into how such an important painting could have been stolen from such a major museum. Steeg was a supporter of the Nouvelle Sorbonne movement with its insistence on basic republican principles. He rejected a petition to revise the Sorbonne reforms of 1902, to which the government was committed. On 14 January 1912 Steeg became Minister of Interior in Raymond Poincaré's government. That year a Tunis congress of Alienists and Neurologists pointed out the lack of facilities for treating the insane in the colonies. Steeg worked with the Algerian governor-general, Charles Lutaud, to set up a planning commission to improve psychiatric care in the colony. The committee filed its report in 1914. It recommended building an asylum at Blida, but World War I delayed implementation. On 21 January 1913 Steeg briefly resumed the post of Minister of Public Instruction and Beaux-Arts in Aristide Briand's third and fourth cabinets, holding office until 21 March 1913. He then resumed his seat in the Assembly, where he worked with Maurice Viollette to introduce humanitarian improvements to the Civil Code regarding illegitimate children. Senator (1914–1921) On 12 March 1914 Théodore Steeg ran in a Senate election in the Seine department to replace Athanase Bassinet, who had died on 12 February 1914. He was elected on the second ballot. Steeg joined the Democratic Left. World War I (1914–1918) started in July 1914. In 1915 Steeg served on the Finance Committee and many special commissions. On 20 March 1917 he joined Alexandre Ribot's fifth cabinet as Minister of Public Instruction and Beaux-Arts, where he adopted the law of Wards of the Nation. Paul Painlevé succeeded Ribot on 12 September 1917, at a time when France was struggling for survival. Steeg was briefly Minister of the Interior in Painlevé's cabinet, leaving on 16 November 1917. In 1918 and 1919 Steeg returned to the ranks. He ran for re-election to the Senate on 11 January 1920 and won the first ballot. On 20 January 1920 Steeg was appointed Minister of Interior in Alexandre Millerand cabinet. The right had won the election and the appointment of a Radical Socialist to this sensitive position was controversial. Léon Daudet attacked Steeg, trying unsuccessfully to get Millerand to abandon Steeg's nomination. However, Millerand had appointed his friend in part to demonstrate his independence, in part due to his desire to form a "republican union" that rose above party lines, and stood firm. Steeg had to deal with a general strike launched by the Confédération Générale du Travail (CGT) on 1 May 1920 that first called out transport workers, then miners, seamen, dockers, metalworkers and other trades. The government moved forcibly to end the strike. On 20 May 1920 Steeg said the government considered that deliberately trying to throw the country's economy into chaos was a criminal act. The strike was unsuccessful, and ended with the last workers returning on 28 May 1920. Steeg retained his position as Minister of Interior in Georges Leygues's cabinet of 24 September 1920. When Aristide Briand formed his cabinet on 16 January 1921, Steeg left the Ministry. He was elected president of the new committee on general administration, departmental and communal. Algeria (1921–1925) Steeg was appointed governor-general of Algeria on 28 July 1921 at a time when the colony was in crisis. Muslim Algerians had fought for France in the trenches and now expected political rights. The Jonnart Law of 4 February 1919 had granted less than the Muslims wanted, but more than the French colons could readily accept. In April 1922 President Alexandre Millerand visited Algeria to calm the fears of the French colons about the growth in numbers of Muslim electors, and to assure them that France would continue to protect their interests. The prefect of Algiers did not want the influential Emir Khalid ibn Hashim (1875–1936) to present his position, but Steeg overrode him. Khaled told Millerand, "The inhabitants of Algeria without racial or religious distinction are equally children of France ... We come to solicit representation in the French Parliament." Steeg was able to reduce the tensions and initiate a stable period of economic growth. As a Radical, Steeg was committed to benevolent civilian administrations in the colonies. However, Steeg inherited a system in Algeria where the local settler assemblies dominated by wealthy landowners controlled taxation and spending. There was a tendency to favor spending that boosted the economy over spending on social projects. When Steeg resubmitted the 1914 plan for an asylum at Blida, the assembly delayed approval of funding. Steeg was able to initiate major irrigation projects to improve agricultural productivity, a policy he would later repeat in Morocco. He became known as the "water governor". Steeg supported cooperation between Algerian and French West African (AOF) forces in combating rezzous (Tuareg raids) in the western Sahara, a constant source of insecurity that prevented development of north-south transport routes. In February 1923 he met in Algiers with his counterparts Marshal Hubert Lyautey of Morocco and Lucien Saint of Tunisia to discuss common problems. They agreed that the western Sahara must be treated as a whole, ignoring arbitrary boundaries. Nomadic migration across borders would be allowed but smuggling would not. A joint Algerian-Moroccan police force would operate from a base at Forthassa Rharbia. On 17 April 1925 Steeg was unexpectedly called back to France to become Minister of Justice in Painlevé's second cabinet. Painlevé needed left-wing politicians such as Steeg, Briand, Caillaux, Monzie and Laval in his cabinet so he could gain support for his program, which was essentially conservative. Steeg was succeeded in Algeria by Viollette. Morocco (1925–1928) In April 1925 Abd-el-Krim proclaimed the independent Rif Republic in the Rif region of Spanish Morocco. He advanced south into French Morocco, defeating French forces and threatening the capital, Fes. The resident-general, Hubert Lyautey, was replaced as military commander by Philippe Pétain on 3 September 1925. On 11 October 1925 Steeg replaced Lyautey as resident-general with the mandate of restoring peace and making the transition from military to civilian government. Lyautey received very little recognition for his achievement in securing Morocco as a colony. Steeg would have been willing to give autonomy to the people of the Rif, but was overruled by the army. Abd-el-Krim surrendered to Pétain on 26 May 1926 and was deported to Réunion in the Indian Ocean, where he was held until 1947. Steeg said he wanted Abd el Krim to be "neither exalted nor humiliated, but in time forgotten." Steeg moved quickly to resolve the most acute social problems. Steeg appointed men who had worked with him in Algeria to key posts, and brought many more Frenchmen into the administration. There were 66,000 Europeans in Morocco when he arrived, most of them citizens of France. Steeg favored bringing more French settlers into the country. In his first three years he introduced almost as many colonists to Morocco as his predecessor had in thirteen. Steeg issued a decree of 4 January 1927 that created a fund for large scale irrigation projects such as the El Kansera dam on the Beth and the N'fis dam, both of which were started that year. Through his "grands barrages" projects he planned to bring year-round irrigation to of land. Irrigation would make new land available for French settlers, and would allow for denser settlement. Steeg temporarily banned the Ha-Olam journal of the World Zionist Organization, but generally allowed publication of pro-Zionist newspapers and permitted Zionist activity. At a meeting of the French League for Human Rights in 1926 he said that the Jews were progressing faster than Muslims. Educated Moroccan Jews should be able to apply to become French citizens. Some observers were disturbed by the shift from Lyautey's sympathy for the Moroccans and respect for their customs to Steeg's policy of land expropriation and French colonization, which seemed sure to create mounting hostility between the two peoples. Steeg favored assimilation of the indigenous cadres into the French administration to avoid competition between the two, which he felt would weaken the government's authority. In contrast to Lyautey, Steeg spent little time with the Sultan and other members of the Moroccan elite. His selection of Sidi Mohammed Ben Youssef as the new Sultan in 1927 may have been due to a desire for an inexperienced young ruler who would conform to his wishes. The effect of Steeg's policies was for the traditional elite to lose power as pastoralists and subsistence farmers left the land to work for wages in the city. Many of the new colons came from Algeria, and were intolerant to the "natives", seeing them as no more than unskilled laborers. Racial tensions increased. There was growing demand for Moroccan labor, and labor shortages emerging in some areas. Steeg was pressed by socialists to pass social laws to give workers the same protection as in France, and to create organizations for the protection of labor. He responded that because of the many foreign workers, and an indigenous population not yet ready to benefit from such measures, he could do no more than study the possibility. Various "seditious" organizations emerged with communist or pan-Islamic goals, or both, including the Egypt-based Union Maghrébine and El Mountadda el Abaddi. In a report to the Foreign Ministry of 27 December 1927, Steeg said the Union Maghrébine had 1,500 supporters in the cities of Fez, Casablanca and Tangiers. The Sûreté kept these groups under observation, routinely arresting and imprisoning leaders and seizing material. A fourth North African conference was held in Algiers in May 1927. Steeg participated for Morocco, Maurice Viollette for Algeria and Lucien Saint for Tunisia. General Jules Carde of French West Africa was represented by Albert Duchêne, the Director of Political Affairs at the Ministry of Colonies. Steeg was asked to act more decisively to suppress dissidence in the region to the south of the Atlas Mountains. However, Moroccan forces were still tied up in what was proving to be a slow campaign to eliminate resistance in the north of the High Atlas. It was agreed that troops from Algeria and Mauritania could enter Moroccan territory, up to defined boundaries, but without prejudice to Morocco's later taking part in pacifying the western Sahara. In 1927 Steeg was re-elected to the Senate. When the Pujols, Gironde, cantonal elections of 1928 were held, Steeg was unable to retain his position as General Counsel of Gironde while also sitting as Senator for the Seine and holding office in Morocco. Steeg left the Residence of Morocco in January 1929 and was replaced by Lucien Saint. Later career (1929–1950) From 1929 to 1935 Steeg was a member of the Committee on Colonies, and became president of the committee. He also belonged to the Foreign Affairs Committee, the Committee of Algeria and the Education committee. Steeg was Minister of Justice in Camille Chautemps's short-lived government (21 February – 1 March 1930) replacing Lucien Hubert. He was succeeded in this position by Raoul Péret. The government of André Tardieu was defeated by a Senate vote at the start of December 1930, and after several days of negotiation a new government was formed, headed by Steeg, much further to the left than any recent governments. He accepted the position of President of the Council, and simultaneously Minister of Colonies, on 13 December 1930. The right-wing Action Française launched violent attacks on the new government. It called the Minister of Defense, Louis Barthou, "mad, vicious, corrupt". Steeg, the son and grandson of Prussians, was clearly a traitor. Although he had the support of the Senate, he could not get a stable majority in the House for his moderate policies, and was thrown out of office on 22 January 1931 when he lost a vote on agricultural policy and wheat speculation. Steeg was elected to the Senate again on 14 January 1936. He remained chairman of the committee on the Colonies and member of the committees on Foreign Affairs, Algeria and Education. Under the first government of Léon Blum (in office 4 June 1936 – 22 June 1937) Steeg was appointed head of a commission to study socio-economic conditions in the French colonial empire. The North African sub-committee included leading figures such as Paul Reynaud, Henry Bérenger, Charles-André Julien and Paul Rivet. Meeting on 8 July 1937, this sub-committee decided to focus on labor conditions in the Maghreb. They were too late to prevent the escalation of widespread and violent labor unrest in the region, which was violently suppressed. Steeg was briefly Minister of Colonies in Camille Chautemps's fifth cabinet, from 18 January to 13 March 1938. He replaced Marius Moutet, a supporter of a plan to settle Jewish refugees in Madagascar. Steeg was hostile to this plan. He said that the urbanized Jewish settlers would not have the skills needed to work the land, but would engage in small-scale commerce "at the expense of the local economy and the natives." He also said the plan would be too expensive, and would be widely criticized in the press. Steeg recommended that Jews should look for help to the Jewish Colonization Association rather than to his ministry. Steeg was Minister of State in Léon Blum's second cabinet (13 March 1938 – 10 April 1938). World War II broke out in September 1939. After the armistice with Germany, at the Congress of Vichy on 10 July 1940 Steeg voluntarily abstained during the vote on transferring constitutional powers to Marshal Philippe Pétain. Théodore Steeg died on 19 December 1950 in the 14th arrondissement of Paris at the age of 82. Summary of Cabinet positions Steeg's Cabinet, 13 December 1930 – 27 January 1931 Théodore Steeg – President of the Council and Minister of Colonies Aristide Briand – Minister of Foreign Affairs Louis Barthou – Minister of Defense Georges Leygues – Minister of the Interior Louis Germain-Martin – Minister of Finance Louis Loucheur – Minister of National Economy, Commerce, and Industry Maurice Palmade – Minister of Budget Édouard Grinda – Minister of Labour and Social Security Provisions Henri Chéron – Minister of Justice Albert Sarraut – Minister of Military Marine Charles Daniélou – Minister of Merchant Marine Paul Painlevé – Minister of Air Camille Chautemps – Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts Robert Thoumyre – Minister of Pensions Victor Boret – Minister of Agriculture Édouard Daladier – Minister of Public Works Henri Queuille – Minister of Public Health Georges Bonnet – Minister of Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones Changes 23 December 1930 – Maurice Dormann succeeds Thoumyre as Minister of Pensions. Bibliography References Sources External links 1868 births 1950 deaths People from Libourne French Calvinist and Reformed Christians French people of German descent Radical Party (France) politicians Prime Ministers of France French interior ministers French Ministers of the Colonies French Ministers of Overseas France French Ministers of Justice Members of the 8th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic Members of the 9th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic Members of the 10th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic Members of Parliament for Seine French senators of the Third Republic Senators of Seine (department) Members of the Provisional Consultative Assembly Resident generals of Morocco Governors general of Algeria French educators Lycée Henri-IV alumni University of Paris alumni French people of World War I French people of World War II
402506	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20%26%20White%20%28video%20game%29	Black & White (video game)	Black & White is a god video game developed by Lionhead Studios and published by Electronic Arts for Microsoft Windows in 2001 and by Feral Interactive in 2002 for Mac OS. Black & White combines elements of artificial life and strategy. The player acts as a god whose goal is to defeat Nemesis, another god who wants to take over the world. A primary theme is the concept of good and evil, with the atmosphere being affected by the player's moral choices. The core gameplay mechanic of Black & White is the interaction between the player and an avatar creature, who carries out the player's instructions and whose personality and behaviour change in reaction to how they are treated. Multiplayer is supported over a local network or online. Peter Molyneux led the three-year development of the highly anticipated game, originally to feature wizards instead of gods. Black & White was written from scratch, and the intention was to have the main user interface free of icons, buttons, and panels. Versions for games consoles were in development, but were cancelled. Black & White received universal acclaim on release; reviewers praised the artificial intelligence, uniqueness, and depth, although the system requirements and bugs were criticised. Black & White won awards from several organisations, including the British Academy of Film and Television Arts and the Guinness World Record for the complexity of the artificial intelligence, selling over two million copies. Later re-reviews of the game considered it to have been overrated at the time, but was nevertheless considered one of the greatest games of all time. An expansion, Black & White: Creature Isle, and sequel, Black & White 2, followed. Gameplay The player takes on the role of a god ruling over several islands populated by various tribes. The player interacts with the environment via an animated, on-screen hand, that is used to throw people and objects, tap houses to wake their occupants, cast miracles, and perform other actions. Key items in the story are gold and silver scrolls. Gold scrolls initiate a significant event (including the main story), and silver ones a minor task to perform for a reward. Nearly every action (or lack thereof) affects how the player is judged by their followers: the player may be seen as a good god, an evil one, or in-between the two. The land, interface (including the hand), and music change according to that alignment. A good god's temple is brightly coloured, while an evil god's is designed to look intimidating. It is not necessary to consistently perform acts of either alignment and a mixture of the two can be used to stay neutral. The player has two advisors, one good and the other evil, who try to persuade the player to do things according to their alignment. An important task is expanding the villages, by constructing buildings and increasing the number of villagers. Important buildings include houses, the Village Centre (which displays the god who controls the village and the available miracles), and the Village Store (which stores resources and displays the villagers' desires). Buildings are created in the Workshop after obtaining blueprints. Wonders are special buildings granting a specific benefit. Villagers belong to one of eight tribes, such as Norse, Celtic, or Japanese, each having a different Wonder. Villagers can be assigned to perform a specific task such as fishing or starting a family. If the Temple is destroyed, the game is lost. When attacked, Temples transfer damage to their god's buildings and followers in defence; only Temples whose god has no followers are vulnerable. The Temple is surrounded by sites where villagers worship, generating the power needed to cast miracles. Villagers require feeding, healing or rest to worship. How many villagers worship is controlled at the Village Centre, and which miracles are available depends on those available at the player's villages. Miracles include providing food or wood, healing people, and providing shields to protect an area. Miracles can also be cast by using Miracle Dispensers, a common reward for completing Silver Reward Scrolls. These allow the casting of a miracle without worship. Miracles can only be cast, and most other actions performed, within the player's area of influence, which can be extended by expanding the population of villages owned, or by taking over others. Miracles can be selected at the Temple or Village Centre, or by performing certain gestures with the Hand. Power can also be produced by sacrificing living beings at the altar. The general goal of a level is to gain control over every village on an island, accomplished through acts that persuade the villagers to believe in the player. Villagers can be swayed by everything from assistance with day-to-day tasks to being terrorised by fireballs and lightning storms. Artefacts (special objects that glow in their owner's colour) and missionary disciples can be used to impress villagers. Villagers become bored with repetitive attempts to impress them. For example, if boulders fly overhead too frequently, their effect is lost. This forces the player to use multiple methods to convert a village. The game features a skirmish mode, where other gods are battled for control of an island, a multiplayer mode over a local area network (LAN) or an online service, and The God's Playground, where gameplay aspects can be practised. In multiplayer mode, deathmatch and cooperative modes are available. In cooperative mode, players share a creature. Black & White includes a feature enabling the import of real weather. Creature One of Black & Whites core features is the interaction between the player and an avatar-like creature. Three are available to select from the beginning of the game and others can be obtained by completing Silver Reward Scrolls. The currently-owned creature can be swapped with a new one at certain points in the game. The creature starts out small, and grows as the game progresses. Each has strengths and weaknesses: apes are intelligent and proficient at learning but lack strength; tigers are strong but learn slowly. As a god, the player can teach their creature to perform tasks such as stocking the village store or performing miracles. The creature is taught what and when to eat, and how to attack or impress enemy villages. Fighting skills may be taught in one-on-one battles with other creatures; attack and defence abilities can be improved. Teaching is performed using a reinforcement learning system: if the creature does something the player does not want, it can be discouraged with a slap. If the creature does something the player approves of, it can be stroked. The creature remembers the response to various actions and gradually changes its behaviour accordingly. With time and repetition, it can perform complex functions that allow it to serve as the player's avatar. Three types of leashes are used to command the creature to go to a specific place, and can be tied to a building to restrict movement. One leash encourages the creature to pay attention when actions are demonstrated; the others encourage either benevolent or malevolent behaviour. The game reinforces the creature's choices and learning by providing visual feedback, and the creature has an alignment separate from the player's. Evil wolves sport glowing eyes and large fangs and claws; good ones turn a shade of purple and glow gently. Lionhead Studios used Michael Bratman's belief–desire–intention model to simulate creatures' learning and decision making processes. A creature forms an intention by combining desires, opinions, and beliefs. Beliefs are attributed to lists that store data about various world objects. Desires are goals the creature wants to fulfill, expressed as simplified perceptrons. Opinions describe ways of satisfying a desire using decision trees. For each desire, the creature selects the belief with the best opinion, thus forming an intention or goal. Plot The player begins on an island as a new god, created from a family's prayers. After saving their drowning son, the god follows the grateful family to their village. A large creature is later discovered who tells of its former master, a god named Nemesis, who desires to reign supreme as the one true god by destroying all others. The player is told of the Creed; an energy source with the ability to destroy gods. Nemesis destroys his former creature and attacks the village. A mysterious vortex opens that the player enters to escape Nemesis. The player is transported to a second island and greeted by another god, Khazar. Khazar reveals that it was he who sent the vortex and requests assistance against another god, Lethys, Nemesis' underling, in exchange for resources to rebuild the village. Later, Nemesis destroys Khazar and steals his piece of the Creed. Lethys then kidnaps the player's creature, taking it through a vortex. In the third land, the creature is held in stasis by three magical pillars. After the creature is freed, Lethys grants the player a piece of the Creed and opens a vortex where another can be found. The player returns to the first land, now cursed by Nemesis; fireballs and lightning rain from the sky. After the curses are lifted by destroying the three guardian stones, and the piece of the Creed is claimed, Nemesis appears, inviting the player to his realm. On the last island, Nemesis curses the player's creature, causing it to slowly change alignments, shrink, and grow weaker. When the final piece of the Creed is obtained, the player destroys Nemesis, and is left as the only god in the world. Development and release History Black & White took over three years to develop beginning on 14 February 1998, and was released on 27 March 2001. Peter Molyneux funded the project himself and devoted his entire focus to its development. Molyneux stated that he tried to correct the mistakes he made with the game design of Dungeon Keeper. The goal was to develop a unique game where players felt they inhabited a world where they could do anything. Molyneux had liked the idea of controlling people as a god since his previous venture, Populous. He was interested in the concept of good and evil and thought that this could be used to influence the game's atmosphere. Development was slow, starting with only six people, as Molyneux wanted to assemble the right team. Discussions about concepts (including a Mafia-style game) began at his house in 1997, and in February 1998, the team moved into Lionhead's offices. The expanded nine-person team exchanged further suggestions for the game and its content, such as lip-synchronised characters, although this was thought impossible. As more people joined, Molyneux wanted Lionhead's friendly atmosphere to remain, and their policy of only recruiting people who could fit in with existing members meant that the team had developed their own way of working. According to Molyneux, team members questioned and competed with each other, resulting in a better quality of work. He said that "the team did the work of a group twice their number." The group that finally produced the game numbered twenty-five programmers with a budget of approximately £4 million. Molyneux stated that King Kong was an inspiration for the game. Soon afterwards, watching the Outer Limits episode "The Sandkings", he noticed that the episode featured bug-like creatures worshipping a scientist, and who moved around him in reverence whenever he was nearby. Molyneux thought that being admired with that level of devotion made one a god. Molyneux told Official Dreamcast Magazine that he had sought to recreate the "fantastic feeling" of destroying ant nests as a child. In 1998, Black & White was shown at the E3 trade show in Atlanta, Georgia, and incorporated elements of Populous and Dungeon Keeper. Molyneux estimated the game would be nearly finished in 1999, and scheduled it for a late September 2000 release. Artificial intelligence was one of the key areas still being worked on. The game crashed multiple times; Molyneux fixed the bugs using Microsoft Developer Studio before restarting. He expected the 3D engine used would be an improvement when compared to his previous games. He instructed the programmers to "Make it the most beautiful engine ever conceived by anybody, ever". As of December 1998, no animators had been hired, and the art team were developing their own skills in that area. By this time, the engine was being developed by three people: Alex Evans, Jean-Claude Cuttier, and Scawen Roberts (who had joined from a courier company called, coincidentally, Black And White). Cottier developed the landscape system, and found a method of generating textures, enabling the reflection of various types of terrain. Roberts created the creatures and the animation (Eric Bailey later took over the creature animations). Evans described developing the engine as "a daunting task". Composer Russell Shaw came up with the idea of the world changing appearance according to the player's alignment: he suggested that the player's territory loses colour if he plays evil, and for it to be gaily coloured if good. Artist Mark Healey wanted the cursor to be a magician's hand. The entire game, including the tools and libraries, was written from scratch. A trial and error approach was taken: the team learned by trying something and changing what did not work. They avoided using control panels, icons and buttons for casting miracles, preferring a gesture system. Molyneux commented that he would have been very disappointed if the system was dumped, but in the end, they got the feature working "beautifully". Integrating the storyline was found to draw the player through the game in an unexpected manner, which led to the development of characters like Sable, the Creature trainer, and the advisers. A great deal of effort was devoted to getting features such as the weather import working. The game was originally to feature battling wizards, who would have had creatures (originally named Titans) to raise, and be powered by belief. A key idea was the ability to turn living beings into Titans. Healey's early visualisation featured the Horned Reaper from Dungeon Keeper representing Titans. The team wanted the player to see the world from the same perspective as possessing a creature in Dungeon Keeper (it was originally intended for the player to be able to take control of creatures in the first-person). Molyneux wanted "limitless flexibility" and the ability to zoom out to see the world from the sky. It was decided to make the player a god when it was realised that humans could not wield the powers that were being implemented. The spells that were to be cast became miracles, and the wizards' supporters became worshippers. The mechanic of turning living beings into Titans was dropped because of problems with balance, with certain Titans having advantages over others. After the name Titans was dropped, others were considered, including Sards, Demes, Ikons, Psiphs, and Amalians. None had unanimous support, so they ended up being called 'creatures'. Elements of the Wizard theme, such as Temples resembling a wizard's tower, remain in the final game. Temples were originally named Citadels and some sported a medieval, fairy-tale look. In January 1999, Richard Evans was working out how the game judges the morality of the player's behaviour. Mark Webley (who had programmed the creature's artificial intelligence on a testbed version) had become project manager, ensuring routines were listed on task schedules. He stated that this was "a hundred times more difficult" than similar tasks at Bullfrog Productions. By March, the team had expanded to 17 people including five artists, five game programmers, two engine programmers, and a sound programmer. Lionhead wanted a maximum of 25 people so as not to break the "team spirit" atmosphere. Black & White was shown at E3 1999 where it was judged the most original game. At this time, Lionhead were considering 15 cover designs provided by Electronic Arts. At E3 2000, Molyneux gave a precise release date: 23 September 2000. The game was supposed to reach the alpha stage by 18 June, but by summer, it became clear that development was behind schedule, and the release date was pushed back to 10 November. In September, it was pushed back again into 2001, angering fans who were eagerly awaiting its release. Molyneux apologised for the delay. By September 2000, every Lionhead member had their faces digitised for use on villagers. Villagers were auctioned online at QXL, with all proceeds going to the National Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Children. The team were surprised when the first one sold for £450, and the fourth one for over £1000. By October, Lionhead were operating around the clock to reach alpha. Shin Kanaoya of EA Square came to discuss the Japanese localisation, which was considered difficult due to the requirement of the use of two-byte characters to display the Japanese writing system, particularly the 20,000 Kanji characters, which would have posed RAM management issues. Lionhead were considering using the Japanese fonts included with Windows. In September, there were "dozens" of fansites about Black & White. By November, there were around 150. Molyneux later said that Black & White was amongst the first video games to have fansites, and that Lionhead were accused of over-promising when the sites described features the game did not have when shown. Molyneux said that might have been "insanely ambitious" with regard to the standards they set themselves for the graphics, because the system requirements were high and much of the custom software needed to be written. One such program was a terrain-editing tool named Leadhead. He stated that they went from "bizarre ideas", to "the best game I have ever seen". The villagers' artificial intelligence had to be restricted by giving some control to the Village Centre as there was no limit on the number of villagers. Molyneux said of the creature's artificial intelligence, "part of the game itself learns from everything you do and tailors itself to you", and described the creature as "an astonishing piece of work". He also commented that the last months of development were "the hardest any of us has ever had to work", and that "without the right team, this game never would have happened." The models for the trees, bushes, and other landscape features were created in 3D Studio Max, and initial graphics development was done in 2D using Adobe Photoshop. Later development was done using other custom software. Clan multiplayer, where multiple players play as one god, was developed in a rush; its interface had to be developed in two weeks. Black & Whites online community was handled by two servers in London, where the clan creatures were stored to minimise the possibility of cheating. Alpha was reached in December 2000. Multiplayer mode nearly had to be dropped for this to happen, but the problems were fixed just in time. Electronic Arts became involved in the production; testers were employed (they found three thousand bugs), localisations were checked, and a marketing campaign was launched. Fearing the bugs could kill the game, lists were sent to every member of the team, who had a chart, updated daily. The biggest problem was the final set, and fixing them created more bugs. Molyneux commented that "It was as if the game just didn't want to be finished and perfected", and remarked that the team felt like they had run a marathon after fixing the bugs. The end product was so large that they "almost felt lost within the code" which consisted of over a million lines, and took over an hour to compile. The music, dialogue, and sound effects were compressed to fit on one CD, as they took five times as much space as the game. People not involved with the game's development began playing it and were extremely impressed. The release date was then set at 23 February 2001. Electronic Arts complained that the age at which the villagers were reproducing was below the age of consent for some countries, so this had to be changed. Lionhead announced that the game went gold (became ready to be released) on 16 March 2001. Molyneux credited fans for making the hardest times worthwhile. Because players encountered technical issues, rumours that Electronic Arts had shipped beta versions circulated; Lionhead denied them. Molyneux said Black & White was the most important and difficult game he had made. In June, a patch that fixed bugs was released. The Japanese version was released on 24 May 2001, and re-released as Black & White Special Edition under the EA Best Selections branding on 18 March 2004. Another patch was released, which would allow the Hand to be controlled by an Essential Reality P5 Glove, a virtual reality glove. Story and characters Work on the story began in October 1999, and took longer than expected. The team estimated two months, but soon realised they lacked the necessary skills to meet this deadline. Bullfrog's James Leach, who had previously worked on titles such as Dungeon Keeper and Theme Hospital, was recruited, and wrote many challenges, all the dialogue, and enabled the team to make the advisers characters rather than just sources of information. The idea to make the advisers characters came from Alex Evans, who wanted them to interact with their lips synchronised. A system was developed that moved their mouths into common phoneme shapes, used as a basis to turn them into graphic equalisers that move into shapes according to the sounds being played. This facilitated localisation, as the game was to be translated into fifteen languages. Both advisers were voiced by Marc Silk, cutting the recording time by roughly half. The initial designs were produced by artist Christian Bravery, but these were considered too similar to classic devils and angels. Healey redesigned the angel to be more like a fairy. He was accused of putting his girlfriend into the game, something which he agreed with on reflection: he admitted that it looked "rather a lot like her". He then designed an old man resembling a cross between a hippy, a yogi, and a "kindly old man". The advisers' animations and emotions were triggered by keywords in the script document, a Microsoft Excel file consisting of several thousand lines. Much of the script was for the advisers, as they were to comment on everything happening as well as the other things players may want to do. The challenges and quests were developed to keep players occupied while playing through the story. Molyeux told Leach about the ways of good and evil and the system's reflection of the player's behaviour, and provided him with a digital copy of the Bible with instructions to study the concepts due to their connection with gods and men. Leach decided to supplement the idea of evil with mischief, as he thought being completely evil by annoying or killing followers was senseless. Molyneux wanted a conflict between good and evil, and for the enemy gods to have the opposite alignment to the player. As a method of introducing the player to miracles and combat, a god whose alignment is the same as the player's was added. Leach, Molyneux, and Webley were considering the final story when Jamie Durrant, an artist, became involved in the scripting language. A level designer, Ken Malcolm, was also hired, and their skills were considered invaluable. Malcolm said that the challenges were imagined as films with multiple endings because the story elements were different to games based on levels. According to him, the team had to "forget the rules" and focus on what players would do. World domination was the story's goal. The Creed was a way of achieving that goal without having to convert every tribe. The intent was for the Creeds to be hosted inside creatures, obtainable only after the creature was dead. Winning the game would require three Creeds of the same alignment and their placement in the volcano on the fifth land. The explosion would "shatter the world" and the world would be the player's. As the story evolved, it was decided that the game should not force the player through it, as it would restrict his freedom. The team also wanted players to explore the world. The solution to this problem came in the form of the Gold Story Scrolls. The other gods' actions and dialogue were written to be neutral as they could be either good or evil. Some were influenced by the player's alignment, but some lines were spoken regardless of the player's alignment due to lack of space. The concept of good and evil also affected the gods' names: bias towards a particular alignment was avoided because they could be either. Khazar and Lethys were "suitably old and legendary". The name Nemesis was to be replaced with "a huge, powerful name", but was liked by most of the team. Programmer Oliver Purkiss was hired to program the villagers. He and Molyneux "worked tirelessly" to give the villagers autonomy and individuality without using too much processor power. Purkiss said that they did not want players to believe that villagers were worthless. Afterwards, it was decided that the villagers should have different belief levels, so the player would need to impress more sceptical ones. Richard Evans worked on the villagers' reactivity. The script editor started out "simple", enabling programmers to perform camera angles and move villagers, and the first script was created when Cottier added a widescreen function. Molyneux wanted "an epic tale", so tools such as cinematography and the ability to analyse the creature and the player's alignment and abilities were needed. Jason Hutchens, an "expert in languages", was hired and helped create a "more natural" language compiler. A system to generalise each approach to challenges was also needed. The script editor and language were simple enough for non-programmers to use, and was also capable of writing complex scripts. Sound and music Shaw was head of music and sound. He handled the voice recording, all the sound effects, and composed the music. He also played instruments and sang: the first land's Missionaries' song featured the voices of Shaw and Webley. It was originally Shaw's intention for there to be no dialogue. The game had over 5000 sound effects by January 2000. Shaw's lack of experience in playing "ethnic" instruments was a problem, but Steafan Hannigan, an expert on the subject, was enlisted to help. Hannigan further enlisted a musical ensemble who covered the instruments for every tribe. Silc's speech was performed at Electronic Arts's sound studio in Chertsey over three-and-a-half days. The sessions were directed by Leach, and the lines were recorded onto hard disk by Electronic Arts engineer Bill Lusty. The recordings were then burnt to CD, which were sent to Shaw, who then "cut up" each line and assigned them to those in the game. Afterwards, Hugo Myatt and Shelley Blond were recorded at Lionhead. Creature The decision to base the creatures on real animals was made early on. To offer players variety, a mixture of benign and aggressive creatures was deemed necessary. The team decided to implement anthropomorphised bipedal animals, because their humanoid form evoked empathy, and credibility in their potential sentience. Due to technical restraints, bipedal creatures also provided greater flexibility for animation and game dynamics. The lion was constructed for the prototype. 3D Studio Max was used to build the wire-mesh frame, and then Adobe Photoshop was used to skin the creature. The skeleton was added, which was used by an animator to perform movements. The good creatures' appearances were the most problematic, and the transformation between alignments was also thought to be "a huge challenge". Each form was built from seven meshes and three texture sets. This enabled subtle variation. The eyes were originally painted as a texture, but this was deemed "unsatisfactory". Later, the eyes were built using separate geometry that moves independently, and were added using the game's creature editor. To implement the transformation of the creature based on its alignment, Alex Evans developed an exporter program to export 3D Studio Max's models and animations, and Roberts created one to import them and apply them to the lion. Each version of the creature was then loaded, and interpolation code was written, as well as a blended animation between two similar ones. The system has a two-way blend: one for the alignment, and the other for how fat the creature is. As there was not going to be many creatures on one map, the team were able to use CPU resources to run many animations simultaneously on a single creature. The planned level of artificial intelligence for the creature was thought to be risky: Molyneux commented that they wanted to "advance the technology to its extreme", and artificial intelligence specialist Richard Evans built the technology, which according to Molyneux appeared to "live and learn like, say, a clever puppy". Molyneux desired the creature to pass the Turing test, which had not yet been achieved. Other versions An online version, Black & White: The Gathering, was in development, and would have enabled creatures to interact those of other players in a cut-down game environment over the internet. Lionhead planned to release Black & White: The Gathering two months before the main game's release as a free download, and it was to offer a choice of creatures. It would have linked with chat programs such as AOL instant messenger and ICQ and convert text to a speech bubble from the creature. It was intended for players to be able to upload the main game's creature into Black & White: The Gathering and its experiences to be saved into the main game. Another online program, Black & White Worlds, was in development. This would have taken place in the worlds of the main game. Molyneux explained that there was to be a server, whose worlds would have been set up with a match-making system and players would have been able to do battle, like last man standing. There was also a plan to produce Black & White Universe, in which players would have had a persistent online world. A PlayStation version was in development and scheduled for release in summer 2001, and a Dreamcast version in late 2001. Both were cancelled. The PlayStation version was in development by Blade Interactive Studios and was going to be published by Midas Interactive and Bethesda Softworks.PlayStation 2 and Xbox versions were due for release in 2002. Versions for the Game Boy Color and Game Boy Advance were proposed, but never materialised. A company called M4 was to have co-developed them alongside Lionhead, but Electronic Arts were not interested in the Game Boy versions. Molyneux stated that the Dreamcast version was cancelled because it was taking time to convert the game for the platform, and development had not progressed far enough for it to be worth continuing as interest in the platform was declining. Versions for Linux and BeOS were mooted, but were not greenlit by any prospective publisher. Reception Critics lauded Black & White with "universal acclaim" according to video game review aggregator Metacritic. The graphics, gameplay, and artificial intelligence in particular were well received. Black & White sold two and a half million copies on the PC by 2006. In the United States, NPD Techworld ranked Black & White as the 11th-biggest computer game seller of 2001. Its sales in that region totaled 464,325 units, for revenues of $19.3 million, by the end of the year. It received a "Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 300,000 copies in the United Kingdom. Maxim Scott Steinberg complimented the design, saying it "lets you indulge your most megalomaniacal fantasies with ease". IGN's Tal Blevins complimented the "wildly imaginative" single-player mode, and the graphics, describing the game as "a visual masterpiece". AllGame's Michael House eulogised the "[a]bsolutely stunning and gorgeous" graphics. Marc Saltzman of The Cincinnati Enquirer complimented the addictiveness and "superb" gameplay, but criticised the high system requirements. Playboy Michael Ryan complimented the "intelligent" sense of humour, "intense" visual appeal, and addictiveness, but criticised the frequent micromanagement and ambiguous objectives. Game Informers Kristian Brogger was impressed with the game's depth. GameZone's reviewer praised the landscapes, described the music as "fit for a god", and complimented the game for merging genres. Greg Kasavin of GameSpot concurred with this, stating: "No other PC game to date has so effectively combined so many seemingly incompatible elements into one highly polished game". Computer Gaming World Charles Ardai commended the artificial intelligence and graphics, describing the landscape as "stunning". Ben Silverman of Game Revolution approved the "[u]nbelievable presentation" and agreed with Computer Gaming World on the artificial intelligence, calling it "revolutionary". GamePro reviewer complimented the realism, stating that it is like interacting with a real world, and echoed others' views on the artificial intelligence by describing it as "impressive". X-Play commended the graphics, but criticised the high system requirements. Uniqueness and originality garnered critical praise. Craig Wessel of GameSpy felt the game is a unique and enjoyable strategy game. Originality was commended by PC Gamer reviewer, who also eulogised the "[b]eautiful" graphics, "awesome" interface, and its creativity, and Gamezilla's Alex Karls, who also remarked the game "lives up to its hype". Edge reviewer agreed about the originality, and described the game as "a colossal achievement". Keith Pullin of PC Zone compared the resource management to Age of Empires, and complimented the humour and pop culture references and praised the combination of original ideas, remarking that "B&W is as captivating as it is ingenious". Computer Games Magazine complimented the originality and "amazing" creature AI, but complained about the bugs. Jim Preston of Next Generation described the game as "thoughtful and engrossing". Reviewing the Macintosh version, Kit Pierce of Inside Mac Games remarked "Black & White is a gorgeous game", and commended its addictiveness. Several publications re-reviewed the game later and, while still well received, have re-evaluated their initial judgement. Black & White was selected by GameSpy as the most over-rated game of all time in an article published in September 2003, citing a lack of true interaction with the townspeople and poor use of the much-lauded creatures as reasons it disappointed. IGN mentioned the game in one of their podcasts discussing over-rated games. Awards \|- \| rowspan="3"\|1999 \| Best Original Game \| rowspan="7"\|Game Critics Awards \| \| rowspan="9"\|Electronic Entertainment Expo \| \|- \| Best Strategy Game \| \| \|- \| Best PC Game \| \| \|- \| rowspan="6"\|2000 \| Best PC Game \| \| \|- \| Best Strategy Game \| \| \|- \| Best of Show \| \| \|- \| Best Original Game \| \| \|- \| Most Innovative \| rowspan="2"\|IGN \| \| \|- \| Best of Show \| \| \|- \| rowspan="15"\|2001 \| Interactivity \| rowspan="6"\|British Academy of Film and Television Arts \| \| \| \|- \| Moving Images \| \| \| \|- \| PC Games \| \| \| \|- \| Music \| \| \| \|- \| Technical Innovation \| \| \| \|- \| Networked Games \| \| \| \|- \| Editor's Choice \| PC Gamer \| \| \| \|- \| Editor's Choice \| Computer Gaming World \| \| \| \|- \| Classic Award \| PC Zone \| \| \| \|- \| PC Game of the Year Benelux \| rowspan="6"\|European Computer Trade Show \| \| \| \|- \| PC Game of the Year Eastern Europe \| \| \| \|- \| PC Game of the Year Germany \| \| \| \|- \| PC Game of the Year Italy \| \| \| \|- \| PC Game of the Year Scandinavia \| \| \| \|- \| PC Game of the Year Spain \| \| \| \|- \| rowspan="13"\|2002 \| Computer Innovation \| rowspan="7"\|Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences \| \| \| \|- \| Computer Game of the Year \| \| \| \|- \| Animation \| \| \| \|- \| Character or Story Development \| \| \| \|- \| Game of the Year \| \| \| \|- \| Game Play Engineering \| \| \| \|- \| PC Strategy \| \| \| \|- \| Excellence in Programming \| rowspan="4"\|Game Developers Choice Awards \| \| Richard Evans \| \|- \| Game Innovation \| \| \| \|- \| Game of the Year \| \| \| \|- \| Excellence in Game Design \| \| Peter Molyneux and the team. \| \|- \| Best AI \| PC Gamer \| \| \| \|- \| Game of the Year \| Games Magazine \| \| \| \|- \| \| Gold Award of Excellence \| Electronic Multimedia Awards \| \| \| Accolades Black & White was named by PC World as the Best Video Game of 2001, appeared at number one on AiGameDev.com's most influential AI games list, and appeared in the 2003 Guinness World Records for having the "most intelligent being in a game". Notes References Sources External links 2001 video games Cancelled Dreamcast games Cancelled PlayStation (console) games Cancelled PlayStation 2 games Cancelled Linux games Cancelled BeOS games Cancelled Xbox games Electronic Arts games Feral Interactive games Classic Mac OS games MacOS games Multiplayer and single-player video games Real-time strategy video games Video games scored by Russell Shaw Video games with expansion packs Windows games God games BAFTA winners (video games) Game Developers Choice Award winners Video games developed in the United Kingdom
402519	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Independence%20%28CV-62%29	USS Independence (CV-62)	The fifth USS Independence (CV/CVA-62) was an aircraft carrier of the United States Navy. She was the fourth and final member of the of conventionally powered supercarriers. She entered service in 1959, with much of her early years spent in the Mediterranean Fleet. Independence was decommissioned in 1998 after 39 years of active service. Stored in recent years at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, Bremerton, Washington, the ex-Independence was towed beginning on 10 March 2017 to Brownsville, Texas for scrapping. She arrived on 1 June 2017 and dismantling was completed by early 2019. Design and construction The s were designed in the early 1950s as a smaller version of the cancelled United States-class "supercarriers". Unlike the United States class, they were to operate in both the nuclear strike and conventional roles, and were therefore intended to carry a mixed fleet of fighters, light attack and heavy attack aircraft, all of which were to be jets. The carriers were designed around the large new Douglas A3D Skywarrior bomber, with four deck-edge aircraft elevators large enough to handle the new bomber. As jet aircraft needed much more fuel than piston-engined aircraft, the Forrestal class had a much greater aviation fuel capacity than existing carriers, with of Avgas and of jetfuel, more than double that carried in the s. Independence was built with an angled flight deck with four C-7 steam catapults, two on the bow and two on the angled deck. She was fitted with AN/SPS-37 long-range search radar and AN/SPS-8B height finding radar. Defensive armament consisted of eight 5"/54 caliber Mark 42 guns mounted on sponsons jutting out from the sides of the ship so they did not interfere with the flight deck. The initial air wing of the Forrestal-class carriers was about 90 aircraft, although this varied with the composition of the airwing. The contract to build Independence, the fourth Forrestal-class carrier was awarded to the Brooklyn Navy Yard on 2 July 1954, with the ship being laid down on 1 July 1955. She was launched on 6 June 1958 by the wife of Thomas S. Gates, the Secretary of the Navy, and commissioned on 10 January 1959. Operational history Testing and workup Independence conducted shakedown training under her first captain, Captain R. Y. McElroy, with the first landing-on being carried out by a Grumman Trader carrier onboard delivery aircraft on 2 March 1959. She arrived at her new homeport of Naval Station Norfolk, Virginia on 30 June 1959, and then carried out a ten-week training cruise in the Caribbean. During these trials, while carrying out compatibility tests aboard the new carrier, a Douglas A3D Skywarrior was catapulted off Independence at a gross weight of 84,000 pounds (38,000 kg), the heaviest aircraft to take off from a carrier at the time. 1960–1964 Independence operated off the Virginia Capes for the next year on training maneuvers, and departed 4 August 1960 for her first cruise to the Mediterranean. There, she added to the power of the 6th Fleet in the region, remaining in the eastern Mediterranean until her return to Norfolk 3 March 1961. On 4 August 1961, she departed again for the Mediterranean to join the US 6th fleet for another cruise and returned on 19 December 1961 to Norfolk. Independence sailed on 19 April 1962 for Sixth Fleet duty in support of President John F. Kennedy's firm stand on Berlin during a recurrence of stress in a critical area. She returned to Norfolk 27 August and sailed 11 October for the Caribbean Sea. Called on by President Kennedy on 24 October during the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis, Independence she acted as a key participant in the U.S. naval blockade of Cuba. She arrived off Puerto Rico in response to the presence of Soviet missiles in Cuba and took part in the quarantine operations until the resolution of the crisis. She then returned to Norfolk on 25 November for readiness exercises along the eastern seaboard, overhaul in the Norfolk Naval Shipyard, and refresher training out of Guantanamo Bay. Independence departed Norfolk on 6 August 1963 to take part in combined readiness exercises in the Bay of Biscay with sea-air units of the United Kingdom and France then entered the Mediterranean on 21 August for further duty with the Sixth Fleet. Cruising throughout the Mediterranean, she gained much valuable experience during combined NATO exercises, including close air support to Turkish paratroops, reconnaissance, communications, and convoy strike support. President Makarios of Cyprus paid her a visit on 7 October 1963, after which she took part in bilateral U.S.-Italian exercises in the Adriatic with Italian patrol torpedo boats, and U.S.-French exercises, which pitted her aircraft against French interceptors and a surface action with the French cruiser . She returned to Norfolk on 4 March 1964. Following training exercises, ranging north to New York and south to Naval Station Mayport, Florida, Independence departed Norfolk 8 September 1964 for NATO Teamwork exercises in the Norwegian Sea and off the coast of France, then to Gibraltar. She returned to Norfolk 5 November 1964 and entered the Norfolk Naval Shipyard for overhaul. 1965–1970 On 10 May 1965, Independence deployed for more than seven months, including 100 days in the South China Sea, off the coast of Vietnam, the first Atlantic Fleet carrier to do so. She also was the fifth U.S. carrier to operate off Vietnam. Independence and her embarked Carrier Air Wing 7 received the Navy Unit Commendation for exceptionally meritorious service from 5 June to 21 November 1965. The carrier's air group participated in the first major series of coordinated strikes against vital enemy supply lines north of the Hanoi-Haiphong complex, successfully evading the first massive surface-to-air missile barrage in aviation history while attacking assigned targets, and executing, the first successful attack on an enemy surface-to-air missile installation. The carrier launched more than 7,000 sorties, sustaining an exceptional pace of day and night strike operations against military and logistic supply facilities in North Vietnam. "The superior team spirit, courage, professional competence, and devotion to duty displayed by the officers and men of Independence and embarked Attack Carrier Air Wing Seven reflect great credit upon themselves and the United States Naval Service." Independence returned to her homeport, Norfolk, arriving 13 December 1965. During the first half of 1966, she operated off Norfolk, replenishing and training air groups. On 4 May 1966, she participated in Operation Strikex. The carrier departed Norfolk 13 June for European operations with the Sixth Fleet. Independence was involved with unit and NATO exercises from July into December. She then continued her Sixth Fleet deployment returning to CONUS in early 1967. After a few months of local operations, she underwent an extensive overhaul at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard. On 30 April 1968, Independence steamed to the Mediterranean Sea for a nine-month deployment. She returned to Pier 12 NOB Norfolk, Virginia on 27 January 1969. On 3 September 1969, the Independence departed Norfolk to participate in NATO exercises in the North Atlantic, (NORLANT), where she participated in testing the Hawker Siddeley Harrier in flight deck operations, returning home on 9 October 1969. Independence was again deployed to the Mediterranean on 23 June 1970, returning to Pier 12 on 31 January 1971. It was during this cruise that the ship was awarded the Meritorious Unit Commendation in support of actions against the PLO during the Jordanian crisis. 1970–1979 On 25 September 1970, the news was received that Gamal Abdel Nasser, President of the United Arab Republic had died; an event that might plunge the Middle East into a crisis. Independence, along with , , and seven other U.S. Navy ships were put on standby in case U.S. military protection was needed for the evacuation of U.S. citizens and as a counterbalance to the Soviet Union's Mediterranean fleet. Pilots of VMA-142, -131 and -133 began qualification landings in A-4 Skyhawks aboard Independence on 3 August 1971. For the next three days, four active duty and 20 reserve pilots operated aboard the carrier —the first time that Marine Corps Reserve squadrons qualified in carrier duty. Deploying from Norfolk in September 1971, the crew earned the designation as 'Blue Nose' sailors when the Independence crossed the Arctic Circle on 28 September. During subsequent operations in the North Sea, Independence conducted cross-deck operations with the British aircraft carrier and transited the English Channel en route to the Strait of Gibraltar and scheduled operations in the Mediterranean Sea. In May 1973, President Richard M. Nixon delivered his annual Armed Forces Day address from the decks of Independence. While based in Norfolk, the ship made deployments to the Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean. From 8 to 13 October 1973, Task Group 60.1 with Independence, Task Force 60.2 with , and Task Forces 61/62 with were alerted for possible evacuation contingencies in the Middle East as a result of the 1973 Yom Kippur War between Arab states and Israel. Independence operated off the island of Crete. In the summer of 1974, Independence departed Norfolk for yet another 'Med Cruise', operating with CTG 60.1 and CVW-7. Relieving Franklin D. Roosevelt, Independence and Saratoga continued the tradition of steaming the Mediterranean while being shadowed by Soviet aircraft and ships. On 8 September 1974, sailors were introduced to the new concept of terrorism when a bomb exploded in the cargo compartment of TWA Flight 841 high above. Steaming to the crash site, Independence and other ships spent two days retrieving the remains of the ill-fated jetliner, her crew, and passengers. On 20 June 1979, Lieutenant Donna L. Spruill became the first female Navy pilot to carrier qualify in a fixed-wing aircraft. Lieutenant Spruill piloted a C-1A Trader to an arrested landing aboard Independence. 1980–1989 On 19 November 1980, Independence with Carrier Air Wing Six (AE) embarked, deployed to the Indian Ocean along with the cruiser and was on watch along with Ranger on "Gonzo Station" as President Reagan took office and the Iranian Hostages were freed. Subsequently, completing an Indian Ocean cruise, Independence transited the Suez Canal northbound, shortly after had transited southbound, making America the first United States Navy carrier (and, thus, Independence the second) to transit the Suez Canal since in 1967. Independence completed a deployment of 204 days. Scheduled to go to Singapore, the crew was instead diverted to the Persian Gulf to back up during the Iran Hostage Crisis mission with Capt. Thomas E. Shanahan Commanding. After the Gulf, Independence and her battle group visited Perth/Fremantle, Western Australia from 2 to 7 February for R&R. Upon completion of the deployment, Captain Shanahan was promoted to rear admiral. In 1982, Independence provided critical support to the multinational peacekeeping force in Lebanon. On 25 June, the greatest concentration of U.S. Navy air power in the Mediterranean Sea resulted when the battle groups of Forrestal and Independence joined forces with and John F. Kennedy. After steaming together in the eastern Mediterranean Sea for several days, Forrestal and Independence relieved Dwight D. Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy, the latter sailing home to Norfolk, after a long deployment. In late October 1983, Independences battle group (Carrier Group Four), assigned to the United States Second Fleet, became the core of Task Group 20.5, the carrier task group that would support the Invasion of Grenada. On 25 October 1983, aircraft from Independence's embarked air wing flew missions supporting the invasion. Returning to Lebanon that same year, the ship's air wing conducted air strikes against Syrian positions. In 1984, she won the Marjorie Sterrett Battleship Fund Award for the Atlantic Fleet. On 17 February 1985, Independence arrived at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard to undergo a modernization and overhaul program to extend her service life by 15 years. The flight deck was improved to allow the recovery of high-performance aircraft while the ship traveled at slower speeds, and the NATO Sea Sparrow launchers were upgraded. Other improvements improved the ship's fuel consumption. Independence completed the Service Life Extension Program (SLEP) at Philadelphia Naval Shipyard in June 1988. Setting sail 15 August 1988 from Norfolk, the ship transited the tip of South America and arrived at her new homeport of NAS North Island, in San Diego, California, 8 October. The Paramount film Flight of the Intruder (1991), starring Danny Glover, Willem Dafoe, and Brad Johnson was filmed partly on Independence. The aircraft carrier went out for two weeks of filming in November 1989; the on-board fire party was kept busy dealing with the numerous small electrical fires that the movie crew had started with their lighting equipment. 1990–1995 In June 1990, with Carrier Air Wing 14 embarked, Independence departs San Diego on a routine WESTPAC. On 2 August, in response to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, Independence, leading Task Group 800.1, which included Jouett (CG-29), was sent to deter further Iraqi aggression during Operation Desert Shield. Arriving on station in the Gulf of Oman on 5 August, Independence was the first carrier to enter the Persian Gulf since 1974. The ship remained on station for 112 days and permanently reestablished a U.S. naval presence in the region. She returned to San Diego on 20 December 1990. Independence changed homeports again on 11 September 1991—this time to Yokosuka, Japan, embarking Carrier Air Wing 5 and becoming the Navy's only permanently forward-deployed aircraft carrier, and flagship for Commander, Carrier Group Five. On 23 August 1992, Independence entered the Persian Gulf, under the Command of Captain Carter B. Refo prepared to enforce an Allied ban on Iraqi flights over south Iraq below the 32nd parallel north. On 26 August, President George H. W. Bush announced that the United States and its allies had informed Iraq that in 24 hours allied aircraft would fly surveillance missions in southern Iraq and were prepared to shoot down any Iraqi aircraft flying south of the 32nd parallel. The action was precipitated by Iraq's failure to comply with U.N. Resolution 688, which demanded that the Iraqi government stop the repression of its Shiite population in southern Iraq. Persian Gulf allies began to enforce the ban on Iraqi planes from flying south of the 32nd parallel on 27 August in Operation Southern Watch. Any Iraqi planes that violated the ban would be shot down. Twenty Navy aircraft from CVW-5 aboard Independence in the Persian Gulf were the first coalition aircraft on station over Iraq as Operation Southern Watch began. Southern Watch was the enforcement of a ban on Iraqi warplanes and helicopters from flying south of the 32nd parallel. Independence became the most battle experienced ship in the Navy's active fleet, and the first carrier in history to hold that distinction, on 30 June 1995. With this honor, Independence displayed the Revolution-era First Navy Jack, commonly called the "Don't Tread on Me" flag, from her bow until her decommissioning. The flag was presented to Independences commanding officer Capt. David P. Polatty III in a formal ceremony on 1 July. The flag was received from upon her decommissioning. In November 1995, Independence and Carrier Air Wing Five returned to Japan after successfully completing their third deployment to the Persian Gulf in support of Operation Southern Watch. 1996–1998 In March 1996, Independence was deployed to the waters east of Taiwan to provide a stabilizing presence amid the Third Taiwan Strait Crisis. She was joined in the area by Nimitz as the People's Republic of China lobbed missiles into Taiwanese territorial waters. On returning to Yokosuka in April 1996, the ship was visited by President Bill Clinton as part of an official state visit to Japan. In 1997, Independence made a four-month deployment, covering several major exercises and seven ports of call. Included in these ports of call were two historic port visits. The first was 28 February 1997 to the island territory of Guam. Independence was the first aircraft carrier to pull into Guam in 36 years. The second, two months later, was to Port Klang, Malaysia. Independence became the first aircraft carrier in the world to make a port visit to Malaysia. Before sailing back to Yokosuka, Japan, Independence made her last port call of the deployment in May 1997 to Hong Kong. The ship's port call was the last U.S. naval visit to the territory before its handover to China on 1 July 1997. Independence deployed to the Persian Gulf in January 1998 to support negotiations between the UN and Iraq and to again participate in Operation Southern Watch, prior to being relieved at Yokosuka by . Decommissioning and fate Independence was decommissioned in ceremonies at the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard in Bremerton, Washington, on 30 September 1998. At the conclusion of this ceremony, in keeping with naval tradition, Independences last commanding officer, Captain (later Rear Admiral) Mark R. Milliken, USN, was the last person to depart the ship. Independences commissioning pennant was hauled down 39 years, 9 months and 20 days after it was first hoisted, and the "Don't Tread on Me" First Navy Jack was transferred to the Navy's next oldest active ship, the aircraft carrier Kitty Hawk. After decommissioning, Independence remained in mothballs for five and a half years before being struck on 8 March 2004. During her time in mothballs, the ship was said to have been heavily stripped to support the active carrier fleet, especially the remaining s. Her port anchor and both anchor chains were used on the new . The recycling of parts and the poor material condition of the ship at the time she was withdrawn made a strong argument against retaining her as a potential museum ship. In April 2004, Navy officials identified ex-Independence as one of 24 decommissioned ships available to be sunk as artificial reefs. However, as of February 2008, she was scheduled to be dismantled in the next five years along with . At that time, she was still available for donation as a reef while awaiting a contract for her dismantling to be awarded. On 26 January 2012, the Navy's Naval Sea Systems Command posted a notice of solicitation for the towing and complete dismantlement of multiple CV-59/CV-63 Class Aircraft Carriers in the United States, including Forrestal, Independence, and Constellation. The impacts of an initial scrapping for marine life in the Puget Sound required remediation with a layer of sand over the scrapping area. Following the disposal of and Constellation, on 10 March 2017 ex-Independence began her 16,000-mile journey from Puget Sound Naval Shipyard to Brownsville, Texas for dismantling by International Shipbreaking Limited. On 26 April 2017, she was on her way through the Strait of Magellan, and on 30 May 2017 she arrived at Brownsville, where a special ceremony was held at Isla Blanca Park for veterans, school children and members of the local community to honour the vessel. Scrapping was completed by early 2019. Two of the ship's propellers are on display at South Padre Island. See also List of aircraft carriers List of aircraft carriers of the United States Navy References Bibliography It also includes text from External links Reunion groups: ussindependence.us: CVA/CV-62 Communications Department ussindependencecv-62.org: USS INDEPENDENCE CV-62 Assoc. Inc Forrestal-class aircraft carriers Ships built in Brooklyn 1958 ships Cold War aircraft carriers of the United States Vietnam War aircraft carriers of the United States
402544	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeconiah	Jeconiah	Jeconiah ( Yəḵonəyā , meaning "Yah has established"; ; ), also known as Coniah and as Jehoiachin ( Yəhōyāḵīn ; ), was the nineteenth and penultimate king of Judah who was dethroned by the King of Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar II in the 6th century BCE and was taken into captivity. He was the son and successor of King Jehoiakim, and the grandson of King Josiah. Most of what is known about Jeconiah is found in the Hebrew Bible. Records of Jeconiah's existence have been found in Iraq, such as the Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets. These tablets were excavated near the Ishtar Gate in Babylon and have been dated to c. 592 BCE. Written in cuneiform, they mention Jeconiah (, Yaʾúkinu [ia-ʾ-ú-ki-nu]) and his five sons as recipients of food rations in Babylon. Jeconiah in scripture Reign Jeconiah reigned three months and ten days, beginning December 9, 598 BCE. He succeeded Jehoiakim as king of Judah after raiders from surrounding lands invaded Jerusalem and killed his father. It is likely that the king of Babylon was behind this effort, as a response to Jehoiakim's revolt, starting sometime after 601 BCE. Three months and ten days after Jeconiah became king, the armies of Nebuchadnezzar II seized Jerusalem, with the intention to take high class Judahite captives and assimilate them into Babylonian society. On March 15/16th, 597 BCE, Jeconiah, his entire household and three thousand Jews were exiled to Babylon. The Masoretic Text of 2 Chronicles 36 states that Jeconiah's rule began at the age of eight, while in 2 Kings 24:8 Jeconiah is said to have come to the throne at eighteen. Modern scholars have treated the difference between "eight" and "eighteen" as reflecting a copying error on one side or the other of the issue. During exile After Jeconiah was deposed as king, his uncle Zedekiah (2 Kings 24:17) was appointed by Nebuchadnezzar to rule Judah. Zedekiah was the son of Josiah. Jeconiah would later be regarded as the first of the exilarchs. In the Book of Ezekiel, the author refers to Jeconiah as king and dates certain events by the number of years he was in exile. The author identifies himself as Ezekiel, a contemporary of Jeconiah, and he never mentions Zedekiah by name. Release from captivity According to 2 Kings 25:27–30, Jeconiah was released from prison "in the 37th year of the exile", in the year that Amel-Marduk (Evil-Merodach) came to the throne, and given a prestigious position at court. Jeconiah's release in Babylon brings to a close the Books of Kings and the Deuteronomistic history. Babylonian records show that Amel-Marduk began his reign in October 562 BCE. According to 2 Kings 25:27, Jeconiah was released from prison "on the 27th day of the twelfth month": this indicates the first year of captivity to be 598/597 BCE, according to Judah's Tishri-based calendar. The 37th year of captivity was thus, by Judean reckoning, the year that began in Tishri of 562, consistent with the synchronism to the accession year of Amel-Marduk given in Babylonian records. Curse Jeremiah (22:28–30) cursed Jeconiah that none of his descendants would ever sit on the throne of Israel: Chapter 1, verses 11–12 of the Gospel of Matthew lists Jeconiah in the lineage of Jesus Christ, through Joseph. If Joseph was the biological father of Jesus (contrary to Christian belief), then Jesus could not rightfully claim to be the Messiah as the curse of Jeconiah, if true, would apply to Him. In Rabbinical literature Jehoiachin was made king in place of his father by Nebuchadnezzar; but the latter had hardly returned to Babylon when some one said to him, "A dog brings forth no good progeny," whereupon he recognized that it was poor policy to have Jehoiachin for king (Lev. R. xix. 6; Seder 'Olam R. xxv.). In Daphne, near Antiochia, Nebuchadnezzar received the Great Sanhedrin, to whom he announced that he would not destroy the Temple if the king were delivered up to him. When the king heard this resolution of Nebuchadnezzar he went upon the roof of the Temple, and, turning to heaven, held up the Temple keys, saying: "As you no longer consider us worthy to be your ministers, take the keys that you have entrusted to us until now." Then a miracle happened; for a fiery hand appeared and took the keys, or, as others say, the keys remained suspended in the air where the king had thrown them (Lev. R. l.c.; Yer. Sheḳ. vi. 50a; other versions of the legend of the keys are given in Ta'an. 29a; Pesiḳ. R. 26 [ed. Friedmann, p. 131a], and Syriac Apoc. Baruch, x. 18). The king as well as all the scholars and nobles of Judah were then carried away captive by Nebuchadnezzar (Seder 'Olam R. l.c.; compare Ratner's remark ad loc.). According to Josephus, Jehoiachin gave up the city and his relatives to Nebuchadnezzar, who took an oath that neither they nor the city should be harmed. But the Babylonian king broke his word; for scarcely a year had elapsed when he led the king and many others into captivity. Jehoiachin's sad experiences changed his nature entirely, and as he repented of the sins which he had committed as king he was pardoned by God, who revoked the decree to the effect that none of his descendants should ever become king (Jer. xxii. 30; Pesiḳ., ed. Buber, xxv. 163a, b); he even became the ancestor of the Messiah (Tan., Toledot, 20 [ed. Buber, i. 140]). It was especially his firmness in fulfilling the Law that restored him to God's favor. He was kept by Nebuchadnezzar in solitary confinement, and as he was therefore separated from his wife, the Sanhedrin, which had been expelled with him to Babylon, feared that at the death of this queen the house of David would become extinct. They managed to gain the favor of Queen Semiramis, who induced Nebuchadnezzar to ameliorate the lot of the captive king by permitting his wife to share his prison. As he then manifested great self-control and obedience to the Law, God forgave him his sins (Lev. R. xix., end). Jehoiachin lived to see the death of his conqueror, Nebuchadnezzar, which brought him liberty; for within two days of his father's death Evil-merodach opened the prison in which Jehoiachin had languished for so many years. Jehoiachin's life is the best illustration of the maxim, "During prosperity a man must never forget the possibility of misfortune; and in adversity must not despair of prosperity's return" (Seder 'Olam R. xxv.). On the advice of Jehoiachin, Nebuchadnezzar's son cut his father's body into 300 pieces, which he gave to 300 vultures, so that he could be sure that Nebuchadnezzar would never return to worry him ("Chronicles of Jerahmeel," lxvi. 6). Evil-merodach treated Jehoiachin as a king, clothed him in purple and ermine, and for his sake liberated all the Jews that had been imprisoned by Nebuchadnezzar (Targ. Sheni, near the beginning). It was Jehoiachin, also, who erected the magnificent mausoleum on the grave of the prophet Ezekiel (Benjamin of Tudela, "Itinerary," ed. Asher, i. 66). In the Second Temple there was a gate called "Jeconiah's Gate," because, according to tradition, Jeconiah (Jehoiachin) left the Temple through that gate when he went into exile (Mid. ii. 6). Genealogy Jeconiah was the son of Jehoiakim and Nehushta, the daughter of Elnathan of Jerusalem. He had seven children: Shealtiel, Malkiram, Pedaiah, Shenazzar, Jekamiah, Hoshama and Nedabiah. (). Jeconiah is also mentioned in the first book of Chronicles as the father of Pedaiah, who in turn was the father of Zerubbabel. A list of his descendants is given in . In listing the genealogy of Jesus Christ, Matthew 1:11 records Jeconiah as an ancestor of Joseph, the husband of Mary. Dating Jeconiah's reign The Babylonian Chronicles establish that Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem for the first time on 2 Adar (16 March) 597 BCE. Before Wiseman's publication of the Babylonian Chronicles in 1956, Thiele had determined from biblical texts that Nebuchadnezzar's initial capture of Jerusalem and its king Jeconiah occurred in the spring of 597 BCE, whereas Kenneth Strand points out that other scholars, including Albright, more frequently dated the event to 598 BCE. Thiele's dates Thiele said that the 25th anniversary of Jeconiah's captivity was April 25 (10 Nisan), 573 BCE, implying that he began the exile to Babylon on 10 Nisan 597, 24 years earlier. His reasoning in arriving at this exact date was based on Ezekiel 40:1, where Ezekiel, without naming the month, says it was the tenth day of the month, "on that very day." Since this fits with his idea that Jeconiah's (and Ezekiel's) exile to Babylon began a month later than the capturing of the city, thus allowing a new Nisan-based year to begin, Thiele took these words in Ezekiel as referring to the day in which the captivity or exile proper began. He therefore ended Jehoiachin's reign of three months and ten days on this date. The dates he gives for Jeconiah's reign are then: 21 Heshvan (9 December) 598 BCE to 10 Nisan (22 April) 597 BCE. Thiele's reasoning in this regard has been criticized by Rodger C. Young, who advocates the 587 date for the fall of Jerusalem. Young argues that Thiele's arithmetic is inconsistent, and adds an alternative explanation of the phrase "on that very day" (be-etsem ha-yom ha-zeh) in Ezekiel 40:1. This phrase is used three times in Leviticus 23:28–30 to refer the Day of Atonement, always observed on the tenth of Tishri, and Ezekiel's writings in several places show familiarity with the Book of Leviticus. A further argument in favor of this interpretation is that in the same verse, Ezekiel says it was Rosh Hashanah (New Year's Day) and also the tenth of the month, indicating the start of a Jubilee year, since only in a Jubilee year did the year begin on the tenth of Tishri, the Day of Atonement (Leviticus 25:9). The Talmud (tractate Arakin 12a,b) and the Seder Olam (chapter 11) also say that Ezekiel saw his vision at the beginning of a Jubilee year, the 17th, consistent with this interpretation of Ezekiel 40:1. Because this offers an alternative explanation to Thiele's interpretation of Ezekiel 40:1, and because Thiele's chronology for Jeconiah is incompatible with the records of the Babylonian Chronicle, the infobox below dates the end of Jeconiah's reign to 2 Adar (16 March) 597 BCE, the date of the first capture of Jerusalem as given in the Babylonian records. Thiele's dates for Jeconiah, however, and his date of 586 BCE for the fall of Jerusalem, continue to hold considerable weight with the scholarly community. However, no such complication is necessary since the tenth of Tishri 574 BCE is precisely as stated in Ezekiel 40:1, both in the fourteenth year of the Temple's destruction in 587 BCE and the twenty-fifth year of Jeconiah's exile in 597 BCE. Gershon Galil also attempted to reconcile a 586 date for the fall of Jerusalem with the data for Jeconiah's exile. Like Thiele, he assumed that the years of exile should be measured from Nisan, but for a different reason. Galil hypothesized that Israel’s calendar was one month ahead of that of Babylon because Babylon had inserted an intercalary month and Israel had not yet done so. This would make Adar (the twelfth month) in the Babylonian records correspond to Nisan (the first month) in Judean counting. But this hypothesis, like Thiele's, runs into difficulty with Ezekiel 40:1, since the 25th year of captivity would begin in Nisan of 573 and the fall of Jerusalem, 14 years earlier, would be in 587, not the 586 that Galil and Thiele advocate. There is further conflict with the Babylonian data, because the 37th year of captivity, the year in which Jeconiah was released from prison, would be the year starting in Nisan of 561 BCE, not Nisan of 562 BCE as given in the Babylonian Chronicle. Recognizing these conflicts, Galil admits (p. 377) that his date for the fall of Jerusalem (586 BCE) is inconsistent with the precise data given in the Bible and the Babylonian Chronicle. Dating the fall of Jerusalem using Jeconiah's dating The reign of Jeconiah is considered important in establishing the chronology of events in the early sixth century BCE in the Middle East. This includes resolving the date of the fall of Jerusalem to Nebuchadnezzar. According to Jeremiah 52:6, the city wall was breached in the summer month of Tammuz in the eleventh year of Zedekiah. Historians, however, have been divided on whether the year was 587 or 586 BCE. A 1990 study listed eleven scholars who preferred 587 and eleven who preferred 586. The Babylonian records of the second capture of Jerusalem have not been found, and scholars looking at the chronology of the period must rely on the Biblical texts, as correlated with extant Babylonian records from before and after the event. In this regard, the Biblical texts regarding Jeconiah are especially important, because the time of his reign in Jerusalem was fixed by Donald Wiseman's 1956 publication, and this is consistent with his thirty-seventh year of captivity overlapping the accession year of Amel-Marduk, as mentioned above. Ezekiel's treatment of Jeconiah's dates are a starting point for determining the date of the fall of Jerusalem. He dated his writings according to the years of captivity he shared with Jeconiah, and he mentions several events related to the fall of Jerusalem in those writings. In Ezekiel 40:1, Ezekiel dates his vision to the 25th year of the exile and fourteen years after the city fell. If Ezekiel and the author of were both using Tishri-based years, the 25th year would be 574/573 BCE and the fall of the city, 14 years earlier, would be in 588/587—i.e., in the summer of 587 BCE. This is consistent with other texts in Ezekiel related to the fall of the city. Ezekiel 33:21 relates that a refugee arrived in Babylon and reported the fall of Jerusalem in the twelfth year, tenth month of "our exile." Measuring from the first year of exile, 598/597, this was January of 586 BCE, incompatible with Jerusalem falling in the summer of 586 BCE, but consistent with its fall in the summer of 587 BCE. The other side holds that since Jeconiah surrendered in March 597, January 586 is less than eleven years later and therefore can not be considered in the twelfth year of the exile. Thiele held to a 586 BCE date for the capture of Jerusalem and the end of Zedekiah's reign. Recognizing to some extent the importance of Ezekiel's measuring time by the years of captivity of Jeconiah, and in particular the reference to the 25th year of that captivity in Ezekiel 40:1, he wrote, Although the Babylonian tablets dealing with the final fall and destruction of Jerusalem have not been found, it should be noticed that the testimony of Ezekiel 40:1 is definitive in regard to the year 586. Since Ezekiel had his vision of the temple on the twenty-fifth anniversary of his and Jehoiachin's captivity (28 April 573), and since this was the fourteenth year after Jerusalem's fall, the city must have fallen eleven years after the captivity. Eleven years after 597 is 586. In order to justify his 586 date, Thiele had assumed that the years of captivity for Jeconiah must be calendar years starting in Nisan, in contrast to the Tishri-based years that he used everywhere else for the kings of Judah. He also assumed that Jeconiah's captivity or exile was not to be measured from Adar of 597 BCE, the month Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem and its king according to the Babylonian Chronicle, but in the next month, Nisan, when Thiele assumed Jeconiah began the trip to Babylon. Granting these assumptions, the first year of captivity would be the year starting in Nisan of 597 BCE. The twenty-fifth year of captivity would start in Nisan of 573 BCE, (573/572) twenty-four years later. Years of captivity must be measured in this non-accession sense (the year in which the captivity started was considered year one of the captivity), otherwise the 37th year of captivity, the year in which Jeconiah was released from prison, would start on Nisan 1 of 560 BCE (597 − 37), two years after the accession year of Amel-Marduk, according to the dating of his accession year that can be fixed with exactitude by the Babylonian Chronicle. Thiele then noted that Ezekiel 40:1 says that this 25th year of captivity was 14 years after the city fell. Fourteen years before 573/572 is 587/586, and since Thiele is assuming Nisan years for the captivity, this period ended the day before Nisan 1 of 586. But this is three months and nine days before Thiele's date for the fall of the city on 9 Tammuz 586 BCE. Even Thiele's assumption that the years of captivity were measured from Nisan does not reconcile Ezekiel's chronology for the captivity of Jeconiah with a 586 date, and the calculation given above that uses the customary Tishri-based years yields the summer of 587, consistent with all other texts in Ezekiel related to Jeconiah's captivity. Another text in Ezekiel offers a clue to why there has been such a conflict over the date of Jerusalem's fall in the first place. Ezekiel 24:1–2 (NIV) records the following: In the ninth year, in the tenth month on the tenth day, the word of the Lord came to me: "Son of man, record this date, this very date, because the king of Babylon has laid siege to Jerusalem this very day." Assuming that dating here is according to the years of exile of Jeconiah, as elsewhere in Ezekiel, the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem began on January 27, 589 BCE. This can be compared to a similar passage in (NIV): So in the ninth year of Zedekiah's reign, on the tenth day of the tenth month, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon marched against Jerusalem with his whole army. He encamped outside the city and built siege works all around it. The ninth year, tenth month, tenth day in Ezekiel is identical to the period in 2 Kings. In Ezekiel, the years are everywhere else measured according to Jeconiah's captivity, which must be taken in a non-accession sense, so that the beginning of the siege was eight actual years after the beginning of the captivity. The comparison with 2 Kings 25:1 would indicate that Zedekiah's years in 2 Kings were also by non-accession reckoning. His eleventh year, the year in which Jerusalem fell, would then be 588/587 BCE, in agreement with all texts in Ezekiel and elsewhere that are congruent with that date. Some who maintain the 586 date therefore maintain that in this one instance, Ezekiel, without explicitly saying so, switched to the regnal years of Zedekiah, although Ezekiel apparently regarded Jeconiah as the rightful ruler and never names Zedekiah in his writing. Another view is that a later copyist, aware of the 2 Kings passage, modified it and inserted it into the text of Ezekiel. In his study of all biblical texts related to the Babylonian capture of Jerusalem, Young concludes that these conjectures are not necessary, and that all texts related to the fall of Jerusalem in Jeremiah, Ezekiel, 2 Kings, and 2 Chronicles are internally consistent and consistent with the fall of the city in Tammuz of 587 BCE. Archeological findings During his excavation of Babylon in 1899–1917, Robert Koldewey discovered a royal archive room of King Nebuchadnezzar near the Ishtar Gate. It contained tablets dating to 595–570 BCE. The tablets were translated in the 1930s by the German Assyriologist, Ernst Weidner. Four of these tablets list rations of oil and barley given to various individuals—including the deposed King Jehoiachin—by Nebuchadnezzar from the royal storehouses, dated five years after Jehoiachin was taken captive. One tablet reads: 10 (sila of oil) to the king of Judah, Yaukin; 2 1/2 sila (oil) to the offspring of Judah's king; 4 sila to eight men from Judea. Another reads, 1 1/2 sila (oil) for three carpenters from Arvad, 1/2 apiece; 11 1/2 sila for eight wood workers from Byblos ...; 3 1/2 sila for seven Greek craftsman, 1/2 sila apiece; 1/2 sila to the carpenter, Nabuetir; 10 sila to Ia-ku-u-ki-nu, the son of Judah's king[1]; 2 1/2 sila for the five sons of the Judean king. The Babylonian Chronicles are currently housed in the Pergamum Museum in Berlin. See also Siege of Jerusalem (597 BC) Kingdom of Judah List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources Elnathan, maternal grandfather who was a high court official References External links Jehoiachin in Babylonia , discussion of the Babylonian evidence 7th-century BC births 6th-century BC kings of Judah Exilarchs Jewish royalty Year of death unknown Ancient child monarchs Dethroned monarchs Monarchs deposed as children
402553	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saud%20of%20Saudi%20Arabia	Saud of Saudi Arabia	Saud bin Abdulaziz Al Saud (; 15 January 1902 – 23 February 1969) was King of Saudi Arabia from 9 November 1953 until his abdication on 2 November 1964. During his reign, he served as Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia from 1953 to 1954 and from 1960 to 1962. Prior to his accession, Saud was the country's crown prince from 11 May 1933 to 9 November 1953. He was the second son of King Abdulaziz, known as Ibn Saud, the founder of Saudi Arabia. Saud was the second son of King Abdulaziz and Wadha bint Muhammad Al Orair. The death of Saud's elder brother, Prince Turki, in 1919 poised Saud to become his father's successor; King Abdulaziz appointed him as the crown prince of Saudi Arabia in 1933. Saud served as a commander in Abdulaziz's conquests that led to the establishment of Saudi Arabia in 1932. He was the viceroy of Nejd from 1926 to 1932, and he also represented his father in neighboring countries. He played a role in the financial reforms of Saudi Arabia, preparing the first state budget in 1948 and establishing the Saudi Central Bank in 1952. Saud also oversaw the country's infrastructural development. Upon his father's death in 1953, Saud ascended the throne and reorganized the government. He founded the convention that the king of Saudi Arabia presides over the Council of Ministers. Saud sought to maintain friendly relations with the United States, whilst also supporting other Arab countries in their conflicts against Israel. Under his reign, Saudi Arabia joined the Non-Aligned Movement in 1961. However, Saud's inability to counter the Saudi national debt brought him into a power struggle with his half-brother and crown prince, Faisal, culminating in the forced abdication of Saud and the proclamation of Faisal as king. Saud went into exile and made an unsuccessful attempt, supported by some of his sons, to take back the throne. He died in Athens, Greece, in 1969. Early life and education Prince Saud was born on 15 January 1902 in Kuwait City. The second son of Abdulaziz bin Abdul Rahman, he was born in the home of his grandfather Abdul Rahman bin Faisal. They lived in Sikkat Inazza district of the city where the family was staying after their exile from Riyadh. When his father conquered Riyadh in 1902, Saud followed him with his mother and brothers. Prince Saud's full siblings were Prince Turki, Prince Khalid, Prince Abdullah and Princess Mounira. Of them Khalid and Abdullah died young. Their mother was Abdulaziz's second wife, Wadha bint Muhammad Al Orair, who was from the Bani Khalid tribe. From the age of five, Prince Saud studied Sharia and the Quran under Sheikh Abdul Rahman Al-Mufaireej. He also learned archery and horse-riding amongst other things under the supervision of his father, as well as tribal lineages, and how to conduct peace agreements, and the art of wars, politics, diplomacy, and administration in the traditional Arabian ways. His formal tutors were his father's advisors, Abdullah Al Damluji and Hafiz Wahba. Early career Saud accompanied his father on his many expeditions and, participated in several campaigns during the unification of the Arabian Peninsula. His first political mission was at the age of thirteen, leading a delegation to Qatar. The first battle he fought was at Jarrab in 1915, followed by one at Yatab in the same year, then Trubah in 1919. In 1925, he stopped the Almahmal crisis in Mecca. During his tenure as viceroy of Najd Prince Saud criticized his father due to the limitations on the Ikhwan through the newspaper Umm Al Qura. However, he later fought to stop the Ikhwan revolt at the battle of Sabilla in 1929. On 11 May 1933, Saud was appointed Crown Prince which was announced in Umm Al Qura newspaper. His uncle Muhammad bin Abdul Rahman did not pledge his allegiance to Saud as crown prince and before the gathering he left Riyadh for Mecca. Upon his appointment as crown prince, Abdulaziz told his son that he should be devoted to spreading Islam, take good care of his subjects, and pay attention to the advice of religious scholars. Saud then promised his father that he would listen to his father's advice. The following year, King Abdulaziz sent two military expeditions; one of them was led by Crown Prince Saud, who regained Najran and advanced secretly through the rugged mountains in the northwest part of Yemen. Following the end of the war with Yemen, Abdulaziz decided to encourage Saud to travel abroad. Accompanied by his father's adviser Fuad Hamza and physician Dr. Medhat Sheikh el-Ard and some others, he visited: Transjordan, Palestine, Iraq, Egypt and Europe where he represented his father at the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth in 1937. Saud struck a warm friendship with the young King Ghazi of Iraq, and earned plaudits from the Amir of Transjordan (later King Abdullah I of Jordan), who said to him: "in his character, he represented the choicest and purest of the traits and attributes of the Arabian Peninsula." When a crisis erupted between the neighboring Bahrain and Qatar, Saud visited the former in December 1937 in order to help sort out their differences. This was followed by other visits to the until the eve of the Second World War. After the war, when the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine appeared to be imminent, and leaders of the various Arab States met at Inshas in Egypt during 1946 in order to review the situation under the Chairmanship of King Farouk of Egypt, Saud was again selected by his father to represent him and his country, and participated in the adoption of the famous resolution that declared that: "The Palestinian cause is the cause of all Arabs and not merely the Palestinians". In 1947, Saud visited the United States and met with President Harry S. Truman, and also met with leaders in Britain, France, and Italy, in order to acquaint the policymakers with his father's views and the unacceptability of the infringement of the rights of the Palestinians. Following Saud's visits, he concentrated on the first areas to be deemed in sore need of modernization and reform in view of increasing revenues and expenditures, these were the governance and handling the country's finances. After seeking advice and expert help from a number of friendly countries, primarily the US, the Saudi riyal was linked to the United States Dollar and apart from structural, regulatory, and procedural reforms within a revamped Ministry of Finance; a Central Bank under the name of the Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency (SAMA) was established during 1952. In keeping with universal practice, a proper annual state budget had first been issued during 1948 and following the establishment of the above central banking body, SAMA, the third Saudi national budget for the year 1952 complied with internationally observed standards. During this period, technical co-operation, primarily in the guise of the arrival of 35 experts during 1952 and aimed at generating planned economic growth within the Kingdom also received a major boost. Apart from financial and administrative reforms, the report presented to Abdulaziz by Prince Saud, had commended the implementation of a whole range of vital infrastructure projects relating to the improvement of facilities for the Pilgrims, so important to the Kingdom from a religious and economic point of view, water supply, roads, broadcasting service, health, municipal affairs, port improvements, customs reorganization, and higher education. Plans for the paved road between Jeddah and Mecca had been announced by Saud during the Hajj of 1947, and the project for bringing water from the nearby Wadi Fatimah to Jeddah was also inaugurated by him shortly during November 1947. The Hajj of 1950 witnessed the establishment of the Mecca college that was later to be expanded and renamed Umm al-Qura University. Many of these reforms, along with the complete reorganisation of the system of public administration, through the establishment or restructuring of new or existing ministries and departments, and conceived and recognised as the "Crown Prince's Reforms", issued from his Office by a Decree under his seal on 19 October 1952, were destined to be developed, built upon and some even implemented after the demise of Abdulaziz on 9 November 1953 and during Saud's reign as King. The traditional Consultative Council in Mecca, the Majlis-ash-Shura or Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia was expanded on 17 November 1952. Earlier, on 19 October 1953, Abdulaziz had also appointed Crown Prince Saud as Prime Minister for the first Saudi Cabinet. Before that, he appointed him as Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces and Internal Security Units on 25 August 1953. During this period, the Armed Forces of Saudi Arabia, including the Air Force, were modernized on a large scale with American assistance. The Saudi Arabian Airlines fleet was also expanded by the purchase of four new 'Sky Masters' to primarily facilitate the transport of Pilgrims from their homes to the sites of pilgrimage and back, and also within the Kingdom. On 10 June 1953, Saud with the approval of his father also laid the foundation stone for the expansion and refurbishment of the Prophet's Mosque in Medina. Earlier on, following a visit, he had recommended to Abdulaziz the need for the adoption of this step, which the latter had sanctioned. Reign Saud succeeded his father Abdulaziz as King on 9 November 1953 upon the latter's death. He ascended the throne in a political climate very different from the time when his father Abdulaziz established his Kingdom. During his reign one of King Saud's major advisors was Abdulaziz Al Muammar. National policy King Saud announced to the new council of ministers in his very first speech as King, that, while his father's reign was noted for military conquests, he intended his reign to be "a war on poverty, ignorance, and disease with the equitable application of the dictates of the holy Sharia laws to all without exception, and the creation of a strong army". In order to cope adequately with the responsibilities of this challenge, and facilitate realistically the implementation of his programme he initially doubled the number of ministries to ten by adding the portfolios of education, agriculture, health, commerce, and industry, plus two directorates: Labour and broadcasting and the bureau of public inspection in 1955, to the existing ministries of foreign affairs, finance, interior, defence, and communications. In 1953, the decision had already been taken to move the ministries, then located in Jeddah, to Riyadh, the country's official capital. This had called for the construction of suitable new buildings and the provision of adequate housing for employees. This was an ignition point for Riyadh's modernization and development. Saud's half-brother and crown prince, Faisal bin Abdulaziz, was appointed prime minister while retaining his former portfolio of foreign minister. A five years plan was started, as mentioned in King Saud's first cabinet speech in 1954. The same year King Saud established the Grievance Board which was attached to the council of ministers which became an independent body in 1955. The board was headed by Musaid bin Abdul Rahman, a young uncle of King Saud. In January 1954 King Saud signed an agreement with Greek businessman Aristotle Socrates Onassis to establish a state-owned maritime tanker company. Given that the agreement was not in favor of the US interests it was soon terminated as a result of foreign pressures. In 1957, King Saud also founded King Saud University in Riyadh. He clarified the duties and responsibilities of the cabinet minister in May 1958. He declared in 1960 that schools would be established to educate girls in religious matters, including Quran, creed, and fiqh as well as in other sciences which were acceptable in Islamic tradition such as house management, and raising and disciplining children. Foreign relations King Saud played a role of utmost importance on the regional, Arab, Islamic, and international political stages. He started his worldwide tours after finishing touring of his country's regions. He visited Arab and friendly countries for strategic and political purposes. He began his tour in 1954 in Egypt, followed by Kuwait, Bahrain, Jordan, Yemen, and Pakistan. He announced that his sole purpose was to "unify Muslims all over the world" so they would be like one strong body. King Saud believed in a non-alignment policy between the United States and the Soviet Union, which he discussed thoroughly with Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru during an official visit to India. He also strove to keep the region free from coalitions and blocs that only served foreign interests and thus he refused to join the Baghdad Pact. Despite pressure exerted from the West, he approved upon meeting President Gamal Abdel Nasser and the Syrian President Shukri al-Quwatli in Cairo in March 1956 of making a joint statement regarding their understanding of security and defense matters, that coincided with other agreements in the financial, economical and development area. In November 1955, King Saud granted a 16 million dollars loan to Syria for five years. He agreed to exchange products and exempt agricultural products from import-export license and custom duties. With the continuous Israeli assault on Jordan in 1955, King Saud invited military leaders of Egypt, Syria, Lebanon and Jordan to Riyadh in order to discuss procedures to counter the aggression. He agreed to cover all expenses of reinforcing Jordan's National Guard and armed forces. He also supported the Algerian revolution against France, diplomatically and financially. King Saud made a statement inviting people to donate money for the revolution; the donations amounted to $1,200,000. The government donated one million dollars of that amount in 1956, and the rest of the donations were granted yearly. King Saud kept granting donations to Algeria and kept defending it until it established its independence in 1962. Imam Ahmad bin Yahya of Yemen joined the Arab endeavors to unify their ranks when he signed the joint defense agreement with Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Syria. This event took place after the Imam's meeting with King Saud, President Gamal Abdel Nasser, and President Shukri al-Quwatli on 21 April 1956, following the Jeddah Pact between Saudi Arabia and Yemen. Maintaining his support to the Arab countries after the nationalization of the Suez Canal Company on 26 July 1956, although the Egyptian Government did not consult him as it did with Syria in taking that decision contrary to his expectations as a military ally. He succeeded in strengthening his relation with King Faisal II of Iraq after a meeting held in Dammam on 20 September 1956. It was followed that same month and in the same place by a meeting with President Gamal Abdel Nasser and the Syrian President Shukri al-Quwatli during which he confirmed his total support for the Egyptian stand in this crisis. When Britain, France, and Israel invaded Egypt on 29 October 1956 as a result of the nationalization of the canal, King Saud declared a general mobilization and ordered the opening of enlistment offices. He offered total assistance to the Egyptian government, personally supervising operations and welcoming Egyptian combat planes into his country for their protection. Among the first to enlist were Fahd bin Abdulaziz, Sultan bin Abdulaziz, Salman bin Abdulaziz and King Saud's son Fahd bin Saud, along with many other princes. As a means of exerting pressure on the British and French governments, he used a weapon never used before, when he blocked oil exports, banning all British and French tankers and other tankers carrying Saudi oil to these two countries. He also broke off relations with Britain and France. King Saud had used this economic weapon for the first time although he was aware of the possible repercussions of such a procedure on the national economy. He sustained his support after the war so as to remove the aftermath of the aggression. He offered generous contributions, including 2 million Saudi riyals to the Egyptian Red Crescent to help victims of Port Said. King Saud was still keen on keeping the region free of political and defense blocs that only support a superpower against another. Despite his solid relations with the American system, on which he relied in several areas because of the oil discovery and production, he seriously thought of canceling the American access for using Dhahran airport as a means of exerting pressure on the United States of America. Despite traditionally intimate ties of his country with the United States of America, and the ingrained alienation of communism and Islamic beliefs, he refused to join the American sponsored the Baghdad Pact of 1955, (later on the Central Treaty Organisation – CENTO), – aimed at opposing the expansion of Communist influence in the region, despite the involvement of the fellow Arab State of Iraq in it, along with Iran, Turkey, Pakistan and Britain. Jordan, which also was keen to join the Pact and Syria as well, had been discouraged from doing so with the aid of political and financial pressure. President of the United States Dwight D. Eisenhower invited King Saud to undertake an official visit to the U.S. in 1957 since he believed that King Saud played a crucial role in implementing his doctrine of deterring and fighting communism in the Middle East and the Islamic countries. Once King Saud received the invitation he convened with Presidents Gamal Abdel Nasser and Shukri al-Quwatli in Cairo in January 1957. The three leaders agreed to try to convince Eisenhower to pressure the Israeli government to evacuate occupied Sharm El Sheikh that overlooks the Gulf of Aqaba and to withdraw to the borders of the previous truce on all frontiers. He maintained his support to the countries at war with Israel, and signed a ten-year agreement with the Egyptian and Syrian presidents and with King Hussein of Jordan to ease Jordan's financial burdens as a result of this conflict. The annual Egyptian and Saudi financial assistance added up to five million Egyptian pounds from each of the two countries. He also discussed with the American President his dispute with Britain over the Al Buraymi Oasis, an oil zone between the frontiers of Saudi Arabia, Oman and Abu Dhabi which was under British protection. The issue of the Al Buraymi Oasis was one of the issues that had been raised since the reign of his father King Abdulaziz and was still pending. After several clashes, the case went to international arbitration. When he accepted the American president's invitation to the United States he received a good welcome, but the Mayor of New York, Robert F. Wagner, Jr., refused to welcome the King because of his national and Islamic politics. King Saud delivered an important speech during the banquet held by Dag Hammarskjöld, the Swedish UN Secretary-General in which he addressed the different aspects of the Arab complaints, in accordance with the UN charter and its powers. He invited all countries to value the charter and implement it in full; he also addressed the outcomes and repercussions of the Cold War. During his negotiations with the American president in Washington on 2 February 1957, the American President explained the principles and objectives of his doctrine, known as the Eisenhower Doctrine, and the effective role that he expected of him as a powerful friend of the United States of America and as an eminent Arab and Muslim leader in fighting the communist movement invading the Middle East and the Islamic countries. Within this scheme, Dwight D. Eisenhower offered a 25 million dollar loan to the Saudi Government on 24 January 1957. In return, King Saud explained that he had refused Soviet Union military aid to fight Britain and that Britain's policy was what urged the Arabs to seek the Soviet Union's help. He also stressed that the "non-aligned" countries in the region were benefiting from Soviet aid more than the American allied countries were benefiting from American aid. He considered that this aid should double if the American President wished to succeed in his endeavors. King Saud asked Dwight D. Eisenhower to exert pressure on Israel to withdraw from the occupied territories of Palestine and settle the Palestinian cause, and to convince France to reach a settlement regarding the independence of Algeria. On the other hand, he promised to inform the Arabs of the Eisenhower Doctrine and its purposes; and to inquire about the Arab reaction on the official and officious levels before making any commitments. King Saud explained to the American President that a large bulk of his country's budget was allocated to development projects and to the five-year plan and that he needed military aid before being able to play any role expected from him in fighting Communism. The American government agreed to give him a 250 million dollar loan and all kinds of land, sea, and air weaponry, and to train the Saudi army on how to use them. In return, the American government was to be granted facilities to use Dhahran airport for five years, after which it would be returned with all its equipment to the Saudi Government in 1962. Before briefing his Arab peers about the results of this visit and the Eisenhower Doctrine, King Saud visited Spain, Morocco, Tunisia and Libya and informed them of these results. In February 1957 he met the leaders of Egypt, Syria, and Jordan in Cairo and informed them of Dwight D. Eisenhower's objectives. Under the influence of Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser and the Syrian President Shukri al-Quwatli, King Saud, wanting to support a unanimous Arab stand, decided to back up the Egyptian and Syrian Presidents in their decision not to contribute to the Eisenhower Doctrine. When the Republic of Iraq decided to annex Kuwait in 1961 under Abd al-Karim Qasim, King Saud protested in international forums, declaring "any action against Kuwait is an action against Saudi Arabia." Struggle with Faisal Immediately after Abdulaziz's death, a fierce struggle erupted between his two eldest surviving sons, Saud and Faisal. The increase in oil revenues did not solve the financial problem associated with Saudi Arab debt, estimated to have been $US200 million in 1953. In fact, this debt more than doubled by 1958, when it reached $US450 million. The Saudi riyal lost half of its official value against the United States dollars. Both ARAMCO and international banks declined Saudi's demand for credit. Saud suspended the few government projects he had initiated but continued his spending on luxurious palaces. In 1958, Saud was forced to delegate most of his executive powers to Faisal. Saud and Faisal fought an internal battle over the definition of political responsibilities and the division of government functions. Saud was often associated among other things with the plundering of oil revenues, luxurious palaces, and conspiracy inside and outside of Saudi Arabia while Faisal was associated with sobriety, piety, puritanism, thriftiness, and modernization. The battle between the two brothers was fought over the role to be assigned to the Council of Ministers. Saud abolished the office of Prime Minister by royal decree, thus enforcing his position as King and de facto prime minister. Saud thought of himself as both King and prime minister whereas Faisal envisioned more powers being in his own hand as Crown Prince and deputy prime minister. Forced abdication King Saud's family members worried about Saud's profligacy and his inability to meet the challenge of Nasser's Egypt. Corruption and backwardness weakened the regime. Radio Cairo's anti-Saudi broadcasting was finding a receptive audience. King Saud and Prince Faisal continued their power struggle until 1962 when Prince Faisal formed a cabinet in the absence of the King, who had gone abroad for medical treatment. Prince Faisal allied with Prince Fahd and Prince Sultan. Prince Faisal's new government excluded the sons of Saud. He promised a ten-point reform that included the drafting of the basic law, the abolition of slavery, and the establishment of a judicial council. Upon his return, King Saud rejected Prince Faisal's new arrangement and threatened to mobilize the Royal Guard against his brother. In response, Prince Faisal demanded King Saud make him regent and turn over all royal powers to him. In this, he had the crucial backing of the ulema (elite Islamic scholars), including a fatwa (edict) issued by the grand mufti of Saudi Arabia, a relative of Prince Faisal on his mother's side, calling on King Saud to accede to his brother's demands. King Saud refused, prompting Faisal to order the National Guard to surround Saud's palace. In March 1964 Saud finally relented and named Faisal regent with full executive powers, effectively reducing himself to a figurehead. In November, the ulema, cabinet and senior members of the ruling family forced Saud to abdicate altogether, and Faisal became king in his own right. At the same time Prince Mohammed bin Abdulaziz was sent to Al Naṣariah Palace of King Saud to demand his and his sons' loyalty to the chosen king, Faisal. On 28 November 1964 an official announcement was made in Radio Mecca stating that 11 of Saud's sons had declared allegiance to King Faisal. On 6 January 1965 Saud went to the palace with his uncle Abdullah bin Abdul Rahman to declare his allegiance to King Faisal. Exile and later life Following this event Saud left Saudi Arabia in January 1965. He was suggested to enter exile in Geneva, Switzerland, and then on to other European cities, but he settled in Athens. Later he unsuccessfully attempted to settle in Beirut. In 1966 Saud was invited by Nasser to live in Egypt; another report claims that King Saud went to Egypt under refuge granted by Nasser and stayed there from 1966 to 1967. King Saud was also allowed to broadcast on Radio Cairo. Some of his sons, including Prince Khalid, Prince Badr, Prince Sultan and Prince Mansour, joined him and supported his attempt to regain the throne. However, after the June 1967 Arab-Israel War, he lost the support of Egypt. In October 1967 he left Egypt and went first to Vienna and then to Athens where he remained until his death on 23 February 1969. Personal life Saud had 108 children and three wives at the time of his death. One of his many wives was Fawzia bint Nawwaf, a granddaughter of Nuri Al Shalaan, the Emir of the Ruwullah tribe. Only a few of his children have a public role. His eldest son, Fahd, was minister of defense from 1956 to 1960. His youngest child is Basmah bint Saud. His third son, Muhammed, was sometime governor of Al Bahah Province and died on 8 July 2012. Prince Mishari, replaced his elder brother as Al Bahah governor with the rank of minister in August 2010. Another son, Mishaal, was the governor of Najran Province from 1996 to November 2008. His son Abdul Rahman was a supporter of Al Nassr FC. One son, Badr bin Saud, was governor of Riyadh during his father's reign, while another son, Hussam, is a businessman. One of his daughters, named Hajer, died outside the Kingdom following an illness on 17 November 2011. Her funeral prayer was performed at Imam Turki bin Abdullah Mosque in Riyadh after Asr prayer. Another daughter, Noura, was the mother of the former deputy defense minister Fahd bin Abdullah bin Mohammed Al Saud and died in late July 2013. Another daughter, Hessah, was the first Saudi woman to become the principal of a school. His daughter Fahda is an artist. In 2001 his daughter Buniah (born 1960) was arrested and charged with assaulting her maid in Florida. She was held for one night in prison and was released on bail of $5,000 and ordered to surrender her passport. After the death of his elder brother Turki, Saud married his wife, Muneera bint Obaid; their daughter, Al Anoud, died in January 2006 aged 83 and was buried in Mecca. He was described as "although not as large as his illustrious father, King Saud is about six feet two inches in height and weighs well over two hundred pounds. Like his father, he has weak eyes, but he has also inherited Abdulaziz's magnetic smile and a keen sense of humor, which wins him many friends." The "Red Palace" which King Abdulaziz built for King Saud and his mother was opened by the Ministry of Culture in 2019 to the public. It was Saudi Arabia's first concrete building and now exhibits displays about his life. Death and funeral King Saud died at the age of 67 on 23 February 1969 in Athens after suffering a heart attack. Two days before his death, he felt ill and asked his doctor Filnger from Austria to examine him. However, his physician arrived after he had died. In the morning of that day, Saud took a short walk on a beach with his daughter Nozhah, near the hotel where he used to live (Hotel Kavouri). His body was taken to Mecca then to Riyadh and the funeral ceremony took place at the Great Mosque in Mecca. He was buried next to his father's and grandfathers' graves at Al Oud cemetery in Riyadh. Awards Immediately after his accession to the throne Iranian ruler Mohammad Reza Pahlavi sent King Saud the highest decoration of the Imperial Iran, Order of Pahlavi. During his reign, King Saud was the recipient of many honors and orders of various nations. In the formal portraits of King Saud in ceremonial uniform, he is wearing the breast stars of the following orders. Syrian Republic: Order of the Umayyads Lebanon: The Order of the Cedar of Lebanon Afghanistan: The Order of the Supreme Sun of Afghanistan In the central display case the following Orders are on display: Kingdom of Libya: The breast Star and sash badge of the Order of Mohammed Ibn Ali El Senoussi. Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan: The breast Star of the Supreme Order of the Renaissance of Jordan. Spain: The breast Star and Sash badge of the Order of Civil Merit. Greece: The breast Star of the Order of Saint Mark. Egypt: The Collar of the Order of the Nile (1954) Unknown: A poorly manufactured breast Star – possibly a trial piece. It was during King Saud's reign that the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia instituted, either in 1954 or 1955, its own series of Orders, decorations, and medals. This series of Awards consisted of the following : The Order of King Abdulaziz Al Saud The Star of King Saud National Military Decoration Efficiency Medal Medal of Merit Medal of Duty Medal of Appreciation Long Service and Good Example Medal War Wounded Medal Palestine Medal Ancestry See also List of things named after Saudi Kings#Saud References External links English version of his official website Saud 1902 births 1969 deaths Saud Collars of the Order of Civil Merit Commanders of the Legion of Merit Saud Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire Monarchs who abdicated Saud Saud Saud
402558	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House%20of%20Saud	House of Saud	The House of Saud ( ) is the ruling royal family of Saudi Arabia. It is composed of the descendants of Muhammad bin Saud, founder of the Emirate of Diriyah, known as the First Saudi state (1727–1818), and his brothers, though the ruling faction of the family is primarily led by the descendants of Abdulaziz bin Abdul Rahman, the modern founder of Saudi Arabia. It forms a subtribe of the larger prominent ancient Banu Hanifa tribe of Arabia, of which well known 7th century Arabian theologist Maslama ibn Ḥabīb originates. The most influential position of the royal family is the King of Saudi Arabia, an absolute monarch. The family in total is estimated to comprise 10,000 to 20,000 members; however, the majority of power, influence and wealth is possessed by a group of about 2,000 of them. Some estimates of the royal family's wealth measure their net worth at anywhere from as low as $500 billion to as high as $3 trillion. This figure includes the market capitalization of Saudi Aramco, the state oil and gas company, and its vast assets in fossil fuel reserves, making them the wealthiest family in the world and the wealthiest in recorded history. The House of Saud has had four phases: the Sheikhdom of Diriyah (1446–1744); the Emirate of Diriyah (1727–1818), marked by the expansion of Salafism; the Emirate of Nejd (1824–1891), marked with continuous infighting; and the current state (1902–present), which evolved into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932 and now wields considerable influence in the Middle East. The family has had conflicts with the Ottoman Empire, the Sharif of Mecca, the Al Rashid family of Ha'il and their vassal houses in Najd along with numerous Islamist groups both inside and outside Saudi Arabia and Shia minority in Saudi Arabia. The succession to the Saudi Arabian throne was designed to pass from one son of the first king, Abdulaziz, to another. The monarchy was hereditary by agnatic seniority until 2006, when a royal decree provided that future Saudi kings are to be elected by a committee of Saudi princes. King Salman, who reigns currently, first replaced the next crown prince, his brother Muqrin, with his nephew Muhammad bin Nayef. In 2017, Muhammad bin Nayef was replaced by Mohammad bin Salman, King Salman's son, as the crown prince after an approval by the Allegiance Council with 31 out of 34 votes. The king-appointed cabinet includes more members of the royal family. Title House of Saud is a translation of Al Saud, an Arabic dynastic name formed by adding the word Al (meaning "family of" or "House of") to the personal name of an ancestor. In the case of the Al Saud, the ancestor is Saud ibn Muhammad ibn Muqrin, the father of the dynasty's 18th century founder Muhammad bin Saud (Muhammad, son of Saud). The surname "Al Saud" is carried by any descendant of Muhammad bin Saud or his three brothers Farhan, Thunayyan, and Mishari. Al Saud's other family branches like Saud Al Kabir, the Al Jiluwi, the Al Thunayan, the Al Mishari and the Al Farhan are called cadet branches. Members of the cadet branches hold high and influential positions in government though they are not in the line of succession to the Saudi throne. Many cadet members intermarry within the Al Saud to re-establish their lineage and continue to wield influence in the government. All male members of the royal family have the title of Emir (Prince). However, the sons and patrilineal grandsons of Kings are referred to by the style "His Royal Highness" (HRH), differing from patrilineal great-grandsons and members of cadet branches who are called "His Highness" (HH), while the reigning king uses the additional title of Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. History Origins and early history The earliest recorded ancestor of the Al Saud was Mani' ibn Rabiah Al-Muraydi, who settled in Diriyah in 1446–1447 with his clan, the Mrudah. The Mrudah are believed to be descended from the Banu Hanifa branch of the larger Rabi'ah tribal confederation . The Banu Hanifa played an important role in shaping the Middle East and Arabia from the 6th century, with prominent theologians such as Maslama ibn Ḥabīb descending from this tribe. Mani' was invited to Diriyah by a relative named Ibn Dir, who was the ruler of a group of villages and estates that make up modern-day Riyadh. Mani's clan had been on a sojourn in east Arabia, near al-Qatif, from an unknown point in time. Ibn Dir handed Mani two estates, called al-Mulaybeed and Ghusayba. Mani and his family settled and renamed the region Al Diriyah after their benefactor Ibn Dir. The Mrudah became rulers of Al Diriyah, which prospered along the banks of Wadi Hanifa and became an important Najdi settlement. As the clan grew larger, power struggles ensued, with one branch leaving for nearby Dhruma, while another branch (the "Al Watban") left for the town of az-Zubayr in southern Iraq. The Al Muqrin became the ruling family among the Mrudah in Diriyah. The name of the clan comes from Sheikh Saud ibn Muhammad ibn Muqrin, who died in 1725. Emirate of Diriyah The First Saudi State was founded in 1727. This period was marked by conquest of neighboring areas and by religious zeal. At its height, the First Saudi State included most of the territory of modern-day Saudi Arabia, and raids by Al Saud's allies and followers reached into Yemen, Oman, Syria, and Iraq. Islamic scholars, particularly Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab and his descendants, are believed to have played a significant role in Saudi rule during this period. The Saudis and their allies referred to themselves during this period as the Muwahhidun or Ahl al-Tawhid ("the monotheists"). Later they were referred to as the Wahhabis, a particularly strict, puritanical Islamic sect, named for its founder. Leadership of Al Saud during the time of their first state passed from father to son without incident. The first imam, Muhammad bin Saud, was succeeded by his eldest son, Abdulaziz in 1765. In 1802, Abdulaziz's forces led 10,000 Wahhabi soldiers in an attack on the Shi'ite holy city of Karbala, in what is now southern Iraq and where Hussein ibn Ali, the grandson of the prophet Muhammad is buried. The Wahhabi soldiers killed more than 2,000 people, including women and children. They plundered the city, demolishing the massive golden dome above Hussein's tomb and loaded hundreds of camels with weapons, jewelry, coins and other valuable goods. The attack on Karbala convinced the Ottomans and the Egyptians that the Saudis were a threat to regional peace. Abdulaziz was killed in 1803 by an assassin, believed by some to have been a Shi'ite seeking revenge over the sacking of Karbala the year before. Abdul-Aziz was in turn succeeded by his son, Saud, under whose rule the Saudi state reached its greatest extent. By the time Saud died in 1814, his son and successor Abdullah ibn Saud had to contend with an Ottoman-Egyptian invasion in the Ottoman–Wahhabi War seeking to retake lost Ottoman Empire territory. The mainly Egyptian force succeeded in defeating Abdullah's forces, taking over the then-Saudi capital of Diriyyah in 1818. Abdullah was taken prisoner and was soon beheaded by the Ottomans in Constantinople, putting an end to the First Saudi State. The Egyptians sent many members of the Al Saud clan and other members of the local nobility as prisoners to the Egypt and Constantinople, and razed the Saudi capital of Diriyyah. Emirate of Nejd A few years after the fall of Diriyah in 1818, the Saudis were able to re-establish their authority in Najd, establishing the Emirate of Nejd, commonly known as the Second Saudi State, with its capital in Riyadh. Compared to the First Saudi State, the second Saudi period was marked by less territorial expansion (it never reconquered the Hijaz or 'Asir, for example) and less religious zeal, although the Saudi leaders continued to go by the title of imam and still employed Salafi religious scholars. The second state was also marked by severe internal conflicts within the Saudi family, eventually leading to the dynasty's downfall. In all but one instance, succession occurred by assassination or civil war, the exception being the passage of authority from Faisal ibn Turki to his son Abdullah ibn Faisal ibn Turki. Present form After his defeat at Mulayda, Abdul Rahman bin Faisal went with his family into exile in the deserts of eastern Arabia among the Al Murra bedouin. Soon afterward, however, he found refuge in Kuwait as a guest of the Kuwaiti emir, Mubarak Al Sabah. In 1902, Abdul Rahman's son, Abdulaziz, took on the task of restoring Saudi rule in Riyadh. Supported by a few dozen followers and accompanied by some of his brothers and relatives, Abdulaziz was able to capture Riyadh's Masmak fort and kill the governor appointed there by Muhammad bin Abdullah Al Rashid. Abdulaziz, reported to have been barely 20 at the time, was immediately proclaimed ruler in Riyadh. As the new leader of the House of Saud, Abdulaziz became commonly known from that time onward as "Ibn Saud" in Western sources, though he is still called "Abdulaziz" in the Arab world. Abdulaziz spent the next three decades trying to re-establish his family's rule over central Arabia, starting with his native Najd. His chief rivals were the Al Rashid clan in Ha'il, the Sharifs of Mecca in the Hijaz, and the Ottoman Turks in al Hasa. Abdulaziz also had to contend, however, with the descendants of his late uncle Saud ibn Faisal (later known as the "Saud Al Kabir" branch of the family), pretenders to the throne. Though for a time acknowledging the sovereignty of the Ottoman Sultans and even taking the title of pasha, Abdulaziz allied himself to the British, in opposition to the Ottoman-backed Al Rashidis. From 1915 to 1927, Abdulaziz's dominions were a protectorate of the British Empire, pursuant to the 1915 Treaty of Darin. Abdulaziz won final victory over the Al Rashidis in 1921, making him the ruler of most of central Arabia. He consolidated his dominions as the Sultanate of Nejd. He then turned his attention to the Hijaz, finally conquering it in 1926, just months before the British protectorate ended. For the next five and a half years, he administered the two parts of his dual realm, the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd, as separate units. By 1932, Abdulaziz had disposed of all his main rivals and consolidated his rule over much of the Arabian Peninsula. He united his dominions into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia that year. His father, Abdul Rahman, retained the honorary title of "imam". In 1937, near Dammam, American surveyors discovered what later proved to be Saudi Arabia's vast oil reserves. Before the discovery of oil, many family members were destitute. Abdulaziz sired dozens of children by his many wives. He had at most four wives at a time, divorcing many times. He made sure to marry into many of the noble clans and tribes within his territory, including the chiefs of the Bani Khalid, Ajman, and Shammar tribes, as well as the Al ash-Sheikh (descendants of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab). He also arranged for his sons and relatives to enter into similar marriages. He appointed his eldest surviving son, Saud as heir apparent, to be succeeded by the next eldest son, Faisal. The Al Saudi family became known as the "royal family", and each member, male and female, was accorded the title amir ("prince") or amira ("princess"), respectively. Abdulaziz died in 1953, after having cemented an alliance with the United States in 1945. He is still celebrated officially as the "Founder", and only his direct descendants may take on the title of "his or her Royal Highness". The date of his recapture of Riyadh in 1902 was chosen to mark Saudi Arabia's centennial in 1999 (according to the Islamic lunar calendar). Upon Abdulaziz's death, his son Saud assumed the throne without incident, but his lavish spending led to a power struggle with his brother, Crown Prince Faisal. In 1964, the royal family forced Saud to abdicate in favor of Faisal, aided by an edict from the country's grand mufti. During this period, some of Abdulaziz's younger sons, led by Talal ibn Abdul Aziz, defected to Egypt, calling themselves the "Free Princes" and calling for liberalization and reform, but were later induced to return by Faisal. They were fully pardoned but were also barred from any future positions in government. Faisal was assassinated in 1975 by a nephew, Faisal ibn Musaid, who was promptly executed. Another brother, Khalid, assumed the throne. The next prince in line had actually been Prince Muhammad, but he had relinquished his claim to the throne in favor of Khalid, his only full brother. Khalid died of a heart attack in 1982, and was succeeded by Fahd, the eldest of the powerful "Sudairi Seven", so-called because they were all sons of Ibn Saud by his wife Hassa Al Sudairi. Fahd did away with the previous royal title of "his Majesty" and replaced it with the honorific "Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques", in reference to the two Islamic holy sites in Mecca and Medina, in 1986. A stroke in 1995 left Fahd largely incapacitated. His half-brother, Crown Prince Abdullah, gradually took over most of the king's responsibilities until Fahd's death in August 2005. Abdullah was proclaimed king on the day of Fahd's death and promptly appointed his younger brother, Sultan bin Abdulaziz, the minister of defense and Fahd's "Second Deputy Prime Minister", as the new heir apparent. On 27 March 2009, Abdullah appointed Prince Nayef Interior Minister as his "second deputy prime minister" and Crown Prince on 27 October. Sultan died in October 2011 while Nayef died in Geneva, Switzerland on 15 June 2012. On 23 January 2015, Abdullah died after a prolonged illness, and his half-brother, Crown Prince Salman, was declared the new king. Many princes and government officials were arrested in 2017 in an alleged anti corruption campaign by the king and crown prince. Then-United States President Donald Trump expressed support for the arrests. Political power The head of the House of Saud is the King of Saudi Arabia who serves as Head of State and monarch of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The king holds almost absolute political power. The king appoints ministers to his cabinet who supervise their respective ministries in his name. The key ministries of Defence, the Interior and Foreign Affairs are usually held by members of the Saud family, as are all of the thirteen regional governorships. Most portfolios, however, such as Finance, Labour, Information, Planning, Petroleum Affairs and Industry, have traditionally been given to commoners, often with junior Al Saud members serving as their deputies. House of Saud family members also hold many of the kingdom's critical military and governmental departmental posts. Ultimate power in the kingdom has always rested upon the Al Saudis, though support from the Ulema, the merchant community, and the population at large has been key to the maintenance of the royal family's political status quo. Long-term political and government appointments have resulted in the creation of "power fiefdoms" for senior princes, such as those of King Faisal, who was foreign minister almost continuously from 1932 to 1975; King Abdullah, who had been commander of the National Guard since 1963 (until 2010, when he appointed his son to replace him); former Crown Prince Sultan, minister of defence and aviation from 1962 until his death in 2011; former Crown Prince Nayef who was the minister of interior from 1975 to his death in 2012; Prince Saud who had been minister of foreign affairs since 1975; and King Salman, who was minister of defense and aviation before he was crown prince and governor of the Riyadh Province from 1962 to 2011. The current minister of defense is Prince Mohammad bin Salman, the son of King Salman and crown prince. Such terms of service have enabled senior princes to mingle their personal wealth with that of their respective domains. They have often appointed their own sons to senior positions within their own portfolios. Examples of these include Prince Mutaib bin Abdullah as assistant commander in the National Guard until 2010; Prince Khalid bin Sultan as assistant minister of defence until 2013; and Prince Mansour bin Mutaib as assistant minister for municipal and rural affairs until he replaced his father in 2009. In cases where portfolios have notably substantial budgets, appointments of younger, often full, brothers have been necessary, as deputies or vice ministers, ostensibly to share the wealth and the burdens of responsibility, of each fiefdom. Examples of these include Prince Abdul Rahman who was vice minister of defence and aviation under Prince Sultan; Prince Badr, deputy to King Abdullah in the National Guard; Prince Sattam, who was deputy governor of Riyadh during King Salman's term; and Prince Ahmed, who held the deputy minister's portfolio under Prince Nayef's interior ministry. Unlike Western royal families, the Saudi monarchy has not had a clearly defined order of succession. Historically, upon becoming king, the monarch has designated an heir apparent to the throne who serves as crown prince of the kingdom. Upon the king's death, the crown prince becomes king, and during the king's incapacitation the crown prince, likewise, assumes power as regent. Although other members of the Al Saudis hold political positions in the Saudi government, it is only the king and crown prince who legally constitute the political institutions. The royal family is politically divided by factions based on clan loyalties, personal ambitions and ideological differences. The most powerful clan faction is known as the 'Sudairi Seven', comprising the late King Fahd and his full brothers and their descendants. Ideological divisions include issues over the speed and direction of reform, and whether the role of the ulema should be increased or reduced. There were divisions within the family over who should succeed to the throne after the accession or earlier death of Prince Sultan. When Prince Sultan died before ascending to the throne on 21 October 2011, King Abdullah appointed Prince Nayef as crown prince. The following year, Prince Nayef also died before ascending to the throne. Succession Succession has been from brother to brother since the death of the founder of modern Saudi Arabia. Abdulaziz was succeeded by his son Saud who was succeeded by his half-brother Faisal. Faisal was succeeded by his brother Khalid who, in turn, was succeeded by his half-brother Fahd. Fahd was succeeded by his half-brother Abdullah, and Abdullah by his half-brother Salman, the current King. Salman appointed his half-brother Muqrin as Crown Prince in January 2015 and removed him in April 2015. Even Abdulaziz's youngest son was to turn 70 in 2015. Abdulaziz, in 1920, had said that the further succession would be from brother to brother, not from father to son. King Salman ended the brother-to-brother succession and appointed his 56-year-old nephew Muhammad bin Nayef as crown prince in April 2015, thus making the next succession from uncle to nephew. At the same time, King Salman appointed his son, Mohammad bin Salman, as deputy crown prince, thus making the next succession from cousin to cousin, as Muhammad bin Salman is the cousin of Crown Prince Muhammad bin Nayef. However, in June 2017, Salman elevated Mohammad bin Salman to crown prince, following his decision to strip Muhammad bin Nayef of all positions, making his son heir apparent to the throne, and making the next succession from father to son, for the first time since 1953, when Saud bin Abdulaziz Al Saud succeeded his father, the founder of Saudi Arabia, Ibn Saud. Amid international outcry over the killing of Jamal Khashoggi, members of the Saudi royal family were allegedly distressed over the prospect of the crown prince becoming the next king. It was reported that dozens of princes and members of the Al Saud family were interested in seeing Prince Ahmed become the next king instead. During his London tour, Prince Ahmed criticized the Saudi leadership. He was also one of the three members of the ruling family to oppose Mohammad bin Salman becoming the crown prince in 2017. Wealth In June 2015, Forbes listed businessman Prince Al-Waleed bin Talal, a grandson of Abdulaziz, the first king of Saudi Arabia, as the 34th-richest man in the world, with an estimated net worth of US$22.6 billion. As of 2020, the combined net worth of the entire royal family has been estimated at around US$100 billion, which makes them the richest royal family among all monarchs, as well as one of the wealthiest families in the world. Some estimates of the Royal Family's wealth put the figure as high as $1.4 trillion, which includes holdings in Saudi Aramco. Opposition and controversy Due to its authoritarian and quasi-theocratic rule, the House of Saud has attracted much criticism during its rule of Saudi Arabia. There have been numerous incidents, including the Wahhabi Ikhwan militia uprising during the reign of Ibn Saud. Osama Bin Laden, a critic of the US, was also a critic of Saudi Arabia and was denaturalized in the mid 1990s. On 20 November 1979, the Grand Mosque seizure saw the al-Masjid al-Haram in Mecca violently seized by a group of 500 heavily armed and provisioned Saudi dissidents led by Juhayman al-Otaybi and Abdullah al-Qahtani, consisting mostly of members of the former Ikhwan militia of Otaibah but also of other peninsular Arabs and a few Egyptians enrolled in Islamic studies at the Islamic University of Madinah. The Saudi royal family turned to the Ulema, who duly issued a fatwa permitting the storming of the holy sanctuary by Saudi forces, aided by French special ops units. According to Lawrence Wright, the GIGN commandos did first convert to Islam prior to the raid. Most of those responsible, including Al-Otaybi himself, were soon beheaded publicly in four cities of Saudi Arabia. In January 2016, Saudi Arabia executed the prominent Shiite cleric Sheikh Nimr, who had called for pro-democracy demonstrations, along with forty-seven other Saudi Shia citizens sentenced by the Specialized Criminal Court on terrorism charges. Since May 2017, in response to protests against the government, the predominantly Shia town of Al-Awamiyah has been put under full siege by the Saudi military. Residents are not allowed to enter or leave, and the Saudi military indiscriminately shells the neighborhoods with airstrikes, mortar fire along with snipers shooting residents. Dozens of Shia civilians were killed, including a three-year-old and a two-year-old child. The Saudi government claims it is fighting terrorists in al-Awamiyah. Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman kept his own mother away from his father for more than two years, fearing that she would stop the king from giving eventual power to him. Princess Fahda bint Falah Al Hithlain, third wife of King Salman, was said to be in America for medical treatment. However, according to American intelligence, this was refuted, stating that she was not in the country. Some Royals have been criticised for various human rights violations, including the assassination of Jamal Khashoggi, treatment of workers, the Saudi-led intervention in Bahrain and the Yemen war. The Reuters news agency reported on 23 June 2020 that Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman had allegedly threatened and intimidated a former intelligence officer, Saad al-Jabri, along with his family of adult children, from returning to Saudi Arabia from exile in Canada. Al-Jabri was a long-time aide to the former crown prince, Prince Mohammed bin Nayef, who was ousted in 2017. Al-Jabri allegedly has access to documents containing information sensitive and pivotal for the crown prince's leadership. A group of intellectuals from Saudi Arabia, exiled in the US, UK, and elsewhere, launched a political party in opposition to the royal family ruling the kingdom. The launch of the party was announced in September 2020 and was launched on the 2nd death anniversary of Jamal Khashoggi. The National Assembly Party (NAAS – people in Arabic) was launched with the aim of gathering the support of people, both inside and outside Saudi Arabia, against the ruling royals King Salman and Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman. Madawi al-Rasheed, a scholar, is also the co-founder of NAAS. Other members of the party include scholar Abdullah al-Aoudh, comedian and vlogger Omar Abdulaziz, and activist Yahya Assiri. The party's launch took place online from London as the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia prohibits the formation of political parties. Forming a political party is considered sedition, punishable with lengthy jail terms. Some members of the royal family have ill-treated their employees, even while visiting other countries. For example, Princess Buni Al Saud, a niece of King Fahd, pushed the staff down the stairs. Another princess attacked her worker with the help of a bodyguard. A Saudi prince and his children abused their maids when they were in France. Heads Emirate of Diriyah First Saudi state Second Saudi state Third Saudi state Most notable current members Sons of King Abdulaziz The list of King Abdulaziz's surviving sons, except for current Saudi monarch Salman, are as follows: Abdul llah bin Abdulaziz (born 1939) Former governor of Al Jawf Province. He was special advisor to King Abdullah from 2008 to 2015. Mamdouh bin Abdulaziz (born 1940) Former governor of Tabuk region who was removed from the post by King Fahd for insubordination. Later he was made director of Saudi Center of Strategic Studies. Ahmed bin Abdulaziz (born 1942) Deputy minister of interior from 1975 to 2012; minister of interior from June 2012 to 5 November 2012. Mashhur bin Abdulaziz (born 1942) Muqrin bin Abdulaziz Al Saud (born 1945) Director general of the General Intelligence Directorate from 2005 to 2012; former governor of Ha'il and Madinah provinces. He was appointed second deputy prime minister on 1 February 2013 and he was made crown prince on 23 January 2015 when his half-brother Salman became king. On 28 April 2015 Muqrin was granted resignation based on his request to start the next generation of the royals. Genealogy Timeline Royal Standard The Royal Flag consists of a green flag, with an Arabic inscription and a sword featured in white, and with the national emblem embroidered in gold in the lower right canton. The script on the flag is written in the Thuluth script. It is the shahada or Islamic declaration of faith: There is no other god but Allah, Muhammad is the messenger of God. The Royal Standard consists of a green flag, in the center of the national emblem embroidered with gold. See also Al ash-Sheikh Bani Hareth Bani Yas Banu Thaqif Banu Yam Bedouin Death of a Princess King of Saudi Arabia Saudi Royal Guard Regiment References Further reading Madawi Al-Rasheed, A History of Saudi Arabia, Cambridge University Press, 2002, David Fromkin, A Peace to End All Peace, Holt, 1989, . David Holden and Richard Johns, The House of Saud, Pan, 1982, (reprint of the Sidgwick and Jackson edition, 1981, ) Craig Unger, House of Bush, House of Saud: The Secret Relationship Between the World's Two Most Powerful Dynasties, Scribner, 2004, External links Arab dynasties Wahhabi dynasties Kings of Saudi Arabia Rabi`ah

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.